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[ [ "Garrison Keillor" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Gary Edward''' \"'''Garrison'''\" '''Keillor''' (; born August 7, 1942) is an American author, singer, humorist, voice actor, and radio personality.", "He created the Minnesota Public Radio (MPR) show ''A Prairie Home Companion'' (called ''Garrison Keillor's Radio Show'' in some international syndication), which he hosted from 1974 to 2016.Keillor created the fictional Minnesota town Lake Wobegon, the setting of many of his books, including ''Lake Wobegon Days ''and ''Leaving Home: A Collection of Lake Wobegon Stories''.", "Other creations include Guy Noir, a detective voiced by Keillor who appeared in ''A Prairie Home Companion'' comic skits.", "Keillor is also the creator of the five-minute daily radio/podcast program ''The Writer's Almanac'', which pairs poems of his choice with a script about important literary, historical, and scientific events that coincided with that date in history.In November 2017, Minnesota Public Radio cut all business ties with Keillor after an allegation of inappropriate behavior with a freelance writer for ''A Prairie Home Companion''.", "On April 13, 2018, MPR and Keillor announced a settlement that allows archives of ''A Prairie Home Companion'' and ''The Writer's Almanac'' to be publicly available again, and soon thereafter, Keillor began publishing new episodes of ''The Writer's Almanac'' on his website.", "He also continues to tour a stage version ''A Prairie Home Companion'', although these shows are not broadcast by MPR or American Public Media." ], [ "Early life and education", "Keillor in 2010, wearing his signature red shoesKeillor was born in Anoka, Minnesota, the son of Grace Ruth (''née'' Denham) and John Philip Keillor.", "His father was a carpenter and postal worker who was half-Canadian with English ancestry; Keillor's paternal grandfather was from Kingston, Ontario.", "His maternal grandparents were Scottish emigrants from Glasgow.", "He was the third of six children, with three brothers and two sisters.Keillor's family belonged to the Plymouth Brethren, an Evangelical Christian movement that he has since left.", "In 2006, he told ''Christianity Today'' that he was attending the St. John the Evangelist Episcopal church in Saint Paul, Minnesota, after previously attending a Lutheran church in New York.Keillor graduated from Anoka High School in 1960 and from the University of Minnesota with a bachelor's degree in English in 1966.During college, he began his broadcasting career on the student-operated radio station known today as Radio K.In his 2004 book ''Homegrown Democrat: A Few Plain Thoughts from the Heart of America'', Keillor mentions some of his noteworthy ancestors, including Joseph Crandall, who was an associate of Roger Williams, who founded Rhode Island and the first American Baptist church; and Prudence Crandall, who founded the first African-American women's school in America." ], [ "Career", "===Radio===Garrison Keillor started his professional radio career in November 1969 with Minnesota Educational Radio (MER), later Minnesota Public Radio (MPR), which today distributes programs under the American Public Media (APM) brand.", "He hosted a weekday drive-time broadcast called ''A Prairie Home Entertainment'', on KSJR FM at St. John's University in Collegeville.", "The show's eclectic music was a major divergence from the station's usual classical fare.", "During this time he submitted fiction to ''The New Yorker'' magazine, where his first story for that publication, \"Local Family Keeps Son Happy,\" appeared in September 1970.Keillor resigned from ''The Morning Program'' in February 1971 in protest of what he considered interference with his musical programming; as part of his protest, he played nothing but the Beach Boys' \"Help Me, Rhonda\" during one broadcast.", "When he returned to the station in October, the show was dubbed ''A Prairie Home Companion''.Keillor has attributed the idea for the live Saturday night radio program to his 1973 assignment to write about the Grand Ole Opry for ''The New Yorker'', but he had already begun showcasing local musicians on the morning show, despite limited studio space.", "In August 1973, MPR announced plans to broadcast a Saturday night version of ''A Prairie Home Companion'' with live musicians.", "''A Prairie Home Companion'' (''PHC'') debuted as an old-style variety show before a live audience on July 6, 1974; it featured guest musicians and a cadre cast doing musical numbers and comic skits replete with elaborate live sound effects.", "The show was punctuated by spoof commercial spots for ''PHC'' fictitious sponsors such as Powdermilk Biscuits, the Ketchup Advisory Board, and the Professional Organization of English Majors (POEM); it presents parodic serial melodramas, such as ''The Adventures of Guy Noir, Private Eye'' and ''The Lives of the Cowboys.''", "Keillor voiced Noir, the cowboy Lefty, and other recurring characters, and provided lead or backup vocals for some of the show's musical numbers.", "The show aired from the Fitzgerald Theater in St. Paul.After the show's intermission, Keillor read clever and often humorous greetings to friends and family at home submitted by members of the theater audience in exchange for an honorarium.", "Also in the second half of the show, Keillor delivered a monologue called ''The News from Lake Wobegon'', a fictitious town based in part on Keillor's own hometown of Anoka, Minnesota, and on Freeport and other small towns in Stearns County, Minnesota, where he lived in the early 1970s.", "Lake Wobegon is a quintessentially Minnesota small town characterized by the narrator as a place \"... where all the women are strong, all the men are good-looking, and all the children are above average.", "\"Keillor with Richard Dworsky on the 40th anniversary of ''A Prairie Home Companion''The original ''PHC'' ran until 1987, when Keillor ended it to focus on other projects.", "In 1989, he launched a new live radio program from New York City, ''The American Radio Company of the Air'', which had essentially the same format as ''PHC''.", "In 1992, he moved ARC back to St. Paul, and a year later changed the name back to ''A Prairie Home Companion''; it remained a fixture of Saturday night radio broadcasting for decades.On a typical broadcast of ''A Prairie Home Companion'', Keillor's name was not mentioned unless a guest addressed him by name, although some sketches featured Keillor as his alter ego, Carson Wyler.", "In the closing credits, which Keillor read, he gave himself no billing or credit except \"written by Sarah Bellum,\" a joking reference to his own brain.Keillor regularly took the radio company on the road to broadcast from popular venues around the United States; the touring production typically featured local celebrities and skits incorporating local color.", "In April 2000, he took the program to Edinburgh, Scotland, producing two performances in the city's Queen's Hall, which were broadcast by BBC Radio.", "He toured Scotland with the program to celebrate its 25th anniversary.", "(In the UK, Ireland, Australia, and New Zealand, the program is known as ''Garrison Keillor's Radio Show''.)", "Keillor produced broadcast performances similar to ''PHC'' but without the \"Prairie Home Companion\" brand, as in his 2008 appearance at the Oregon Bach Festival.", "He was also the host of ''The Writer's Almanac,'' from 1993 to 2017, which, like ''PHC'', was produced and distributed by American Public Media.In a March 2011 interview, Keillor announced that he would be retiring from ''A Prairie Home Companion'' in 2013; but in a December 2011 interview with the ''Sioux City Journal'', Keillor said: \"The show is going well.", "I love doing it.", "Why quit?\"", "During an interview on July 20, 2015, Keillor announced his intent to retire from the show after the 2015–2016 season, saying, \"I have a lot of other things that I want to do.", "I mean, nobody retires anymore.", "Writers never retire.", "But this is my last season.", "This tour this summer is the farewell tour.", "\"Keillor's final episode of the show was recorded live for an audience of 18,000 fans at the Hollywood Bowl in California on July 1, 2016, and broadcast the next day, ending 42 seasons of the show.", "After the performance, President Barack Obama phoned Keillor to congratulate him.", "The show continued on October 15, 2016, with Chris Thile as its host.==== Separation from MPR ====On November 29, 2017, the ''Star Tribune'' reported that Minnesota Public Radio was terminating all business relationships with Keillor as a result of \"allegations of his inappropriate behavior with an individual who worked with him.\"", "In January 2018, MPR CEO Jon McTaggart elaborated that they had received allegations of \"dozens\" of sexually inappropriate incidents from the individual, including requests for sexual contact.", "Keillor denied any wrongdoing and said his firing stems from an incident when he touched a woman's bare back while trying to console her.", "He said he had apologized to her soon after, that they had already made up, and that he was surprised to hear the allegations when her lawyer called.In its statement of termination, MPR announced that Keillor would keep his executive credit for the show, but that since he owns the trademark for the phrase \"prairie home companion\", they would cease rebroadcasting episodes of ''A Prairie Home Companion'' featuring Keillor and remove the trademarked phrase from the radio show hosted by Chris Thile.", "MPR also eliminated its business connections to PrairieHome.org and stopped distributing Keillor's daily program ''The Writer's Almanac''.", "''The Washington Post'' also canceled Keillor's weekly column when they learned he had continued writing columns, including a controversial piece criticizing Al Franken's resignation because of sexual misconduct allegations, without revealing that he was under investigation at MPR.", "Several fans wrote MPR to protest Keillor's firing, but only 153 members canceled their memberships because of it.", "In January 2018, Keillor announced he was in mediation with MPR over the firing.", "On January 23, 2018, MPR News reported further on the investigation after interviewing almost 60 people who had worked with Keillor.", "The story described other alleged sexual misconduct by Keillor, and a $16,000 severance check for a woman who was asked to sign a confidentiality agreement to prevent her from talking about her time at MPR (she refused and never deposited the check).==== Settlement and access to archived shows ====Keillor received a letter from the MPR CEO, Jon McTaggart, dated April 5, 2018, confirming that both sides wanted archives of ''A Prairie Home Companion'' and ''The Writer's Almanac'' to be publicly available again.", "In April 2018, MPR and Keillor announced a settlement under which MPR would restore the online archives.==== ''Finding Your Roots'' segment ====Also due to the allegations of inappropriate behavior, Keillor's segment in the PBS series ''Finding Your Roots'' episode that aired on December 19, 2017, was replaced by an older segment featuring Maya Rudolph.===Writing===At age 13, Keillor adopted the pen name \"Garrison\" to distinguish his personal life from his professional writing.", "He commonly uses \"Garrison\" in public and in other media.Keillor in 2016Keillor has been called \"one of the most perceptive and witty commentators about Midwestern life\" by Randall Balmer in ''Encyclopedia of Evangelicalism.''", "He has written numerous magazine and newspaper articles and more than a dozen books for adults as well as children.", "In addition to writing for ''The New Yorker,'' he has written for ''The Atlantic Monthly'' and ''National Geographic.''", "He has also written for Salon.com and authored an advice column there under the name \"Mr.", "Blue.\"", "Following a heart operation, he resigned on September 4, 2001, his last column being titled \"Every dog has his day\":In 2004 Keillor published a collection of political essays, ''Homegrown Democrat: A Few Plain Thoughts from the Heart of America,'' and in June 2005 he began a column called ''The Old Scout'', which ran at Salon.com and in syndicated newspapers.", "The column went on hiatus in April 2010 so that he could \"finish a screenplay and start writing a novel.", "\"===Bookselling===\"Common Good Books, G. Keillor, Prop.\"", "in St. PaulOn November 1, 2006, Keillor opened an independent bookstore, \"Common Good Books, G. Keillor, Prop.\"", "in the Blair Arcade Building at the southwest corner of Selby and N. Western Avenues in the Cathedral Hill area in the Summit-University neighborhood of Saint Paul, Minnesota.In April 2012, the store moved to a new location on Snelling Avenue across from Macalester College in the Macalester-Groveland neighborhood.", "In April of 2019, Keillor sold his interest in the bookstore.===Voice-over work===Probably owing in part to his distinctive North-Central accent, Keillor is often used as a voice-over actor.", "Some notable appearances include:* Voiceover artist for Honda UK's \"the Power of Dreams\" campaign.", "The campaign's most memorable advertisement is the 2003 Honda Accord commercial ''Cog'', which features a Heath Robinson contraption (or Rube Goldberg Machine) made entirely of car parts.", "The commercial ends with Keillor asking, \"Isn't it nice when things just work?\"", "Since then, Keillor has voiced the tagline for most if not all UK Honda advertisements, and even sang the voiceover in the 2004 Honda Diesel commercial ''Grrr''.", "His most recent ad was a reworking of an existing commercial with digitally added England flags to tie in with the World Cup.", "Keillor's tagline was \"Come on, England, keep the dream alive.", "\"* Voice of the Norse god Odin in an episode of the Disney animated series ''Hercules''* Voice of Walt Whitman and other historical figures in Ken Burns's documentary series ''The Civil War'' and ''Baseball''* Narrator of \"River of Dreams\" Documentary at the National Mississippi River Museum and Aquarium in Dubuque, Iowa* In 1991, Keillor released ''Songs of the Cat,'' an album of original and parody songs about cats.=== Film ===In 2006, Keillor wrote and portrayed himself in the musical comedy film ''A Prairie Home Companion'', directed by Robert Altman.", "It is a fictional representation of behind-the-scenes activities at the long-running public radio show of the same name.", "The film received mostly positive reviews and was a moderate box-office success on a small budget.", "It features an ensemble cast including Woody Harrelson, Tommy Lee Jones, Kevin Kline, Lindsay Lohan, Virginia Madsen, John C. Reilly, Maya Rudolph, Meryl Streep, and Lily Tomlin." ], [ "Reception", "In ''Slate'', Sam Anderson called Keillor \"very clearly a genius.", "His range and stamina alone are incredible—after 30 years, he rarely repeats himself—and he has the genuine wisdom of a Cosby or Mark Twain.\"", "But Keillor's \"willful simplicity,\" Anderson wrote, \"is annoying because, after a while, it starts to feel prescriptive.", "Being a responsible adult doesn't necessarily mean speaking slowly about tomatoes.\"", "Anderson also noted that in 1985, when ''Time'' magazine called Keillor the funniest man in America, Bill Cosby said, \"That's true if you're a pilgrim.", "\"===In popular culture===Keillor's style, particularly his speaking voice, has often been parodied.", "*''The Simpsons'' parodied him in an episode in which the family is shown watching a Keillor-like monologist on television; they are perplexed at why the studio audience is laughing so much, prompting Homer to ask \"What the hell's so funny?\"", "and Bart to suggest \"Maybe it's the TV.\"", "Homer then hits the set, exclaiming: \"Stupid TV!", "Be more funny!", "\"*On the November 19, 2011, episode of ''Saturday Night Live'', cast member Bill Hader impersonated Keillor in a sketch depicting celebrities auditioning to replace Regis Philbin as co-host of ''Live!", "with Kelly''.", "*One Boston radio critic likens Keillor and his \"down-comforter voice\" to \"a hypnotist intoning, 'You are getting sleepy now',\" while noting that Keillor does play to listeners' intelligence.", "*Pennsylvanian singer-songwriter Tom Flannery wrote a song in 2003 titled \"I Want a Job Like Garrison Keillor's.", "\"*Two parody books by \"Harrison Geillor\": ''The Zombies of Lake Woebegotten'' and ''The Twilight of Lake Woebegotten'', were published by Night Shade Books in 2010 and 2011." ], [ "Personal life", "Keillor in 2014Keillor is a member of the Democratic-Farmer-Labor Party.", "He is tall.", "He considers himself a loner and prefers not to make eye contact with people.", "Though not diagnosed, he also considers himself to be on the high-functioning end of the autism spectrum.", "He spoke about his experiences as an autistic person in his keynote address at the 19th Annual Minnesota Autism Conference in 2014.Keillor has been married three times.", "He was married to Mary Guntzel from 1965 to 1976; they had one son, Jason (born 1969).", "He was married to Ulla Skaerved, a former exchange student from Denmark at Keillor's high school whom he re-encountered at a class reunion, from 1985 to 1990.He married classical string player Jenny Lind Nilsson (born 1957), who is also from Anoka, in 1995.They have one daughter, Maia Grace Keillor (born December 29, 1997).Between his first and second marriages, Keillor was romantically involved with Margaret Moos, who worked as a producer of ''A Prairie Home Companion''.On September 7, 2009, Keillor was briefly hospitalized after suffering a minor stroke.", "He returned to work a few days later.In 2006, after a visit to a United Methodist church in Highland Park, Texas, Keillor created a local controversy with his remarks about the event, including the rhetorical suggestion of a connection between event participants and supporters of torture and a statement creating an impression of political intimidation: \"I walked in, was met by two burly security men ... and within 10 minutes was told by three people that this was the Bushes' church and that it would be better if I didn't talk about politics.\"", "In response, the lecture series coordinator said the two \"burly security men\" were a local policeman and the church's own security supervisor, both present because the agreement with Keillor's publisher specified that the venue provide security.", "In addition, the coordinator said that Keillor arrived at the church, declined an introduction, and took the stage without an opportunity to mingle with the audience, so he did not know when these warnings might have been dispensed.", "The publicist concurred, saying that Keillor did not have contact with any church members or people in the audience before he spoke.", "Supposedly, before Keillor's remarks, participants at the event had considered the visit cordial and warm.", "Asked to respond, Keillor stuck to his story, describing the people who advised him not to discuss politics and saying he had no security guards at other stops on the tour.In 2007, Keillor wrote a column that in part criticized \"stereotypical\" gay parents, who he said were \"sardonic fellows with fussy hair who live in over-decorated apartments with a striped sofa and a small weird dog and who worship campy performers.\"", "In response to the strong reactions of many readers, Keillor said:In 2008, Keillor created a controversy in St. Paul when he filed a lawsuit against his neighbor's plan to build an addition on her home, citing his need for \"light and air\" and a view of \"open space and beyond\".", "Keillor's home is significantly larger than others in his neighborhood and it would still be significantly larger than his neighbor's with its planned addition.", "Keillor came to an undisclosed settlement with his neighbor shortly after the story became public.In 2009, one of Keillor's \"Old Scout\" columns contained a reference to \"lousy holiday songs by Jewish guys\" and a complaint about \"Silent Night\" as rewritten by Unitarians, upsetting some readers.", "A Unitarian minister named Cynthia Landrum responded, \"Listening to him talk about us over the years, it's becoming more and more evident that he isn't laughing with us—he's laughing at us\", while Jeff Jacoby of ''The Boston Globe'' called Keillor \"cranky and intolerant\"." ], [ "Awards and other recognition", "* \"A Prairie Home Companion\" received a Peabody Award in 1980.", "*Keillor received a Medal for Spoken Language from the American Academy of Arts and Letters in 1990.", "* In 1994, Keillor was inducted into the National Radio Hall of Fame.", "*He received a National Humanities Medal from the National Endowment for the Humanities in 1999.", "* \"Welcome to Minnesota\" markers in interstate rest areas near the state's borders include statements such as \"Like its neighbors, the thirty-second state grew as a collection of small farm communities, many settled by immigrants from Scandinavia and Germany.", "Two of the nation's favorite fictional small towns – Sinclair Lewis's Gopher Prairie and Garrison Keillor's Lake Wobegon – reflect that heritage.", "\"* In 2007, The Moth, a NYC-based not-for-profit storytelling organization, awarded Garrison Keillor the first ''Moth Award – Honoring the Art of the Raconteur'' at the annual Moth Ball.", "* In September 2007, Keillor was awarded the 2007 John Steinbeck Award, given to artists who capture \"the spirit of Steinbeck's empathy, commitment to democratic values, and belief in the dignity of the common man.", "\"*Keillor received a Grammy Award in 1988 for his recording of ''Lake Wobegon Days''.", "* In 2016, he received the Fitzgerald Award for Achievement in American Literature.", "*He has also received two CableACE Awards and a George Foster Peabody Award." ], [ "Bibliography", "Keillor during a live broadcast in 2007 in Lanesboro, Minnesota=== Books ===* ''G.K.", "The D.J.''", "(1977)* ''Happy to Be Here'' (1981), * ''WLT: A Radio Romance'' (1991), * '' The Book of Guys'' (1993), * '' The Sandy Bottom Orchestra '' (with Jenny Lind Nilsson, 1996), * ''Me, by Jimmy \"Big Boy\" Valente'' (1999), * ''Love Me'' (2003), * '' Homegrown Democrat: A Few Plain Thoughts from the Heart of America '' (2004), * ''Daddy's Girl'' (2005), * ''A Christmas Blizzard'' (2009), * ''Cat, You Better Come Home'' (2010), 978-0670012770* ''Guy Noir and the Straight Skinny'' (2012), * ''The Keillor Reader'' (2014), * ''That Time of Year: A Minnesota Life'' (2020) * ''Cheerfulness'' (2023) ;Lake Wobegon series* ''Lake Wobegon Days'' (1985), ; a recorded version of this won a Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word or Non-musical Album in 1988* ''Leaving Home: A Collection of Lake Wobegon Stories'' (1987; collection of Lake Wobegon stories), * ''We Are Still Married'' (1989; collection including some Lake Wobegon stories), ** An expanded edition was released in 1990 that added six stories and removed one from the original publication.", "* ''Wobegon Boy'' (1997), * ''Lake Wobegon Summer 1956'' (2001), * ''In Search of Lake Wobegon'' (Photographs by Richard Olsenius, 2001), * ''Pontoon: A Novel of Lake Wobegon'' (2007), * ''Liberty: A Novel of Lake Wobegon'' (2008), * ''Life among the Lutherans'' (2009), * ''Pilgrims: A Wobegon Romance'' (2009), * ''The Lake Wobegon Virus'' (2020), * ''Boom Town: a Lake Wobegon novel'' (2022), === Short fiction ===;Short stories from ''The New Yorker'' Title Volume/Part Date Page(s) Subject(s) A Christmas Story December 25, 1989 40-42 A boy, Jim, neglected by his plutocrat parents, runs away on Christmas Eve with his ill dog.", "Studio B July 29, 1991 27-32 Strange things happen at radio station WLT's Studio B Al Denny March 11, 1991 30-32 Fictional mini-autobiography of author of self-help books Zeus the Lutheran October 29, 1990 32-37 The goddess Hera's lawyer meets Zeus in a café to try to ... How the Savings and Loans Were Saved October 16, 1989 42 Huns take over Chicago S & L offices... Meeting Famous People April 18, 1988 34-36 The trial of a famous singer who assaulted a fan Your Book Saved My Life December 28, 1987 40-41 A misunderstood author's books have been difficult for his readers... End of an Era October 28, 1985 31-32 Fiction about his friends' reactions to the death of an aging hippie.", "What Did We Do Wrong?", "September 16, 1985 32-35 Fiction about Annie Szemanski, the first woman to play major league baseball.", "The People V. Jim July 8, 1985 21 An author of so-called list articles is questioned by a lawyer Who We Were and What We Meant by It April 16, 1984 44-45 Fiction about the so-called Momentist movement ===Poetry===;Collections* ''The Selected Verse of Margaret Haskins Durber'' (1979)* ''77 Love Sonnets'' (2009), * ''O, What a Luxury: Verses Lyrical, Vulgar, Pathetic & Profound'' (2013)* ''Living with Limericks'' (2019), ;Anthologies* ''Good Poems'' (2002), * ''Good Poems for Hard Times'' (2005), * ''Good Poems, American Places'' (2011), ===Articles and other contributions===* * * ;Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "* * * ''A Prairie Home Companion'' radio website—Garrison Keillor's public radio show* ''The Writer's Almanac'' website—Garrison Keillor's daily poetry program* \"Minnesota Zen Master\"—a detailed profile of Garrison Keillor, published in ''The Guardian'', March 6, 2004.", "* \"Kingdom of the Frown\"—A feature article from ''The Reykjavík Grapevine'' on Garrison Keillor* \"A Prairie Home Conundrum\", ''Slate'', June 16, 2006* An interview with Garrison Keillor at Everydayyeah.com* \"Garrison Keillor—The Man on the Radio in the Red Shoes\", PBS, ''American Masters''* Speech by Keillor at Concordia University February 15, 2011* 1995 ''Paris Review'' interview*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Galatia" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Galatia''' (; , ''Galatía'', \"Gaul\") was an ancient area in the highlands of central Anatolia, roughly corresponding to the provinces of Ankara and Eskişehir, in modern Turkey.", "Galatia was named after the Gauls from Thrace (cf.", "Tylis), who settled here and became a small transient foreign tribe in the 3rd century BC, following the Gallic invasion of the Balkans in 279 BC.", "It has been called the \"Gallia\" of the East." ], [ "Geography", "Galatia was bounded on the north by Bithynia and Paphlagonia, on the east by Pontus and Cappadocia, on the south by Cilicia and Lycaonia, and on the west by Phrygia.", "Its capital was Ancyra (i.e.", "Ankara, today the capital of modern Turkey).Areas of Galatian settlement in the 3rd and early 2nd centuries BC" ], [ "Celtic Galatia", "Celts in EuropeThe terms \"Galatians\" came to be used by the Greeks for the three Celtic peoples of Anatolia: the Tectosages, the Trocmii, and the Tolistobogii.", "By the 1st century BC, the Celts had become so Hellenized that some Greek writers called them ''Hellenogalatai'' (Ἑλληνογαλάται).", "The Romans called them ''Gallograeci''.", "Though the Celts had, to a large extent, integrated into Hellenistic Asia Minor, they preserved their linguistic and ethnic identity.By the 4th century BC, the Celts had penetrated into the Balkans, coming into contact with the Thracians and Greeks.", "In 380 BC, they fought in the southern regions of Dalmatia (present day Croatia), and rumors circulated around the ancient world that Alexander the Greats father, Philip II of Macedonia had been assassinated by someone using a dagger of Celtic origins.", "Arrian writes that \"Celts established on the Ionic coast\" were among those who came to meet Alexander the Great during a campaign against the Getae in 335 BC.", "Several ancient accounts mention that the Celts formed an alliance with Dionysius I of Syracuse who sent them to fight alongside the Macedonians against the Thebans.", "In 279 BC, two Celtic factions united under the leadership of Brennus and began to push southwards from southern Bulgaria towards the Greek states.", "According to Livy, a sizable force split off from this main group and headed toward Asia Minor.", "''The Dying Gaul'', Capitoline Museums, RomeFor several years, a federation of Hellespontine cities, including Byzantion and Chalkedon, prevented the Celts from entering Asia Minor.", "During the course of the power struggle between Nikomedes I of Bithynia and his brother Zipoetes, the former hired 20,000 Galatian mercenaries.", "The Galatians split into two groups headed by Leonnorius and Lutarius respectively, which crossed the Bosporus and the Hellespont respectively.", "In 277 BC, when the hostilities had ended the Galatians came out of Nikomedes' control and began raiding Greek cities in Asia Minor while Antiochus was solidifying his rule in Syria.", "The Galatians looted Cyzikus, Ilion, Didyma, Priene, Thyatira and Laodicea on the Lycus, while the citizens of Erythras paid them ransom.", "Either in 275 or 269 BC, Antiochus' army faced the Galatians somewhere on the plain of Sardis in the Battle of Elephants.", "In the aftermath of the battle, the Celts then settled in northern Phrygia, a region that eventually came to be known as Galatia.The territory of Celtic Galatia included the cities of Ancyra (present day Ankara), Pessinus, Tavium, and Gordion." ], [ "Roman Galatia", "Upon the death of Deiotarus, the Kingdom of Galatia was given to Amyntas, an auxiliary commander in the Roman army of Brutus and Cassius who gained the favor of Mark Antony.", "After his death in 25 BC, Galatia was incorporated by Augustus into the Roman Empire, becoming a Roman province.", "Near his capital Ancyra (modern Ankara), Pylamenes, the king's heir, rebuilt a temple of the Phrygian god Men to venerate Augustus (the Monumentum Ancyranum), as a sign of fidelity.", "It was on the walls of this temple in Galatia that the major source for the ''Res Gestae'' of Augustus were preserved for modernity.", "Few of the provinces proved more enthusiastically loyal to Rome.Josephus related the Biblical figure Gomer to Galatia (or perhaps to Gaul in general): \"For Gomer founded those whom the Greeks now call Galatians, Galls, but were then called Gomerites.\"", "Others have related Gomer to Cimmerians.Paul the Apostle visited Galatia in his missionary journeys, and wrote to the Christians there in the Epistle to the Galatians.Although originally possessing a strong cultural identity, by the 2nd century AD, the Galatians had become assimilated (Hellenization) into the Hellenistic civilization of Anatolia.", "The Galatians were still speaking the Galatian language in the time of St. Jerome (347–420 AD), who wrote that the Galatians of Ancyra and the Treveri of Trier (in what is now the Rhineland) spoke the same language (''Comentarii in Epistolam ad Galatos'', 2.3, composed c. 387).In an administrative reorganisation (''c.''", "386–395), two new provinces succeeded it, ''Galatia Prima'' and ''Galatia Secunda'' or ''Salutaris'', which included part of Phrygia.", "The fate of the Galatian people is a subject of some uncertainty, but they seem ultimately to have been absorbed into the Greek-speaking populations of Anatolia." ], [ "Gallery", "File:Galatian head Thrace detail.jpg|A Galatian's head as depicted on a gold Thracian ''objet d'art'', 3rd century BC.", "Istanbul Archaeological Museum.File:Galatian bronze horse bit.jpg|Galatian bronze horse bit, 3rd century BC, Hidirsihlar tumulus, Bolu.", "Istanbul Archaeological Museum.File:Galatian bracelets and earrings 3rd century BCE Bolu Hidirsihlar tumulus.jpg|Galatian bracelets and earrings, 3rd century BC, Hidirsihlar tumulus, Bolu.", "Istanbul Archaeological Museum.File:Galatian torques 3rd century BCE Bolu Hidirsihlar tumulus.jpg|Galatian torcs, 3rd century BC, Hidirsihlar tumulus, Bolu.", "Istanbul Archaeological Museum.File:Galatian plate 3rd century BCE Bolu Hidirsihlar tumulus.jpg|Galatian plate, 3rd century BC, Hidirsihlar tumulus, Bolu.", "Istanbul Archaeological Museum.File:Galatian object 3rd century BCE Bolu Hidirsihlar tumulus.jpg|Galatian object, 3rd century BC, Hidirsihlar tumulus, Bolu.", "Istanbul Archaeological Museum.File:15th century map of Turkey region.jpg|Part of a 15th-century map showing Galatia." ], [ "See also", "* Ancient regions of Anatolia* History of Anatolia" ], [ "References" ], [ "Notes", "* Encyclopedia, MS Encarta 2001, under article \"Galatia\".", "* Barraclough, Geoffrey, ed.", "''HarperCollins Atlas of World History''.", "2nd ed.", "Oxford: HarperCollins, 1989.76–77.", "* John King, Celt Kingdoms, pg.", "74–75.", "* The Catholic Encyclopedia, VI: Epistle to the Galatians.", "* Stephen Mitchell, 1993.", "''Anatolia: Land, Men, and Gods in Asia Minor'' vol.", "1: \"The Celts and the Impact of Roman Rule.\"", "(Oxford: Clarendon Press) 1993..", "Concentrates on Galatia; volume 2 covers \"The Rise of the Church\".", "( Bryn Mawr Classical Review)* David Rankin, (1987) 1996.", "''Celts and the Classical World'' (London: Routledge): Chapter 9 \"The Galatians\".", "* Coşkun, A., \"Das Ende der \"romfreundlichen Herrschaft\" in Galatien und das Beispiel einer \"sanften Provinzialisierung\" in Zentralanatolien,\" in Coşkun, A.", "(hg), ''Freundschaft und Gefolgschaft in den auswärtigen Beziehungen der Römer (2.Jahrhundert v. Chr.", "– 1.Jahrhundert n.", "Chr.", ")'', (Frankfurt M. u. a., 2008) (Inklusion, Exklusion, 9), 133–164.", "* Justin K. Hardin: ''Galatians and the Imperial Cult.", "A Critical Analysis of the First-Century Social Context of Paul's Letter''.", "Mohr Siebeck, Tübingen, Germany 2008, .", "*" ], [ "External links", "* Celtic Galatians* * UNRV.com: Galatia" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Galatians" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Galatians''' may refer to:* Galatians (people)* Epistle to the Galatians, a book of the New Testament* English translation of the Greek ''Galatai'' or Latin ''Galatae'', ''Galli,'' or ''Gallograeci'' to refer to either the Galatians or the Gauls in general" ], [ "See also", "* Galatia in Asia Minor* Galatia (Roman province)* Galatian (disambiguation)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Generalization" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''generalization''' is a form of abstraction whereby common properties of specific instances are formulated as general concepts or claims.", "Generalizations posit the existence of a domain or set of elements, as well as one or more common characteristics shared by those elements (thus creating a conceptual model).", "As such, they are the essential basis of all valid deductive inferences (particularly in logic, mathematics and science), where the process of verification is necessary to determine whether a generalization holds true for any given situation.Generalization can also be used to refer to the process of identifying the parts of a whole, as belonging to the whole.", "The parts, which might be unrelated when left on their own, may be brought together as a group, hence belonging to the whole by establishing a common relation between them.However, the parts cannot be generalized into a whole—until a common relation is established among ''all'' parts.", "This does not mean that the parts are unrelated, only that no common relation has been established yet for the generalization.The concept of generalization has broad application in many connected disciplines, and might sometimes have a more specific meaning in a specialized context (e.g.", "generalization in psychology, generalization in learning).", "In general, given two related concepts ''A'' and ''B,'' ''A'' is a \"generalization\" of ''B'' (equiv., ''B'' is a special case of ''A'') if and only if both of the following hold:* Every instance of concept ''B'' is also an instance of concept ''A.", "''* There are instances of concept ''A'' which are not instances of concept ''B''.For example, the concept ''animal'' is a generalization of the concept ''bird'', since every bird is an animal, but not all animals are birds (dogs, for instance).", "For more, see Specialisation (biology)." ], [ "Hypernym and hyponym", "The connection of ''generalization'' to ''specialization'' (or ''particularization'') is reflected in the contrasting words hypernym and hyponym.", "A hypernym as a generic stands for a class or group of equally ranked items, such as the term ''tree'' which stands for equally ranked items such as ''peach'' and ''oak'', and the term ''ship'' which stands for equally ranked items such as ''cruiser'' and ''steamer''.", "In contrast, a hyponym is one of the items included in the generic, such as ''peach'' and ''oak'' which are included in ''tree'', and ''cruiser'' and ''steamer'' which are included in ''ship''.", "A hypernym is superordinate to a hyponym, and a hyponym is subordinate to a hypernym." ], [ "Examples", "===Biological generalization===When the mind makes a generalization, it extracts the essence of a concept based on its analysis of similarities from many discrete objects.", "The resulting simplification enables higher-level thinking.An animal is a generalization of a mammal, a bird, a fish, an amphibian and a reptile.===Cartographic generalization of geo-spatial data===Generalization has a long history in cartography as an art of creating maps for different scale and purpose.", "Cartographic generalization is the process of selecting and representing information of a map in a way that adapts to the scale of the display medium of the map.", "In this way, every map has, to some extent, been generalized to match the criteria of display.", "This includes small cartographic scale maps, which cannot convey every detail of the real world.", "As a result, cartographers must decide and then adjust the content within their maps, to create a suitable and useful map that conveys the geospatial information within their representation of the world.Generalization is meant to be context-specific.", "That is to say, correctly generalized maps are those that emphasize the most important map elements, while still representing the world in the most faithful and recognizable way.", "The level of detail and importance in what is remaining on the map must outweigh the insignificance of items that were generalized—so as to preserve the distinguishing characteristics of what makes the map useful and important.===Mathematical generalizations===* A polygon is a generalization of a 3-sided triangle, a 4-sided quadrilateral, and so on to ''n'' sides.", "* A hypercube is a generalization of a 2-dimensional square, a 3-dimensional cube, and so on to ''n'' dimensions.", "* A quadric, such as a hypersphere, ellipsoid, paraboloid, or hyperboloid, is a generalization of a conic section to higher dimensions.", "* A Taylor series is a generalization of a MacLaurin series.", "* The binomial formula is a generalization of the formula for ." ], [ "See also", "* Categorical imperative (ethical generalization)* ''Ceteris paribus''* * External validity (scientific studies)* Faulty generalization* Generic (disambiguation)* Critical thinking* Generic antecedent* Hasty generalization* Inheritance (object-oriented programming)* ''Mutatis mutandis''* -onym* Ramer–Douglas–Peucker algorithm* Semantic compression* Inventor's paradox" ], [ "References" ] ]
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[ [ "Gia Carangi" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Gia Marie Carangi''' (January 29, 1960November 18, 1986) was an American model, considered by many to be the first supermodel.", "She was featured on the cover of numerous magazines, including multiple editions of ''Vogue'' and ''Cosmopolitan'', and appeared in advertising campaigns for fashion houses such as Armani, Dior, Versace and Yves Saint Laurent.After Carangi became addicted to heroin, her career rapidly declined, which ultimately led her to quit from a modeling career in 1983.In 1986, at age 26, she died of AIDS-related complications.", "Believed to have contracted it from a contaminated needle, she became one of the early famous women to die of the virus.", "Her life was dramatized in the 1998 television film ''Gia,'' directed by Michael Cristofer and starring Angelina Jolie as Carangi." ], [ "Early life and education", "Carangi was born on January 29, 1960, in Philadelphia, the third and youngest child of Joseph Carangi, a restaurant owner, and Kathleen Carangi (''née'' Adams), a homemaker.", "She had two older brothers.", "Her father was Italian, and her mother was of Irish and Welsh ancestry.", "Joseph and Kathleen had an unstable, violent marriage, ultimately leading Kathleen to abandon the family when Carangi was eleven years old.", "Gia was described as \"needy and manipulative\" by relatives who recalled her as spoiled and shy as a child and a \"mommy's girl\" who did not receive the motherly attention that she desired.", "Those who knew Gia blamed her \"fractured childhood\" for the instability and drug dependence that plagued her adult life.In her adolescent years, Carangi found the attention she sought from other teenage girls, befriending them by sending flowers.", "While attending Abraham Lincoln High School, Carangi bonded with \"the Bowie kids\", a group of obsessive David Bowie fans who emulated Bowie's \"defiantly weird, high-glam\" style.", "Carangi was drawn to Bowie for his fashion preferences and his ambiguous gender play and outspoken bisexuality.", "One of Carangi's friends later spoke of her \"tomboy persona\", describing her relaxed openness about her sexuality as reminiscent of the character Cay in the 1985 film ''Desert Hearts''.", "Carangi and her \"bi-try Bowie-mad\" friends hung out in Philadelphia's gay clubs and bars.", "Though she's associated with the lesbian community, she did not want to take up \"the accepted lesbian style.\"" ], [ "Career", "After being featured in Philadelphia newspaper ads and being discovered by Sondra Scerca in Maurice Tannenbaum's hair salon, Carangi moved to New York City at the age of 17, where she signed with Wilhelmina Models.", "Her first major shoot, published in October 1978, was with top fashion photographer Chris von Wangenheim, who had her pose nude behind a chain-link fence with makeup artist Sandy Linter.", "Carangi immediately became infatuated with Linter and pursued her, though the relationship never became stable.", "By the end of 1978, her first year in New York, Carangi was already a well-established model.", "Of her quick rise to prominence, described by ''Vogue'' as \"meteoric\", Carangi later said, \"I started working with very good people, I mean all the time, very fast.", "I didn't build into a model, I just sort of became one.", "\"Carangi was a favorite model of various fashion photographers, including Von Wangenheim, Francesco Scavullo, Arthur Elgort, Richard Avedon, and Denis Piel.", "Well-integrated within the fashion world, she had the selection of several photographers, most notably Scavullo.", "Carangi was featured on the cover of many fashion magazines, including the April 1979 issue of ''British Vogue'', the April 1979 and August 1980 issues of ''Vogue Paris'', the August 1980 issue of ''Vogue'', the February 1981 issue of ''Vogue Italia'', and multiple issues of ''Cosmopolitan'' between 1979 and 1982.During these years, she also appeared in various advertising campaigns for high-profile fashion houses, including Armani, André Laug, Christian Dior, Versace, and Yves Saint Laurent.", "At the height of her career, Carangi was most known in modeling circles by only her first name.", "During this time, she also appeared in the Blondie music video for \"Atomic\".A regular at Studio 54 and the Mudd Club, Carangi usually used cocaine in clubs.", "After her agent, mentor, and friend Wilhelmina Cooper, died of lung cancer in March 1980, a devastated Carangi began using drugs and developed an addiction to heroin.", "Carangi's addiction soon began to affect her work; she had violent temper tantrums, walked out of photo shoots to buy drugs, and fell asleep in front of the camera.", "Scavullo recalled a fashion shoot with Carangi in the Caribbean when \"she was crying, she couldn't find her drugs.", "I literally had to lay her down on her bed until she fell asleep.\"", "During one of her final location shoots for American ''Vogue'', Carangi had red bumps in the crooks of her elbows where she had injected heroin.", "Despite airbrushing, some of the photos, as published in the November 1980 issue, reportedly still showed visible needle marks.In November 1980, Carangi left Wilhelmina Models and signed with Ford Models, but she was dropped within weeks.", "By then, her career was in a steep decline.", "Modeling offers soon ceased and her fashion industry friends, including Sandy Linter, refused to speak to her, fearing their association with her would harm their careers.", "In an attempt to quit using drugs, she moved back to Philadelphia with her mother and stepfather in February 1981.Carangi underwent a 21-day detox program, but her sobriety was short-lived.", "She was arrested in March 1981 after she drove into a fence in a suburban neighborhood.", "After a chase with police, she was taken into custody where it was later determined she was under the influence of alcohol and cocaine.", "After her release, Carangi briefly signed with a new agency, Legends, and worked sporadically, mainly in Europe.In late 1981, although still using drugs, Carangi was determined to make a comeback in the fashion industry and signed with Elite Model Management.", "While some clients refused to work with her, others were willing to hire her because of her past status as a top model.", "Scavullo photographed her for the April 1982 cover of ''Cosmopolitan'', her last cover appearance for an American magazine.", "Sean Byrnes, Scavullo's long-time assistant, later said, \"What she was doing to herself finally became apparent in her pictures.", "...", "I could see the change in her beauty.", "There was an emptiness in her eyes.", "\"Carangi then mainly worked with photographer Albert Watson and found work modeling for department stores and catalogs.", "She appeared in an advertising campaign for ''Versace'', shot by Richard Avedon.", "He hired her for the fashion house's next campaign, but during the photo shoot, in late 1982, Carangi became uncomfortable and left before any usable shots of her were taken.", "Around this time, Carangi enrolled in an outpatient methadone program but soon began using heroin again.", "By the end of 1982, she had only a few clients that were willing to hire her.", "Carangi's final photo shoot was for German mail-order clothing company Otto GmbH in Tunisia; she was sent home during the shoot for using heroin.", "She left New York for the final time in early 1983." ], [ "Death", "Carangi spent most of her modeling earnings on drugs, and spent the final three years of her life with various lovers, friends, and family members in Philadelphia and Atlantic City, New Jersey.", "She was admitted to an intense drug treatment program at Eagleville Hospital in December 1984.After treatment, she got a job in a clothing store, which she eventually quit.", "She later found employment as a checkout clerk and then worked in the cafeteria of a nursing home.", "By late 1985, she had begun using drugs again and was engaging in prostitution in Atlantic City.In December 1985, Carangi was admitted to Warminster General Hospital in Warminster, Pennsylvania with bilateral pneumonia.", "A few days later, she was diagnosed with AIDS-related complex.", "In the fall of 1986, Carangi was hospitalized again, after being found on the street badly beaten and raped.", "On October 18, she was admitted to Hahnemann University Hospital in Philadelphia.", "Carangi died at the Hahnemann Hospital of AIDS-related complications one month later, on November 18, 1986, at the age of 26, becoming one of the first famous women to die of the disease.", "Her funeral was held on November 23 at a small funeral home in Philadelphia.", "No one from the fashion world attended.", "However, weeks later, Francesco Scavullo, Carangi's friend and confidant, sent a Mass card when he heard the news." ], [ "Filmography", " Film Year Film Role Notes 2003 The Self-Destruction of Gia Self Archive footage, posthumously release Television Year Title Role Notes 2009-2011 20 to 1 Self Archive footage, posthumously release, episode: Sizzling Superstars, Adults Only 20 to 1: Sizzling Supermodels Music video Year Title Role Artists 1980 Atomic girl with goggles Blondie" ], [ "Legacy", "Carangi is often considered to be the first supermodel, although that title has been applied to others, including Margaux Hemingway, Audrey Munson, Lisa Fonssagrives, Dorian Leigh, Twiggy, Jean Shrimpton, Cheryl Tiegs and Janice Dickinson.", "Model Cindy Crawford, who rose to prominence the year Carangi died, was referred to as \"Baby Gia\" because of her resemblance to Carangi.", "Crawford later recalled, \"My agents took me to all the photographers who liked Gia: Albert Watson, Francesco Scavullo, Bill King.", "Everyone loved her look so much that they gladly saw me.\"", "Additionally, Carangi, whose sexual orientation has been reported as either lesbian or bisexual, is considered a lesbian icon and is said to have \"epitomized lesbian chic more than a decade before the term was coined.\"", "Argentine model Mica Argañaraz has often been compared to Carangi, whom she considers a beauty icon.Carangi's life has been the subject of several works.", "A biography of Carangi by Stephen Fried titled ''Thing of Beauty''—taken from the first line of John Keats' famous poem ''Endymion''—was published in 1993.", "''Gia'', a biographical film starring Angelina Jolie, debuted on HBO in 1998.Jolie won a Golden Globe Award and a Screen Actors Guild Award for her performance, among other accolades.", "A documentary titled ''The Self-Destruction of Gia'', released in 2003, showcased footage of Carangi, contemporary interviews with Carangi's family and former colleagues, including Sandy Linter, and footage of actress-screenwriter Zoë Lund, herself a heroin addict, who had been commissioned to write a screenplay based upon Carangi's life at the time of her own death of drug-related causes in 1999.A biography of Carangi by Sacha Lanvin Baumann titled ''Born This Way: Friends, Colleagues, and Coworkers Recall Gia Carangi, the Supermodel Who Defined an Era'', was published in 2015.Sondra Scerca, who brought Carangi to Wilhelmina, is currently writing a memoir titled ''GIA, WILLY and ME'', which will be released in 2022.Carangi is commemorated on the AIDS Memorial Quilt on block #5949." ], [ "Designers and brands represented", "* ''Armani''* ''Bloomingdale's''* ''Citicorp''* ''Cutex''* ''Christian Dior''* ''Perry Ellis''* ''Diane von Fürstenberg''* ''Lancetti''* ''Levi's''* ''Maybelline''* ''Yves Saint Laurent''* ''Versace''* ''Vidal Sassoon''" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Giacomo Puccini" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Giacomo Puccini''' (22 December 1858 29 November 1924) was an Italian composer known primarily for his operas.", "Regarded as the greatest and most successful proponent of Italian opera after Verdi, he was descended from a long line of composers, stemming from the late-Baroque era.", "Though his early work was firmly rooted in traditional late-19th-century Romantic Italian opera, he later developed his work in the realistic ''verismo'' style, of which he became one of the leading exponents.His most renowned works are ''La bohème'' (1896), ''Tosca'' (1900), ''Madama Butterfly'' (1904), and ''Turandot'' (1924), all of which are among the most frequently performed and recorded of all operas." ], [ "Family and education", "Puccini's birthplace during restoration workPuccini was born Giacomo Antonio Domenico Michele Secondo Maria Puccini in Lucca, Italy, in 1858.He was the sixth of nine children of Michele Puccini (1813–1864) and Albina Magi (1830–1884).", "The Puccini family was established in Lucca as a local musical dynasty by Puccini's great-great-grandfather – also named Giacomo (1712–1781).", "This first Giacomo Puccini was ''maestro di cappella'' of the Cattedrale di San Martino in Lucca.", "He was succeeded in this position by his son, Antonio Puccini, and then by Antonio's son Domenico, and Domenico's son Michele (father of the subject of this article).", "Each of these men studied music at Bologna, and some took additional musical studies elsewhere.", "Domenico Puccini studied for a time under Giovanni Paisiello.", "Each composed music for the church.", "In addition, Domenico composed several operas, and Michele composed one opera.", "Puccini's father Michele enjoyed a reputation throughout northern Italy, and his funeral was an occasion of public mourning, at which the then-famed composer Giovanni Pacini conducted a Requiem.With the Puccini family having occupied the position of ''maestro di cappella'' for 124 years (1740–1864) by the time of Michele's death, it was anticipated that Michele's son Giacomo would occupy that position as well when he was old enough.", "However, when Michele Puccini died in 1864, his son Giacomo was only six years old, and thus not capable of taking over his father's job.", "As a child, he nevertheless participated in the musical life of the Cattedrale di San Martino, as a member of the boys' choir and later as a substitute organist.Puccini was given a general education at the seminary of San Michele in Lucca, and then at the seminary of the cathedral.", "One of Puccini's uncles, Fortunato Magi, supervised his musical education.", "Puccini got a diploma from the Pacini School of Music in Lucca in 1880, having studied there with his uncle Fortunato, and later with Carlo Angeloni, who had also instructed Alfredo Catalani.", "A grant from Queen Margherita, and assistance from another uncle, Nicholas Cerù, provided the funds necessary for Puccini to continue his studies at the Milan Conservatory, where he studied composition with Stefano Ronchetti-Monteviti, Amilcare Ponchielli, Amintore Galli, and Antonio Bazzini.", "Puccini studied at the conservatory for three years, sharing a room with Pietro Mascagni.", "In 1880, at the age of 21, Puccini composed his ''Mass'', which marks the culmination of his family's long association with church music in his native Lucca." ], [ "Early career and first operas", "Puccini wrote an orchestral piece called the ''Capriccio sinfonico'' as a thesis composition for the Milan Conservatory.", "Puccini's teachers Ponchielli and Bazzini were impressed by the work, and it was performed at a student concert at the conservatory on 14 July 1883, conducted by Franco Faccio.", "Puccini's work was favourably reviewed in the Milanese publication ''La Perseveranza'', and thus Puccini began to build a reputation as a young composer of promise in Milanese music circles.===''Le Villi''===After the premiere of the ''Capriccio sinfonico'', Ponchielli and Puccini discussed the possibility that Puccini's next work might be an opera.", "Ponchielli invited Puccini to stay at his villa, where Puccini was introduced to Ferdinando Fontana.", "Puccini and Fontana agreed to collaborate on an opera, for which Fontana would provide the libretto.", "Puccini submitted the work, titled ('The Fairies'), for 's first of four musical competitions, advertised in April 1883, for a new, unperformed opera \"inspired by the best traditions of Italian opera\", which could be \"idyllic, serious, or comic\", to be judged by a panel including Galli and Ponchielli.", "Puccini's submission was disqualified because its manuscript was illegible; the second competition, in 1889, was notably won by Mascagni's ''Cavalleria rusticana.", "''Despite the defeat in the competition, ''Le Villi'' was later staged at the Teatro Dal Verme, premiering on 31 May 1884.Casa Ricordi assisted with the premier by printing the libretto without charge.", "Fellow students from the Milan Conservatory formed a large part of the orchestra.", "The performance was enough of a success that Casa Ricordi purchased the opera.", "Revised into a two-act version with an intermezzo between the acts, ''Le Villi'' was performed at La Scala in Milan, on 24 January 1885.However, Ricordi did not publish the score until 1887, hindering further performance of the work.===''Edgar''===Giulio Ricordi, head of G. Ricordi & Co. music publishers, was sufficiently impressed with ''Le Villi'' and its young composer that he commissioned a second opera, which would result in ''Edgar''.", "Work was begun in 1884 when Fontana began working out the scenario for the libretto.", "Puccini finished primary composition in 1887 and orchestration in 1888.", "''Edgar'' premiered at La Scala on 21 April 1889 to a lukewarm response.", "The work was withdrawn for revisions after its third performance.", "In a Milanese newspaper, Giulio Ricordi published a defence of Puccini's skill as a composer, while criticizing Fontana's libretto.", "A revised version met with success at the Teatro del Giglio in Puccini's native Lucca on 5 September 1891.In 1892, further revisions reduced the length of the opera from four acts to three, in a version that was well received in Ferrara and was performed in Turin and in Spain.", "Puccini made further revisions in 1901 and 1905, but the work never achieved popularity.", "Without the personal support of Ricordi, ''Edgar'' might have cost Puccini his career.", "Puccini had eloped with his former piano student, the married Elvira Gemignani, and Ricordi's associates were willing to turn a blind eye to his lifestyle as long as he was successful.", "When ''Edgar'' failed, they suggested to Ricordi that he should drop Puccini, but Ricordi said that he would stay with him and continued his allowance until his next opera.===''Manon Lescaut''===On commencing his next opera, ''Manon Lescaut'', Puccini announced that he would write his own libretto so that \"no fool of a librettist\" could spoil it.", "Ricordi persuaded him to accept Ruggero Leoncavallo as his librettist, but Puccini soon asked Ricordi to remove him from the project.", "Four other librettists were then involved with the opera, as Puccini constantly changed his mind about the structure of the piece.", "It was almost by accident that the final two, Luigi Illica and Giuseppe Giacosa, came together to complete the opera.", "''Manon Lescaut'' premiered at the Teatro Regio in Turin on 2 February 1893.By coincidence, Puccini's first enduringly popular opera appeared within a week of the premiere of Verdi's last opera, ''Falstaff'', which was first performed on 9 February 1893.In anticipation of the premiere, wrote that Puccini was a young man concerning whom \"great hopes\" had a real basis (\"\").", "Because of the failure of ''Edgar'', however, a failure of ''Manon Lescaut'' could have jeopardized Puccini's future as a composer.", "Although Giulio Ricordi, head of Casa Ricordi, was supportive of Puccini while ''Manon Lescaut'' was still in development, the Casa Ricordi board of directors was considering cutting off Puccini's financial support.", "In any event, \"''Manon Lescaut'' was Puccini's first and only uncontested triumph, acclaimed by critics and public alike.\"", "After the London premiere in 1894, George Bernard Shaw pronounced: \"Puccini looks to me more like the heir of Verdi than any of his rivals.", "\"''Manon Lescaut'' was a great success and established Puccini's reputation as the most promising rising composer of his generation, and the most likely \"successor\" to Verdi as the leading exponent of the Italian operatic tradition.", "Illica and Giacosa returned as librettists for Puccini for his next three operas, probably his greatest successes: ''La bohème'', ''Tosca'' and ''Madama Butterfly''." ], [ "Middle career", "Original poster for Puccini's ''Tosca''===''La bohème''===Puccini's next work after ''Manon Lescaut'' was ''La bohème'', a four-act opera based on the 1851 book by Henri Murger, ''La Vie de Bohème''.", "''La bohème'' premiered in Turin in 1896, conducted by Arturo Toscanini.", "Within a few years, it had been performed in many of the leading opera houses of Europe, including in Britain, as well as in the United States.", "It was a popular success and remains one of the most frequently performed operas ever written.The libretto of the opera, freely adapted from Murger's episodic novel, combines comic elements of the impoverished life of the young protagonists with tragic aspects, such as the death of the young seamstress Mimí.", "Puccini's own life as a young man in Milan served as a source of inspiration for elements of the libretto.", "During his years as a conservatory student and in the years before ''Manon Lescaut'', he experienced poverty similar to that of the bohemians in ''La bohème'', including a chronic shortage of necessities like food, clothing and money to pay rent.", "Although Puccini was granted a small monthly stipend by the Congregation of Charity in Rome (), he frequently had to pawn his possessions to cover basic expenses.", "Early biographers such as Wakeling Dry and Eugenio Checchi, who were Puccini's contemporaries, drew express parallels between these incidents and particular events in the opera.", "Checchi cited a diary kept by Puccini while he was still a student, which recorded an occasion in which, as in Act 4 of the opera, a single herring served as a dinner for four people.", "Puccini himself commented: \"I lived that ''Bohème'', when there wasn't yet any thought stirring in my brain of seeking the theme of an opera\".", "(\"\")Puccini's composition of ''La bohème'' was the subject of a public dispute between Puccini and fellow composer Ruggiero Leoncavallo.", "In early 1893, the two composers discovered that they were both engaged in writing operas based on Murger's work.", "Leoncavallo had started his work first, and he and his music publisher claimed to have \"priority\" on the subject (although Murger's work was in the public domain).", "Puccini responded that he started his own work without having any knowledge of Leoncavallo's project, and wrote: \"Let him compose.", "I will compose.", "The audience will decide.\"", "Puccini's opera premiered a year before that of Leoncavallo, and has been a perennial audience favourite, while Leoncavallo's version quickly faded into obscurity.===''Tosca''===Puccini's next work after ''La bohème'' was ''Tosca'' (1900), arguably Puccini's first foray into ''verismo'', the realistic depiction of many facets of real life including violence.", "Puccini had been considering an opera on this theme since he saw the play ''Tosca'' by Victorien Sardou in 1889, when he wrote to his publisher, Giulio Ricordi, begging him to get Sardou's permission for the work to be made into an opera: \"I see in this ''Tosca'' the opera I need, with no overblown proportions, no elaborate spectacle, nor will it call for the usual excessive amount of music.", "\"Puccini photographed in 1908The music of ''Tosca'' employs musical signatures for particular characters and emotions, which have been compared to Wagnerian leitmotivs, and some contemporaries saw Puccini as thereby adopting a new musical style influenced by Richard Wagner.", "Others viewed the work differently.", "Rejecting the allegation that ''Tosca'' displayed Wagnerian influences, a critic reporting on the Torino premiere of 20 February 1900 wrote: \"I don't think you could find a more Puccinian score than this.", "\"===Automobile crash and near death===On 25 February 1903, Puccini was seriously injured in a car crash during a nighttime journey on the road from Lucca to Torre del Lago.", "The car was driven by Puccini's chauffeur and was carrying Puccini, his future wife Elvira, and their son Antonio.", "It went off the road, fell several metres, and flipped over.", "Elvira and Antonio were flung from the car and escaped with minor injuries.", "Puccini's chauffeur, also thrown from the car, suffered a serious fracture of his femur.", "Puccini was pinned under the vehicle, with a severe fracture of his right leg and with a portion of the car pressing down on his chest.", "A doctor living near the scene of the crash, together with another person who came to investigate, saved Puccini from the wreckage.", "The injury did not heal well, and Puccini remained under treatment for months.", "During the medical examinations that he underwent it was also found that he was suffering from a form of diabetes.", "The accident and its consequences slowed Puccini's completion of his next work, ''Madama Butterfly''.===''Madama Butterfly''===The original version of ''Madama Butterfly'' premiered at La Scala on 17 February 1904 with Rosina Storchio in the title role.", "It was initially greeted with great hostility (probably largely owing to inadequate rehearsals).", "When Storchio's kimono accidentally lifted during the performance, some in the audience started shouting: \"The butterfly is pregnant\" and \"There is the little Toscanini\".", "The latter comment referred to her well publicised affair with Arturo Toscanini.", "This version was in two acts; after its disastrous premiere, Puccini withdrew the opera, revising it for what was virtually a second premiere at Brescia in May 1904 and performances in Buenos Aires, London, the US and Paris.", "In 1907, Puccini made his final revisions to the opera in a fifth version, which has become known as the \"standard version\".", "Today, the standard version of the opera is the version most often performed around the world.", "However, the original 1904 version is occasionally performed as well, and has been recorded." ], [ "Later works", "Giacomo Puccini with conductor Arturo ToscaniniAfter 1904, Puccini's compositions were less frequent.", "In 1906 Giacosa died and, in 1909, there was a scandal after Puccini's wife, Elvira, falsely accused their maid Doria Manfredi of having an affair with Puccini.", "Finally, in 1912, the death of Giulio Ricordi, Puccini's editor and publisher, ended a productive period of his career.===''La fanciulla del West''===Puccini in 1910Puccini completed ''La fanciulla del West'', based on a play by David Belasco, in 1910.This was commissioned by, and first performed at, the Metropolitan Opera in New York on 10 December 1910 with Met stars Enrico Caruso and Emmy Destinn for whom Puccini created the leading roles of Dick Johnson and Minnie.", "Toscanini, then the musical director of the Met, conducted.", "This was the first world premiere of an opera at the Met.", "The premiere was a great success.", "However, the compositional style employed in the opera, with few stand-alone arias, was criticized at the time.", "Some contemporaries also criticized the opera for failing to achieve an \"American\" tone.", "However, the opera has been acclaimed for its incorporation of advanced harmonic language and rhythmic complexity into the Italian operatic form.", "In addition, one aria from the opera, ''Ch'ella mi creda'', has become a staple of compilation albums by operatic tenors.", "It is said that during World War I, Italian soldiers sang this aria to maintain their spirits.", "The 2008 Italian film, ''Puccini e la fanciulla'' (''Puccini and the Girl''), is based on the period of his life when he was composing the opera.===''La rondine''===Puccini completed the score of ''La rondine'', to a libretto by Giuseppe Adami in 1916 after two years of work, and it was premiered at the Grand Théâtre de Monte Carlo on 27 March 1917.The opera had been originally commissioned by Vienna's Carltheater; however, the outbreak of World War I prevented the premiere from being given there.", "Moreover, the firm of Ricordi had declined the score of the opera – Giulio Ricordi's son Tito was then in charge and he described the opera as \"bad Lehár\".", "It was taken up by their rival, Lorenzo Sonzogno, who arranged the first performance in neutral Monaco.", "The composer continued to work at revising this, the least known of his mature operas, until his death.", "''La rondine'' was initially conceived as an operetta, but Puccini eliminated spoken dialogue, rendering the work closer in form to an opera.", "A modern reviewer described ''La rondine'' as \"a continuous fabric of lilting waltz tunes, catchy pop-styled melodies, and nostalgic love music,\" while characterizing the plot as recycling characters and incidents from works like 'La traviata' and 'Die Fledermaus'.===''Il trittico'': ''Il tabarro'', ''Suor Angelica'', and ''Gianni Schicchi''===In 1918, ''Il trittico'' premiered in New York.", "This work is composed of three one-act operas, each concerning the concealment of a death: a horrific episode (''Il tabarro'') in the style of the Parisian Grand Guignol, a sentimental tragedy (''Suor Angelica''), and a comedy (''Gianni Schicchi'').===''Turandot''===''Turandot'', Puccini's final opera, was left unfinished at the composer's death in November 1924, and the last two scenes were completed by Franco Alfano based on the composer's sketches.", "The libretto for ''Turandot'' was based on a play of the same name by Carlo Gozzi.", "The music of the opera is heavily inflected with pentatonic motifs, intended to produce an Asiatic flavour to the music.", "''Turandot'' contains a number of memorable stand-alone arias, among them ''Nessun dorma''." ], [ "Librettists", "The libretto of ''Edgar'' was a significant factor in the failure of that opera.", "Thereafter, especially throughout his middle and late career, Puccini was extremely selective, and at times indecisive, in his choice of subject matter for new works.", "Puccini was deeply involved in the process of writing the libretto itself, requiring many iterative revisions of his libretti in terms of both structure and text.", "Puccini's relationships with his librettists were at times very difficult.", "His publisher, Casa Ricordi, was frequently required to mediate disputes and impasses between them.Puccini explored many possible subjects that he ultimately rejected only after a significant amount of effort—such as the creation of a libretto—had been put into them.", "Among the subjects that Puccini seriously considered, but abandoned, were: ''Cristoforo Sly'', ''Anima Allegra'' (based on the play ''El genio alegre'' by Serafín and Joaquín Álvarez Quintero), ''Two Little Wooden Shoes'' (''I due zoccoletti'') (a short story by Maria Louise Ramé, a.k.a.", "Ouida), the life of Marie Antoinette, Margherita da Cortona, and ''Conchita'' (based on the novel ''La Femme et le pantin'' – ''The Woman and the Puppet'', by Pierre Loüys).", "Some of these abandoned subjects were taken up and turned into operas by other composers.", "For example, Franco Vittadini made an opera of ''Anima Allegra'', Mascagni's opera ''Lodoletta'' is derived from ''Two Little Wooden Shoes'', and Riccardo Zandonai eventually wrote ''Conchita''." ], [ "Torre del Lago", "Torre del Lago, Italy, Villa PucciniFrom 1891 onwards, Puccini spent most of his time, when not travelling on business, at Torre del Lago, a small community about fifteen miles from Lucca situated between the Ligurian Sea and Lake Massaciuccoli, just south of Viareggio.", "Torre del Lago was the primary place for Puccini to indulge his love of hunting.", "\"I love hunting, I love cars: and for these things, in the isolation of Torre del Lago, I keep the faith.\"", "(\"Amo la caccia, adoro l'automobile: e a questo e a quella nelle solitudini di Torre del Lago serbo intera la mia fede.", "\")By 1900, he had acquired land and built a villa on the lake, now known as the \"Villa Puccini\".", "He lived there until 1921, when pollution produced by peat works on the lake forced him to move to Viareggio, a few kilometres north.", "After his death, a mausoleum was created in the Villa Puccini and the composer is buried there in the chapel, along with his wife and son who died later.The Villa Museo was owned by his granddaughter, Simonetta Puccini, until her death, and is open to the public.", "An annual Festival Puccini is held at Torre del Lago.Puccini on horseback" ], [ "Marriage and affairs", "Puccini with his wife Elvira and son Antonio, 1900In the autumn of 1884, Puccini began a relationship with a married woman named Elvira Gemignani (née Bonturi, 1860–1930) in Lucca.", "Elvira's husband, Narciso Gemignani, was an \"unrepentant womanizer\", and Elvira's marriage was not a happy one.", "Elvira became pregnant by Puccini, and their son, Antonio (1886–1946), was born in Monza.", "Elvira left Lucca when the pregnancy began to show, and gave birth elsewhere to avoid gossip.", "Elvira, Antonio and Elvira's daughter by Narciso, Fosca (1880–1968), began to live with Puccini shortly afterwards.", "Narciso was killed by the husband of a woman that Narciso had an affair with, dying on 26 February 1903, one day after Puccini's car accident.", "Only then, in early 1904, were Puccini and Elvira able to marry, and to legitimize Antonio.The marriage between Puccini and Elvira was also troubled by infidelity, as Puccini had frequent affairs himself, including with well-known singers such as Maria Jeritza, Emmy Destinn, Cesira Ferrani, and Hariclea Darclée.", "In 1906, while attending the opening of ''Madama Butterfly'' in Budapest, Puccini fell in love with Blanke Lendvai, the sister of Hungarian composer Ervin Lendvai (his friend and protégé for many years).", "Blanke and Puccini exchanged love letters until 1911, when he started an affair with German aristocrat Baroness Josephine von Stangel, which lasted for six years.In 1909, Puccini's wife Elvira publicly accused Doria Manfredi, a maid working for the Puccini family, of having an affair with the composer.", "After the accusation, Manfredi committed suicide.", "However, an autopsy determined that Manfredi had died a virgin, refuting the allegations made against her.", "Elvira Puccini was prosecuted for slander and was sentenced to more than five months in prison, although a payment to the Manfredi family by Puccini spared Elvira from having to serve the sentence.", "Some music critics and interpreters of Puccini's work have speculated that the psychological effects of this incident on Puccini interfered with his ability to complete compositions later in his career, and also influenced the development of his characters such as Liù (from ''Turandot''), a slave girl who dies tragically by suicide.In 2007, documents were found in the possession of Nadia Manfredi, a descendant of the Manfredi family, which indicated that Puccini was actually having an affair with Giulia Manfredi, Doria's cousin.", "Upon the discovery of these documents, the press began to allege that Puccini had fathered Giulia Manfredi's son Antonio, which would make Nadia a granddaughter of Puccini." ], [ "Politics", "Unlike Wagner and Verdi, Puccini was not active in politics.", "Puccini biographer Mary Jane Phillips-Matz wrote: \"Throughout this entire period of World War I and its immediate aftermath, Puccini's interest in politics was close to zero, as it had been all his life, so far as one can judge.", "He seemed almost indifferent to everything from mayoral elections in Viareggio to cabinet appointments in Rome.\"", "Another biographer speculates that Puccini may have been—if he had a political philosophy—a monarchist.Puccini's indifference to politics caused him problems during World War I. Puccini's long-standing and close friendship with Toscanini was interrupted for nearly a decade because of an argument in the summer of 1914 (in the opening months of the war) during which Puccini remarked that Italy could benefit from German organization.", "Puccini was also criticized during the war for his work on ''La rondine'' under a 1913 commission contract with an Austrian theater after Italy and Austria-Hungary became opponents in the war in 1915 (although the contract was ultimately cancelled).", "Puccini did not participate in the public war effort, but privately rendered assistance to individuals and families affected by the war.In 1919, Puccini was commissioned to write music to an ode by honouring Italy's victories in World War I.", "The work, ''Inno a Roma'' (Hymn to Rome), was to premiere on 21 April 1919, during a celebration of the anniversary of the founding of Rome.", "The premiere was delayed to 1 June 1919, when it was played at the opening of a gymnastics competition.", "Although not written for the fascists, ''Inno a Roma'' was widely played during Fascist street parades and public ceremonies.Puccini had some contact with Benito Mussolini and the Italian Fascist Party in the year preceding his death.", "In 1923 the Fascist Party in Viareggio made Puccini an honorary member and sent him a membership card.", "However, evidence that Puccini was actually a member of the Fascist Party is ambiguous.", "The Italian Senate has traditionally included a small number of members appointed in recognition of their cultural contributions to the nation.", "Puccini hoped to attain this honour, which had been granted to Verdi, and undertook to use his connections to bring about the appointment.", "While honorary senators could vote, there is no indication that Puccini sought the appointment for this purpose.", "Puccini also wished to establish a national theatre in Viareggio, a project which would require government support.", "Puccini met with Mussolini twice, in November and December 1923, seeking support for the theatre project.", "While the theatre project never came to fruition, Puccini was named Senator (''senatore a vita'') a few months before his death.At the time Puccini met with Mussolini, Mussolini had been prime minister for approximately a year, but his party had not yet taken full control of the Italian Parliament through the violence and irregularities of the 1924 general election.", "Puccini was no longer alive when Mussolini announced the end of representative government, and the beginning of a fascist dictatorship, in his speech before the Chamber of Deputies on 3 January 1925." ], [ "Death", "Puccini in 1924A chain smoker of Toscano cigars and cigarettes, Puccini began to complain of chronic sore throats towards the end of 1923.A diagnosis of throat cancer led his doctors to recommend a new and experimental radiation therapy treatment, which was being offered in Brussels.", "Puccini and his wife never understood how serious the cancer was, as the news was revealed only to his son.Puccini died in Brussels on 29 November 1924, aged 65, from complications after the treatment; uncontrolled bleeding led to a heart attack the day after surgery.", "News of his death reached Rome during a performance of ''La bohème''.", "The opera was immediately stopped, and the orchestra played Chopin's ''Funeral March'' for the stunned audience.", "He was buried in Milan, in Toscanini's family tomb, but that was always intended as a temporary measure.", "In 1926 his son arranged to transfer his father's remains to a specially created chapel inside the Puccini villa at Torre del Lago." ], [ "Style and critical reception", "Most broadly, Puccini wrote in the style of the late-Romantic period of classical music (see Romantic music).", "Music historians also refer to Puccini as a component of the ''giovane scuola'' (\"young school\"), a cohort of composers who came onto the Italian operatic scene as Verdi's career came to an end, such as Mascagni, Leoncavallo, and others mentioned below.", "Puccini is also frequently referred to as a ''verismo'' composer.Puccini's career extended from the end of the Romantic period into the modern period.", "He consciously attempted to 'update' his style to keep pace with new trends but did not attempt to fully adopt a modern style.", "One critic, Andrew Davis, has stated: \"Loyalty toward nineteenth-century Italian-opera traditions and, more generally, toward the musical language of his Tuscan heritage is one of the clearest features of Puccini's music.\"", "Davis also identifies, however, a \"stylistic pluralism\" in Puccini's work, including influences from \"the German symphonic tradition, French harmonic and orchestrational traditions, and, to a lesser extent, aspects of Wagnerian chromaticism\".", "In addition, Puccini frequently sought to introduce music or sounds from outside sources into his operas, such as his use of Chinese folk melodies in Turandot.All of Puccini's operas have at least one set piece for a lead singer that is separate enough from its surroundings that it can be treated as a distinct aria, and most of his works have several of these.", "At the same time, Puccini's work continued the trend away from operas constructed from a series of set pieces, and instead used a more \"through-composed\" or integrated construction.", "His works are strongly melodic.", "In orchestration, Puccini frequently doubled the vocal line in unison or at octaves in order to emphasize and strengthen the melodic line.", "''Verismo'' is a style of Italian opera that began in 1890 with the first performance of Mascagni's ''Cavalleria rusticana'', peaked in the early 1900s, and lingered into the 1920s.", "The style is distinguished by realistic – sometimes sordid or violent – depictions of everyday life, especially the life of the contemporary lower classes.", "Verismo does not usually employ the historical or mythical subjects associated with Romanticism.", "''Cavalleria rusticana'', ''Pagliacci'', and ''Andrea Chénier'' are uniformly considered to be ''verismo'' operas.", "Puccini's career as a composer is almost entirely coincident in time with the ''verismo'' movement.", "Only his ''Le Villi'' and ''Edgar'' preceded ''Cavalleria rusticana''.", "Some view Puccini as essentially a ''verismo'' composer, while others, although acknowledging that he took part in the movement to some degree, do not view him as a \"pure\" ''verismo'' composer.", "In addition, critics differ as to the degree to which particular operas by Puccini are, or are not, properly described as ''verismo'' operas.", "Two of Puccini's operas, ''Tosca'' and ''Il Tabarro'', are universally considered to be ''verismo'' operas.", "Puccini scholar Mosco Carner places only two of Puccini's operas other than ''Tosca'' and ''Il tabarro'' within the ''verismo'' school: ''Madama Butterfly,'' and ''La Fanciulla del West''.", "Because only three ''verismo'' works that were composed by Puccini continue to appear regularly on stage (the aforementioned ''Cavalleria rusticana'', ''Pagliacci'', and ''Andrea Chénier''), Puccini's contribution has had lasting significance to the genre.Both during his lifetime and in posterity, Puccini's success outstripped other Italian opera composers of his time, and he has been matched in this regard by only a handful of composers in the entire history of opera.", "Between 2004 and 2018, Puccini ranked third (behind Verdi and Mozart) in the number of performances of his operas worldwide, as surveyed by Operabase.", "Three of his operas (''La bohème'', ''Tosca'', and ''Madama Butterfly'') were amongst the 10 most frequently performed operas worldwide.Gustav Kobbé, the original author of ''The Complete Opera Book'', a standard reference work on opera, wrote in the 1919 edition: \"Puccini is considered the most important figure in operatic Italy today, the successor of Verdi, if there is any.\"", "Other contemporaries shared this view.", "Italian opera composers of the generation with whom Puccini was compared included Pietro Mascagni (1863–1945), Ruggero Leoncavallo (1857–1919), Umberto Giordano (1867–1948), Francesco Cilea (1866–1950), Baron Pierantonio Tasca (1858–1934), Gaetano Coronaro (1852–1908), and Alberto Franchetti (1860–1942).", "Only three composers, and three works, by Italian contemporaries of Puccini appear on the Operabase list of most-performed works: ''Cavalleria rusticana'' by Mascagni, ''Pagliacci'' by Ruggero Leoncavallo, and ''Andrea Chénier'' by Umberto Giordano.", "Kobbé contrasted Puccini's ability to achieve \"sustained\" success with the failure of Mascagni and Leoncavallo to produce more than merely \"one sensationally successful short opera\".", "By the time of Puccini's death in 1924, he had earned $4 million from his works.Although the popular success of Puccini's work is undeniable, and his mastery of the craft of composition has been consistently recognized, opinion among critics as to the artistic value of his work has always been divided.", "Grove Music Online described Puccini's strengths as a composer as follows:Puccini succeeded in mastering the orchestra as no other Italian had done before him, creating new forms by manipulating structures inherited from the great Italian tradition, loading them with bold harmonic progressions which had little or nothing to do with what was happening then in Italy, though they were in step with the work of French, Austrian and German colleagues.In his work on Puccini, Julian Budden describes Puccini as a gifted and original composer, noting the innovation hidden in the popularity of works such as \"Che gelida manina\".", "He describes the aria in musical terms (the signature embedded in the harmony for example), and points out that its structure was rather unheard of at the time, having three distinct musical paragraphs that nonetheless form a complete and coherent whole.", "This gumption in musical experimentation was the essence of Puccini's style, as evidenced in his diverse settings and use of the motif to express ideas beyond those in the story and text.Puccini has, however, consistently been the target of condescension by some music critics who find his music insufficiently sophisticated or difficult.", "Some have explicitly condemned his efforts to please his audience, such as this contemporary Italian critic:He willingly stops himself at minor genius, stroking the taste of the public ... obstinately shunning too-daring innovation ... A little heroism, but not taken to great heights; a little bit of veristic comedy, but brief; a lot of sentiment and romantic idyll: this is the recipe in which he finds happiness.", "()Budden attempted to explain the paradox of Puccini's immense popular success and technical mastery on the one hand, and the relative disregard in which his work has been held by academics:No composer communicates more directly with an audience than Puccini.", "Indeed, for many years he has remained a victim of his own popularity; hence the resistance to his music in academic circles.", "Be it remembered, however, that Verdi's melodies were once dismissed as barrel-organ fodder.", "The truth is that music that appeals immediately to a public becomes subject to bad imitation, which can cast a murky shadow over the original.", "So long as counterfeit Puccinian melody dominated the world of sentimental operetta, many found it difficult to come to terms with the genuine article.", "Now that the current coin of light music has changed, the composer admired by Schoenberg, Ravel, and Stravinsky can be seen to emerge in his full stature." ], [ "Puccini studies", "Founded in 1996 in Lucca, the Centro di studi Giacomo Puccini embraces a wide range of approaches to the study of Puccini's work.", "In the US, the American Center for Puccini Studies specializes in the presentation of unusual performing editions of the composer's works and introduces neglected or unknown Puccini pieces.", "It was founded in 2004 by the singer and director Harry Dunstan." ], [ "Works", "Puccini wrote orchestral pieces, sacred music, chamber music, solo music for piano and organ and songs for voice and piano, most notably his 1880 mass ''Messa di gloria'', his ''Preludio Sinfonico'' of 1882, and his 1890 string quartet movement ''Crisantemi''.", "However, he is primarily known for his operas:* ''Le Villi'', libretto by Ferdinando Fontana (in one act – premiered at the Teatro Dal Verme, 31 May 1884)* ''Edgar'', libretto by Ferdinando Fontana (in four acts – premiered at La Scala, 21 April 1889)* ''Manon Lescaut'', libretto by Luigi Illica, Marco Praga and Domenico Oliva (in four acts – premiered at the Teatro Regio, 1 February 1893)* ''La bohème'', libretto by Luigi Illica and Giuseppe Giacosa (in four acts – premiered at the Teatro Regio, 1 February 1896)* ''Tosca'', libretto by Luigi Illica and Giuseppe Giacosa (in three acts – premiered at the Teatro Costanzi, 14 January 1900)* ''Madama Butterfly'', libretto by Luigi Illica and Giuseppe Giacosa (in two acts – premiered at La Scala, 17 February 1904)* ''La fanciulla del West'', libretto by Guelfo Civinini and Carlo Zangarini (in three acts – premiered at the Metropolitan Opera, 10 December 1910)* ''La rondine'', libretto by Giuseppe Adami (in three acts – premiered at the Opéra de Monte-Carlo, 27 March 1917)* ''Il trittico'' (premiered at the Metropolitan Opera, 14 December 1918)** ''Il tabarro'', libretto by Giuseppe Adami** ''Suor Angelica'', libretto by Giovacchino Forzano** ''Gianni Schicchi'', libretto by Giovacchino Forzano* ''Turandot'', libretto by Renato Simoni and Giuseppe Adami (in three acts – incomplete at the time of Puccini's death, completed by Franco Alfano: premiered at La Scala, 25 April 1926)" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Sources===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Sadie, Stanley (ed.", "), ''The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians'', London: Macmillan/New York: Grove, 1980, , p. 203.", "* * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* Cagnoni, Romano; Ravenni, Gabriella Biagi.", "''Giacomo Puccini: luoghi e suggestioni'' (2008), Maria Pacini Fazzi (ed.", "), photographs by Romano Cagnoni * Kendell, Colin (2012), ''The Complete Puccini: The Story of the World's Most Popular Operatic Composer'', Stroud, Gloucestershire: Amberley Publishing, 2012.", "* Keolker, James, ''Last Acts: The Operas of Puccini and His Italian Contemporaries from Alfano to Zandonai'', 2000." ], [ "External links", "* * * Centro Studi di Giacomo Puccini* American Center for Puccini Studies* Festival Puccini e la sua Lucca* *" ] ]
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[ [ "Gramophone (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", " '''Gramophone''' or phonograph is a device for the mechanical recording and reproduction of sound.", "'''Gramophone''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Businesses", "* Gramophone Company, a British record company* Gramophone Company of India or Saregama, an Indian record company* Berliner Gramophone, an early American record company * Deutsche Grammophon, a German classical music record label" ], [ "Other uses", "* ''Gramophone'' (film), a 2003 Indian film* ''Gramophone'' (magazine), a British monthly classical music publication** Gramophone Classical Music Awards, annual honours for the classical music industry* Grammy Award or Gramophone Award, annual awards presented by The Recording Academy* ''Gramophone'', a 1986 album by Echo City" ], [ "See also", "* Gramaphone Records, a music store in Chicago, U.S.*" ] ]
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[ [ "George Cukor" ], [ "Introduction", "'''George Dewey Cukor''' ( ; July 7, 1899 – January 24, 1983) was an American film director and producer.", "He mainly concentrated on comedies and literary adaptations.", "His career flourished at RKO when David O. Selznick, the studio's Head of Production, assigned Cukor to direct several of RKO's major films, including ''What Price Hollywood?''", "(1932), ''A Bill of Divorcement'' (1932), ''Our Betters'' (1933), and ''Little Women'' (1933).", "When Selznick moved to Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer in 1933, Cukor followed and directed ''Dinner at Eight'' (1933) and ''David Copperfield'' (1935) for Selznick, and ''Romeo and Juliet'' (1936) and ''Camille'' (1936) for Irving Thalberg.He was replaced as one of the directors of ''Gone with the Wind'' (1939), but he went on to direct ''The Philadelphia Story'' (1940), ''Gaslight'' (1944), ''Adam's Rib'' (1949), ''Born Yesterday'' (1950), ''A Star Is Born'' (1954), ''Bhowani Junction'' (1956), and won the Academy Award for Best Director for ''My Fair Lady'' (1964), which was his fifth time nominated.", "He continued to work into the early 1980s." ], [ "Early life", "Cukor was born on the Lower East Side of Manhattan, the younger child and only son of Hungarian-Jewish immigrants Viktor, an assistant district attorney, and Helén Ilona Gross.", "His parents selected his middle name in honor of Spanish–American War hero George Dewey.", "The family was not particularly religious (pork was a staple on the dinner table), and when he started attending temple as a boy, Cukor learned Hebrew phonetically, with no real understanding of the meaning of the words or what they represented.", "As a result, he was ambivalent about his faith and dismissive of old world traditions from childhood, and as an adult he embraced Anglophilia to remove himself even further from his roots.As a child, Cukor appeared in several amateur plays and took dance lessons, and at the age of seven he performed in a recital with David O. Selznick, who in later years became a mentor and friend.", "As a teenager, Cukor frequently was taken to the New York Hippodrome by his uncle.", "Infatuated with theatre, he often cut classes at DeWitt Clinton High School to attend afternoon matinees.", "During his senior year, he worked as a supernumerary with the Metropolitan Opera, earning 50¢ per appearance, and $1 if he was required to perform in blackface.Following his graduation in 1917, Cukor was expected to follow in his father's footsteps and pursue a career in law.", "He halfheartedly enrolled in the City College of New York, where he entered the Students Army Training Corps in October 1918.His military experience was limited; Germany surrendered in early November, and Cukor's duty ended after only two months.", "He left school shortly afterwards." ], [ "Career", "===Early stage career===Bette Davis, aged 23Cukor obtained a job as an assistant stage manager and bit player with a touring production of ''The Better 'Ole'', a popular British musical based on Old Bill, a cartoon character created by Bruce Bairnsfather.", "In 1920, he became the stage manager for the Knickerbocker Players, a troupe that shuttled between Syracuse, New York and Rochester, New York, and the following year he was hired as general manager of the newly formed Lyceum Players, an upstate summer stock company.", "In 1925, he formed the C.F.", "and Z.", "Production Company with Walter Folmer and John Zwicki, which gave him his first opportunity to direct.", "Following their first season, he made his Broadway directorial debut with ''Antonia'' by Hungarian playwright Melchior Lengyel, then returned to Rochester, where C.F.", "and Z. evolved into the Cukor-Kondolf Stock Company, a troupe that included Louis Calhern, Ilka Chase, Phyllis Povah, Frank Morgan, Reginald Owen, Elizabeth Patterson and Douglass Montgomery, all of whom worked with Cukor in later years in Hollywood.", "Lasting only one season with the company was Bette Davis.", "Cukor later recalled: \"Her talent was apparent, but she did buck at direction.", "She had her own ideas, and though she only did bits and ingenue roles, she didn't hesitate to express them.\"", "For the next several decades, Davis claimed she was fired, and although Cukor never understood why she placed so much importance on an incident he considered so minor, he never worked with her again.For the next few years, Cukor alternated between Rochester in the summer months and Broadway in the winter.", "His direction of a 1926 stage adaptation of ''The Great Gatsby'' by Owen Davis brought him to the attention of the New York critics.", "Writing in the ''Brooklyn Eagle'', drama critic Arthur Pollock called it \"an unusual piece of work by a director not nearly so well known as he should be.\"", "Cukor directed six more Broadway productions, then departed for Hollywood in 1929.===Early Hollywood career===When Hollywood began to recruit New York theater talent for sound films, Cukor immediately answered the call.", "In December 1928, Paramount Pictures signed him to a contract that reimbursed him for his train fare and initially paid him $600 per week with no screen credit during a six-month apprenticeship.", "He arrived in Hollywood in February 1929, and his first assignment was to coach the cast of ''River of Romance'' to speak with an acceptable Southern accent.", "In October, the studio lent him to Universal Pictures to conduct the screen tests and work as a dialogue director for ''All Quiet on the Western Front'', released in 1930.That year, he co-directed three films at Paramount, and his weekly salary was increased to $1,500.He made his solo directorial debut with ''Tarnished Lady'' (1931) starring Tallulah Bankhead.Cukor was then assigned to ''One Hour with You'' (1932), an operetta with Maurice Chevalier and Jeanette MacDonald, when original director Ernst Lubitsch opted to concentrate on producing the film instead.", "At first the two men worked well together, but two weeks into filming Lubitsch began arriving on the set on a regular basis, and he soon began directing scenes with Cukor's consent.", "Upon the film's completion, Lubitsch approached Paramount general manager B.P.", "Schulberg and threatened to leave the studio if Cukor's name wasn't removed from the credits.", "When Schulberg asked him to cooperate, Cukor filed suit.", "He eventually settled for being billed as assistant director and then left Paramount to work with David O. Selznick at RKO Studios.Scene from Cukor's hit film ''The Philadelphia Story''Cukor quickly earned a reputation as a director who could coax great performances from actresses and he became known as a \"woman's director\", a title he resented.", "Despite this reputation, during his career, he oversaw more performances honored with the Academy Award for Best Actor than any other director: James Stewart in ''The Philadelphia Story'' (1940), Ronald Colman in ''A Double Life'' (1947), and Rex Harrison in ''My Fair Lady'' (1964).", "One of Cukor's earlier ingenues was actress Katharine Hepburn, who debuted in ''A Bill of Divorcement'' (1932) and whose looks and personality left RKO officials at a loss as to how to use her.", "Cukor directed her in several films, both successful, such as ''Little Women'' (1933) and ''Holiday'' (1938), and disastrous, such as ''Sylvia Scarlett'' (1935).", "Cukor and Hepburn became close friends off the set.Cukor was hired to direct ''Gone with the Wind'' by Selznick in 1936, even before the book was published.", "He spent the next two years involved with pre-production, including supervision of the numerous screen tests of actresses anxious to portray Scarlett O'Hara.", "Cukor favored Hepburn for the role, but Selznick, concerned about her reputation as \"box office poison\", would not consider her without a screen test, and the actress refused to film one.", "Of those who did, Cukor preferred Paulette Goddard, but her supposedly illicit relationship with Charlie Chaplin (they were, in fact, secretly married) concerned Selznick.Between his ''Wind'' chores, the director assisted with other projects.", "He filmed the cave scene for ''The Adventures of Tom Sawyer'' (1938), and, following the firing of its original director Richard Thorpe, Cukor spent a week on the set of ''The Wizard of Oz'' (1939).", "Although he filmed no footage, he made crucial changes to the look of Dorothy by eliminating Judy Garland's blonde wig and adjusting her makeup and costume, encouraging her to act in a more natural manner.", "Additionally, Cukor softened the Scarecrow's makeup and gave Margaret Hamilton a different hairstyle for the Wicked Witch of the West, as well as altering her makeup and other facial features.", "Cukor also suggested that the studio cast Jack Haley, on loan from 20th Century Fox, as the Tin Man.David O. SelznickCukor spent many hours coaching Vivien Leigh and Olivia de Havilland before the start of filming ''Wind'', but Clark Gable resisted his efforts to get him to master a Southern accent.", "However, despite rumors about Gable being uncomfortable with Cukor on the set, nothing in the internal memos of David O. Selznick indicates or suggests that Clark Gable had anything to do with Cukor's dismissal from the film.", "Rather, they show Selznick's mounting dissatisfaction with Cukor's slow pace and quality of work.", "From a private letter from journalist Susan Myrick to Margaret Mitchell in February 1939: \"George Cukor finally told me all about it.", "He hated leaving the production very much he said but he could not do otherwise.", "In effect he said he is an honest craftsman and he cannot do a job unless he knows it is a good job and he feels the present job is not right.", "For days, he told me he has looked at the rushes and felt he was failing...the things did not click as it should.", "Gradually he became convinced that the script was the trouble...So George just told David he would not work any longer if the script was not better and he wanted the Sidney Howard script back...he would not let his name go out over a lousy picture...and bull-headed David said 'OK get out!", "'\"Selznick had already been unhappy with Cukor (\"a very expensive luxury\") for not being more receptive to directing other Selznick assignments, even though Cukor had remained on salary since early 1937; and in a confidential memo written in September 1938, four months before principal photography began, Selznick flirted with the idea of replacing him with Victor Fleming.", "\"I think the biggest black mark against our management to date is the Cukor situation and we can no longer be sentimental about it...We are a business concern and not patrons of the arts.\"", "Cukor was relieved of his duties, but he continued to work with Leigh and Olivia de Havilland off the set.", "Various rumors about the reasons behind his dismissal circulated throughout Hollywood.", "Selznick's friendship with Cukor had crumbled slightly when the director refused other assignments, including ''A Star Is Born'' (1937) and ''Intermezzo'' (1939).", "Given that Gable and Cukor had worked together before (on ''Manhattan Melodrama'', 1934) and Gable had no objection to working with him then, and given Selznick's desperation to get Gable for Rhett Butler, if Gable had any objections to Cukor, certainly they would have been expressed before he signed his contract for the film.", "Yet, writer Gore Vidal, in his autobiography ''Point to Point Navigation'', recounted that Gable demanded that Cukor be fired off ''Wind'' because, according to Vidal, the young Gable had been a male hustler and Cukor had been one of his johns.", "This has been confirmed by Hollywood biographer E.J.", "Fleming, who has recounted that, during a particularly difficult scene, Gable erupted publicly, screaming: \"I can't go on with this picture.", "I won't be directed by a fairy.", "I have to work with a real man.", "\"Cukor's dismissal from ''Wind'' freed him to direct ''The Women'' (1939), which has an all-female cast, followed by ''The Philadelphia Story'' (1940).", "He also directed Greta Garbo, another of his favorite actresses, in ''Two-Faced Woman'' (1941), her last film before she retired from the screen.Greta Garbo and Melvyn Douglas in \"Two-Faced Woman\" (1941)In 1942, at the age of 43, Cukor enlisted in the Signal Corps.", "Following basic training at Fort Monmouth, he was assigned to the old Paramount studios in Astoria, Queens (where he had directed three films in the early 1930s), although he was permitted to lodge at the St. Regis Hotel in Manhattan.", "Working with Irwin Shaw, John Cheever and William Saroyan, among others, Cukor produced training and instructional films for army personnel.", "Because he lacked an officer's commission, he found it difficult to give orders and directions to his superiors.", "Despite his efforts to rise above the rank of private—he even called upon Frank Capra to intercede on his behalf—he never achieved officer's status or any commendations during his six months of service.", "In later years, Cukor suspected his homosexuality impeded him from receiving any advances or honors, although rumors to that effect could not be confirmed.The remainder of the decade was a series of hits and misses for Cukor.", "Both ''Two-Faced Woman'' and ''Her Cardboard Lover'' (1942) were commercial failures.", "More successful were ''A Woman's Face'' (1941) with Joan Crawford and ''Gaslight'' (1944) about a woman suffering from suspicion with Ingrid Bergman and Charles Boyer.", "During this era, Cukor forged an alliance with screenwriters Garson Kanin and Ruth Gordon, who had met in Cukor's home in 1939 and married three years later.", "Over the course of seven years, the trio collaborated on seven films, including ''A Double Life'' (1947) starring Ronald Colman, ''Adam's Rib'' (1949), ''Born Yesterday'' (1950), ''The Marrying Kind'' (1952), and ''It Should Happen to You'' (1954), all featuring Judy Holliday, another Cukor favorite, who won the Academy Award for Best Actress for ''Born Yesterday''.===Later Hollywood career===Judy Garland, star of ''A Star Is Born''In December 1952, Cukor was approached by Sid Luft, who proposed the director helm a musical remake of ''A Star Is Born'' (1937) with his then-wife Judy Garland in the lead role.", "Cukor had declined to direct the earlier film because it was too similar to his own ''What Price Hollywood?''", "(1932), but the opportunity to direct his first Technicolor film and work with screenwriter Moss Hart and especially Garland appealed to him, and he accepted.", "Getting the updated ''A Star Is Born'' (1954) to the screen proved to be a challenge.", "Cukor wanted Cary Grant for the male lead and went so far as to read the entire script with him, but Grant, while agreeing it was the role of a lifetime, steadfastly refused to do it, and Cukor never forgave him.", "The director then suggested either Humphrey Bogart or Frank Sinatra tackle the part, but Jack L. Warner rejected both.", "Stewart Granger was the front runner for a period of time, but he backed out when he was unable to adjust to Cukor's habit of acting out scenes as a form of direction.", "James Mason eventually was contracted, and filming began on October 12, 1953.As the months passed, Cukor was forced to deal not only with constant script changes but a very unstable Garland, who was plagued by chemical and alcohol dependencies, extreme weight fluctuations, and real and imagined illnesses.", "In March 1954, a rough cut still missing several musical numbers was assembled, and Cukor had mixed feelings about it.", "When the last scene finally was filmed in the early morning hours of July 28, 1954, Cukor already had departed the production and was unwinding in Europe.", "The first preview the following month ran 210 minutes and, despite ecstatic feedback from the audience, Cukor and editor Folmar Blangsted trimmed it to 182 minutes for its New York premiere in October.", "The reviews were the best of Cukor's career, but Warner executives, concerned the running time would limit the number of daily showings, made drastic cuts without Cukor, who had departed for Pakistan to scout locations for the epic ''Bhowani Junction'' in 1954-1955.At its final running time of 154 minutes, the film had lost musical numbers and crucial dramatic scenes, and Cukor called it \"very painful.\"", "He was not included in the film's six Oscar nominations.Rehearsing with Lee Remick in 1962Over the next 10 years, Cukor directed a handful of films with varying success.", "''Les Girls'' (1957) won the Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy, and ''Wild Is the Wind'' (also 1957) earned Oscar nominations for Anna Magnani and Anthony Quinn, but neither ''Heller in Pink Tights'' nor ''Let's Make Love'' (both 1960) were box-office hits.", "Another project during this period was the ill-fated ''Something's Got to Give'', an updated remake of the comedy ''My Favorite Wife'' (1940).", "Cukor liked leading lady Marilyn Monroe but found it difficult to deal with her erratic work habits, frequent absences from the set, and the constant presence of Monroe's acting coach Paula Strasberg.", "It was reported at the time that after 32 days of shooting, the director had only 7½ minutes of usable film.", "Footage would be discovered in the 1990's that showed at least 37 minutes of total footage had survived.", "Then Monroe travelled to New York to appear at a birthday celebration for President John F. Kennedy at Madison Square Garden, where she serenaded Kennedy.", "Studio documents released after Monroe's death confirmed that her appearance at the political fundraising event was approved by Fox executives.", "The production came to a halt when Cukor had filmed every scene not involving Monroe and the actress remained unavailable.", "20th Century Fox executive Peter Levathes fired her and hired Lee Remick to replace her, prompting co-star Dean Martin to quit because his contract guaranteed he would be playing opposite Monroe.", "It was also reported at the time, that with the production already $2 million over budget and everyone back at the starting gate, the studio pulled the plug on the project.", "However, Monroe successfully renegotiated her contract from $100,000 to $500,000 with a bonus should the film be completed on time.", "Cukor was to be replaced by Jean Negulesco.", "There was limited press at the time about the project restarting and even less on Cukor being replaced.", "When Monroe was found dead in her home in the beginning of August, Cukor would give a high profile interview discussing Monroe's many reported problems.Two years later, Cukor achieved one of his greatest successes with ''My Fair Lady'' (1964).", "Throughout filming, there were mounting tensions between the director and designer Cecil Beaton; Cukor was thrilled with leading lady Audrey Hepburn, but the crew was less enchanted with her diva-like demands.", "Although several reviews were critical of the film – Pauline Kael said it \"staggers along\" and Stanley Kauffmann thought Cukor's direction was like \"a rich gravy poured over everything, not remotely as delicately rich as in the Asquith-Howard 1937 sic ''Pygmalion''\" — the film was a box-office hit which won him the Academy Award for Best Director, the Golden Globe Award for Best Director, and the Directors Guild of America Award after having been nominated for each several times.Following ''My Fair Lady'', Cukor became less active.", "He directed Maggie Smith in ''Travels with My Aunt'' (1972) and helmed the critical and commercial flop ''The Blue Bird'' (1976), the first joint Soviet-American production.", "He reunited twice with Katharine Hepburn for the television movies ''Love Among the Ruins'' (1975) and ''The Corn Is Green'' (1979).", "At the age of 82, Cukor directed his final film, ''Rich and Famous'' for MGM in 1981, starring Jacqueline Bisset and Candice Bergen.In 1970, he received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement.In 1976, Cukor was awarded the George Eastman Award, given by George Eastman House for distinguished contribution to the art of film." ], [ "Personal life", "Cukor at home in 1973It was an open secret in Hollywood that Cukor was gay, at a time when society was against it, although he was discreet about his sexual orientation and \"never carried it as a pin on his lapel,\" as producer Joseph L. Mankiewicz put it.", "He was a celebrated ''bon vivant'' whose luxurious home was the site of weekly Sunday afternoon parties attended by closeted celebrities and the attractive young men they met in bars and gyms and brought with them.", "At least once, in the midst of his reign at MGM, he was arrested on vice charges, but studio executives managed to get the charges dropped and all records of it expunged, and the incident was never publicized by the press.", "In the late 1950s, Cukor became involved with a considerably younger man named George Towers.", "He financed his education at the Los Angeles State College of Applied Arts and Sciences and the University of Southern California, from which Towers graduated with a law degree in 1967.That fall Towers married a woman, and his relationship with Cukor evolved into one of father and son, and for the remainder of Cukor's life the two remained very close.By the mid-1930s, Cukor was not only established as a prominent director, but also socially as an unofficial head of Hollywood's gay subculture.", "His home, redecorated in 1935 by gay actor-turned-interior designer William Haines with gardens designed by Florence Yoch and Lucile Council, was the scene of many gatherings for the industry's homosexuals.", "The close-knit group reputedly included Haines and his partner Jimmie Shields, writer W. Somerset Maugham, director James Vincent, screenwriter Rowland Leigh, costume designers Orry-Kelly and Robert Le Maire, and actors John Darrow, Anderson Lawler, Grady Sutton, Robert Seiter, and Tom Douglas.", "Frank Horn, secretary to Cary Grant, was also a frequent guest.Cukor's friends were of paramount importance to him and he kept his home filled with their photographs.", "Regular attendees at his soirées included Katharine Hepburn and Spencer Tracy, Joan Crawford and Douglas Fairbanks Jr., Lauren Bacall and Humphrey Bogart, Claudette Colbert, Marlene Dietrich, Laurence Olivier and Vivien Leigh, actor Richard Cromwell, Stanley Holloway, Judy Garland, Gene Tierney, Noël Coward, Cole Porter, director James Whale, costume designer Edith Head, and Norma Shearer, especially after the death of her first husband Irving Thalberg.", "He often entertained literary figures like Sinclair Lewis, Theodore Dreiser, Hugh Walpole, Aldous Huxley and Ferenc Molnár.Frances Goldwyn, second wife and widow of studio mogul Sam Goldwyn, long considered Cukor to be the love of her life, but their relationship remained platonic.", "According to biographer A. Scott Berg, Frances even arranged for Cukor's burial to be adjacent to her own plot at Forest Lawn Memorial Park Cemetery.The PBS series ''American Masters'' produced a comprehensive documentary about his life and work titled ''On Cukor'' directed by Robert Trachtenberg in 2000." ], [ "Death and legacy", "Cukor died of a heart attack on January 24, 1983, and was interred in Grave D, Little Garden of Constancy, Garden of Memory (private), Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Glendale), California.", "Records in probate court indicated his net worth at the time of his death was $2,377,720.In 1983, the 1954 version of ''A Star Is Born'', considered by many to be his greatest picture, was restored to its original runtime of 181 minutes.", "The film was initially released at 181 minutes and received enormous critical and box office success.", "Finding that the length restricted the number of daily showings, the studio cut the movie to 154 minutes.", "Cukor believed this re-release \"butchered\" the gradual development of the Garland-Mason relationship.In 2013, The Film Society of Lincoln Center presented a comprehensive weeks-long retrospective of his work titled \"The Discreet Charm of George Cukor.", "\"In 2019, Cukor's film ''Gaslight'' was selected by the Library of Congress for preservation in the National Film Registry for being \"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant\"." ], [ "Filmography", "=== Films === Year Title Studio Genre Cast Notes 1930 ''Grumpy'' Paramount Pictures Drama Cyril Maude Co-directed with Cyril Gardner ''The Virtuous Sin'' Paramount Pictures Drama Kay Francis, Walter Huston, Kenneth MacKenna Co-directed with Louis J. Gasnier ''The Royal Family of Broadway'' Paramount Pictures Comedy Fredric March, Ina Claire Co-directed with Cyril Gardner 1931 ''Tarnished Lady'' Paramount Pictures Drama Tallulah Bankhead, Clive Brook, Alexander Kirkland ''Girls About Town'' Paramount Pictures Comedy Kay Francis, Lilyan Tashman, Joel McCrea 1932 ''What Price Hollywood?''", "RKO Radio Pictures Drama Constance Bennett, Lowell Sherman, Neil Hamilton ''A Bill of Divorcement'' RKO Radio Pictures Drama Katharine Hepburn, John Barrymore, Billie Burke ''Rockabye'' RKO Radio Pictures Drama Constance Bennett, Joel McCrea, Paul Lukas Reworked the film in two weeks of retakes and was given credit over original director George Fitzmaurice 1933 ''Our Betters'' RKO Radio Pictures Drama Constance Bennett ''Dinner at Eight'' Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Drama John Barrymore, Jean Harlow, Marie Dressler, Lionel Barrymore, Billie Burke, Wallace Beery ''Little Women'' RKO Radio Pictures Drama Katharine Hepburn, Joan Bennett, Frances Dee, Douglass Montgomery 1935 ''David Copperfield'' Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Drama Freddie Bartholomew, W. C. Fields, Lionel Barrymore ''Sylvia Scarlett'' RKO Radio Pictures Comedy Katharine Hepburn, Cary Grant, Brian Aherne 1936 ''Romeo and Juliet'' Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Romance Norma Shearer, Leslie Howard, John Barrymore, Basil Rathbone ''Camille'' Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Romance Greta Garbo, Robert Taylor, Lionel Barrymore 1938 ''Holiday'' Columbia Pictures Comedy Katharine Hepburn, Cary Grant 1939 ''Zaza'' Paramount Pictures Drama Claudette Colbert, Herbert Marshall ''The Women'' Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Drama Norma Shearer, Joan Crawford, Rosalind Russell 1940 ''Susan and God'' Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Comedy Joan Crawford, Fredric March ''The Philadelphia Story'' Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Comedy Katharine Hepburn, Cary Grant, James Stewart Nominated for six Oscars, including Best Picture 1941 ''A Woman's Face'' Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Drama Joan Crawford, Melvyn Douglas, Conrad Veidt ''Two-Faced Woman'' Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Comedy Greta Garbo, Melvyn Douglas, Constance Bennett 1942 ''Her Cardboard Lover'' Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Comedy Norma Shearer, Robert Taylor, George Sanders 1943 ''Keeper of the Flame'' Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Drama Spencer Tracy, Katharine Hepburn 1944 ''Gaslight'' Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Thriller Ingrid Bergman, Charles Boyer, Joseph Cotten Nominated for seven Oscars, including Best Picture ''Winged Victory'' 20th Century-Fox, U.S. Army Air Forces Drama Lon McCallister, Jeanne Crain, Red Buttons, Don Taylor 1947 ''A Double Life'' Kanin Productions Film noir Ronald Colman, Signe Hasso, Shelley Winters 1949 ''Edward, My Son'' Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Drama Spencer Tracy, Deborah Kerr ''Adam's Rib'' Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Comedy Spencer Tracy, Katharine Hepburn, Judy Holliday 1950 ''A Life of Her Own'' Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Drama Lana Turner, Ray Milland ''Born Yesterday'' Columbia Pictures Comedy Judy Holliday, Broderick Crawford, William Holden Nominated for five Oscars including Best Picture 1951 ''The Model and the Marriage Broker'' 20th Century Fox Comedy Thelma Ritter, Jeanne Crain, Scott Brady 1952 ''The Marrying Kind'' Columbia Pictures Comedy Judy Holliday, Aldo Ray ''Pat and Mike'' Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Comedy Spencer Tracy, Katharine Hepburn, Aldo Ray 1953 ''The Actress'' Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Comedy Jean Simmons, Spencer Tracy, Teresa Wright 1954 ''It Should Happen to You'' Columbia Pictures Comedy Judy Holliday, Peter Lawford, Jack Lemmon ''A Star Is Born'' Warner Bros., Transcona Enterprises Drama Judy Garland, James Mason Partially lost film 1956 ''Bhowani Junction'' Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Drama Ava Gardner, Stewart Granger 1957 ''Les Girls'' Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Musical Gene Kelly, Mitzi Gaynor, Kay Kendall ''Wild Is the Wind'' Paramount Pictures Drama Anna Magnani, Anthony Quinn 1960 ''Heller in Pink Tights'' Paramount Pictures Western Sophia Loren, Anthony Quinn, Steve Forrest The final film was disavowed by Cukor ''Song Without End'' William Goetz Drama Dirk Bogarde, Capucine, Geneviève Page Completed the film when Charles Vidor died during production ''Let's Make Love'' The Company of Artists Musical Marilyn Monroe, Yves Montand, Tony Randall 1962 ''The Chapman Report'' DFZ Productions Drama Shelley Winters, Jane Fonda, Claire Bloom, Glynis Johns 1964 ''My Fair Lady'' Warner Bros. Musical Audrey Hepburn, Rex Harrison Winner of eight Oscars, including Best Picture 1969 ''Justine'' 20th Century Fox Drama Michael York, Anouk Aimée, Dirk Bogarde Replaced Joseph Strick shortly after production began 1972 ''Travels with My Aunt'' Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Comedy Maggie Smith, Alec McCowen, Cindy Williams 1975 ''Love Among the Ruins'' ABC Circle Films Drama Katharine Hepburn, Laurence Olivier Television film 1976 ''The Blue Bird'' 20th Century Fox, Lenfilm Studio, Tower International, Wenks Films Drama Elizabeth Taylor, Jane Fonda, Ava Gardner 1979 ''The Corn Is Green'' Warner Bros. Television Drama Katharine Hepburn, Bill Fraser, Ian Saynor Television film 1981 ''Rich and Famous'' Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Drama Jacqueline Bisset, Candice Bergen=== Uncredited contributing work === Year Title Studio Genre Cast Notes 1932 ''One Hour with You'' Paramount Pictures Musical Maurice Chevalier, Jeanette MacDonald Directed part of the film when Ernst Lubitsch took ill and was credited as dialogue director ''The Animal Kingdom'' RKO Radio Pictures Drama Leslie Howard, Ann Harding, Myrna Loy Uncredited 1934 ''Manhattan Melodrama'' Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Crime Clark Gable, William Powell, Myrna Loy Directed additional scenes after production 1935 ''No More Ladies'' Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Comedy Joan Crawford, Robert Montgomery, Franchot Tone Completed filming when Edward H. Griffith took ill 1938 ''I Met My Love Again'' Walter Wanger Productions Romance Joan Bennett, Henry Fonda Assisted Joshua Logan in directing parts of the film ''The Adventures of Tom Sawyer'' Selznick International Pictures Adventure Tommy Kelly, Jackie Moran Shot some retakes after production completed 1939 ''Gone With the Wind'' Selznick International Pictures Drama Vivien Leigh, Clark Gable, Olivia de Havilland, Leslie Howard Fired in the early stages of production, but a few of his scenes remain in the finished film 1943 \"Resistance and Ohm's Law\" Army Signal Corps Documentary instructionalshort film 1944 ''I'll Be Seeing You'' Selznick International Pictures Drama Ginger Rogers, Joseph Cotten, Shirley Temple Replaced by William Dieterle during production 1947 ''Desire Me'' Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Drama Greer Garson, Robert Mitchum Contributed to the film along with four other directors 1958 ''Hot Spell'' Paramount Pictures Drama Shirley Booth, Anthony Quinn, Shirley MacLaine Uncredited 1962 ''Something's Got to Give'' 20th Century Fox Comedy Marilyn Monroe, Dean Martin, Cyd Charisse The film was abandoned after Monroe's death / 37 minutes of footage survives" ], [ "Award and nominations", "YearCategoryFilmResultLost to 1932/33 Academy Award for Best Director ''Little Women'' Frank Lloyd for ''Cavalcade'' 1940 ''The Philadelphia Story'' John Ford for ''The Grapes of Wrath'' 1947 ''A Double Life'' Elia Kazan for ''Gentleman's Agreement'' 1950 ''Born Yesterday'' Joseph L. Mankiewicz for ''All About Eve'' 1964 ''My Fair Lady'' 1950 Golden Globe Award for Best Director ''Born Yesterday'' Billy Wilder for ''Sunset Boulevard'' 1962 ''The Chapman Report'' David Lean for ''Lawrence of Arabia'' 1964 ''My Fair Lady''" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* Hillstrom, Laurie Collier, ''International Dictionary of Films and Filmmakers''.", "Detroit: St. James Press, 1997..* Katz, Ephraim, ''The Film Encyclopedia''.", "New York: HarperCollins, 2001..* Levy, Emanuel, ''George Cukor, Master of Elegance.", "The Director and his Stars.''", "New York, William Morrow, 1994.", "* McGilligan, Patrick, ''George Cukor: A Double Life''.", "New York: St. Martin's Press 1991.", "* Myrick, Susan, ''White Columns in Hollywood: Reports from the GWTW Sets''.", "Macon, Georgia: Mercer University Press, 1982 .", "* Wakeman, John, ''World Film Directors''.", "New York: H. W. Wilson Company 1987.." ], [ "Bibliography", "***" ], [ "External links", "* * * * * Cukor bibliography at UC Berkeley Media Resources Center* Senses of Cinema: Great Directors Critical Database* Literature on George Cukor* George Cukor papers, Margaret Herrick Library, Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gas mask" ], [ "Introduction", "A typical industrial-grade gas mask for hazardous chemicals and dustA World War I British P Helmet Zelinsky–Kummant ''protivogaz'', designed in 1915, was one of the first modern-type full-head protection gas masks with a detachable filter and eyelet glasses, shown here worn by U.S. Army soldier (USAWC photo)Indian muleteers and mule wearing gas masks, France, February 21, 1940A Polish SzM-41M KF gas mask, used from the 1950s through to the 1980sA '''gas mask''' is an item of personal protective equipment used to protect the wearer from inhaling airborne pollutants and toxic gases.", "The mask forms a sealed cover over the nose and mouth, but may also cover the eyes and other vulnerable soft tissues of the face.", "Most gas masks are also respirators, though the word ''gas mask'' is often used to refer to military equipment (such as a field protective mask), the scope used in this article.", "The gas mask only protects the user from digesting, inhaling, and contact through the eyes (many agents affect through eye contact).", "Most combined gas mask filters will last around 8 hours in a biological or chemical situation.", "Filters against specific chemical agents can last up to 20 hours.Airborne toxic materials may be gaseous (for example, chlorine or mustard gas), or particulates (such as biological agents).", "Many filters provide protection from both types.The first gas masks mostly used circular lenses made of glass, mica or cellulose acetate to allow vision.", "Glass and mica were quite brittle and needed frequent replacement.", "The later Triplex lens style (a cellulose acetate lens sandwiched between glass ones) became more popular, and alongside plain cellulose acetate they became the standard into the 1930s.", "Panoramic lenses were not popular until the 1930s, but there are some examples of those being used even during the war (Austro-Hungarian 15M).", "Later, stronger polycarbonate came into use.Some masks have one or two compact air filter containers screwed onto inlets, while others have a large air filtration container connected to the gas mask via a hose that is sometimes confused with an ''air-supplied respirator'' in which an alternate supply of fresh air (oxygen tanks) is delivered." ], [ "History and development", "===Early breathing devices===According to ''Popular Mechanics'', \"The common sponge was used in ancient Greece as a gas mask...\" The book of Ingenious Devices published in 850 by the Banū Mūsā brothers describes a gas mask which allowed the wearer to breathe safely in a toxic environment.In 1785, Jean-François Pilâtre de Rozier invented a respirator.Primitive respirator examples were used by miners and introduced by Alexander von Humboldt in 1799, when he worked as a mining engineer in Prussia.", "The forerunner to the modern gas mask was invented in 1847 by Lewis P. Haslett, a device that contained elements that allowed breathing through a nose and mouthpiece, inhalation of air through a bulb-shaped filter, and a vent to exhale air back into the atmosphere.", "''First Facts'' states that a \"gas mask resembling the modern type\" was patented by Lewis Phectic Haslett of Louisville, Kentucky, who received a patent on June 12, 1849.U.S.", "patent #6,529 issued to Haslett, described the first \"Inhaler or Lung Protector\" that filtered dust from the air.Early versions were constructed by the Scottish chemist John Stenhouse in 1854 and the physicist John Tyndall in the 1870s.", "Another early design was the \"Safety Hood and Smoke Protector\" invented by Garrett Morgan in 1912, and patented in 1914.It was a simple device consisting of a cotton hood with two hoses which hung down to the floor, allowing the wearer to breathe the safer air found there.", "In addition, moist sponges were inserted at the end of the hoses in order to better filter the air.===First World War===German soldiers with gas masks, 1916The First World War brought about the first need for mass-produced gas masks on both sides because of extensive use of chemical weapons.", "The German army successfully used poison gas for the first time against Allied troops at the Second Battle of Ypres, Belgium on April 22, 1915.An immediate response was cotton wool wrapped in muslin, issued to the troops by May 1.This was followed by the Black Veil Respirator, invented by John Scott Haldane, which was a cotton pad soaked in an absorbent solution which was secured over the mouth using black cotton veiling.Seeking to improve on the Black Veil respirator, Cluny MacPherson created a mask made of chemical-absorbing fabric which fitted over the entire head.", "A canvas hood treated with chlorine-absorbing chemicals, and fitted with a transparent mica eyepiece.", "Macpherson presented his idea to the British War Office Anti-Gas Department on May 10, 1915; prototypes were developed soon after.", "The design was adopted by the British Army and introduced as the British Smoke Hood in June 1915; Macpherson was appointed to the War Office Committee for Protection against Poisonous Gases.", "More elaborate sorbent compounds were added later to further iterations of his helmet (PH helmet), to defeat other respiratory poison gases used such as phosgene, diphosgene and chloropicrin.", "In summer and autumn 1915, Edward Harrison, Bertram Lambert and John Sadd developed the Large Box Respirator.", "This canister gas mask had a tin can containing the absorbent materials by a hose and began to be issued in February 1916.A compact version, the Small Box Respirator, was made a universal issue from August 1916.In the first gas masks of World War I, it was initially found that wood charcoal was a good absorbent of poison gases.", "Around 1918, it was found that charcoals made from the shells and seeds of various fruits and nuts such as coconuts, chestnuts, horse-chestnuts, and peach stones performed much better than wood charcoal.", "These waste materials were collected from the public in recycling programs to assist the war effort.The first effective filtering activated charcoal gas mask in the world was invented in 1915 by Russian chemist Nikolay Zelinsky.alt=1916, Russian soldiersAlso in World War I, since dogs were frequently used on the front lines, a special type of gas mask was developed that dogs were trained to wear.", "Other gas masks were developed during World War I and the time following for horses in the various mounted units that operated near the front lines.", "In America, thousands of gas masks were produced for American as well as Allied troops.", "Mine Safety Appliances was a chief producer.", "This mask was later used widely in industry.===Second World War===A British couple wearing gas masks in their home in 1941The British Respirator, Anti-Gas (Light) was developed in 1943 by the British.", "It was made of plastic and rubber-like material that greatly reduced the weight and bulk compared to World War I gas masks, and fitted the user's face more snugly and comfortably.", "The main improvement was replacing the separate filter canister connected with a hose by an easily replaceable filter canister screwed on the side of the gas mask.", "Also, it had replaceable plastic lenses.=== Modern mask ===Gas mask development since has mirrored the development of chemical agents in warfare, filling the need to protect against ever more deadly threats, biological weapons, and radioactive dust in the nuclear era.", "However, for agents that cause harm through contact or penetration of the skin, such as blister agent or nerve agent, a gas mask alone is not sufficient protection, and full protective clothing must be worn in addition to protect from contact with the atmosphere.", "For reasons of civil defence and personal protection, individuals often buy gas masks since they believe that they protect against the harmful effects of an attack with nuclear, biological, or chemical (NBC) agents, which is only partially true, as gas masks protect only against respiratory absorption.", "Most military gas masks are designed to be capable of protecting against all NBC agents, but they can have filter canisters proof against those agents (heavier) or only against riot control agents and smoke (lighter and often used for training purposes).", "There are lightweight masks solely for protection against riot-control agents and not for NBC situations.Although thorough training and the availability of gas masks and other protective equipment can nullify the casualty-causing effects of an attack by chemical agents, troops who are forced to operate in full protective gear are less efficient in completing tasks, tire easily, and may be affected psychologically by the threat of attack by those weapons.", "During the Cold War, it was seen as inevitable that there would be a constant NBC threat on the battlefield and so troops needed protection in which they could remain fully functional; thus, protective gear and especially gas masks have evolved to incorporate innovations in terms of increasing user comfort and compatibility with other equipment (from drinking devices to artificial respiration tubes, to communications systems etc.", ").Iranian soldier wearing a US M17 protective mask on the frontline of the Iran–Iraq WarDuring the Iran–Iraq War (1980–88), Iraq developed its chemical weapons program with the help of European countries such as Germany and France and used them in a large scale against Iranians and Iraqi Kurds.", "Iran was unprepared for chemical warfare.", "In 1984, Iran received gas masks from the Republic of Korea and East Germany, but the Korean masks were not suited for the faces of non-East Asian people, the filter lasted for only 15 minutes, and the 5,000 masks bought from East Germany proved to be not gas masks but spray-painting goggles.", "As late as 1986, Iranian diplomats still travelled in Europe to buy active charcoal and models of filters to produce defensive gear domestically.", "In April 1988, Iran started domestic production of gas masks by the Iran Yasa factories.Pioneers in gas masks.", "USSR, 1937" ], [ "Principles of construction", "Absorption is the process of being drawn into a (usually larger) body or substrate, and adsorption is the process of deposition upon a surface.", "This can be used to remove both particulate and gaseous hazards.", "Although some form of reaction may take place, it is not necessary; the method may work by attractive charges.", "For example, if the target particles are positively charged, a negatively charged substrate may be used.", "Examples of substrates include activated carbon, and zeolites.", "This effect can be very simple and highly effective, for example using a damp cloth to cover the mouth and nose while escaping a fire.", "While this method can be effective at trapping particulates produced by combustion, it does not filter out harmful gases which may be toxic or which displace the oxygen required for survival.File:US Navy gas mask exercise 021015-N-6996M-589.jpg|US Navy MCU-2/P gas mask system.File:Gas mask 501556 fh000007.jpg|Gas mask used by the French military.", "The filter cartridge is connected via a flexible hose.File:Gas mask greek.jpg|Greek Infantry with US M17 gas masks===Safety of old gas masks===Gas masks have a useful lifespan limited by the absorbent capacity of the filter.", "Filters cease to provide protection when saturated with hazardous chemicals, and degrade over time even if sealed.", "Most gas masks have sealing caps over the air intake and are stored in vacuum-sealed bags to prevent the filter from degrading due to exposure to humidity and pollutants in normal air.", "Unused gas mask filters from World War II may not protect the wearer at all, and could be harmful if worn due to long-term changes in the chemical composition of the filter.An asbestos-containing Russian GP-5 filter and a safe modern one in comparison.Some World War II and Soviet Cold War gas masks contained chrysotile asbestos or crocidolite asbestos in their filters, not known to be harmful at the time.", "It is not reliably known for how long the materials were used in filters.", "Typically, masks using 40 mm connections are a more recent design.", "Rubber degrades with time, so boxed unused \"modern type\" masks can be cracked and leak.", "The US C2 canister (black) contains hexavalent chromium; studies by the U.S. Army Chemical Corps found that the level in the filter was acceptable, but suggest caution when using, as it is a carcinogen.=== Modern filter classification ===The filter is selected according to the toxic compound.", "Each filter type protects against a particular hazard and is color-coded:+Filter types EU Class, color US color Hazard AX, brown black Low-boiling (≤65 °C) organic compounds A, brown High-boiling (>65 °C) organic compounds B, grey (many) Inorganic gases (hydrogen sulfide, chlorine, hydrogen cyanide) E, yellow white Acidic gases (Sulfur dioxide and hydrogen chloride) K, green green Ammonia and amines CO, black blue Carbon monoxide Hg, red Mercury vapor Reactor, orange magenta Radioactive (iodine and methyl iodide) P, white purple, orange, or teal particlesParticle filters are often included, because in many cases the hazardous materials are in the form of mist, which can be captured by the particle filter before entering the chemical adsorber.", "In Europe and jurisdictions with similar rules such as Russia and Australia, filter types are given suffix numbers to indicate their capacity.", "For non-particle hazards, the level \"1\" is assumed and a number \"2\" is used to indicate a better level.", "For particles (P), three levels are always given with the number.", "In the US, only the particle part is further classified by NIOSH air filtration ratings.A filter type that can protect against multiple hazards is notated with the European symbols concatenated with each other.", "Examples include ABEK, ABEK-P3, and ABEK-HgP3.A2B2E2K2-P3 is the highest rating of filter available.", "An entirely different \"multi/CBRN\" filter class with an olive color is used in the US.Filtration may be aided with an air pump to improve wearer comfort.", "Filtration of air is only possible if there is sufficient oxygen in the first place.", "Thus, when handling asphyxiants, or when ventilation is poor or the hazards are unknown, filtration is not possible and air must be supplied (with a SCBA system) from a pressurized bottle as in scuba diving." ], [ "Use", "A 1939 Second World War-era baby's gas mask in Monmouth Regimental Museum.", "This design covered the whole of the baby except for its legs.A worker in a plant nursery wears a respirator to protect against the insecticides sprayed in the greenhouses, 1930.A modern mask typically is constructed of an elastic polymer in various sizes.", "It is fitted with various adjustable straps which may be tightened to secure a good fit.", "Crucially, it is connected to a filter cartridge near the mouth either directly, or via a flexible hose.", "Some models contain drinking tubes which may be connected to a water bottle.", "Corrective lens inserts are also available for users who require them.Masks are typically tested for fit before use.", "After a mask is fitted, it is often tested by various challenge agents.", "Isoamyl acetate, a synthetic banana flavourant, and camphor are often used as innocuous challenge agents.", "In the military, teargases such as CN, CS, and stannic chloride in a chamber may be used to give the users confidence in the efficacy of the mask." ], [ "Shortcomings", "The protection of a gas mask comes with some disadvantages.", "The wearer of a typical gas mask must exert extra effort to breathe, and some of the exhaled air is re-inhaled due to the dead space between the facepiece and the user's face.", "The exposure to carbon dioxide may exceed its OELs (0.5% by volume/9 grammes per cubic metre for an eight-hour shift; 1.4%/27 grammes per m3 for 15 minutes' exposure) by a factor of many times: for gas masks and elastomeric respirators, up to 2.6%); and in case of long-term use, headache, dermatitis and acne may appear.", "The UK HSE textbook recommends limiting the use of respirators without air supply (that is, not PAPR) to one hour." ], [ "Reaction and exchange", "This principle relies on substances harmful to humans being usually more reactive than air.", "This method of separation will use some form of generally reactive substance (for example an acid) coating or supported by some solid material.", "An example is synthetic resins.", "These can be created with different groups of atoms (usually called functional groups) that have different properties.", "Thus a resin can be tailored to a particular toxic group.", "When the reactive substance comes in contact with the resin, it will bond to it, removing it from the air stream.", "It may also exchange with a less harmful substance at this site.Though it was crude, the hypo helmet was a stopgap measure for British troops in the trenches that offered at least some protection during a gas attack.", "As the months passed and poison gas was used more often, more sophisticated gas masks were developed and introduced.", "There are two main difficulties with gas mask design:*The user may be exposed to many types of toxic material.", "Military personnel are especially prone to being exposed to a diverse range of toxic gases.", "However, if the mask is for a particular use (such as the protection from a specific toxic material in a factory), then the design can be much simpler and the cost lower.", "*The protection will wear off over time.", "Filters will clog up, substrates for absorption will fill up, and reactive filters will run out of reactive substances.", "Thus the user only has protection for a limited time, and then they must either replace the filter device in the mask, or use a new mask.File:Humboldt gasmask 1799.jpg|A primitive respirator was designed by Alexander von Humboldt in 1799 for underground miningFile:Various gas masks WWI.jpg|Various gas masks employed on the Western Front and Eastern Front during World War IFile:1930s gas mask.jpg|Finnish civilian gas mask from 1939.These masks were distributed during World War IIFile:A mother and baby both in gas-masks during 1941.D3918.jpg|Mother and baby with gas masks, 1941" ], [ "See also", "* Assigned Protection Factors* Cartridges and canisters of air-purifying respirators* GP-5 gas mask* Hopcalite* M2 Gas Mask* M40 Field Protective Mask* M50 joint service general purpose mask* C-4 Protective Mask* NBC suit* PH helmet* Plague doctor's outfit* Respirator* Respirator fit test* Respirators testing in the workplaces* Respirator assigned protection factors* Smoke hood" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Bibliography", "* *" ], [ "External links", "* How Stuff Works - Gas Masks Science.com* The History of Gas Masks inventors.about.com, About, Inc. updated August 6, 2016* Respirator Fact Sheet* CBRN SCBA NIOSH Approved Respirators List of NIOSH Approved CBRN SCBA respirators" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "George Frideric Handel" ], [ "Introduction", "'''George Frideric''' (or '''Frederick''') '''Handel''' (; baptised , ; 23 February 1685 – 14 April 1759) was a German-British Baroque composer well known for his operas, oratorios, anthems, concerti grossi, and organ concertos.", "Handel received his training in Halle and worked as a composer in Hamburg and Italy before settling in London in 1712, where he spent the bulk of his career and became a naturalised British subject in 1727.He was strongly influenced both by the middle-German polyphonic choral tradition and by composers of the Italian Baroque.", "In turn, Handel's music forms one of the peaks of the \"high baroque\" style, bringing Italian opera to its highest development, creating the genres of English oratorio and organ concerto, and introducing a new style into English church music.", "He is consistently recognized as one of the greatest composers of his age.Handel started three commercial opera companies to supply the English nobility with Italian opera.", "In 1737, he had a physical breakdown, changed direction creatively, and addressed the middle class and made a transition to English choral works.", "After his success with ''Messiah'' (1742), he never composed an Italian opera again.", "His orchestral ''Water Music'' and ''Music for the Royal Fireworks'' remain steadfastly popular.", "One of his four coronation anthems, ''Zadok the Priest'', has been performed at every British coronation since 1727.Almost blind, he died in 1759, a respected and rich man, and was given a state funeral at Westminster Abbey.Handel composed more than forty opere serie over a period of more than thirty years.", "Since the late 1960s, interest in Handel's music has grown.", "The musicologist Winton Dean wrote that \"Handel was not only a great composer; he was a dramatic genius of the first order.\"", "His music was admired by Classical-era composers, especially Mozart, Haydn and Beethoven." ], [ "Early years", "=== Family ===Halle)Handel was born in 1685 (the same year as Johann Sebastian Bach and Domenico Scarlatti) in Halle (Saale), Duchy of Magdeburg (then part of Brandenburg-Prussia).", "His parents were Georg Händel, aged 63, and Dorothea Taust.", "His father was an eminent barber-surgeon who served the court of Saxe-Weissenfels and the Margraviate of Brandenburg.Halle was a relatively prosperous city, home of a salt-mining industry and centre of trade (and member of the Hanseatic League).", "The Margrave of Brandenburg became the administrator of the archiepiscopal territories of Mainz, including Magdeburg when they converted, and by the early 17th century held his court in Halle, which attracted renowned musicians.", "Even the smaller churches all had \"able organists and fair choirs\", and humanities and the letters thrived (Shakespeare was performed in the theatres early in the 17th century).", "The Thirty Years' War brought extensive destruction to Halle, and by the 1680s it was impoverished.", "However, since the middle of the war the city had been under the administration of the Duke of Saxony, and soon after the end of the war he would bring musicians trained in Dresden to his court in Weissenfels.Handel House, birthplace of HandelThe arts and music, however, flourished only among the higher strata (not only in Halle but throughout Germany), of which Handel's family was not a part.", "Georg Händel (senior) was born at the beginning of the war and was apprenticed to a barber in Halle at the age of 14 after his father died.", "When he was 20, he married the widow of the official barber-surgeon of a suburb of Halle, inheriting his practice.", "With this, Georg determinedly began the process of becoming self-made; by dint of his \"conservative, steady, thrifty, unadventurous\" lifestyle, he guided the five children he had with Anna who reached adulthood into the medical profession (except his youngest daughter, who married a government official).", "Anna died in 1682.Within a year Georg married again, this time to the daughter of a Lutheran minister, Pastor Georg Taust of the Church of St. Bartholomew in Giebichenstein, who himself came from a long line of Lutheran pastors.", "George Frideric was the second child of this marriage; the first son was stillborn.", "Two younger sisters arrived afterwards: Dorthea Sophia, born on 6 October 1687, and Johanna Christiana, born on 10 January 1690.=== Early education ===Halle, copper engraving, 1686Early in his life Handel is reported to have attended the ''Gymnasium'' in Halle, where the headmaster, , was reputed to be an ardent musician.", "Whether Handel remained there, and if he did for how long, is unknown, but many biographers suggest that he was withdrawn from school by his father, based on the characterization of him by Handel's first biographer, John Mainwaring.", "Mainwaring is the source for almost all information (little as it is) of Handel's childhood, and much of that information came from J.C. Smith Jr., Handel's confidant and copyist.", "Whether it came from Smith or elsewhere, Mainwaring frequently relates misinformation.", "It is from Mainwaring that the portrait comes of Handel's father as implacably opposed to any musical education.", "Mainwaring writes that Georg Händel was \"alarmed\" at Handel's very early propensity for music, \"took every measure to oppose it\", including forbidding any musical instrument in the house and preventing Handel from going to any house where they might be found.", "This did nothing to dampen young Handel's inclination; in fact, it did the reverse.", "Mainwaring tells the story of Handel's secret attic spinet: Handel \"found means to get a little clavichord privately convey'd to a room at the top of the house.", "To this room he constantly stole when the family was asleep\".", "Although both John Hawkins and Charles Burney credited this tale, Schoelcher found it nearly \"incredible\" and a feat of \"poetic imagination\" and Lang considers it one of the unproven \"romantic stories\" that surrounded Handel's childhood.", "But Handel had to have had some experience with the keyboard to have made the impression in Weissenfels that resulted in his receiving formal musical training.=== Musical education ===Sometime between the ages of seven and nine, Handel accompanied his father to Weissenfels, where he came under the notice of one whom Handel thereafter always regarded throughout life as his benefactor, Duke Johann Adolf I.", "Somehow Handel made his way to the court organ in the palace chapel of the Holy Trinity, where he surprised everyone with his playing.", "Overhearing this performance and noting the youth of the performer caused the Duke, whose suggestions were not to be disregarded, to recommend to Georg Händel that Handel be given musical instruction.", "Handel's father engaged the organist at the Halle parish church, the young Friedrich Wilhelm Zachow, to instruct Handel.", "Zachow would be the only teacher that Handel ever had.", "Because of his church employment, Zachow was an organist \"of the old school\", reveling in fugues, canons, and counterpoint.", "But he was also familiar with developments in music across Europe and his own compositions \"embraced the new concerted, dramatic style\".", "When Zachow discovered the talent of Handel, he introduced him \"to a vast collection of German and Italian music, which he possessed, sacred and profane, vocal and instrumental compositions of different schools, different styles, and of every master\".", "Many traits considered \"Handelian\" can be traced back to Zachow's music.", "At the same time Handel continued practice on the harpsichord, and learned violin and organ, but according to Burney his special affection was for the ''hautbois'' (oboe).", "Schoelcher speculates that his youthful devotion to the instrument explains the large number of pieces he composed for oboe.Marktkirche in Halle where Handel was baptised, and where Friedrich Zachow and Handel performed as organistsWith respect to instruction in composition, in addition to having Handel apply himself to traditional fugue and cantus firmus work, Zachow, recognising Handel's precocious talents, systematically introduced Handel to the variety of styles and masterworks contained in his extensive library.", "He did this by requiring Handel to copy selected scores.", "\"I used to write like the devil in those days\", Handel recalled much later.", "Much of this copying was entered into a notebook that Handel maintained for the rest of his life.", "Although it has since disappeared, the notebook has been sufficiently described to understand what pieces Zachow wished Handel to study.", "Among the chief composers represented in this exercise book were Johann Krieger, an \"old master\" in the fugue and prominent organ composer, Johann Caspar Kerll, a representative of the \"southern style\" after his teacher Girolamo Frescobaldi and imitated later by Handel, Johann Jakob Froberger, an \"internationalist\" also closely studied by Buxtehude and Bach, and Georg Muffat, whose amalgam of French and Italian styles and his synthesis of musical forms influenced Handel.Mainwaring writes that during this time Zachow had begun to have Handel assume some of his church duties.", "Zachow, Mainwaring asserts, was \"often\" absent, \"from his love of company, and a cheerful glass\", and Handel, therefore, performed on organ frequently.", "What is more, according to Mainwaring, Handel began composing, at the age of nine, church services for voice and instruments \"and from that time actually did compose a service every week for three years successively.\"", "Mainwaring ends this chapter of Handel's life by concluding that three or four years had been enough to allow Handel to surpass Zachow, and Handel had become \"impatient for another situation\"; \"Berlin was the place agreed upon.\"", "Carelessness with dates or sequences (and possibly imaginative interpretation by Mainwaring) makes this period confused.===After the death of Handel's father ===Handel's father died on 11 February 1697.It was German custom for friends and family to compose funeral odes for a substantial burgher like Georg, and young Handel discharged his duty with a poem dated 18 February and signed with his name and (in deference to his father's wishes) \"dedicated to the liberal arts.\"", "At the time Handel was studying either at Halle's Lutheran Gymnasium or the Latin School.Mainwaring has Handel travelling to Berlin the next year, 1698.The problem with Mainwaring as an authority for this date, however, is that he tells of how Handel's father communicated with the \"king\" during Handel's stay, declining the Court's offer to send Handel to Italy on a stipend and that his father died \"after his return from Berlin.\"", "But since Georg Händel died in 1697, either the date of the trip or Mainwaring's statements about Handel's father must be in error.", "Early biographers solved the problem by making the year of the trip 1696, then noting that at the age of 11 Handel would need a guardian, so they have Handel's father or a friend of the family accompany him, all the while puzzling over why the elder Handel, who wanted Handel to become a lawyer, would spend the sum to lead his son further into the temptation of music as a career.", "Schoelcher for example has Handel travelling to Berlin at 11, meeting both Bononcini and Attilio Ariosti in Berlin and then returning at the direction of his father.", "But Ariosti was not in Berlin before the death of Handel's father, and Handel could not have met Bononcini in Berlin before 1702.Modern biographers either accept the year as 1698, since most reliable older authorities agree with it, and discount what Mainwaring says about what took place during the trip or assume that Mainwaring conflated two or more visits to Berlin, as he did with Handel's later trips to Venice.=== University ===Perhaps to fulfil a promise to his father or simply because he saw himself as \"dedicated to the liberal arts\", on 10 February 1702 Handel matriculated at the University of Halle.", "That university had only recently been founded.", "In 1694, the Elector of Brandenburg Frederick III (later Prussian King Frederick I) created the school, largely to provide a lecture forum for the jurist Christian Thomasius who had been expelled from Leipzig for his liberal views.", "Handel did not enrol in the faculty of law, although he almost certainly attended lectures.", "Thomasius was an intellectual and academic crusader, who was the first German academic to lecture in German and also denounced witch trials.", "Lang believes that Thomasius instilled in Handel a \"respect for the dignity and freedom of man's mind and the solemn majesty of the law\", principles that would have drawn him to and kept him in England for half a century.", "Handel also there encountered theologian and professor of Oriental languages August Hermann Francke, who was particularly solicitous of children, especially orphans.", "The orphanage he founded became a model for Germany, and undoubtedly influenced Handel's own charitable impulse, when he assigned the rights of ''Messiah'' to London's Foundling Hospital.Halle CathedralShortly after commencing his university education, Handel (though Lutheran) on 13 March 1702 accepted the position of organist at the Calvinist Cathedral in Halle, the Domkirche, replacing J. C. Leporin, for whom he had acted as assistant.", "The position, which was a one-year probationary appointment, showed the foundation he had received from Zachow, for a church organist and cantor was a highly prestigious office.", "From it he received 5 thalers a year and lodgings in the run-down castle of Moritzburg.", "Around this same time, Handel made the acquaintance of Telemann.", "Four years Handel's senior, Telemann was studying law at Leipzig and was assisting cantor Johann Kuhnau (Bach's predecessor at the Thomaskirche there).", "Telemann recalled forty years later in an autobiography for Mattheson's ''Grundlage'': \"The writing of the excellent Johann Kuhnau served as a model for me in fugue and counterpoint; but in fashioning melodic movements and examining them Handel and I were constantly occupied, frequently visiting each other as well as writing letters.", "\"=== Halle compositions ===Although Mainwaring records that Handel wrote weekly when assistant to Zachow and as probationary organist at Domkirche part of his duty was to provide suitable music, no sacred compositions from his Halle period can now be identified.", "Mattheson, however, summarised his opinion of Handel's church cantatas written in Halle: \"Handel in those days set very, very long arias and sheerly unending cantatas which, while not possessing the proper knack or correct taste, were perfect so far as harmony is concerned.", "\"Early chamber works do exist, but it is difficult to date any of them to Handel's time in Halle.", "Many historians until recently followed Chrysander and designated the six trio sonatas for two oboes and basso continuo as his first known composition, supposedly written in 1696 (when Handel was 11).", "Lang doubts the dating based on a handwritten date of a copy (1700) and stylistic considerations.", "Lang writes that the works \"show thorough acquaintance with the distilled sonata style of the Corelli school\" and are notable for \"the formal security and the cleanness of the texture.\"", "Hogwood considers all of the oboe trio sonatas spurious and even suggests that some parts cannot be performed on oboe.", "That authentic manuscript sources do not exist and that Handel never recycled any material from these works makes their authenticity doubtful.", "Other early chamber works were printed in Amsterdam in 1724 as opus 1, but it is impossible to tell which are early works in their original form, rather than later re-workings by Handel, a frequent practice of his." ], [ "From Hamburg to Italy", "The Hamburg Oper am Gänsemarkt in 1726, where Handel was a musicianHandel's probationary appointment to Domkirche expired in March 1703.By July Handel was in Hamburg.", "Since he left no explanation for the move biographers have offered their own speculation.", "Donald Burrows believes that the answer can be found by untangling Mainwaring's confused chronology of the trip to Berlin.", "Burrows dates this trip to 1702 or 1703 (after his father's death) and concluded that since Handel (through a \"friend and relation\" at the Berlin court) turned down Frederick's offer to subsidise his musical education in Italy (with the implicit understanding that he would become a court musician on his return), Handel was no longer able to expect preferment (whether as a musician, lawyer or otherwise) within Brandenburg-Prussia.", "Since he was attracted to secular, dramatic music (by meeting the Italians Bononcini and Attilio Ariosti and through the influence of Telemann), Hamburg, a free city with an established opera company, was the logical choice.", "The question remains, however, why Handel rejected the King's offer, given that Italy was the centre of opera.", "Lang suggests that influenced by the teachings of Thomasius, Handel's character was such that he was unable to make himself subservient to anyone, even a king.", "Lang sees Handel as someone who could not accept class distinctions that required him to regard himself as a social inferior.", "\"What Handel craved was personal freedom to raise himself out of his provincial milieu to a life of culture.\"", "Burrows notes that, like his father, Handel was able to accept royal (and aristocratic) favours without considering himself a court servant; and so, given the embarrassed financial condition of his mother, Handel set off for Hamburg to obtain experience while supporting himself.In 1703, he accepted a position as violinist and harpsichordist in the orchestra of the Hamburg Oper am Gänsemarkt.", "There he met the composers Johann Mattheson, Christoph Graupner and Reinhard Keiser.", "Handel's first two operas, ''Almira'' and ''Nero'', were produced in 1705.He produced two other operas, ''Daphne'' and ''Florindo'', in 1708.It is unclear whether Handel directed these performances.According to Mainwaring, in 1706 Handel travelled to Italy at the invitation of Ferdinando de' Medici.", "(Other sources say Handel was invited by Gian Gastone de' Medici, whom Handel had met in 1703–04 in Hamburg.)", "Ferdinando, who had a keen interest in opera, was trying to make Florence Italy's musical capital by attracting the leading talents of his day.", "In Italy, Handel met librettist Antonio Salvi, with whom he later collaborated.", "Handel left for Rome and since opera was (temporarily) banned in the Papal States, composed sacred music for the Roman clergy.", "His famous ''Dixit Dominus'' (1707) is from this era.", "He also composed cantatas in pastoral style for musical gatherings in the palaces of duchess Aurora Sanseverino (whom Mainwaring called \"Donna Laura\") one of the most influential patrons from the Kingdom of Naples, and cardinals Pietro Ottoboni, Benedetto Pamphili and Carlo Colonna.", "Two oratorios, ''La resurrezione'' and ''Il trionfo del tempo'', were produced in a private setting for Ruspoli and Ottoboni in 1709 and 1710, respectively.", "''Rodrigo'', his first all-Italian opera, was produced in the Cocomero theatre in Florence in 1707.", "''Agrippina'' was first produced in 1709 at Teatro San Giovanni Grisostomo in Venice, owned by the Grimanis.", "The opera, with a libretto by Cardinal Vincenzo Grimani, ran for 27 nights successively.", "The audience, thunderstruck with the grandeur and sublimity of his style, applauded for ''Il caro Sassone'' (\"the dear Saxon\" – referring to Handel's German origins)." ], [ "In London", "King George I on the River Thames, 17 July 1717, by Edouard Hamman (1819–88)===Arrival===In June 1710, Handel became ''Kapellmeister'' to German prince George, the Elector of Hanover, but left at the end of the year.", "It is likely he was also invited by Charles Montagu the former ambassador in Venice to visit England.", "He visited Anna Maria Luisa de' Medici and her husband in Düsseldorf on his way to London.", "With his opera ''Rinaldo'', based on ''La Gerusalemme Liberata'' by the Italian poet Torquato Tasso, Handel enjoyed great success, although it was composed quickly, with many borrowings from his older Italian works.", "This work contains one of Handel's favourite arias, ''Cara sposa, amante cara'', and the famous Lascia ch'io pianga.Handel went back to Halle twice, to attend the wedding of his sister and the baptism of her daughter, but decided to settle permanently in England in 1712.In the summer of 1713, he lived at Mr. Mathew Andrews' estate in Barn Elms, Surrey.", "He received a yearly income of £200 from Queen Anne after composing for her the ''Utrecht Te Deum and Jubilate'', first performed in 1713.One of his most important patrons was the 3rd Earl of Burlington and 4th Earl of Cork, a young and extremely wealthy member of an Anglo-Irish aristocratic family.", "While living in the mansion of Lord Burlington, Handel wrote ''Amadigi di Gaula'', a \"magic\" opera, about a damsel in distress, based on the tragedy by Antoine Houdar de la Motte.The conception of an opera as a coherent structure was slow to capture Handel's imagination and he composed no operas for five years.", "In July 1717, Handel's ''Water Music'' was performed more than three times on the River Thames for King George I and his guests.", "It is said the compositions spurred reconciliation between Handel and the king, supposedly annoyed by the composer's abandonment of his Hanover post.=== At Cannons (1717–19) ===In 1717, Handel became house composer at Cannons in Middlesex, where he laid the cornerstone for his future choral compositions in the ''Chandos Anthems''.", "Romain Rolland wrote that these anthems (or Psalms) stood in relation to Handel's oratorios, much the same way that the Italian cantatas stood to his operas: \"splendid sketches of the more monumental works.\"", "Another work, which he wrote for The 1st Duke of Chandos, the owner of Cannons, was ''Acis and Galatea'': during Handel's lifetime, it was his most performed work.", "Winton Dean wrote that \"the music catches breath and disturbs the memory\".In 1719, the Duke of Chandos became one of the composer's important patrons and a primary subscriber to his new opera company, the Royal Academy of Music, though his patronage declined after Chandos lost large sums of money in the South Sea Bubble, which burst in 1720 in one of history's greatest financial cataclysms.", "Handel himself invested in the South Sea Company in 1716, when its share prices were low and sold them before the \"bubble\" burst in 1720.In 1720, Handel invested in the slave-trading Royal African Company (RAC), following in the steps of his patron (the Duke of Chandos was one of the leading investors in the RAC).", "As noted by music historian David Hunter, 32 per cent of the subscribers and investors in the Royal Academy of Music, or their close family members, held investments in the RAC as well.=== Royal Academy of Music (1719–34) ===The Chandos portrait of Händelby James Thornhill, , held in the Fitzwilliam Museum, University of Cambridge In May 1719, The 1st Duke of Newcastle, the Lord Chamberlain, ordered Handel to look for new singers.", "Handel travelled to Dresden to attend the newly built opera.", "He saw ''Teofane'' by Antonio Lotti, and engaged members of the cast for the Royal Academy of Music, founded by a group of aristocrats to assure themselves a constant supply of baroque opera or opera seria.", "Handel may have invited John Smith, his fellow student in Halle, and his son Johann Christoph Schmidt, to become his secretary and amanuensis.", "By 1723 he had moved into a Georgian house at 25 Brook Street, which he rented for the rest of his life.", "This house, where he rehearsed, copied music, and sold tickets, is now the Handel House Museum.", "During twelve months between 1724 and 1725, Handel wrote three successful operas, ''Giulio Cesare'', ''Tamerlano'' and ''Rodelinda''.", "Handel's operas are filled with da capo arias, such as ''Svegliatevi nel core''.", "After composing ''Silete venti'', he concentrated on opera and stopped writing cantatas.", "''Scipio'', from which the regimental slow march of the British Grenadier Guards is derived, was performed as a stopgap, waiting for the arrival of Faustina Bordoni.In 1727, Handel was commissioned to write four anthems for the Coronation ceremony of King George II.", "One of these, ''Zadok the Priest'', has been played at every British coronation ceremony since.", "The words to ''Zadok the Priest'' are taken from the King James Bible.", "In 1728, John Gay's ''The Beggar's Opera'', which made fun of the type of Italian opera Handel had popularised in London, premiered at Lincoln's Inn Fields Theatre and ran for 62 consecutive performances, the longest run in theatre history up to that time.", "After nine years the Royal Academy of Music ceased to function but Handel soon started a new company.The Queen's Theatre at the Haymarket (now His Majesty's Theatre), established in 1705 by architect and playwright John Vanbrugh, quickly became an opera house.", "Between 1711 and 1739, more than 25 of Handel's operas premièred there.", "In 1729, Handel became joint manager of the theatre with John James Heidegger.Handel travelled to Italy to engage new singers and also composed seven more operas, among them the comic masterpiece ''Partenope'' and the \"magic\" opera ''Orlando''.", "After two commercially successful English oratorios ''Esther'' and ''Deborah'', he was able to invest again in the South Sea Company.", "Handel reworked his ''Acis and Galatea'' which then became his most successful work ever.", "Handel failed to compete with the Opera of the Nobility, who engaged musicians such as Johann Adolph Hasse, Nicolo Porpora and the famous castrato Farinelli.", "The strong support by Frederick, Prince of Wales caused conflicts in the royal family.", "In March 1734 Handel composed a wedding anthem ''This is the day which the Lord hath made'', and a serenata ''Parnasso in Festa'' for Anne, Princess Royal.Despite the problems the Opera of the Nobility was causing him at the time, Handel's neighbour in Brook Street, Mary Delany, reported on a party she invited Handel to at her house on 12 April 1734 where he was in good spirits:I had Lady Rich and her daughter, Lady Cath.", "Hanmer and her husband, Mr. and Mrs. Percival, Sir John Stanley and my brother, Mrs. Donellan, Strada star soprano of Handel's operas and Mr. Coot.", "Lord Shaftesbury begged of Mr. Percival to bring him, and being a profess'd friend of Mr. Handel (who was here also) was admitted; I never was so well entertained at an opera!", "Mr. Handel was in the best humour in the world, and played lessons and accompanied Strada and all the ladies that sang from seven o'clock till eleven.", "I gave them tea and coffee, and about half an hour after nine had a salver brought in of chocolate, mulled white wine, and biscuits.", "Everybody was easy and seemed pleased.=== Opera at Covent Garden (1734–41) ===Covent Garden Theatre in London in 1808In 1733, the Earl of Essex received a letter with the following sentence: \"Handel became so arbitrary a prince, that the Town murmurs.\"", "The board of chief investors expected Handel to retire when his contract ended, but Handel immediately looked for another theatre.", "In cooperation with John Rich he started his third company at Covent Garden Theatre.", "Rich was renowned for his spectacular productions.", "He suggested Handel use his small chorus and introduce the dancing of Marie Sallé, for whom Handel composed ''Terpsicore''.", "In 1735, he introduced organ concertos between the acts.", "For the first time, Handel allowed Gioacchino Conti, who had no time to learn his part, to substitute arias.", "Financially, ''Ariodante'' was a failure, although he introduced ballet suites at the end of each act.", "''Alcina'', his last opera with a magic content, and ''Alexander's Feast or the Power of Music'' based on John Dryden's ''Alexander's Feast'' starred Anna Maria Strada del Pò and John Beard.Early 1737 he had produced ''Arminio'' and ''Giustino'', completed ''Berenice'', revived ''Partenope'', and continued with ''Il Parnasso in Festa'', ''Alexander's Feast'', and the revised ''The Triumph of Time and Truth'' which premiered on 23 March.", "In April Handel suffered a mild stroke, or ''rheumatic palsy'', resulting in temporary paralysis in his right hand and arm.", "After brief signs of a recovery, he had a relapse in May, with an accompanying deterioration in his mental capacities.", "He had strong competition from John Frederick Lampe; ''The Dragon of Wantley'' was first performed at the Little Theatre in the Haymarket in London on 16 May 1737.It was a parody of the Italian opera seria.In Autumn 1737 the fatigued Handel reluctantly followed the advice of his physicians and went to take the cure in the spa towns of Royal Tunbridge Wells, Aix-la-Chapelle (Burtscheid) in September.", "All the symptoms of his \"disorder\" vanished by November.", "On Christmas Eve Handel finished the score of Faramondo, but its composition was interrupted by that of the Funeral Anthem for Queen Caroline.", "On Boxing Day he began the composition of ''Serse'', the only comic opera that Handel ever wrote and worked with Elisabeth Duparc.A harp and organ concerto (HWV 294) and ''Alexander's Feast'' were published in 1738 by John Walsh.", "He composed music for a musical clock with a pipe organ built by Charles Clay; it was bought by Gerrit Braamcamp and was in 2016 acquired by the Museum Speelklok in Utrecht.", "''Deidamia'', his last opera, a co-production with the Earl of Holderness, was performed three times in 1741.Handel gave up the opera business, while he enjoyed more success with his English oratorios.=== Oratorio ===''Il trionfo del tempo e del disinganno'', an allegory, Handel's first oratorio was composed in Italy in 1707, followed by ''La resurrezione'' in 1708 which uses material from the Bible.", "The circumstances of ''Esther'' and its first performance, possibly in 1718, are obscure.", "Another 12 years had passed when an act of piracy caused him to take up ''Esther'' once again.", "Three earlier performances aroused such interest that they naturally prompted the idea of introducing it to a larger public.", "Next came ''Deborah'', strongly coloured by the coronation anthems and ''Athaliah'', his third English Oratorio.", "In these three oratorios Handel laid the foundation for the traditional use of the chorus which marks his later oratorios.", "Handel became sure of himself, broader in his presentation, and more diverse in his composition.It is evident how much he learned from Arcangelo Corelli about writing for instruments, and from Alessandro Scarlatti about writing for the solo voice; but there is no single composer who taught him how to write for chorus.", "Handel tended more and more to replace Italian soloists with English ones.", "The most significant reason for this change was the dwindling financial returns from his operas.", "Thus a tradition was created for oratorios which was to govern their future performance.", "The performances were given without costumes and action; the singers appeared in their own clothes.In 1736, Handel produced ''Alexander's Feast''.", "John Beard appeared for the first time as one of Handel's principal singers and became Handel's permanent tenor soloist for the rest of Handel's life.", "The piece was a great success and it encouraged Handel to make the transition from writing Italian operas to English choral works.", "In ''Saul'', Handel was collaborating with Charles Jennens and experimenting with three trombones, a carillon and extra-large military kettledrums (from the Tower of London), to be sure \"...it will be most excessive noisy\".", "''Saul'' and ''Israel in Egypt'', both from 1739, head the list of great, mature oratorios, in which the da capo aria became the exception and not the rule.", "''Israel in Egypt'' consists of little else but choruses, borrowing from the ''Funeral Anthem for Queen Caroline''.", "In his next works, Handel changed his course.", "In these works he laid greater stress on the effects of orchestra and soloists; the chorus retired into the background.", "''L'Allegro, il Penseroso ed il Moderato'' has a rather diverting character; the work is light and fresh.During the summer of 1741, the 3rd Duke of Devonshire invited Handel to Dublin, capital of the Kingdom of Ireland, to give concerts for the benefit of local hospitals.", "His ''Messiah'' was first performed at the New Music Hall in Fishamble Street on 13 April 1742, with 26 boys and five men from the combined choirs of St Patrick's and Christ Church cathedrals participating.", "Handel secured a balance between soloists and chorus which he never surpassed.In 1747, Handel wrote his oratorio ''Alexander Balus''.", "This work was produced at Covent Garden Theatre in London, on 23 March 1748, and to the aria ''Hark!", "hark!", "He strikes the golden lyre'', Handel wrote the accompaniment for mandolin, harp, violin, viola, and violoncello.", "Another of his English oratorios, ''Solomon'', was first performed on 17 March 1749 at the Covent Garden Theatre.", "''Solomon'' contains a short and lively instrumental passage for two oboes and strings in act 3, known as \"The Arrival of the Queen of Sheba\".The use of English soloists reached its height at the first performance of ''Samson''.", "The work is highly theatrical.", "The role of the chorus became increasingly important in his later oratorios.", "''Jephtha'' was first performed on 26 February 1752; even though it was his last oratorio, it was no less a masterpiece than his earlier works." ], [ "Later years", "Uncompleted admission ticket for the May 1750 performance of ''Messiah'', including the arms of the venue, the Foundling Hospital in LondonIn 1749, Handel composed ''Music for the Royal Fireworks''; 12,000 people attended the first performance.", "In 1750, he arranged a performance of ''Messiah'' to benefit the Foundling Hospital, a children's home in London.", "The performance was considered a great success and was followed by annual concerts that continued throughout his life.", "In recognition of his patronage, Handel was made a governor of the Hospital the day after his initial concert.", "He bequeathed a copy of ''Messiah'' to the institution upon his death.", "His involvement with the Foundling Hospital is today commemorated with a permanent exhibition in London's Foundling Museum, which also holds the ''Gerald Coke Handel Collection''.", "In addition to the Foundling Hospital, Handel also gave to a charity that assisted impoverished musicians and their families.In August 1750, on a journey back from Germany to London, Handel was seriously injured in a carriage accident between The Hague and Haarlem in the Netherlands.", "In 1751, one eye started to fail.", "The cause was a cataract which was operated on by the great charlatan Chevalier Taylor.", "This did not improve his eyesight and possibly made it worse.", "He was completely blind by 1752.He died in 1759 at home in Brook Street, at the age of 74.The last performance he attended was of ''Messiah''.", "Handel was buried in Westminster Abbey.", "More than three thousand mourners attended his funeral, which was given full state honours.Handel never married and kept his personal life private.", "His initial will bequeathed the bulk of his estate to his niece Johanna, but four codicils distributed much of his estate to other relations, servants, friends and charities.Handel owned an art collection that was auctioned posthumously in 1760.The auction catalogue listed approximately seventy paintings and ten prints (other paintings were bequeathed)." ], [ "Works", "Senesino, the famous castrato from Siena===Overview===Handel's compositions include 42 operas, 25 oratorios, more than 120 cantatas, trios and duets, numerous arias, odes and serenatas, solo and trio sonatas, 18 concerti grossi, and 12 organ concertos.", "His most famous work, the oratorio ''Messiah'' with its \"Hallelujah\" chorus, is among the most popular works in choral music.", "The Lobkowicz Palace in Prague holds Mozart's copy of ''Messiah'', complete with handwritten annotations.", "Among the works with opus numbers published and popularised in his lifetime are the Organ concertos Op.", "4 and Op.", "7, together with the Opus 3 and Opus 6 Concerti grossi; the latter incorporates an earlier organ concerto, ''The Cuckoo and the Nightingale'', in which birdsong is imitated in the upper registers of the organ.", "Also notable are his 16 keyboard suites, especially ''The Harmonious Blacksmith''.=== Catalogues ===Handel in 1733, by Balthasar Denner (1685–1749)The first published catalogue of Handel's works appeared as an appendix to Mainwaring's ''Memoirs''.", "Between 1787 and 1797 Samuel Arnold compiled a 180-volume collection of Handel's works—however, it was far from complete.", "Also incomplete was the collection produced between 1843 and 1858 by the English Handel Society (founded by Sir George Macfarren).The 105-volume ''Händel-Gesellschaft'' (\"Handel Society\") edition was published between 1858 and 1902 – mainly due to the efforts of Friedrich Chrysander.", "For modern performance, the realisation of the basso continuo reflects 19th-century practice.", "Vocal scores drawn from the edition were published by Novello in London, but some scores, such as the vocal score to ''Samson'', are incomplete.The continuing ''Hallische Händel-Ausgabe'' edition was first inaugurated in 1955 in the Halle region in Saxony-Anhalt, East Germany.", "It did not start as a critical edition, but after heavy criticism of the first volumes, which were performing editions without a critical apparatus (for example, the opera ''Serse'' was published with the title character recast as a tenor, reflecting pre-war German practice), it repositioned itself as a critical edition.", "Influenced in part by cold-war realities, editorial work was inconsistent: misprints are found in abundance and editors failed to consult important sources.", "In 1985, a committee was formed to establish better standards for the edition.", "The reunification of Germany in 1990 removed communication problems, and the volumes issued have since shown a significant improvement in standards.Between 1978 and 1986 the German academic Bernd Baselt catalogued Handel's works in his ''Händel-Werke-Verzeichnis'' publication.", "The catalogue has achieved wide acceptance and is used as the modern numbering system, with each of Handel's works designated an \"HWV\" number – for example, ''Messiah'' is catalogued as \"HWV 56\"." ], [ "Legacy", "A Masquerade at the King's Theatre, Haymarket (), attributed to Giuseppe GrisoniHandel's works were collected and preserved by two men: Sir Samuel Hellier, a country squire whose musical acquisitions form the nucleus of the Shaw–Hellier Collection, and the abolitionist Granville Sharp.", "The catalogue accompanying the National Portrait Gallery exhibition marking the tercentenary of the composer's birth calls them two men of the late eighteenth century \"who have left us solid evidence of the means by which they indulged their enthusiasm\".", "With his English oratorios, such as ''Messiah'' and ''Solomon'', the coronation anthems, and other works including ''Water Music'' and ''Music for the Royal Fireworks'', Handel became a national icon in Britain, and featured in the BBC series ''The Birth of British Music: Handel – The Conquering Hero''.marble statue of Handel at the Victoria and Albert Museum, London, created in 1738 by Louis-François RoubiliacAfter his death, Handel's Italian operas fell into obscurity, except for selections such as the aria from ''Serse'', \"Ombra mai fu\".", "The oratorios continued to be performed but not long after Handel's death they were thought to need some modernisation, and Mozart orchestrated German versions of ''Messiah'' and other works.", "Throughout the 19th century and first half of the 20th century, particularly in the Anglophone countries, his reputation rested primarily on his English oratorios, which were customarily performed by choruses of amateur singers on solemn occasions.", "The centenary of his death, in 1859, was celebrated by a performance of ''Messiah'' at The Crystal Palace, involving 2,765 singers and 460 instrumentalists, who played for an audience of about 10,000 people.Recent decades have revived his secular cantatas and what one might call 'secular oratorios' or 'concert operas'.", "Of the former, ''Ode for St. Cecilia's Day'' (1739) (set to texts by John Dryden) and ''Ode for the Birthday of Queen Anne'' (1713) are noteworthy.", "For his secular oratorios, Handel turned to classical mythology for subjects, producing such works as ''Acis and Galatea'' (1719), ''Hercules'' (1745) and ''Semele'' (1744).", "These works have a close kinship with the sacred oratorios, particularly in the vocal writing for the English-language texts.", "They also share the lyrical and dramatic qualities of Handel's Italian operas.", "As such, they are sometimes fully staged as operas.", "With the rediscovery of his theatrical works, Handel, in addition to his renown as instrumentalist, orchestral writer, and melodist, is now perceived as being one of opera's great musical dramatists.=== Reception ===Handel has generally been accorded high esteem by fellow composers, both in his own time and since.", "Johann Sebastian Bach attempted, unsuccessfully, to meet Handel while he was visiting Halle.", "(Handel was born in the same year as Bach and Domenico Scarlatti.)", "Mozart is reputed to have said of him, \"Handel understands affect better than any of us.", "When he chooses, he strikes like a thunder bolt.\"", "To Beethoven he was \"the master of us all... the greatest composer that ever lived.", "I would uncover my head and kneel before his tomb.\"", "Beethoven emphasised above all the simplicity and popular appeal of Handel's music when he said, \"Go to him to learn how to achieve great effects, by such simple means.", "\"=== Borrowings ===Since 1831, when William Crotch raised the issue in his ''Substance of Several Lectures on Music,'' scholars have extensively studied Handel's \"borrowing\" of music from other composers.", "Summarising the field in 2005, Richard Taruskin wrote that Handel \"seems to have been the champion of all parodists, adapting both his own works and those of other composers in unparalleled numbers and with unparalleled exactitude.\"", "Among the composers whose music has been shown to have been re-used by Handel are Alessandro Stradella, Gottlieb Muffat, Alessandro Scarlatti, Domenico Scarlatti Giacomo Carissimi, Georg Philipp Telemann, Carl Heinrich Graun, Leonardo Vinci, Jacobus Gallus, Francesco Antonio Urio, Reinhard Keiser, Francesco Gasparini, Giovanni Bononcini, William Boyce, Henry Lawes, Michael Wise, Agostino Steffani, Franz Johann Habermann, and numerous others.In an essay published in 1985, John H. Roberts demonstrated that Handel's borrowings were unusually frequent even for his own era, enough to have been criticised by contemporaries (notably Johann Mattheson); Roberts suggested several reasons for Handel's practice, including Handel's attempts to make certain works sound more up-to-date and more radically, his \"basic lack of facility in inventing original ideas\" – though Roberts took care to argue that this does not \"diminish Handel's stature\", which should be \"judged not by his methods, still less by his motives in employing them, but solely by the effects he achieves.", "\"=== Homages ===After Handel's death, many composers wrote works based on or inspired by his music.", "The first movement from Louis Spohr's Symphony No.", "6, Op.", "116, \"The Age of Bach and Handel\", resembles two melodies from Handel's ''Messiah''.", "In 1797, Ludwig van Beethoven published the ''12 Variations in G major on \"See the conqu’ring hero comes\" from Judas Maccabaeus by Handel'', for cello and piano.", "In 1822, Beethoven composed the overture ''The Consecration of the House'', which also bears the influence of Handel.", "Guitar virtuoso Mauro Giuliani composed his ''Variations on a Theme by Handel'', Op.", "107 for guitar, based on Handel's Suite No.", "5 in E major, HWV 430, for harpsichord.In 1861, using a theme from the second of Handel's harpsichord suites, Johannes Brahms wrote the ''Variations and Fugue on a Theme by Handel'', Op.", "24, one of his most successful works (praised by Richard Wagner).", "Several works by the French composer Félix-Alexandre Guilmant use Handel's themes; for example, his ''March on a Theme by Handel'' uses a theme from ''Messiah''.", "French composer and flautist Philippe Gaubert wrote his ''Petite marche'' for flute and piano based on the fourth movement of Handel's Trio Sonata, Op.", "5, No.", "2, HWV 397.Argentine composer Luis Gianneo composed his ''Variations on a Theme by Handel'' for piano.", "In 1911, Australian-born composer and pianist Percy Grainger based one of his most famous works on the final movement of Handel's Suite No.", "5 in E major (just like Giuliani).", "He first wrote some variations on the theme, which he titled ''Variations on Handel's 'The Harmonious Blacksmith' ''.", "Then he used the first sixteen bars of his set of variations to create ''Handel in the Strand'', one of his most beloved pieces, of which he made several versions (for example, the piano solo version from 1930).", "Arnold Schoenberg's Concerto for String Quartet and Orchestra in B-flat major (1933) was composed after Handel's Concerto Grosso, Op.", "6/7.=== Veneration ===In the Lutheran Calendar of Saints Handel and Bach share the date 28 July with Heinrich Schütz, and Handel and Bach are commemorated in the calendar of saints prepared by the Order of Saint Luke for the use of the United Methodist Church.", "The Book of Common Worship of the Presbyterian Church (USA) (Westminster John Knox Press, 2018) commemorates him on 20 April.=== Fictional depictions ===In 1942, Handel was the subject of the British biographical film ''The Great Mr. Handel'' directed by Norman Walker and starring Wilfrid Lawson.", "It was made at Denham Studios by the Rank Organisation, and shot in Technicolor.", "He is also the central character in the television films ''God Rot Tunbridge Wells!''", "(1985) and ''Handel's Last Chance'' (1996) and the stage play ''All the Angels'' (2015).", "Handel was portrayed by Jeroen Krabbé as the antagonist in the film ''Farinelli'' (1994)." ], [ "See also", "* Handel Reference Database* Letters and writings of George Frideric Handel* Publications by Friedrich Chrysander* Valentine Snow* Drexel 5856" ], [ "Notes, references and sources", "=== Notes ====== References ====== Sources ===* * * * * * * * Consisting of three volumes (separately hosted online by zeno.org): Buch 1 : Jugendzeit und Lehrjahre in Deutschland (1685–1706); Buch 2 : Die große Wanderung (1707–1720).", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Leopold, Silke. ''''", "Bärenreiter 2009, * * * * * Meynell, Hugo.", "''The Art of Handel's Operas'', Lewiston, New York: Edwin Mellen Press (1986) * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * Buch 3: Zwanzig Jahre bei der italienischen Oper in London.", "* Buch 4: Übergang zum Oratorium.", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Handel Reference Database* * * * * Handel Houses:** Händel-Haus in Halle, Saxony-Anhalt, Handel's birthplace (archived 5 December 2008)** The Handel House Museum, Handel's home in London===Scores and recordings===* : includes Complete Works Edition ('''')* * The Mutopia Project provides free downloading of sheet music and MIDI files for some of Handel's works.", "* Digitized images of Old English Songs, containing works by Handel, housed at the University of Kentucky Libraries Special Collections* George Frideric Handel cylinder recordings, from the UCSB Cylinder Audio Archive at the University of California, Santa Barbara Library.", "* KunstDerFuge .mid files: George Frideric Handel – MIDI files" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina" ], [ "Introduction", "Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina'''Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina''' (between 3 February 1525 and 2 February 1526 – 2 February 1594) was an Italian composer of late Renaissance music.", "The central representative of the Roman School, with Orlande de Lassus and Tomás Luis de Victoria, Palestrina is considered the leading composer of late 16th-century Europe.Primarily known for his masses and motets, which number over 105 and 250 respectively, Palestrina had a long-lasting influence on the development of church and secular music in Europe, especially on the development of counterpoint.", "According to ''Grove Music Online'', Palestrina's \"success in reconciling the functional and aesthetic aims of Catholic church music in the post-Tridentine period earned him an enduring reputation as the ideal Catholic composer, as well as giving his style (or, more precisely, later generations' selective view of it) an iconic stature as a model of perfect achievement.\"" ], [ "Biography", "Palestrina was born in the town of Palestrina, near Rome, then part of the Papal States, to Neapolitan parents, Santo and Palma Pierluigi, in 1525, possibly on 3 February.", "His mother died on 16 January 1536, when Palestrina was 10.Documents suggest that he first visited Rome in 1537, when he was listed as a chorister at the Basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore, one of the papal basilicas of the Diocese of Rome, which allowed him to learn literature and music.", "In 1540, he moved to Rome, where he studied in the school of the Huguenot Claude Goudimel.", "He also studied with Robin Mallapert and Firmin Lebel.", "He spent most of his career in the city.Palestrina came of age as a musician under the influence of the northern European style of polyphony, which owed its dominance in Italy primarily to two influential Netherlandish composers, Guillaume Du Fay and Josquin des Prez, who had spent significant portions of their careers there.", "Italy itself had yet to produce anyone of comparable fame or skill in polyphony.", "Orlando di Lasso, who accompanied Palestrina in his early years, also played an important role in the formation of his style as an adviser.From 1544 to 1551, Palestrina was the organist of the Cathedral of St. Agapito, the principal church of his native city.", "In 1551 Pope Julius III (previously the Bishop of Palestrina) appointed Palestrina ''maestro di cappella'' or musical director of the Cappella Giulia, (Julian Chapel, in the sense of choir), the choir of the chapter of canons at St. Peter's Basilica.", "Palestrina dedicated to Julius III his first published compositions (1554), a book of Masses.", "It was the first book of Masses by a native composer, since in the Italian states of Palestrina's day, most composers of sacred music were from the Low Countries, France, or Spain.", "In fact the book was modelled on one by Cristóbal de Morales: the woodcut in the front is almost an exact copy of the one from the book by the Spanish composer.In 1555, Pope Paul IV ordered that all papal choristers should be clerical.", "As Palestrina married early in life and had four children, he was unable to continue in the chapel as a layman.St John Lateran, Rome, where Palestrina was musical directorDuring the next decade, Palestrina held positions similar to his Julian Chapel appointment at other chapels and churches in Rome, notably St. John Lateran (1555–1560, a post previously held by Lassus), and Santa Maria Maggiore (1561–1566).", "In 1571 he returned to the Julian Chapel and remained at St Peter's for the rest of his life.", "The decade of the 1570s was difficult for him personally: he lost his brother, two of his sons, and his wife, Lucrezia Gori, in three separate outbreaks of the plague (1572, 1575, and 1580, respectively).", "He seems to have considered becoming a priest at this time, but instead he remarried, this time to a wealthy widow, Virginia Dormoli.", "This finally gave him financial independence (he was not paid well as choirmaster) and was able to compose prolifically until his death.He died in Rome of pleurisy on 2 February 1594.As was usual, Palestrina was buried on the same day he died, in a plain coffin with a lead plate on which was inscribed ''Ioannes Petrus Aloysius Praenestinus Musicae Princeps''.", "A five-part ''Libera me Domine'' psalm for three choirs was sung at the funeral.", "Palestrina's funeral was held at St. Peter's, and he was buried beneath the floor of the basilica.", "His tomb was later covered by new construction and attempts to locate his grave have been unsuccessful.Italian composers Giovanni Maria Nanino and Gregorio Allegri, both of them disciples of his school, continued his works." ], [ "Music", "===Overview===Palestrina left hundreds of compositions, including 105 masses, 68 offertories, at least 140 madrigals and more than 300 motets.", "In addition, there are at least 72 hymns, 35 magnificats, 11 litanies, and four or five sets of lamentations.", "The ''Gloria'' melody from Palestrina's ''Magnificat Tertii Toni'' (1591) is widely used today in the resurrection hymn tune, ''Victory'' (The Strife Is O'er).His attitude toward madrigals was somewhat enigmatic: whereas in the preface to his collection of ''Canticum canticorum'' (Song of Songs) motets (1584) he renounced the setting of profane texts, only two years later he was back in print with Book II of his secular madrigals (some of these being among the finest compositions in the medium).", "He published just two collections of madrigals with profane texts, one in 1555 and another in 1586.The other two collections were spiritual madrigals, a genre beloved by the proponents of the Counter-Reformation.Palestrina's masses show how his compositional style developed over time.", "His ''Missa sine nomine'' seems to have been particularly attractive to Johann Sebastian Bach, who studied and performed it while writing the Mass in B minor.", "Most of Palestrina's masses appeared in thirteen volumes printed between 1554 and 1601, the last seven published after his death.Missa Papae Marcelli – KyrieOne of his most important works, the ''Missa Papae Marcelli'' (Pope Marcellus Mass) has been historically associated with erroneous information involving the Council of Trent.", "According to this tale (which forms the basis of Hans Pfitzner's opera ''Palestrina''), it was composed in order to persuade the Council of Trent that a draconian ban on the polyphonic treatment of text in sacred music (as opposed, that is, to a more directly intelligible homophonic treatment) was unnecessary.", "However, more recent scholarship shows that this mass was in fact composed before the cardinals convened to discuss the ban (possibly as much as 10 years before).", "Historical data indicates that the Council of Trent, as an official body, never actually banned any church music and failed to make any ruling or official statement on the subject.", "These stories originated from the unofficial points-of-view of some Council attendees who discussed their ideas with those not privy to the Council's deliberations.", "Those opinions and rumors have, over centuries, been transmuted into fictional accounts, put into print, and often incorrectly taught as historical fact.", "While Palestrina's compositional motivations are not known, he may have been quite conscious of the need for intelligible text; however, this was not to conform with any doctrine of the Counter-Reformation, because no such doctrine exists.", "His characteristic style remained consistent from the 1560s until the end of his life.", "Roche's hypothesis that Palestrina's seemingly dispassionate approach to expressive or emotive texts could have resulted from his having to produce many to order, or from a deliberate decision that any intensity of expression was unbecoming in church music, reflects modern expectations about expressive freedom and underestimates the extent to which the mood of Palestrina's settings is adapted to the liturgical occasions for which the texts were set, rather than the line-by-line meaning of the text, and depends on the distinctive characters of the church modes and variations in vocal grouping for expressive effect.", "Performing editions and recordings of Palestrina have tended to favour his works in the more familiar modes and standard (SATB) voicings, under-representing the expressive variety of his settings.There are two comprehensive editions of Palestrina's works: a 33-volume edition published by Breitkopf and Härtel, in Leipzig Germany between 1862 and 1894 edited by Franz Xaver Haberl, and a 34-volume edition published in the mid twentieth century, by Fratelli Scalera, in Rome, Italy edited by R. Casimiri and others.===The \"Palestrina Style\"===Portrait of Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina, 16th centuryOne of the hallmarks of Palestrina's music is that dissonances are typically relegated to the \"weak\" beats in a measure.", "This produced a smoother and more consonant type of polyphony which is now considered to be definitive of late Renaissance music, given Palestrina's position as Europe's leading composer (along with Orlande de Lassus and Victoria) in the wake of Josquin des Prez (d. 1521).The \"Palestrina style\" taught in college courses covering Renaissance counterpoint is often based on the codification by the 18th-century composer and theorist Johann Joseph Fux, published as ''Gradus ad Parnassum'' (Steps to Parnassus, 1725).", "Citing Palestrina as his model, Fux divided counterpoint into five ''species'' (hence the term \"species counterpoint\"), designed as exercises for the student, which deployed progressively more elaborate rhythmic combinations of voices while adhering to strict harmonic and melodic requirements.", "The method was widely adopted and was the main basis of contrapuntal training in the 19th century, but Fux had introduced a number of simplifications to the Palestrina style, notably the obligatory use of a ''cantus firmus'' in semibreves, which were corrected by later authors such as Knud Jeppesen and R. O. Morris.", "Palestrina's music conforms in many ways to Fux's rules, particularly in the fifth species but does not fit his pedagogical format.The main insight, that the \"pure\" style of polyphony achieved by Palestrina followed an invariable set of stylistic and combinational requirements, was justified.", "Fux's manual was endorsed by his contemporary J.S.", "Bach, who himself arranged two of Palestrina's masses for performance.According to Fux, Palestrina had established and followed these basic guidelines:* The flow of music is dynamic, not rigid or static.", "* Melody should contain few leaps between notes.", "(Jeppesen: \"The line is the starting point of Palestrina's style\".", ")* If a leap occurs, it must be small and immediately countered by stepwise motion in the opposite direction.", "* Dissonances are to be confined to suspensions, passing notes and weak beats.", "If one falls on a strong beat (in a suspension) it must be immediately resolved.Fux omits to mention the manner in which the musical phrasing of Palestrina followed the syntax of the sentences he was setting to music,something not always observed by earlier composers.", "Also to be noticed in Palestrina is a great deal of tone painting.", "Elementary examples of this are descending musical motion with Latin words like ''descendit'' (descends) or of a static musical or cadential moment with the words ''de coelis'' (from heaven)." ], [ "Reputation", "Palestrina, presenting his masses to Pope Julius III, 1554Palestrina was extremely famous in his day, and if anything, his reputation and influence increased after his death.", "J.S.", "Bach studied and hand-copied Palestrina's first book of ''Masses'', and in 1742 wrote his own adaptation of the Kyrie and Gloria of the ''Missa sine nomine.''", "Felix Mendelssohn placed him in the pantheon of the greatest musicians, writing, \"I always get upset when some praise only Beethoven, others only Palestrina and still others only Mozart or Bach.", "All four of them, I say, or none at all.", "\".Conservative music of the Roman school continued to be written in Palestrina's style (which in the 17th century came to be known as the ''prima pratica'') by such students of his as Giovanni Maria Nanino, Ruggiero Giovanelli, Arcangelo Crivelli, Teofilo Gargari, Francesco Soriano, and Gregorio Allegri.", "As late as the 1750s, Palestrina's style was still the reference for composers working in the motet form, as can be seen by Francesco Barsanti's ''Sei Antifones'' 'in the style of Palestrina' (c. 1750; published by Peter Welcker, c. 1762).Much research on Palestrina was done in the 19th century by Giuseppe Baini, who published a monograph in 1828 which made Palestrina famous again and reinforced the already existing legend that he was the \"Saviour of Church Music\" during the reforms of the Council of Trent.20th and 21st century scholarship by and large retains the view that Palestrina was a strong and refined composer whose music represents a summit of technical perfection.", "Contemporary analysis highlighted the modern qualities in the compositions of Palestrina such as research of color and sonority, use of sonic grouping in large-scale setting, interest in vertical as well as horizontal organization, studied attention to text setting.", "These unique characteristics, together with effortless delivery and an indefinable \"otherness\", constitute to this day the attraction of Palestrina's work.The Cagliari music conservatory in Cagliari, Italy is named in his honor.In 2009 a film about the composer was produced by German television ZDF/Arte.", "Title: ''Palestrina - Prince of Music'', directed by Georg Brintrup." ], [ "References", "===Notes======Citations======Sources===;Books and chapters* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Rice, John A.", "''Saint Cecilia in the Renaissance: The Emergence of a Musical Icon'' (Chicago, 2022), 169–76* * * * * ;Journal and encyclopedia articles* * *" ], [ "External links", "*** Palestrina Foundation*: a 1971 concert performance by Guildford Cathedral Choir, directed by Barry Rose* recording of Palestrina's ''Sicut Cervus'' from Coro Nostro, a mixed chamber choir based in Leicester, UK.", "Accessed 2010-04-17" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Group velocity" ], [ "Introduction", "Frequency dispersion in groups of gravity waves on the surface of deep water.", "The red square moves with the phase velocity, and the       green circles propagate with the group velocity.", "In this deep-water case, ''the phase velocity is twice the group velocity''.", "The red square overtakes two green circles when moving from the left to the right of the figure.New waves seem to emerge at the back of a wave group, grow in amplitude until they are at the center of the group, and vanish at the wave group front.For surface gravity waves, the water particle velocities are much smaller than the phase velocity, in most cases.Propagation of a wave packet demonstrating a phase velocity greater than the group velocity without dispersion.envelope of the wave moves rightward), while the phase velocity is negative (i.e., the peaks and troughs move leftward).The '''group velocity''' of a wave is the velocity with which the overall envelope shape of the wave's amplitudes—known as the ''modulation'' or ''envelope'' of the wave—propagates through space.For example, if a stone is thrown into the middle of a very still pond, a circular pattern of waves with a quiescent center appears in the water, also known as a capillary wave.", "The expanding ring of waves is the '''wave group''' or wave packet, within which one can discern individual waves that travel faster than the group as a whole.", "The amplitudes of the individual waves grow as they emerge from the trailing edge of the group and diminish as they approach the leading edge of the group." ], [ "History", "The idea of a group velocity distinct from a wave's phase velocity was first proposed by W.R. Hamilton in 1839, and the first full treatment was by Rayleigh in his \"Theory of Sound\" in 1877." ], [ "Definition and interpretation", "The group velocity is defined by the equation::where is the wave's angular frequency (usually expressed in radians per second), and is the angular wavenumber (usually expressed in radians per meter).", "The phase velocity is: .The function , which gives as a function of , is known as the dispersion relation.", "* If is directly proportional to , then the group velocity is exactly equal to the phase velocity.", "A wave of any shape will travel undistorted at this velocity.", "* If ''ω'' is a linear function of ''k'', but not directly proportional , then the group velocity and phase velocity are different.", "The envelope of a wave packet (see figure on right) will travel at the group velocity, while the individual peaks and troughs within the envelope will move at the phase velocity.", "* If is not a linear function of , the envelope of a wave packet will become distorted as it travels.", "Since a wave packet contains a range of different frequencies (and hence different values of ), the group velocity will be different for different values of .", "Therefore, the envelope does not move at a single velocity, but its wavenumber components () move at different velocities, distorting the envelope.", "If the wavepacket has a narrow range of frequencies, and is approximately linear over that narrow range, the pulse distortion will be small, in relation to the small nonlinearity.", "See further discussion below.", "For example, for deep water gravity waves, , and hence .", "This underlies the ''Kelvin wake pattern'' for the bow wave of all ships and swimming objects.", "Regardless of how fast they are moving, as long as their velocity is constant, on each side the wake forms an angle of 19.47° = arcsin(1/3) with the line of travel.", "===Derivation===One derivation of the formula for group velocity is as follows.Consider a wave packet as a function of position and time .Let be its Fourier transform at time ,:By the superposition principle, the wavepacket at any time is:where is implicitly a function of .Assume that the wave packet is almost monochromatic, so that is sharply peaked around a central wavenumber .Then, linearization gives:where : and (see next section for discussion of this step).", "Then, after some algebra,:There are two factors in this expression.", "The first factor, , describes a perfect monochromatic wave with wavevector , with peaks and troughs moving at the phase velocity within the envelope of the wavepacket.The other factor, :, gives the envelope of the wavepacket.", "This envelope function depends on position and time ''only'' through the combination .Therefore, the envelope of the wavepacket travels at velocity : which explains the group velocity formula.=== Other expressions ===For light, the refractive index , vacuum wavelength , and wavelength in the medium , are related by:with the phase velocity.The group velocity, therefore, can be calculated by any of the following formulas,:" ], [ "Dispersion", "Distortion of wave groups by higher-order dispersion effects, for surface gravity waves on deep water (with ).This shows the superposition of three wave components—with respectively 22, 25 and 29 wavelengths fitting in a periodic horizontal domain of 2 km length.", "The wave amplitudes of the components are respectively 1, 2 and 1 meter.Part of the previous derivation is the Taylor series approximation that::If the wavepacket has a relatively large frequency spread, or if the dispersion has sharp variations (such as due to a resonance), or if the packet travels over very long distances, this assumption is not valid, and higher-order terms in the Taylor expansion become important.As a result, the envelope of the wave packet not only moves, but also ''distorts,'' in a manner that can be described by the material's group velocity dispersion.", "Loosely speaking, different frequency-components of the wavepacket travel at different speeds, with the faster components moving towards the front of the wavepacket and the slower moving towards the back.", "Eventually, the wave packet gets stretched out.", "This is an important effect in the propagation of signals through optical fibers and in the design of high-power, short-pulse lasers." ], [ "Relation to phase velocity, refractive index and transmission speed" ], [ "In three dimensions", "For waves traveling through three dimensions, such as light waves, sound waves, and matter waves, the formulas for phase and group velocity are generalized in a straightforward way:*One dimension: *Three dimensions: where means the gradient of the angular frequency as a function of the wave vector , and is the unit vector in direction '''k'''.If the waves are propagating through an anisotropic (i.e., not rotationally symmetric) medium, for example a crystal, then the phase velocity vector and group velocity vector may point in different directions." ], [ "In lossy or gainful media", "The group velocity is often thought of as the velocity at which energy or information is conveyed along a wave.", "In most cases this is accurate, and the group velocity can be thought of as the signal velocity of the waveform.", "However, if the wave is travelling through an absorptive or gainful medium, this does not always hold.", "In these cases the group velocity may not be a well-defined quantity, or may not be a meaningful quantity.In his text “Wave Propagation in Periodic Structures”, Brillouin argued that in a lossy medium the group velocity ceases to have a clear physical meaning.", "An example concerning the transmission of electromagnetic waves through an atomic gas is given by Loudon.", "Another example is mechanical waves in the solar photosphere: The waves are damped (by radiative heat flow from the peaks to the troughs), and related to that, the energy velocity is often substantially lower than the waves' group velocity.Despite this ambiguity, a common way to extend the concept of group velocity to complex media is to consider spatially damped plane wave solutions inside the medium, which are characterized by a ''complex-valued'' wavevector.", "Then, the imaginary part of the wavevector is arbitrarily discarded and the usual formula for group velocity is applied to the real part of wavevector, i.e.,:Or, equivalently, in terms of the real part of complex refractive index, , one has:It can be shown that this generalization of group velocity continues to be related to the apparent speed of the peak of a wavepacket.", "The above definition is not universal, however: alternatively one may consider the time damping of standing waves (real , complex ), or, allow group velocity to be a complex-valued quantity.", "Different considerations yield distinct velocities, yet all definitions agree for the case of a lossless, gainless medium.The above generalization of group velocity for complex media can behave strangely, and the example of anomalous dispersion serves as a good illustration.At the edges of a region of anomalous dispersion, becomes infinite (surpassing even the speed of light in vacuum), and may easily become negative (its sign opposes Re) inside the band of anomalous dispersion.=== Superluminal group velocities ===Since the 1980s, various experiments have verified that it is possible for the group velocity (as defined above) of laser light pulses sent through lossy materials, or gainful materials, to significantly exceed the speed of light in vacuum .", "The peaks of wavepackets were also seen to move faster than .In all these cases, however, there is no possibility that signals could be carried faster than the speed of light in vacuum, since the high value of does not help to speed up the true motion of the sharp wavefront that would occur at the start of any real signal.", "Essentially the seemingly superluminal transmission is an artifact of the narrow band approximation used above to define group velocity and happens because of resonance phenomena in the intervening medium.", "In a wide band analysis it is seen that the apparently paradoxical speed of propagation of the signal envelope is actually the result of local interference of a wider band of frequencies over many cycles, all of which propagate perfectly causally and at phase velocity.", "The result is akin to the fact that shadows can travel faster than light, even if the light causing them always propagates at light speed; since the phenomenon being measured is only loosely connected with causality, it does not necessarily respect the rules of causal propagation, even if it under normal circumstances does so and leads to a common intuition." ], [ "See also", "*Wave propagation*Dispersion (water waves)*Dispersion (optics)*Wave propagation speed*Group delay *Group velocity dispersion*Group delay dispersion*Phase delay*Phase velocity*Signal velocity*Slow light*Front velocity*Matter wave#Group velocity*Soliton" ], [ "References", "===Notes======Further reading===*Crawford jr., Frank S. (1968).", "''Waves (Berkeley Physics Course, Vol.", "3)'', McGraw-Hill, Free online version* * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Greg Egan has an excellent Java applet on his web site that illustrates the apparent difference in group velocity from phase velocity.", "* Maarten Ambaum has a webpage with movie demonstrating the importance of group velocity to downstream development of weather systems.", "* Phase vs. Group Velocity – Various Phase- and Group-velocity relations (animation)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Group action" ], [ "Introduction", "The cyclic group consisting of the rotations by 0°, 120° and 240° acts on the set of the three vertices.In mathematics, many sets of transformations form a group under function composition; for example, the rotations around a point in the plane.", "It is often useful to consider the group as an abstract group, and to say that one has a '''group action''' of the abstract group that consists of performing the transformations of the group of transformations.", "The reason for distinguishing the group from the transformations is that, generally, a group of transformations of a structure acts also on various related structures; for example, the above rotation group '''acts''' also on triangles by transforming triangles into triangles.", "Formally, a '''group action''' of a group on a set is a group homomorphism from to some group (under function composition) of functions from to itself.If a group acts on a structure, it will usually also act on objects built from that structure.", "For example, the group of Euclidean isometries acts on Euclidean space and also on the figures drawn in it; in particular, it acts on the set of all triangles.", "Similarly, the group of symmetries of a polyhedron acts on the vertices, the edges, and the faces of the polyhedron.A group action on a vector space is called a representation of the group.", "In the case of a finite-dimensional vector space, it allows one to identify many groups with subgroups of the general linear group , the group of the invertible matrices of dimension over a field .The symmetric group acts on any set with elements by permuting the elements of the set.", "Although the group of all permutations of a set depends formally on the set, the concept of group action allows one to consider a single group for studying the permutations of all sets with the same cardinality." ], [ "Definition", "=== Left group action ===If is a group with identity element , and is a set, then a (''left'') ''group action'' of on is a function: that satisfies the following two axioms:: Identity:Compatibility:for all and in and all in .The group is then said to act on (from the left).", "A set together with an action of is called a (''left'') -''set''.It can be notationally convenient to curry the action , so that, instead, one has a collection of transformations , with one transformation for each group element .", "The identity and compatibility relations then read: and: with being function composition.", "The second axiom then states that the function composition is compatible with the group multiplication; they form a commutative diagram.", "This axiom can be shortened even further, and written as .With the above understanding, it is very common to avoid writing entirely, and to replace it with either a dot, or with nothing at all.", "Thus, can be shortened to or , especially when the action is clear from context.", "The axioms are then: : From these two axioms, it follows that for any fixed in , the function from to itself which maps to is a bijection, with inverse bijection the corresponding map for .", "Therefore, one may equivalently define a group action of on as a group homomorphism from into the symmetric group of all bijections from to itself.=== Right group action ===Likewise, a ''right group action'' of on is a function: that satisfies the analogous axioms:: Identity: Compatibility: (with often shortened to or when the action being considered is clear from context): Identity: Compatibility: for all and in and all in .The difference between left and right actions is in the order in which a product acts on .", "For a left action, acts first, followed by second.", "For a right action, acts first, followed by second.", "Because of the formula , a left action can be constructed from a right action by composing with the inverse operation of the group.", "Also, a right action of a group on can be considered as a left action of its opposite group on .Thus, for establishing general properties of group actions, it suffices to consider only left actions.", "However, there are cases where this is not possible.", "For example, the multiplication of a group induces both a left action and a right action on the group itself—multiplication on the left and on the right, respectively." ], [ "Notable properties of actions", "Let be a group acting on a set .", "The action is called '''' or '''' if for all implies that .", "Equivalently, the homomorphism from to the group of bijections of corresponding to the action is injective.The action is called '''' (or ''semiregular'' or ''fixed-point free'') if the statement that for some already implies that .", "In other words, no non-trivial element of fixes a point of .", "This is a much stronger property than faithfulness.For example, the action of any group on itself by left multiplication is free.", "This observation implies Cayley's theorem that any group can be embedded in a symmetric group (which is infinite when the group is).", "A finite group may act faithfully on a set of size much smaller than its cardinality (however such an action cannot be free).", "For instance the abelian 2-group (of cardinality ) acts faithfully on a set of size .", "This is not always the case, for example the cyclic group cannot act faithfully on a set of size less than .In general the smallest set on which a faithful action can be defined can vary greatly for groups of the same size.", "For example, three groups of size 120 are the symmetric group , the icosahedral group and the cyclic group .", "The smallest sets on which faithful actions can be defined for these groups are of size 5, 7, and 16 respectively.=== Transitivity properties ===The action of on is called '''' if for any two points there exists a so that .", "The action is '''' (or ''sharply transitive'', or '''') if it is both transitive and free.", "This means that given the element in the definition of transitivity is unique.", "If is acted upon simply transitively by a group then it is called a principal homogeneous space for or a -torsor.", "For an integer , the action is if has at least elements, and for any pair of -tuples with pairwise distinct entries (that is , when ) there exists a such that for .", "In other words the action on the subset of of tuples without repeated entries is transitive.", "For this is often called double, respectively triple, transitivity.", "The class of 2-transitive groups (that is, subgroups of a finite symmetric group whose action is 2-transitive) and more generally multiply transitive groups is well-studied in finite group theory.An action is when the action on tuples without repeated entries in is sharply transitive.", "==== Examples ====The action of the symmetric group of is transitive, in fact -transitive for any up to the cardinality of .", "If has cardinality , the action of the alternating group is -transitive but not -transitive.", "The action of the general linear group of a vector space on the set of non-zero vectors is transitive, but not 2-transitive (similarly for the action of the special linear group if the dimension of is at least 2).", "The action of the orthogonal group of a Euclidean space is not transitive on nonzero vectors but it is on the unit sphere.=== Primitive actions ===The action of on is called ''primitive'' if there is no partition of preserved by all elements of apart from the trivial partitions (the partition in a single piece and its dual, the partition into singletons).", "=== Topological properties ===Assume that is a topological space and the action of is by homeomorphisms.", "The action is ''wandering'' if every has a neighbourhood such that there are only finitely many with .More generally, a point is called a point of discontinuity for the action of if there is an open subset such that there are only finitely many with .", "The ''domain of discontinuity'' of the action is the set of all points of discontinuity.", "Equivalently it is the largest -stable open subset such that the action of on is wandering.", "In a dynamical context this is also called a ''wandering set''.", "The action is ''properly discontinuous'' if for every compact subset there are finitely many such that .", "This is strictly stronger than wandering; for instance the action of on given by is wandering and free but not properly discontinuous.The action by deck transformations of the fundamental group of a locally simply connected space on an covering space is wandering and free.", "Such actions can be characterized by the following property: every has a neighbourhood such that for every .", "Actions with this property are sometimes called ''freely discontinuous'', and the largest subset on which the action is freely discontinuous is then called the ''free regular set''.", "An action of a group on a locally compact space is called ''cocompact'' if there exists a compact subset such that .", "For a properly discontinuous action, cocompactness is equivalent to compactness of the quotient space .=== Actions of topological groups ===Now assume is a topological group and a topological space on which it acts by homeomorphisms.", "The action is said to be ''continuous'' if the map is continuous for the product topology.The action is said to be '''' if the map defined by is proper.", "This means that given compact sets the set of such that is compact.", "In particular, this is equivalent to proper discontinuity is a discrete group.", "It is said to be ''locally free'' if there exists a neighbourhood of such that for all and .", "The action is said to be ''strongly continuous'' if the orbital map is continuous for every .", "Contrary to what the name suggests, this is a weaker property than continuity of the action.If is a Lie group and a differentiable manifold, then the subspace of ''smooth points'' for the action is the set of points such that the map is smooth.", "There is a well-developed theory of Lie group actions, i.e.", "action which are smooth on the whole space.=== Linear actions ===If acts by linear transformations on a module over a commutative ring, the action is said to be irreducible if there are no proper nonzero -invariant submodules.", "It is said to be '' semisimple'' if it decomposes as a direct sum of irreducible actions." ], [ "<span id=\"orbstab\"></span><span id=\"quotient\"></span> Orbits and stabilizers", "In the compound of five tetrahedra, the symmetry group is the (rotational) icosahedral group of order 60, while the stabilizer of a single chosen tetrahedron is the (rotational) tetrahedral group of order 12, and the orbit space (of order 60/12 = 5) is naturally identified with the 5 tetrahedra – the coset corresponds to the tetrahedron to which sends the chosen tetrahedron.Consider a group acting on a set .", "The '''' of an element in is the set of elements in to which can be moved by the elements of .", "The orbit of is denoted by :The defining properties of a group guarantee that the set of orbits of (points in) under the action of form a partition of .", "The associated equivalence relation is defined by saying if and only if there exists a in with .", "The orbits are then the equivalence classes under this relation; two elements and are equivalent if and only if their orbits are the same, that is, .The group action is transitive if and only if it has exactly one orbit, that is, if there exists in with .", "This is the case if and only if for in (given that is non-empty).The set of all orbits of under the action of is written as (or, less frequently, as ), and is called the '''' of the action.", "In geometric situations it may be called the '''', while in algebraic situations it may be called the space of '''', and written , by contrast with the invariants (fixed points), denoted : the coinvariants are a while the invariants are a .", "The coinvariant terminology and notation are used particularly in group cohomology and group homology, which use the same superscript/subscript convention.=== Invariant subsets ===If is a subset of , then denotes the set .", "The subset is said to be ''invariant under '' if (which is equivalent ).", "In that case, also operates on by restricting the action to .", "The subset is called ''fixed under '' if for all in and all in .", "Every subset that is fixed under is also invariant under , but not conversely.Every orbit is an invariant subset of on which acts transitively.", "Conversely, any invariant subset of is a union of orbits.", "The action of on is ''transitive'' if and only if all elements are equivalent, meaning that there is only one orbit.A ''-invariant'' element of is such that for all .", "The set of all such is denoted and called the ''-invariants'' of .", "When is a -module, is the zeroth cohomology group of with coefficients in , and the higher cohomology groups are the derived functors of the functor of -invariants.=== Fixed points and stabilizer subgroups ===Given in and in with , it is said that \" is a fixed point of \" or that \" fixes \".", "For every in , the '''''' of with respect to (also called the ''isotropy group'' or ''little group'') is the set of all elements in that fix :This is a subgroup of , though typically not a normal one.", "The action of on is free if and only if all stabilizers are trivial.", "The kernel of the homomorphism with the symmetric group, , is given by the intersection of the stabilizers for all in .", "If is trivial, the action is said to be faithful (or effective).Let and be two elements in , and let be a group element such that .", "Then the two stabilizer groups and are related by .", "Proof: by definition, if and only if .", "Applying to both sides of this equality yields ; that is, .", "An opposite inclusion follows similarly by taking and .The above says that the stabilizers of elements in the same orbit are conjugate to each other.", "Thus, to each orbit, we can associate a conjugacy class of a subgroup of (that is, the set of all conjugates of the subgroup).", "Let denote the conjugacy class of .", "Then the orbit has type if the stabilizer of some/any in belongs to .", "A maximal orbit type is often called a principal orbit type.=== and Burnside's lemma ===Orbits and stabilizers are closely related.", "For a fixed in , consider the map given by .", "By definition the image of this map is the orbit .", "The condition for two elements to have the same image isIn other words, ''if and only if'' and lie in the same coset for the stabilizer subgroup .", "Thus, the fiber of over any in is contained in such a coset, and every such coset also occurs as a fiber.", "Therefore induces a between the set of cosets for the stabilizer subgroup and the orbit , which sends .", "This result is known as the ''orbit-stabilizer theorem''.If is finite then the orbit-stabilizer theorem, together with Lagrange's theorem, givesin other words the length of the orbit of times the order of its stabilizer is the order of the group.", "In particular that implies that the orbit length is a divisor of the group order.", ": '''Example:''' Let be a group of prime order acting on a set with elements.", "Since each orbit has either or elements, there are at orbits of length which are -invariant elements.This result is especially useful since it can be employed for counting arguments (typically in situations where is finite as well).Cubical graph with vertices labeled: '''Example:''' We can use the orbit-stabilizer theorem to count the automorphisms of a graph.", "Consider the cubical graph as pictured, and let denote its automorphism group.", "Then acts on the set of vertices , and this action is transitive as can be seen by composing rotations about the center of the cube.", "Thus, by the orbit-stabilizer theorem, .", "Applying the theorem now to the stabilizer , we can obtain .", "Any element of that fixes 1 must send 2 to either 2, 4, or 5.As an example of such automorphisms consider the rotation around the diagonal axis through 1 and 7 by , which permutes 2, 4, 5 and 3, 6, 8, and fixes 1 and 7.Thus, .", "Applying the theorem a third time gives .", "Any element of that fixes 1 and 2 must send 3 to either 3 or 6.Reflecting the cube at the plane through 1, 2, 7 and 8 is such an automorphism sending 3 to 6, thus .", "One also sees that consists only of the identity automorphism, as any element of fixing 1, 2 and 3 must also fix all other vertices, since they are determined by their adjacency to 1, 2 and 3.Combining the preceding calculations, we can now obtain .A result closely related to the orbit-stabilizer theorem is Burnside's lemma:where is the set of points fixed by .", "This result is mainly of use when and are finite, when it can be interpreted as follows: the number of orbits is equal to the average number of points fixed per group element.Fixing a group , the set of formal differences of finite -sets forms a ring called the Burnside ring of , where addition corresponds to disjoint union, and multiplication to Cartesian product." ], [ "Examples", "* The '''' action of any group on any set is defined by for all in and all in ; that is, every group element induces the identity permutation on .", "* In every group , left multiplication is an action of on : for all , in .", "This action is free and transitive (regular), and forms the basis of a rapid proof of Cayley's theorem – that every group is isomorphic to a subgroup of the symmetric group of permutations of the set .", "* In every group with subgroup , left multiplication is an action of on the set of cosets : for all , in .", "In particular if contains no nontrivial normal subgroups of this induces an isomorphism from to a subgroup of the permutation group of degree .", "* In every group , conjugation is an action of on : .", "An exponential notation is commonly used for the right-action variant: ; it satisfies (.", "* In every group with subgroup , conjugation is an action of on conjugates of : for all in and conjugates of .", "* An action of on a set uniquely determines and is determined by an automorphism of , given by the action of 1.Similarly, an action of on is equivalent to the data of an involution of .", "* The symmetric group and its subgroups act on the set by permuting its elements* The symmetry group of a polyhedron acts on the set of vertices of that polyhedron.", "It also acts on the set of faces or the set of edges of the polyhedron.", "* The symmetry group of any geometrical object acts on the set of points of that object.", "* For a coordinate space over a field with group of units , the mapping given by is a group action called scalar multiplication.", "* The automorphism group of a vector space (or graph, or group, or ring ...) acts on the vector space (or set of vertices of the graph, or group, or ring ...).", "* The general linear group and its subgroups, particularly its Lie subgroups (including the special linear group , orthogonal group , special orthogonal group , and symplectic group ) are Lie groups that act on the vector space .", "The group operations are given by multiplying the matrices from the groups with the vectors from .", "* The general linear group acts on by natural matrix action.", "The orbits of its action are classified by the greatest common divisor of coordinates of the vector in .", "* The affine group acts transitively on the points of an affine space, and the subgroup V of the affine group (that is, a vector space) has transitive and free (that is, ''regular'') action on these points; indeed this can be used to give a definition of an affine space.", "* The projective linear group and its subgroups, particularly its Lie subgroups, which are Lie groups that act on the projective space .", "This is a quotient of the action of the general linear group on projective space.", "Particularly notable is , the symmetries of the projective line, which is sharply 3-transitive, preserving the cross ratio; the Möbius group is of particular interest.", "* The isometries of the plane act on the set of 2D images and patterns, such as wallpaper patterns.", "The definition can be made more precise by specifying what is meant by image or pattern, for example, a function of position with values in a set of colors.", "Isometries are in fact one example of affine group (action).", "* The sets acted on by a group comprise the category of -sets in which the objects are -sets and the morphisms are -set homomorphisms: functions such that for every in .", "* The Galois group of a field extension acts on the field but has only a trivial action on elements of the subfield .", "Subgroups of correspond to subfields of that contain , that is, intermediate field extensions between and .", "* The additive group of the real numbers acts on the phase space of \"well-behaved\" systems in classical mechanics (and in more general dynamical systems) by time translation: if is in and is in the phase space, then describes a state of the system, and is defined to be the state of the system seconds later if is positive or seconds ago if is negative.", "*The additive group of the real numbers acts on the set of real functions of a real variable in various ways, with equal to, for example, , , , , , or , but not .", "* Given a group action of on , we can define an induced action of on the power set of , by setting for every subset of and every in .", "This is useful, for instance, in studying the action of the large Mathieu group on a 24-set and in studying symmetry in certain models of finite geometries.", "* The quaternions with norm 1 (the versors), as a multiplicative group, act on : for any such quaternion , the mapping is a counterclockwise rotation through an angle about an axis given by a unit vector ; is the same rotation; see quaternions and spatial rotation.", "Note that this is not a faithful action because the quaternion leaves all points where they were, as does the quaternion .", "* Given left -sets , , there is a left -set whose elements are -equivariant maps , and with left -action given by (where \"\" indicates right multiplication by ).", "This -set has the property that its fixed points correspond to equivariant maps ; more generally, it is an exponential object in the category of -sets." ], [ "Group actions and groupoids", "The notion of group action can be encoded by the ''action groupoid'' associated to the group action.", "The stabilizers of the action are the vertex groups of the groupoid and the orbits of the action are its components." ], [ "Morphisms and isomorphisms between ''G''-sets", "If and are two -sets, a ''morphism'' from to is a function such that for all in and all in .", "Morphisms of -sets are also called ''equivariant maps'' or -''maps''.The composition of two morphisms is again a morphism.", "If a morphism is bijective, then its inverse is also a morphism.", "In this case is called an ''isomorphism'', and the two -sets and are called ''isomorphic''; for all practical purposes, isomorphic -sets are indistinguishable.Some example isomorphisms:* Every regular action is isomorphic to the action of on given by left multiplication.", "* Every free action is isomorphic to , where is some set and acts on by left multiplication on the first coordinate.", "( can be taken to be the set of orbits .", ")* Every transitive action is isomorphic to left multiplication by on the set of left cosets of some subgroup of .", "( can be taken to be the stabilizer group of any element of the original -set.", ")With this notion of morphism, the collection of all -sets forms a category; this category is a Grothendieck topos (in fact, assuming a classical metalogic, this topos will even be Boolean)." ], [ "Variants and generalizations", "We can also consider actions of monoids on sets, by using the same two axioms as above.", "This does not define bijective maps and equivalence relations however.", "See semigroup action.Instead of actions on sets, we can define actions of groups and monoids on objects of an arbitrary category: start with an object of some category, and then define an action on as a monoid homomorphism into the monoid of endomorphisms of .", "If has an underlying set, then all definitions and facts stated above can be carried over.", "For example, if we take the category of vector spaces, we obtain group representations in this fashion.We can view a group as a category with a single object in which every morphism is invertible.", "A (left) group action is then nothing but a (covariant) functor from to the category of sets, and a group representation is a functor from to the category of vector spaces.", "A morphism between -sets is then a natural transformation between the group action functors.", "In analogy, an action of a groupoid is a functor from the groupoid to the category of sets or to some other category.In addition to continuous actions of topological groups on topological spaces, one also often considers smooth actions of Lie groups on smooth manifolds, regular actions of algebraic groups on algebraic varieties, and actions of group schemes on schemes.", "All of these are examples of group objects acting on objects of their respective category." ], [ "Gallery", "File:Octahedral-group-action.png|Orbit of a fundamental spherical triangle (marked in red) under action of the full octahedral group.File:Icosahedral-group-action.png|Orbit of a fundamental spherical triangle (marked in red) under action of the full icosahedral group." ], [ "See also", "* Gain graph* Group with operators* Measurable group action* Monoid action* Young–Deruyts development" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "References", "* * * * .", "* * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gzip" ], [ "Introduction", "'''gzip''' is a file format and a software application used for file compression and decompression.", "The program was created by Jean-loup Gailly and Mark Adler as a free software replacement for the compress program used in early Unix systems, and intended for use by GNU (from where the \"g\" of gzip is derived).", "Version 0.1 was first publicly released on 31 October 1992, and version 1.0 followed in February 1993.The decompression of the ''gzip'' format can be implemented as a streaming algorithm, an important feature for Web protocols, data interchange and ETL (in standard pipes) applications." ], [ "File format", "gzip is based on the DEFLATE algorithm, which is a combination of LZ77 and Huffman coding.", "DEFLATE was intended as a replacement for LZW and other patent-encumbered data compression algorithms which, at the time, limited the usability of compress and other popular archivers.", "\"gzip\" is often also used to refer to the gzip file format, which is:* a 10-byte header, containing a magic number (1f 8b), the compression method (08 for DEFLATE), 1-byte of header flags, a 4-byte timestamp, compression flags and the operating system ID.", "* optional extra headers as allowed by the header flags, including the original filename, a comment field, an \"extra\" field, and the lower half of a CRC-32 checksum for the header section.", "* a body, containing a DEFLATE-compressed payload* an 8-byte trailer, containing a CRC-32 checksum and the length of the original uncompressed data, modulo 232.tar program to compress multiple files.Although its file format also allows for multiple such streams to be concatenated (gzipped files are simply decompressed concatenated as if they were originally one file), gzip is normally used to compress just single files.", "Compressed archives are typically created by assembling collections of files into a single tar archive (also called tarball), and then compressing that archive with gzip.", "The final compressed file usually has the extension or .gzip is not to be confused with the ZIP archive format, which also uses DEFLATE.", "The ZIP format can hold collections of files without an external archiver, but is less compact than compressed tarballs holding the same data, because it compresses files individually and cannot take advantage of redundancy between files (solid compression)." ], [ "Implementations", "Various implementations of the program have been written.", "The most commonly known is the GNU Project's implementation using Lempel-Ziv coding (LZ77).", "OpenBSD's version of gzip is actually the compress program, to which support for the gzip format was added in OpenBSD 3.4.The 'g' in this specific version stands for ''gratis''.", "FreeBSD, DragonFly BSD and NetBSD use a BSD-licensed implementation instead of the GNU version; it is actually a command-line interface for zlib intended to be compatible with the GNU implementations' options.", "These implementations originally come from NetBSD, and support decompression of bzip2 and the Unix pack format.An alternative compression program achieving 3-8% better compression is Zopfli.", "It achieves gzip-compatible compression using more exhaustive algorithms, at the expense of compression time required.", "It does not affect decompression time.pigz, written by Mark Adler, is compatible with gzip and speeds up compression by using all available CPU cores and threads.=== Damage recovery ===Data in blocks prior to the first damaged part of the archive is usually fully readable.", "Data from blocks not demolished by damage that are located afterward ''may'' be recoverable through difficult workarounds." ], [ "Derivatives and other uses", "The tar utility included in most Linux distributions can extract .tar.gz files by passing the option, e.g., , where -z instructs decompression, -x means extraction, and -f specifies the name of the compressed archive file to extract from.", "Optionally, -v (''verbose'') lists files as they are being extracted.zlib is an abstraction of the DEFLATE algorithm in library form which includes support both for the gzip file format and a lightweight data stream format in its API.", "The zlib stream format, DEFLATE, and the gzip file format were standardized respectively as RFC 1950, RFC 1951, and RFC 1952.The gzip format is used in HTTP compression, a technique used to speed up the sending of HTML and other content on the World Wide Web.", "It is one of the three standard formats for HTTP compression as specified in RFC 2616.This RFC also specifies a zlib format (called \"DEFLATE\"), which is equal to the gzip format except that gzip adds eleven bytes of overhead in the form of headers and trailers.", "Still, the gzip format is sometimes recommended over zlib because Internet Explorer does not implement the standard correctly and cannot handle the zlib format as specified in RFC 1950.zlib DEFLATE is used internally by the Portable Network Graphics (PNG) format.Since the late 1990s, bzip2, a file compression utility based on a block-sorting algorithm, has gained some popularity as a gzip replacement.", "It produces considerably smaller files (especially for source code and other structured text), but at the cost of memory and processing time (up to a factor of 4).AdvanceCOMP and 7-Zip can produce gzip-compatible files, using an internal DEFLATE implementation with better compression ratios than gzip itself—at the cost of more processor time compared to the reference implementation.Research published in 2023 showed that simple lossless compression techniques such as gzip could be combined with a k-nearest-neighbor classifier to create an attractive alternative to deep neural networks for text classification in natural language processing.", "This approach has been shown to equal and in some cases outperform conventional approaches such as BERT due to low resource requirements, e.g.", "no requirement for GPU hardware." ], [ "See also", "* Comparison of file archivers* Free file format* List of archive formats* List of Unix commands* Libarc* Brotli" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* RFC 1952 – GZIP file format specification version 4.3" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "General anaesthetic" ], [ "Introduction", "'''General anaesthetics''' (or '''anesthetics''') are often defined as compounds that induce a loss of consciousness in humans or loss of righting reflex in animals.", "Clinical definitions are also extended to include an induced coma that causes lack of awareness to painful stimuli, sufficient to facilitate surgical applications in clinical and veterinary practice.", "General anaesthetics do not act as analgesics and should also not be confused with sedatives.", "General anaesthetics are a structurally diverse group of compounds whose mechanisms encompass multiple biological targets involved in the control of neuronal pathways.", "The precise workings are the subject of some debate and ongoing research.General anesthetics elicit a state of general anesthesia.", "It remains somewhat controversial regarding how this state should be defined.", "General anesthetics, however, typically elicit several key reversible effects: immobility, analgesia, amnesia, unconsciousness, and reduced autonomic responsiveness to noxious stimuli." ], [ "Mode of administration", "General anaesthetics can be administered either as gases or vapours (inhalational anaesthetics), or as injections (intravenous or even intramuscular).", "All of these agents share the property of being quite hydrophobic (i.e., as liquids, they are not freely miscible—or mixable—in water, and as gases they dissolve in oils better than in water).", "It is possible to deliver anaesthesia solely by inhalation or injection, but most commonly the two forms are combined, with an injection given to induce anaesthesia and a gas used to maintain it.===Inhalation===General anesthetics are frequently administered as volatile liquids or gases.Inhalational anaesthetic substances are either volatile liquids or gases, and are usually delivered using an anaesthesia machine.", "An anaesthesia machine allows composing a mixture of oxygen, anaesthetics and ambient air, delivering it to the patient and monitoring patient and machine parameters.", "Liquid anaesthetics are vapourised in the machine.Many compounds have been used for inhalation anaesthesia, but only a few are still in widespread use.", "Desflurane, isoflurane and sevoflurane are the most widely used volatile anaesthetics today.", "They are often combined with nitrous oxide.", "Older, less popular volatile anaesthetics include halothane, enflurane, and methoxyflurane.", "Researchers are also actively exploring the use of xenon as an anaesthetic.===Injection===Injectable anaesthetics are used for the induction and maintenance of a state of unconsciousness.", "Anaesthetists prefer to use intravenous injections, as they are faster, generally less painful and more reliable than intramuscular or subcutaneous injections.", "Among the most widely used drugs are:* Propofol* Etomidate* Barbiturates such as methohexital and thiopentone/thiopental* Benzodiazepines such as midazolam* Ketamine is used in the UK as \"field anaesthesia\", for instance in road traffic incidents or similar situations where an operation must be conducted at the scene or when there is not enough time to move to an operating room, while preferring other anaesthetics where conditions allow their use.", "It is more frequently used in the operative setting in the US.Benzodiazepines are sedatives and are used in combinations with other general anaesthetics." ], [ "Mechanism of action", "Induction and maintenance of general anesthesia, and the control of the various physiological side effects is typically achieved through a combinatorial drug approach.", "Individual general anesthetics vary with respect to their specific physiological and cognitive effects.", "While general anesthesia induction may be facilitated by one general anesthetic, others may be used in parallel or subsequently to achieve and maintain the desired anesthetic state.", "The drug approach utilized is dependent upon the procedure and the needs of the healthcare providers.It is postulated that general anaesthetics exert their action by the activation of inhibitory central nervous system (CNS) receptors, and the inactivation of CNS excitatory receptors.", "The relative roles of different receptors is still under debate, but evidence exists for particular targets being involved with certain anaesthetics and drug effects.Below are several key targets of general anesthetics that likely mediate their effects:=== GABAA receptor agonists ===* GABAA receptors are chloride channels that hyperpolarize neurons and function as inhibitory CNS receptors.", "General anesthetics that agonize them are typically used to induce a state of sedation and/or unconsciousness.", "Such drugs include propofol, etomidate, isoflurane, benzodiazepines (midazolam, lorazepam, diazepam), and barbiturates (sodium thiopental, methohexital).=== NMDA receptor antagonists ===* Ketamine, an NMDA receptor antagonist, is used primarily for its analgesic effects and in an off-label capacity for its anti-depressant effects.", "This drug, however, also alters arousal and is often used in parallel with other general anesthetics to help maintain a state of general anesthesia.", "Administration of ketamine alone leads to a dissociative state, in which a patient may experience auditory and visual hallucinations.", "Additionally, the perception of pain is dissociated from the perception of noxious stimuli.", "Ketamine appears to bind preferentially to the NMDA receptors on GABAergic interneurons, which may partially explain its effects.=== Two-pore potassium channels (K2Ps) activation ===* Two-pore potassium channels (K2Ps) modulate the potassium conductance that contributes to the resting membrane potential in neurons.", "Opening of these channels therefore facilitates a hyperpolarizing current, which reduces neuronal excitability.", "K2Ps have been found to be affected by general anesthetics (esp.", "halogenated inhalation anesthetics) and are currently under investigation as potential targets.", "The K2P channel family comprises six subfamilies, which includes 15 unique members.", "13 of these channels (excluding TWIK-1 and TWIK-2 homomers) are affected by general anesthetics.", "While it has not been determined that general anesthetics bind directly to these channels, nor is it clear how these drugs affect K2P conductance, electrophysiological studies have shown that certain general anesthetics result in K2P channel activation.", "This drug-elicited channel activation has been shown to be dependent upon specific amino-acids within certain K2P channels (i.e.", "TREK-1 and TASK channels).", "In the case of TREK-1, activation was shown through an anesthetic perturbation to membrane lipid clusters and activation of phospholipase D2; direct binding of anesthetics to purified reconstituted TREK-1 had no effect on conductance.", "The effects of certain general anesthetics are less pronounced in K2P knock-out mice, as compared to their wild-type counterparts.", "Cumulatively, TASK-1, TASK-3, and TREK-1 are particularly well supported as playing a role in the induction of general anesthesia.=== Others ===* Opioid receptor agonists are primarily utilized for their analgesic effects.", "These drugs, however, can also elicit sedation.", "This effect is mediated by opioid actions on both opioid and acetylcholine receptors.", "While these drugs can lead to decreased arousal, they do not elicit a loss of consciousness.", "For this reason, they are often used in parallel with other general anesthetics to help maintain a state of general anesthesia.", "Such drugs include morphine, fentanyl, hydromorphone, and remifentanil.", "* Administration of the alpha2 adrenergic receptor agonist dexmedetomidine leads to sedation that resembles non-REM sleep.", "It is used in parallel with other general anesthetics to help maintain a state of general anesthesia, in an off-label capacity.", "Notably, patients are easily aroused from this non-REM sleep state.", "* Dopamine receptor antagonists have sedative and antiemetic properties.", "Previously, they were used in parallel with opioids to elicit neuroleptic anesthesia (catalepsy, analgesia, and unresponsiveness).", "They are no longer used in the context, because patients experiencing neuroleptic anesthesia were frequently aware of the medical procedures being performed, but could not move or express emotion.", "Such drugs include haloperidol and droperidol." ], [ "Stages of anesthesia", "During administration of an anesthetic, the receiver goes through different stages of behavior ultimately leading to unconsciousness.", "This process is accelerated with intravenous anesthetics, so much so that it is negligible to consider during their use.", "The four stages of anesthesia are described using Guedel's signs, signifying the depth of anesthesia.", "These stages describe effects of anesthesia mainly on cognition, muscular activity, and respiration.=== Stage I: Analgesia ===The receiver of the anesthesia primarily feels analgesia followed by amnesia and a sense of confusion moving into the next stage.=== Stage II: Excitement ===Stage II is often characterized by the receiver being delirious and confused, with severe amnesia.", "Irregularities in the patterns of respiration are common at this stage of anesthesia.", "Nausea and vomiting are also indicators of Stage II anesthesia.", "Struggling and panic can sometimes occur as a result of delirium.=== Stage III: Surgical Anesthesia ===Normal breathing resumes at the beginnings of Stage III.", "Nearing the end of the stage, breathing ceases completely.", "Indicators for stage III anesthesia include loss of the eyelash reflex as well as regular breathing.", "Depth of stage III anesthesia can often be gauged by eye movement and pupil size.=== Stage IV: Medullary Depression ===No respiration occurs in stage IV.", "This is shortly followed by circulatory failure and depression of the vasomotor centers.", "Death is common at this stage of anesthesia if no breathing and circulatory support is available." ], [ "Physiological side effects", "Aside from the clinically advantageous effects of general anesthetics, there are a number of other physiological consequences mediated by this class of drug.", "Notably, a reduction in blood pressure can be facilitated by a variety of mechanisms, including reduced cardiac contractility and dilation of the vasculature.", "This drop in blood pressure may activate a reflexive increase in heart rate, due to a baroreceptor-mediated feedback mechanism.", "Some anesthetics, however, disrupt this reflex.Patients under general anesthesia are at greater risk of developing hypothermia, as the aforementioned vasodilation increases the heat lost via peripheral blood flow.", "By and large, these drugs reduce the internal body temperature threshold at which autonomic thermoregulatory mechanisms are triggered in response to cold.", "(On the other hand, the threshold at which thermoregulatory mechanisms are triggered in response to heat is typically increased.", ")Anesthetics typically affect respiration.", "Inhalational anesthetics elicit bronchodilation, an increase in respiratory rate, and reduced tidal volume.", "The net effect is decreased respiration, which must be managed by healthcare providers, while the patient is under general anesthesia.", "The reflexes that function to alleviate airway obstructions are also dampened (e.g.", "gag and cough).", "Compounded with a reduction in lower esophageal sphincter tone, which increases the frequency of regurgitation, patients are especially prone to asphyxiation while under general anesthesia.", "Healthcare providers closely monitor individuals under general anesthesia and utilize a number of devices, such as an endotracheal tube, to ensure patient safety.General anesthetics also affect the chemoreceptor trigger zone and brainstem vomiting center, eliciting nausea and vomiting following treatment." ], [ "Pharmacokinetics", "=== Intravenous general anesthetics =======Induction====Intravenously delivered general anesthetics are typically small and highly lipophilic molecules.", "These characteristics facilitate their rapid preferential distribution into the brain and spinal cord, which are both highly vascularized and lipophilic.", "It is here where the actions of these drugs lead to general anesthesia induction.====Elimination====Following distribution into the central nervous system (CNS), the anesthetic drug then diffuses out of the CNS into the muscles and viscera, followed by adipose tissues.", "In patients given a single injection of drug, this redistribution results in termination of general anesthesia.", "Therefore, following administration of a single anesthetic bolus, duration of drug effect is dependent solely upon the redistribution kinetics.The half-life of an anesthetic drug following a prolonged infusion, however, depends upon both drug redistribution kinetics, drug metabolism in the liver, and existing drug concentration in fat.", "When large quantities of an anesthetic drug have already been dissolved in the body's fat stores, this can slow its redistribution out of the brain and spinal cord, prolonging its CNS effects.", "For this reason, the half-lives of these infused drugs are said to be context-dependent.", "Generally, prolonged anesthetic drug infusions result in longer drug half-lives, slowed elimination from the brain and spinal cord, and delayed termination of general anesthesia.=== Inhalational general anesthetics ===Minimal alveolar concentration (MAC) is the concentration of an inhalational anesthetic in the lungs that prevents 50% of patients from responding to surgical incision.", "This value is used to compare the potencies of various inhalational general anesthetics and impacts the partial-pressure of the drug utilized by healthcare providers during general anesthesia induction and/or maintenance.==== Induction ====437x437pxInduction of anesthesia is facilitated by diffusion of an inhaled anesthetic drug into the brain and spinal cord.", "Diffusion throughout the body proceeds until the drug's partial pressure within the various tissues is equivalent to the partial pressure of the drug within the lungs.", "Healthcare providers can control the rate of anesthesia induction and final tissue concentrations of the anesthetic by varying the partial pressure of the inspired anesthetic.", "A higher drug partial pressure in the lungs will drive diffusion more rapidly throughout the body and yield a higher maximum tissue concentration.", "Respiratory rate and inspiratory volume will also affect the promptness of anesthesia onset, as will the extent of pulmonary blood flow.The partition coefficient of a gaseous drug is indicative of its relative solubility in various tissues.", "This metric is the relative drug concentration between two tissues, when their partial pressures are equal (gas:blood, fat:blood, etc.).", "Inhalational anesthetics vary widely with respect to their tissue solubilities and partition coefficients.", "Anesthetics that are highly soluble require many molecules of drug to raise the partial pressure within a given tissue, as opposed to minimally soluble anesthetics which require relatively few.", "Generally, inhalational anesthetics that are minimally soluble reach equilibrium more quickly.", "Inhalational anesthetics that have a high fat:blood partition coefficient, however, reach equilibrium more slowly, due to the minimal vascularization of fat tissue, which serves as a large, slowly-filling reservoir for the drug.==== Elimination ====Inhaled anesthetics are eliminated via expiration, following diffusion into the lungs.", "This process is dependent largely upon the anesthetic blood:gas partition coefficient, tissue solubility, blood flow to the lungs, and patient respiratory rate and inspiratory volume.", "For gases that have minimal tissue solubility, termination of anesthesia generally occurs as rapidly as the onset of anesthesia.", "For gases that have high tissue solubility, however, termination of anesthesia is generally context-dependent.", "As with intravenous anesthetic infusions, prolonged delivery of highly soluble anesthetic gases generally results in longer drug half-lives, slowed elimination from the brain and spinal cord, and delayed termination of anesthesia.Metabolism of inhaled anesthetics is generally not a major route of drug elimination." ], [ "See also", "* Local anaesthesia* Mechanical ventilation* Intraoperative awareness* History of general anesthesia" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Geoffrey Chaucer" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Geoffrey Chaucer''' (; – 25 October 1400) was an English poet, author, and civil servant best known for ''The Canterbury Tales''.", "He has been called the \"father of English literature\", or, alternatively, the \"father of English poetry\".", "He was the first writer to be buried in what has since come to be called Poets' Corner, in Westminster Abbey.", "Chaucer also gained fame as a philosopher and astronomer, composing the scientific ''A Treatise on the Astrolabe'' for his 10-year-old son Lewis.", "He maintained a career in the civil service as a bureaucrat, courtier, diplomat, and member of parliament.Among Chaucer's many other works are ''The Book of the Duchess'', ''The House of Fame'', ''The Legend of Good Women'', and ''Troilus and Criseyde''.", "He is seen as crucial in legitimising the literary use of Middle English when the dominant literary languages in England were still Anglo-Norman French and Latin.", "Chaucer's contemporary Thomas Hoccleve hailed him as \"\" (i.e., the first one capable of finding poetic matter in English).", "Almost two thousand English words are first attested to in Chaucerian manuscripts.", "As scholar Bruce Holsinger has argued, charting Chaucer's life and work comes with many challenges related to the \"difficult disjunction between the written record of his public and private life and the literary corpus he left behind\".", "His recorded works and his life show many personas that are \"ironic, mysterious, elusive or cagey\" in nature, ever-changing with new discoveries." ], [ "Life", "===Origin===Arms of Geoffrey Chaucer: ''Per pale argent and gules, a bend counterchanged.", "''Chaucer was born in London most likely in the early 1340s (by some accounts, including his monument, he was born in 1343), though the precise date and location remain unknown.", "The Chaucer family offers an extraordinary example of upward mobility.", "His great-grandfather was a tavern keeper, his grandfather worked as a purveyor of wines, and his father John Chaucer rose to become an important wine merchant with a royal appointment.", "Several previous generations of Geoffrey Chaucer's family had been vintners and merchants in Ipswich.", "His family name is derived from the French ''chaucier'', once thought to mean 'shoemaker', but now known to mean a maker of hose or leggings.", "In 1324, his father John Chaucer was kidnapped by an aunt in the hope of marrying the 12-year-old to her daughter in an attempt to keep the property in Ipswich.", "The aunt was imprisoned and fined £250, now equivalent to about £, which suggests that the family was financially secure.John Chaucer married Agnes Copton, who inherited properties in 1349, including 24 shops in London from her uncle Hamo de Copton, who is described in a will dated 3 April 1354 and listed in the City Hustings Roll as \"moneyer\", said to be a moneyer at the Tower of London.", "In the City Hustings Roll 110, 5, Ric II, dated June 1380, Chaucer refers to himself as ''me Galfridum Chaucer, filium Johannis Chaucer, Vinetarii, Londonie'', which translates as: \"I, Geoffrey Chaucer, son of the vintner John Chaucer, London\".===Career===Chaucer as a pilgrim, in the early 15th-century illuminated Ellesmere manuscript of the ''Canterbury Tales''While records concerning the lives of his contemporaries William Langland and the Gawain Poet are practically non-existent, since Chaucer was a public servant his official life is very well documented, with nearly five hundred written items testifying to his career.", "The first of the \"Chaucer Life Records\" appears in 1357, in the household accounts of Elizabeth de Burgh, the Countess of Ulster, when he became the noblewoman's page through his father's connections, a common medieval form of apprenticeship for boys into knighthood or prestige appointments.", "The countess was married to Lionel of Antwerp, 1st Duke of Clarence, the second surviving son of the king, Edward III, and the position brought the teenage Chaucer into the close court circle, where he was to remain for the rest of his life.", "He also worked as a courtier, a diplomat, and a civil servant, as well as working for the king from 1389 to 1391 as Clerk of the King's Works.In 1359, the early stages of the Hundred Years' War, Edward III invaded France and Chaucer travelled with Lionel of Antwerp, Elizabeth's husband, as part of the English army.", "In 1360, he was captured during the siege of Rheims.", "Edward paid £16 for his ransom, a considerable sum , and Chaucer was released.Chaucer crest ''A unicorn's head'' with canting arms of Roet below: ''Gules, three Catherine Wheels or'' (French ''rouet'' = \"spinning wheel\").", "Ewelme Church, Oxfordshire.", "Possibly funeral helm of his son Thomas ChaucerAfter this, Chaucer's life is uncertain, but he seems to have travelled in France, Spain, and Flanders, possibly as a messenger and perhaps even going on a pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostela.", "Around 1366, Chaucer married Philippa (de) Roet.", "She was a lady-in-waiting to Edward III's queen, Philippa of Hainault, and a sister of Katherine Swynford, who later () became the third wife of John of Gaunt.", "It is uncertain how many children Chaucer and Philippa had, but three or four are most commonly cited.", "His son, Thomas Chaucer, had an illustrious career, as chief butler to four kings, envoy to France, and Speaker of the House of Commons.", "Thomas's daughter, Alice, married the Duke of Suffolk.", "Thomas's great-grandson (Geoffrey's great-great-grandson), John de la Pole, Earl of Lincoln, was the heir to the throne designated by Richard III before he was deposed.", "Geoffrey's other children probably included Elizabeth Chaucy, a nun at Barking Abbey, Agnes, an attendant at Henry IV's coronation; and another son, Lewis Chaucer.", "Chaucer's \"Treatise on the Astrolabe\" was written for Lewis.According to tradition, Chaucer studied law in the Inner Temple (an Inn of Court) at this time.", "He became a member of the royal court of Edward III as a ''valet de chambre'', yeoman, or esquire on 20 June 1367, a position which could entail a wide variety of tasks.", "His wife also received a pension for court employment.", "He travelled abroad many times, at least some of them in his role as a valet.", "In 1368, he may have attended the wedding of Lionel of Antwerp to Violante Visconti, daughter of Galeazzo II Visconti, in Milan.", "Two other literary stars of the era were in attendance: Jean Froissart and Petrarch.", "Around this time, Chaucer is believed to have written ''The Book of the Duchess'' in honour of Blanche of Lancaster, the late wife of John of Gaunt, who died in 1369 of the plague.Chaucer travelled to Picardy the next year as part of a military expedition; in 1373 he visited Genoa and Florence.", "Numerous scholars such as Skeat, Boitani, and Rowland suggested that, on this Italian trip, he came into contact with Petrarch or Boccaccio.", "They introduced him to medieval Italian poetry, the forms and stories of which he would use later.", "The purposes of a voyage in 1377 are mysterious, as details within the historical record conflict.", "Later documents suggest it was a mission, along with Jean Froissart, to arrange a marriage between the future King Richard II and a French princess, thereby ending the Hundred Years' War.", "If this was the purpose of their trip, they seem to have been unsuccessful, as no wedding occurred.In 1378, Richard II sent Chaucer as an envoy (secret dispatch) to the Visconti and to Sir John Hawkwood, English condottiere (mercenary leader) in Milan.", "It has been speculated that it was Hawkwood on whom Chaucer based his character the Knight in the ''Canterbury Tales'', for a description matches that of a 14th-century condottiere.A 19th-century depiction of ChaucerA possible indication that his career as a writer was appreciated came when Edward III granted Chaucer \"a gallon of wine daily for the rest of his life\" for some unspecified task.", "This was an unusual grant, but given on a day of celebration, St George's Day, 1374, when artistic endeavours were traditionally rewarded, it is assumed to have been for another early poetic work.", "It is not known which, if any, of Chaucer's extant works prompted the reward, but the suggestion of him as poet to a king places him as a precursor to later poets laureate.", "Chaucer continued to collect the liquid stipend until Richard II came to power, after which it was converted to a monetary grant on 18 April 1378.Chaucer obtained the very substantial job of comptroller of the customs for the port of London, which he began on 8 June 1374.He must have been suited for the role as he continued in it for twelve years, a long time in such a post at that time.", "His life goes undocumented for much of the next ten years, but it is believed that he wrote (or began) most of his famous works during this period.", "Chaucer's \"only surviving handwriting\" dates from this period.", "This is a request for temporary leave from work presented to King Richard II, hitherto believed to be the work of one of his subordinates due to the low level of language.On 16 October 1379 Thomas Staundon filed a legal action against his former servant Cecily Chaumpaigne and Chaucer, accusing Chaucer of unlawfully employing Chaumpaigne before her term of service was completed, which violated the Statute of Labourers.", "Though eight court documents dated between October 1379 and July 1380 survive from the action, the case was never prosecuted and no details survive about Chaumpaigne's service or how she came to leave Staundon's employ for Chaucer's.It is not known if Chaucer was in the City of London at the time of the Peasants' Revolt, but if he was, he would have seen its leaders pass almost directly under his apartment window at Aldgate.Blue plaque at the site of the Tabard inn in Southwark, London where in 1386 the pilgrims in ''The Canterbury Tales'' set off to visit Canterbury CathedralWhile still working as comptroller, Chaucer appears to have moved to Kent, being appointed as one of the commissioners of peace for Kent, at a time when French invasion was a possibility.", "He is thought to have started work on ''The Canterbury Tales'' in the early 1380s.", "He also became a member of parliament for Kent in 1386, and attended the 'Wonderful Parliament' that year.", "He appears to have been present at most of the 71 days it sat, for which he was paid £24 9s.", "On 15 October that year, he gave a deposition in the case of ''Scrope v. Grosvenor''.", "There is no further reference after this date to Philippa, Chaucer's wife, and she is presumed to have died in 1387.He survived the political upheavals caused by the Lords Appellants, despite the fact that Chaucer knew some of the men executed over the affair quite well.On 12 July 1389, Chaucer was appointed the clerk of the king's works, a sort of foreman organising most of the king's building projects.", "No major works were begun during his tenure, but he did conduct repairs on Westminster Palace, St. George's Chapel, Windsor, continued building the wharf at the Tower of London, and built the stands for a tournament held in 1390.It may have been a difficult job, but it paid two shillings a day, more than three times his salary as a comptroller.", "Chaucer was also appointed keeper of the lodge at the King's park in Feckenham Forest in Worcestershire, which was a largely honorary appointment.===Later life===In September 1390, records say that Chaucer was robbed and possibly injured while conducting the business, and he stopped working in this capacity on 17 June 1391.He began as Deputy Forester in the royal forest of Petherton Park in North Petherton, Somerset on 22 June.", "This was no sinecure, with maintenance an important part of the job, although there were many opportunities to derive profit.Richard II granted him an annual pension of 20 pounds in 1394 (), and Chaucer's name fades from the historical record not long after Richard's overthrow in 1399.The last few records of his life show his pension renewed by the new king, and his taking a lease on a residence within the close of Westminster Abbey on 24 December 1399.Henry IV renewed the grants assigned by Richard, but ''The Complaint of Chaucer to his Purse'' hints that the grants might not have been paid.", "The last mention of Chaucer is on 5 June 1400 when some debts owed to him were repaid.Chaucer died of unknown causes on 25 October 1400, although the only evidence for this date comes from the engraving on his tomb which was erected more than 100 years after his death.", "There is some speculation that he was murdered by enemies of Richard II or even on the orders of his successor Henry IV, but the case is entirely circumstantial.", "Chaucer was buried in Westminster Abbey in London, as was his right owing to his status as a tenant of the Abbey's close.", "In 1556, his remains were transferred to a more ornate tomb, making him the first writer interred in the area now known as Poets' Corner." ], [ "Relationship to John of Gaunt", "Chaucer was a close friend of John of Gaunt, the wealthy Duke of Lancaster and father of Henry IV, and he served under Lancaster's patronage.", "Near the end of their lives, Lancaster and Chaucer became brothers-in-law when Lancaster married Katherine Swynford (de Roet) in 1396; she was the sister of Philippa (de) Roet, whom Chaucer had married in 1366.Chaucer's ''The Book of the Duchess'' (also known as the ''Deeth of Blaunche the Duchesse'') was written in commemoration of Blanche of Lancaster, John of Gaunt's first wife.", "The poem refers to John and Blanche in allegory as the narrator relates the tale of \"A long castel with walles white/Be Seynt Johan, on a ryche hil\" (1318–1319) who is mourning grievously after the death of his love, \"And goode faire White she het/That was my lady name ryght\" (948–949).", "The phrase \"long castel\" is a reference to Lancaster (also called \"Loncastel\" and \"Longcastell\"), \"walles white\" is thought to be an oblique reference to Blanche, \"Seynt Johan\" was John of Gaunt's name-saint, and \"ryche hil\" is a reference to Richmond.", "These references reveal the identity of the grieving black knight of the poem as John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster and Earl of Richmond.", "\"White\" is the English translation of the French word \"blanche\", implying that the white lady was Blanche of Lancaster.===Poem ''Fortune''===Chaucer's short poem ''Fortune'', believed to have been written in the 1390s, is also thought to refer to Lancaster.", "\"Chaucer as narrator\" openly defies ''Fortune'', proclaiming that he has learned who his enemies are through her tyranny and deceit, and declares \"my suffisaunce\" (15) and that \"over himself hath the maystrye\" (14).", "''Fortune'', in turn, does not understand Chaucer's harsh words to her for she believes that she has been kind to him, claims that he does not know what she has in store for him in the future, but most importantly, \"And eek thou hast thy beste frend alyve\" (32, 40, 48).", "Chaucer retorts, \"My frend maystow nat reven, blind goddesse\" (50) and orders her to take away those who merely pretend to be his friends.", "''Fortune'' turns her attention to three princes whom she implores to relieve Chaucer of his pain and \"Preyeth his beste frend of his noblesse/That to som beter estat he may atteyne\" (78–79).", "The three princes are believed to represent the dukes of Lancaster, York, and Gloucester, and a portion of line 76 (\"as three of you or tweyne\") is thought to refer to the ordinance of 1390 which specified that no royal gift could be authorised without the consent of at least two of the three dukes.Most conspicuous in this short poem is the number of references to Chaucer's \"beste frend\".", "''Fortune'' states three times in her response to the plaintiff, \"And also, you still have your best friend alive\" (32, 40, 48); she also refers to his \"beste frend\" in the envoy when appealing to his \"noblesse\" to help Chaucer to a higher estate.", "The narrator makes a fifth reference when he rails at ''Fortune'' that she shall not take his friend from him." ], [ "Religious beliefs", "Chaucer seems to have respected and admired Christians and to have been one himself, though he also recognised that many people in the church were venal and corrupt.", "He wrote in ''Canterbury Tales'', \"now I beg all those that listen to this little treatise, or read it, that if there be anything in it that pleases them, they thank our Lord Jesus Christ for it, from whom proceeds all understanding and goodness.\"" ], [ "Literary works", "Portrait of Chaucer (16th century).", "The arms are: ''Per pale argent and gules, a bend counterchanged''.Chaucer's first major work was ''The Book of the Duchess'', an elegy for Blanche of Lancaster who died in 1368.Two other early works were ''Anelida and Arcite'' and ''The House of Fame''.", "He wrote many of his major works in a prolific period when he held the job of customs comptroller for London (1374 to 1386).", "His ''Parlement of Foules'', ''The Legend of Good Women'', and ''Troilus and Criseyde'' all date from this time.", "It is believed that he started ''The Canterbury Tales'' in the 1380s.Chaucer also translated Boethius' ''Consolation of Philosophy'' and ''The Romance of the Rose'' by Guillaume de Lorris (extended by Jean de Meun).", "Eustache Deschamps called himself a \"nettle in Chaucer's garden of poetry\".", "In 1385, Thomas Usk made glowing mention of Chaucer, and John Gower also lauded him.Chaucer's ''Treatise on the Astrolabe'' describes the form and use of the astrolabe in detail and is sometimes cited as the first example of technical writing in the English language, and it indicates that Chaucer was versed in science in addition to his literary talents.", "''The equatorie of the planetis'' is a scientific work similar to the ''Treatise'' and sometimes ascribed to Chaucer because of its language and handwriting, an identification which scholars no longer deem tenable." ], [ "Influence", "===Linguistic===Portrait of Chaucer from a 1412 manuscript by Thomas Hoccleve, who may have met ChaucerChaucer wrote in continental accentual-syllabic metre, a style which had developed in English literature since around the 12th century as an alternative to the alliterative Anglo-Saxon metre.", "Chaucer is known for metrical innovation, inventing the rhyme royal, and he was one of the first English poets to use the five-stress line, a decasyllabic cousin to the iambic pentametre, in his work, with only a few anonymous short works using it before him.", "The arrangement of these five-stress lines into rhyming couplets, first seen in his ''The Legend of Good Women'', was used in much of his later work and became one of the standard poetic forms in English.", "His early influence as a satirist is also important, with the common humorous device, the funny accent of a regional dialect, apparently making its first appearance in ''The Reeve's Tale''.The poetry of Chaucer, along with other writers of the era, is credited with helping to standardise the London Dialect of the Middle English language from a combination of the Kentish and Midlands dialects.", "This is probably overstated; the influence of the court, chancery and bureaucracy – of which Chaucer was a part – remains a more probable influence on the development of Standard English.Modern English is somewhat distanced from the language of Chaucer's poems owing to the effect of the Great Vowel Shift some time after his death.", "This change in the pronunciation of English, still not fully understood, makes the reading of Chaucer difficult for the modern audience.The status of the final ''-e'' in Chaucer's verse is uncertain: it seems likely that during the period of Chaucer's writing the final ''-e'' was dropping out of colloquial English and that its use was somewhat irregular.", "It may have been a vestige of the Old English dative singular suffix ''-e'' attached to most nouns.", "Chaucer's versification suggests that the final ''-e'' is sometimes to be vocalised, and sometimes to be silent; however, this remains a point on which there is disagreement.", "When it is vocalised, most scholars pronounce it as a schwa.Apart from the irregular spelling, much of the vocabulary is recognisable to the modern reader.", "Chaucer is also recorded in the ''Oxford English Dictionary'' as the first author to use many common English words in his writings.", "These words were probably frequently used in the language at the time but Chaucer, with his ear for common speech, is the earliest extant manuscript source.", "''Acceptable'', ''alkali'', ''altercation'', ''amble'', ''angrily'', ''annex'', ''annoyance'', ''approaching'', ''arbitration'', ''armless'', ''army'', ''arrogant'', ''arsenic'', ''arc'', ''artillery'' and ''aspect'' are just some of almost two thousand English words first attested in Chaucer.===Literary===Portrait of Chaucer by Romantic era poet and painter William Blake, c. 1800Widespread knowledge of Chaucer's works is attested by the many poets who imitated or responded to his writing.", "John Lydgate was one of the earliest poets to write continuations of Chaucer's unfinished ''Tales'' while Robert Henryson's ''Testament of Cresseid'' completes the story of Cressida left unfinished in his ''Troilus and Criseyde''.", "Many of the manuscripts of Chaucer's works contain material from these poets and later appreciations by the Romantic era poets were shaped by their failure to distinguish the later \"additions\" from original Chaucer.Writers of the 17th and 18th centuries, such as John Dryden, admired Chaucer for his stories, but not for his rhythm and rhyme, as few critics could then read Middle English and the text had been butchered by printers, leaving a somewhat unadmirable mess.", "It was not until the late 19th century that the official Chaucerian canon, accepted today, was decided upon, largely as a result of Walter William Skeat's work.", "Roughly seventy-five years after Chaucer's death, ''The Canterbury Tales'' was selected by William Caxton to be one of the first books to be printed in England.===English===Chaucer is sometimes considered the source of the English vernacular tradition.", "His achievement for the language can be seen as part of a general historical trend towards the creation of a vernacular literature, after the example of Dante, in many parts of Europe.", "A parallel trend in Chaucer's own lifetime was underway in Scotland through the work of his slightly earlier contemporary, John Barbour, and was likely to have been even more general, as is evidenced by the example of the Pearl Poet in the north of England.Although Chaucer's language is much closer to Modern English than the text of ''Beowulf'', such that (unlike that of ''Beowulf'') a Modern English-speaker with a large vocabulary of archaic words may understand it, it differs enough that most publications modernise his idiom.", "The following is a sample from the prologue of ''The Summoner's Tale'' that compares Chaucer's text to a modern translation:: ''Original Text'' ''Modern Translation'' This frere bosteth that he knoweth helle, This friar boasts that he knows hell, And God it woot, that it is litel wonder; And God knows that it is little wonder; Freres and feendes been but lyte asonder.", "Friars and fiends are seldom far apart.", "For, pardee, ye han ofte tyme herd telle For, by God, you have ofttimes heard tell How that a frere ravyshed was to helle How a friar was taken to hell In spirit ones by a visioun; In spirit, once by a vision; And as an angel ladde hym up and doun, And as an angel led him up and down, To shewen hym the peynes that the were, To show him the pains that were there, In al the place saugh he nat a frere; In all the place he saw not a friar; Of oother folk he saugh ynowe in wo.", "Of other folk he saw enough in woe.", "Unto this angel spak the frere tho: Unto this angel spoke the friar thus: Now, sire, quod he, han freres swich a grace \"Now sir\", said he, \"Have friars such a grace That noon of hem shal come to this place?", "That none of them come to this place?\"", "Yis, quod this aungel, many a millioun!", "\"Yes\", said the angel, \"many a million!\"", "And unto sathanas he ladde hym doun.", "And unto Satan the angel led him down.", "–And now hath sathanas, –seith he, –a tayl \"And now Satan has\", he said, \"a tail, Brodder than of a carryk is the sayl.", "Broader than a galleon's sail.", "Hold up thy tayl, thou sathanas!–quod he; Hold up your tail, Satan!\"", "said he.", "–shewe forth thyn ers, and lat the frere se \"Show forth your arse, and let the friar see Where is the nest of freres in this place!– Where the nest of friars is in this place!\"", "And er that half a furlong wey of space, And before half a furlong of space, Right so as bees out swarmen from an hyve, Just as bees swarm out from a hive, Out of the develes ers ther gonne dryve Out of the devil's arse there were driven Twenty thousand freres on a route, Twenty thousand friars on a rout, And thurghout helle swarmed al aboute, And throughout hell swarmed all about, And comen agayn as faste as they may gon, And came again as fast as they could go, And in his ers they crepten everychon.", "And every one crept into his arse.", "He clapte his tayl agayn and lay ful stille.", "He shut his tail again and lay very still.===Valentine's Day and romance===The first recorded association of Valentine's Day with romantic love is believed to be in Chaucer's ''Parlement of Foules'' (1382), a dream vision portraying a parliament for birds to choose their mates.", "Honouring the first anniversary of the engagement of fifteen-year-old King Richard II of England to fifteen-year-old Anne of Bohemia:For this was on seynt Volantynys dayWhan euery bryd comyth there to chese his makeOf euery kynde that men thinke mayAnd that so heuge a noyse gan they makeThat erthe & eyr & tre & euery lakeSo ful was that onethe was there spaceFor me to stonde, so ful was al the place." ], [ "Critical reception", "===Early criticism===The poet Thomas Hoccleve, who may have met Chaucer and considered him his role model, hailed Chaucer as \"the firste fyndere of our fair langage\".", "John Lydgate referred to Chaucer within his own text ''The Fall of Princes'' as the \"lodesterre (guiding principle) … off our language\".", "Around two centuries later, Sir Philip Sidney greatly praised ''Troilus and Criseyde'' in his own ''Defence of Poesie''.", "During the nineteenth and early twentieth century, Chaucer came to be viewed as a symbol of the nation's poetic heritage.", "In Charles Dickens' 1850 novel ''David Copperfield'', the Victorian era author echoed Chaucer's use of Luke 23:34 from ''Troilus and Criseyde'' (Dickens held a copy in his library among other works of Chaucer), with G. K. Chesterton writing, \"among the great canonical English authors, Chaucer and Dickens have the most in common.", "\"===Manuscripts and audience===The large number of surviving manuscripts of Chaucer's works is testimony to the enduring interest in his poetry prior to the arrival of the printing press.", "There are 83 surviving manuscripts of the Canterbury Tales (in whole or part) alone, along with sixteen of ''Troilus and Criseyde'', including the personal copy of Henry IV.", "Given the ravages of time, it is likely that these surviving manuscripts represent hundreds since lost.Chaucer's original audience was a courtly one, and would have included women as well as men of the upper social classes.", "Yet even before his death in 1400, Chaucer's audience had begun to include members of the rising literate, middle and merchant classes.", "This included many Lollard sympathisers who may well have been inclined to read Chaucer as one of their own.Lollards were particularly attracted to Chaucer's satirical writings about friars, priests, and other church officials.", "In 1464, John Baron, a tenant farmer in Agmondesham (Amersham in Buckinghamshire), was brought before John Chadworth, the Bishop of Lincoln, on charges of being a Lollard heretic; he confessed to owning a \"boke of the Tales of Caunterburie\" among other suspect volumes.===Printed editions===Title page of Chaucer's ''Canterbury Tales'', c. 1400The first English printer, William Caxton, was responsible for the first two folio editions of ''The Canterbury Tales'' which were published in 1478 and 1483.Caxton's second printing, by his own account, came about because a customer complained that the printed text differed from a manuscript he knew; Caxton obligingly used the man's manuscript as his source.", "Both Caxton editions carry the equivalent of manuscript authority.", "Caxton's edition was reprinted by his successor, Wynkyn de Worde, but this edition has no independent authority.", "Richard Pynson, the King's Printer under Henry VIII for about twenty years, was the first to collect and sell something that resembled an edition of the collected works of Chaucer; however, in the process, he introduced five previously printed texts that are now known not to be Chaucer's.", "(The collection is actually three separately printed texts, or collections of texts, bound together as one volume.", ")There is a likely connection between Pynson's product and William Thynne's a mere six years later.", "Thynne had a successful career from the 1520s until his death in 1546, as chief clerk of the kitchen of Henry VIII, one of the masters of the royal household.", "He spent years comparing various versions of Chaucer's works, and selected 41 pieces for publication.", "While there were questions over the authorship of some of the material, there is not doubt this was the first comprehensive view of Chaucer's work.", "''The Workes of Geffray Chaucer,'' published in 1532, was the first edition of Chaucer's collected works.", "Thynne's editions of ''Chaucer's Works'' in 1532 and 1542 were the first major contributions to the existence of a widely recognised Chaucerian canon.", "Thynne represents his edition as a book sponsored by and supportive of the king who is praised in the preface by Sir Brian Tuke.", "Thynne's canon brought the number of apocryphal works associated with Chaucer to a total of 28, even if that was not his intention.", "As with Pynson, once included in the ''Works'', pseudepigraphic texts stayed with those works, regardless of their first editor's intentions.Opening page of The Knight's Tale—the first tale from ''Canterbury Tales''—from the Ellesmere Manuscript held in the Huntington Library in San Marino, CaliforniaIn the 16th and 17th centuries, Chaucer was printed more than any other English author, and he was the first author to have his works collected in comprehensive single-volume editions in which a Chaucer canon began to cohere.", "Some scholars contend that 16th-century editions of Chaucer's ''Works'' set the precedent for all other English authors in terms of presentation, prestige and success in print.", "These editions certainly established Chaucer's reputation, but they also began the complicated process of reconstructing and frequently inventing Chaucer's biography and the canonical list of works which were attributed to him.Probably the most significant aspect of the growing apocrypha is that, beginning with Thynne's editions, it began to include medieval texts that made Chaucer appear as a proto-Protestant Lollard, primarily the ''Testament of Love'' and ''The Plowman's Tale''.", "As \"Chaucerian\" works that were not considered apocryphal until the late 19th century, these medieval texts enjoyed a new life, with English Protestants carrying on the earlier Lollard project of appropriating existing texts and authors who seemed sympathetic—or malleable enough to be construed as sympathetic—to their cause.", "The official Chaucer of the early printed volumes of his ''Works'' was construed as a proto-Protestant as the same was done, concurrently, with William Langland and ''Piers Plowman''.The famous ''Plowman's Tale'' did not enter Thynne's ''Works'' until the second, 1542, edition.", "Its entry was surely facilitated by Thynne's inclusion of Thomas Usk's ''Testament of Love'' in the first edition.", "The ''Testament of Love'' imitates, borrows from, and thus resembles Usk's contemporary, Chaucer.", "(''Testament of Love'' also appears to borrow from ''Piers Plowman''.", ")Since the ''Testament of Love'' mentions its author's part in a failed plot (book 1, chapter 6), his imprisonment, and (perhaps) a recantation of (possibly Lollard) heresy, all this was associated with Chaucer.", "(Usk himself was executed as a traitor in 1388.)", "John Foxe took this recantation of heresy as a defence of the true faith, calling Chaucer a \"right Wiclevian\" and (erroneously) identifying him as a schoolmate and close friend of John Wycliffe at Merton College, Oxford.", "(Thomas Speght is careful to highlight these facts in his editions and his \"Life of Chaucer\".)", "No other sources for the ''Testament of Love'' exist—there is only Thynne's construction of whatever manuscript sources he had.John Stow (1525–1605) was an antiquarian and also a chronicler.", "His edition of Chaucer's ''Works'' in 1561 brought the apocrypha to more than 50 titles.", "More were added in the 17th century, and they remained as late as 1810, well after Thomas Tyrwhitt pared the canon down in his 1775 edition.", "The compilation and printing of Chaucer's works was, from its beginning, a political enterprise, since it was intended to establish an English national identity and history that grounded and authorised the Tudor monarchy and church.", "What was added to Chaucer often helped represent him favourably to Protestant England.Speght's edition.", "The two top shields display: ''Per pale argent and gules, a bend counterchanged'' (Chaucer), that at bottom left: ''Gules, three Catherine Wheels or'' (Roet, canting arms, French ''rouet'' = \"spinning wheel\"), and that at bottom right displays Roet quartering ''Argent, a chief gules overall a lion rampant double queued or'' (Chaucer) with crest of Chaucer above: ''A unicorn head''In his 1598 edition of the ''Works'', Speght (probably taking cues from Foxe) made good use of Usk's account of his political intrigue and imprisonment in the ''Testament of Love'' to assemble a largely fictional \"Life of Our Learned English Poet, Geffrey Chaucer\".", "Speght's \"Life\" presents readers with an erstwhile radical in troubled times much like their own, a proto-Protestant who eventually came round to the king's views on religion.", "Speght states, \"In the second year of Richard the second, the King tooke Geffrey Chaucer and his lands into his protection.", "The occasion wherof no doubt was some daunger and trouble whereinto he was fallen by favouring some rash attempt of the common people.\"", "Under the discussion of Chaucer's friends, namely John of Gaunt, Speght further explains:::Yet it seemeth that Chaucer was in some trouble in the daies of King Richard the second, as it may appeare in the Testament of Loue: where hee doth greatly complaine of his owne rashnesse in following the multitude, and of their hatred against him for bewraying their purpose.", "And in that complaint which he maketh to his empty purse, I do find a written copy, which I had of Iohn Stow (whose library hath helped many writers) wherein ten times more is adioined, then is in print.", "Where he maketh great lamentation for his wrongfull imprisonment, wishing death to end his daies: which in my iudgement doth greatly accord with that in the Testament of Loue.", "Moreouer we find it thus in Record.Later, in \"The Argument\" to the ''Testament of Love'', Speght adds:::Chaucer did compile this booke as a comfort to himselfe after great griefs conceiued for some rash attempts of the commons, with whome he had ioyned, and thereby was in feare to loose the fauour of his best friends.Speght is also the source of the famous tale of Chaucer being fined for beating a Franciscan friar in Fleet Street, as well as a fictitious coat of arms and family tree.", "Ironically – and perhaps consciously so – an introductory, apologetic letter in Speght's edition from Francis Beaumont defends the unseemly, \"low\", and bawdy bits in Chaucer from an elite, classicist position.Francis Thynne noted some of these inconsistencies in his ''Animadversions'', insisting that Chaucer was not a commoner, and he objected to the friar-beating story.", "Yet Thynne himself underscores Chaucer's support for popular religious reform, associating Chaucer's views with his father William Thynne's attempts to include ''The Plowman's Tale'' and ''The Pilgrim's Tale'' in the 1532 and 1542 ''Works''.The myth of the Protestant Chaucer continues to have a lasting impact on a large body of Chaucerian scholarship.", "Though it is extremely rare for a modern scholar to suggest Chaucer supported a religious movement that did not exist until more than a century after his death, the predominance of this thinking for so many centuries left it for granted that Chaucer was at least hostile toward Catholicism.", "This assumption forms a large part of many critical approaches to Chaucer's works, including neo-Marxism.Alongside Chaucer's ''Works'', the most impressive literary monument of the period is John Foxe's ''Acts and Monuments...''.", "As with the Chaucer editions, it was critically significant to English Protestant identity and included Chaucer in its project.", "Foxe's Chaucer both derived from and contributed to the printed editions of Chaucer's ''Works'', particularly the pseudepigrapha.", "''Jack Upland'' was first printed in Foxe's ''Acts and Monuments'', and then it appeared in Speght's edition of Chaucer's ''Works''.Speght's \"Life of Chaucer\" echoes Foxe's own account, which is itself dependent upon the earlier editions that added the ''Testament of Love'' and ''The Plowman's Tale'' to their pages.", "Like Speght's Chaucer, Foxe's Chaucer was also a shrewd (or lucky) political survivor.", "In his 1563 edition, Foxe \"thought it not out of season … to couple … some mention of Geoffrey Chaucer\" with a discussion of John Colet, a possible source for John Skelton's character Colin Clout.Probably referring to the 1542 Act for the Advancement of True Religion, Foxe said that he \"marvels to consider … how the bishops, condemning and abolishing all manner of English books and treatises which might bring the people to any light of knowledge, did yet authorise the works of Chaucer to remain still and to be occupied; who, no doubt, saw into religion as much almost as even we do now, and uttereth in his works no less, and seemeth to be a right Wicklevian, or else there never was any.", "And that, all his works almost, if they be thoroughly advised, will testify (albeit done in mirth, and covertly); and especially the latter end of his third book of the Testament of Love … Wherein, except a man be altogether blind, he may espy him at the full: although in the same book (as in all others he useth to do), under shadows covertly, as under a visor, he suborneth truth in such sort, as both privily she may profit the godly-minded, and yet not be espied of the crafty adversary.", "And therefore the bishops, belike, taking his works but for jests and toys, in condemning other books, yet permitted his books to be read.", "\"John Urry's 1721 edition of Chaucer's complete works.", "It is the first edition of Chaucer to be entirely in Roman type.", "It is significant, too, that Foxe's discussion of Chaucer leads into his history of \"The Reformation of the Church of Christ in the Time of Martin Luther\" when \"Printing, being opened, incontinently ministered unto the church the instruments and tools of learning and knowledge; which were good books and authors, which before lay hid and unknown.", "The science of printing being found, immediately followed the grace of God; which stirred up good wits aptly to conceive the light of knowledge and judgment: by which light darkness began to be espied, and ignorance to be detected; truth from error, religion from superstition, to be discerned.", "\"Foxe downplays Chaucer's bawdy and amorous writing, insisting that it all testifies to his piety.", "Material that is troubling is deemed metaphoric, while the more forthright satire (which Foxe prefers) is taken literally.John Urry produced the first edition of the complete works of Chaucer in a Latin font, published posthumously in 1721.Included were several tales, according to the editors, for the first time printed, a biography of Chaucer, a glossary of old English words, and testimonials of author writers concerning Chaucer dating back to the 16th century.", "According to A. S. G Edwards, \"This was the first collected edition of Chaucer to be printed in roman type.", "The life of Chaucer prefixed to the volume was the work of the Reverend John Dart, corrected and revised by Timothy Thomas.", "The glossary appended was also mainly compiled by Thomas.", "The text of Urry's edition has often been criticised by subsequent editors for its frequent conjectural emendations, mainly to make it conform to his sense of Chaucer's metre.", "The justice of such criticisms should not obscure his achievement.", "His is the first edition of Chaucer for nearly a hundred and fifty years to consult any manuscripts and is the first since that of William Thynne in 1534 to seek systematically to assemble a substantial number of manuscripts to establish his text.", "It is also the first edition to offer descriptions of the manuscripts of Chaucer's works, and the first to print texts of 'Gamelyn' and 'The Tale of Beryn', works ascribed to, but not by, Chaucer.", "\"===Modern scholarship===Statue of Chaucer, dressed as a Canterbury pilgrim, on the corner of Best Lane and the High Street, CanterburyAlthough Chaucer's works had long been admired, serious scholarly work on his legacy did not begin until the late 18th century, when Thomas Tyrwhitt edited ''The Canterbury Tales'', and it did not become an established academic discipline until the 19th century.Scholars such as Frederick James Furnivall, who founded the Chaucer Society in 1868, pioneered the establishment of diplomatic editions of Chaucer's major texts, along with careful accounts of Chaucer's language and prosody.", "Walter William Skeat, who like Furnivall was closely associated with the ''Oxford English Dictionary'', established the base text of all of Chaucer's works with his edition, published by Oxford University Press.", "Later editions by John H. Fisher and Larry D. Benson offered further refinements, along with critical commentary and bibliographies.With the textual issues largely addressed, if not resolved, attention turned to the questions of Chaucer's themes, structure, and audience.", "The Chaucer Research Project at the University of Chicago began in 1924.The ''Chaucer Review'' was founded in 1966 and has maintained its position as the pre-eminent journal of Chaucer studies.", "In 1994, literary critic Harold Bloom placed Chaucer among the greatest Western writers of all time, and in 1997 expounded on William Shakespeare's debt to the author." ], [ "List of works", "The following major works are in rough chronological order but scholars still debate the dating of most of Chaucer's output and works made up from a collection of stories may have been compiled over a long period.===Major works===*''The Book of the Duchess''*''The House of Fame''*''Anelida and Arcite''*''Parlement of Foules''*''Troilus and Criseyde''*''The Legend of Good Women''*''The Canterbury Tales''*''A Treatise on the Astrolabe''===Translations===*Translation of ''Roman de la Rose'', possibly extant as ''The Romaunt of the Rose''*Translation of Boethius' ''Consolation of Philosophy'' as ''Boece''===Short poems===*''An ABC''*''Chaucers Wordes unto Adam, His Owne Scriveyn'' (disputed)*''The Complaint unto Pity''*''The Complaint of Chaucer to his Purse''*''The Complaint of Mars''*''The Complaint of Venus''*''A Complaint to His Lady''*''The Former Age''*''Fortune''*''Gentilesse''*''Lak of Stedfastnesse''*''Lenvoy de Chaucer a Scogan''*''Lenvoy de Chaucer a Bukton''*''Proverbs''''Balade to Rosemounde'', 1477 print*''Balade to Rosemounde''*''Truth''*''Womanly Noblesse''===Poems of doubtful authorship===*''Against Women Unconstant''*''A Balade of Complaint''*''Complaynt D'Amours''*''Merciles Beaute''*''The Equatorie of the Planets'' – A rough translation of a Latin work derived from an Arab work of the same title.", "It is a description of the construction and use of a planetary equatorium, which was used in calculating planetary orbits and positions (at the time it was believed the sun orbited the Earth).", "The similar ''Treatise on the Astrolabe'', not usually doubted as Chaucer's work, in addition to Chaucer's name as a gloss to the manuscript are the main pieces of evidence for the ascription to Chaucer.", "However, the evidence Chaucer wrote such a work is questionable, and as such is not included in ''The Riverside Chaucer''.", "If Chaucer did not compose this work, it was probably written by a contemporary.===Works presumed lost===*''Of the Wreched Engendrynge of Mankynde'', possible translation of Innocent III's ''De miseria conditionis humanae''*''Origenes upon the Maudeleyne''*''The Book of the Leoun'' – \"The Book of the Lion\" is mentioned in Chaucer's retraction.", "It has been speculated that it may have been a redaction of Guillaume de Machaut's 'Dit dou lyon,' a story about courtly love (a subject about which Chaucer frequently wrote).===Spurious works===*''The Pilgrim's Tale'' – written in the 16th century with many Chaucerian allusions*''The Plowman's Tale'' or ''The Complaint of the Ploughman'' – a Lollard satire later appropriated as a Protestant text*''Pierce the Ploughman's Crede'' – a Lollard satire later appropriated by Protestants*''The Ploughman's Tale'' – its body is largely a version of Thomas Hoccleve's \"Item de Beata Virgine\"*\"La Belle Dame Sans Merci\" – frequently attributed to Chaucer, but actually a translation by Richard Roos of Alain Chartier's poem*''The Testament of Love'' – actually by Thomas Usk*''Jack Upland'' – a Lollard satire*''The Floure and the Leafe'' – a 15th-century allegory===Derived works===*''God Spede the Plough'' – Borrows twelve stanzas of Chaucer's ''Monk's Tale''" ], [ "In popular culture", "Chaucer is one of the main characters in the 2001 film ''A Knight's Tale'', and is portrayed by Paul Bettany." ], [ "See also", "*Chaucer (surname)*Poet-diplomat" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "*****Fruoco, Jonathan (2020). ''", "Chaucer's Polyphony.", "The Modern in Medieval Poetry''.", "Berlin-Kalamazoo: Medieval Institute Publications, De Gruyter.", ".", "*Fruoco, Jonathan, ed.", "and transl.", "(2021).", "''Le Livre de la Duchesse: oeuvres complètes (Tome I)''.", "Paris: Classiques Garnier, ISBN 978-2406119999.", "***''Life-records of Chaucer.''", "London: Published for the Chaucer Society by K. Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., 1875-1900.", "******" ], [ "External links", "* * * * * * * Chaucer Bibliography Online* ===Educational institutions===* Chaucer Page by Harvard University, including interlinear translation of ''The Canterbury Tales''* Caxton's Chaucer – complete digitised texts of Caxton's two earliest editions of ''The Canterbury Tales'' from the British Library* Caxton's Canterbury Tales: The British Library Copies – an online edition with complete transcriptions and images captured by the HUMI Project* Chaucer Metapage – project in addition to the 33rd International Congress of Medieval Studies* Chaucer and his works: Introduction to Chaucer and his works (descriptions of books with images, University of Glasgow Library)" ] ]
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[ [ "Gerald Gardner" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Gerald Brosseau Gardner''' (13 June 1884 – 12 February 1964), also known by the craft name '''Scire''', was an English Wiccan, as well as an author and an amateur anthropologist and archaeologist.", "He was instrumental in bringing the Contemporary Pagan religion of Wicca to public attention, writing some of its definitive religious texts and founding the tradition of Gardnerian Wicca.Born into an upper-middle-class family in Blundellsands, Lancashire, Gardner spent much of his childhood abroad in Madeira.", "In 1900, he moved to colonial Ceylon, and then in 1911 to Malaya, where he worked as a civil servant, independently developing an interest in the native peoples and writing papers and a book about their magical practices.", "After his retirement in 1936, he travelled to Cyprus, penning the novel ''A Goddess Arrives'' before returning to England.", "Settling down near the New Forest, he joined an occult group, the Rosicrucian Order Crotona Fellowship, through which he said he had encountered the New Forest coven into which he was initiated in 1939.Gardner portrayed the coven as a survival of the theoretical 'witch-cult' discussed in the works of Margaret Murray; a theory now discredited.", "He claimed to be reviving this 'pagan' faith, supplementing the coven's rituals with ideas borrowed from Freemasonry, ceremonial magic and the writings of Aleister Crowley to form the Gardnerian tradition of Wicca.Moving to London in 1945, he became intent on propagating this religion, attracting media attention and writing about it in ''High Magic's Aid'' (1949), ''Witchcraft Today'' (1954) and ''The Meaning of Witchcraft'' (1959).", "Founding a Wiccan group known as the Bricket Wood coven, he introduced a string of High Priestesses into the religion, including Doreen Valiente, Lois Bourne, Patricia Crowther and Eleanor Bone, through which the Gardnerian community spread throughout Britain and subsequently into Australia and the United States in the late 1950s and early 1960s.", "Involved for a time with Cecil Williamson, Gardner also became director of the Museum of Magic and Witchcraft on the Isle of Man, which he ran until his death.Gardner is internationally recognised as the \"Father of Wicca\" among the neo-pagan and occult communities.", "His claims regarding the New Forest coven have been widely scrutinised, with Gardner being the subject of investigation for historians and biographers Aidan Kelly, Ronald Hutton and Philip Heselton." ], [ "Early life", "===Childhood: 1884–1899===Gardner's family was wealthy and upper middle class, running a family firm, Joseph Gardner and Sons, which described itself as \"the oldest private company in the timber trade within the British Empire.\"", "Specialising in the import of hardwood, the company had been founded in the mid-18th century by Edmund Gardner (b.", "1721), an entrepreneur who would subsequently become a Freeman of Liverpool.", "Gerald's father, William Robert Gardner (1844–1935) had been the youngest son of Joseph Gardner (b.", "1791), after whom the firm had been renamed, and who with his wife Maria had had five sons and three daughters.", "In 1867, William had been sent to New York City to further the interests of the family firm.", "Here, he had met an American, Louise Burguelew Ennis, the daughter of a wholesale stationer; entering a relationship, they were married in Manhattan on 25 November 1868.After a visit to England, the couple returned to the US, where they settled in Mott Haven, Morrisania in New York State.", "It was here that their first child, Harold Ennis Gardner, was born in 1870.At some point in the next two years they moved back to England, by 1873 settling into The Glen, a large Victorian house in Blundellsands in Lancashire, north-west England, which was developing into a wealthy suburb of Liverpool.", "It was here that their second child, Robert \"Bob\" Marshall Gardner, was born in 1874.Gardner with his Irish nursemaid, Com, during the 1880sIn 1876 the family moved into one of the neighbouring houses, Ingle Lodge, and it was here that the couple's third son, Gerald Brosseau Gardner, was born on Friday 13 June 1884.A fourth child, Francis Douglas Gardner, was then born in 1886.Gerald would rarely see Harold, who went on to study law at the University of Oxford, but saw more of Bob, who drew pictures for him, and Douglas, with whom he shared his nursery.", "The Gardners employed an Irish nursemaid named Josephine \"Com\" McCombie, who was entrusted with taking care of the young Gerald; she would subsequently become the dominant figure of his childhood, spending far more time with him than his parents.", "Gardner suffered with asthma from a young age, having particular difficulty in the cold Lancashire winters.", "His nursemaid offered to take him to warmer climates abroad at his father's expense in the hope that this condition would not be so badly affected.", "Subsequently, in summer 1888, Gerald and Com travelled via London to Nice in the south of France.", "After several more years spent in the Mediterranean, in 1891 they went to the Canary Islands, and it was here that Gardner first developed his lifelong interest in weaponry.", "From there, they then went on to Accra in the Gold Coast (modern Ghana).", "Accra was followed by a visit to Funchal on the Portuguese island of Madeira; they would spend most of the next nine years on the island, only returning to England for three or four months in the summer.According to Gardner's first biographer, Jack Bracelin, Com was very flirtatious and \"clearly looked on these trips as mainly manhunts\", viewing Gardner as a nuisance.", "As a result, he was largely left to his own devices, which he spent going out, meeting new people and learning about foreign cultures.", "In Madeira, he also began collecting weapons, many of which were remnants from the Napoleonic Wars, displaying them on the wall of his hotel room.", "As a result of his illness and these foreign trips, Gardner ultimately never attended school, or gained any formal education.", "He taught himself to read by looking at copies of ''The Strand Magazine'' but his writing betrayed his poor education all his life, with highly eccentric spelling and grammar.", "A voracious reader, one of the books that most influenced him at the time was Florence Marryat's ''There Is No Death'' (1891), a discussion of spiritualism, and from which he gained a firm belief in the existence of an afterlife.===Ceylon and Borneo: 1900–1911===In 1900, Com married David Elkington, one of her many suitors who owned a tea plantation in the British colony of Ceylon (modern Sri Lanka).", "It was agreed with the Gardners that Gerald would live with her on a tea plantation named Ladbroke Estate in the town of Maskeliya , where he could learn the tea trade.", "In 1901 Gardner and the Elkingtons lived briefly in a bungalow in Kandy, where a neighbouring bungalow had just been vacated by the occultists Aleister Crowley and Charles Henry Allan Bennett.", "At his father's expense, Gardner trained as a \"creeper\", or trainee planter, learning all about the growing of tea; although he disliked the \"dreary endlessness\" of the work, he enjoyed being outdoors and near to the forests.", "He lived with the Elkingtons until 1904, when he moved into his own bungalow and began earning a living working on the Non Pareil tea estate below the Horton Plains.", "He spent much of his spare time hunting deer and trekking through the local forests, becoming acquainted with the Singhalese natives and taking a great interest in their Buddhist beliefs.", "In December 1904, his parents and younger brother visited, with his father asking him to invest in a pioneering rubber plantation which Gardner was to manage; located near the village of Belihuloya, it was known as the Atlanta Estate, but allowed him a great deal of leisure time.", "Exploring his interest in weaponry, in 1907 Gardner joined the Ceylon Planters Rifle Corps, a local volunteer force composed of European tea and rubber planters intent on protecting their interests from foreign aggression or domestic insurrection.In 1907 Gardner returned to Britain for several months' leave, spending time with his family and joining the Legion of Frontiersmen, a militia founded to repel the threat of German invasion.", "During his visit, Gardner spent a lot of time with family relations known as the Sergenesons.", "Gardner became very friendly with this side of his family, whom his Anglican parents avoided because they were Methodists.", "According to Gardner, the Surgenesons talked about the paranormal with him; the patriarch of the family, Ted Surgeneson, believed that fairies were living in his garden and would say \"I can often feel they're there, and sometimes I've seen them\", though he readily admitted the possibility that it was all in his imagination.", "It was from the Sergenesons that Gardner claimed to have discovered a family rumour that his grandfather, Joseph, had been a practising witch, after being converted to the practice by his mistress.", "Another unconfirmed family belief repeated by Gardner was that a Scottish ancestor, Grissell Gairdner, had been burned as a witch in Newburgh in 1610.While working in Borneo in 1911, Gardner eschewed the racist attitudes of his colleagues by befriending members of the Dayak indigenous community, fascinated by their magico-religious beliefs, tattoos and displays of weaponry.Gardner returned to Ceylon in late 1907 and settled down to the routine of managing the rubber plantation.", "In 1910 he was initiated as an Apprentice Freemason into the Sphinx Lodge No.", "107 in Colombo, affiliated with the Irish Grand Lodge.", "Gardner placed great importance on this new activity; In order to attend masonic meetings, he had to arrange a weekend's leave, walk 15 miles to the nearest railway station in Haputale, and then catch a train to the city.", "He entered into the second and third degrees of Freemasonry within the next month, but this enthusiasm seems also to have waned, and he resigned the next year, probably because he intended to leave Ceylon.", "The experiment with rubber growing at the Atlanta Estate had proved relatively unsuccessful, and Gardner's father decided to sell the property in 1911, leaving Gerald unemployed.That year, Gardner moved to British North Borneo, gaining employment as a rubber planter at the Mawo Estate at Membuket.", "However, he did not get on well with the plantation's manager, a racist named R. J. Graham who had wanted to deforest the entire local area.", "Instead, Gardner became friendly with many of the locals, including the Dayak and Dusun people.", "An amateur anthropologist, Gardner was fascinated by the indigenous way of life, particularly the local forms of weaponry such as the ''sumpitan''.", "He was intrigued by the tattoos of the Dayaks and pictures of him in later life show large snake or dragon tattoos on his forearms, presumably obtained at this time.", "Taking a great interest in indigenous religious beliefs, Gardner told his first biographer that he had attended Dusun séances or healing rituals.", "He was unhappy with the working conditions and the racist attitudes of his colleagues, and when he developed malaria he felt that this was the last straw; he left Borneo and moved to Singapore, in what was then known as the Straits Settlements, part of British Malaya.===Malaya and World War I: 1911–1926===Arriving in Singapore, he initially planned to return to Ceylon, but was offered a job working as an assistant on a rubber plantation in Perak, northern Malaya, and decided to take it, working for the Borneo Company.", "Arriving in the area, he decided to supplement this income by purchasing his own estate, Bukit Katho, on which he could grow rubber; initially sized at 450 acres, Gardner purchased various pieces of adjacent land until it covered 600 acres.", "Here, Gardner made friends with an American man known as Cornwall, who had converted to Islam and married a local Malay woman.", "Through Cornwall, Gardner was introduced to many locals, whom he soon befriended, including members of the Senoi and Malay peoples.", "Cornwall invited Gardner to make the ''Shahada'', the Muslim confession of faith, which he did; it allowed him to gain the trust of locals, although he would never become a practising Muslim.", "Cornwall was however an unorthodox Muslim, and his interest in local peoples included their magical and spiritual beliefs, to which he also introduced Gardner, who took a particular interest in the ''kris'', a ritual knife with magical uses.In 1915, Gardner again joined a local volunteer militia, the Malay States Volunteer Rifles.", "Although between 1914 and 1918 World War I was raging in Europe, its effects were little felt in Malaya, apart from the 1915 Singapore Mutiny.", "Gardner was keen to do more towards the war effort and in 1916 once again returned to Britain.", "He attempted to join the British Navy but was turned down due to ill health.", "Unable to fight on the front lines, he began working as an orderly in the Voluntary Aid Detachment (VAD) in the First Western General Hospital, Fazakerley, located on the outskirts of Liverpool.", "He was working in the VAD when casualties came back from the Battle of the Somme and he was engaged in looking after patients and assisting in changing wound dressings.", "He soon had to give this up when his malaria returned, and so decided to return to Malaya in October 1916 because of the warmer climate.He continued to manage the rubber plantation but after the end of the war, commodity prices dropped and by 1921 it was difficult to make a profit.", "He returned again to Britain, in what later biographer Philip Heselton speculated might have been an unsuccessful attempt to ask his father for money.", "Returning to Malaya, Gardner found that the Borneo Company had sacked him, and he was forced to find work with the Public Works Department.", "In September 1923 he successfully applied to the Office of Customs to become a government-inspector of rubber plantations, a job that involved a great amount of travelling around the country, something he enjoyed.", "After a brief but serious illness, the Johore government reassigned Gardner to an office in the Lands Office while he recovered, eventually being promoted to Principal Officer of Customs.", "In this capacity, he was made an Inspector of Rubber Shops, overseeing the regulation and sale of rubber in the country.", "In 1926 he was placed in charge of monitoring shops selling opium, noting regular irregularities and a thriving illegal trade in the controlled substance; believing opium to be essentially harmless, there is evidence indicating that Gardner probably took many bribes in this position, earning himself a small fortune.===Marriage and archaeology: 1927–1936===Gardner's mother had died in 1920, but he had not returned to Britain on that occasion.", "However, in 1927 his father became very ill with dementia, and Gardner decided to visit him.", "On his return to Britain, Gardner began to investigate spiritualism and mediumship.", "He soon had several encounters which he attributed to spirits of deceased family members.", "Continuing to visit Spiritualist churches and séances, he was highly critical of much of what he saw, although he encountered several mediums he considered genuine.", "One medium apparently made contact with a deceased cousin of Gardner's, an event which impressed him greatly.", "His first biographer Jack Bracelin reports that this was a watershed in Gardner's life, and that a previous academic interest in spiritualism and life after death thereafter became a matter of firm personal belief for him.", "The very same evening (28 July 1927) after Gardner had met this medium, he met the woman he was to marry; Dorothea Frances Rosedale, known as Donna, a relation of his sister-in-law Edith.", "He asked her to marry him the next day and she agreed.", "Because his leave was coming to an end very soon, they married quickly on 16 August at St Jude's Church, Kensington, and then honeymooned in Ryde on the Isle of Wight, before heading via France to Malaya.Arriving in the country, the couple settled into a bungalow at Bukit Japon in Johor Bahru.", "Here, he once more became involved in Freemasonry, joining the Johore Royal Lodge No.", "3946, but had retired from it by April 1931.Gardner also returned to his old interests in the anthropology of Malaya, witnessing the magical practices performed by the locals, and he readily accepted a belief in magic.", "During his time in Malaya, Gardner became increasingly interested in local customs, particularly those involved in folk magic and weapons.", "Gardner was not only interested in the anthropology of Malaya, but also in its archaeology.", "He began excavations at the city of Johore Lama, alone and in secret, as the local Sultan considered archaeologists little better than grave-robbers.", "Prior to Gardner's investigations, no serious archaeological excavation had occurred at the city, though he himself soon unearthed four miles of earthworks, and uncovered finds that included tombs, pottery, and porcelain dating from Ming China.", "He went on to begin further excavations at the royal cemetery of Kota Tinggi, and the jungle city of Syong Penang.", "His finds were displayed as an exhibit on the \"Early History of Johore\" at the National Museum of Singapore, and several beads that he had discovered suggested that trade went on between the Roman Empire and the Malays, presumably, Gardner thought, via India.", "He also found gold coins originating from Johore and he published academic papers on both the beads and the coins.A selection of ''kris'' knives; Gardner took a great interest in such items, even authoring the definitive text on the subject, ''Keris and Other Malay Weapons'' (1936).By the early 1930s Gardner's activities had moved from those exclusively of a civil servant, and he began to think of himself more as a folklorist, archaeologist and anthropologist.", "He was encouraged in this by the director of the Raffles Museum (now the National Museum of Singapore) and by his election to Fellowship of the Royal Anthropological Institute in 1936.En route back to London in 1932 Gardner stopped off in Egypt and, armed with a letter of introduction, joined Sir Flinders Petrie who was excavating the site of Tall al-Ajjul in Palestine.", "Arriving in London in August 1932 he attended a conference on prehistory and protohistory at King's College London, attending at least two lectures which described the cult of the Mother Goddess.", "He also befriended the archaeologist and practising Pagan Alexander Keiller, known for his excavations at Avebury, who would encourage Gardner to join in with the excavations at Hembury Hill in Devon, also attended by Aileen Fox and Mary Leakey.Returning to East Asia, he took a ship from Singapore to Saigon in French Indo-China, from where he travelled to Phnom Penh, visiting the Silver Pagoda.", "He then took a train to Hangzhou in China, before continuing onto Shanghai; because of the ongoing Chinese Civil War, the train did not stop throughout the entire journey, something that annoyed the passengers.", "In 1935, Gardner attended the Second Congress for Prehistoric Research in the Far East in Manila, Philippines, acquainting himself with several experts in the field.", "His main research interest lay in the Malay ''kris'' blade, which he unusually chose to spell \"keris\"; he eventually collected 400 examples and talked to natives about their magico-religious uses.", "Deciding to author a book on the subject, he wrote ''Keris and Other Malay Weapons'', being encouraged to do so by anthropologist friends; it would subsequently be edited into a readable form by Betty Lumsden Milne and published by the Singapore-based Progressive Publishing Company in 1936.It was well received by literary and academic circles in Malaya.", "In 1935, Gardner heard that his father had died, leaving him a bequest of £3,000.This assurance of financial independence may have led him to consider retirement, and as he was due for a long leave in 1936 the Johore Civil Service allowed him to retire slightly early, in January 1936.Gardner wanted to stay in Malaya, but he conceded to his wife Donna, who insisted that they return to England.===Return to Europe: 1936–1938===In 1936, Gardner and Donna left Malaya and headed for Europe.", "She proceeded straight to London, renting them a flat at 26 Charing Cross Road.", "Gardner visited Palestine, becoming involved in the archaeological excavations run by J.L.", "Starkey at Lachish.", "Here he grew particularly interested in a temple containing statues to both the male deity of Judeo-Christian theology and the pagan goddess Ashtoreth.", "From Palestine, Gardner went to Turkey, Greece, Hungary, and Germany.", "He eventually reached England, but soon went on a visit to Denmark to attend a conference on weaponry at the Christiansborg Palace, Copenhagen, during which he gave a talk on the ''kris''.Returning to Britain, he found that the climate made him sick, leading him to register with a doctor, Edward A. Gregg, who recommended that he try nudism.", "Hesitant at first, Gardner first attended an indoor nudist club, the Lotus League in Finchley, North London, where he made several new friends and felt that the nudity cured his ailment.", "When summer came, he decided to visit an outdoor nudist club, that of Fouracres near the town of Bricket Wood in Hertfordshire, which he soon began to frequent.", "Through nudism, Gardner made a number of notable friends, including James Laver (1899–1975), who became the Keeper of Prints and Drawings at the Victoria and Albert Museum, and Cottie Arthur Burland (1905–1983), who was the Curator of the Department of Ethnography at the British Museum.", "Biographer Philip Heselton suggested that through the nudist scene Gardner may have also met Dion Byngham (1896–1990), a senior member of the Order of Woodcraft Chivalry who propounded a Contemporary Pagan religion known as Dionysianism.", "By the end of 1936, Gardner was finding his Charing Cross Road flat to be cramped and moved into the block of flats at 32a Buckingham Palace Mansions.A plaque erected to mark the house at Highcliffe where Gardner lived during the Second World War.Fearing the cold of the English winter, Gardner decided to sail to Cyprus in late 1936, remaining there into the following year.", "Visiting the Museum in Nicosia, he studied the Bronze Age swords of the island, successfully hafting one of them, on the basis of which he wrote a paper entitled \"The Problem of the Cypriot Bronze Dagger Hilt\", which would subsequently be translated into both French and Danish, being published in the journals of the Société Préhistorique Française and the Vaabenhistorisk Selskab respectively.", "Back in London, in September 1937, Gardner applied for and received a Doctorate of Philosophy from the Meta Collegiate Extension of the National Electronic Institute, an organisation based in Nevada that was widely recognised by academic institutions as offering invalid academic degrees via post for a fee.", "He would subsequently style himself as \"Dr. Gardner\", despite the fact that academic institutions would not recognise his qualifications.Planning to return to the Palestinian excavations the following winter, he was prevented from doing so when Starkey was murdered.", "Instead, he decided to return to Cyprus.", "A believer in reincarnation, Gardner came to believe that he had lived on the island once before, in a previous life, subsequently buying a plot of land in Famagusta, planning to build a house on it, although this never came about.", "Influenced by his dreams, he wrote his first novel, ''A Goddess Arrives'', over the next few years.", "Revolving around an Englishman living in 1930s London named Robert Denvers who has recollections of a previous life as a Bronze Age Cypriot – an allusion to Gardner himself – the primary plot of ''A Goddess Arrives'' is set in ancient Cyprus and featured a queen, Dayonis, who practices sorcery in an attempt to help her people defend themselves from invading Egyptians.", "Published in late 1939, biographer Philip Heselton noted that the book was \"a very competent first work of fiction\", with strong allusions to the build-up which proceeded World War II.", "Returning to London, he helped to dig shelter trenches in Hyde Park as a part of the build-up to the war, also volunteering for the Air Raid Wardens' Service.", "Fearing the bombing of the city, Gardner and his wife soon moved to Highcliffe, just south of the New Forest in Hampshire.", "Here, they purchased a house built in 1923 named Southridge, situated on the corner of Highland Avenue and Elphinstone Road." ], [ "Involvement in Wicca", "===The Rosicrucian Order: 1938–1939===''The Temple of the Rose Cross'', Teophilus Schweighardt Constantiens, 1618.In Highcliffe, Gardner came across a building describing itself as the \"First Rosicrucian Theatre in England\".", "Having an interest in Rosicrucianism, a prominent magico-religious tradition within Western esotericism, Gardner decided to attend one of the plays performed by the group; in August 1939, Gardner took his wife to a theatrical performance based on the life of Pythagoras.", "An amateur thespian, she hated the performance, thinking the quality of both actors and script terrible, and she refused to go again.", "Unperturbed and hoping to learn more of Rosicrucianism, Gardner joined the group in charge of running the theatre, the Rosicrucian Order Crotona Fellowship, and began attending meetings held in their local ''ashram''.", "Founded in 1920 by George Alexander Sullivan, the Fellowship had been based upon a blend of Rosicrucianism, Theosophy, Freemasonry and his own personal innovation, and had moved to Christchurch in 1930.As time went by, Gardner became critical of many of the Rosicrucian Order's practices; Sullivan's followers claimed that he was immortal, having formerly been the famous historical figures Pythagoras, Cornelius Agrippa and Francis Bacon.", "Gardner facetiously asked if he was also the Wandering Jew, much to the annoyance of Sullivan himself.", "Another belief held by the group that Gardner found amusing was that a lamp hanging from one of the ceilings was the disguised holy grail of Arthurian legend.", "Gardner's dissatisfaction with the group grew, particularly when in 1939, one of the group's leaders sent a letter out to all members in which she stated that war would not come.", "The very next day, Britain declared war on Germany, greatly unimpressing the increasingly cynical Gardner.Alongside Rosicrucianism, Gardner had also been pursuing other interests.", "In 1939, Gardner joined the Folk-Lore Society; his first contribution to its journal ''Folk-Lore'', appeared in the June 1939 issue and described a box of witchcraft relics that he believed had belonged to the 17th century \"Witch-Finder General\", Matthew Hopkins.", "Subsequently, in 1946 he would go on to become a member of the society's governing council, although most other members of the society were wary of him and his academic credentials.", "Gardner would also join the Historical Association, being elected co-president of its Bournemouth and Christchurch branch in June 1944, following which he became a vocal supporter for the construction of a local museum for the Christchurch borough.", "He also involved himself in preparations for the impending war, joining the Air Raid Precautions (ARP) as a warden, where he soon rose to a position of local seniority, with his own house being assigned as the ARP post.", "In 1940, following the outbreak of conflict, he also tried to sign up for the Local Defence Volunteers, or \"Home Guard\", but was turned away because he was already an ARP warden.", "He managed to circumvent this restriction by joining his local Home Guard in the capacity as armourer, which was officially classified as technical staff.", "Gardner took a strong interest in the Home Guard, helping to arm his fellows from his own personal weaponry collection and personally manufacturing molotov cocktails.===The New Forest coven: 1939–1944===Although sceptical of the Rosicrucian Order, Gardner got on well with a group of individuals inside the group who were \"rather brow-beaten by the others, kept themselves to themselves.\"", "Gardner's biographer Philip Heselton theorised that this group consisted of Edith Woodford-Grimes (1887–1975), Susie Mason, her brother Ernie Mason, and their sister Rosetta Fudge, all of whom had originally come from Southampton before moving to the area around Highcliffe, where they joined the Order.", "According to Gardner, \"unlike many of the others in the Order, they had to earn their livings, were cheerful and optimistic and had a real interest in the occult\".", "Gardner became \"really very fond of them\", remarking that he \"would have gone through hell and high water even then for any of them.\"", "In particular he grew close to Woodford-Grimes, being invited over to her home to meet her daughter, and the two helped each other with their writing, Woodford-Grimes probably assisting Gardner edit ''A Goddess Arrives'' prior to publication.", "Gardner would subsequently give her the nickname \"Dafo\", for which she would become better known.The Mill House in Highcliffe, where Gardner was supposedly initiated into the CraftAccording to Gardner's later account, one night in September 1939, they took him to a large house owned by \"Old Dorothy\" Clutterbuck, a wealthy local woman, where he was made to strip naked and taken through an initiation ceremony.", "Halfway through the ceremony, he heard the word \"Wicca (Male)\" and \"Wicce (Female)\", and he recognised it as an Old English word for \"witch\".", "He was already acquainted with Margaret Murray's theory of the Witch-cult, and that \"I then knew then that which I had thought burnt out hundreds of years ago still survived.\"", "This group, he claimed, were the New Forest coven, and he portrayed them as one of the few surviving covens of an ancient, pre-Christian Witch-Cult religion.", "Murray's theory of a pagan 'witch-cult' has been discredited.", "Later research by the likes of Hutton and Heselton has shown that the New Forest coven was probably only formed in the mid-1930s, based upon Murray's discredited theories and works on folk magic.Gardner only ever described one of their rituals in depth, and this was an event that he termed \"Operation Cone of Power\".", "According to his own account, it took place in 1940 in a part of the New Forest and was designed to ward off the Nazis from invading Britain by magical means.", "Gardner claimed that a \"Great Circle\" was erected at night, with a \"great cone of power\" – a form of magical energy – being raised and sent to Berlin with the command of \"you cannot cross the sea, you cannot cross the sea, you cannot come, you cannot come\".===Bricket Wood and the Origins of Gardnerianism: 1945–1950===Throughout his time in the New Forest, Gardner had regularly travelled to London, keeping his flat at Buckingham Palace Mansions until mid-1939 and regularly visiting the Spielplatz nudist club there.", "At Spielplatz he befriended Ross Nichols, whom he would later introduce to the Pagan religion of Druidry; Nichols would become enamoured with this faith, eventually founding the Order of Bards, Ovates and Druids.", "However, following the war, Gardner decided to return to London, moving into 47 Ridgemount Gardens, Bloomsbury in late 1944 or early 1945.Continuing his interest in nudism, in 1945 he purchased a plot of land in Fouracres, a nudist colony near to the village of Bricket Wood in Hertfordshire that would soon be renamed Five Acres.", "As a result, he would become one of the major shareholders at the club, exercising a significant level of power over any administrative decisions and was involved in a recruitment drive to obtain more members.The Witches' Cottage, where Gardner and his Bricket Wood coven performed their ritualsThe Witches' Cottage in 2006Between 1936 and 1939, Gardner befriended the Christian mystic J.S.M.", "Ward, proprietor of the Abbey Folk Park, Britain's oldest open-air museum.", "One of the exhibits was a 16th-century cottage that Ward had found near to Ledbury, Herefordshire and had transported to his park, where he exhibited it as a \"witch's cottage\".", "Gardner made a deal with Ward exchanging the cottage for Gardner's piece of land near to Famagusta in Cyprus.", "The cottage was dismantled, and the parts transported to Bricket Wood, where they were reassembled on Gardner's land at Five Acres.", "In Midsummer 1947 he held a ceremony in the cottage as a form of housewarming, which Heselton speculated was probably based upon the ceremonial magic rites featured in ''The Key of Solomon'' grimoire.Furthering his interest in esoteric Christianity, in August 1946 Gardner was ordained as a priest in the Ancient British Church, a fellowship open to anyone who considered themselves a monotheist.", "Gardner also took an interest in Druidry, joining the Ancient Druid Order (ADO) and attending its annual Midsummer rituals at Stonehenge.", "He also joined the Folk-Lore Society, being elected to their council in 1946, and that same year giving a talk on \"Art Magic and Talismans\".", "Nevertheless, many fellows – including Katherine Briggs – were dismissive of Gardner's ideas and his fraudulent academic credentials.", "In 1946 he also joined the Society for Psychical Research.On May Day 1947, Gardner's friend Arnold Crowther introduced him to Aleister Crowley, the ceremonial magician who had founded the religion of Thelema in 1904.Shortly before his death, Crowley elevated Gardner to the IV° of Ordo Templi Orientis (O.T.O.)", "and issued a charter decreeing that Gardner could admit people into its Minerval degree.", "The charter itself was written in Gardner's handwriting and only signed by Crowley.", "From November 1947 to March 1948, Gardner and his wife toured the United States visiting relatives in Memphis, also visiting New Orleans, where Gardner hoped to learn about Voodoo.", "During his voyage, Crowley had died, and as a result Gardner considered himself the head of the O.T.O.", "in Europe, (a position accepted by Lady Frieda Harris).", "He met Crowley's successor, Karl Germer, in New York though Gardner would soon lose interest in leading the O.T.O., and in 1951 he was replaced by Frederic Mellinger as the O.T.O.", "'s European representative.Gardner hoped to spread Wicca and described some of its practices in a fictional form as ''High Magic's Aid''.", "Set in the twelfth-century, Gardner included scenes of ceremonial magic based on ''The Key of Solomon''.", "Published by the Atlantis Bookshop in July 1949, Gardner's manuscript had been edited into a publishable form by astrologer Madeline Montalban.", "Privately, he had also begun work on a scrapbook known as \"Ye Bok of Ye Art Magical\", in which he wrote down a number of Wiccan rituals and spells.", "This would prove to be the prototype for what he later termed a Book of Shadows.", "He also gained some of his first initiates, Barbara and Gilbert Vickers, who were initiated at some point between autumn 1949 and autumn 1950.===Doreen Valiente and the Museum of Magic and Witchcraft: 1950–1957===Gardner also came into contact with Cecil Williamson, who was intent on opening his own museum devoted to witchcraft; the result would be the Folk-lore Centre of Superstition and Witchcraft, opened in Castletown on the Isle of Man in 1951.Gardner and his wife moved to the island, where he took up the position of \"resident witch\".", "On 29 July, the ''Sunday Pictorial'' published an article about the museum in which Gardner declared \"Of course I'm a witch.", "And I get great fun out of it.\"", "The museum was not a financial success, and the relationship between Gardner and Williamson deteriorated.", "In 1954, Gardner bought the museum from Williamson, who returned to England to form the rival Museum of Witchcraft, eventually settling it in Boscastle, Cornwall.", "Gardner renamed his exhibition the Museum of Magic and Witchcraft and continued running it up until his death.", "He also acquired a flat at 145 Holland Road, near Shepherd's Bush in West London, but nevertheless fled to warmer climates during the winter, where his asthma would not be so badly affected, for instance spending time in France, Italy, and the Gold Coast.", "From his base in London, he would frequent Atlantis bookshop, thereby encountering a number of other occultists, including Austin Osman Spare and Kenneth Grant, and he also continued his communication with Karl Germer until 1956.In 1952, Gardner had begun to correspond with a young woman named Doreen Valiente.", "She eventually requested initiation into the Craft, and though Gardner was hesitant at first, he agreed that they could meet during the winter at the home of Edith Woodford-Grimes.", "Valiente got on well with both Gardner and Woodford-Grimes and having no objections to either ritual nudity or scourging (which she had read about in a copy of Gardner's novel ''High Magic's Aid'' that he had given to her), she was initiated by Gardner into Wicca on Midsummer 1953.Valiente went on to join the Bricket Wood Coven.", "She soon rose to become the High Priestess of the coven and helped Gardner to revise his Book of Shadows, and attempting to cut out most of Crowley's influence.In 1954, Gardner published a non-fiction book, ''Witchcraft Today'', containing a preface by Margaret Murray, who had published her discredited theory of 'witchcraft' being a surviving pagan religion in her 1921 book, ''The Witch-Cult in Western Europe''.", "In his book, Gardner not only espoused Murray's theory, but also his theory that a belief in faeries in Europe was due to a secretive pygmy race that lived alongside other communities, and that the Knights Templar had been initiates of the Craft.", "Alongside this book, Gardner began to increasingly court publicity, going so far as to invite the press to write articles about the religion.", "Many of these turned out very negatively for the cult; one declared \"Witches Devil-Worship in London!", "\", and another accused him of whitewashing witchcraft in his luring of people into covens.", "Gardner continued courting publicity, despite the negative articles that many tabloids were producing, and believed that only through publicity could more people become interested in witchcraft, so preventing the \"Old Religion\", as he called it, from dying out.===Later life and death===In 1960, Gardner's official biography, entitled ''Gerald Gardner: Witch'', was published.", "It was written by a friend of his, the Sufi mystic Idries Shah, but used the name of one of Gardner's High Priests, Jack L. Bracelin, because Shah was wary about being associated with Witchcraft.", "In May of that year, Gardner travelled to Buckingham Palace, where he enjoyed a garden party in recognition of his years of service to the Empire in the Far East.", "Soon after his trip, Gardner's wife Donna died, and Gardner himself once again began to suffer badly from asthma.", "The following year he, along with Shah and Lois Bourne, travelled to the island of Majorca to holiday with the poet Robert Graves, whose ''The White Goddess'' would play a significant part in the burgeoning Wiccan religion.", "In 1963, Gardner decided to go to Lebanon over the winter.", "Whilst returning home on the ship, ''The Scottish Prince'' on 12 February 1964, he suffered a fatal heart attack at the breakfast table.", "He was buried in Tunisia, the ship's next port of call, and his funeral was attended only by the ship's captain.", "He was 79 years old.Though having bequeathed the museum, all his artifacts, and the copyright to his books in his will to one of his High Priestesses, Monique Wilson, she and her husband sold off the artefact collection to the American Ripley's Believe It or Not!", "organisation several years later.", "Ripley's took the collection to America, where it was displayed in two museums before being sold off during the 1980s.", "Gardner had also left parts of his inheritance to Patricia Crowther, Doreen Valiente, Lois Bourne and Jack Bracelin, the latter inheriting the Fiveacres Nudist Club and taking over as full-time High Priest of the Bricket Wood coven.Several years after Gardner's death, the Wiccan High Priestess Eleanor Bone visited North Africa and went looking for Gardner's grave.", "She discovered that the cemetery he was interred in was to be redeveloped, and so she raised enough money for his body to be moved to another cemetery in Tunis, where it currently remains.", "In 2007, a new plaque was attached to his grave, describing him as being \"Father of Modern Wicca.", "Beloved of the Great Goddess\"." ], [ "Personal life", "Gardner only married once, to Donna, and several who knew him made the claim that he was devoted to her.", "Indeed, after her death in 1960, he began to again suffer serious asthma attacks.", "Despite this, as many coven members slept over at his cottage due to living too far away to travel home safely, he was known to cuddle up to his young High Priestess, Dayonis, after rituals.", "The author Philip Heselton, who largely researched Wicca's origins, came to the conclusion that Gardner had held a long-term affair with Dafo, a theory expanded upon by Adrian Bott.", "Those who knew him within the Wiccan movement recalled how he was a firm believer in the therapeutic benefits of sunbathing.", "He also had several tattoos on his body, depicting magical symbols such as a snake, dragon, anchor and dagger.", "In his later life he wore a \"heavy bronze bracelet... denoting the three degrees... of witchcraft\" as well as a \"large silver ring with... signs on it, which... represented his witch-name 'Scire', in the letters of the magical Theban alphabet.", "\"According to Bricket Wood coven member Frederic Lamond, Gardner also used to comb his beard into a narrow barbiche and his hair into two horn like peaks, giving him \"a somewhat demonic appearance\".", "Lamond thought that Gardner was \"surprisingly lacking in charisma\" for someone at the forefront of a religious movement.Gardner was a supporter of the centre-right Conservative Party, and for several years had been a member of the Highcliffe Conservative Association, as well as being an avid reader of the pro-Conservative newspaper, ''The Daily Telegraph''." ], [ "Criticisms", "=== Virulent homophobia ===Lois Bourne, one of the High Priestesses of the Bricket Wood Coven, accused Gardner of homophobia:\"Gerald was homophobic.", "He had a deep hatred and detestation of homosexuality, which he regarded as a disgusting perversion and a flagrant transgression of natural law ... 'There are no homosexual witches, and it is not possible to be a homosexual and a witch' Gerald almost shouted.", "No one argued with him.", "\"=== False educational claims ===In a 1951 interview with a journalist from the ''Sunday Pictorial'' newspaper, Gardner said he was a Doctor of Philosophy from Singapore and also had a doctorate in literature from Toulouse.", "Later investigation by Doreen Valiente suggested that these claims were false.", "The University of Singapore did not exist at that time and the University of Toulouse had no record of his receiving a doctorate.", "Valiente suggests that these claims may have been a form of compensation for his lack of formal education.=== Media engagement ===Valiente further criticises Gardner for his publicity-seeking – or at least his indiscretion.", "After a series of tabloid exposés, some members of his coven proposed some rules limiting what members of the Craft should say to non-members.", "Valiente reports that Gardner responded with a set of Wiccan laws of his own, which he claimed were original, but others suspected he had made up on the spot.", "This led to a split in the coven, with Valiente and others leaving." ], [ "Legacy", "Commenting on Gardner, Pagan studies scholar Ethan Doyle White commented that \"There are few figures in esoteric history who can rival him for his dominating place in the pantheon of Pagan pioneers.", "\"In 2012, Philip Heselton published a two-volume biography of Gardner, titled ''Witchfather''.", "The biography was reviewed by Pagan studies scholar Ethan Doyle White in ''The Pomegranate'' journal, where he commented that it was \"more exhaustive with greater detail\" than Heselton's prior tomes and was \"excellent in most respects\"." ], [ "See also", "* Ashrama Hall and Christchurch Garden Theatre" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "References", "===Citations======Bibliography===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* GeraldGardner.com, an online reference resource* Historical documents and media reports about Gardner at www.thewica.co.uk* Biography at Controverscial.com * Biography at About.com * The Gardnerian Book of Shadows" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gavin MacLeod" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Gavin MacLeod''' ( ; born '''Allan George See'''; February 28, 1931 – May 29, 2021) was an American actor best known for his roles as news writer Murray Slaughter on ''The Mary Tyler Moore Show'' and ship's captain Merrill Stubing on ABC's ''The Love Boat''.", "After growing up Catholic, MacLeod became an evangelical Christian in 1984.His career, which spanned six decades, included work as a Christian television host, author, and guest on several talk, variety, and religious programs.MacLeod's career began in films in 1957.In 1965, he starred in ''The Sword of Ali Baba''.", "He went on to appear in ''A Man Called Gannon'' (1968), in ''The Thousand Plane Raid (1969)'', and in ''Kelly's Heroes'' (1970).MacLeod also achieved continuing television success co-starring alongside Ernest Borgnine on ''McHale's Navy'' (1962–1964) as Joseph \"Happy\" Haines." ], [ "Early life", "Allan George See was born in Mount Kisco, New York.", "His mother, Margaret (née Shea) See (1906–2004), a middle school dropout, worked for ''Reader's Digest''.", "His father, George See (1906–1945), an electrician, was part Chippewa (Ojibwe).", "His brother Ronald was three years his junior.", "He grew up in Pleasantville, New York, and studied acting at Ithaca College, from which he graduated in 1952 with a bachelor's degree in fine arts.After serving in the United States Air Force, he moved to New York City and worked at Radio City Music Hall while looking for acting work.", "At about this time he changed his name, drawing \"Gavin\" from a physically disabled victim in a television drama, and \"MacLeod\" from his Ithaca drama coach, Beatrice MacLeod.", "MacLeod said in a 2013 interview with ''Parade'' about his stage name, he \"felt as if my name was getting in the way of my success.\"", "''Allan,'' he wrote, \"just wasn't strong enough,\" and ''See'' was \"too confusing.\"" ], [ "Career", "MacLeod made his television debut in 1957 on ''The Walter Winchell File'' at the age of 26.His first movie appearance was a small, uncredited role in ''The True Story of Lynn Stuart'' in 1958.Soon thereafter, he landed a credited role in ''I Want to Live!", "'', a 1958 prison drama starring Susan Hayward.", "He was soon noticed by Blake Edwards, who in 1958 cast him in the pilot episode of his NBC series ''Peter Gunn'', two guest roles on the Edwards CBS series ''Mr.", "Lucky'' in 1959, and as a nervous harried navy yeoman in ''Operation Petticoat'', with Cary Grant and Tony Curtis.", "''Operation Petticoat'' proved to be a breakout role for MacLeod, and he was soon cast in two other Edwards comedies, ''High Time'' with Bing Crosby and ''The Party'' with Peter Sellers.In December 1961, he landed a guest role on ''The Dick Van Dyke Show'', which was his first time working with Mary Tyler Moore.", "MacLeod also had guest appearances on ''Perry Mason'', ''The Andy Griffith Show'', ''Ben Casey'', ''The Big Valley'', ''Hogan's Heroes'', ''Ironside'', and ''My Favorite Martian''.", "He played the role of a drug pusher, \"Big Chicken\", in two episodes of the first season of ''Hawaii Five-O''.MacLeod with Betty White on the set of ''The Mary Tyler Moore Show'' in August 1975His first regular television role began in 1962 as Joseph \"Happy\" Haines on ''McHale's Navy'', but -- unlike his character -- he was unhappy with the role's limitations.", "He later describe Haines as \"not much of a character\" who had \"two lines a week\", and was sometimes simply used a prop: \"Sometimes they'd have me stand there.", "They'd shoot on a back lot, and they'd use me to cover something they didn't want anybody to see on the back lot.\"", "McLeod left the show after two seasons to appear as Signalman 2nd Class Crosley in the film ''The Sand Pebbles'' with Steve McQueen.MacLeod's second breakout role as Murray Slaughter on CBS's ''The Mary Tyler Moore Show'' won him lasting fame and two Golden Globe Award nominations.", "His starring role as Captain Stubing on ''The Love Boat'', his next television series, was broadcast in 90 countries worldwide, between 1977 and 1986, spanning nine seasons.", "His work on that show earned him three Golden Globe nominations.", "Co-starring with him was a familiar actor and best friend Bernie Kopell as Dr. Adam Bricker and Ted Lange as bartender Isaac Washington.", "Lange said in a 2017 interview with ''The Wiseguyz Show'' of MacLeod that \"Oh yeah, sure, Gavin was wonderful.", "Gavin lives down here in Palm Springs and we're still tight, all of us, Gavin and Bernie and Jill; we still see each other.", "Fred (Grandy) lives in a different state, we're still close, we're still good friends.", "\"MacLeod became the global ambassador for Princess Cruises in 1986.He played a role in ceremonies launching many of the line's new ships.", "In 1997, MacLeod joined the ''Love Boat'' cast on ''The Oprah Winfrey Show''.After ''The Love Boat'', MacLeod toured with Michael Learned (of ''The Waltons'') in ''Love Letters''.", "He made several appearances in musicals such as ''Gigi'' and ''Copacabana'' between 1997 and 2003.In December 2008, he appeared with the Colorado Symphony in Denver.MacLeod and his wife were hosts on the Trinity Broadcasting Network for 17 years, primarily hosting a show about marriage called ''Back on Course''.", "MacLeod appeared in Rich Christiano's ''Time Changer,'' a movie about time travel and how the morals of society have moved away from the Bible.", "He also plays the lead role in Christiano's 2009 film ''The Secrets of Jonathan Sperry''.===Later activity===In April 2010, the entire cast of ''The Love Boat'' attended the TV Land Awards with the exception of MacLeod, due to a back operation to repair a couple of injured discs.", "Former co-star and long-term friend Ted Lange contacted him and received word that MacLeod was doing well.", "In December, MacLeod appeared as a guest narrator with the Florida Orchestra and Master Chorale of Tampa Bay.MacLeod served as the honorary Mayor of Pacific Palisades for five years, until Sugar Ray Leonard succeeded him in 2011.On February 28, 2011, MacLeod celebrated his 80th birthday aboard the ''Golden Princess'' on Princess Cruises in Los Angeles, California.", "His friends and family wished him a happy birthday and presented him with a 3-D cake replica of the ''Pacific Princess'', the original \"Love Boat\".MacLeod appeared on the special for Betty White's 90th birthday on January 17, 2012.He reunited with White to film \"Safety Old School Style\", an in-flight safety video for Air New Zealand in 2013.By January 2013, the video had been viewed two million times on YouTube.", "In October 2013, MacLeod appeared on ''Today'' to begin the promotional tour for his new book ''This Is Your Captain Speaking: My Fantastic Voyage Through Hollywood, Faith & Life''.", "This appearance included a special set change to honor MacLeod's appearance on the show.", "In addition to television appearances, he continued his national book tour.MacLeod in 2006On November 5, 2013, MacLeod joined his ''Love Boat'' cast mates live on the CBS daytime show ''The Talk''.", "A full one-hour episode was dedicated to the cast reunion.", "The ''Talk'' co-hosts dressed in costumes to commemorate their special guests' arrivals.", "Spanish-American actress Charo also appeared on the reunion show.", "Charo guest-starred in eight episodes of ''The Love Boat''.", "Jack Jones performed the ''Love Boat'' theme song, which he introduced in 1977.In December 2013, MacLeod appeared on ''The 700 Club'' to discuss his life and career.", "The following year, on February 1, MacLeod was honored with a star on the Palm Springs Walk of Stars in downtown Palm Springs, California.", "In January 2015, MacLeod appeared in the Rose Parade along with several other members of the original cast of ''The Love Boat''.", "Later that same year MacLeod starred in the play ''Happy Hour'' at the Coachella Valley Repertory Theatre (CVRep) in Rancho Mirage, California, a role which earned him critical praise." ], [ "Writing", "In 1987, following MacLeod's conversion to evangelical Christianity and remarriage, he and his wife, Patti, wrote about his struggles with alcoholism and their divorce in ''Back On Course: The Remarkable Story of a Divorce That Ended in Remarriage''.In 2013, MacLeod released a memoir, ''This Is Your Captain Speaking: My Fantastic Voyage Through Hollywood, Faith & Life''.", "He said, \"...all my living has been based on what other people have written...", "I hope it can help others, how I overcame and never gave up.", "There are so many lessons in life.\"", "In the book, MacLeod recounted his stories as a young actor trying to make a name for himself in Hollywood, the lifelong friends he made, struggles with alcoholism, divorce, and faith." ], [ "Personal life", "While working as an usher and elevator operator at Radio City Music Hall, MacLeod met dancer Joan F. Rootvik, who was a Rockette.", "They married in 1955 and had two sons and two daughters before divorcing in 1972.In 1974, he married Patti Kendig.", "The couple divorced in 1982 and remarried in 1985.During the mid-1980s, they became evangelical Christians and credited their faith for bringing them back together.On September 20, 2009, MacLeod discussed his conversion to evangelicalism at The Rock Church in Anaheim, California, and was a guest speaker there in 2012.===Death===MacLeod died at his home in Palm Desert, California, on May 29, 2021, aged 90.He is interred at Forest Lawn Cemetery in Cathedral City." ], [ "Filmography", "MacLeod with Joyce Bulifant and Michael Higa on ''The Mary Tyler Moore Show'' in May 1975===Film=== Year Title Role Source 1958 ''I Want to Live!''", "The Lieutenant 1959 ''Compulsion'' Padua – Horn's Assistant 1959 ''Pork Chop Hill'' Private Saxon 1959 ''Operation Petticoat'' Seaman Ernest Hunkle, USN 1959 ''The Gene Krupa Story'' Ted Krupa (uncredited) 1960 ''Twelve Hours to Kill'' Johnny 1960 ''High Time'' Professor Thayer 1961 ''The Crimebusters'' Harry Deiner 1962 ''War Hunt'' Pvt.", "Crotty 1964 ''McHale's Navy'' Seaman Joseph Haines 1965 ''The Sword of Ali Baba'' Hulagu Khan 1965 ''McHale's Navy Joins the Air Force'' Seaman Joseph Haines 1965 ''Deathwatch'' Emil 1966 ''Baby Makes Three'' Dr. Charles Norwood 1966 ''The Sand Pebbles'' Crosley 1968 ''A Man Called Gannon'' Lou 1968 ''The Party'' C.S.", "Divot 1969 ''The Thousand Plane Raid'' Sgt.", "Kruger 1969 ''The Comic'' 1st Director 1970 ''The Intruders'' Warden 1970 ''Kelly's Heroes'' Private Moriarty, Oddball's bow machine-gunner and mechanic 2002 ''Time Changer'' Dr. Norris Anderson 2009''The Secrets of Jonathan Sperry'' Jonathan Sperry ===Television=== Year Title Role Notes Source 1957 ''The Walter Winchell File'' Crook Episode: \"Act of Folly\" 1958 ''U.S.", "Marshal'' Buck Episode: \"The Arraignment\" 1958 ''The Walter Winchell File'' Stone Ballston Episode: \"The Walkout\" 1958–60 ''Peter Gunn'' George Fallon / Mitch Borden 2 episodes 1959–60 ''Mr.", "Lucky'' Salesman / Bugsy McKenna 2 episodes 1959 ''Men Into Space'' Dave Parsons \"Lost Missile\" 1959 ''Steve Canyon'' Jack Olsen Episode: \"The Robbery\" 1959–62 ''The Untouchables'' Artie McLeod / Three-Fingered Jack White / William 'Porker' Davis / Whitey Metz 4 episodes 1960–68 ''Death Valley Days'' Phil Arnold / Dandy Martin 2 episodes 1961 ''Dr.", "Kildare'' Lorenzo Lawson Episode: \"Winter Harvest\" 1961 ''Straightaway'' Episode: \"The Heist\" 1961 ''The Dick Van Dyke Show'' Maxwell Cooley Episode: \"Empress Carlotta's Necklace\" 1961 ''The Investigators'' Frankie Giff Episode: \"Style of Living\" 1961–65 ''Perry Mason'' Dan Platte / Mortimer Hershey / Lawrence Comminger 3 episodes 1962–64 ''McHale's Navy'' Seaman Joseph \"Happy\" Hanes 73 episodes 1964 ''The Munsters'' Paul Newmar Episode: \"The Sleeping Cutie\" 1965 ''Rawhide'' Rian Powers Episode: \"The Meeting\" 1965 ''Gomer Pyle, U.S.M.C.''", "Fred Fay Episode: \"Dance, Marine, Dance\" 1965 ''The Andy Griffith Show'' Bryan Bender / Gilbert Jamel 2 episodes 1965 ''The Man from U.N.C.L.E.''", "Cleveland Episode: \"The Hong Kong Shilling Affair\" 1965–66 ''My Favorite Martian'' Alvin Wannamaker 2 episodes 1966–69 ''Hogan's Heroes'' Gen. von Rauscher / Maj. Kiegel / Gen. Metzger / Maj. Zolle 4 episodes 1967 ''Combat!''", "British Sgt.", "Tommy Behan Episode: \"The Masquers\" 1966 ''The Rat Patrol'' Sgt.", "Gribs Episode: \"The Fatal Chase Raid\" 1967 ''The Road West'' Nick Marteen Episode: \"The Eighty-Seven Dollar Bride\" 1967–69 ''The Big Valley'' Clute / O'Leary / Mace 3 episodes 1968–70 ''It Takes a Thief'' Gen. Contell / Seymour / Maj. Kazan 3 episodes 1968 ''Death Valley Days'' prospector Phil Arnold Episode: \"The Great Diamond Mines\" 1969 ''The Flying Nun'' Harold Harmon Episode: \"A Star Is Reborn\" 1968–69 ''Hawaii Five-O'' Big Chicken 2 episodes 1970–77 ''The Mary Tyler Moore Show'' Murray Slaughter 168 episodes 1974 ''Only with Married Men'' Jordan Robbins Movie 1974 ''Tattletales'' Himself Games Show/One Week (5 episodes) with wife Patti 1977 ''Ransom for Alice!''", "Yankee Sullivan Movie 1977–87 ''The Love Boat'' Captain Merrill Stubing 250 episodes 1980 ''Murder Can Hurt You'' Nojack Movie 1980 ''Scruples'' Curt Arvey Miniseries 1985 ''Hotel'' Martin 'Merrick' Brenner Episode: \"Fallen Idols\" 1986 ''The Greatest Adventure: Stories from the Bible'' Daniel Episode: \"Daniel and the Lion's Den\" 1987 ''Student Exchange'' Vice Principal Durfner Movie 1990 ''Murder, She Wrote'' Art Sommers Episode: \"The Big Show of 1965\" 1991 ''The General Motors Playwrights Theater'' Michael Holmes Episode: \"The Last Act Is a Solo\" 1993 ''CBS Schoolbreak Special'' Robert Carter Episode: \"If I Die Before I Wake\" 1994 ''Burke's Law'' Jerry Marz Episode: \"Who Killed the Host at the Roast?\"", "1998 ''Love Boat: The Next Wave'' Captain Merrill Stubing Episode: \"Reunion\" 2000 ''Oz'' Cardinal Frances Abgott Episode: \"Works of Mercy\" 2001–02 ''The King of Queens'' Uncle Stu 2 episodes 2002–03 ''JAG'' Raymond Harrick Episode: \"Standards of Conduct\" 2003 ''Touched by an Angel'' Calvin Episode: \"The Show Must Not Go On\" 2006 ''That '70s Show'' Smitty 2 episodes 2009 ''The Suite Life on Deck'' Mr. Barker 2 episodes 2011 ''Pound Puppies'' Captain Gumble (voice) Episode: \"Bone Voyage\"" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * * TBN page* Gavin MacLeod at Find a Grave" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gopher (protocol)" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Gopher''' protocol () is a communication protocol designed for distributing, searching, and retrieving documents in Internet Protocol networks.", "The design of the Gopher protocol and user interface is menu-driven, and presented an alternative to the World Wide Web in its early stages, but ultimately fell into disfavor, yielding to HTTP.", "The Gopher ecosystem is often regarded as the effective predecessor of the World Wide Web." ], [ "Usage", "The Gopher protocol was invented by a team led by Mark P. McCahill at the University of Minnesota.", "It offers some features not natively supported by the Web and imposes a much stronger hierarchy on the documents it stores.", "Its text menu interface is well-suited to computing environments that rely heavily on remote text-oriented computer terminals, which were still common at the time of its creation in 1991, and the simplicity of its protocol facilitated a wide variety of client implementations.", "More recent Gopher revisions and graphical clients added support for multimedia.File:Gopher in Firefox 1.5.png|Firefox 1.5 (2005)Gopher's hierarchical structure provided a platform for the first large-scale electronic library connections.", "The Gopher protocol is still in use by enthusiasts, and although it has been almost entirely supplanted by the Web, a small population of actively-maintained servers remains.===Origins===The Gopher system was released in mid-1991 by Mark P. McCahill, Farhad Anklesaria, Paul Lindner, Daniel Torrey, and Bob Alberti of the University of Minnesota in the United States.", "Its central goals were, as stated in :* A file-like hierarchical arrangement that would be familiar to users.", "* A simple syntax.", "* A system that can be created quickly and inexpensively.", "* Extensibility of the file system metaphor; allowing addition of searches for example.Gopher combines document hierarchies with collections of services, including WAIS, the Archie and Veronica search engines, and gateways to other information systems such as File Transfer Protocol (FTP) and Usenet.The general interest in campus-wide information systems (CWISs) in higher education at the time, and the ease of setup of Gopher servers to create an instant CWIS with links to other sites' online directories and resources, were the factors contributing to Gopher's rapid adoption.The name was coined by Anklesaria as a play on several meanings of the word \"gopher\".", "The University of Minnesota mascot is the gopher, a gofer is an assistant who \"goes for\" things, and a gopher burrows through the ground to reach a desired location.===Decline===The World Wide Web was in its infancy in 1991, and Gopher services quickly became established.", "By the late 1990s, Gopher had ceased expanding.", "Several factors contributed to Gopher's stagnation:* In February 1993, the University of Minnesota announced that it would charge licensing fees for the use of its implementation of the Gopher server.", "Users became concerned that fees might also be charged for independent implementations.", "Gopher expansion stagnated, to the advantage of the World Wide Web, to which CERN disclaimed ownership.", "In September 2000, the University of Minnesota re-licensed its Gopher software under the GNU General Public License.", "* Gopher client functionality was quickly duplicated by the early Mosaic web browser, which subsumed its protocol.", "* Gopher has a more rigid structure than the free-form HTML of the Web.", "Every Gopher document has a defined format and type, and the typical user navigates through a single server-defined menu system to get to a particular document.", "This can be quite different from the way a user finds documents on the Web.", "* Failure to follow the open systems model, bad publicityGopher remains in active use by its enthusiasts, and there have been attempts to revive Gopher on modern platforms and mobile devices.", "One attempt is The Overbite Project, which hosts various browser extensions and modern clients.===Server census===*, there remained about 160 gopher servers indexed by Veronica-2, reflecting a slow growth from 2007 when there were fewer than 100.They are typically infrequently updated.", "On these servers Veronica indexed approximately 2.5 million unique selectors.", "A handful of new servers were being set up every year by hobbyists with over 50 having been set up and added to Floodgap's list since 1999.A snapshot of Gopherspace in 2007 circulated on BitTorrent and was still available in 2010.Due to the simplicity of the Gopher protocol, setting up new servers or adding Gopher support to browsers is often done in a tongue-in-cheek manner, principally on April Fools' Day.", "*In November 2014 Veronica indexed 144 gopher servers, reflecting a small drop from 2012, but within these servers Veronica indexed approximately 3 million unique selectors.", "*In March 2016 Veronica indexed 135 gopher servers, within which it indexed approximately 4 million unique selectors.", "*In March 2017 Veronica indexed 133 gopher servers, within which it indexed approximately 4.9 million unique selectors.", "*In May 2018 Veronica indexed 260 gopher servers, within which it indexed approximately 3.7 million unique selectors.", "*In May 2019 Veronica indexed 320 gopher servers, within which it indexed approximately 4.2 million unique selectors.", "*In January 2020 Veronica indexed 395 gopher servers, within which it indexed approximately 4.5 million unique selectors.", "*In February 2021 Veronica indexed 361 gopher servers, within which it indexed approximately 6 million unique selectors.", "*In February 2022 Veronica indexed 325 gopher servers, within which it indexed approximately 5 million unique selectors." ], [ "Technical details", "The conceptualization of knowledge in \"Gopher space\" or a \"cloud\" as specific information in a particular file, and the prominence of the FTP, influenced the technology and the resulting functionality of Gopher.=== Gopher characteristics ===Gopher is designed to function and to appear much like a mountable read-only global network file system (and software, such as gopherfs, is available that can actually mount a Gopher server as a FUSE resource).", "At a minimum, whatever can be done with data files on a CD-ROM, can be done on Gopher.A Gopher system consists of a series of hierarchical hyperlinkable menus.", "The choice of menu items and titles is controlled by the administrator of the server.Similar to a file on a Web server, a file on a Gopher server can be linked to as a menu item from any other Gopher server.", "Many servers take advantage of this inter-server linking to provide a directory of other servers that the user can access.===Protocol===The Gopher protocol was first described in .", "IANA has assigned TCP port 70 to the Gopher protocol.", "The protocol is simple to negotiate, making it possible to browse without using a client.====User request====First, the client establishes a TCP connection with the server on port 70, the standard gopher port.", "The client then sends a string followed by a carriage return followed by a line feed (a \"CR + LF\" sequence).", "This is the selector, which identifies the document to be retrieved.", "If the item selector were an empty line, the default directory would be selected.====Server response====The server then replies with the requested item and closes the connection.", "According to the protocol, before the connection is closed, the server should send a full-stop (i.e., a period character) on a line by itself.", "However, not all servers conform to this part of the protocol and the server may close the connection without returning the final full-stop.", "The main type of reply from the server is a text or binary resource.", "Alternatively, the resource can be a menu: a form of structured text resource providing references to other resources.Because of the simplicity of the Gopher protocol, tools such as netcat make it possible to download Gopher content easily from the command line:$ echo jacks/jack.exe | nc gopher.example.org 70 > jack.exeThe protocol is also supported by cURL as of 7.21.2-DEV.====Search request====The selector string in the request can optionally be followed by a tab character and a search string.", "This is used by item type 7.===Source code of a menu===Gopher menu items are defined by lines of tab-separated values in a text file.", "This file is sometimes called a ''gophermap''.", "As the source code to a gopher menu, a gophermap is roughly analogous to an HTML file for a web page.", "Each tab-separated line (called a ''selector line'') gives the client software a description of the menu item: what it is, what it is called, and where it leads to.", "The client displays the menu items in the order that they appear in the gophermap.The first character in a selector line indicates the ''item type'', which tells the client what kind of file or protocol the menu item points to.", "This helps the client decide what to do with it.", "Gopher's item types are a more basic precursor to the media type system used by the Web and email attachments.The item type is followed by the ''user display string'' (a description or label that represents the item in the menu); the selector (a path or other string for the resource on the server); the ''hostname'' (the domain name or IP address of the server), and the network port.All lines in a gopher menu are terminated by \"CR + LF\".Example of a selector line in a menu source: The following selector line generates a link to the \"/home\" directory at the subdomain gopher.floodgap.com, on port 70.The item type of indicates that the linked resource is a Gopher menu itself.", "The string \"Floodgap Home\" is what the client will show to the user when visiting the example menu.", "1Floodgap Home\t/home\tgopher.floodgap.com\t70 Item type User display string Selector Hostname Port 1 Floodgap Home /home gopher.floodgap.com 70====Item types====In a Gopher menu's source code, a one-character code indicates what kind of content the client should expect.", "This code may either be a digit or a letter of the alphabet; letters are case-sensitive.The technical specification for Gopher, , defines 14 item types.", "The later gopher+ specification defined an additional 3 types.", "A one-character code indicates what kind of content the client should expect.", "Item type is an error code for exception handling.", "Gopher client authors improvised item types (HTML), (informational message), and (sound file) after the publication of RFC 1436.Browsers like Netscape Navigator and early versions of Microsoft Internet Explorer would prepend the item type code to the selector as described in , so that the type of the gopher item could be determined by the url itself.", "Most gopher browsers still available, use these prefixes in their urls.", "Text file Gopher submenu CCSO Nameserver Error code returned by a Gopher server to indicate failure BinHex-encoded file (primarily for Macintosh computers) DOS file uuencoded file Gopher full-text search Telnet Binary file Mirror or alternate server (for load balancing or in case of primary server downtime) GIF file Image file Telnet 3270 Bitmap image Movie file Sound file '''d''' Doc.", "Seen used alongside PDF and .DOC files '''h''' HTML file '''i''' Informational message, widely used.", "'''p''' image file \"(especially the png format)\" '''r''' document rtf file \"rich text Format\") '''s''' Sound file (especially the WAV format) '''P''' PDF (Portable Document Format) file '''X''' XML (Extensible Markup Language) fileHere is an example gopher session where the user requires a gopher menu ( on the first line):/Reference1CIA World Factbook /Archives/mirrors/textfiles.com/politics/CIA gopher.quux.org 700Jargon 4.2.0 /Reference/Jargon 4.2.0 gopher.quux.org 70 +1Online Libraries /Reference/Online Libraries gopher.quux.org 70 +1RFCs: Internet Standards /Computers/Standards and Specs/RFC gopher.quux.org 701U.S.", "Gazetteer /Reference/U.S.", "Gazetteer gopher.quux.org 70 +iThis file contains information on United States fake (NULL) 0icities, counties, and geographical areas.", "It has fake (NULL) 0ilatitude/longitude, population, land and water area, fake (NULL) 0iand ZIP codes.", "fake (NULL) 0i fake (NULL) 0iTo search for a city, enter the city's name.", "To search fake (NULL) 0ifor a county, use the name plus County -- for instance, fake (NULL) 0iDallas County.", "fake (NULL) 0The gopher menu sent back from the server, is a sequence of lines each of which describes an item that can be retrieved.", "Most clients will display these as hypertext links, and so allow the user to navigate through gopherspace by following the links.This menu includes a text resource (itemtype on the third line), multiple links to submenus (itemtype , on the second line as well as lines 4-6) and a non-standard information message (from line 7 on), broken down to multiple lines by providing dummy values for selector, host and port.====External links====Historically, to create a link to a Web server, \"GET /\" was used as a pseudo-selector to emulate an HTTP GET request.", "John Goerzen created an addition to the Gopher protocol, commonly referred to as \"URL links\", that allows links to any protocol that supports URLs.", "For example, to create a link to http://gopher.quux.org/, the item type is , the display string is the title of the link, the item selector is \"\", and the domain and port are that of the originating Gopher server (so that clients that do not support URL links will query the server and receive an HTML redirection page).===Gopher+===Gopher+ is a forward compatible enhancement to the Gopher protocol.", "Gopher+ works by sending metadata between the client and the server.", "The enhancement was never widely adopted by Gopher servers.The client sends a tab followed by a +.", "A Gopher+ server will respond with a status line followed by the content the client requested.", "An item is marked as supporting Gopher+ in the Gopher directory listing by a tab + after the port (this is the case of some of the items in the example above).Other features of Gopher+ include:* Item attributes, which can include the items** Administrator** Last date of modification** Different views of the file, like PostScript or plain text, or different languages** Abstract, or description of the item* Interactive queries" ], [ "Client software", "===Gopher clients===These are clients, libraries, and utilities primarily designed to access gopher resources.", "Client Updated License Language Type Notes ACID 2021 ?", "C GUI (Windows) Supports page cache, TFTP and has G6 extension.", "Bombadillo 2022 GPLv3 Go TUI (Linux, BSD, OSX) Supports Gopher, Gemini, Finger cURL 2022 C CLI elpher 2022 GPLv3 Emacs Lisp TUI/GUI Elpher: a gopher and gemini client for GNU Emacs eva 2022 GPLv3 Rust GUI Eva (as in extra vehicular activity, or spacewalk) is a Gemini and Gopher protocol browser in GTK 4.Gopher Browser 2019 Closed Source VB.NET GUI (Windows) Gopher Client 2018 App (iOS) Supports text reflow, bookmarks, history, etc gophercle 2022 MIT Java App (Android) Supports only basic functionalities like bookmarks, session-history, downloads, etc.", "Gopherus 2020 BSD 2-clause C TUI (Linux, BSD, Windows, DOS) Features bookmarks and page caching.", "Gophie 2020 GPLv3 Java GUI (Windows, MacOS, Linux) Kristall 2020 GPLv3 C++ GUI (Linux) Gemini GUI client with support for Gopher, Finger, and www.", "Lagrange 2022 BSD 2-clause C GUI Gemini GUI client with Gopher and finger support.", "Switches to gophermap/type 1 requests in parent/root navigation.", "Little Gopher Client 2019 Pascal Linux, Mac, Windows Sidebar with a hierarchical view ncgopher 2022 BSD 2-clause Rust TUI ncgopher is a gopher and gemini client using ncurses.", "Pocket Gopher 2019 Unlicense Java App (Android) Supports bookmarks, history, downloads, etc sacc 2022 C TUI sacc(omys) is a terminal gopher client.", "snarf 2020 GPL C CLI Simple Non-interactive All-purpose Resource Fetcher w3m 2021 MIT C TUI w3m is a text-based web browser===Other clients===Clients like web browsers, libraries, and utilities primarily designed to access world wide web resources, but which maintain(ed) gopher support.", "* Browse, a browser for RISC OS* Camino, versions 1.0 to 2.1.2, always uses port 70.", "* Classilla, versions 9.0 to 9.3.4b1 as of March 2021, hardcoded to port 70 from 9.0 to 9.2; whitelisted ports from 9.2.1* Dillo+* Dooble* ELinks, versions 0.10.0 to 0.12pre6 as of October 2012, unmaintained browser with gopher build option.", "Fork ''felinks'' offers support as a build option* Edbrowse, a line-oriented editor and browser with an interface like that of ed (text editor)* Falkon, with plug-in only, requires Falkon ≥ 3.1.0 with both the KDE Frameworks Integration extension (shipped with Falkon ≥ 3.1.0) enabled and the (separate) kio_gopher plug-in ≥ 0.1.99 (first release for KDE Frameworks 5) installed* Mozilla Firefox versions 0.1 to 3.6, built-in support dropped from Firefox 4.0 onwards; can be added back by installing one of the extensions by the Overbite Project* Galeon version 2.0.7* Google Chrome, with extension only, Burrow extension* Internet Explorer for Mac version 5.2.3, PowerPC-only* Internet Explorer, dropped with version 6: Support removed by MS02-047 from IE 6 SP1 can be re-enabled in the Windows Registry.", "Always uses port 70.Gopher support was disabled in Internet Explorer versions 5.x and 6 for Windows in August 2002 by a patch meant to fix a security vulnerability in the browser's Gopher protocol handler to reduce the attack surface which was included in IE6 SP1; however, it can be re-enabled by editing the Windows registry.", "In Internet Explorer 7, Gopher support was removed on the WinINET level.", "* K-Meleon, dropped support* Konqueror, with plug-in only, requires kio_gopher plug-in* Line Mode Browser, since version 1.1, January 1992* Lynx* Mosaic, version 3.0* NetSurf, under development, based on the cURL fetcher* Netscape Navigator, version 9.0.0.6* OmniWeb, since version 5.9.2 , first WebKit Browser to support Gopher* Opera, Opera 9.0 included a proxy capability* Pavuk, a web mirror (recursive download) software program* SeaMonkey, version 1.0 to 2.0.14, built-in support dropped from SeaMonkey 2.1 onwards; could be added back to some versions with the Overbite project, but is no longer supported.", "* Epiphany, until version 2.26.3, disabled with switch to WebKit* WebPositive, a WebKit-based browser used in the Haiku operating system* libwww, versions 1.0c to 5.4.1 , libwww is a discontinued API for internet applications.", "A modern fork is maintained in LynxBrowsers that do not natively support Gopher can still access servers using one of the available Gopher to HTTP gateways or proxy server that converts Gopher menus into HTML; known proxies are the Floodgap Public Gopher proxy and Gopher Proxy.", "Similarly, certain server packages such as GN and PyGopherd have built-in Gopher to HTTP interfaces.", "Squid Proxy software gateways any gopher:// URL to HTTP content, enabling any browser or web agent to access gopher content easily.For Mozilla Firefox and SeaMonkey, Overbite extensions extend Gopher browsing and support the current versions of the browsers (Firefox Quantum v ≥57 and equivalent versions of SeaMonkey):* OverbiteWX redirects gopher:// URLs to a proxy;* OverbiteNX adds native-like support;* for Firefox up to 56.", "*, and equivalent versions of SeaMonkey, OverbiteFF adds native-like support, but it is no longer maintainedOverbiteWX includes support for accessing Gopher servers not on port 70 using a whitelist and for CSO/ph queries.", "OverbiteFF always uses port 70.For Chromium and Google Chrome, Burrow is available.", "It redirects gopher:// URLs to a proxy.", "In the past an Overbite proxy-based extension for these browsers was available but is no longer maintained and does not work with the current (>23) releases.For Konqueror, Kio gopher is available.As the bandwidth-sparing simple interface of Gopher can be a good match for mobile phones and personal digital assistants (PDAs), the early 2010s saw a renewed interest in native Gopher clients for popular smartphones.Gopher popularity was at its height at a time when there were still many equally competing computer architectures and operating systems.", "As a result, there are several Gopher clients available for Acorn RISC OS, AmigaOS, Atari MiNT, CMS, DOS, classic Mac OS, MVS, NeXT, OS/2 Warp, most UNIX-like operating systems, VMS, Windows 3.x, and Windows 9x.", "GopherVR was a client designed for 3D visualization, and there is even a Gopher client in MOO.", "The majority of these clients are hard-coded to work on TCP port 70." ], [ "Server software", "Because the protocol is trivial to implement in a basic fashion, there are many server packages still available, and some are still maintained.", "Server Developed by Latest version Release date License Written in Notes Aftershock Rob Linwood 1.0.1 MIT Java Apache::GopherHandler Timm Murray 0.1 GPLv2 or any later version Perl Apache 2 plugin to run Gopher-Server.", "Atua Charles Childers 2017.4 ISC Forth Bucktooth (gopher link) ( proxied link) Cameron Kaiser 0.2.9 Floodgap Free Software License Perl Flask-Gopher Michael Lazar 2.2.1 GPLv3 Python geomyid Quinn Evans 0.0.1 2-clause BSD Common Lisp geomyidae (gopher link) ( proxied link) Christoph Lohmann 0.50.1 MIT CREST dynamic scripting, gopher TLS support, compatibility layer for other gophermaps GoFish Sean MacLennan 1.2 GPLv2 C Gopher-Server Timm Murray 0.1.1 GPLv2 Perl Gophernicus Kim Holviala and others 3.1.1 2-clause BSD C gophrier Guillaume Duhamel 0.2.3 GPLv2 C Goscher Aaron W. Hsu 8.0 ISC Scheme mgod Mate Nagy 1.1 GPLv3 C Motsognir Mateusz Viste 1.0.13 MIT C extensible through custom gophermaps, CGI and PHP scripts Pituophis dotcomboom 1.1 2-clause BSD Python Python-based Gopher library with both server and client support PyGopherd John Goerzen 2.0.18.5 GPLv2 Python Also supports HTTP, WAP, and Gopher+ Redis Salvatore Sanfilippo 6.2.5 3-clause BSD C Support removed in version 7 save_gopher_server SSS8555 0.777 Perl with G6 extension and TFTP Spacecookie Lukas Epple 1.0.0.0 GPLv3 Haskell Xylophar Nathaniel Leveck 0.0.1 GPLv3 FreeBASIC" ], [ "See also" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* List of public Gopher servers (Gopher link) ( proxied link)* An announcement of Gopher on the Usenet 8 October 1991* Why is Gopher Still Relevant?", "— a position statement on Gopher's survival* The Web may have won, but Gopher tunnels on — an article published by the technology discussion site ''Ars Technica'' about the Gopher community of enthusiasts as of 5 November 2009* History of Gopher — Article in MinnPost* Gopherpedia — Gopher interface for Wikipedia (Gopher link) ( proxied link, by another proxy)* Mark McCahill and Farhad Anklesaria – gopher inventors – explain the evolution of gopher: part 1, part 2* Proposed Gopher+ Specification (gopher link)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "General election" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''general election''' is an electoral process to choose most or all members of an elected body, typically a legislature.", "They are distinct from by-elections, which fill a seat that has become vacant between general elections.", "In most systems, a general election is a regularly scheduled election, typically including members of a legislature, and sometimes other officers such as a directly elected president.", "General elections may also take place at the same time as local, state/autonomous region, European Parliament, and other elections, where applicable.", "For example, on 25 May 2014, Belgian voters elected their national parliament, 21 members of the European Parliament, and regional parliaments.In the United States, \"general election\" has a slightly different, but related meaning: the ordinary electoral competition following the selection of candidates in the primary election." ], [ "United Kingdom", "The term ''general election'' in the United Kingdom often refers to the elections held on the same day in all constituencies of their members of Parliament (MPs) to the House of Commons.", "Historically, English and later British general elections took place over a period of several weeks, with individual constituencies holding polling on different days.", "The Parliament Act 1911 introduced the requirement that elections in all parliamentary constituencies be held on the same day.", "There has been a convention since the 1930s that general elections in Britain should take place on a Thursday; the last general election to take place on any other weekday was that of 1931.Under the terms of the Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011, in force until March 2022, the period between one general election and the next was fixed at five years, unless the House of Commons passed one of the following:* A motion of no confidence in the Government sooner than that, and did not pass a motion of confidence in a new Government within fourteen days* A motion, approved by two-thirds of its members, resolving that a general election should take place sooner* A proposal from the prime minister to reschedule an election mandated by the Act to no later than two months after the original dateAlthough not provided for in the Fixed-term Parliaments Act, an early election could also be brought about by an act of parliament specifically calling for a general election, which (unlike the second option above) only required a simple majority.", "This was the mechanism used to precipitate the December 2019 election, when the Early Parliamentary General Election Act 2019 was enacted.The Fixed-term Parliaments Act was repealed by the Dissolution and Calling of Parliament Act 2022.The term ''general election'' is also used in the United Kingdom to refer to elections to any democratically elected body in which all members are up for election.", "Section 2 of the Scotland Act 1998, for example, specifically refers to ordinary elections to the Scottish Parliament as general elections." ], [ "United States", "In U.S. politics, general elections are elections held at any level (e.g.", "city, county, congressional district, state) that typically involve competition between at least two parties.", "General elections occur every two to six years (depending on the positions being filled, with most positions good for four years) and include the presidential election.", "\"General election\" does not refer to special elections, which fill out positions prematurely vacated by the previous office holder (e.g.", "through death, resignation, etc.", ").Major general elections are as follows: * The President and Vice President are elected once every four years (2016, 2020, 2024, 2028, etc.", ")* Representatives in the House of Representatives serve two-year terms, and so there are elections for representatives every two years (midterm elections, and during the same year as the Presidency: 2020, 2022, 2024, 2026, etc.", ")* Senators serve six-year terms, but their terms are staggered.", "Throughout the US, a third of the senate will be up for election every midterm and during the Presidential election year.", "The term ''general election'' is distinguished from primaries or caucuses, which are intra-party elections meant to select a party's official candidate for a particular race.", "Thus, if a primary is meant to elect a party's candidate for the position-in-question, a general election is meant to elect who occupies the position itself.", "Presidential primaries happen several months before the general election, though not all states hold primaries.In the Louisiana the expression ''general election'' means the runoff election which occurs between the two highest candidates as determined by the jungle primary." ], [ "See also", "* Writ of election" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Genotype" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''genotype''' of an organism is its complete set of genetic material.", "Genotype can also be used to refer to the alleles or variants an individual carries in a particular gene or genetic location.", "The number of alleles an individual can have in a specific gene depends on the number of copies of each chromosome found in that species, also referred to as ploidy.", "In diploid species like humans, two full sets of chromosomes are present, meaning each individual has two alleles for any given gene.", "If both alleles are the same, the genotype is referred to as homozygous.", "If the alleles are different, the genotype is referred to as heterozygous.Genotype contributes to phenotype, the observable traits and characteristics in an individual or organism.", "The degree to which genotype affects phenotype depends on the trait.", "For example, the petal color in a pea plant is exclusively determined by genotype.", "The petals can be purple or white depending on the alleles present in the pea plant.", "However, other traits are only partially influenced by genotype.", "These traits are often called complex traits because they are influenced by additional factors, such as environmental and epigenetic factors.", "Not all individuals with the same genotype look or act the same way because appearance and behavior are modified by environmental and growing conditions.", "Likewise, not all organisms that look alike necessarily have the same genotype.The term ''genotype'' was coined by the Danish botanist Wilhelm Johannsen in 1903." ], [ "Phenotype", "Any given gene will usually cause an observable change in an organism, known as the phenotype.", "The terms genotype and phenotype are distinct for at least two reasons:* To distinguish the source of an observer's knowledge (one can know about genotype by observing DNA; one can know about phenotype by observing outward appearance of an organism).", "* Genotype and phenotype are not always directly correlated.", "Some genes only express a given phenotype in certain environmental conditions.", "Conversely, some phenotypes could be the result of multiple genotypes.", "The genotype is commonly mixed up with the phenotype which describes the end result of both the genetic and the environmental factors giving the observed expression (e.g.", "blue eyes, hair color, or various hereditary diseases).A simple example to illustrate genotype as distinct from phenotype is the flower colour in pea plants (see Gregor Mendel).", "There are three available genotypes, PP (homozygous dominant), Pp (heterozygous), and pp (homozygous recessive).", "All three have different genotypes but the first two have the same phenotype (purple) as distinct from the third (white).A more technical example to illustrate genotype is the single-nucleotide polymorphism or SNP.", "A SNP occurs when corresponding sequences of DNA from different individuals differ at one DNA base, for example where the sequence AAGCCTA changes to AAGCTTA.", "This contains two alleles : C and T. SNPs typically have three genotypes, denoted generically AA Aa and aa.", "In the example above, the three genotypes would be CC, CT and TT.", "Other types of genetic marker, such as microsatellites, can have more than two alleles, and thus many different genotypes.Penetrance is the proportion of individuals showing a specified genotype in their phenotype under a given set of environmental conditions." ], [ "Mendelian inheritance", "Here the relation between genotype and phenotype is illustrated, using a Punnett square, for the character of petal colour in a pea plant.", "The letters B and b represent alleles for colour and the pictures show the resultant flowers.", "The diagram shows the cross between two heterozygous parents where B represents the dominant allele (purple) and b represents the recessive allele (white).Traits that are determined exclusively by genotype are typically inherited in a Mendelian pattern.", "These laws of inheritance were described extensively by Gregor Mendel, who performed experiments with pea plants to determine how traits were passed on from generation to generation.", "He studied phenotypes that were easily observed, such as plant height, petal color, or seed shape.", "He was able to observe that if he crossed two true-breeding plants with distinct phenotypes, all the offspring would have the same phenotype.", "For example, when he crossed a tall plant with a short plant, all the resulting plants would be tall.", "However, when he self-fertilized the plants that resulted, about 1/4 of the second generation would be short.", "He concluded that some traits were dominant, such as tall height, and others were recessive, like short height.", "Though Mendel was not aware at the time, each phenotype he studied was controlled by a single gene with two alleles.", "In the case of plant height, one allele caused the plants to be tall, and the other caused plants to be short.", "When the tall allele was present, the plant would be tall, even if the plant was heterozygous.", "In order for the plant to be short, it had to be homozygous for the recessive allele.One way this can be illustrated is using a Punnett square.", "In a Punnett square, the genotypes of the parents are placed on the outside.", "An uppercase letter is typically used to represent the dominant allele, and a lowercase letter is used to represent the recessive allele.", "The possible genotypes of the offspring can then be determined by combining the parent genotypes.", "In the example on the right, both parents are heterozygous, with a genotype of Bb.", "The offspring can inherit a dominant allele from each parent, making them homozygous with a genotype of BB.", "The offspring can inherit a dominant allele from one parent and a recessive allele from the other parent, making them heterozygous with a genotype of Bb.", "Finally, the offspring could inherit a recessive allele from each parent, making them homozygous with a genotype of bb.", "Plants with the BB and Bb genotypes will look the same, since the B allele is dominant.", "The plant with the bb genotype will have the recessive trait.These inheritance patterns can also be applied to hereditary diseases or conditions in humans or animals.", "Some conditions are inherited in an autosomal dominant pattern, meaning individuals with the condition typically have an affected parent as well.", "A classic pedigree for an autosomal dominant condition shows affected individuals in every generation.", "An example of a pedigree for an autosomal dominant condition Other conditions are inherited in an autosomal recessive pattern, where affected individuals do not typically have an affected parent.", "Since each parent must have a copy of the recessive allele in order to have an affected offspring, the parents are referred to as carriers of the condition.In autosomal conditions, the sex of the offspring does not play a role in their risk of being affected.", "In sex-linked conditions, the sex of the offspring affects their chances of having the condition.", "In humans, females inherit two X chromosomes, one from each parent, while males inherit an X chromosome from their mother and a Y chromosome from their father.", "X-linked dominant conditions can be distinguished from autosomal dominant conditions in pedigrees by the lack of transmission from fathers to sons, since affected fathers only pass their X chromosome to their daughters.", "In X-linked recessive conditions, males are typically affected more commonly because they are hemizygous, with only one X chromosome.", "In females, the presence of a second X chromosome will prevent the condition from appearing.", "Females are therefore carriers of the condition and can pass the trait on to their sons.An example of a pedigree for an autosomal recessive conditionMendelian patterns of inheritance can be complicated by additional factors.", "Some diseases show incomplete penetrance, meaning not all individuals with the disease-causing allele develop signs or symptoms of the disease.", "Penetrance can also be age-dependent, meaning signs or symptoms of disease are not visible until later in life.", "For example, Huntington disease is an autosomal dominant condition, but up to 25% of individuals with the affected genotype will not develop symptoms until after age 50.Another factor that can complicate Mendelian inheritance patterns is variable expressivity, in which individuals with the same genotype show different signs or symptoms of disease.", "For example, individuals with polydactyly can have a variable number of extra digits." ], [ "Non-Mendelian inheritance", "Many traits are not inherited in a Mendelian fashion, but have more complex patterns of inheritance.=== Incomplete dominance ===For some traits, neither allele is completely dominant.", "Heterozygotes often have an appearance somewhere in between those of homozygotes.", "For example, a cross between true-breeding red and white ''Mirabilis jalapa'' results in pink flowers.=== Codominance ===Codominance refers to traits in which both alleles are expressed in the offspring in approximately equal amounts.", "A classic example is the ABO blood group system in humans, where both the A and B alleles are expressed when they are present.", "Individuals with the AB genotype have both A and B proteins expressed on their red blood cells.=== Epistasis ===Epistasis is when the phenotype of one gene is affected by one or more other genes.", "This is often through some sort of masking effect of one gene on the other.", "For example, the \"A\" gene codes for hair color, a dominant \"A\" allele codes for brown hair, and a recessive \"a\" allele codes for blonde hair, but a separate \"B\" gene controls hair growth, and a recessive \"b\" allele causes baldness.", "If the individual has the BB or Bb genotype, then they produce hair and the hair color phenotype can be observed, but if the individual has a bb genotype, then the person is bald which masks the A gene entirely.=== Polygenic traits ===A polygenic trait is one whose phenotype is dependent on the additive effects of multiple genes.", "The contributions of each of these genes are typically small and add up to a final phenotype with a large amount of variation.", "A well studied example of this is the number of sensory bristles on a fly.", "These types of additive effects is also the explanation for the amount of variation in human eye color." ], [ "Genotyping", "Genotyping refers to the method used to determine an individual's genotype.", "There are a variety of techniques that can be used to assess genotype.", "The genotyping method typically depends on what information is being sought.", "Many techniques initially require amplification of the DNA sample, which is commonly done using PCR.Some techniques are designed to investigate specific SNPs or alleles in a particular gene or set of genes, such as whether an individual is a carrier for a particular condition.", "This can be done via a variety of techniques, including allele specific oligonucleotide (ASO) probes or DNA sequencing.", "Tools such as multiplex ligation-dependent probe amplification can also be used to look for duplications or deletions of genes or gene sections.", "Other techniques are meant to assess a large number of SNPs across the genome, such as SNP arrays.", "This type of technology is commonly used for genome-wide association studies.Large-scale techniques to assess the entire genome are also available.", "This includes karyotyping to determine the number of chromosomes an individual has and chromosomal microarrays to assess for large duplications or deletions in the chromosome.", "More detailed information can be determined using exome sequencing, which provides the specific sequence of all DNA in the coding region of the genome, or whole genome sequencing, which sequences the entire genome including non-coding regions." ], [ "Genotype encoding", "In linear models, the genotypes can be encoded in different manners.", "Let us consider a biallelic locus with two possible alleles, encoded by and .", "We consider '''''' to correspond to the dominant allele to the reference allele .", "The following table details the different encoding.+GenotypeAdditive encoding012Dominant encoding011Recessive encoding001Codominant encoding0,00,11,0" ], [ "See also", "* Endophenotype* Genotype–phenotype distinction* Nucleic acid sequence* Phenotype* Sequence (biology)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Genetic nomenclature" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gerard Hengeveld" ], [ "Introduction", "right'''Gerard Hengeveld''' (December 7, 1910, in Kampen – October 28, 2001, in Bergen, North Holland) was a Dutch classical pianist, music composer and educationalist.", "He is especially known for his compositions of study material for piano.", "Other compositions include two piano concertos, a violin sonata, and a sonata for cello.", "Hengeveld was an able interpreter and performer of the music of Bach for piano and harpsichord.", "He gave regular concerts in the Concertgebouw in Amsterdam.", "Some of his concerts were captured on record.", "Hengeveld was a professor at the Royal Conservatory of The Hague.", "Amongst his students was Dutch pianist and musicologist Frans Bouwman.Hengeveld died in 2001 at the age of 90, in Bergen.", "His closest living relative is Nicholas Hengeveld of Allentown, Pennsylvania." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Gerard Hengeveld at the Virtual International Authority File* Gerard Hengeveld Discography* Gerard Hengeveld at the Classical Composers Database" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "George William, Elector of Brandenburg" ], [ "Introduction", "'''George William''' (; 13 November 1595 – 1 December 1640), of the Hohenzollern dynasty, was Margrave and Elector of Brandenburg and Duke of Prussia from 1619 until his death.", "His reign was marked by ineffective governance during the Thirty Years' War.", "He was the father of Frederick William, the \"Great Elector\"." ], [ "Biography", "Born in Cölln on the Spree (today part of Berlin), George William was the son of John Sigismund, Margrave of Brandenburg and Anna of Prussia.", "His maternal grandfather was Albert Frederick, Duke of Prussia.", "In 1616, he married Elisabeth Charlotte of the Palatinate.", "Their only son Frederick William would later be known as the \"Great Elector\".", "Of his two daughters, the eldest, Louise Charlotte, married Jacob Kettler, Duke of Courland, and the younger, Hedwig Sophie, married William VI, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel.In 1619, George William inherited the Margravate of Brandenburg and the Duchy of Prussia, then part of Poland, although his ownership was not confirmed by Sigismund III Vasa until September 1621.He proved a weak and ineffective ruler in a very difficult period of history; possession of Prussia involved him in the 1621 to 1625 Polish–Swedish War, since Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden was married to his sister Maria Eleonora.During the Thirty Years' War, the Calvinist George William tried to remain neutral in the contest between the Catholic Emperor Ferdinand II, and his mostly Lutheran opponents.", "When the war shifted to northern Germany in 1625, this did not protect his lands from being looted by Imperial troops, and he was forced to take sides when Gustavus intervened in the Empire in 1630.However, this simply replaced one set of plunderers with another; Gustavus could not support so large an army, and his unpaid and unfed troops became increasingly mutinous and ill-disciplined.After Gustavus was killed at Lützen in November 1632, George William joined the Swedish-backed Heilbronn League, until defeat at Nördlingen on 6 September 1634.Following the 1635 Peace of Prague, the League was dissolved, although by now Brandenburg's population had been decimated by the war.Leaving his Catholic and pro-Imperial chief minister Schwarzenberg to run the government, George William withdrew in 1637 to the relatively untouched region of Prussia, where he lived in retirement until his death at Königsberg in 1640.He was succeeded by his far more accomplished son Frederick William." ], [ "Ancestry" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* * * * *" ], [ "External links", "aged 45" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Graphic design" ], [ "Introduction", "Due to its interdisciplinary nature, graphic design can be performed in different areas of application: branding, technical and artistic drawing, signage, photography, image and video editing, 3D modeling, animation, programming, among other fields.", "'''Graphic design''' is a profession, academic discipline and applied art whose activity consists in projecting visual communications intended to transmit specific messages to social groups, with specific objectives.", "Graphic design is an interdisciplinary branch of design and of the fine arts.", "Its practice involves creativity, innovation and lateral thinking using manual or digital tools, where it is usual to use text and graphics to communicate visually.The role of the graphic designer in the communication process is that of encoder or interpreter of the message.", "They work on the interpretation, ordering, and presentation of visual messages.", "Usually, graphic design uses the aesthetics of typography and the compositional arrangement of the text, ornamentation, and imagery to convey ideas, feelings, and attitudes beyond what language alone expresses.", "The design work can be based on a customer's demand, a demand that ends up being established linguistically, either orally or in writing, that is, that graphic design transforms a linguistic message into a graphic manifestation.", "Graphic design has, as a field of application, different areas of knowledge focused on any visual communication system.", "For example, it can be applied in advertising strategies, or it can also be applied in the aviation world or space exploration.", "In this sense, in some countries graphic design is related as only associated with the production of sketches and drawings, this is incorrect, since visual communication is a small part of a huge range of types and classes where it can be applied.With origins in Antiquity and the Middle Ages, graphic design as applied art was initially linked to the boom of rise of printing in Europe in the 15th century and the growth of consumer culture in the Industrial Revolution.", "From there it emerged as a distinct profession in the West, closely associated with advertising in the 19th century and its evolution allowed its consolidation in the 20th century.", "Given the rapid and massive growth in information exchange today, the demand for experienced designers is greater than ever, particularly because of the development of new technologies and the need to pay attention to human factors beyond the competence of the engineers who develop them." ], [ "Terminology", "William Addison Dwiggins is often credited with first using the term \"graphic design\" in a 1922 article, although it appears in a 4 July 1908 issue (volume 9, number 27) of ''Organized Labor'', a publication of the Labor Unions of San Francisco, in an article about technical education for printers:An Enterprising Trades Union… The admittedly high standard of intelligence which prevails among printers is an assurance that with the elemental principles of design at their finger ends many of them will grow in knowledge and develop into specialists in graphic design and decorating.", "…A decade later, the 1917–1918 course catalog of the California School of Arts & Crafts advertised a course titled Graphic Design and Lettering, which replaced one called Advanced Design and Lettering.", "Both classes were taught by Frederick Meyer." ], [ "History", "In both its lengthy history and in the relatively recent explosion of visual communication in the 20th and 21st centuries, the distinction between advertising, art, graphic design and fine art has disappeared.", "They share many elements, theories, principles, practices, languages and sometimes the same benefactor or client.", "In advertising, the ultimate objective is the sale of goods and services.", "In graphic design, \"the essence is to give order to information, form to ideas, expression, and feeling to artifacts that document the human experience.", "\"The definition of the graphic designer profession is relatively recent concerning its preparation, activity, and objectives.", "Although there is no consensus on an exact date when graphic design emerged, some date it back to the Interwar period.", "Others understand that it began to be identified as such by the late 19th century.It can be argued that graphic communications with specific purposes have their origins in Paleolithic cave paintings and the birth of written language in the third millennium BCE.", "However, the differences in working methods, auxiliary sciences, and required training are such that it is not possible to clearly identify the current graphic designer with prehistoric man, the 15th-century xylographer, or the lithographer of 1890.The diversity of opinions stems from some considering any graphic manifestation as a product of graphic design, while others only recognize those that arise as a result of the application of an industrial production model—visual manifestations that have been \"projected\" to address various needs: productive, symbolic, ergonomic, contextual, among others.Nevertheless, the evolution of graphic design as a practice and profession has been closely linked to technological innovations, social needs, and the visual imagination of professionals.", "Graphic design has been practiced in various forms throughout history; in fact, good examples of graphic design date back to manuscripts from ancient China, Egypt, and Greece.", "As printing and book production developed in the 15th century, advances in graphic design continued over the subsequent centuries, with composers or typographers often designing pages according to established type.By the late 19th century, graphic design emerged as a distinct profession in the West, partly due to the process of labor specialization that occurred there and partly due to the new technologies and business possibilities brought about by the Industrial Revolution.", "New production methods led to the separation of the design of a communication medium (such as a poster) from its actual production.", "Increasingly, throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, advertising agencies, book publishers, and magazines hired art directors who organized all visual elements of communication and integrated them into a harmonious whole, creating an expression appropriate to the content.", "In 1922, typographer William A. Dwiggins coined the term graphic design to identify the emerging field.Throughout the 20th century, the technology available to designers continued to advance rapidly, as did the artistic and commercial possibilities of design.", "The profession expanded greatly, and graphic designers created, among other things, magazine pages, book covers, posters, CD covers, postage stamps, packaging, brands, signs, advertisements, kinetic titles for TV programs and movies, and websites.", "By the early 21st century, graphic design had become a global profession as advanced technology and industry spread worldwide.===Historical background===In China, during the Tang dynasty (618–907) wood blocks were cut to print on textiles and later to reproduce Buddhist texts.", "A Buddhist scripture printed in 868 is the earliest known printed book.", "Beginning in the 11th century in China, longer scrolls and books were produced using movable type printing, making books widely available during the Song dynasty (960–1279).In the mid-15th century in Mainz, Germany, Johannes Gutenberg developed a way to reproduce printed pages at a faster pace using movable type made with a new metal alloy that created a revolution in the dissemination of information.===Nineteenth century===In 1849, Henry Cole became one of the major forces in design education in Great Britain, informing the government of the importance of design in his ''Journal of Design and Manufactures''.", "He organized the Great Exhibition as a celebration of modern industrial technology and Victorian design.From 1891 to 1896, William Morris' Kelmscott Press was a leader in graphic design associated with the Arts and Crafts movement, creating hand-made books in medieval and Renaissance era style, in addition to wallpaper and textile designs.", "Morris' work, along with the rest of the Private Press movement, directly influenced Art Nouveau.Cover of the Thanksgiving 1895 issue of ''The Chap-Book'', designed by Will H. BradleyWill H. Bradley became one of the notable graphic designers in the late nineteenth-century due to creating art pieces in various Art Nouveau styles.", "Bradley created a number of designs as promotions for a literary magazine titled ''The Chap-Book''.===Twentieth century===A Boeing 747 aircraft with livery designating it as Air Force One.", "The cyan forms, the US flag, presidential seal and the Caslon lettering, were all designed at different times, by different designers, for different purposes, and combined by designer Raymond Loewy in this one single aircraft exterior design.In 1917, Frederick H. Meyer, director and instructor at the California School of Arts and Crafts, taught a class entitled \"Graphic Design and Lettering\".", "Raffe's ''Graphic Design'', published in 1927, was the first book to use \"Graphic Design\" in its title.", "In 1936, author and graphic designer Leon Friend published his book titled \"Graphic Design\" and it is known to be the first piece of literature to cover the topic extensively.The signage in the London Underground is a classic design example of the modern era.", "Although he lacked artistic training, Frank Pick led the Underground Group design and publicity movement.", "The first Underground station signs were introduced in 1908 with a design of a solid red disk with a blue bar in the center and the name of the station.", "The station name was in white sans-serif letters.", "It was in 1916 when Pick used the expertise of Edward Johnston to design a new typeface for the Underground.", "Johnston redesigned the Underground sign and logo to include his typeface on the blue bar in the center of a red circle.In the 1920s, Soviet constructivism applied 'intellectual production' in different spheres of production.", "The movement saw individualistic art as useless in revolutionary Russia and thus moved towards creating objects for utilitarian purposes.", "They designed buildings, film and theater sets, posters, fabrics, clothing, furniture, logos, menus, etc.Jan Tschichold codified the principles of modern typography in his 1928 book, ''New Typography''.", "He later repudiated the philosophy he espoused in this book as fascistic, but it remained influential.", "Tschichold, Bauhaus typographers such as Herbert Bayer and László Moholy-Nagy and El Lissitzky greatly influenced graphic design.", "They pioneered production techniques and stylistic devices used throughout the twentieth century.", "The following years saw graphic design in the modern style gain widespread acceptance and application.The professional graphic design industry grew in parallel with consumerism.", "This raised concerns and criticisms, notably from within the graphic design community with the First Things First manifesto.", "First launched by Ken Garland in 1964, it was re-published as the First Things First 2000 manifesto in 1999 in the magazine ''Emigre'' 51 stating \"We propose a reversal of priorities in favor of more useful, lasting and democratic forms of communication – a mindshift away from product marketing and toward the exploration and production of a new kind of meaning.", "The scope of debate is shrinking; it must expand.", "Consumerism is running uncontested; it must be challenged by other perspectives expressed, in part, through the visual languages and resources of design.\"" ], [ "Applications", "ColourGraphic design can have many applications, from road signs to technical schematics and reference manuals.", "It is often used in branding products and elements of company identity such as logos, colors, packaging, labelling and text.From scientific journals to news reporting, the presentation of opinion and facts is often improved with graphics and thoughtful compositions of visual information – known as information design.", "With the advent of the web, information designers with experience in interactive tools are increasingly used to illustrate the background to news stories.", "Information design can include Data and information visualization, which involves using programs to interpret and form data into a visually compelling presentation, and can be tied in with information graphics." ], [ "Skills", "A graphic design project may involve the creative presentation of existing text, ornament, and images.The \"process school\" is concerned with communication; it highlights the channels and media through which messages are transmitted and by which senders and receivers encode and decode these messages.", "The semiotic school treats a message as a construction of signs which through interaction with receivers, produces meaning; communication as an agent.===Typography===Typography includes type design, modifying type glyphs and arranging type.", "Type glyphs (characters) are created and modified using illustration techniques.", "Type arrangement is the selection of typefaces, point size, tracking (the space between all characters used), kerning (the space between two specific characters) and leading (line spacing).Typography is performed by typesetters, compositors, typographers, graphic artists, art directors, and clerical workers.", "Until the digital age, typography was a specialized occupation.", "Certain fonts communicate or resemble stereotypical notions.", "For example, 1942 Report is a font which types text akin to a typewriter or a vintage report.===Page layout===Golden section in book designPage layout deals with the arrangement of elements (content) on a page, such as image placement, text layout and style.", "Page design has always been a consideration in printed material and more recently extended to displays such as web pages.", "Elements typically consist of type (text), images (pictures), and (with print media) occasionally place-holder graphics such as a dieline for elements that are not printed with ink such as die/laser cutting, foil stamping or blind embossing.===Grids===A grid serves as a method of arranging both space and information, allowing the reader to easily comprehend the overall project.", "Furthermore, a grid functions as a container for information and a means of establishing and maintaining order.", "Despite grids being utilized for centuries, many graphic designers associate them with Swiss design.", "The desire for order in the 1940s resulted in a highly systematic approach to visualizing information.", "However, grids were later regarded as tedious and uninteresting, earning the label of \"designersaur.\"", "Today, grids are once again considered crucial tools for professionals, whether they are novices or veterans." ], [ "Tools", "In the mid-1980s desktop publishing and graphic art software applications introduced computer image manipulation and creation capabilities that had previously been manually executed.", "Computers enabled designers to instantly see the effects of layout or typographic changes, and to simulate the effects of traditional media.", "Traditional tools such as pencils can be useful even when computers are used for finalization; a designer or art director may sketch numerous concepts as part of the creative process.", "Styluses can be used with tablet computers to capture hand drawings digitally.===Computers and software===Designers disagree whether computers enhance the creative process.", "Some designers argue that computers allow them to explore multiple ideas quickly and in more detail than can be achieved by hand-rendering or paste-up.", "While other designers find the limitless choices from digital design can lead to paralysis or endless iterations with no clear outcome.Most designers use a hybrid process that combines traditional and computer-based technologies.", "First, hand-rendered layouts are used to get approval to execute an idea, then the polished visual product is produced on a computer.Graphic designers are expected to be proficient in software programs for image-making, typography and layout.", "Nearly all of the popular and \"industry standard\" software programs used by graphic designers since the early 1990s are products of Adobe Inc. Adobe Photoshop (a raster-based program for photo editing) and Adobe Illustrator (a vector-based program for drawing) are often used in the final stage.", "CorelDraw, a vector graphics editing software developed and marketed by Corel Corporation, is also used worldwide.", "Designers often use pre-designed raster images and vector graphics in their work from online design databases.", "Raster images may be edited in Adobe Photoshop, vector logos and illustrations in Adobe Illustrator and CorelDraw, and the final product assembled in one of the major page layout programs, such as Adobe InDesign, Serif PagePlus and QuarkXPress.Many free and open-source programs are also used by both professionals and casual graphic designers.", "Inkscape uses Scalable Vector Graphics (SVG) as its primary file format and allows importing and exporting other formats.", "Other open-source programs used include GIMP for photo-editing and image manipulation, Krita for digital painting, and Scribus for page layout." ], [ "Related design fields", "===Interface design===Since the advent of personal computers, many graphic designers have become involved in interface design, in an environment commonly referred to as a Graphical user interface (GUI).", "This has included web design and software design when end user-interactivity is a design consideration of the layout or interface.", "Combining visual communication skills with an understanding of user interaction and online branding, graphic designers often work with software developers and web developers to create the look and feel of a web site or software application.", "An important aspect of interface design is icon design.===User experience design===User experience design (UX) is the study, analysis, and development of creating products that provide meaningful and relevant experiences to users.", "This involves the creation of the entire process of acquiring and integrating the product, including aspects of branding, design, usability, and function.", "UX design involves creating the interface and interactions for a website or application, and is considered both an act and an art.", "This profession requires a combination of skills, including visual design, social psychology, development, project management, and most importantly, empathy towards the end-users.===Experiential graphic design===Experiential graphic design is the application of communication skills to the built environment.", "This area of graphic design requires practitioners to understand physical installations that have to be manufactured and withstand the same environmental conditions as buildings.", "As such, it is a cross-disciplinary collaborative process involving designers, fabricators, city planners, architects, manufacturers and construction teams.Experiential graphic designers try to solve problems that people encounter while interacting with buildings and space (also called environmental graphic design).", "Examples of practice areas for environmental graphic designers are wayfinding, placemaking, branded environments, exhibitions and museum displays, public installations and digital environments." ], [ "Occupations", "functionalist and anonymous, as these pictographs from the US National Park Service illustrate.Graphic design career paths cover all parts of the creative spectrum and often overlap.", "Workers perform specialized tasks, such as design services, publishing, advertising and public relations.", "As of 2023, median pay was $50,710 per year.", "The main job titles within the industry are often country specific.", "They can include graphic designer, art director, creative director, animator and entry level production artist.", "Depending on the industry served, the responsibilities may have different titles such as \"DTP associate\" or \"Graphic Artist\".", "The responsibilities may involve specialized skills such as illustration, photography, animation, visual effects or interactive design.Employment in design of online projects was expected to increase by 35% by 2026, while employment in traditional media, such as newspaper and book design, expect to go down by 22%.", "Graphic designers will be expected to constantly learn new techniques, programs, and methods.Graphic designers can work within companies devoted specifically to the industry, such as design consultancies or branding agencies, others may work within publishing, marketing or other communications companies.", "Especially since the introduction of personal computers, many graphic designers work as in-house designers in non-design oriented organizations.", "Graphic designers may also work freelance, working on their own terms, prices, ideas, etc.A graphic designer typically reports to the art director, creative director or senior media creative.", "As a designer becomes more senior, they spend less time designing and more time leading and directing other designers on broader creative activities, such as brand development and corporate identity development.", "They are often expected to interact more directly with clients, for example taking and interpreting briefs.===Crowdsourcing in graphic design===Jeff Howe of ''Wired Magazine'' first used the term \"crowdsourcing\" in his 2006 article, \"The Rise of Crowdsourcing.\"", "It spans such creative domains as graphic design, architecture, apparel design, writing, illustration, and others.", "Tasks may be assigned to individuals or a group and may be categorized as convergent or divergent.", "An example of a divergent task is generating alternative designs for a poster.", "An example of a convergent task is selecting one poster design.", "Companies, startups, small businesses and entrepreneurs have all benefitted from design crowdsourcing since it helps them source great graphic designs at a fraction of the budget they used to spend before.", "Getting a logo design through crowdsourcing being one of the most common.", "Major companies that operate in the design crowdsourcing space are generally referred to as design contest sites." ], [ "Role of graphic design", "Graphic design is essential for advertising, branding, and marketing, influencing how people act.", "Good graphic design builds strong, recognizable brands, communicates messages clearly, and shapes how consumers see and react to things.One way that graphic design influences consumer behavior is through the use of visual elements, such as color, typography, and imagery.", "Studies have shown that certain colors can evoke specific emotions and behaviors in consumers, and that typography can influence how information is perceived and remembered.", "For example, serif fonts are often associated with tradition and elegance, while sans-serif fonts are seen as modern and minimalistic.", "These factors can all impact the way consumers perceive a brand and its messaging.Another way that graphic design impacts consumer behavior is through its ability to communicate complex information in a clear and accessible way.", "For example, infographics and data visualizations can help to distill complex information into a format that is easy to understand and engaging for consumers.", "This can help to build trust and credibility with consumers, and encourage them to take action." ], [ "Ethical consideration in graphic design", "Ethics are an important consideration in graphic design, particularly when it comes to accurately representing information and avoiding harmful stereotypes.", "Graphic designers have a responsibility to ensure that their work is truthful, accurate, and free from any misleading or deceptive elements.", "This requires a commitment to honesty, integrity, and transparency in all aspects of the design process.One of the key ethical considerations in graphic design is the responsibility to accurately represent information.", "This means ensuring that any claims or statements made in advertising or marketing materials are true and supported by evidence.", "For example, a company should not use misleading statistics to promote their product or service, or make false claims about its benefits.", "Graphic designers must take care to accurately represent information in all visual elements, such as graphs, charts, and images, and avoid distorting or misrepresenting data.Another important ethical consideration in graphic design is the need to avoid harmful stereotypes.", "This means avoiding any images or messaging that perpetuate negative or harmful stereotypes based on race, gender, religion, or other characteristics.", "Graphic designers should strive to create designs that are inclusive and respectful of all individuals and communities, and avoid reinforcing negative attitudes or biases." ], [ "Future of graphic design", "The future of graphic design is likely to be heavily influenced by emerging technologies and social trends.", "Advancements in areas such as artificial intelligence, virtual and augmented reality, and automation are likely to transform the way that graphic designers work and create designs.", "Social trends, such as a greater focus on sustainability and inclusivity, are also likely to impact the future of graphic design.One area where emerging technologies are likely to have a significant impact on graphic design is in the automation of certain tasks.", "Machine learning algorithms, for example, can analyze large datasets and create designs based on patterns and trends, freeing up designers to focus on more complex and creative tasks.", "Virtual and augmented reality technologies may also allow designers to create immersive and interactive experiences for users, blurring the lines between the digital and physical worlds.Social trends are also likely to shape the future of graphic design.", "As consumers become more conscious of environmental issues, for example, there may be a greater demand for designs that prioritize sustainability and minimize waste.", "Similarly, there is likely to be a growing focus on inclusivity and diversity in design, with designers seeking to create designs that are accessible and representative of a wide range of individuals and communities." ], [ "See also", "===Related areas======Related topics===" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* Fiell, Charlotte and Fiell, Peter (editors).", "''Contemporary Graphic Design''.", "Taschen Publishers, 2008.", "* Wiedemann, Julius and Taborda, Felipe (editors).", "''Latin-American Graphic Design''.", "Taschen Publishers, 2008." ], [ "External links", "* * The Universal Arts of Graphic Design – Documentary produced by Off Book* Graphic Designers, entry in the ''Occupational Outlook Handbook'' of the Bureau of Labor Statistics of the United States Department of Labor" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Great Rift Valley" ], [ "Introduction", "Map of the Great Rift ValleyThe '''Great Rift Valley''' () is a series of contiguous geographic trenches, approximately in total length, that runs from Lebanon in Asia to Mozambique in Southeast Africa.", "While the name continues in some usages, it is rarely used in geology as it is considered an imprecise merging of separate though related rift and fault systems.This valley extends northward for 5,950 km through the eastern part of Africa, through the Red Sea, and into Western Asia.", "Several deep, elongated lakes, called ribbon lakes, exist on the floor of this rift valley: Lake Malawi and Lake Tanganyika are examples of such lakes.", "The region has a unique ecosystem and contains a number of Africa's wildlife parks.The Great Rift Valley, Location: Uganda.Map of the Great Rift Valley.", "English version.", "The background map and the locator map are raster images embedded into the SVG file.The term Great Rift Valley is most often used to refer to the valley of the East African Rift, the divergent plate boundary which extends from the Afar Triple Junction southward through eastern Africa, and is in the process of splitting the African Plate into two new and separate plates.", "Geologists generally refer to these evolving plates as the Nubian Plate and the Somali Plate." ], [ "Theoretical extent", "Diagram of a rift valley's future evolution into a leftSatellite image of a graben in the Afar DepressionToday these rifts and faults are seen as distinct, although connected, but originally, the Great Rift Valley was thought to be a single feature that extended from Lebanon in the north to Mozambique in the south, where it constitutes one of two distinct physiographic provinces of the East African mountains.", "It included what today is called the Lebanese section of the Dead Sea Transform, the Jordan Rift Valley, Red Sea Rift and the East African Rift.", "These rifts and faults were formed 35 million years ago." ], [ "Asia", "The northernmost part of the Rift corresponds to the central section of what is called today the Dead Sea Transform (DST) or Rift.", "This midsection of the DST forms the Beqaa Valley in Lebanon, separating the Mount Lebanon range from the Anti-Lebanon Mountains.", "Further south it is known as the Hula Valley separating the Galilee mountains and the Golan Heights.The Jordan River begins here and flows southward through Lake Hula into the Sea of Galilee in Israel.", "The Rift then continues south through the Jordan Rift Valley into the Dead Sea on the Israeli-Jordanian border.", "From the Dead Sea southwards, the Rift is occupied by the Wadi Arabah, then the Gulf of Aqaba, and then the Red Sea.Off the southern tip of Sinai in the Red Sea, the Dead Sea Transform meets the Red Sea Rift which runs the length of the Red Sea.", "The Red Sea Rift comes ashore to meet the East African Rift and the Aden Ridge in the Afar Depression of East Africa.", "The junction of these three rifts is called the Afar Triple Junction." ], [ "Africa", "East African Rift ValleyEast Africa with active volcanoes (red triangles) and the Afar Triangle (shaded, center)—a triple junction where three plates are pulling away from one another.|300x300px This Envisat radar image captures volcanoes dotted across the landscape in Tanzania, including the distinctive Ol Doinyo Lengai (at lower left), in the Great Rift Valley of East Africa.", "The Gelai Volcano (2942 m) is visible at the top, and the Kitumbeine volcanoThe East African Rift follows the Red Sea to the end before turning inland into the Ethiopian highlands, dividing the country into two large and adjacent but separate mountainous regions.", "In Kenya, Uganda, and the fringes of South Sudan, the Great Rift runs along two separate branches that are joined to each other only at their southern end, in Southern Tanzania along its border with Zambia.", "The two branches are called the Western Rift Valley and the Eastern Rift Valley.The Western Rift, also called the Albertine Rift, is bordered by some of the highest mountains in Africa, including the Virunga Mountains, Mitumba Mountains, and Ruwenzori Range.", "It contains the Rift Valley lakes, which include some of the deepest lakes in the world (up to deep at Lake Tanganyika).Much of this area lies within the boundaries of national parks such as Virunga National Park in the Democratic Republic of Congo, Rwenzori National Park and Queen Elizabeth National Park in Uganda, and Volcanoes National Park in Rwanda.", "Lake Victoria is considered to be part of the rift valley system although it actually lies between the two branches.", "All of the African Great Lakes were formed as the result of the rift, and most lie in territories within the rift.In Kenya, the valley is deepest to the north of Nairobi.", "As the lakes in the Eastern Rift have no outlet to the sea and tend to be shallow, they have a high mineral content as the evaporation of water leaves the salts behind.", "For example, Lake Magadi has high concentrations of soda (sodium carbonate) and Lake Elmenteita, Lake Bogoria, and Lake Nakuru are all strongly alkaline, while the freshwater springs supplying Lake Naivasha are essential to support its current biological variety.The southern section of the Rift Valley includes Lake Malawi, the third-deepest freshwater body in the world, which reaches in depth and separates the Nyassa plateau of Northern Mozambique from Malawi.", "The rift extends southwards from Lake Malawi as the valley of the Shire River, which flows from the lake into the Zambezi River.", "The rift continues south of the Zambezi as the Urema Valley of central Mozambique.", "Some people would wonder how long will the rift remain stable." ], [ "See also", "*Great Rift Valley, Ethiopia*Great Rift Valley, Kenya*Rift Valley fever*Rift Valley lakes*Rift Valley Province*Rift Valley Railways*Rift Valley Technical Training Institute*''The Great Rift: Africa's Wild Heart'', a BBC/Animal Planet production*Major earthquakes**1837 Galilee earthquake**1995 Gulf of Aqaba earthquake**2005 Lake Tanganyika earthquake**2006 Mozambique earthquake**2008 Lake Kivu earthquake" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*''Africa's Great Rift Valley'', 2001, *''Tribes of the Great Rift Valley'', 2007, *''East African Rift Valley lakes'', 2006, *''Photographic atlas of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge Rift Valley'', 1977, *''Rift Valley fever : an emerging human and animal problem'', 1982, *''Rift valley: definition and geologic significance'', Giacomo Corti (National Research Council of Italy, Institute of Geosciences and Earth Resources) – The Ethiopian Rift Valley, 2013, * Big crack is evidence that East Africa could be splitting in two, by Lucia Perez Diaz, CNN.", "Updated April 5, 2018" ], [ "External links", "* Article on geology.com* Geological Structure*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Grigori Rasputin" ], [ "Introduction", " '''Grigori Yefimovich Rasputin''' (; ; – ) was a Russian mystic and holy man.", "He is best known for having befriended the imperial family of Nicholas II, the last Emperor of Russia, through whom he gained considerable influence in the final years of the Russian Empire.Rasputin was born to a family of peasants in the Siberian village of Pokrovskoye, located within Tyumensky Uyezd in Tobolsk Governorate (present-day Yarkovsky District in Tyumen Oblast).", "He had a religious conversion experience after embarking on a pilgrimage to a monastery in 1897 and has been described as a monk or as a ''strannik'' (wanderer or pilgrim), though he held no official position in the Russian Orthodox Church.", "In 1903 or in the winter of 1904–1905, he travelled to Saint Petersburg and captivated a number of religious and social leaders, eventually becoming a prominent figure in Russian society.", "In November 1905, Rasputin met Nicholas II and his empress consort, Alexandra Feodorovna.In late 1906, Rasputin began acting as a faith healer for Nicholas' and Alexandra's only son, Alexei Nikolaevich, who suffered from haemophilia.", "He was a divisive figure at court, seen by some Russians as a mystic, visionary and prophet, and by others as a religious charlatan.", "The extent of Rasputin's power reached an all-time high in 1915, when Nicholas left Saint Petersburg to oversee the Imperial Russian Army as it was engaged in the First World War.", "In his absence, Rasputin and Alexandra consolidated their influence across the Russian Empire.", "However, as Russian military defeats mounted on the Eastern Front, both figures became increasingly unpopular, and in the early morning of , Rasputin was assassinated by a group of conservative Russian noblemen who opposed his influence over the imperial family.Historians often suggest that Rasputin's scandalous and sinister reputation helped discredit the Tsarist government, thus precipitating the overthrow of the House of Romanov shortly after his assassination.", "Accounts of his life and influence were often based on hearsay and rumor; he remains a mysterious and captivating figure in popular culture." ], [ "Early life", "Pokrovskoye in 1912Rasputin with his childrenGrigori Yefimovich Rasputin was born a peasant in the small village of Pokrovskoye, along the Tura River in the Tobolsk Governorate (now Tyumen Oblast) in the Russian Empire.", "According to official records, he was born on and christened the following day.", "He was named for St. Gregory of Nyssa, whose feast was celebrated on 10 January.There are few records of Rasputin's parents.", "His father, Yefim (1842 – 1916), was a peasant farmer and church elder who had been born in Pokrovskoye and married Rasputin's mother, Anna Parshukova (c. 1840 – 1906), in 1863.Yefim also worked as a government courier, ferrying people and goods between Tobolsk and Tyumen.", "The couple had seven other children, all of whom died in infancy and early childhood; there may have been a ninth child, Feodosiya.", "According to historian Joseph T. Fuhrmann, Rasputin was certainly close to Feodosiya and was godfather to her children, but \"the records that have survived do not permit us to say more than that\".According to historian Douglas Smith, Rasputin's youth and early adulthood are \"a black hole about which we know almost nothing\", though the lack of reliable sources and information did not stop others from fabricating stories about Rasputin's parents and his youth after his rise to prominence.", "Historians agree, however, that like most Siberian peasants, including his mother and father, Rasputin was not formally educated and remained illiterate well into his early adulthood.", "Local archival records suggest that he had a somewhat unruly youth—possibly involving drinking, small thefts and disrespect for local authorities—but contain no evidence of his being charged with stealing horses, blasphemy or bearing false witness, all major crimes later imputed to him as a young man.In 1886, Rasputin traveled to Abalak, some 250 km east-northeast of Tyumen and 2,800 km east of Moscow, where he met a peasant girl named Praskovya Dubrovina.", "After a courtship of several months, they married in February 1887.Praskovya remained in Pokrovskoye throughout Rasputin's later travels and rise to prominence, and remained devoted to him until his death.", "The couple had seven children, though only three survived to adulthood: Dmitry (b.", "1895), Maria (b.", "1898) and Varvara (b.", "1900)." ], [ "Religious conversion", "In 1897, Rasputin developed a renewed interest in religion and left Pokrovskoye to go on a pilgrimage.", "His reasons are unclear; according to some sources, he left the village to escape punishment for his role in horse theft.", "Other sources suggest Rasputin had a vision of the Virgin Mary or of St. Simeon of Verkhoturye, while still others suggest that his pilgrimage was inspired by a young theological student, Melity Zaborovsky.", "Whatever his reasons, Rasputin cast off his old life: he was 28 years old, married ten years, with an infant son and another child on the way.", "According to Smith, his decision \"could only have been occasioned by some sort of emotional or spiritual crisis\".Rasputin had undertaken earlier, shorter pilgrimages to the Holy Znamensky Monastery at Abalak and to Tobolsk's cathedral, but his visit to the St. Nicholas Monastery at Verkhoturye in 1897 transformed him.", "There, he met and was \"profoundly humbled\" by a ''starets'' (elder) known as Makary.", "Rasputin may have spent several months at Verkhoturye, and it was perhaps here that he learned to read and write.", "However, he later claimed that some of the monks at Verkhotuyre engaged in homosexuality and criticized monastic life as too coercive.", "He returned to Pokrovskoye a changed man, looking disheveled and behaving differently.", "He became a vegetarian, swore off alcohol, and prayed and sang much more fervently than he had in the past.Rasputin spent the years that followed as a ''strannik'' (a holy wanderer or pilgrim), leaving Pokrovskoye for months or even years at a time to wander the country and visit a variety of holy sites.", "It is possible he wandered as far as Mount Athos—the center of Eastern Orthodox monastic life—in 1900.By the early 1900s, Rasputin had developed a small circle of followers, primarily family members and other local peasants, who prayed with him on Sundays and other holy days when he was in Pokrovskoye.", "Building a makeshift chapel in Yefim's root cellar—Rasputin was still living within his father's household at the time—the group held secret prayer meetings there.", "These meetings were the subject of some suspicion and hostility from the village priest and other villagers.", "It was rumored that female followers were ceremonially washing Rasputin before each meeting, that the group sang strange songs, and even that Rasputin had joined the Khlysty, a religious sect whose ecstatic rituals were rumored to include self-flagellation and sexual orgies.", "According to Fuhrmann, however, \"repeated investigations failed to establish that Rasputin was ever a member of the sect\", and rumors that he was a Khlyst appear to have been unfounded." ], [ "Rise to prominence", "Bishop Theofan and Rasputin, 1909Word of Rasputin's activity and charisma began to spread in Siberia during the early 1900s.", "At some point during 1904 or 1905, he traveled to the city of Kazan, where he acquired a reputation as a wise ''starets'' who could help people resolve their spiritual crises and anxieties.", "Despite rumors that Rasputin was having sex with female followers, he made a favorable impression on several local religious leaders.", "Among these were Archimandrite Andrei and Bishop Chrysthanos, who gave Rasputin a letter of recommendation to Bishop Sergei, the rector of the theological seminary at the Alexander Nevsky Monastery, and arranged for him to travel to Saint Petersburg.Upon arriving at the Alexander Nevsky Lavra, Rasputin was introduced to church leaders, including Archimandrite Theofan, inspector of the theological seminary, who was well-connected in Saint Petersburg society and later served as confessor to the imperial family.", "Theofan was so impressed with Rasputin that he invited him to stay in his home; he went on to become one of Rasputin's most important friends in Saint Petersburg, gaining him entry to many of the influential ''salons'' where the local aristocracy gathered for religious discussions.", "It was through these meetings that Rasputin attracted some of his early and influential followers—many of whom would later turn against him.Alternative religious movements such as spiritualism and theosophy had become popular among Saint Petersburg's aristocracy before Rasputin's arrival, and many of the aristocracy were intensely curious about the occult and the supernatural.", "Rasputin's ideas and \"strange manners\" made him the subject of intense curiosity among the city's elite, who according to Fuhrmann were \"bored, cynical, and seeking new experiences\" during this period.", "Rasputin's appeal may have been enhanced by the fact that he was also a native Russian, unlike other self-described \"holy men\" such as Nizier Anthelme Philippe and Gérard Encausse, who had previously been popular in Saint Petersburg.According to Fuhrmann, Rasputin stayed in Saint Petersburg for only a few months on his first visit and returned to Pokrovskoye in the fall of 1903.Smith, however, argues that it is impossible to know whether Rasputin stayed in Saint Petersburg or returned to Pokrovskoye at some point between his first arrival and 1905.Regardless, by 1905 Rasputin had formed friendships with several members of the aristocracy, including the \"Black Princesses\", Militsa and Anastasia of Montenegro, who had married cousins of Tsar Nicholas II (Grand Duke Peter Nikolaevich and Prince George Maximilianovich Romanowsky) and were instrumental in introducing Rasputin to the tsar and his family.Rasputin first met Nicholas on 1 November 1905, at the Peterhof Palace.", "The tsar recorded the event in his diary, writing that he and his empress consort, Alexandra Feodorovna, had \"made the acquaintance of a man of God – Grigory, from Tobolsk province\".", "Rasputin returned to Pokrovskoye shortly after their first meeting and did not return to Saint Petersburg until July 1906.On his return, he sent Nicholas a telegram asking to present the tsar with an icon of St. Simeon of Verkhoturye.", "He met with Nicholas and Alexandra on 18 July and again in October, when he first met their children.At some point, Nicholas and Alexandra became convinced that Rasputin possessed the miraculous power to heal their only son, Tsesarevich Alexei Nikolaevich, who suffered from haemophilia.", "Historians disagree over when this happened: according to Orlando Figes, Rasputin was first introduced to the tsar and tsarina as a healer who could help their son in November 1905, while Joseph T. Fuhrmann has speculated that it was in October 1906 that Rasputin was first asked to pray for the health of Alexei." ], [ "Healer to Alexei Nikolaevich", "Alexandra Feodorovna with her children, Rasputin and the nurse Maria Ivanova Vishnyakova, 1908Much of Rasputin's influence with the imperial family stemmed from the belief by Alexandra and others that he had on several occasions eased Alexei's pain and stopped his bleeding.", "According to historian Marc Ferro, the tsarina had a \"passionate attachment\" to Rasputin, believing he could heal her son's affliction.", "Harold Shukman wrote that Rasputin became \"an indispensable member of the royal entourage\".", "It is unclear when Rasputin first learned of Alexei's haemophilia, or when he first acted as a healer.", "He may have been aware of Alexei's condition as early as October 1906, and was summoned by Alexandra to pray for the tsarevich when he had an internal hemorrhage in the spring of 1907.Alexei recovered the next morning.", "Alexandra's friend Anna Vyrubova became convinced that Rasputin had miraculous powers shortly thereafter and became one of his most influential advocates.In November 1906, Rasputin suddenly paid a visit to the Baratynsky family in Kazan and told them he could read people's minds.", "Olga Ilyin's description of Rasputin and his behavior in \"Visits to the Imperial Court\" is a small but no doubt valuable contribution to history.During the summer of 1912, Alexei developed a hemorrhage in his thigh and groin after a jolting carriage ride near the imperial hunting grounds at Spała, which caused a large hematoma.", "In severe pain and delirious with fever, the tsarevich appeared close to death.", "In desperation, Alexandra asked Vyrubova to send Rasputin (who was in Siberia) a telegram, asking him to pray for Alexei.", "Rasputin wrote back quickly, telling the tsarina that \"God has seen your tears and heard your prayers.", "Do not grieve.", "The Little One will not die.", "Do not allow the doctors to bother him too much.\"", "The next morning, Alexei's condition was unchanged, but Alexandra was encouraged by the message and regained some hope that he would survive.", "His bleeding stopped the following day.", "Dr. S. P. Fedorov, one of the physicians who attended Alexei, admitted that \"the recovery was wholly inexplicable from a medical point of view.\"", "Later, Dr. Fedorov admitted that Alexandra could not be blamed for seeing Rasputin as a miracle man: \"Rasputin would come in, walk up to the patient, look at him, and spit.", "The bleeding would stop in no time.... How could the empress not trust Rasputin after that?", "\"Historian Robert K. Massie has called Alexei's recovery \"one of the most mysterious episodes of the whole Rasputin legend\".", "The cause of his recovery is unclear: Massie speculated that Rasputin's suggestion not to let doctors disturb Alexei had aided his recovery by allowing him to rest and heal, or that his message may have aided Alexei's recovery by calming his mother and reducing the tsarevich's emotional stress.", "Alexandra believed that Rasputin had performed a miracle, and concluded that he was essential to Alexei's survival.", "Some writers and historians, such as Ferro, claim that Rasputin stopped Alexei's bleeding on other occasions through hypnosis.", "Still other historiansincluding memoirist Pierre Gilliard, Alexei's French-language tutorhave speculated that Rasputin controlled Alexei's bleeding by disallowing the administration of aspirin, then widely used to relieve pain, but unknown as an anti-clotting agent until the 1950s." ], [ "Relationship with royalty's children", "Alexei and his siblings were also taught to view Rasputin as \"our friend\" and to share confidences with him.", "In the autumn of 1907, their aunt, Grand Duchess Olga Alexandrovna, was escorted to the nursery by Nicholas to meet Rasputin.", "Maria, her sisters and brother Alexei were all wearing their long white nightgowns.", "\"All the children seemed to like him,\" Olga Alexandrovna recalled.", "\"They were completely at ease with him.", "\"Rasputin's friendship with the tsar's children was evident in the messages he sent to them.", "\"My Dear Pearl M!\"", "Rasputin wrote the nine-year-old Maria in one telegram in 1908.", "\"Tell me how you talked with the sea, with nature!", "I miss your simple soul.", "We will see each other soon!", "A big kiss.\"", "In a second telegram, Rasputin told the child, \"My Dear M!", "My Little Friend!", "May the Lord help you to carry your cross with wisdom and joy in Christ.", "This world is like the day, look it's already evening.", "So it is with the cares of the world.\"", "In February 1909, Rasputin sent all of the children a telegram, advising them to, \"Love the whole of God's nature, the whole of His creation in particular this earth.", "The Mother of God was always occupied with flowers and needlework.", "\"One of the girls' governesses, Sofia Ivanovna Tyutcheva, was horrified in 1910 when Rasputin was permitted access to the nursery when the four girls were in their nightgowns.", "Tyutcheva wanted Rasputin barred from the nurseries.", "In response to her complaints, Nicholas asked Rasputin to end his nursery visits.", "\"I am so afr(aid) that S.I.", "Tyutcheva can speak ... about our friend something bad,\" Maria's twelve-year-old sister Tatiana wrote to her mother on 8 March 1910, after begging Alexandra to forgive her for doing something she did not like.", "\"I hope our nurse will be nice to our friend now.\"", "Alexandra eventually had Tyutcheva fired.Tyutcheva took her story to other members of the imperial family, who were scandalized by the reports, though Rasputin's contacts with the children were by all accounts completely innocent.", "Nicholas's sister, Grand Duchess Xenia Alexandrovna, was horrified by Tyutcheva's story.", "Xenia wrote on 15 March 1910 that she could not understand \"...the attitude of Alix and the children to that sinister Grigory (whom they consider to be almost a saint, when in fact he's only a ''khlyst''!)", "He's always there, goes into the nursery, visits Olga and Tatiana while they are getting ready for bed, sits there talking to them and ''caressing'' them.", "They are careful to hide him from Sofia Ivanovna, and the children don't dare talk to her about him.", "It's all quite unbelievable and beyond understanding.", "\"Another of the nursery governesses claimed in the spring of 1910 that she was raped by Rasputin.", "Maria Ivanovna Vishnyakova had at first been a devotee of Rasputin, but later was disillusioned by him.", "Alexandra refused to believe Vishnyakova \"and said that everything Rasputin does is holy\".", "Grand Duchess Olga Alexandrovna was told that Vishnyakova's claim had been immediately investigated, but \"they caught the young woman in bed with a Cossack of the Imperial Guard.\"", "Vishnyakova was dismissed from her post in 1913.It was whispered in society that Rasputin had seduced not only Alexandra but also the four grand duchesses.", "Rasputin had released ardent letters written to him by the tsarina and the grand duchesses, which circulated throughout society and fueled the rumors.", "Pornographic cartoons also circulated that depicted Rasputin having sexual relations with the tsarina, with her four daughters and Anna Vyrubova nude in the background.", "Nicholas ordered Rasputin to leave Saint Petersburg for a time, much to Alexandra's displeasure, and Rasputin went on a pilgrimage to Palestine.Despite the scandal, the imperial family's association with Rasputin continued until his murder on 17 December 1916.", "\"Our Friend is so contented with our girlies, says they have gone through heavy 'courses' for their age and their souls have much developed,\" Alexandra wrote to Nicholas on 6 December 1916.In his memoirs, A.", "A. Mordvinov reported that the four grand duchesses appeared \"cold and visibly terribly upset\" by Rasputin's death and sat \"huddled up closely together\" on a sofa in one of their bedrooms on the night they received the news.", "Mordvinov reported that the young women were in a gloomy mood and seemed to sense the political upheaval that was about to be unleashed.", "Rasputin was buried with an icon signed on its reverse side by the grand duchesses and their mother." ], [ "Controversies", "Rasputin among admirers, 1914The imperial family's belief in Rasputin's healing powers brought him considerable status and power at court.", "Nicholas appointed Rasputin his ''lampadnik'' (lamplighter), charged with keeping the lamps lit before religious icons in the palace, which gained him regular access to the palace and imperial family.", "By December 1906, Rasputin had become close enough to ask a special favor of the tsar: that he be permitted to change his surname to Rasputin-Noviy (Rasputin-New).", "Nicholas granted the request and the name change was speedily processed, suggesting that Rasputin already had the tsar's favor at that early date.", "Rasputin used his position to full effect, accepting bribes and sexual favors from admirers and working diligently to expand his influence.Rasputin soon became a controversial figure; he was accused by his enemies of religious heresy and rape, was suspected of exerting undue political influence over the tsar and was even rumored to be having an affair with the tsarina.", "Opposition to Rasputin's influence grew within the Eastern Orthodox Church.", "In 1907, the local clergy in Pokrovskoye denounced Rasputin as a heretic, and the Bishop of Tobolsk launched an inquest into his activities, accusing him of \"spreading false, ''Khlyst-like'' doctrines\".", "In Saint Petersburg, Rasputin faced opposition from even more prominent critics, including Prime Minister Pyotr Stolypin and the ''Okhrana'', the tsar's secret police.", "Having ordered an investigation into Rasputin's activities, Stolypin confronted Nicholas but did not succeed in reining in Rasputin's influence or exiling him from Saint Petersburg.Outside of the royal court, Rasputin preached that physical contact between him and others purified them; he engaged in drunken revels and extramarital affairs with a wide range of women from prostitutes to high-society ladies.", "In 1909, Kehioniya Berlatskaya, one of Rasputin's early supporters, accused him of rape.", "Betlatskaya sought aid from Theofan, who became convinced that Rasputin was a danger to the monarchy.", "Rumors multiplied that Rasputin had assaulted female followers and behaved inappropriately on visits with the imperial family—and particularly with Nicholas's teenage daughters Olga and Tatiana.Maria (rightmost), in his St. Petersburg apartment, 1911Caricature of Rasputin and the imperial couple, 1916During this period the First World War, the dissolution of feudalism and a meddling government bureaucracy all contributed to Russia's rapid economic decline.", "Many laid the blame on Alexandra and Rasputin.", "One outspoken member of the Duma, far-right politician Vladimir Purishkevich, stated in November 1916 that he held the tsar's ministers had \"been turned into marionettes, marionettes whose threads have been taken firmly in hand by Rasputin and the Empress Alexandra Fyodorovna—the evil genius of Russia and the Tsarina… who has remained a German on the Russian throne and alien to the country and its people\".", "(The tsarina had been born a German princess.)" ], [ "Failed assassination attempt", "On , a 33-year-old peasant woman named Chionya Guseva attempted to assassinate Rasputin by stabbing him in the stomach outside his home in Pokrovskoye.", "Rasputin was seriously wounded, and for a time it was not clear if he would survive.", "After surgery and some time in a hospital in Tyumen, he recovered.Guseva was a follower of Iliodor, a former priest who had supported Rasputin before denouncing his sexual escapades and self-aggrandizement in December 1911.A radical conservative and anti-semite, Iliodor had been part of a group of establishment figures who had attempted to drive a wedge between Rasputin and the imperial family in 1911.When this effort failed, Iliodor was banished from Saint Petersburg and was ultimately defrocked.", "Guseva claimed to have acted alone, having read about Rasputin in the newspapers and believing him to be a \"false prophet and even an Antichrist\".", "Both the police and Rasputin, however, believed that Iliodor had instigated the assassination attempt.", "Iliodor fled the country before he could be questioned, and Guseva was found to be not responsible for her actions by reason of insanity." ], [ "Assassination", "Felix Yusupov, husband of Princess Irina Aleksandrovna Romanova, the Tsar's niece, 1914A group of nobles led by Purishkevich, Grand Duke Dmitri Pavlovich and Prince Felix Yusupov decided that Rasputin's influence over Alexandra threatened the Russian Empire.", "They concocted a plan in December 1916 to kill Rasputin, apparently by luring him to the Yusupovs' Moika Palace.Basement of the Yusupov Palace on the Moika in St. Petersburg where Rasputin was murderedThe wooden Bolshoy Petrovsky Bridge from which Rasputin's body was thrown into the Malaya Nevka RiverRasputin was murdered during the early morning on at the home of Prince Yusupov.", "He died of three gunshot wounds, one of which was a close-range shot to his forehead.", "Little is certain about his death beyond this, and the circumstances of his death have been the subject of considerable speculation.", "According to Smith, \"what really happened at the Yusupov home on 17 December will never be known\".", "The story that Yusupov recounted in his memoirs, however, has become the most frequently told version of events.Rasputin's corpse on the ground with a bullet wound visible in his foreheadAccording to Yusupov's account, Rasputin was invited to his palace shortly after midnight and ushered into the basement.", "Yusupov offered tea and cakes which had been laced with cyanide.", "After initially refusing the cakes, Rasputin began to eat them and, to Yusupov's surprise, appeared unaffected by the poison.", "Rasputin then asked for some Madeira wine (which had also been poisoned) and drank three glasses, but still showed no sign of distress.", "At around 2:30 am, Yusupov excused himself to go upstairs, where his fellow conspirators were waiting.", "He took a revolver from Pavlovich, then returned to the basement and told Rasputin that he'd \"better look at the crucifix and say a prayer\", referring to a crucifix in the room, then shot him once in the chest.", "The conspirators then drove to Rasputin's apartment, with Sukhotin wearing Rasputin's coat and hat in an attempt to make it look as though Rasputin had returned home that night.", "Upon returning to his palace, Yusupov went back to the basement to ensure that Rasputin was dead.", "Suddenly, Rasputin leaped up and attacked Yusupov, who freed himself with some effort and fled upstairs.", "Rasputin followed Yusupov into the palace's courtyard, where he was shot by Purishkevich.", "He collapsed into a snowbank.", "The conspirators then wrapped his body in cloth, drove it to the Petrovsky Bridge and dropped it into the Little Nevka river.In an unsubstantiated claim, Grand Duchess Tatiana, who was earlier alleged to have been raped by Rasputin, was present at the site of Rasputin's murder, \"disguised as a lieutenant of the Chevaliers-Gardes, so that she could revenge herself on Rasputin who had tried to violate her\".", "Maurice Paléologue, the French ambassador to Russia, wrote that Tatiana had supposedly witnessed Rasputin's castration, but he doubted the credibility of the rumor.In a modern analysis of Rasputin's death, published on the 100th anniversary of the event, Dr Carolyn Harris of the University of Toronto notes that the actual circumstances were apparently less dramatic than Yusupov's account.", "Rasputin's daughter recorded that her father disliked sweet food and would not have eaten the supposedly poisoned cakes.", "An autopsy account by the official surgeon involved has no record of poisoning or drowning but simply records death by a single bullet fired into the head at close range.===Death and aftermath===News of Rasputin's murder spread quickly, even before his body was found.", "According to Smith, Purishkevich spoke openly about the murder to two soldiers and to a policeman who was investigating reports of shots shortly after the event, but urged them not to tell anyone else.", "An investigation was launched the next morning.", "The ''Stock Exchange Gazette'' ran a report of Rasputin's death \"after a party in one of the most aristocratic homes in the center of the city\" on the afternoon of .After two workmen discovered blood on the railing of the Petrovsky Bridge and a boot on the ice below, police began searching the area.", "Rasputin's body was found under the river ice on 1 January (O.S.", "19 December) approximately 200 meters downstream from the bridge.", "Dmitry Kosorotov, the city's senior autopsy surgeon, examined the body.", "Kosorotov's report was lost, but he later stated that Rasputin's body had shown signs of severe trauma, including three gunshot wounds (one at close range to the forehead), a slice wound to his left side and other injuries, many of which Kosorotov felt had been sustained post-mortem.", "Kosorotov found a single bullet in Rasputin's body but stated that it was too badly deformed and of a type too widely used to trace.", "He found no evidence that Rasputin had been poisoned.", "According to both Smith and Fuhrmann, Kosorotov found no water in Rasputin's lungs and reports that Rasputin had been thrown into the water alive were incorrect.", "Some later accounts claimed that Rasputin's penis had been severed, but Kosorotov found his genitals intact.Rasputin was buried on 2 January (O.S.", "21 December) at a small church that Vyrubova had been building at Tsarskoye Selo.", "The funeral was attended only by the imperial family and a few of their intimates.", "Rasputin's wife, mistress and children were not invited, although his daughters met with the imperial family at Vyrubova's home later that day.", "The imperial family planned to build a church over Rasputin's grave site.", "However, his body was exhumed and burned by a detachment of soldiers on the orders of Alexander Kerensky shortly after Nicholas abdicated the throne in March 1917, so that his grave would not become a rallying point for supporters of the old regime." ], [ "Prominent children", "=== Maria Rasputin ===Rasputin's daughter, Maria Rasputin (born Matryona Rasputina; 1898–1977), emigrated to France after the October Revolution and then to the United States.", "There, she worked as a dancer and then a lion tamer in a circus." ], [ "In popular culture", "* ''Rasputin and the Empress'' (1932), a film directed by Richard Boleslavsky and Charles Brabin starring Lionel Barrymore as Grigori Rasputin, Ralph Morgan as the Czar, Ethel Barrymore as the Czarina and John Barrymore as Prince Paul Chegodireff.", "* ''Rasputin the Mad Monk'' (1966), a Hammer horror film directed by Don Sharp and starring Christopher Lee as Grigori Rasputin, and Barbara Shelley.", "* ''I Killed Rasputin'' (1967), an Italo-Franco biographical film directed by Robert Hossein about the death of Grigori Rasputin.", "* ''Nicholas and Alexandra'' (1971), a British epic historical drama film directed by Franklin J. Schaffner.", "Rasputin is portrayed by Tom Baker.", "* ''Agony'' (1973–1975, released only in 1981), a Soviet film directed by Elem Klimov, with a score by Alfred Schnittke.", "* ''Rasputin'' (1978), a popular song by the German-Caribbean vocal group Boney M.* Rasputin, a stage name of British-German rock musician Jon Symon who performed mainly in the 1970s under this pseudonym* ''Rasputin: Dark Servant of Destiny'' (1996), a biographical historical drama television film which chronicles the last four years of Rasputin's life.", "He was portrayed by Alan Rickman.", "* ''Anastasia'' (1997), an animated musical starring Christopher Lloyd as Grigori Rasputin.", "* ''Grigoriy R.'' (2014), Russian TV miniseries (sometimes marketed under the name ''Rasputin'')* ''The Last Czars'' (2019), Netflix docudrama miniseries following the reign of Nicholas II.", "Rasputin is portrayed by Ben Cartwright* ''The King's Man'' (2021), an action/drama film which includes scenes illustrating the British agent theory of Rasputin's assassination.", "* ''The Power of the Doctor'' (2022), ''Doctor Who'' special, portrayed by Sacha Dhawan as an alias of The Master" ], [ "See also", "* Archimandrite Photius, influential and reactionary Russian priest and mystic* Faith healing* Rasputin (song)" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "***********************" ], [ "External links", "* * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gemstone" ], [ "Introduction", "Group of precious and semiprecious stones—both uncut and faceted—including (''clockwise from top left'') diamond, uncut synthetic sapphire, ruby, uncut emerald, and amethyst crystal cluster.A '''gemstone''' (also called a '''fine gem''', '''jewel''', '''precious stone''', '''semiprecious stone''', or simply '''gem''') is a piece of mineral crystal which, when cut or polished, is used to make jewelry or other adornments.", "However, certain rocks (such as lapis lazuli, opal, and obsidian) and occasionally organic materials that are not minerals (such as amber, jet, and pearl) are also used for jewelry and are therefore often considered to be gemstones as well.", "Most gemstones are hard, but some soft minerals are used in jewelry because of their luster or other physical properties that have aesthetic value.", "Rarity and notoriety are other characteristics that lend value to gemstones.Found all over the world, the industry of coloured gemstones (i.e.", "anything other than diamonds) is currently estimated to be around 10–12 billion US dollars.Apart from jewelry, from the earliest antiquity engraved gems and hardstone carvings, such as cups, were major luxury art forms.", "A gem expert is a gemologist, a gem maker is called a lapidarist or gemcutter; a diamond cutter is called a diamantaire." ], [ "Characteristics and classification", "collection of gemstone pebbles made by tumbling the rough stones, except the ruby and tourmaline, with abrasive grit inside a rotating barrel.", "The largest pebble here is long.The traditional classification in the West, which goes back to the ancient Greeks, begins with a distinction between ''precious'' and ''semi-precious''; similar distinctions are made in other cultures.", "In modern use, the precious stones are emerald, ruby, sapphire and diamond, with all other gemstones being semi-precious.", "This distinction reflects the rarity of the respective stones in ancient times, as well as their quality: all are translucent, with fine color in their purest forms (except for the colorless diamond), and very hard with a hardness score of 8 to 10 on the Mohs scale.", "Other stones are classified by their color, translucency, and hardness.", "The traditional distinction does not necessarily reflect modern values; for example, while garnets are relatively inexpensive, a green garnet called tsavorite can be far more valuable than a mid-quality emerald.", "Another traditional term for semi-precious gemstones used in art history and archaeology is hardstone.", "Use of the terms 'precious' and 'semi-precious' in a commercial context is, arguably, misleading in that it suggests certain stones are more valuable than others when this is not reflected in the actual market value, although it would generally be correct if referring to desirability.In modern times gemstones are identified by gemologists, who describe gems and their characteristics using technical terminology specific to the field of gemology.", "The first characteristic a gemologist uses to identify a gemstone is its chemical composition.", "For example, diamonds are made of carbon () and rubies, of aluminium oxide ().", "Many gems are crystals which are classified by their crystal system such as cubic or trigonal or monoclinic.", "Another term used is habit, the form the gem is usually found in.", "For example, diamonds, which have a cubic crystal system, are often found as octahedrons.Gemstones are classified into different ''groups'', ''species'', and ''varieties''.", "For example, ruby is the red variety of the species corundum, while any other color of corundum is considered sapphire.", "Other examples are the emerald (green), aquamarine (blue), red beryl (red), goshenite (colorless), heliodor (yellow), and morganite (pink), which are all varieties of the mineral species beryl.Gems are characterized in terms of refractive index, dispersion, specific gravity, hardness, cleavage, fracture and luster.", "They may exhibit pleochroism or double refraction.", "They may have luminescence and a distinctive absorption spectrum.", "Gemstones may also be classified in terms of their \"water\".", "This is a recognized grading of the gem's luster, transparency, or \"brilliance\".", "Very transparent gems are considered \"first water\", while \"second\" or \"third water\" gems are those of a lesser transparency.Material or flaws within a stone may be present as inclusions." ], [ "Value", "Spanish emerald and gold pendant at Victoria and Albert MuseumEnamelled gold, amethyst, and pearl pendant, about 1880, Pasquale Novissimo (1844–1914), V&A Museum number M.36-1928Gemstones have no universally accepted grading system.", "Diamonds are graded using a system developed by the Gemological Institute of America (GIA) in the early 1950s.", "Historically, all gemstones were graded using the naked eye.", "The GIA system included a major innovation: the introduction of 10x magnification as the standard for grading clarity.", "Other gemstones are still graded using the naked eye (assuming 20/20 vision).A mnemonic device, the \"four Cs\" (color, cut, clarity, and carats), has been introduced to help describe the factors used to grade a diamond.", "With modification, these categories can be useful in understanding the grading of all gemstones.", "The four criteria carry different weights depending upon whether they are applied to colored gemstones or to colorless diamonds.", "In diamonds, the cut is the primary determinant of value, followed by clarity and color.", "An ideally cut diamond will sparkle, to break down light into its constituent rainbow colors (dispersion), chop it up into bright little pieces (scintillation), and deliver it to the eye (brilliance).", "In its rough crystalline form, a diamond will do none of these things; it requires proper fashioning and this is called \"cut\".", "In gemstones that have color, including colored diamonds, the purity, and beauty of that color is the primary determinant of quality.Physical characteristics that make a colored stone valuable are color, clarity to a lesser extent (emeralds will always have a number of inclusions), cut, unusual optical phenomena within the stone such as color zoning (the uneven distribution of coloring within a gem) and asteria (star effects).", "Ancient Greeks, for example, greatly valued asteria gemstones, which they regarded as powerful love charms.", "Helen of Troy was supposed to have worn star-corundum.Aside from the diamond, ruby, sapphire, and emerald, the pearl (not, strictly speaking, a gemstone) and opal have also been considered to be precious.", "Up to the discoveries of bulk amethyst in Brazil in the 19th century, amethyst was considered a \"precious stone\" as well, going back to ancient Greece.", "Even in the last century certain stones such as aquamarine, peridot and cat's eye (cymophane) have been popular and hence been regarded as precious.Today the gemstone trade no longer makes such a distinction.", "Many gemstones are used in even the most expensive jewelry, depending on the brand-name of the designer, fashion trends, market supply, treatments, etc.", "Nevertheless, diamonds, rubies, sapphires, and emeralds still have a reputation that exceeds those of other gemstones.Rare or unusual gemstones, generally understood to include those gemstones which occur so infrequently in gem quality that they are scarcely known except to connoisseurs, include andalusite, axinite, cassiterite, clinohumite, painite and red beryl.Gemstone pricing and value are governed by factors and characteristics in the quality of the stone.", "These characteristics include clarity, rarity, freedom from defects, the beauty of the stone, as well as the demand for such stones.", "There are different pricing influencers for both colored gemstones, and for diamonds.", "The pricing on colored stones is determined by market supply-and-demand, but diamonds are more intricate.", "Diamond value can change based on location, time, and on the evaluations of diamond vendors.Proponents of energy medicine also value gemstones on the basis of alleged healing powers.A gemstone that has been rising in popularity is Cuprian Elbaite Tourmaline which is also called \"Paraiba Tourmaline\".", "It was first discovered in the late 1980s in Paraíba, Brazil and later in Mozambique and Nigeria.", "It is famous for its glowing neon blue color.", "Paraiba Tourmaline has become one of the most popular gemstones in recent times thanks to its color and is considered to be one of the important gemstones after rubies, emeralds, and sapphires according to Gübelin Gemlab.", "Even though it is a tourmaline, Paraiba Tourmaline is one of the most expensive gemstones." ], [ "Grading", "There are a number of laboratories which grade and provide reports on gemstones.", "* Gemological Institute of America (GIA), the main provider of education services and diamond grading reports* International Gemological Institute (IGI), independent laboratory for grading and evaluation of diamonds, jewelry, and colored stones* Hoge Raad Voor Diamant (HRD Antwerp), The Diamond High Council, Belgium is one of Europe's oldest laboratories; its main stakeholder is the Antwerp World Diamond Centre* American Gemological Society (AGS) is not as widely recognized nor as old as the GIA* American Gem Trade Laboratory which is part of the American Gem Trade Association (AGTA), a trade organization of jewelers and dealers of colored stones* American Gemological Laboratories (AGL), owned by Christopher P. Smith* European Gemological Laboratory (EGL), founded in 1974 by Guy Margel in Belgium* Gemmological Association of All Japan (GAAJ-ZENHOKYO), Zenhokyo, Japan, active in gemological research* The Gem and Jewelry Institute of Thailand (Public Organization) or GIT, Thailand's national institute for gemological research and gem testing, Bangkok* Gemmology Institute of Southern Africa, Africa's premium gem laboratory* Asian Institute of Gemological Sciences (AIGS), the oldest gemological institute in South East Asia, involved in gemological education and gem testing* Swiss Gemmological Institute (SSEF), founded by Henry Hänni, focusing on colored gemstones and the identification of natural pearls* Gübelin Gem Lab, the traditional Swiss lab founded by Eduard Gübelin* Institute for Gems and Gold Research of VINAGEMS (Vietnam), founded by Van Long PhamEach laboratory has its own methodology to evaluate gemstones.", "A stone can be called \"pink\" by one lab while another lab calls it \"padparadscha\".", "One lab can conclude a stone is untreated, while another lab might conclude that it is heat-treated.", "To minimize such differences, seven of the most respected labs, AGTA-GTL (New York), CISGEM (Milano), GAAJ-ZENHOKYO (Tokyo), GIA (Carlsbad), GIT (Bangkok), Gübelin (Lucerne) and SSEF (Basel), have established the Laboratory Manual Harmonisation Committee (LMHC), for the standardization of wording reports, promotion of certain analytical methods and interpretation of results.", "Country of origin has sometimes been difficult to determine, due to the constant discovery of new source locations.", "Determining a \"country of origin\" is thus much more difficult than determining other aspects of a gem (such as cut, clarity, etc.", ").Gem dealers are aware of the differences between gem laboratories and will make use of the discrepancies to obtain the best possible certificate." ], [ "Cutting and polishing", "A diamond cutter in AmsterdamA few gemstones are used as gems in the crystal or other forms in which they are found.", "Most, however, are cut and polished for usage as jewelry.", "The two main classifications are stones cut as smooth, dome-shaped stones called cabochons, and stones which are cut with a faceting machine by polishing small flat windows called facets at regular intervals at exact angles.Stones which are opaque or semi-opaque such as opal, turquoise, variscite, etc.", "are commonly cut as cabochons.", "These gems are designed to show the stone's color or surface properties as in opal and star sapphires.", "Grinding wheels and polishing agents are used to grind, shape, and polish the smooth dome shape of the stones.Gems that are transparent are normally faceted, a method that shows the optical properties of the stone's interior to its best advantage by maximizing reflected light which is perceived by the viewer as sparkle.", "There are many commonly used shapes for faceted stones.", "The facets must be cut at the proper angles, which varies depending on the optical properties of the gem.", "If the angles are too steep or too shallow, the light will pass through and not be reflected back toward the viewer.", "The faceting machine is used to hold the stone onto a flat lap for cutting and polishing the flat facets.", "Rarely, some cutters use special curved laps to cut and polish curved facets." ], [ "Colors", "the Aurora display at the Natural History Museum in LondonA variety of semiprecious stones in a piece of jewelleryThe color of any material is due to the nature of light itself.", "Daylight, often called white light, is all of the colors of the spectrum combined.", "When light strikes a material, most of the light is absorbed while a smaller amount of a particular frequency or wavelength is reflected.", "The part that is reflected reaches the eye as the perceived color.", "A ruby appears red because it absorbs all other colors of white light while reflecting red.A material which is mostly the same can exhibit different colors.", "For example, ruby and sapphire have the same primary chemical composition (both are corundum) but exhibit different colors because of impurities.", "Even the same named gemstone can occur in many different colors: sapphires show different shades of blue and pink and \"fancy sapphires\" exhibit a whole range of other colors from yellow to orange-pink, the latter called \"padparadscha sapphire\".This difference in color is based on the atomic structure of the stone.", "Although the different stones formally have the same chemical composition and structure, they are not exactly the same.", "Every now and then an atom is replaced by a completely different atom, sometimes as few as one in a million atoms.", "These so-called impurities are sufficient to absorb certain colors and leave the other colors unaffected.", "For example, beryl, which is colorless in its pure mineral form, becomes emerald with chromium impurities.", "If manganese is added instead of chromium, beryl becomes pink morganite.", "With iron, it becomes aquamarine.Some gemstone treatments make use of the fact that these impurities can be \"manipulated\", thus changing the color of the gem." ], [ "Treatment", "Gemstones are often treated to enhance the color or clarity of the stone.", "In some cases, the treatment applied to the gemstone can also increase its durability.", "Even though natural gemstones can be transformed using the traditional method of cutting and polishing, other treatment options allow the stone's appearance to be enhanced.", "Depending on the type and extent of treatment, they can affect the value of the stone.", "Some treatments are used widely because the resulting gem is stable, while others are not accepted most commonly because the gem color is unstable and may revert to the original tone.=== Early history ===Before the innovation of modern-day tools, thousands of years ago, people were recorded to use a variety of techniques to treat and enhance gemstones.", "Some of the earliest methods of gemstone treatment date back to the Minoan Age, for example foiling, which is where metal foil is used to enhance a gemstone's colour.", "Other methods recorded 2000 years ago in the book ''Natural History'' by Pliny the Elder include oiling and dyeing/staining.=== Heat ===Heat can either improve or spoil gemstone color or clarity.", "The heating process has been well known to gem miners and cutters for centuries, and in many stone types heating is a common practice.", "Most citrine is made by heating amethyst, and partial heating with a strong gradient results in \"ametrine\" – a stone partly amethyst and partly citrine.", "Aquamarine is often heated to remove yellow tones, or to change green colors into the more desirable blue, or enhance its existing blue color to a deeper blue.Nearly all tanzanite is heated at low temperatures to remove brown undertones and give a more desirable blue / purple color.", "A considerable portion of all sapphire and ruby is treated with a variety of heat treatments to improve both color and clarity.When jewelry containing diamonds is heated for repairs, the diamond should be protected with boric acid; otherwise, the diamond, which is pure carbon, could be burned on the surface or even burned completely up.", "When jewelry containing sapphires or rubies is heated, those stones should not be coated with boric acid (which can etch the surface) or any other substance.", "They do not have to be protected from burning, like a diamond (although the stones do need to be protected from heat stress fracture by immersing the part of the jewelry with stones in the water when metal parts are heated).===Radiation===The irradiation process is widely practiced in jewelry industry and enabled the creation of gemstone colors that do not exist or are extremely rare in nature.", "However, particularly when done in a nuclear reactor, the processes can make gemstones radioactive.", "Health risks related to the residual radioactivity of the treated gemstones have led to government regulations in many countries.Virtually all blue topaz, both the lighter and the darker blue shades such as \"London\" blue, has been irradiated to change the color from white to blue.", "Most green quartz (Oro Verde) are also irradiated to achieve the yellow-green color.", "Diamonds are mainly irradiated to become blue-green or green, although other colors are possible.", "When light-to-medium-yellow diamonds are treated with gamma rays they may become green; with a high-energy electron beam, blue.===Waxing/oiling===Emeralds containing natural fissures are sometimes filled with wax or oil to disguise them.", "This wax or oil is also colored to make the emerald appear of better color as well as clarity.", "Turquoise is also commonly treated in a similar manner.===Fracture filling===The foreign material inside this fracture-filled emerald appears rainbow-colored under darkfield illumination.Fracture filling has been in use with different gemstones such as diamonds, emeralds, and sapphires.", "In 2006 \"glass-filled rubies\" received publicity.", "Rubies over 10 carats (2 g) with large fractures were filled with lead glass, thus dramatically improving the appearance (of larger rubies in particular).", "Such treatments are fairly easy to detect.=== Bleaching ===Pearls are a gemstone that is commonly treated with hydrogen peroxide to remove unwanted coloursAnother treatment method that is commonly used to treat gemstones is bleaching.", "This method uses a chemical in order to reduce the colour of the gem.", "After bleaching, a combination treatment can be done by dying the gemstone once the unwanted colours are removed.", "Hydrogen peroxide is the most commonly used product used to alter gemstones and have notably been used to treat jade and pearls.", "The treatment of bleaching can also be followed by impregnation, which allows the gemstone's durability to be increased." ], [ "Synthetic and artificial gemstones", "Synthetic gemstones are distinct from imitation or simulated gems.Synthetic gems are physically, optically, and chemically identical to the natural stone, but are created in a laboratory.", "Imitation or simulated stones are chemically different from the natural stone, but may appear quite similar to it; they can be more easily manufactured synthetic gemstones of a different mineral (spinel), glass, plastic, resins, or other compounds.Examples of simulated or imitation stones include cubic zirconia, composed of zirconium oxide, synthetic moissanite, and uncolored, synthetic corundum or spinels; all of which are diamond simulants.", "The simulants imitate the look and color of the real stone but possess neither their chemical nor physical characteristics.", "In general, all are less hard than diamond.", "Moissanite actually has a ''higher'' refractive index than diamond, and when presented beside an equivalently sized and cut diamond will show more \"fire\".Cultured, synthetic, or \"lab-created\" gemstones are not imitations: The bulk mineral and trace coloring elements are the same in both.", "For example, diamonds, rubies, sapphires, and emeralds have been manufactured in labs that possess chemical and physical characteristics identical to the naturally occurring variety.", "Synthetic (lab created) corundum, including ruby and sapphire, is very common and costs much less than the natural stones.", "Small synthetic diamonds have been manufactured in large quantities as industrial abrasives, although larger gem-quality synthetic diamonds are becoming available in multiple carats.Whether a gemstone is a natural stone or synthetic, the chemical, physical, and optical characteristics are the same: They are composed of the same mineral and are colored by the same trace materials, have the same hardness and density and strength, and show the same color spectrum, refractive index, and birefringence (if any).", "Lab-created stones tend to have a more vivid color since impurities common in natural stones are not present in the synthetic stone.", "Synthetics are made free of common naturally occurring impurities that reduce gem clarity or color unless intentionally added in order to provide a more drab, natural appearance, or to deceive an assayer.", "On the other hand, synthetics often show flaws not seen in natural stones, such as minute particles of corroded metal from lab trays used during synthesis.=== Types ===Some gemstones are more difficult to synthesize than others and not all stones are commercially viable to attempt to synthesize.", "These are the most common on the market currently.==== Synthetic corundum ====Synthetic corundum includes ruby (red variation) and sapphire (other color variations), both of which are considered highly desired and valued.", "Ruby was the first gemstone to be synthesized by Auguste Verneuil with his development of the flame-fusion process in 1902.Synthetic corundum continues to be made typically by flame-fusion as it is most cost-effective, but can also be produced through flux growth and hydrothermal growth.==== Synthetic beryls ====The most common synthesized beryl is emerald (green).", "Yellow, red and blue beryls are possible but much more rare.", "Synthetic emerald became possible with the development of the flux growth process and is produced in this way and well as hydrothermal growth.==== Synthetic quartz ====Types of synthetic quartz include citrine, rose quartz, and amethyst.", "Natural occurring quartz is not rare is synthetically produced as it has practical application outside of aesthetic purposes.", "Quartz generates an electric current when under pressure and is used in watches, clocks, and oscillators.==== Synthetic spinel ====Synthetic spinel was first produced by accident.", "It can be created in any color making it popular to simulate various natural gemstones.", "It is created through flux growth and hydrothermal growth.=== Creation process ===There are two main categories for creation of these minerals: melt or solution processes.==== Verneuil flame fusion process (melt process) ====Verneuil furnaceThe flame fusion process was the first process used which successfully created large quantities of synthetic gemstones to be sold on the market.", "This remains the most cost effective and common method of creating corundums today.The flame fusion process is completed in a Verneuil furnace.", "The furnace consists of an inverted blowpipe burner which produces an extremely hot oxyhydrogen flame, a powder dispenser, and a ceramic pedestal.", "A chemical powder which corresponds to the desired gemstone is passed through this flames.", "This melts the ingredients which drop on to a plate and solidify into a crystal called a ''boule''.", "For corundum the flame must be 2000 °C.", "This process takes hours and yields a crystal with the same properties as its natural counterpart.To produce corundum, a pure aluminium powder is used with different additives to achieve different colors.", "* Chromic oxide for ruby* Iron and titanium oxide for blue sapphire* Nickel oxide for yellow sapphire* Nickel, chromium and iron for orange sapphire* Manganese for pink sapphire* Copper for blue-green sapphire* Cobalt for dark blue sapphire==== Czochralski process (melt process) ====In 1918 this process was developed by J. Czocharalski and is also referred to as the \"crystal pulling\" method.", "In this process, the required gemstone materials are added to a crucible.", "A seed stone is placed into the melt in the crucible.", "As the gem begins to crystallize on the seed, the seed is pulled away and the gem continues to grow.", "This is used for corundum but is currently the least popular method.==== Flux growth (solution process) ====The flux growth process was the first process able to synthesize emerald.", "Flux growth begins with a crucible which can withstand high heat; either graphite or platinum which is filled with a molten liquid referred to as flux.", "The specific gem ingredients are added and dissolved in this fluid and recrystallize to form the desired gemstone.This is a longer process compared to the flame fusion process and can take two months up to a year depending on the desired final size.==== Hydrothermal growth (solution process) ====The hydrothermal growth process attempts to imitate the natural growth process of minerals.", "The required gem materials are sealed in a container of water and placed under extreme pressure.", "The water is heated beyond its boiling point which allows normally insoluble materials to dissolve.", "As more material cannot be added once the container is sealed, in order to create a larger gem the process would begin with a \"seed\" stone from a previous batch which the new material will crystallize on.", "This process takes a few weeks to complete.=== Characteristics ===Synthetic gemstones share chemical and physical properties with natural gemstones, but there are some slight differences that can be used to discern synthetic from natural.", "These differences are slight and often require microscopy as a tool to distinguish differences.", "Undetectable synthetics pose a threat to the market if they are able to be sold as rare natural gemstones.", "Because of this there are certain characteristic gemologists look for.", "Each crystal is characteristic to the environment and growth process under which it was created.Visible banding in an apatite gemstoneGemstones created from the flame-fusion process may have* small air bubbles which were trapped inside the boule during formation process* visible banding from formation of the boule* chatter marks which on the surface which appear crack like which are caused from damage during polishing of the gemstoneGemstones created from flux melt process may have* small cavities which are filled with flux solution* inclusions in the gemstone from crucible usedGemstones created from hydrothermal growth may have* inclusions from container used=== History ===Auguste Verneuil – creator of flame-fusion process 1902Prior to development of synthesising processes the alternatives on the market to natural gemstones were imitations or fake.", "In 1837, the first successful synthesis of ruby occurred.", "French chemist Marc Gaudin managed to produce small crystals of ruby from melting together potassium aluminium sulphate and potassium chromate through what would later be known as the flux melt process.", "Following this, another French chemist Fremy was able to grow large quantities of small ruby crystals using a lead flux.A few years later an alternative to flux melt was developed which led to the introduction of what was labeled \"reconstructed ruby\" to the market.", "Reconstructed ruby was sold as a process which produced larger rubies from melting together bits of natural ruby.", "In later attempts to recreate this process it was found to not be possible and is believed reconstructed rubies were most likely created using a multi-step method of melting of ruby powder.Auguste Verneuil, a student of Fremy, went on to develop flame-fusion as an alternative to the flux-melt method.", "He developed large furnaces which were able to produce large quantities of corundums more efficiently and shifted the gemstone market dramatically.", "This process is still used today and the furnaces have not changed much from the original design.", "World production of corundum using this method reaches 1000 million carats a year." ], [ "List of rare gemstones", "* Painite was discovered in 1956 in Ohngaing in Myanmar.", "The mineral was named in honor of the British gemologist Arthur Charles Davy Pain.", "At one point it was considered the rarest mineral on Earth.", "* Tanzanite was discovered in 1967 in Northern Tanzania.", "With its supply possibly declining in the next 30 years, this gemstone is considered to be more rare than a diamond.", "This type of gemstone receives its vibrant blue from being heated.", "* Hibonite was discovered in 1956 in Madagascar.", "It was named after the discoverer, French geologist Paul Hibon.", "Gem quality hibonite has been found only in Myanmar.Red Beryl - discovered in 1940* Red beryl or bixbite was discovered in an area near Beaver, Utah in 1904 and named after the American mineralogist Maynard Bixby.", "* Jeremejevite was discovered in 1883 in Russia and named after its discoverer, Pawel Wladimirowich Jeremejew (1830–1899).", "* Chambersite was discovered in 1957 in Chambers County, Texas, US, and named after the deposit's location.", "* Taaffeite was discovered in 1945.It was named after the discoverer, the Irish gemologist Count Edward Charles Richard Taaffe.", "* Musgravite was discovered in 1967 in the Musgrave Mountains in South Australia and named for the location.Black Opal – the rarest type of opal* Black opal is directly mined in New South Wales, Australia, making it the rarest type of opal.", "Having a darker composition, this gemstone can be in a variety of colours.", "* Grandidierite was discovered by Antoine François Alfred Lacroix (1863–1948) in 1902 in Tuléar Province, Madagascar.", "It was named in honor of the French naturalist and explorer Alfred Grandidier (1836–1912).", "* Poudretteite was discovered in 1965 at the Poudrette Quarry in Canada and named after the quarry's owners and operators, the Poudrette family.", "* Serendibite was discovered in Sri Lanka by Sunil Palitha Gunasekera in 1902 and named after Serendib, the old Arabic name for Sri Lanka.", "* Zektzerite was discovered by Bart Cannon in 1968 on Kangaroo Ridge near Washington Pass in Okanogan County, Washington, USA.", "The mineral was named in honor of mathematician and geologist Jack Zektzer, who presented the material for study in 1976." ], [ "In popular culture", "French singer-songwriter Nolwenn Leroy was inspired by the gemstones for her 2017 album ''Gemme'' (meaning gemstone in French) and the single of the same name.Land of the Lustrous is an anime and manga series whose main characters are depicted as humanoid gemstones.Steven Universe is an American animated television series whose main characters are magical gemstones who project themselves as female humanoids." ], [ "See also", "* Assembled gem* Gemology* List of gemstones by species* List of individual gemstones* List of diamonds* List of emeralds by size* List of sapphires by size*Luminous gemstones" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gerard David" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Gerard David''' ( – 13 August 1523) was an Early Netherlandish painter and manuscript illuminator known for his brilliant use of color.", "Only a bare outline of his life survives, although some facts are known.", "He may have been the '''Meester gheraet van brugghe''' who became a master of the Antwerp guild in 1515.He was very successful in his lifetime and probably ran two workshops, in Antwerp and Bruges.", "Like many painters of his period, his reputation diminished in the 17th century until he was rediscovered in the 19th century." ], [ "Life", "''The Annunciation'', 1506He was born in Oudewater, now located in the province of Utrecht.", "His year of birth is approximated as c. 1450–1460 on the basis that he looks to be around 50 years in the 1509 self-portrait found in his ''Virgin among the Virgins''.", "He is believed to have spent time in Italy from 1470 to 1480, where he was influenced by the Italian Renaissance.", "He formed his early style under Albert van Oudewater in Haarlem, and moved to Bruges in 1483, where he joined the Guild of Saint Luke in 1484.Upon the death of Hans Memling in 1494, David became Bruges' leading painter.", "He became dean of the guild in 1501, and in 1496 married Cornelia Cnoop, daughter of the dean of the goldsmiths' guild.", "David was one of the town's leading citizens.Ambrosius Benson served his apprenticeship with David, but they came into dispute around 1519 over a number of paintings and drawings Benson had collected from other artists.", "Because of a large debt owed to him by Benson, David had refused to return the material.", "Benson pursued the matter legally and won, leading to David serving time in prison.He died on 13 August 1523 and was buried in the Church of Our Lady at Bruges." ], [ "Style", "''Triptych of the Sedano family'', , LouvreDavid's surviving work mainly consists of religious scenes.", "They are characterised by an atmospheric, timeless, and almost dream like serenity, achieved through soft, warm and subtle colourisation, and masterful handling of light and shadow.", "He is innovative in his recasting of traditional themes and in his approach to landscape, which was then only an emerging genre in northern European painting.", "His ability with landscape can be seen in the detailed foliage of his ''Triptych of the Baptism'' and the forest scene in the New York ''Nativity''.Many of the art historians of the early 20th century, including Erwin Panofsky and Max Jakob Friedländer saw him as a painter who did little but distill the style of others and painted in an archaic and unimaginative style.", "However today most view him as a master colourist, and a painter who according to the Metropolitan Museum of Art, worked in a \"progressive, even enterprising, mode, casting off his late medieval heritage and proceeding with a certain purity of vision in an age of transition.", "\"In his early work David followed Haarlem artists such as Dirk Bouts, Albert van Oudewater, and Geertgen tot Sint Jans, though he had already given evidence of superior power as a colourist.", "To this early period belong the ''St John'' of the Richard von Kaufmann collection in Berlin and the Salting's ''St Jerome''.", "In Bruges he came directly under the influence of Memling, the master whom he followed most closely.", "It was from him that David acquired a solemnity of treatment, greater realism in the rendering of human form, and an orderly arrangement of figures.He visited Antwerp in 1515 and was impressed with the work of Quentin Matsys, who had introduced a greater vitality and intimacy in the conception of sacred themes.", "Together they worked to preserve the traditions of the Bruges school against influences of the Italian Renaissance." ], [ "Works", "''Virgin and Child on a Crescent Moon'' in the ''Rothschild Prayerbook'', –1520The works for which David is best known are the altarpieces painted before his visit to Antwerp: the ''Marriage of St Catherine'' at the National Gallery, London; the triptych of the ''Madonna Enthroned and Saints'' of the Brignole-Sale collection in Genoa; the ''Annunciation'' of the Sigmaringen collection; and above all, the ''Madonna with Angels and Saints'' (usually titled ''The Virgin among the Virgins''), which he donated to the Carmelite Nuns of Sion at Bruges, and which is now in the Rouen museum.Only a few of his works have remained in Bruges: ''The Judgment of Cambyses'', ''The Flaying of Sisamnes'' and the ''Baptism of Christ'' in the Groeningemuseum, and the ''Transfiguration'' in the Church of Our Lady.The rest were scattered around the world, and to this may be due the oblivion into which his very name had fallen; this, and the fact that, some believed that for all the beauty and the soulfulness of his work, he had nothing innovative to add to the history of art.", "''The Marriage at Cana (Gerard David)'', .", "LouvreEven in his best work he had only given newer variations of the art of his predecessors and contemporaries.", "His rank among the masters was renewed, however, when a number of his paintings were assembled at the seminal 1902 Gruuthusemuseum, Bruges exhibition of early Flemish painters.He also worked closely with the leading manuscript illuminators of the day, and seems to have been brought in to paint specific important miniatures himself, among them a ''Virgin among the Virgins'' in the Morgan Library, a ''Virgin and Child on a Crescent Moon'' in the ''Rothschild Prayerbook'', and a portrait of the Emperor Maximilian in Vienna.", "Several of his drawings also survive, and elements from these appear in the works of other painters and illuminators for several decades after his death.Less known but also of high quality are the works of David found in Spanish public collections.", "The Prado Museum in Madrid owns a table \"Rest on the flight into Egypt\" resembling the one in the Royal Museum of Fine Arts in Antwerp.", "The Prado also holds another two Works by the painter, one of them only attributed.", "Another one of the Spanish capital's Museums, The Thyssen-Bornemisza holds a \"Crucifixión\" from 1475." ], [ "Legacy", "At the time of David's death, the glory of Bruges and its painters was on the wane: Antwerp had become the leader in art as well as in political and commercial importance.", "Of David's pupils in Bruges, only Adriaen Isenbrandt, Albert Cornelis, and Ambrosius Benson achieved importance.", "Among other Flemish painters, Joachim Patinir and Jan Mabuse were to some degree influenced by him.David's name had been completely forgotten when in 1866 William Henry James Weale discovered documents about him in the archives of Bruges; these brought to light the main facts of the painter's life and led to the reconstruction of David's artistic personality, beginning with the recognition of David's only documented work, the ''Virgin Among Virgins'' at Rouen." ], [ "Gallery", "File:Gerard David - The Nativity WGA.jpg|''The Nativity'', c. 1490, Szépmûvészeti MúzeumFile:Gerard David - Lamentation - Google Art Project.jpg|''Lamentation'', c 1495–1500.National Gallery, London, UKFile:Gerard David - The Judgment of Cambyses, panel 1 - The capture of the corrupt judge Sisamnes.jpg|''The Judgment of Cambyses'', 1498.Groeninge Museum, Bruges.", "Center panelFile:Gerard David - Triptych of Jean des Trompes center panel WGA.jpg|''Triptych of Jean des Trompes'', 1505.Groeninge Museum, Bruges.", "Center panelFile:Gerard David - Triptych of Jean des Trompes side panels WGA.jpg|''Triptych of Jean des Trompes'', 1505.Groeninge Museum, Bruges.", "Side panelsFile:Gerard David - The Mystic Marriage of St Catherine WGA.jpg|''The Mystic Marriage of St Catherine'' 1505–1510, National Gallery, LondonFile:Gerard David - Altarpiece of St Michael WGA.jpg|''Altarpiece of St Michael'' c. 1510.Kunsthistorisches Museum, ViennaFile:Gerard David - Virgin and Child with Four Angels - WGA6036.jpg|''Virgin and Child with Four Angels'', c. 1510–1515.Metropolitan Museum of Art, New YorkGerard David Le Christ au jardin des oliviers.jpg|''Agony in the Garden'', c. 1510–1520.Musée des Beaux-Arts de Strasbourg, FranceFile:Salvator_Mundi,_c._1500,_Gerard_David,_Philadelphia_Museum_of_Art.jpg|''Salvator Mundi'', , Philadelphia Museum of ArtFile:Gerard David - Madonna and Child with the Milk Soup - Google Art Project.jpg|''Madonna and Child with the Milk Soup'', c. 1510–1515.File:Gerard David.Transfiguration of Christ02.jpg|''Transfiguration of Christ''.", "Church of Our Lady, BrugesFile:Gerard David - Adoration of the Kings - Google Art Project.jpg|''Adoration of the Kings'', 1515–1523, National Gallery, LondonFile:Rust tijdens de vlucht naar Egypte, Gerard David, 16de eeuw, Koninklijk Museum voor Schone Kunsten Antwerpen, 47.jpg|''Rest on the Flight into Egypt'', Gerard David, 16th century, Royal Museum of Fine Arts AntwerpFile:Joos van der Burch and Saint Simon of Jerusalem, Follower of Gerard David, Netherlandish, c. 1493, oil on oak panel - Fogg Art Museum, Harvard University - DSC01016.jpg|''Joos van der Burch and Saint Simon of Jerusalem'', c. 1493, Fogg Museum at the Harvard Art Museums" ], [ "References", "===Notes======Sources===* Ainsworth, Maryan Wynn. ''", "Gerard David: Purity of Vision in an Age of Transition''.", "NY: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1998.", "* Ainsworth, Maryan Wynn; Christiansen, Keith.", "''From Van Eyck to Bruegel: Early Netherlandish Paintings in the Metropolitan Museum of Art''.", "NY: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2009.", "* Campbell, Lorne.", "''The Fifteenth-Century Netherlandish Paintings''.", "London: National Gallery, 1998.", "* Harbison, Craig.", "\"The Art of the Northern Renaissance\".", "London: Laurence King Publishing, 1995.", "* * Nash, Susie.", "''Northern Renaissance art''.", "Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008.", "* Ridderbos, Bernhard; Van Buren, Anne; Van Veen, Henk.", "''Early Netherlandish Paintings: Rediscovery, Reception and Research''.", "Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2005." ], [ "External links", "* * Gerard David | The Metropolitan Museum of Art* Gerard David at Artcyclopedia* ''Fifteenth- to eighteenth-century European paintings: France, Central Europe, the Netherlands, Spain, and Great Britain'', a collection catalog fully available online as a PDF, which contains material on Gerard David (cat.", "no.", "20-22)* ''Gerard David : purity of vision in an age of transition'', a collection catalog fully available online as a PDF* Gerard David Foundation (Dutch)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "GSM" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Global System for Mobile Communications''' ('''GSM''') is a standard developed by the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) to describe the protocols for second-generation (2G) digital cellular networks used by mobile devices such as mobile phones and tablets.", "GSM is also a trade mark owned by the GSM Association.", "GSM may also refer to the Full Rate voice codec.It was first implemented in Finland in December 1991.By the mid-2010s, it became a global standard for mobile communications achieving over 90% market share, and operating in over 193 countries and territories.2G networks developed as a replacement for first generation (1G) analog cellular networks.", "The GSM standard originally described a digital, circuit-switched network optimized for full duplex voice telephony.", "This expanded over time to include data communications, first by circuit-switched transport, then by packet data transport via General Packet Radio Service (GPRS), and Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE).Subsequently, the 3GPP developed third-generation (3G) UMTS standards, followed by the fourth-generation (4G) LTE Advanced and the fifth-generation 5G standards, which do not form part of the ETSI GSM standard.Beginning in the late 2010s, various carriers worldwide started to shut down their GSM networks.", "Nevertheless, as a result of the network's widespread use, the acronym \"GSM\" is still used as a generic term for the plethora of ''G'' mobile phone technologies evolved from it." ], [ "History", "===Initial European development===Thomas Haug (first GSM president) and Philippe Dupuis (second GSM president) during a GSM meeting in Belgium, April 1992In 1983, work began to develop a European standard for digital cellular voice telecommunications when the European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations (CEPT) set up the ''Groupe Spécial Mobile'' (GSM) committee and later provided a permanent technical-support group based in Paris.", "Five years later, in 1987, 15 representatives from 13 European countries signed a memorandum of understanding in Copenhagen to develop and deploy a common cellular telephone system across Europe, and EU rules were passed to make GSM a mandatory standard.", "The decision to develop a continental standard eventually resulted in a unified, open, standard-based network which was larger than that in the United States.In February 1987 Europe produced the first agreed GSM Technical Specification.", "Ministers from the four big EU countries cemented their political support for GSM with the Bonn Declaration on Global Information Networks in May and the GSM MoU was tabled for signature in September.", "The MoU drew in mobile operators from across Europe to pledge to invest in new GSM networks to an ambitious common date.In this short 38-week period the whole of Europe (countries and industries) had been brought behind GSM in a rare unity and speed guided by four public officials: Armin Silberhorn (Germany), Stephen Temple (UK), Philippe Dupuis (France), and Renzo Failli (Italy).", "In 1989 the Groupe Spécial Mobile committee was transferred from CEPT to the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI).The IEEE/RSE awarded to Thomas Haug and Philippe Dupuis the 2018 James Clerk Maxwell medal for their \"leadership in the development of the first international mobile communications standard with subsequent evolution into worldwide smartphone data communication\".", "The GSM (2G) has evolved into 3G, 4G and 5G.=== First networks ===Prototype GSM phonesIn parallel France and Germany signed a joint development agreement in 1984 and were joined by Italy and the UK in 1986.In 1986, the European Commission proposed reserving the 900 MHz spectrum band for GSM.", "It was long believed that the former Finnish prime minister Harri Holkeri made the world's first GSM call on 1 July 1991, calling Kaarina Suonio (deputy mayor of the city of Tampere) using a network built by Nokia and Siemens and operated by Radiolinja.", "In 2021 a former Nokia engineer Pekka Lonka revealed to making a test call just a couple of hours earlier.", "\"World's first GSM call was actually made by me.", "I called Marjo Jousinen, in Salo.", "\", Lonka informed.", "The following year saw the sending of the first short messaging service (SMS or \"text message\") message, and Vodafone UK and Telecom Finland signed the first international roaming agreement.=== Enhancements ===Work began in 1991 to expand the GSM standard to the 1800 MHz frequency band and the first 1800 MHz network became operational in the UK by 1993, called and DCS 1800.Also that year, Telstra became the first network operator to deploy a GSM network outside Europe and the first practical hand-held GSM mobile phone became available.In 1995 fax, data and SMS messaging services were launched commercially, the first 1900 MHz GSM network became operational in the United States and GSM subscribers worldwide exceeded 10 million.", "In the same year, the GSM Association formed.", "Pre-paid GSM SIM cards were launched in 1996 and worldwide GSM subscribers passed 100 million in 1998.In 2000 the first commercial General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) services were launched and the first GPRS-compatible handsets became available for sale.", "In 2001, the first UMTS (W-CDMA) network was launched, a 3G technology that is not part of GSM.", "Worldwide GSM subscribers exceeded 500 million.", "In 2002, the first Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS) was introduced and the first GSM network in the 800 MHz frequency band became operational.", "Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE) services first became operational in a network in 2003, and the number of worldwide GSM subscribers exceeded 1 billion in 2004.By 2005 GSM networks accounted for more than 75% of the worldwide cellular network market, serving 1.5 billion subscribers.", "In 2005, the first HSDPA-capable network also became operational.", "The first HSUPA network launched in 2007.", "(High Speed Packet Access (HSPA) and its uplink and downlink versions are 3G technologies, not part of GSM.)", "Worldwide GSM subscribers exceeded three billion in 2008.=== Adoption ===The GSM Association estimated in 2011 that technologies defined in the GSM standard served 80% of the mobile market, encompassing more than 5 billion people across more than 212 countries and territories, making GSM the most ubiquitous of the many standards for cellular networks.GSM is a second-generation (2G) standard employing time-division multiple-access (TDMA) spectrum-sharing, issued by the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI).", "The GSM standard does not include the 3G Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS), code-division multiple access (CDMA) technology, nor the 4G LTE orthogonal frequency-division multiple access (OFDMA) technology standards issued by the 3GPP.GSM, for the first time, set a common standard for Europe for wireless networks.", "It was also adopted by many countries outside Europe.", "This allowed subscribers to use other GSM networks that have roaming agreements with each other.", "The common standard reduced research and development costs, since hardware and software could be sold with only minor adaptations for the local market.=== Discontinuation ===Telstra in Australia shut down its 2G GSM network on 1 December 2016, the first mobile network operator to decommission a GSM network.", "The second mobile provider to shut down its GSM network (on 1 January 2017) was AT&T Mobility from the United States.", "Optus in Australia completed the shut down of its 2G GSM network on 1 August 2017, part of the Optus GSM network covering Western Australia and the Northern Territory had earlier in the year been shut down in April 2017.Singapore shut down 2G services entirely in April 2017." ], [ "Technical details", "The structure of a GSM network=== Network structure ===The network is structured into several discrete sections:* Base station subsystem – the base stations and their controllers* Network and Switching Subsystem – the part of the network most similar to a fixed network, sometimes just called the \"core network\"* GPRS Core Network – the optional part which allows packet-based Internet connections* Operations support system (OSS) – network maintenance=== Base-station subsystem ===GSM cell site antennas in the Deutsches Museum, Munich, GermanyGSM utilizes a cellular network, meaning that cell phones connect to it by searching for cells in the immediate vicinity.", "There are five different cell sizes in a GSM network:* macro* micro* pico* femto, and * umbrella cellsThe coverage area of each cell varies according to the implementation environment.", "Macro cells can be regarded as cells where the base-station antenna is installed on a mast or a building above average rooftop level.", "Micro cells are cells whose antenna height is under average rooftop level; they are typically deployed in urban areas.", "Picocells are small cells whose coverage diameter is a few dozen meters; they are mainly used indoors.", "Femtocells are cells designed for use in residential or small-business environments and connect to a telecommunications service provider's network via a broadband-internet connection.", "Umbrella cells are used to cover shadowed regions of smaller cells and to fill in gaps in coverage between those cells.Cell horizontal radius varies – depending on antenna height, antenna gain, and propagation conditions – from a couple of hundred meters to several tens of kilometers.", "The longest distance the GSM specification supports in practical use is .", "There are also several implementations of the concept of an extended cell, where the cell radius could be double or even more, depending on the antenna system, the type of terrain, and the timing advance.GSM supports indoor coverage – achievable by using an indoor picocell base station, or an indoor repeater with distributed indoor antennas fed through power splitters – to deliver the radio signals from an antenna outdoors to the separate indoor distributed antenna system.", "Picocells are typically deployed when significant call capacity is needed indoors, as in shopping centers or airports.", "However, this is not a prerequisite, since indoor coverage is also provided by in-building penetration of radio signals from any nearby cell.==== GSM carrier frequencies ====GSM networks operate in a number of different carrier frequency ranges (separated into GSM frequency ranges for 2G and UMTS frequency bands for 3G), with most 2G GSM networks operating in the 900 MHz or 1800 MHz bands.", "Where these bands were already allocated, the 850 MHz and 1900 MHz bands were used instead (for example in Canada and the United States).", "In rare cases the 400 and 450 MHz frequency bands are assigned in some countries because they were previously used for first-generation systems.For comparison, most 3G networks in Europe operate in the 2100 MHz frequency band.", "For more information on worldwide GSM frequency usage, see GSM frequency bands.Regardless of the frequency selected by an operator, it is divided into timeslots for individual phones.", "This allows eight full-rate or sixteen half-rate speech channels per radio frequency.", "These eight radio timeslots (or burst periods) are grouped into a TDMA frame.", "Half-rate channels use alternate frames in the same timeslot.", "The channel data rate for all is and the frame duration is The transmission power in the handset is limited to a maximum of 2 watts in and in .==== Voice codecs ====GSM has used a variety of voice codecs to squeeze 3.1 kHz audio into between 7 and 13 kbit/s.", "Originally, two codecs, named after the types of data channel they were allocated, were used, called Half Rate (6.5 kbit/s) and Full Rate (13 kbit/s).", "These used a system based on linear predictive coding (LPC).", "In addition to being efficient with bitrates, these codecs also made it easier to identify more important parts of the audio, allowing the air interface layer to prioritize and better protect these parts of the signal.", "GSM was further enhanced in 1997with the enhanced full rate (EFR) codec, a 12.2 kbit/s codec that uses a full-rate channel.", "Finally, with the development of UMTS, EFR was refactored into a variable-rate codec called AMR-Narrowband, which is high quality and robust against interference when used on full-rate channels, or less robust but still relatively high quality when used in good radio conditions on half-rate channel.=== Subscriber Identity Module (SIM) ===A nano sim used in mobile phonesOne of the key features of GSM is the Subscriber Identity Module, commonly known as a '''SIM card'''.", "The SIM is a detachable smart card containing a user's subscription information and phone book.", "This allows users to retain their information after switching handsets.", "Alternatively, users can change networks or network identities without switching handsets - simply by changing the SIM.=== Phone locking ===Sometimes mobile network operators restrict handsets that they sell for exclusive use in their own network.", "This is called SIM locking and is implemented by a software feature of the phone.", "A subscriber may usually contact the provider to remove the lock for a fee, utilize private services to remove the lock, or use software and websites to unlock the handset themselves.", "It is possible to hack past a phone locked by a network operator.In some countries and regions (e.g.", "Brazil and Germany) all phones are sold unlocked due to the abundance of dual-SIM handsets and operators." ], [ "GSM security", "GSM was intended to be a secure wireless system.", "It has considered the user authentication using a pre-shared key and challenge–response, and over-the-air encryption.", "However, GSM is vulnerable to different types of attack, each of them aimed at a different part of the network.Research findings indicate that GSM faces susceptibility to hacking by script kiddies, a term referring to inexperienced individuals utilizing readily available hardware and software.", "The vulnerability arises from the accessibility of tools such as a DVB-T TV tuner, posing a threat to both mobile and network users.", "Despite the term \"script kiddies\" implying a lack of sophisticated skills, the consequences of their attacks on GSM can be severe, impacting the functionality of cellular networks.", "Given that GSM continues to be the main source of cellular technology in numerous countries, its susceptibility to potential threats from malicious attacks is one that needs to be addressed.The development of UMTS introduced an optional Universal Subscriber Identity Module (USIM), that uses a longer authentication key to give greater security, as well as mutually authenticating the network and the user, whereas GSM only authenticates the user to the network (and not vice versa).", "The security model therefore offers confidentiality and authentication, but limited authorization capabilities, and no non-repudiation.GSM uses several cryptographic algorithms for security.", "The A5/1, A5/2, and A5/3 stream ciphers are used for ensuring over-the-air voice privacy.", "A5/1 was developed first and is a stronger algorithm used within Europe and the United States; A5/2 is weaker and used in other countries.", "Serious weaknesses have been found in both algorithms: it is possible to break A5/2 in real-time with a ciphertext-only attack, and in January 2007, The Hacker's Choice started the A5/1 cracking project with plans to use FPGAs that allow A5/1 to be broken with a rainbow table attack.", "The system supports multiple algorithms so operators may replace that cipher with a stronger one.Since 2000, different efforts have been made in order to crack the A5 encryption algorithms.", "Both A5/1 and A5/2 algorithms have been broken, and their cryptanalysis has been revealed in the literature.", "As an example, Karsten Nohl developed a number of rainbow tables (static values which reduce the time needed to carry out an attack) and have found new sources for known plaintext attacks.", "He said that it is possible to build \"a full GSM interceptor... from open-source components\" but that they had not done so because of legal concerns.", "Nohl claimed that he was able to intercept voice and text conversations by impersonating another user to listen to voicemail, make calls, or send text messages using a seven-year-old Motorola cellphone and decryption software available for free online.GSM uses General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) for data transmissions like browsing the web.", "The most commonly deployed GPRS ciphers were publicly broken in 2011.The researchers revealed flaws in the commonly used GEA/1 and GEA/2 (standing for GPRS Encryption Algorithms 1 and 2) ciphers and published the open-source \"gprsdecode\" software for sniffing GPRS networks.", "They also noted that some carriers do not encrypt the data (i.e., using GEA/0) in order to detect the use of traffic or protocols they do not like (e.g., Skype), leaving customers unprotected.", "GEA/3 seems to remain relatively hard to break and is said to be in use on some more modern networks.", "If used with USIM to prevent connections to fake base stations and downgrade attacks, users will be protected in the medium term, though migration to 128-bit GEA/4 is still recommended.The first public cryptanalysis of GEA/1 and GEA/2 (also written GEA-1 and GEA-2) was done in 2021.It concluded that although using a 64-bit key, the GEA-1 algorithm actually provides only 40 bits of security, due to a relationship between two parts of the algorithm.", "The researchers found that this relationship was very unlikely to have happened if it wasn't intentional.", "This may have been done in order to satisfy European controls on export of cryptographic programs." ], [ "Standards information", "The GSM systems and services are described in a set of standards governed by ETSI, where a full list is maintained." ], [ "GSM open-source software", "Several open-source software projects exist that provide certain GSM features:* gsmd daemon by Openmoko* OpenBTS develops a Base transceiver station* ''The GSM Software Project'' aims to build a GSM analyzer for less than $1,000* ''OsmocomBB'' developers intend to replace the proprietary baseband GSM stack with a free software implementation* YateBTS develops a Base transceiver station=== Issues with patents and open source ===Patents remain a problem for any open-source GSM implementation, because it is not possible for GNU or any other free software distributor to guarantee immunity from all lawsuits by the patent holders against the users.", "Furthermore, new features are being added to the standard all the time which means they have patent protection for a number of years.The original GSM implementations from 1991 may now be entirely free of patent encumbrances, however patent freedom is not certain due to the United States' \"first to invent\" system that was in place until 2012.The \"first to invent\" system, coupled with \"patent term adjustment\" can extend the life of a U.S. patent far beyond 20 years from its priority date.", "It is unclear at this time whether OpenBTS will be able to implement features of that initial specification without limit.", "As patents subsequently expire, however, those features can be added into the open-source version.", ", there have been no lawsuits against users of OpenBTS over GSM use." ], [ "See also", "* Cellular network* Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE)* Enhanced Network Selection (ENS)* GSM forwarding standard features codes – list of call forward codes working with all operators and phones* GSM frequency bands* GSM modem* GSM services** Cell Broadcast** GSM localization** Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS)** NITZ Network Identity and Time Zone** Wireless Application Protocol (WAP)* GSM-R (GSM-Railway)* GSM USSD codes – Unstructured Supplementary Service Data: list of all standard GSM codes for network and SIM related functions* Handoff* High-Speed Downlink Packet Access (HSDPA)* International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI)* International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI)* Long Term Evolution (LTE)* MSISDN Mobile Subscriber ISDN Number* Nordic Mobile Telephone (NMT)* ORFS* Personal communications network (PCN)* RTP audio video profile* Simulation of GSM networks* Standards** Comparison of mobile phone standards** GEO-Mobile Radio Interface** GSM 02.07 – Cellphone features** GSM 03.48 – Security mechanisms for the SIM application toolkit** Intelligent Network** Parlay X** RRLP – Radio Resource Location Protocol* Um interface* Visitors Location Register (VLR)" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*****" ], [ "External links", "* GSM Association—Official industry trade group representing GSM network operators worldwide* 3GPP—3G GSM standards development group* LTE-3GPP.info: online GSM messages decoder fully supporting all 3GPP releases from early GSM to latest 5G" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Garry Kasparov" ], [ "Introduction", " '''Garry Kimovich Kasparov''' (born '''Garik Kimovich Weinstein''' on 13 April 1963) is a Russian chess grandmaster, former World Chess Champion (1985–2000), political activist and writer.", "His peak FIDE chess rating of 2851, achieved in 1999, was the highest recorded until being surpassed by Magnus Carlsen in 2013.From 1984 until his retirement from regular competitive chess in 2005, Kasparov was ranked world no.", "1 for a record 255 months overall.", "Kasparov also holds records for the most consecutive professional tournament victories (15) and Chess Oscars (11).Kasparov became the youngest-ever undisputed world champion in 1985 at age 22 by defeating then-champion Anatoly Karpov.", "He defended the title against Karpov three times, in 1986, 1987 and 1990.Kasparov held the official FIDE world title until 1993, when a dispute with FIDE led him to set up a rival organisation, the Professional Chess Association.", "In 1997, he became the first world champion to lose a match to a computer under standard time controls when he was defeated by the IBM supercomputer Deep Blue in a highly publicised match.", "He continued to hold the \"Classical\" world title until his defeat by Vladimir Kramnik in 2000.Despite losing the PCA title, he continued winning tournaments and was the world's highest-rated player at the time of his official retirement.", "Kasparov coached Carlsen in 2009–10, during which time Carlsen rose to world no.", "1.Kasparov stood unsuccessfully for FIDE president in 2013–2014.Since retiring from chess, Kasparov has devoted his time to writing and politics.", "His book series ''My Great Predecessors'', first published in 2003, details the history and games of the world champion chess players who preceded him.", "He formed the United Civil Front movement and was a member of The Other Russia, a coalition opposing the administration and policies of Vladimir Putin.", "In 2008, he announced an intention to run as a candidate in that year's Russian presidential race, but after encountering logistical problems in his campaign, for which he blamed \"official obstruction\", he withdrew.", "In the wake of the Russian mass protests that began in 2011, he announced in June 2013 that he had left Russia for the immediate future out of fear of persecution.", "Following his flight from Russia, he lived in New York City with his family.", "In 2014, he obtained Croatian citizenship and has maintained a residence in Podstrana near Split.Kasparov is chairman of the Human Rights Foundation and chairs its International Council.", "In 2017, he founded the Renew Democracy Initiative (RDI), an American political organisation promoting and defending liberal democracy in the U.S. and abroad.", "He serves as chairman of the group.", "Kasparov is also a security ambassador for the software company Avast." ], [ "Early life", "294x294pxKasparov was born Garik Kimovich Weinstein () in Baku, Azerbaijan SSR (now Azerbaijan), Soviet Union.", "His father, Kim Moiseyevich Weinstein, was Jewish and his mother, Klara Shagenovna Kasparova, was Armenian.", "Both of his mother's parents were Armenians from Nagorno-Karabakh.", "Kasparov has described himself as a \"self-appointed Christian\", although \"very indifferent\" and identifying as Russian: \"Although I'm half-Armenian, half-Jewish, I consider myself Russian because Russian is my native tongue, and I grew up with Russian culture.\"", "Kasparov and his family had to flee anti-Armenian pogroms in Baku in January 1990 that were coordinated by local leaders with Soviet acquiescence.According to Kasparov himself, he was named after United States President Harry Truman, \"whom my father admired for taking a strong stand against communism.", "It was a rare name in Russia, until Harry Potter came along.", "\"=== Introduction to chess ===Kasparov began the serious study of chess after he came across a problem set up by his parents and proposed a solution.", "When he was seven years old, his father died of leukaemia.", "At the age of twelve, Kasparov, upon the request of his mother Klara and with the consent of the family, adopted Klara's surname Kasparov, which was done to avoid possible anti-Semitic tensions common in the USSR at the time.From age seven, Kasparov attended the Young Pioneer Palace in Baku and, at ten, began training at Mikhail Botvinnik's chess school under coach Vladimir Makogonov.", "Makogonov helped develop Kasparov's positional skills and taught him to play the Caro–Kann Defence and the Tartakower System of the Queen's Gambit Declined.", "Kasparov won the Soviet Junior Championship in Tbilisi in 1976, scoring 7/9 points, at age thirteen.", "He repeated the feat the following year, winning with a score of 8.5/9.He was being coached by Alexander Shakarov during this time.In 1978, Kasparov participated in the Sokolsky Memorial tournament in Minsk.", "He had received a special invitation to enter the tournament but took first place and became a chess master.", "Kasparov has stressed that this event was a turning point in his life and that it convinced him to choose chess as his career: \"I will remember the Sokolsky Memorial as long as I live\", he wrote.", "He has also said that after the victory, he thought he had a very good shot at the world championship." ], [ "Chess career", "=== Rising up the ranks ===He first qualified for the USSR Chess Championship at age 15 in 1978, the youngest-ever player at that level.", "He won the 64-player Swiss system tournament at Daugavpils on a tie-break over Igor V. Ivanov to capture the sole qualifying place.Kasparov rose quickly through the FIDE world rankings.", "Due to an oversight by the USSR Chess Federation, which believed that a grandmaster tournament in Banja Luka, Yugoslavia, was for juniors, he participated in that event in 1979 while still unrated.", "He was a replacement for the Soviet defector Viktor Korchnoi, who was originally invited but withdrew due to the threat of a boycott from the Soviets.", "Kasparov won this high-class tournament, emerging with a provisional rating of 2595, enough to catapult him to the top group of chess players (at the time, number 15 in the world).", "The next year, 1980, he won the World Junior Chess Championship in Dortmund, West Germany.", "Later that year, he made his debut as the second reserve for the Soviet Union at the Chess Olympiad at Valletta, Malta, and became a Grandmaster.As a teenager, Kasparov shared the USSR Chess Championship in 1981 with Lev Psakhis (12.5/17), although Psakhis won their game.", "His first win in a superclass-level international tournament was scored at Bugojno, Yugoslavia, in 1982.He earned a place in the 1982 Moscow Interzonal tournament, which he won, to qualify for the Candidates Tournament.", "At age 19, he was the youngest Candidate since Bobby Fischer, who was 15 when he qualified in 1958.At this stage, he was already the No.", "2-rated player in the world, trailing only world champion Karpov on the January 1983 list.280x280pxKasparov's first (quarter-final) Candidates match was against Alexander Beliavsky, whom he defeated 6–3 (four wins, one loss).", "Politics threatened Kasparov's semi-final against Korchnoi, which was scheduled to be played in Pasadena, California.", "Korchnoi had defected from the Soviet Union in 1976 and was at that time the strongest active non-Soviet player.", "The Soviet authorities would not allow Kasparov to travel to the United States, meaning that Korchnoi could have had a walkover.", "This decision was met with disapproval by the chess world, and Korchnoi agreed to the match to being played in London instead, along with the previously scheduled match between Vasily Smyslov and Zoltán Ribli.", "The Kasparov-Korchnoi match was put together on short notice by Raymond Keene.", "Kasparov lost the first game but won the match 7–4 (four wins, one loss).In January 1984, Kasparov became the No.", "1 ranked player in the world, with a FIDE rating of 2710.He became the youngest-ever world No.", "1, a record that lasted 12 years until being broken by Kramnik in January 1996.That same year, he won the Candidates' final 8½–4½ (four wins, no losses) against former world champion Smyslov at Vilnius, thus qualifying to play Karpov for the world championship.=== 1984 world championship ===The World Chess Championship 1984 match between Kasparov and Karpov had many ups and downs and a very controversial finish.", "Karpov started in very good form, and after nine games Kasparov was down 4–0 in a \"first to six wins\" match.", "Fellow players predicted he would be whitewashed 6–0 within 18 games.In an unexpected turn of events, there followed a series of 17 successive draws, some relatively short, others drawn in unsettled positions.", "Kasparov lost game 27 (5–0), then fought back with another series of draws until game 32, earning his first-ever win against the world champion and bringing the score to 5–1.Another 14 successive draws followed, through game 46; the previous record length for a world title match had been 34 games (José Raúl Capablanca vs. Alexander Alekhine in 1927).Kasparov won games 47 and 48 to bring the score to 5–3 in Karpov's favour.", "Then the match was ended without result by FIDE President Florencio Campomanes, and a new match was announced to start a few months later.", "The termination was controversial, as both players stated that they preferred the match to continue.", "Announcing his decision, Campomanes cited the health of the players, which had been strained by the length of the match.", "According to grandmasters Boris Gulko and Korchnoi, and historians Vladimir Popow and Yuri Felshtinsky in their ''The KGB Plays Chess'' book, Campomanes had been a KGB agent and was tasked with preventing Karpov's defeat at all costs.", "The match was terminated while Karpov was still ahead to avoid the impression that the decision had been made for his benefit.The match became the first, and so far only, world championship match to be abandoned without a result.", "Kasparov's relations with Campomanes and FIDE became strained, and matters came to a head in 1993 with Kasparov's complete break-away from FIDE.=== World champion ===Kasparov after winning the FIDE World Championship title in 1985The second Karpov–Kasparov match in 1985 was organised in Moscow as the best of 24 games, where the first player to win 12½ points would claim the title.", "The scores from the terminated match would not carry over; however, in the event of a 12–12 draw, the title would remain with Karpov.", "On 9 November 1985, Kasparov secured the world crown by a score of 13–11.Karpov, with White, needed to win the 24th game to retain the title but Kasparov won it with the Sicilian Defence.", "He was 22 years old at the time, making him the youngest-ever world champion, a record held by Mikhail Tal for over 20 years.", "Kasparov's win with Black in the 16th game has been recognised as one of the all-time chess masterpieces, including being voted the best game played during the first 64 issues of the magazine ''Chess Informant.", "''As part of the arrangements following the aborted 1984 match, Karpov had been granted (in the event of his defeat) a right to rematch.", "Another match took place in 1986, hosted jointly in London and Leningrad, with each city hosting 12 games.", "At one point in the match, Kasparov opened a three-point lead and looked well on his way to a decisive victory.", "But Karpov fought back by winning three consecutive games to level the score late in the match.", "At this point, Kasparov dismissed one of his seconds, grandmaster Evgeny Vladimirov, accusing him of selling his opening preparation to the Karpov team (as described in Kasparov's autobiography ''Unlimited Challenge'', chapter Stab in the Back).", "Kasparov scored one more win and kept his title by a score of 12½–11½.A fourth match for the world title took place in 1987 in Seville, as Karpov had qualified through the Candidates' Matches to become the official challenger once again.", "This match was also very close, with neither player holding more than a one-point lead at any time.", "With one game left, Kasparov was down a point and needed a win to draw the match and retain his title.", "A long, tense game ensued in which Karpov blundered away a pawn just before the first time control.", "Kasparov then won a long ending to retain the title on a 12–12 scoreline.Kasparov and Karpov met for a fifth time, on this occasion in New York City and Lyon in 1990, with each city hosting 12 games.", "Again the result was a close one, with Kasparov winning by a margin of 12½–11½.", "In their five world championship matches, Kasparov had 21 wins, 19 losses and 104 draws in 144 games.=== Break with and ejection from FIDE ===World Trade Center in New York, 1995In November 1986, Kasparov had created the Grandmasters Association (GMA) to represent professional players and give them more say in FIDE's activities.", "Kasparov assumed a leadership role.", "GMA's major achievement was in organising a series of six World Cup tournaments for the world's top players.", "This caused an uneasy relationship to develop between Kasparov and FIDE.", "The previous month Kasparov had made his feelings clear to fellow grandmaster Keene: \"Campomanes must go.", "It is war to the death with him as far as I am concerned.", "I will do everything I can to remove him”.This stand-off lasted until 1993, by which time a new challenger had qualified through the Candidates cycle: Nigel Short, a British grandmaster who had defeated Karpov in a qualifying match and then Jan Timman in the finals held in early 1993.After a confusing and compressed bidding process produced lower financial estimates than expected, the world champion and his challenger both rejected FIDE's bid for an August match in Manchester and decided to play outside FIDE's jurisdiction.", "Their match took place under the auspices of the Professional Chess Association (PCA), an organisation established by Kasparov and Short.", "At this point, a fracture occurred in the lineage of the FIDE World Championship.", "In an interview in 2007, Kasparov called the break with FIDE in 1993 the worst mistake of his career, as it hurt the game in the long run.Kasparov and Short were ejected from FIDE and played their well-sponsored match in London in September 1993.Kasparov won convincingly by a score of 12½–7½.", "The match considerably raised the profile of chess in the UK, with a substantial level of coverage on Channel 4.Meanwhile, FIDE organised its world championship match between Timman (the defeated Candidates finalist) and former world champion Karpov (a defeated Candidates semi-finalist), which Karpov won.FIDE removed Kasparov and Short from its rating list.", "Subsequently, the PCA created a rating list of its own, which featured all the world top players regardless of their relation to FIDE.", "There were now two world champions: PCA champion Kasparov and FIDE champion Karpov.", "The title remained split for 13 years.Kasparov defended his PCA title in a 1995 match against Viswanathan Anand at the World Trade Center in New York City.", "Kasparov won the match by four wins to one, with thirteen draws.Kasparov tried to organise another world championship match under a different organisation, the World Chess Association (WCA), with Linares organiser Luis Rentero.", "Alexei Shirov and Kramnik played a candidates match to decide the challenger, which Shirov won in an upset.", "But when Rentero admitted that the funds required and promised had never materialised, the WCA collapsed.", "Yet another body stepped in, BrainGames.com, headed by Raymond Keene.", "After a match with Shirov could not be agreed by BrainGames.com and talks with Anand collapsed, a match was instead arranged against Kramnik.During this period, Kasparov was approached by Oakham School in the United Kingdom, at the time the only school in the country with a full-time chess coach, and developed an interest in the use of chess in education.", "In 1997, Kasparov supported a scholarship programme at the school.", "Kasparov also won the Marca Leyenda trophy that year.In 1999, he played a well-known game against Topalov wherein he won after a rook sacrifice and king hunt.=== Losing the title and aftermath ===Kasparov playing against Kramnik in the Botvinnik Memorial match in Moscow, 2001The Kasparov-Kramnik match took place in London during the latter half of 2000.Kramnik had been a student of Kasparov's at the famous Botvinnik/Kasparov chess school in Russia and had served on Kasparov's team for the 1995 match with Anand.The better-prepared Kramnik won game 2 against Kasparov's Grünfeld Defence and achieved winning positions in games 4 and 6, although Kasparov managed a draw in both games.", "Kasparov made a critical error in game 10 with the Nimzo-Indian Defence, which Kramnik exploited to win in 25 moves.", "As White, Kasparov could not crack the passive but solid Berlin Defence in the Ruy Lopez, and Kramnik managed to draw all his games as Black.", "Kramnik won the match 8½–6½.Kasparov won a series of major tournaments and remained the PCA top-rated player in the world, ahead of both Kramnik and the FIDE World Champion.", "In 2001 he refused an invitation to the 2002 Dortmund Candidates Tournament for the Classical title, claiming his results had earned him a rematch with Kramnik.Kasparov and Karpov played a four-game match with rapid time controls over two days in December 2002 in New York City.", "Kasparov suffered a surprise loss (1.5 – 2.5).Because of Kasparov's continuing strong results and status as FIDE world No.", "1, he was included in the so-called \"Prague Agreement\", masterminded by Yasser Seirawan and intended to reunite the two world championships.", "Kasparov was to play a match against the FIDE World Champion Ponomariov in September 2003.But this match was called off after Ponomariov refused to sign his contract for it without reservation.", "In its place, there were plans for a match against Rustam Kasimdzhanov, winner of the FIDE World Chess Championship 2004, to be held in January 2005 in the United Arab Emirates.", "These also fell through owing to a lack of funding.", "Plans to hold the match in Turkey instead came too late.", "Kasparov announced in January 2005 that he was tired of waiting for FIDE to arrange a match and had decided to stop all efforts to become undisputed world champion once more.=== Retirement from regular competitive chess ===upright=0.75After winning the prestigious Linares tournament for the ninth time, Kasparov announced on 10 March 2005 that he would retire from regular competitive chess.", "He cited as the reason a lack of personal goals in the chess world.", "When winning the Russian championship in 2004, he commented that it had been the last major title he had never won outright.", "He also expressed frustration at the failure to reunify the world championship.Kasparov said he might play in some rapid chess events for fun, but he intended to spend more time on his books, including the ''My Great Predecessors'' series, and work on the links between decision-making in chess and other areas of life.", "He also stated that he would continue to involve himself in Russian politics, which he viewed as \"headed down the wrong path.", "\"=== Post-retirement chess ===On 22 August 2006, in his first public chess games since his retirement, Kasparov played in the Lichthof Chess Champions Tournament, a blitz event played at the time control of five minutes per side and three-second increments per move.", "Kasparov tied for first with Karpov, scoring 4½/6.Kasparov and Karpov played a 12-game match from 21 to 24 September 2009, in Valencia, Spain.", "It consisted of four rapid (or semi rapid) games, in which Kasparov won 3–1, and eight blitz games, in which Kasparov won 6–2, winning the match with a final result of 9–3.The event took place exactly 25 years after the two players' unfinished encounter at World Chess Championship 1984.Kasparov coached Carlsen for approximately one year, beginning in February 2009.The collaboration remained secret until September 2009.Under Kasparov's tutelage, Carlsen in October 2009 became the youngest ever to achieve a FIDE rating higher than 2800, and he rose from world number four to world number one.", "While the pair initially planned to work together throughout 2010, in March of that year it was announced that Carlsen had split from Kasparov and would no longer be using him as a trainer.", "According to an interview with the German magazine ''Der Spiegel'', Carlsen indicated that he would remain in contact and that he would continue to attend training sessions with Kasparov; however, no further training sessions were held, and the cooperation fizzled out over the course of the spring.", "In 2011, Carlsen said: \"Thanks to Kasparov I began to understand a whole class of positions better. ...", "Kasparov gave me a great deal of practical help.\"", "In 2012, when asked what he learnt from working with Kasparov, Carlsen answered: \"Complex positions.", "That was the most important thing.", "\"In May 2010, Kasparov played and won 30 games simultaneously against players at Tel Aviv University in Israel.", "In the same month, it was revealed that he had aided Anand in his preparation for the World Chess Championship 2010 against challenger Veselin Topalov.", "Anand won the match 6½–5½ to retain the title.208x208pxKasparov began training the U.S. grandmaster Hikaru Nakamura in January 2011.The first of several training sessions was held in New York just before Nakamura participated in the Tata Steel Chess tournament in Wijk aan Zee, the Netherlands.", "In December 2011, it was announced that their cooperation had come to an end.Kasparov played two blitz exhibition matches in the autumn of 2011.The first was in September against French grandmaster Maxime Vachier-Lagrave, in Clichy (France), which Kasparov won 1½–½.", "The second was a longer match consisting of eight blitz games played on 9 October, against English grandmaster Short.", "Kasparov won again by a score of 4½–3½.", "A little after that, in October 2011, Kasparov played and defeated fourteen opponents in a simultaneous exhibition that took place in Bratislava.On 25 and 26 April 2015, Kasparov played a mini-match against Short.", "The match consisted of two rapid games and eight blitz games and was contested over the course of two days.", "Commentators GM Maurice Ashley and Alejandro Ramírez remarked how Kasparov was an 'initiative hog' throughout the match, consistently not allowing Short to gain any foothold in the games.", "Kasparov won the match decisively (8½–1½), winning all five games on the second day.", "These victories were characterised by aggressive pawn moves breaking up Short's position, thereby allowing Kasparov's pieces to achieve positional superiority.Kasparov played and won all nineteen games of a simultaneous exhibition in Pula, Croatia on 19 August 2015.At the Chess Club and Scholastic Center of Saint Louis on 28 and 29 April 2016, Kasparov played a 6-round exhibition blitz round-robin tournament with Fabiano Caruana, Wesley So and Nakamura in an event called the Ultimate Blitz Challenge.", "He finished the tournament third with 9.5/18, behind Nakamura (11/18) and So (10/18).", "At the post-tournament interview, Kasparov announced that he would donate his winnings from playing the next top-level blitz exhibition match to assist funding of the American Olympic Team.On 2 June 2016, Kasparov played against fifteen chess players in a simultaneous exhibition in the Kaiser-Friedrich-Halle of Mönchengladbach.", "He won all games.==== Candidate for FIDE presidency ====On 7 October 2013, Kasparov announced his candidacy for World Chess Federation president during a reception in Tallinn, Estonia, where the 84th FIDE Congress took place.", "He was supported by reigning world champion and FIDE #1 ranked player Carlsen.", "At the FIDE General Assembly in August 2014, Kasparov lost the presidential election to the incumbent Kirsan Ilyumzhinov, with a vote of 110–61.A few days before the election took place, the ''New York Times Magazine'' had published a report on the viciously fought campaign.", "Included was information about a leaked contract between Kasparov and former FIDE Secretary General Ignatius Leong from Singapore, in which the Kasparov campaign reportedly \"offered to pay Leong US$500,000 and to pay $250,000 a year for four years to the ASEAN Chess Academy, an organisation Leong helped create to teach the game, specifying that Leong would be responsible for delivering 11 votes from his region ...\".", "In September 2015, the FIDE Ethics Commission found Kasparov and Leong guilty of violating its Code of Ethics and later suspended them for two years from all FIDE functions and meetings.=== Return from chess retirement ===Kasparov came out of retirement to participate in the inaugural St. Louis Rapid and Blitz tournament from 14 to 19 August 2017, scoring 3.5/9 in the rapid and 9/18 in the blitz.", "He finished eighth in a strong field of ten, including Nakamura, Caruana, former world champion Anand and the eventual winner, Levon Aronian.", "Kasparov promised that any tournament money he earned would go towards charities to promote chess in Africa.In 2020, he participated in 9LX, a Chess 960 tournament, and finished eighth of a field of ten players.", "His game against Carlsen, who tied for first place, was drawn.He launched Kasparovchess, a subscription-based online chess community featuring documentaries, lessons, puzzles, podcasts, articles, interviews and playing zones, in 2021.Kasparov played in the blitz section of the Grand Chess Tour 2021 event in Zagreb, Croatia.", "He performed poorly, however, scoring 0.5/9 on the first day and 2/9 on the second day, getting his only win against Jorden Van Foreest.", "He also participated in 9LX 2, finishing fifth in a field of ten players, with a score of 5/9." ], [ "Olympiads and major team events", "230x230pxKasparov played in a total of eight Chess Olympiads.", "He represented the Soviet Union four times and Russia four times, following the break-up of the Soviet Union in 1991.In his 1980 Olympiad debut, he became, at age 17, the youngest player to represent the Soviet Union or Russia at that level, a record which was broken by Kramnik in 1992.In 82 games, he scored (+50−3=29), for 78.7%, and won a total of nineteen medals, including team gold medals all eight times he competed.For the 1994 Moscow Olympiad, he had a significant organisational role in helping to put together the event on short notice, after Thessaloniki cancelled its offer to host only a few weeks before the scheduled dates.", "Kasparov's detailed Olympiad record follows:* Valletta 1980, USSR 2nd reserve, 9½/12 (+8−1=3), team gold, board bronze;* Lucerne 1982, USSR 2nd board, 8½/11 (+6−0=5), team gold, board bronze;* Dubai 1986, USSR 1st board, 8½/11 (+7−1=3), team gold, board gold, performance gold;* Thessaloniki 1988, USSR 1st board, 8½/10 (+7−0=3), team gold, board gold, performance gold;* Manila 1992, Russia board 1, 8½/10 (+7−0=3), team gold, board gold, performance silver;* Moscow 1994, Russia board 1, 6½/10 (+4−1=5), team gold;* Yerevan 1996, Russia board 1, 7/9 (+5−0=4), team gold, board silver, performance gold;* Bled 2002, Russia board 1, 7½/9 (+6−0=3), team gold, performance gold.Kasparov made his international debut for the USSR at age 16 in the 1980 European Team Championship and played for Russia in the 1992 edition of that championship.", "He won a total of five medals.", "His detailed record in this event follows:* Skara 1980, USSR 2nd reserve, 5½/6 (+5−0=1), team gold, board gold;* Debrecen 1992, Russia board 1, 6/8 (+4−0=4), team gold, board gold, performance silver.Kasparov also represented the USSR once at the Youth Olympiad in Austria (1981).", "He scored 9/10 (+8–0=2) on the top board and his team lifted the title." ], [ "Assessment and legacy", "Kasparov received a Chess Oscar eleven times as the best chess player of the year, in 1982-1983, 1985-1988, 1995-1996, 1999, and 2001-2002.Between 1981 and 1991, he won or tied for first place in every tournament he entered.", "In 1999, Kasparov reached an Elo rating of 2851 points, a record that stood for over thirteen years: on 10 December 2012, Carlsen achieved an unofficial rating of 2861 points, with which he topped the next release of the rating in January 2013.With the exception of the PCA period and sharing first place with Kramnik in 1997, Kasparov led the rating list from 1985 to 2006 – a total of 255 months.", "On 1 January 2006, Kasparov ranked first with a coefficient of 2812.However, he was excluded from the FIDE rating list of 1 April 2006 because he had not participated in tournaments for the previous twelve months.The rivalry between Kasparov and Karpov (often referred to as the \"two Ks\") is one of the greatest in the history of chess.", "In six years they played five matches comprising 144 games.", "For a long time there was personal enmity between Karpov and Kasparov.", "The conflict between the two men also had a political connotation.", "Karpov was considered a representative of the Soviet nomenklatura, while Kasparov was young and popular, positioned himself as a \"child of change\", willingly gave candid interviews and (especially in the West) had an aura of a rebel, although he never was a dissident.", "Kasparov's 1985 victory coincided with the start of perestroika in the Soviet Union.Carlsen said of Kasparov: \"I've never seen someone with such a feel for dynamics in complex positions.\"", "Kramnik has opined that Kasparov's \"capacity for study is second to none\", adding \"There is nothing in chess he has been unable to deal with.", "\"In 2007, the international consulting company Synectics published a rating of 100 living geniuses in science, politics, art and entrepreneurship, in which Kasparov ranked 25th.===Playing style===Kramnik called Kasparov a chess player with virtually no weaknesses.", "His games are characterised by a dynamic style of play with a focus on tactics, depth of strategy, subtle calculation and original opening ideas.", "Kasparov was known for his extensive opening preparation and aggressive play in it.", "Sergey Shipov considered Kasparov's moral and volitional qualities (impulsiveness and psychological instability) and excessive reliance on options, which can lead to overwork and mistakes, as amongst his few shortcomings.Kasparov's attacking style of play has been compared by many to Alekhine, his chess idol since childhood.", "Kasparov has described his style as being influenced chiefly by Alekhine, Tal and Fischer.", "Other influences on Kasparov were his early coaches.", "At a young age, he met with experienced teachers Alexander Nikitin and Alexander Shakarov.", "Shakarov collected and systematised materials, and then became the keeper of Kasparov's \"information bank\".", "A revolutionary step at that time was the involvement of computer programs in analysing games, and it was Kasparov and his team who took the first steps in this direction.", "In 1973, Kasparov entered the Botvinnik school and immediately attracted attention.", "Botvinnik commented on the young schoolboy: \"Garry's speed and memory capacity are amazing.", "He counts deep variations and finds unexpected moves.", "The power of combinational vision makes him similar to Alekhine himself\".===Contributions to opening theory===Kasparov's contribution to opening theory is acknowledged.", "In the 1990s, he systematically developed new variants with computer programs.", "Kasparov's favourite opening systems were the Queen's Indian with White and variations of the Sicilian Defence with Black.", "He also \"reanimated\" the Scotch Game in top-level competitions.", "Kasparov successfully used this opening, which was considered outdated, in the 1990 match against Karpov and in matches with Short and Anand.", "One of the offshoots of the Sicilian in the Szén Variation is called the Kasparov Gambit.", "Kasparov used this variation in the 12th and 16th games of the match with Karpov in 1985; in the second of these games, he scored a victory.Another well-known case of winning an important game thanks to a novelty in the opening is Kasparov's 10th game of the 1995 match against Anand.", "On the 14th move, in a well-known position of the open variation of the Spanish Game (Ruy Lopez), Kasparov discovered a new idea with a rook sacrifice, which brought a decisive attack.Kasparov has also co-authored several books on opening theory.===Chess rating===Kasparov holds the record for the longest time as the No.", "1 rated player in the world—from 1984 to 2005 (Kramnik shared the No.", "1 ranking with him once, in the January 1996 FIDE rating list).", "He headed the PCA rating list during the split from FIDE.", "At the time of his retirement, he was still ranked No.", "1 in the world, with a rating of 2812.His rating has fallen inactive since the January 2006 rating list.In January 1990, Kasparov achieved the (then) highest FIDE rating ever, passing 2800 and breaking Fischer's old record of 2785.By the July 1999 and January 2000 FIDE rating lists, Kasparov had reached a 2851 Elo rating, at that time the highest rating ever achieved.", "He held that record until Carlsen attained a new record high rating of 2861 in January 2013.===Other achievements===Kasparov holds the record for most consecutive professional tournament victories, placing first or equal first in fifteen individual tournaments from 1981 to 1990.The streak was broken by Vasyl Ivanchuk at Linares 1991, where Kasparov placed second, half a point behind him after losing their individual game.", "The details of this record winning streak follow:* Frunze 1981, USSR Championship, 12½/17, tie for 1st;* Bugojno 1982, 9½/13, 1st;* Moscow 1982, Interzonal, 10/13, 1st;* Nikšić 1983, 11/14, 1st;* Brussels OHRA 1986, 7½/10, 1st;* Brussels SWIFT 1987, 8½/11, tie for 1st;* Amsterdam Optiebeurs 1988, 9/12, 1st;* Belfort (World Cup) 1988, 11½/15, 1st;* Moscow 1988, USSR Championship, 11½/17, tie for 1st;* Reykjavík (World Cup) 1988, 11/17, 1st;* Barcelona (World Cup) 1989, 11/16, tie for 1st;* Skellefteå (World Cup) 1989, 9½/15, tie for 1st;* Tilburg 1989, 12/14, 1st;* Belgrade (Investbank) 1989, 9½/11, 1st;* Linares 1990, 8/11, 1st.Kasparov went nine years winning every super-tournament he played, in addition to contesting his series of five consecutive matches with Karpov.", "His only failure in this time period in either tournament or match play was the 1984 world title match against Karpov.In the late 1990s, Kasparov went on another long streak of ten consecutive super-tournament wins.", "* Wijk aan Zee Hoogovens 1999, 10/13, 1st;* Linares 1999, 10½/14, 1st;* Sarajevo 1999, 7/9, 1st;* Wijk aan Zee Corus 2000, 9½/13, 1st;* Linares 2000, 6/10, tie for 1st;* Sarajevo 2000, 8½/11, 1st;* Wijk aan Zee Corus 2001, 9/13, 1st;* Linares 2001, 7.5/10, 1st;* Astana 2001, 7/10, 1st;* Linares 2002, 8/12, 1st.In these tournament victories, Kasparov had a score of 53 wins, 61 draws and 1 loss in 115 games, his only defeat coming against Ivan Sokolov in Wijk aan Zee 1999." ], [ "Chess and computers", "Acorn Computers acted as one of the sponsors for Kasparov's Candidates semi-final match against Korchnoi in 1983.This was Kasparov's first introduction to computers.", "Kasparov was awarded a BBC Micro, which he took back with him to Baku, making it perhaps one of the first Western-made microcomputers to reach the Soviet Union at that time.Computer chess magazine editor Frederic Friedel consulted with Kasparov in 1985 on how a chess database program would be useful preparation for competition.", "Friedel founded Chessbase two years later, and he gave a copy of the program to Kasparov, who started using it in his preparation.", "That same year, Kasparov played against thirty-two chess computers in Hamburg, winning all games.", "Several commercially available Kasparov computers were made in the 1980s, the Saitek Kasparov Turbo King models.", "On 22 October 1989, Kasparov defeated the chess computer Deep Thought in both games of a two-game match.", "In December 1992, Kasparov played thirty-seven blitz games against Fritz 2 in Cologne, winning 24, drawing 4 and losing 9.Kasparov cooperated in producing video material for the computer game ''Kasparov's Gambit'' released by Electronic Arts in November 1993.In April 1994, Intel acted as a sponsor for the first Professional Chess Association Grand Prix event in Moscow, played at a time control of twenty-five minutes per game.", "In May, Chessbase's Fritz 3 running on an Intel Pentium PC defeated Kasparov in their first game in the Intel Express blitz tournament in Munich, but Kasparov managed to tie it for first and won the play-off (+3=2).", "The next day, Kasparov lost to Fritz 3 again in a game on ZDF TV.", "In August, Kasparov was knocked out of the London Intel Grand Prix by Richard Lang's ChessGenius 2 program in the first round.", "In 1995, during Kasparov's world title match with Anand, he unveiled an opening novelty that had been checked with a chess engine, an approach that would become increasingly common in subsequent years.Kasparov played in a pair of six-game chess matches with IBM supercomputer Deep Blue.", "The first match took place in Philadelphia in February 1996 and was won by Kasparov (4-2).", "The second was played in New York City in May 1997 and won by Deep Blue (3½–2½).", "The 1997 match was the first defeat of a reigning world champion by a computer under tournament conditions.The match was even after five games but Kasparov lost quickly in Game 6.Kasparov said that he was \"not well prepared\" to face Deep Blue in 1997.He said that based on his \"objective strengths\" his play was stronger than that of Deep Blue.", "Kasparov claimed that several factors weighed against him in this match.", "In particular, he was denied access to Deep Blue's recent games, in contrast to the computer's team, which could study hundreds of Kasparov's.After the loss, Kasparov said that he sometimes saw deep intelligence and creativity in the machine's moves, suggesting that during the second game chess players had intervened in contravention of the rules.", "IBM denied that it had cheated, stating the only human intervention occurred between games.", "The rules provided for the developers to modify the program between games, an opportunity they said they used to shore up weaknesses in the computer's play revealed during the course of the match.", "Kasparov requested printouts of the machine's log files but IBM refused, although the company later published them on the Internet.", "Much later, it was suggested that the behaviour Kasparov noted had resulted from a glitch in the computer program.", "Plans for further engagement between Kasparov and IBM, including a rematch, did not come to fruition, due to the accusations of cheating.Kasparov wore 3D glasses in his match against the program X3D Fritz.In January 2003, he engaged in a six-game classical time control match, with a $1 million prize fund, against Deep Junior.", "It was billed as the FIDE \"Man vs. Machine\" world championship.", "The engine evaluated three million positions per second.", "After one win each and three draws, it was all up to the final game.", "After reaching a decent position, Kasparov offered a draw, which was accepted by the Deep Junior team.", "Asked why he had offered the draw, Kasparov said he feared making a blunder.", "Deep Junior was the first machine to beat Kasparov with Black and at a standard time control.In June 2003, Mindscape released the computer game ''Kasparov Chessmate'', with Kasparov himself listed as a co-designer.", "In November 2003, he engaged in a four-game match against the computer program X3D Fritz, using a virtual board, 3D glasses and a speech recognition system.", "After two draws and one win apiece, the X3D Man–Machine match ended in a draw.", "Kasparov received $175,000 and took home a golden trophy.", "He continued to regret the blunder in the second game that cost him a crucial point.", "He felt that he had outplayed the machine overall and performed well: \"I only made one mistake but unfortunately that one mistake lost the game.", "\"In 2021, Kasparov promoted a series of 32 NFTs that detailed important moments in his career.", "The top four sold for more than $11,000." ], [ "Politics and political views", "===Russia=======Early political activities====Kasparov's grandfather was a staunch communist, but the young Kasparov gradually began to have doubts about the Soviet Union's political system at age 13 when he travelled abroad for the first time in 1976 to Paris for a chess tournament.", "In 1981, at age 18, he read Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn's ''The Gulag Archipelago'', a copy of which he bought while abroad.", "Nevertheless, Kasparov joined the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) in 1984, and was elected to the Central Committee of Komsomol in 1987.In 1990, he left the party.In May 1990, Kasparov took part in the creation of the Democratic Party of Russia.", "He left the party on 28 April 1991, after its conference.", "Kasparov was also involved with the creation of the \"Choice of Russia\" bloc of parties in June 1993.He took part in the election campaign of Boris Yeltsin in 1996.In 2001 he voiced his support for the Russian television channel NTV.After his retirement from chess in 2005, Kasparov turned to politics and created the United Civil Front, a social movement whose main goal is to \"work to preserve electoral democracy in Russia\".", "He has vowed to \"restore democracy\" to Russia by restoring the rule of law.", "A year later the United Civil Front became part of The Other Russia.", "Kasparov was instrumental in setting up this coalition, which opposes Putin's government and the United Russia party.", "The Other Russia was boycotted by the leaders of Russia's mainstream opposition parties, Yabloko and Union of Right Forces, due to its inclusion of both nationalist and radical groups.", "Kasparov has criticised these two parties as being secretly under the auspices of the Kremlin.In April 2005, Kasparov was in Moscow at a promotional event when he was struck over the head with a chessboard he had just signed.", "The assailant was reported to have said: \"I admired you as a chess player, but you gave that up for politics\" immediately before the attack.", "Kasparov has been the subject of a number of other episodes since, including police brutality and alleged harassment from the Russian secret service.Kasparov at the third Dissenters March in Saint Petersburg on 9 June 2007Kasparov helped organise the Saint Petersburg Dissenters' March on 3 March 2007 and The March of the Dissenters on 24 March 2007, both involving several thousand people rallying against Putin and Saint Petersburg Governor Valentina Matviyenko.Kasparov led a pro-democracy demonstration in Moscow in April 2007.Soon after it started, however, over 9,000 police descended on the group and seized almost everyone.", "Kasparov, who was briefly arrested, was warned by the prosecution office on the eve of the march that anyone participating risked being detained.", "He was held for some ten hours and then fined and released.", "He was later summoned by the FSB for violations of Russian anti-extremism laws.Speaking about Kasparov in 2007, former KGB defector Oleg Kalugin remarked: \"I do not talk in details – people who knew them are all dead now because they were vocal, they were open.", "I am quiet.", "There is only one man who is vocal and he may be in trouble: world chess champion Kasparov.", "He has been very outspoken in his attacks on Putin and I believe that he is probably next on the list.", "\"====Presidential candidate (2008)====On 30 September 2007, Kasparov entered the Russian presidential race, receiving 379 of 498 votes at a congress held in Moscow by The Other Russia.", "In October 2007, Kasparov announced his intention of standing for the Russian presidency as the candidate of the \"Other Russia\" coalition and vowed to fight for a \"democratic and just Russia\".", "Later that month he travelled to the United States, where he appeared on several popular television programmes.In November 2007, Kasparov and other protesters were detained by police at an Other Russia rally in Moscow, which drew 3,000 demonstrators to protest against election rigging.", "Following an attempt by about 100 protesters to march through police lines to the electoral commission, which had barred Other Russia candidates from parliamentary elections, arrests were made.", "The Russian authorities stated a rally had been approved but not any marches, resulting in several demonstrators being detained.", "Kasparov was subsequently charged with resisting arrest and organising an unauthorised protest, and was given a jail sentence of five days.", "Kasparov appealed the charges, citing that he had been following orders given by the police.", "He was released from jail on 29 November.", "Putin castigated Kasparov at the rally for his use of English when speaking rather than Russian.In December 2007, Kasparov announced that he had to withdraw his presidential candidacy due to inability to rent a meeting hall where at least 500 of his supporters could assemble.", "With the deadline expiring on that date, he explained it was impossible for him to run.", "Russian election laws required sufficient meeting hall space for assembling supporters.", "Kasparov's spokeswoman accused the government of using pressure to deter anyone from renting a hall for the gathering and said that the electoral commission had rejected a proposal that would have allowed for smaller gathering sizes rather than one large gathering at a meeting hall.====Opposition to Putin administration (2010–2013)====Kasparov was among the 34 first signatories and a key organiser of the online anti-Putin campaign \"Putin must go\", started on 10 March 2010.Within the text is a call to Russian law enforcement to ignore Putin's orders.", "By June 2011, there were 90,000 signatures.", "While the identity of the petition author remained anonymous, there was wide speculation that it was indeed Kasparov.", "On 31 January 2012, Kasparov hosted a meeting of opposition leaders planning a mass march on 4 February 2012, the third major opposition rally held since the disputed State Duma elections of December 2011.Among other opposition leaders attending were Alexey Navalny and Yevgeniya Chirikova.Kasparov was arrested and beaten outside a Moscow court on 17 August 2012 while attending sentencing in the case involving the all-female punk band Pussy Riot.", "On 24 August, he was cleared of charges that he had taken part in an unauthorised protest against the conviction of three members of the band.", "Judge Yekaterina Veklich said there were \"no grounds to believe the testimony of the police\".", "Kasparov later thanked all the bloggers and reporters who provided video evidence that contradicted the testimony of the police.", "Kasparov wrote in February 2013 that \"fascism has come to Russia.", "...Project Putin, just like the old Project Hitler, is but the fruit of a conspiracy by the ruling elite.", "Fascist rule was never the result of the free will of the people.", "It was always the fruit of a conspiracy by the ruling elites!", "\"Kasparov denied rumours in April 2013 that he was planning to leave Russia for good.", "\"I found these rumors to be deeply saddening and, moreover, surprising,\" he wrote.", "\"I was unable to respond immediately because I was in such a state of shock that such an incredibly inaccurate statement, the likes of which is constantly distributed by the Kremlin's propagandists, came this time from Ilya Yashin, a fellow member of the Opposition Coordination Council (KSO) and my former colleague from the Solidarity movement.\"", "He also accused prominent Russian journalist Vladimir Posner of failing to stand up to Putin and to earlier Russian and Soviet leaders.However, Kasparov subsequently fled Russia less than three months later.", "On 6 June 2013, he announced that he had left his homeland on account of fear of persecution for his political views.", "Further, at the 2013 Women in the World conference, Kasparov told ''The Daily Beast''s Michael Moynihan that democracy no longer existed in what he called Russia's \"dictatorship\".====Opposition to Putin from exile (2013–)====Kasparov at the 2018 Oslo Freedom ForumKasparov said at a press conference in June 2013 that if he returned to Russia, he doubted he would be allowed to leave again, given Putin's ongoing crackdown on dissenters.", "\"So for the time being,\" he said, \"I refrain from returning to Russia.\"", "He explained shortly thereafter in an article for ''The Daily Beast'' that this had not been intended as \"a declaration of leaving my home country, permanently or otherwise\", but merely an expression of \"the dark reality of the situation in Russia today, where nearly half the members of the opposition's Coordinating Council are under criminal investigation on concocted charges\".", "He noted that the Moscow prosecutor's office was \"opening an investigation that would limit my ability to travel\", making it impossible for him to fulfil \"professional speaking engagements\" and hindering his \"work for the non-profit Kasparov Chess Foundation, which has centres in New York City, Brussels and Johannesburg, to promote chess in education\".", "Kasparov further wrote in his June 2013 ''Daily Beast'' article that the mass protests in Moscow 18 months earlier against fraudulent Russian elections had been \"a proud moment for me\".", "He recalled that after joining the opposition movement in March 2005, he had been criticised for seeking to unite \"every anti-Putin element in the country to march together regardless of ideology\".", "Therefore, the sight of \"hundreds of flags representing every group from liberals to nationalists all marching together for 'Russia Without Putin' was the fulfillment of a dream.\"", "Yet most Russians, he lamented, had continued to \"slumber\" even as Putin had \"taken off the flimsy mask of democracy to reveal himself in full as the would-be KGB dictator he has always been\".Kasparov responded with several Twitter postings to a September 2013 ''The New York Times'' op-ed by Putin.", "\"I hope Putin has taken adequate protections,\" he tweeted.", "\"Now that he is a Russian journalist his life may be in grave danger!\"", "Also: \"Now we can expect NY Times op-eds by Mugabe on fair elections, Castro on free speech, & Kim Jong-un on prison reform.", "The Axis of Hypocrisy.", "\"Kasparov wrote in July 2013 about the trial in Kirov of fellow opposition leader Navalny, who had been convicted \"on concocted embezzlement charges\", only to see the prosecutor, surprisingly, ask for his release the next day pending appeal.", "\"The judicial process and the democratic process in Russia,\" wrote Kasparov, \"are both elaborate mockeries created to distract the citizenry at home and to help Western leaders avoid confronting the awkward fact that Russia has returned to a police state\".", "Still, Kasparov felt that whatever had caused the Kirov prosecutor's about-face, \"my optimism tells me it was a positive sign.", "After more than 13 years of predictable repression under Putin, anything different is good.", "\"Kasparov has been outspoken regarding Putin's antigay laws, describing them as \"only the most recent encroachment on the freedom of speech and association of Russia's citizens\", which the international community had largely ignored.", "Regarding Russia's hosting of the 2014 Winter Olympics, Kasparov explained in August 2013 that he had opposed Russia's bid from the outset, since it would \"allow Vladimir Putin's cronies to embezzle hundreds of millions of dollars\" and \"lend prestige to Putin's authoritarian regime\".", "Kasparov did not support the proposed Sochi Olympics boycott—writing that it would \"unfairly punish athletes\"—but called for athletes and others to \"transform Putin's self-congratulatory pet project into a spotlight that exposes his authoritarian rule\" to the world.", "In September, Kasparov called upon politicians to refuse to attend the games and the public to pressure sponsors and the media, such that Coca-Cola, for example, could put \"a rainbow flag on each Coca-Cola can\" and NBC could \"do interviews with Russian gay activists or with Russian political activists\".", "Kasparov also emphasised that although he was \"still a Russian citizen\", he had \"good reason to be concerned about my ability to leave Russia if I returned to Moscow\".Kasparov spoke out against the 2014 Russian annexation of Crimea and has stated that control of Crimea should be returned to Ukraine after the overthrow of Putin without additional conditions.", "Kasparov's website was blocked by the Russian government censorship agency, Roskomnadzor, at the behest of the public prosecutor, allegedly due to Kasparov's opinions on the Crimean crisis.", "Kasparov's block was made in unison with several other notable Russian sites that were accused of inciting public outrage.", "Reportedly, several of the blocked sites received an affidavit noting their violations.", "However, Kasparov stated that his site had received no such notice of violations after its block.", "In 2015, a whole note on Kasparov was removed from a Russian language encyclopaedia of greatest Soviet players after an intervention from \"senior leadership\".In October 2015, Kasparov published a book titled ''Winter Is Coming: Why Vladimir Putin and the Enemies of the Free World Must Be Stopped''.", "In the book, Kasparov likens Putin to Adolf Hitler and explains the need for the West to oppose Putin sooner, rather than appeasing him and postponing the eventual confrontation.", "According to his publisher, \"Kasparov wants this book out fast, in a way that has potential to influence the discussion during the primary season.\"", "In 2018, he said that \"anything is better than Putin because that eliminates the probability of a nuclear war.", "Putin is insane.", "\"Following reports of Russian ransomware attacks against American agencies and companies in 2021, Kasparov stated that \"the only language that Putin understands is power, and his power is his money,\" arguing that the United States should target the bank accounts of Russian oligarchs to force Russia to rein in its criminals' cyberattacks.Kasparov spoke out against the invasion of Ukraine by Russia on Twitter: \"The only way this really ends is the fall of Putin's regime by collapse of Russian economy and defeat in Ukraine.\"", "He also believed that \"pressure must be kept up\" in terms of sanctions and condemnations against Russia's actions and joined with other prominent Russian figures-in-exile to form the Anti-War Committee of Russia.", "He said that Russia should be \"thrown back into the Stone Age to make sure that the oil and gas industry and any other sensitive industries that are vital for survival of the regime cannot function without Western technological support.", "\"On 20 May 2022, Kasparov was designated as \"foreign agent\" by the Ministry of Justice of the Russian Federation.In May 2023, along with a large group of fellow exiles, Kasparov participated in the drafting of Mikhail Khodorkovsky's \"Declaration of Russia's Democratic Forces\".On August 4, 2023, Kasparov participated on the radio show ''Open to Debate'' in a debate against Charles Kupchan, where he argued for Ukrainian admission into NATO and against any form of appeasement towards Putin.===United States===Kasparov and American political activist Grover Norquist in 2017Kasparov received the Keeper of the Flame award in 1991 from the Center for Security Policy, a Washington, D.C.-based far-right, anti-Muslim think tank.", "In his acceptance speech Kasparov lauded the defeat of communism while also urging the United States to give no financial assistance to central Soviet leaders.", "Kasparov gave speeches at other think tanks such as the Hoover Institution.In a 12 May 2013 op-ed for ''The Wall Street Journal'', Kasparov questioned reports that the Russian security agency, the FSB, had fully cooperated with the FBI in the matter of the Boston bombers.", "He noted that the elder bomber, Tamerlan Tsarnaev, had reportedly met in Russia with two known jihadists who \"were killed in Dagestan by the Russian military just days before Tamerlan left Russia for the U.S.\" Kasparov argued, \"If no intelligence was sent from Moscow to Washington\" about this meeting, \"all this talk of FSB cooperation cannot be taken seriously.\"", "He further observed, \"This would not be the first time Russian security forces seemed strangely impotent in the face of an impending terror attack,\" pointing out that in both the 2002 Moscow theater siege and the 2004 Beslan school attack, \"there were FSB informants in both terror groups – yet the attacks went ahead unimpeded.\"", "Given this history, he wrote, \"it is impossible to overlook that the Boston bombing took place just days after the U.S. Magnitsky List was published, creating the first serious external threat to the Putin power structure by penalising Russian officials complicit in human-rights crimes.\"", "In sum, Putin's \"dubious record on counterterrorism and its continued support of terror sponsors Iran and Syria mean only one thing: common ground zero\".In the 2016 United States presidential election, Kasparov described Republican Donald Trump as \"a celebrity showman with racist leanings and authoritarian tendencies\" and criticised him for calling for closer ties with Putin.", "After Trump's running mate, Mike Pence, called Putin a strong leader, Kasparov said that Putin is a strong leader \"in the same way arsenic is a strong drink\".", "He also disparaged the economic policies of Democratic primary candidate Bernie Sanders, but showed respect for Sanders as \"a charismatic speaker and a passionate believer in his cause\".", "Kasparov opined that Henry Kissinger \"was selling the Trump Administration on the idea of a mirror of 1972 Richard Nixon's visit to China, except, instead of a Sino-U.S. alliance against the U.S.S.R., this would be a Russian-American alliance against China.", "\"===Armenia===In a 2020 interview discussing the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict, Kasparov stated that the Republic of Artsakh has a right to independence and that Azerbaijan has no sovereign right over it.", "He considers this stance to be objective and without bias, as Soviet law allowed for autonomous republics (such as the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast) to vote for independence separately and were given an equal right for self-determination, a factor he felt often went ignored.", "Kasparov recalled that he was criticised by Armenians for not taking a strong stance when the Karabakh movement began in 1988, explaining that he was living in Baku with 200,000 other Armenians at the time and did not want to increase tensions.", "Kasparov and his family later fled Baku in January 1990 to escape pogroms against Armenians.", "Kasparov has declined invitations back to visit Baku, stating he would only return \"if every other Armenian born there can do it without a problem and without special favors from the government.", "\"He welcomed the Velvet Revolution in Armenia in 2018.Kasparov supports Armenian genocide recognition.===Other international affairs===During the Yugoslav Wars, Kasparov advocated for the Western world to destroy the Yugoslav People's Army and accused Slobodan Milošević of creating a \"siege mentality\" to maintain control over Serbia.", "In 1997, he was awarded honorary citizenship of Bosnia and Herzegovina for his support of Bosnian people during the Bosnian War.", "Kasparov was named Chairman of the Human Rights Foundation in 2011.In addition, Kasparov was presented with the Morris B. Abram Human Rights Award, UN Watch's annual human-rights prize, in 2013.The organisation praised him as \"not only one of the world's smartest men\" but \"also among its bravest\".Before the first Gulf War, Kasparov expressed an unconventional viewpoint, recommending the United States to consider the use of an atomic bomb against Saddam Hussein in Iraq.", "In 2002, supporting military action against Iraq, he also recommended planning for military action against Iran, Syria and Saudi Arabia.In April 2013, Kasparov joined in an HRF condemnation of Kanye West for having performed for the leader of Kazakhstan in exchange for a payment of $3 million, saying that West \"has entertained a brutal killer and his entourage\" and that his fee \"came from the loot stolen from the Kazakhstan treasury\".", "Further, in September 2013, Kasparov wrote in ''Time'' magazine that in Syria, Putin and Bashar al-Assad \"won by forfeit when President Obama, Prime Minister Cameron and the rest of the so-called leaders of the free world walked away from the table.\"", "Kasparov lamented the \"new game at the negotiating table where Putin and Assad set the rules and will run the show under the protection of the U.N.\" Kasparov said in September 2013 that Russia was now a dictatorship.", "In the same month he told an interviewer that \"Obama going to Russia now is dead wrong, morally and politically,\" because Putin's regime \"is behind Assad\".Kasparov was critical of the violence unleashed by the Spanish police against the 2017 independence referendum in Catalonia and accused the Spanish PM Mariano Rajoy of \"betraying\" the European promise of peace.", "After the Catalan regional election held later the same year, Kasparov wrote: \"Despite unprecedented pressure from Madrid, Catalonian separatists won a majority.", "Europe must speak and help find a peaceful path toward resolution and avoid more violence\".", "Kasparov recommended that Spain look to how Britain handled the 2014 Scottish independence referendum, adding: \"look only at how Turkey and Iraq have treated the separatist Kurds.", "That cannot be the road for Spain and Catalonia.", "\"On the occasion of the 2015 centennial of the Armenian genocide, Kasparov reflected that in 2002 he called for Turkey to be admitted to the European Union if Turkey recognised the genocide.", "He condemned the assassination of Saudi journalist Jamal Khashoggi.", "In October 2018, Kasparov wrote that President Erdoğan's regime in Turkey \"has jailed more journalists than any country in the world and scores of them remain in prison in Turkey.", "Since 2016, Turkey's intelligence agency has abducted at least 80 people in operations in 18 countries.", "\"In the wake of the 2023 Israel-Hamas war, Kasparov vigorously called on the Biden administration for the destruction of Hamas and Hezbollah.", "He further demanded the US to set up regime change in Russia and Iran.===Croatian citizenship===Kasparov had maintained a summer home in the Croatian city of Makarska.", "In February 2014, he applied for citizenship by naturalisation in Croatia, according to media reports, claiming he was finding it increasingly difficult to live in Russia.", "According to an article in ''The Guardian'', Kasparov was \"widely perceived\" as having been a vocal supporter of Croatian independence during the early 1990s.", "Later in February 2014, his application for naturalisation was approved and he had a meeting with Croatian prime minister Zoran Milanović on 27 February.", "Croatian press cited his \"lobbying for Croatia in 1991\" as grounds for the expedited naturalisation.", "In an interview for a Croatian daily published in February 2022, Kasparov said he was \"very grateful\" to Milanović for the help rendered by him (then as prime minister) in obtaining Croatian citizenship." ], [ "Books and other writings", "=== Early writings ===Kasparov has written books on chess.", "He published a controversial autobiography when still in his early 20s.", "Originally entitled ''Child of Change'', it was later published as ''Unlimited Challenge''.", "This book was updated several times after he became world champion.", "Its content is mainly literary, with a small chess component of key unannotated games.", "He published an annotated games collection in 1983, ''Fighting Chess: My Games and Career'', which has been updated in further editions.", "He also wrote a book annotating the games from his World Chess Championship 1985 victory, ''World Chess Championship Match: Moscow, 1985''.He has annotated his own games extensively for the Yugoslav ''Chess Informant'' series.", "In 1982, he co-authored ''Batsford Chess Openings'' with British grandmaster Keene.", "That book sold well and was updated in a second edition in 1989.He also co-authored two opening books with his trainer Alexander Nikitin in the 1980s for British publisher Batsfordon the Classical Variation of the Caro–Kann Defence and on the Scheveningen Variation of the Sicilian Defence.", "Kasparov also contributed extensively to the five-volume openings series ''Encyclopedia of Chess Openings'' from Chess Informant, for which Kasparov also wrote personal columns called ''Garry's Choice''.In 2000, Kasparov co-authored ''Kasparov Against the World: The Story of the Greatest Online Challenge'' with grandmaster Daniel King.", "The 202-page book analyses the 1999 Kasparov versus the World game, and holds the record for the longest analysis devoted to a single chess game.=== ''My Great Predecessors'' series ===In 2003, the first volume of his five-volume work ''Garry Kasparov on My Great Predecessors'' was published.", "This volume deals with world champions Wilhelm Steinitz, Emanuel Lasker, Capablanca and Alekhine, and some of their strong contemporaries.", "It won the British Chess Federation's Book of the Year award in 2003.Volume two, covering Max Euwe, Botvinnik, Smyslov and Tal, appeared later in 2003.Volume three, featuring Tigran Petrosian and Boris Spassky, was published in early 2004.In December 2004, Kasparov released volume four, which covers Samuel Reshevsky, Miguel Najdorf and Bent Larsen (none of whom was world champion), but focuses on Fischer.", "The fifth volume, devoted to the chess careers of world champion Karpov and challenger Korchnoi, was published in March 2006.=== ''Modern Chess'' series ===His ''Revolution in the 70s'' (published in March 2007) covers \"the openings revolution of the 1970s–1980s\" and was the first work in a new venture, \"Modern Chess Series\", which recounted his matches with Karpov and selected games.", "''Revolution in the 70s'' is about the development of opening theory witnessed in that decade.", "Systems like the novel \"Hedgehog\" opening plan of passively developing the pieces no further than the first three ranks were examined in great detail.", "Kasparov also analysed some of the most notable games played in that period.", "In a section at the end of the book, top opening theoreticians provided their opinion on progress made in opening theory in the 1980s.=== ''Garry Kasparov on Garry Kasparov'' series === From 2011–14, Kasparov published a three-volume series of his games, spanning his career in three eras until he stopped playing full time in 2005.=== ''Winter Is Coming'' ===In October 2015, Kasparov published a book titled ''Winter Is Coming: Why Vladimir Putin and the Enemies of the Free World Must Be Stopped''.", "The title is a reference to the HBO television series ''Game of Thrones''.", "In the book, Kasparov writes about the need for an organisation composed solely of democratic countries to replace the United Nations.", "In an interview, he called the United Nations a \"catwalk for dictators\".=== Historical revision ===Kasparov believes that the conventional history of civilisation is incorrect.", "Specifically, he contends that the history of ancient civilisations is based on misdating of events and achievements that occurred in the medieval period.", "He has cited several aspects of ancient history that, he argues, are likely to be anachronisms.Kasparov has written in support of the pseudohistorical New Chronology (Fomenko), although with some reservations.", "In 2001, he expressed a desire to devote his time to promoting the New Chronology after his chess career.", "\"New Chronology is a great area for investing my intellect ... My analytical abilities are well placed to figure out what was right and what was wrong.\"", "\"When I stop playing chess, it may well be that I concentrate on promoting these ideas...", "I believe they can improve our lives.\"", "Later, Kasparov renounced his support of Fomenko theories but reaffirmed his belief that mainstream historical knowledge is inconsistent.=== Other post-retirement writing ===Kasparov wrote ''How Life Imitates Chess'', an examination of the parallels between decision-making in chess and in the business world, in 2007.In 2008, Kasparov published a sympathetic obituary for Fischer: \"I am often asked if I ever met or played Bobby Fischer.", "The answer is no, I never had that opportunity.", "But even though he saw me as a member of the evil chess establishment that he felt had robbed and cheated him, I am sorry I never had a chance to thank him personally for what he did for our sport.", "\"Kasparov is the chief advisor for the book publisher Everyman Chess.", "He works closely with Mig Greengard and his comments can often be found on Greengard's blog.", "Kasparov collaborated with Max Levchin and Peter Thiel on ''The Blueprint'', a book calling for a revival of world innovation, planned for release in March 2013 but cancelled after the authors disagreed on its contents.", "In an editorial comment on Google's AlphaZero chess-playing system, Kasparov argued that chess has become the model for reasoning in the same way that the fruit fly ''Drosophila melanogaster'' became a model organism for geneticists: \"I was pleased to see that AlphaZero had a dynamic, open style like my own,\" he wrote in late 2018.Kasparov served as a consultant for the 2020 Netflix miniseries ''The Queen's Gambit'' and gave an interview to ''Slate'' on his contributions.", "That same year, Kasparov collaborated with Matt Calkins, founder and CEO of Appian, on ''HYPERAUTOMATION'', a book about low-code development and the future of business automation.", "Kasparov wrote the foreword where he discusses his experiences with human–machine relationships.", "''The New York Times'' published an essay by Kasparov titled \"Garry Kasparov: What We Believe About Reality\" in 2021.The essay is part of a series called ''The Big Ideas: What Do We Believe''.", "This work was later published in a compendium titled ''Question Everything: A Stone Reader.", "''=== Bibliography ===* ''Kasparov Teaches Chess'' (1984–85, Sport in the USSR Magazine; 1986, First Collier Books)* ''The Test of Time (Russian Chess)'' (1986, Pergamon Pr)* ''World Chess Championship Match: Moscow, 1985'' (1986, Everyman Chess)* ''Child of Change: An Autobiography'' (1987, Hutchinson)* ''London–Leningrad Championship Games'' (1987, Everyman Chess)* ''Unlimited Challenge'' (1990, Grove Pr)* ''The Sicilian Scheveningen'' (1991, B.T.", "Batsford Ltd)* ''The Queen's Indian Defence: Kasparov System'' (1991, B.T.", "Batsford Ltd)* ''Kasparov Versus Karpov, 1990'' (1991, Everyman Chess)* ''Kasparov on the King's Indian'' (1993, B.T.", "Batsford Ltd)* Kasparov, Garry.", "Jon Speelman and Bob Wade.", "1995.", "''Garry Kasparov's Fighting Chess.''", "Henry Holt.", "* ''Garry Kasparov's Chess Challenge'' (1996, Everyman Chess)* ''Lessons in Chess'' (1997, Everyman Chess)* ''Kasparov Against the World: The Story of the Greatest Online Challenge'' (2000, Kasparov Chess Online)* ''My Great Predecessors Part I'' (2003, Everyman Chess)* ''My Great Predecessors Part II'' (2003, Everyman Chess)* ''Checkmate!", ": My First Chess Book'' (2004, Everyman Mindsports)* ''My Great Predecessors Part III'' (2004, Everyman Chess)* ''My Great Predecessors Part IV'' (2004, Everyman Chess)* ''My Great Predecessors Part V'' (2006, Everyman Chess)* ''How Life Imitates Chess'' (2007, William Heinemann Ltd.)* ''Garry Kasparov on Modern Chess, Part I: Revolution in the 70s'' (2007, Everyman Chess)* ''Garry Kasparov on Modern Chess, Part II: Kasparov vs Karpov 1975–1985'' (2008, Everyman Chess)* ''Garry Kasparov on Modern Chess, Part III: Kasparov vs Karpov 1986–1987'' (2009, Everyman Chess)* ''Garry Kasparov on Modern Chess, Part IV: Kasparov vs Karpov 1988–2009'' (2010, Everyman Chess)* ''Garry Kasparov on Garry Kasparov, part I'' (2011, Everyman Chess)* ''Garry Kasparov on Garry Kasparov, part II'' (2013, Everyman Chess)* ''Garry Kasparov on Garry Kasparov, part III'' (2014, Everyman Chess)* ''Winter Is Coming: Why Vladimir Putin and the Enemies of the Free World Must Be Stopped'' (2015, Public Affairs)* ''Deep Thinking'' with Mig Greengard (2017, Public Affairs)=== Videos ===* Kasparov, Garry, Nigel Short, Raymond Keene and Daniel King.", "1993.", "''Kasparov Short The Inside Story.''", "Grandmaster Video.", "* Kasparov, Garry, Jonathan Tisdall and Jim Plaskett.", "2000.", "''My Story.''", "Grandmaster Video.", "* Kasparov, Garry.", "2004.", "''How to Play the Queen's Gambit.''", "Chessbase.", "* Kasparov, Garry.", "2005.", "''How to Play the Najdorf.''", "Chessbase.", "vol.", "1 , vol.", "2 * Kasparov, Garry.", "2012.", "''How I Became World Champion 1973–1985.''", "Chessbase.", "* Kasparov, Garry.", "2017.", "''Garry Kasparov Teaches Chess.''", "Masterclass.com.", "* Kasparov, Garry.", "2022.", "''Stand with Ukraine in the fight against evil'', Ted Talk." ], [ "Personal life", "Kasparov has lived in New York City since 2013.He has been married three times: to Masha, with whom he had a daughter, Polina, before divorcing; to Yulia, with whom he had a son, Vadim, before their 2005 divorce; and to Daria (Dasha), with whom he has two children, daughter Aida born in 2006 and son Nickolas born in 2015.Kasparov's wife manages his business activities worldwide through Kasparov International Management Inc." ], [ "References" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * *" ], [ "See also", "* ''Game Over: Kasparov and the Machine'', documentary film.", "* Kasparov Chess, Internet chess club.", "* Kasparov versus the World* List of chess games between Kasparov and Kramnik* Committee 2008* Putinism* Advanced chess" ], [ "External links", "* * * * Garry Kasparov, \"Man of the Year?", "\", ''OpinionJournal'', 23 December 2007* Edward Winter, List of Books About Fischer and Kasparov* * Kasparov's \"Deep Thinking\" talk at Google* Garry Kasparov's best games analyzed in video" ] ]
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[ [ "Flag of Greenland" ], [ "Introduction", "Greenland flag painted vertically on an apartment blockSchoolchildren in Upernavik with flagsThe '''flag of Greenland''' (, ) was designed by Greenland native Thue Christiansen.", "It features two equal horizontal bands of white (top) and red (bottom) with a counter-changed red-and-white disk slightly to the hoist side of centre.", "The entire flag measures 18 by 12 parts; each stripe measures 6 parts; the disk is 8 parts in diameter, horizontally offset by 7 parts from the hoist to the centre of the circle, and vertically centered.Its local name in the Greenlandic language is '''', which means \"our flag\".", "The term '''' (meaning \"the red\") is also used for both the Greenlandic flag and the flag of Denmark ('''').", "Today, Greenlanders display both the '''' and the ''''—often side by side.", "The flag of Greenland is the only national flag of a Nordic country or territory without a Nordic cross, but is similar to the cultural Sámi flag, which also features a circular design." ], [ "History", "Greenland first entertained the idea of a flag of its own in 1973 when five Greenlanders proposed a green, white and blue flag.", "The following year, a newspaper solicited eleven design proposals (all but one of which was a Nordic cross) and polled the people to determine the most popular.", "The flag of Denmark was preferred to the others.", "Little came of this effort.In 1978, Denmark granted home rule to Greenland, making it an equal member of the Danish Realm.", "The home rule government held an official call for flag proposals, receiving 555 (of which 293 were submitted by Greenlanders).Construction sheet of the flag of GreenlandThe deciding committee came to no consensus, so more proposals were solicited.", "Finally, the present red-and-white design by Thue Christiansen narrowly won over a green-and-white Nordic cross by a vote of fourteen to eleven.", "Christiansen's red-and-white flag was officially adopted on 21 June 1985.To honour the tenth anniversary of the flag, the Greenland Post Office issued commemorative postage stamps and a leaflet by the flag's creator.", "He described the white stripe as representing the glaciers and ice cap, which cover more than 80% of the island; the red stripe, the ocean; the red semicircle, the sun, with its bottom part sunk in the ocean; and the white semicircle, the icebergs and pack ice.", "The design is also reminiscent of the setting Sun half-submerged below the horizon and reflected on the sea.", "In 1985, it was reported that Greenland's flag had exactly the same motif as the flag of the Danish rowing club HEI Rosport, which was founded before Greenland's flag was chosen.", "It is not clear whether this is a case of plagiarism or just a coincidence, but the rowing club gave Greenland permission to use their flag.The colours of the flag are the same as those of the flag of Denmark, symbolizing Greenland's place in the Danish realm." ], [ "Other proposals" ], [ "See also", "*Flag of Denmark*Flag of the Faroe Islands*List of flags of Denmark*Raven banner" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* FOTW: Greenland - History of the ''flag''* Other flag proposals for a Nordic cross design* http://www.flagscorner.com/greenland-flag/" ] ]
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[ [ "Gustav Radbruch" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Gustav Radbruch''' (21 November 1878 – 23 November 1949) was a German legal scholar and politician.", "He served as Minister of Justice of Germany during the early Weimar period.", "Radbruch is also regarded as one of the most influential legal philosophers of the 20th century." ], [ "Life", "Born in Lübeck, Radbruch studied law in Munich, Leipzig and Berlin.", "He passed his first bar exam (\"Staatsexamen\") in Berlin in 1901, and the following year he received his doctorate with a dissertation on \"The Theory of Adequate Causation\".", "This was followed in 1903 by his qualification to teach criminal law in Heidelberg.", "In 1904, he was appointed Professor of criminal and trial law and legal philosophy in Heidelberg.", "In 1914 he accepted a call to a professorship in Königsberg, and later that year assumed a professorship at Kiel.Radbruch was a member of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD), and held a seat in the Reichstag from 1920 to 1924.In 1921–22 and throughout 1923, he was minister of justice in the cabinets of Joseph Wirth and Gustav Stresemann.", "During his time in office, a number of important laws were implemented, such as those giving women access to the justice system, and, after the assassination of Foreign Minister Walther Rathenau, the Law for the Protection of the Republic, which increased the punishments for politically motivated acts of violence and banned organizations that opposed the \"constitutional republican form of government\" along with their printed matter and meetings.In 1926, Radbruch accepted a renewed call to lecture at Heidelberg where he delivered his inaugural lecture entitled \"''Der Mensch im Recht'' (Law's Image of the Human)\" as the newly appointed Professor of Criminal Law on 13 November 1926.After the Nazi seizure of power in January 1933, Radbruch, as a former Social Democratic politician, was dismissed from his university post under the terms of the so-called \"Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service\" (''\"Gesetz zur Wiederherstellung des Berufsbeamtentums\"'').", "(The universities, as public bodies, were subject to civil service laws and regulations.)", "Despite the employment ban in Nazi Germany, during 1935/36 he was able to spend a year in England, at University College, Oxford.", "An important practical outcome of this was his book, ''Der Geist des englischen Rechts'' (The Spirit of English Law), although this could be published only in 1945.During the Nazi period, he devoted himself primarily to cultural-historical work.Immediately after the end of the Second World War in 1945, he resumed his teaching activities, but died at Heidelberg in 1949 without being able to complete his planned updated edition of his textbook on legal philosophy.In September 1945, Radbruch published a short paper \"''Fünf Minuten Rechtsphilosophie'' (Five Minutes of Legal Philosophy)\", which was influential in shaping the jurisprudence of values (''Wertungsjurisprudenz''), prevalent in the aftermath of World War II as a reaction against legal positivism." ], [ "Work", "Title page \"Rechtsphilosophie\" (1932)Radbruch's legal philosophy derived from neo-Kantianism, which assumes that a categorical cleavage exists between \"is\" (''sein'') and \"ought\" (''sollen'').", "According to this view, \"should\" can never be derived from \"Being.\"", "Indicative of the Heidelberg school of neokantianism to which Radbruch subscribed was that it interpolated the value-related cultural studies between the explanatory sciences (being) and philosophical teachings of values (should).His grave in HeidelbergIn relation to the law, this triadism shows itself in the subfields of legal sociology, legal philosophy and legal dogma.", "Legal dogma assumes a place in between.", "It posits itself in opposition to positive law, as the latter depicts itself in social reality and methodologically in the objective \"should-have\" sense of law, which reveals itself through value-related interpretation.The core of Radbruch's legal philosophy consists of his tenets the concept of law and the idea of law.", "The idea of law is defined through a triad of justice, utility and certainty.", "Radbruch thereby had the idea of utility or usefulness spring forth from an analysis of the idea of justice.", "Upon this notion was based the Radbruch formula, which is still vigorously debated today.", "The concept of law, for Radbruch, is \"nothing other than the given fact, which has the sense to serve the idea of law.", "\"Hotly disputed is the question whether Radbruch was a legal positivist before 1933 and executed an about-face in his thinking due to the advent of Nazism, or whether he continued to develop, under the impression of Nazi crimes, the relativistic values-teaching he had already been advocating before 1933.The problem of the controversy between the spirit and the letter of the law, in Germany, has been brought back to public attention due to the trials of former East German soldiers who guarded the Berlin Wall—the so-called necessity of following orders.", "Radbruch's theories are posited against the positivist \"pure legal tenets\" represented by Hans Kelsen and, to some extent, also from Georg Jellinek.In sum, Radbruch's formula argues that where statutory law is incompatible with the requirements of justice \"to an intolerable degree\", or where statutory law was obviously designed in a way that deliberately negates \"the equality that is the core of all justice\", statutory law must be disregarded by a judge in favour of the justice principle.", "Since its first publication in 1946 the principle has been accepted by Germany's Federal Constitutional Court in a variety of cases.", "Many people partially blame the older German legal tradition of legal positivism for the ease with which Hitler obtained power in an outwardly \"legal\" manner, rather than by means of a coup.", "Arguably, the shift to a concept of natural law ought to act as a safeguard against dictatorship, an untrammeled State power and the abrogation of civil rights." ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "**** chs 3 & 4." ], [ "External links", "** *" ] ]
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[ [ "Gate" ], [ "Introduction", "Gate from Bucharest (Romania)Art Nouveau gate of Castel Béranger (Paris)Candi bentar, a typical Indonesian gate that is often found on the islands of Java and BaliA '''gate''' or '''gateway''' is a point of entry to or from a space enclosed by walls.", "The word derived from old Norse \"gat\" meaning road or path; But other terms include '''''yett and port'''''.", "The concept originally referred to the gap or hole in the wall or fence, rather than a barrier which closed it.", "Gates may prevent or control the entry or exit of individuals, or they may be merely decorative.", "The moving part or parts of a gateway may be considered \"doors\", as they are fixed at one side whilst opening and closing like one.A gate may have a latch that can be raised and lowered to both open a gate or prevent it from swinging.", "Gate operation can be either automated gate operator or manual.", "Locks are also used on gates to increase security.", "Larger gates can be used for a whole building, such as a castle or fortified town.", "Actual doors can also be considered gates when they are used to block entry as prevalent within a gatehouse.", "Today, many gate doors are equipped with self-closing devices that can improve safety, security, and convenience.", "It is important to choose a controlled gate closer to ensure a consistent closing speed, as well as safety and security.", "A self-closing gate can help prevent accidents by children or pets, particularly around swimming pools, spas, beaches and hot tubs.", "A self-closing gate can also improve the security of the property by ensuring that the gate is closed and latched properly.", "There are various types of gate closers available, including exposed spring devices, gate closers, spring hinges, and self-closing hinges.", "The appropriate type of closer will depend on the weight and size of the gate, as well as other factors like speed control, weather resistance, and ADA compliance." ], [ "Purpose-specific types of gate", "Japanese ''Torii'' at Itsukushima Shrine, a UNESCO World Heritage Site Japan, where the Hindu goddess Saraswati is worshipped as the Buddhist-Shinto goddess Benzaiten* Baby gate a safety gate to protect babies and toddlers* City gate of a walled city* Hampshire gate (a.k.a.", "New Zealand gate, wire gate, etc.", ")* Kissing gate on footpath* Lychgate with a roof* Mon ''Japanese:'' gate.", "The religious torii compares to the Chinese pailou (paifang), Indian torana, Indonesian Paduraksa and Korean hongsalmun.", "Mon are widespread, in Japanese gardens.", "* Portcullis of a castle* Race gates a gate used checkpoints on race tracks.", "* Slip gate on footpaths* Turnstile* Watergate of a castle by navigable water* Slalom skiing gates* Wicket gate" ], [ "Image gallery", "File:Gate ajar.jpg|This gate and massive gateposts has no locks—a gate marks a borderline in ownership/use and can allow passage.File:Garden Gate.JPG|A small, elegant gate to a meadow pathFile:Pergamonmuseum Babylon Ischtar-Tor.jpg|Ishtar Gate is the oldest city gate in existenceFile:Wringin Lawang, Trowulan.jpg|Wringin Lawang, a 14th-century Majapahit split gate, called ''\"Candi bentar\"'', in Trowulan, Java, IndonesiaFile:Ubud temple entrance.jpg|Richly decorated Indonesian Balinese temple gate called PaduraksaFile:Mahmoud Ahmadinejad at Columbia 8 by David Shankbone.jpg|This gate at Columbia University was closed to prevent entry of protestersFile:Finlayson gate1.jpg|The gate of Finlayson factory in Tampere, FinlandFile:Kansai University,1923.jpg|A gate at Kansai University, built in 1923File:MalKingsPalaceGate.jpg|Malaysian King's Palace Gate, Kuala LampurFile:Ohrid Upper Gate close-up.jpg|Medieval ironclad city gate, from the Upper Gate in the old town of OhridFile:Chinese type gate from kerala.jpg|Chinese traditional type gate (iron gate in front of house) in Kerala, IndiaFile:MuscatRoadGate.jpg|Gates decorate routes in the entrance of Muscat, OmanFile:Kuwaitgate.jpg|Kuwait Gate, historically surrounded Kuwait City, built in 1929File:Royal Military College of Canada front gates.jpg|Royal Military College of Canada front gates and gatehouseFile:Ernst Rudolph By the Entrance.jpg|Ernst Rudolph, ''By the Entrance''File:Nivala.vaakuna.svg|A wooden gate pictured in the coat of arms of NivalaFile:Royal Mint Melbourne.jpg|Decorative emblems of state are also fixed on gates to public buildings, old Royal Melbourne MintFile:Shri Swaminarayan Mandir gate.jpg|Gate of Shri Swaminarayan Mandir, Bhavnagar, IndiaFile:Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Marathwada University gate on the eve of Namvistar Din celebrations.png|Dr.Babasaheb Ambedkar Marathwada University gate on the eve of Namvistar Din celebrations reflects Ajanata artFile:Michael's Gate and tower-Bratislava-Slovakia.JPG|Michael's Gate in Bratislava, SlovakiaFile:St Louis Gateway Arch.jpg|St.", "Louis Gateway ArchFile:Shunfeng Park Paifang (night).jpg|A Chinese Paifang at Foshan, ChinaFile:Warszawa, ul.", "Krakowskie Przedmieście 26-28 20170516 001.jpg|Warsaw University main gate, PolandFile:Gate of Farm Gunsteling in Namibia (2017).jpg|Gate of Farm ''Gunsteling'' in Namibia (2017)File:Ancient gate of Suandok temple , Chiangmai , Thailand.jpg|Thai Temple (wat) gate at Wat Suan Dok, Chiang MaiFile:Ariyalai Mahamari Amman Kovil (அரியாலை மகாமாரி அம்மன் கோவில்).jpg|A gopuram, Hindu temple gate tower, in Sri LankaFile:Eiheiji35nt3200.jpg|A Japanese temple gate (mon) at EiheijiFile:Puerta Torre de los siete suelos Alhambra Granada Spain.jpg|A Moorish architecture gate in Alhambra, Granada, SpainFile:Gate of the Thai Embassy in Paris.jpg|A French-manner gate of the embassy of Thailand in ParisFile:Embassy of South Korea in Moscow, gates.jpg|Adapted-Korean-manner gate of the embassy of South Korea in MoscowFile:Iron Gates-Osgoode Hall National Historic Site of Canada-Toronto-Ontario-HPC4258-20221201.jpg|The Iron Gates of Osgoode Hall, TorontoFile: Waterson k51p sample4-2.jpg|Beachside gate with a self-latching device and a higher than 54” release mechanism." ], [ "See also", "*City Gate* Barricade* Boom barrier (a.k.a.", "boom gate)* Border* Gate tower* Gopuram* Leave the gate as you found it* Portal (architecture)* Portcullis* Threshold (disambiguation)* Triumphal arch* List of scandals with \"-gate\" suffix* Watergate, as used in politics" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Greek fire" ], [ "Introduction", ", \"The Roman fleet burn the opposite fleet down\" – A Eastern Roman Empire / Byzantine war ship using their \"secret weapon\" Greek Fire against a ship belonging to the rebel Thomas the Slav, A.D.", "821.", "(12th century illustration from the \"Madrid Skylitzes\").", "'''Greek fire''' was an incendiary chemical weapon manufactured in and used by the Eastern Roman Empire from the seventh through the fourteenth centuries.", "The recipe for Greek fire was a closely-guarded state secret, but historians speculate it may have been using a combination of pine resin, naphtha, quicklime, calcium phosphide, sulfur, or niter.", "Roman sailors would toss grenades loaded with Greek fire onto enemy ships or spray it from tubes.", "Its ability to burn on water made it an effective and destructive naval incendiary weapon, and rival powers tried unsuccessfully to copy the material." ], [ "Name", "Usage of the term \"Greek fire\" has been general in English and most other languages since the Crusades, but original Byzantine sources called the substance a variety of names, such as \"sea fire\" (Medieval Greek: ), \"Roman fire\" ( ), \"war fire\" ( ), \"liquid fire\" ( ), \"sticky fire\" ( ), or \"manufactured fire\" ( )." ], [ "History", "Incendiary and flaming weapons were used in warfare for centuries before Greek fire was invented.", "They included a number of sulfur-, petroleum-, and bitumen-based mixtures.", "Incendiary arrows and pots containing combustible substances surrounded by caltrops or spikes, or launched by catapults, were used as early as the 9th century BC by the Assyrians and were extensively used in the Greco-Roman world as well.", "Furthermore, Thucydides mentions that in the siege of Delium in 424 BC a long tube on wheels was used which blew flames forward using a large bellows.", "The Graeco-Roman treatise ''Kestoi'', compiled in the late 2nd or early 3rd century AD and traditionally (but not conclusively) ascribed to Julius Africanus, records a mixture that ignited from adequate heat and intense sunlight, used in grenades or night attacks:Automatic fire also by the following formula.", "This is the recipe: take equal amounts of sulphur, rock salt, ashes, thunder stone, and pyrite and pound fine in a black mortar at midday sun.", "Also in equal amounts of each ingredient mix together black mulberry resin and Zakynthian asphalt, the latter in a liquid form and free-flowing, resulting in a product that is sooty colored.", "Then add to the asphalt the tiniest amount of quicklime.", "But because the sun is at its zenith, one must pound it carefully and protect the face, for it will ignite suddenly.", "When it catches fire, one should seal it in some sort of copper receptacle; in this way you will have it available in a box, without exposing it to the sun.", "If you should wish to ignite enemy armaments, you will smear it on in the evening, either on the armaments or some other object, but in secret; when the sun comes up, everything will be burnt up.", "In naval warfare, the Byzantine emperor Anastasius I () is recorded by chronicler John Malalas to have been advised by a philosopher from Athens called Proclus to use sulfur to burn the ships of the rebel general Vitalian.Greek fire proper, however, was developed in and is ascribed by the chronicler Theophanes the Confessor to Kallinikos (Latinized Callinicus), an architect from Heliopolis in the former province of Phoenice, by then overrun by the Muslim conquests:The accuracy and exact chronology of this account is open to question: elsewhere, Theophanes reports the use of fire-carrying ships equipped with nozzles (''siphōn'') by the Byzantines a couple of years before the supposed arrival of Kallinikos at Constantinople.", "If this is not due to chronological confusion of the events of the siege, it may suggest that Kallinikos merely introduced an improved version of an established weapon.", "The historian James Partington further thinks it likely that Greek fire was not in fact the creation of any single person but \"invented by chemists in Constantinople who had inherited the discoveries of the Alexandrian chemical school.\"", "Indeed, the 11th-century chronicler George Kedrenos records that Kallinikos came from Heliopolis in Egypt, but most scholars reject this as an error.", "Kedrenos also records the story, considered rather implausible by modern scholars, that Kallinikos' descendants, a family called ''Lampros'', \"brilliant,\" kept the secret of the fire's manufacture and continued doing so to Kedrenos' time.Kallinikos' development of Greek fire came at a critical moment in the Byzantine Empire's history: weakened by its long wars with Sassanid Persia, the Byzantines had been unable to effectively resist the onslaught of the Muslim conquests.", "Within a generation, Syria, Palestine, and Egypt had fallen to the Arabs, who in set out to conquer the imperial capital of Constantinople.", "Greek fire was used to great effect against the Muslim fleets, helping to repel the Muslims at the first and second Arab sieges of the city.", "Records of its use in later naval battles against the Saracens are more sporadic, but it did secure a number of victories, especially in the phase of Byzantine expansion in the late 9th and early 10th centuries.", "Utilisation of the substance was prominent in Byzantine civil wars, chiefly the revolt of the thematic fleets in 727 and the large-scale rebellion led by Thomas the Slav in 821–823.In both cases, the rebel fleets were defeated by the Constantinople-based central Imperial Fleet through the use of Greek fire.", "The Byzantines also used the weapon to devastating effect against the various Rus' raids on the Bosporus, especially those of 941 and 1043, as well as during the Bulgarian war of 970–971, when the fire-carrying Byzantine ships blockaded the Danube.The importance placed on Greek fire during the Empire's struggle against the Arabs would lead to its discovery being ascribed to divine intervention.", "The Emperor Constantine Porphyrogennetos (), in his book ''De Administrando Imperio'', admonishes his son and heir, Romanos II (), to never reveal the secrets of its composition, as it was \"shown and revealed by an angel to the great and holy first Christian emperor Constantine\" and that the angel bound him \"not to prepare this fire but for Christians, and only in the imperial city.\"", "As a warning, he adds that one official, who was bribed into handing some of it over to the Empire's enemies, was struck down by a \"flame from heaven\" as he was about to enter a church.", "As the latter incident demonstrates, the Byzantines could not avoid capture of their precious secret weapon: the Arabs captured at least one fireship intact in 827, and the Bulgars captured several ''siphōn''s and much of the substance itself in 812/814.This, however, was apparently not enough to allow their enemies to copy it (see below).", "The Arabs, for instance, employed a variety of incendiary substances similar to the Byzantine weapon, but they were never able to copy the Byzantine method of deployment by ''siphōn'', and used catapults and grenades instead.Greek fire continued to be mentioned during the 12th century, and Anna Komnene gives a vivid description of its use in a naval battle against the Pisans in 1099.However, although the use of hastily improvised fireships is mentioned during the 1203 siege of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade, no report confirms the use of the actual Greek fire.", "This might be because of the general disarmament of the Empire in the 20 years leading up to the sacking, or because the Byzantines had lost access to the areas where the primary ingredients were to be found, or even perhaps because the secret had been lost over time.Records of a 13th-century event in which \"Greek fire\" was used by the Saracens against the Crusaders can be read through the Memoirs of the Lord of Joinville during the Seventh Crusade.", "One description of the memoir says \"the tail of fire that trailed behind it was as big as a great spear; and it made such a noise as it came, that it sounded like the thunder of heaven.", "It looked like a dragon flying through the air.", "Such a bright light did it cast, that one could see all over the camp as though it were day, by reason of the great mass of fire, and the brilliance of the light that it shed.", "\"In the 19th century, it is reported that an Armenian by the name of Kavafian approached the government of the Ottoman Empire with a new type of Greek fire he claimed to have developed.", "Kavafian refused to reveal its composition when asked by the government, insisting that he be placed in command of its use during naval engagements.", "Not long after this, he was poisoned by imperial authorities, without their ever having found out his secret." ], [ "Manufacture", "===General characteristics===As Constantine Porphyrogennetos' warnings show, the ingredients and the processes of manufacture and deployment of Greek fire were carefully guarded military secrets.", "So strict was the secrecy that the composition of Greek fire was lost forever and remains a source of speculation.", "Consequently, the \"mystery\" of the formula has long dominated the research into Greek fire.", "Despite this almost exclusive focus, however, Greek fire is best understood as a complete weapon system of many components, all of which were needed to operate together to render it effective.", "This comprised not only the formula of its composition, but also the specialized dromon ships that carried it into battle, the device used to prepare the substance by heating and pressurizing it, the ''siphōn'' projecting it, and the special training of the ''siphōnarioi'' who used it.", "Knowledge of the whole system was highly compartmentalised, with operators and technicians aware of the secrets of only one component, ensuring that no enemy could gain knowledge of it in its entirety.", "This accounts for the fact that when the Bulgarians took Mesembria and Debeltos in 814, they captured 36 ''siphōns'' and even quantities of the substance itself, but were unable to make any use of them.The information available on Greek fire is exclusively indirect, based on references in the Byzantine military manuals and a number of secondary historical sources such as Anna Komnene and Western European chroniclers, which are often inaccurate.", "In her ''Alexiad'', Anna Komnene provides a description of an incendiary weapon, which was used by the Byzantine garrison of Dyrrhachium in 1108 against the Normans.", "It is often regarded as an at least partial \"recipe\" for Greek fire:This fire is made by the following arts: From the pine and certain such evergreen trees, inflammable resin is collected.", "This is rubbed with sulfur and put into tubes of reed, and is blown by men using it with violent and continuous breath.", "Then in this manner it meets the fire on the tip and catches light and falls like a fiery whirlwind on the faces of the enemies.", "At the same time, the reports by Western chroniclers of the famed ''ignis graecus'' are largely unreliable, since they apply the name to any and all sorts of incendiary substances.In attempting to reconstruct the Greek fire system, the concrete evidence, as it emerges from the contemporary literary references, provides the following characteristics:* It burned on water; according to some interpretations it was ''ignited'' by water.", "Numerous writers testify that it could be extinguished only by a few substances, such as sand, strong vinegar, or old urine, some presumably by a sort of chemical reaction.", "* It was a liquid substance – not some sort of projectile – as verified both by descriptions and the very name \"liquid fire\".", "* At sea it was usually ejected from a ''siphōn'', although earthenware pots or grenades filled with it – or similar substances – were also used.", "* The discharge of Greek fire was accompanied by \"thunder\" and \"much smoke\".===Theories on composition===The first and, for a long time, most popular theory regarding the composition of Greek fire held that its chief ingredient was saltpeter, making it an early form of gunpowder.", "This argument was based on the \"thunder and smoke\" description, as well as on the distance the flame could be projected from the ''siphōn'', which suggested an explosive discharge.", "From the times of Isaac Vossius, several scholars adhered to this position, most notably the so-called \"French school\" during the 19th century, which included chemist Marcellin Berthelot.This view has been rejected since saltpeter does not appear to have been used in warfare in Europe or the Middle East before the 13th century, and is absent from the accounts of the Muslim writers – the foremost chemists of the early medieval world – before the same period.", "In addition, the behavior of the proposed mixture would have been radically different from the ''siphōn''-projected substance described by Byzantine sources.A second view, based on the fact that Greek fire was inextinguishable by water (some sources suggest that water intensified the flames) suggested that its destructive power was the result of the explosive reaction between water and quicklime.", "Although quicklime was certainly known and used by the Byzantines and the Arabs in warfare, the theory is refuted by literary and empirical evidence.", "A quicklime-based substance would have to come in contact with water to ignite, while Emperor Leo's ''Tactica'' indicates that Greek fire was often poured directly on the decks of enemy ships, although admittedly, decks were kept wet due to lack of sealants.", "Likewise, Leo describes the use of grenades, which further reinforces the view that contact with water was not necessary for the substance's ignition.", "Furthermore, Zenghelis (1932) pointed out that, based on experiments, the actual result of the water–quicklime reaction would be negligible in the open sea.Another similar proposition suggested that Kallinikos had in fact discovered calcium phosphide, which can be made by boiling bones in urine within a sealed vessel.", "On contact with water it releases phosphine, which ignites spontaneously.", "However, extensive experiments with calcium phosphide also failed to reproduce the described intensity of Greek fire.Consequently, although the presence of either quicklime or saltpeter in the mixture cannot be entirely excluded, they were not the primary ingredient.", "Most modern scholars agree that Greek fire was based on either crude or refined petroleum, comparable to modern napalm.", "The Byzantines had easy access to crude oil from the naturally occurring wells around the Black Sea (e.g., the wells around Tmutorakan noted by Constantine Porphyrogennetos) or in various locations throughout the Middle East.", "An alternate name for Greek fire was \"Median fire\" (), and the 6th-century historian Procopius records that crude oil, called \"naphtha\" (in Greek: ''naphtha'', from Old Persian ''naft'') by the Persians, was known to the Greeks as \"Median oil\" ().", "This seems to corroborate the availability of naphtha as a basic ingredient of Greek fire.Naphtha was also used by the Abbasids in the 9th century, with special troops, the ''naffāṭūn'', who wore thick protective suits and used small copper vessels containing burning oil, which they threw onto the enemy troops.", "There is also a surviving 9th century Latin text, preserved at Wolfenbüttel in Germany, which mentions the ingredients of what appears to be Greek fire and the operation of the ''siphōn''s used to project it.", "Although the text contains some inaccuracies, it clearly identifies the main component as naphtha.", "Resins were probably added as a thickener (the ''Praecepta Militaria'' refer to the substance as , \"sticky fire\"), and to increase the duration and intensity of the flame.", "A modern theoretical concoction included the use of pine tar and animal fat, along with other ingredients.A 12th century treatise prepared by Mardi bin Ali al-Tarsusi for Saladin records an Arab version of Greek fire, called ''naft'', which also had a petroleum base, with sulfur and various resins added.", "Any direct relation with the Byzantine formula is unlikely.", "An Italian recipe from the 16th century has been recorded for recreational use; it includes charcoal from a willow tree, saltpeter (''sale ardente''), alcohol, sulfur, incense, tar (''pegola''), wool and camphor; the concoction was guaranteed to \"burn under water\" and to be \"beautiful\"." ], [ "Methods of deployment", "Use of a ''cheirosiphōn'' (\"hand-''siphōn''\"), a portable flamethrower, used from atop a flying bridge against a castle.", "Illumination from the ''Poliorcetica'' of Hero of Byzantium.The chief method of deployment of Greek fire, which sets it apart from similar substances, was its projection through a tube (''siphōn''), for use aboard ships or in sieges.", "Portable projectors (''cheirosiphōnes'', χειροσίφωνες) were also invented, reputedly by Emperor Leo VI.", "The Byzantine military manuals also mention that jars (''chytrai'' or ''tzykalia'') filled with Greek fire and caltrops wrapped with tow and soaked in the substance were thrown by catapults, while pivoting cranes (''gerania'') were employed to pour it upon enemy ships.", "The ''cheirosiphōnes'' especially were prescribed for use at land and in sieges, both against siege machines and against defenders on the walls, by several 10th-century military authors, and their use is depicted in the ''Poliorcetica'' of Hero of Byzantium.", "The Byzantine dromons usually had a ''siphōn'' installed on their prow under the forecastle, but additional devices could also on occasion be placed elsewhere on the ship.", "Thus in 941, when the Byzantines were facing the vastly more numerous Rus' fleet, ''siphōn''s were placed also amidships and even astern.===Projectors===The use of tubular projectors (σίφων, ''siphōn'') is amply attested in the contemporary sources.", "Anna Komnene gives this account of beast-shaped Greek fire projectors being mounted to the bow of warships:As he the Emperor Alexios I knew that the Pisans were skilled in sea warfare and dreaded a battle with them, on the prow of each ship he had a head fixed of a lion or other land-animal, made in brass or iron with the mouth open and then gilded over, so that their mere aspect was terrifying.", "And the fire which was to be directed against the enemy through tubes he made to pass through the mouths of the beasts, so that it seemed as if the lions and the other similar monsters were vomiting the fire.Some sources provide more information on the composition and function of the whole mechanism.", "The Wolfenbüttel manuscript in particular provides the following description:...having built a furnace right at the front of the ship, they set on it a copper vessel full of these things, having put fire underneath.", "And one of them, having made a bronze tube similar to that which the rustics call a ''squitiatoria'', \"squirt,\" with which boys play, they spray it at the enemy.Another, possibly first-hand, account of the use of Greek fire comes from the 11th-century ''Yngvars saga víðförla'', in which the Viking Ingvar the Far-Travelled faces ships equipped with Greek fire weapons:They began blowing with smiths’ bellows at a furnace in which there was fire and there came from it a great din.", "There stood there also a brass or bronze tube and from it flew much fire against one ship, and it burned up in a short time so that all of it became white ashes...The account, albeit embellished, corresponds with many of the characteristics of Greek fire known from other sources, such as a loud roar that accompanied its discharge.", "These two texts are also the only two sources that explicitly mention that the substance was heated over a furnace before being discharged; although the validity of this information is open to question, modern reconstructions have relied upon them.Proposed reconstruction of the Greek fire mechanism by Haldon and ByrneBased on these descriptions and the Byzantine sources, John Haldon and Maurice Byrne designed a hypothetical apparatus as consisting of three main components: a bronze pump, which was used to pressurize the oil; a brazier, used to heat the oil (πρόπυρον, ''propyron'', \"pre-heater\"); and the nozzle, which was covered in bronze and mounted on a swivel (στρεπτόν, ''strepton'').", "The brazier, burning a match of linen or flax that produced intense heat and the characteristic thick smoke, was used to heat oil and the other ingredients in an airtight tank above it, a process that also helped to dissolve the resins into a fluid mixture.", "The substance was pressurized by the heat and the usage of a force pump.", "After it had reached the proper pressure, a valve connecting the tank with the swivel was opened and the mixture was discharged from its end, being ignited at its mouth by some source of flame.", "The intense heat of the flame made necessary the presence of heat shields made of iron (βουκόλια, ''boukolia''), which are attested in the fleet inventories.The process of operating Haldon and Byrne's design was fraught with danger, as the mounting pressure could easily make the heated oil tank explode, a flaw which was not recorded as a problem with the historical fire weapon.", "In the experiments conducted by Haldon in 2002 for the episode \"Fireship\" of the television series ''Machines Times Forgot'', even modern welding techniques failed to secure adequate insulation of the bronze tank under pressure.", "This led to the relocation of the pressure pump between the tank and the nozzle.", "The full-scale device built on this basis established the effectiveness of the mechanism's design, even with the simple materials and techniques available to the Byzantines.", "The experiment used crude oil mixed with wood resins, and achieved a flame temperature of over and an effective range of up to .===Hand-held projectors===Detail of a ''cheirosiphōn''The portable ''cheirosiphōn'' (\"hand-''siphōn''\"), the earliest analogue to a modern flamethrower, is extensively attested in the military documents of the 10th century, and recommended for use in both sea and land.", "They first appear in the ''Tactica'' of emperor Leo VI the Wise, who claims to have invented them.", "Subsequent authors continued to refer to the ''cheirosiphōnes'', especially for use against siege towers, although Nikephoros II Phokas also advises their use in field armies, with the aim of disrupting the enemy formation.", "Although both Leo VI and Nikephoros Phokas claim that the substance used in the ''cheirosiphōnes'' was the same as in the static devices used on ships, Haldon and Byrne consider that the former were manifestly different from their larger cousins, and theorize that the device was fundamentally different, \"a simple syringe that squirted both liquid fire (presumably unignited) and noxious juices to repel enemy troops.\"", "The illustrations of Hero's ''Poliorcetica'' show the ''cheirosiphōn'' also throwing the ignited substance.===Grenades===Ceramic grenades that were filled with Greek fire, surrounded by caltrops, 10th–12th century, National Historical Museum, Athens, GreeceIn its earliest form, Greek fire was hurled onto enemy forces by firing a burning cloth-wrapped ball, perhaps containing a flask, using a form of light catapult, most probably a seaborne variant of the Roman light catapult or onager.", "These were capable of hurling light loads, around , a distance of ." ], [ "Effectiveness and countermeasures", "Although the destructiveness of Greek fire is indisputable, it did not make the Byzantine navy invincible.", "It was not, in the words of naval historian John Pryor, a \"ship-killer\" comparable to the naval ram, which, by then, had fallen out of use.", "While Greek fire remained a potent weapon, its limitations were significant when compared to more traditional forms of artillery: in its ''siphōn''-deployed version, it had a limited range, and it could be used safely only in a calm sea and with favourable wind conditions.The Muslim navies eventually adapted themselves to it by staying out of its effective range and devising methods of protection such as felt or hides soaked in vinegar.Nevertheless it was still a decisive weapon in many battles.", "John Julius Norwich wrote: \"It is impossible to exaggerate the importance of Greek fire in Byzantine history.\"" ], [ "In literature", "In Paloma Recasens´s historical 2021 novel ''Sevilla antes de la Giralda'', the Castilian army fabricates Greek Fire to use it in their crusade against the Almohads.In Steve Berry's 2007 novel ''The Venetian Betrayal'' Greek Fire is described and used as a weapon.In William Golding's 1958 play ''The Brass Butterfly'', adapted from his novella ''Envoy Extraordinary'', the Greek inventor Phanocles demonstrates explosives to the Roman Emperor.", "The Emperor decides that his empire is not ready for this or for Phanocles's other inventions and sends him on \"a slow boat to China\".In Victor Canning's stage play ''Honour Bright''  (1960), the crusader Godfrey of Ware returns with a casket of Greek Fire given to him by an old man in Athens.In Rick Riordan's Greek storyline, Greek Fire is described as being a volatile green liquid.", "When it explodes, all of the substance is spread out over an area and burns continuously.", "It is very strong and dangerous.In C. J. Sansom's historical mystery novel ''Dark Fire'', Thomas Cromwell sends the lawyer Matthew Shardlake to recover the secret of Greek fire, following its discovery in the library of a dissolved London monastery.In Michael Crichton's sci-fi novel ''Timeline'', Professor Edward Johnston is stuck in the past in 14th century Europe, and claims to have knowledge of Greek fire.In Mika Waltari's novel ''The Dark Angel'', some old men who are the last ones who know the secret of Greek fire are mentioned as present in the last Christian services held in Hagia Sophia before the Fall of Constantinople.", "The narrator is told that in the event of the city's fall, they will be killed so as to keep the secret from the Turks.In George R. R. Martin's fantasy series of novels ''A Song of Ice and Fire'', and its television adaptation ''Game of Thrones'', wildfire is similar to Greek fire.", "It was used in naval battles as it could remain lit on water, and its recipe was closely guarded.In Leland Purvis's graphic novel ''Vox : collected works, 1999-2003'', there is a passage detailing Callinicus and Greek Fire." ], [ "See also", "* Fire ship* List of Byzantine inventions* List of flamethrowers* Molotov cocktail" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Sources ===* * * * * * * * * * * * Karatolios K., ''Greek Fire and its contribution to Byzantine might'', translated by Leonard G. Meachim (Mytilene 2013) * * * * * * * * * Spears, W.H.", "Jr. (1969).", "''Greek Fire: The Fabulous Secret Weapon That Saved Europe''.", "* * Thucydides, ''History of the Peloponnesian War'', translated by Rex Warner; with an introduction and notes by M.I.", "Finley (London 1972)* * \"The Rise of Gawain, Nephew of Arthur (De ortu Waluuanii),\" ed.", "Mildred Leake Day, in Wilhelm, James J.", "(1994).", "''The Romance of Arthur''.", "New York: Garland.", "pp. 369–397.", "*" ], [ "External links", "* Greek Fire – World History Encyclopedia* Technoporn: Greek Fire – Wired Blog, December 29, 2006.", "* Greek Fire – The Best Kept Secret of the Ancient World – by Richard Groller.", "* Greek Fire – The University of Calgary, 2000.Retrieved on 10 March 2013.", "* The Link: Greek Fire – National Geographic, 1 May 2012.Retrieved on 9 Mar 2013." ] ]
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[ [ "Garbage in, garbage out" ], [ "Introduction", "In computer science, '''garbage in, garbage out''' ('''GIGO''') is the concept that flawed, biased or poor quality (\"garbage\") information or input produces a similar result or output.", "The adage points to the need to improve data quality in, for example, programming'''.", "Rubbish in, rubbish out''' ('''RIRO''') is an alternate wording.The principle applies to all logical argumentation: soundness implies validity, but validity does not imply soundness." ], [ "History", "The expression was popular in the early days of computing.", "The first known use is in a 1957 syndicated newspaper article about US Army mathematicians and their work with early computers, in which an Army Specialist named William D. Mellin explained that computers cannot think for themselves, and that \"sloppily programmed\" inputs inevitably lead to incorrect outputs.", "The underlying principle was noted by the inventor of the first programmable computing device design:More recently, the Marine Accident Investigation Branch comes to a similar conclusion:The term may have been derived from last-in, first-out (LIFO) or first-in, first-out (FIFO)." ], [ "Uses", "This phrase can be used as an explanation for the poor quality of a digitized audio or video file.", "Although digitizing can be the first step in cleaning up a signal, it does not, by itself, improve the quality.", "Defects in the original analog signal will be faithfully recorded, but might be identified and removed by a subsequent step by digital signal processing.GIGO is also used to describe failures in human decision-making due to faulty, incomplete, or imprecise data.In audiology, GIGO describes the process that occurs at the dorsal cochlear nucleus (DCN) when auditory neuropathy spectrum disorder is present.", "This occurs when the neural firing from the cochlea has become unsynchronized, resulting in a static-filled sound being input into the DCN and then passed up the chain to the auditory cortex.", "The term was applied by Dan Schwartz at the 2012 Worldwide ANSD Conference, St. Petersburg, Florida, on 16 March 2012; and adopted as industry jargon to describe the electrical signal received by the dorsal cochlear nucleus and passed up the auditory chain to the superior olivary complex on the way to the auditory cortex destination.GIGO was the name of a Usenet gateway program to FidoNet, MAUSnet, e.a." ], [ "See also", "* Algorithmic bias* Computer says no* FINO* Auditory neuropathy spectrum disorder* Standard error* Undefined behavior* Data processing inequality* No free lunch theorem" ], [ "References" ] ]
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[ [ "General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade''' ('''GATT''') is a legal agreement between many countries, whose overall purpose was to promote international trade by reducing or eliminating trade barriers such as tariffs or quotas.", "According to its preamble, its purpose was the \"substantial reduction of tariffs and other trade barriers and the elimination of preferences, on a reciprocal and mutually advantageous basis.", "\"The GATT was first discussed during the United Nations Conference on Trade and Employment and was the outcome of the failure of negotiating governments to create the International Trade Organization (ITO).", "It was signed by 23 nations in Geneva on 30 October 1947, and was applied on a provisional basis 1 January 1948.It remained in effect until 1 January 1995, when the World Trade Organization (WTO) was established after agreement by 123 nations in Marrakesh on 15 April 1994, as part of the Uruguay Round Agreements.", "The WTO is the successor to the GATT, and the original GATT text (GATT 1947) is still in effect under the WTO framework, subject to the modifications of GATT 1994.Nations that were not party in 1995 to the GATT need to meet the minimum conditions spelled out in specific documents before they can accede; in September 2019, the list contained 36 nations.The GATT, and its successor the WTO, have succeeded in reducing tariffs.", "The average tariff levels for the major GATT participants were about 22% in 1947, but were 5% after the Uruguay Round in 1999.Experts attribute part of these tariff changes to GATT and the WTO." ], [ "History", "The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade is a multi-national trade treaty.", "It has been updated in a series of global trade negotiations consisting of nine ''rounds'' between 1947 and 1995.Its role in international trade was largely succeeded in 1995 by the World Trade Organization.During the 1940s, the United States sought to establish a set of post-war multilateral institutions, one of which would be devoted to the reconstruction of world trade.", "In 1945 and 1946, the U.S. took concrete steps to bring about such an organisation, proposing a conference to negotiate a charter for a trade organisation.", "The GATT was first conceived at the 1947 United Nations Conference on Trade and Employment (UNCTE), at which the International Trade Organization (ITO) was one of the ideas proposed.", "It was hoped that the ITO would be run alongside the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF).", "More than 50 nations negotiated ITO and organising its founding charter, but after the withdrawal of the United States these negotiations collapsed.===Initial round===Preparatory sessions were held simultaneously at the UNCTE regarding the GATT.", "After several of these sessions, 23 nations signed the GATT on 30 October 1947 in Geneva, Switzerland.", "It came into force on 1 January 1948.===Annecy Round: 1949===The second round took place in 1949 in Annecy, France.", "13 countries took part in the round.", "The main focus of the talks was more tariff reductions, around 5,000 in total.===Torquay Round: 1951===The third round occurred in Torquay, England in 1951.Thirty-eight countries took part in the round.", "8,700 tariff concessions were made totalling the remaining amount of tariffs to ¾ of the tariffs which were in effect in 1948.The contemporaneous rejection by the U.S. of the Havana Charter signified the establishment of the GATT as a governing world body.===Geneva Round: 1955–56===The fourth round returned to Geneva in 1955 and lasted until May 1956.Twenty-six countries took part in the round.", "$2.5 billion in tariffs were eliminated or reduced.===Dillon Round: 1960–62===The fifth round occurred once more in Geneva and lasted from 1960 to 1962.The talks were named after U.S. Treasury Secretary and former Under Secretary of State, Douglas Dillon, who first proposed the talks.", "Twenty-six countries took part in the round.", "Along with reducing over $4.9 billion in tariffs, it also yielded discussion relating to the creation of the European Economic Community (EEC).===Kennedy Round: 1964–67===The sixth round of GATT multilateral trade negotiations, held from 1964 to 1967.It was named after U.S. President John F. Kennedy in recognition of his support for the reformulation of the United States trade agenda, which resulted in the Trade Expansion Act of 1962.This Act gave the President the widest-ever negotiating authority.As the Dillon Round went through the laborious process of item-by-item tariff negotiations, it became clear, long before the Round ended, that a more comprehensive approach was needed to deal with the emerging challenges resulting from the formation of the European Economic Community (EEC) and EFTA, as well as Europe's re-emergence as a significant international trader more generally.Japan's high economic growth rate portended the major role it would play later as an exporter, but the focal point of the Kennedy Round always was the United States–EEC relationship.", "Indeed, there was an influential American view that saw what became the Kennedy Round as the start of a transatlantic partnership that might ultimately lead to a transatlantic economic community.To an extent, this view was shared in Europe, but the process of European unification created its own stresses under which the Kennedy Round at times became a secondary focus for the EEC.", "An example of this was the French veto in January 1963, before the round had even started, on membership by the United Kingdom.Another was the internal crisis of 1965, which ended in the Luxembourg Compromise.", "Preparations for the new round were immediately overshadowed by the Chicken War, an early sign of the impact variable levies under the Common Agricultural Policy would eventually have.", "Some participants in the Round had been concerned that the convening of UNCTAD, scheduled for 1964, would result in further complications, but its impact on the actual negotiations was minimal.", "'''In May 1963 Ministers reached agreement on three negotiating objectives for the round''':# Measures for the expansion of trade of developing countries as a means of furthering their economic development,# Reduction or elimination of tariffs and other barriers to trade, and# Measures for access to markets for agricultural and other primary products.The working hypothesis for the tariff negotiations was a linear tariff cut of 50% with the smallest number of exceptions.", "A drawn-out argument developed about the trade effects a uniform linear cut would have on the dispersed rates (low and high tariffs quite far apart) of the United States as compared to the much more concentrated rates of the EEC which also tended to be in the lower held of United States tariff rates.The EEC accordingly argued for an evening-out or harmonisation of peaks and troughs through its cerement, double cart and thirty: ten proposals.", "Once negotiations had been joined, the lofty working hypothesis was soon undermined.", "The special-structure countries (Australia, Canada, New Zealand and South Africa), so called because their exports were dominated by raw materials and other primary commodities, negotiated their tariff reductions entirely through the item-by-item method.In the end, the result was an average 35% reduction in tariffs, except for textiles, chemicals, steel and other sensitive products; plus a 15% to 18% reduction in tariffs for agricultural and food products.", "In addition, the negotiations on chemicals led to a provisional agreement on the abolition of the American Selling Price (ASP).", "This was a method of valuing some chemicals used by the noted States for the imposition of import duties which gave domestic manufacturers a much higher level of protection than the tariff schedule indicated.However, this part of the outcome was disallowed by Congress, and the American Selling Price was not abolished until Congress adopted the results of the Tokyo Round.", "The results on agriculture overall were poor.", "The most notable achievement was agreement on a Memorandum of Agreement on Basic Elements for the Negotiation of a World Grants Arrangement, which eventually was rolled into a new International Grains Arrangement.The EEC claimed that for it the main result of the negotiations on agriculture was that they \"greatly helped to define its own common policy\".", "The developing countries, who played a minor role throughout the negotiations in this round, benefited nonetheless from substantial tariff cuts particularly in non-agricultural items of interest to them.Their main achievement at the time, however, was seen to be the adoption of Part IV of the GATT, which absolved them from according reciprocity to developed countries in trade negotiations.", "In the view of many developing countries, this was a direct result of the call at UNCTAD I for a better trade deal for them.There has been argument ever since whether this symbolic gesture was a victory for them, or whether it ensured their exclusion in the future from meaningful participation in the multilateral trading system.", "On the other hand, there was no doubt that the extension of the Long-Term Arrangement Regarding International Trade in Cotton Textiles, which later became the Multi-Fiber Arrangement, for three years until 1970 led to the longer-term impairment of export opportunities for developing countries.Another outcome of the Kennedy Round was the adoption of an Anti-dumping Code, which gave more precise guidance on the implementation of Article VI of the GATT.", "In particular, it sought to ensure speedy and fair investigations, and it imposed limits on the retrospective application of anti-dumping measures.Kennedy Round took place from 1962 to 1967.$40 billion in tariffs were eliminated or reduced.===Tokyo Round: 1973–79===Reduced tariffs and established new regulations aimed at controlling the proliferation of non-tariff barriers and voluntary export restrictions.", "102 countries took part in the round.", "Concessions were made on $19 billion worth of trade.===Formation of Quadrilateral Group: 1981===The Quadrilateral Group was formed in 1982 by the European Union, the United States, Japan and Canada, to influence the GATT.===Uruguay Round: 1986–94===The Uruguay Round began in 1986.It was the most ambitious round to date, as of 1986, hoping to expand the competence of the GATT to important new areas such as services, capital, intellectual property, textiles, and agriculture.", "123 countries took part in the round.", "The Uruguay Round was also the first set of multilateral trade negotiations in which developing countries had played an active role.Agriculture was essentially exempted from previous agreements as it was given special status in the areas of import quotas and export subsidies, with only mild caveats.", "However, by the time of the Uruguay round, many countries considered the exception of agriculture to be sufficiently glaring that they refused to sign a new deal without some movement on agricultural products.", "These fourteen countries came to be known as the \"Cairns Group\", and included mostly small and medium-sized agricultural exporters such as Australia, Brazil, Canada, Indonesia, and New Zealand.The Agreement on Agriculture of the Uruguay Round continues to be the most substantial trade liberalisation agreement in agricultural products in the history of trade negotiations.", "The goals of the agreement were to improve market access for agricultural products, reduce domestic support of agriculture in the form of price-distorting subsidies and quotas, eliminate over time export subsidies on agricultural products and to harmonise to the extent possible sanitary and phytosanitary measures between member countries." ], [ "GATT and the World Trade Organization", "In 1993, the GATT was updated ('GATT 1994') to include new obligations upon its signatories.", "One of the most significant changes was the creation of the World Trade Organization (WTO).", "The 76 existing GATT members and the European Communities became the founding members of the WTO on 1 January 1995.The other 51 GATT members rejoined the WTO in the following two years (the last being Congo in 1997).", "Since the founding of the WTO, 33 new non-GATT members have joined and 22 are currently negotiating membership.", "There are a total of 164 member countries in the WTO, with Liberia and Afghanistan being the newest members as of 2018.Of the original GATT members, Syria, Lebanon and the SFR Yugoslavia have not rejoined the WTO.", "Since FR Yugoslavia (renamed as Serbia and Montenegro and with membership negotiations later split in two), is not recognised as a direct SFRY successor state; therefore, its application is considered a new (non-GATT) one.", "The General Council of WTO, on 4 May 2010, agreed to establish a working party to examine the request of Syria for WTO membership.", "The contracting parties who founded the WTO ended official agreement of the \"GATT 1947\" terms on 31 December 1995.Montenegro became a member in 2012, while Serbia is in the decision stage of the negotiations and is expected to become a member of the WTO in the future.Whilst GATT was a set of rules agreed upon by nations, the WTO is an intergovernmental organisation with its own headquarters and staff, and its scope includes both traded goods and trade within the service sector and intellectual property rights.", "Although it was designed to serve multilateral agreements, during several rounds of GATT negotiations (particularly the Tokyo Round) plurilateral agreements created selective trading and caused fragmentation among members.", "WTO arrangements are generally a multilateral agreement settlement mechanism of GATT." ], [ "Effects on trade liberalisation", "The average tariff levels for the major GATT participants were about 22 per cent in 1947.As a result of the first negotiating rounds, tariffs were reduced in the GATT core of the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, and Australia, relative to other contracting parties and non-GATT participants.", "By the Kennedy round (1962–67), the average tariff levels of GATT participants were about 15%.", "After the Uruguay Round, tariffs were under 5%.In addition to facilitating applied tariff reductions, the early GATT's contribution to trade liberalisation \"include binding the negotiated tariff reductions for an extended period (made more permanent in 1955), establishing the generality of non-discrimination through most favoured nation (MFN) treatment and national treatment status, ensuring increased transparency of trade policy measures, and providing a forum for future negotiations and for the peaceful resolution of bilateral disputes.", "All of these elements contributed to the rationalization of trade policy and the reduction of trade barriers and policy uncertainty.", "\"According to Dartmouth economic historian Douglas Irwin,The prosperity of the world economy over the past half century owes a great deal to the growth of world trade which, in turn, is partly the result of farsighted officials who created the GATT.", "They established a set of procedures giving stability to the trade-policy environment and thereby facilitating the rapid growth of world trade.", "With the long run in view, the original GATT conferees helped put the world economy on a sound foundation and thereby improved the livelihood of hundreds of millions of people around the world." ], [ "Article 24", "Following the United Kingdom's vote to withdraw from the European Union, supporters of leaving the EU suggested that Article 24, paragraph 5B of the treaty could be used to maintain a \"standstill\" in trading conditions between the UK and the EU in the event of the UK leaving the EU without a trade deal, hence preventing the introduction of tariffs.", "According to proponents of this approach, it could be used to implement an interim agreement pending negotiation of a final agreement lasting up to ten years.This claim formed the basis of the so-called \"Malthouse compromise\" between Conservative party factions as to how to replace the withdrawal agreement.", "However, this plan was rejected by parliament.", "The claim that Article 24 might be used was also adopted by Boris Johnson during his 2019 campaign to lead the Conservative Party.The claim that Article 24 might be used in this way has been criticised by Mark Carney, Liam Fox and others as being unrealistic given the requirement in paragraph 5c of the treaty that there be an agreement between the parties for paragraph 5b to be of use as, in the event of a \"no-deal\" scenario, there would be no agreement.", "Moreover, critics of the GATT 24 approach point out that services would not be covered by such an arrangement." ], [ "See also", "* Cultural exception* GATT special and differential treatment* Most favoured nation" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Aaronson Susan A.", "(1996).", "''Trade and the American Dream: A Social History of Postwar Trade Policy & Co.''.", "* Goldstein, Judith (11 May 2017).", "\"Trading in the Twenty-First Century: Is There a Role for the World Trade Organization?\".", "''Annual Review of Political Science''.", "20 (1): 545–564.", "* Irwin, Douglas A.", "\"The GATT in Historical Perspective,\" ''American Economic Review'' Vol.", "85, No.", "2, (May 1995), pp. 323–328..", "* McKenzie, Francine (Summer 2008).", "\"GATT and the Cold War,\" ''Journal of Cold War Studies''.", "10#3 pp. 78–109.", "* Zeiler, Thomas W. (1999).", "''Free Trade, Free World: The Advent of GATT''.", "excerpt and text search" ], [ "External links", "* Trade Talks Episode 9: Happy 70th GATTiversary – The Origins of Multilateral Trade* GATT Digital Library 1947–1994 at Stanford University* The WTO and Global Trade at PBS* BBCnews World/Europe country profile* Text of GATT 1947* Text of GATT 1994" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "G protein-coupled receptor" ], [ "Introduction", "The seven-transmembrane α-helix structure of bovine rhodopsin'''G protein-coupled receptors''' ('''GPCRs'''), also known as '''seven-(pass)-transmembrane domain receptors''', '''7TM receptors''', '''heptahelical receptors''', '''serpentine receptors''', and '''G protein-linked receptors''' ('''GPLR'''), form a large group of evolutionarily related proteins that are cell surface receptors that detect molecules outside the cell and activate cellular responses.", "They are coupled with G proteins.", "They pass through the cell membrane seven times in the form of six loops (three extracellular loops interacting with ligand molecules, three intracellular loops interacting with G proteins, an N-terminal extracellular region and a C-terminal intracellular region) of amino acid residues, which is why they are sometimes referred to as seven-transmembrane receptors.", "Ligands can bind either to the extracellular N-terminus and loops (e.g.", "glutamate receptors) or to the binding site within transmembrane helices (rhodopsin-like family).", "They are all activated by agonists, although a spontaneous auto-activation of an empty receptor has also been observed.", "G protein-coupled receptors are found only in eukaryotes, including yeast, and choanoflagellates.", "The ligands that bind and activate these receptors include light-sensitive compounds, odors, pheromones, hormones, and neurotransmitters, and vary in size from small molecules to peptides to large proteins.", "G protein-coupled receptors are involved in many diseases.There are two principal signal transduction pathways involving the G protein-coupled receptors:*the cAMP signal pathway and*the phosphatidylinositol signal pathway.When a ligand binds to the GPCR it causes a conformational change in the GPCR, which allows it to act as a guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF).", "The GPCR can then activate an associated G protein by exchanging the GDP bound to the G protein for a GTP.", "The G protein's α subunit, together with the bound GTP, can then dissociate from the β and γ subunits to further affect intracellular signaling proteins or target functional proteins directly depending on the α subunit type (Gαs, Gαi/o, Gαq/11, Gα12/13).GPCRs are an important drug target and approximately 34% of all Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved drugs target 108 members of this family.", "The global sales volume for these drugs is estimated to be 180 billion US dollars .", "It is estimated that GPCRs are targets for about 50% of drugs currently on the market, mainly due to their involvement in signaling pathways related to many diseases i.e.", "mental, metabolic including endocrinological disorders, immunological including viral infections, cardiovascular, inflammatory, senses disorders, and cancer.", "The long ago discovered association between GPCRs and many endogenous and exogenous substances, resulting in e.g.", "analgesia, is another dynamically developing field of the pharmaceutical research." ], [ "History and significance", "With the determination of the first structure of the complex between a G-protein coupled receptor (GPCR) and a G-protein trimer (Gαβγ) in 2011 a new chapter of GPCR research was opened for structural investigations of global switches with more than one protein being investigated.", "The previous breakthroughs involved determination of the crystal structure of the first GPCR, rhodopsin, in 2000 and the crystal structure of the first GPCR with a diffusible ligand (β2AR) in 2007.The way in which the seven transmembrane helices of a GPCR are arranged into a bundle was suspected based on the low-resolution model of frog rhodopsin from cryogenic electron microscopy studies of the two-dimensional crystals.", "The crystal structure of rhodopsin, that came up three years later, was not a surprise apart from the presence of an additional cytoplasmic helix H8 and a precise location of a loop covering retinal binding site.", "However, it provided a scaffold which was hoped to be a universal template for homology modeling and drug design for other GPCRs – a notion that proved to be too optimistic.", "Seven years later, the crystallization of β2-adrenergic receptor (β2AR) with a diffusible ligand brought surprising results because it revealed quite a different shape of the receptor extracellular side than that of rhodopsin.", "This area is important because it is responsible for the ligand binding and is targeted by many drugs.", "Moreover, the ligand binding site was much more spacious than in the rhodopsin structure and was open to the exterior.", "In the other receptors crystallized shortly afterwards the binding side was even more easily accessible to the ligand.", "New structures complemented with biochemical investigations uncovered mechanisms of action of molecular switches which modulate the structure of the receptor leading to activation states for agonists or to complete or partial inactivation states for inverse agonists.The 2012 Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded to Brian Kobilka and Robert Lefkowitz for their work that was \"crucial for understanding how G protein-coupled receptors function\".", "There have been at least seven other Nobel Prizes awarded for some aspect of G protein–mediated signaling.", "As of 2012, two of the top ten global best-selling drugs (Advair Diskus and Abilify) act by targeting G protein-coupled receptors." ], [ "Classification", "Classification Scheme of GPCRs in 2006.Since this time, more genes have been found.", "Class A (Rhodopsin-like), Class B (Secretin-like), Class C (Glutamate Receptor-like), Others (Adhesion (33), Frizzled (11), Taste type-2 (25), unclassified (23)).The exact size of the GPCR superfamily is unknown, but at least 831 different human genes (or about 4% of the entire protein-coding genome) have been predicted to code for them from genome sequence analysis.", "Although numerous classification schemes have been proposed, the superfamily was classically divided into three main classes (A, B, and C) with no detectable shared sequence homology between classes.The largest class by far is class A, which accounts for nearly 85% of the GPCR genes.", "Of class A GPCRs, over half of these are predicted to encode olfactory receptors, while the remaining receptors are liganded by known endogenous compounds or are classified as orphan receptors.", "Despite the lack of sequence homology between classes, all GPCRs have a common structure and mechanism of signal transduction.", "The very large rhodopsin A group has been further subdivided into 19 subgroups (A1-A19).According to the classical A-F system, GPCRs can be grouped into six classes based on sequence homology and functional similarity:*Class A (or 1) (Rhodopsin-like)*Class B (or 2) (Secretin receptor family)*Class C (or 3) (Metabotropic glutamate/pheromone)*Class D (or 4) (Fungal mating pheromone receptors)*Class E (or 5) (Cyclic AMP receptors)*Class F (or 6) (Frizzled/Smoothened)More recently, an alternative classification system called GRAFS (Glutamate, Rhodopsin, ''Adhesion'', Frizzled/Taste2, Secretin) has been proposed for vertebrate GPCRs.", "They correspond to classical classes C, A, B2, F, and B.An early study based on available DNA sequence suggested that the human genome encodes roughly 750 G protein-coupled receptors, about 350 of which detect hormones, growth factors, and other endogenous ligands.", "Approximately 150 of the GPCRs found in the human genome have unknown functions.Some web-servers and bioinformatics prediction methods have been used for predicting the classification of GPCRs according to their amino acid sequence alone, by means of the pseudo amino acid composition approach." ], [ "Physiological roles", "GPCRs are involved in a wide variety of physiological processes.", "Some examples of their physiological roles include:# The visual sense: The opsins use a photoisomerization reaction to translate electromagnetic radiation into cellular signals.", "Rhodopsin, for example, uses the conversion of ''11-cis''-retinal to ''all-trans''-retinal for this purpose.# The gustatory sense (taste): GPCRs in taste cells mediate release of gustducin in response to bitter-, umami- and sweet-tasting substances.# The sense of smell: Receptors of the olfactory epithelium bind odorants (olfactory receptors) and pheromones (vomeronasal receptors)# Behavioral and mood regulation: Receptors in the mammalian brain bind several different neurotransmitters, including serotonin, dopamine, histamine, GABA, and glutamate# Regulation of immune system activity and inflammation: chemokine receptors bind ligands that mediate intercellular communication between cells of the immune system; receptors such as histamine receptors bind inflammatory mediators and engage target cell types in the inflammatory response.", "GPCRs are also involved in immune-modulation, e. g. regulating interleukin induction or suppressing TLR-induced immune responses from T cells.# Autonomic nervous system transmission: Both the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems are regulated by GPCR pathways, responsible for control of many automatic functions of the body such as blood pressure, heart rate, and digestive processes# Cell density sensing: A novel GPCR role in regulating cell density sensing.# Homeostasis modulation (e.g., water balance).# Involved in growth and metastasis of some types of tumors.# Used in the endocrine system for peptide and amino-acid derivative hormones that bind to GCPRs on the cell membrane of a target cell.", "This activates cAMP, which in turn activates several kinases, allowing for a cellular response, such as transcription." ], [ "Receptor structure", "GPCRs are integral membrane proteins that possess seven membrane-spanning domains or transmembrane helices.", "The extracellular parts of the receptor can be glycosylated.", "These extracellular loops also contain two highly conserved cysteine residues that form disulfide bonds to stabilize the receptor structure.", "Some seven-transmembrane helix proteins (channelrhodopsin) that resemble GPCRs may contain ion channels, within their protein.In 2000, the first crystal structure of a mammalian GPCR, that of bovine rhodopsin (), was solved.", "In 2007, the first structure of a human GPCR was solved This human β2-adrenergic receptor GPCR structure proved highly similar to the bovine rhodopsin.", "The structures of activated or agonist-bound GPCRs have also been determined.", "These structures indicate how ligand binding at the extracellular side of a receptor leads to conformational changes in the cytoplasmic side of the receptor.", "The biggest change is an outward movement of the cytoplasmic part of the 5th and 6th transmembrane helix (TM5 and TM6).", "The structure of activated beta-2 adrenergic receptor in complex with Gs confirmed that the Gα binds to a cavity created by this movement.GPCRs exhibit a similar structure to some other proteins with seven transmembrane domains, such as microbial rhodopsins and adiponectin receptors 1 and 2 (ADIPOR1 and ADIPOR2).", "However, these 7TMH (7-transmembrane helices) receptors and channels do not associate with G proteins.", "In addition, ADIPOR1 and ADIPOR2 are oriented oppositely to GPCRs in the membrane (i.e.", "GPCRs usually have an extracellular N-terminus, cytoplasmic C-terminus, whereas ADIPORs are inverted)." ], [ "Structure–function relationships", "Two-dimensional schematic of a generic GPCR set in a lipid raft.", "Click the image for higher resolution to see details regarding the locations of important structures.In terms of structure, GPCRs are characterized by an extracellular N-terminus, followed by seven transmembrane (7-TM) α-helices (TM-1 to TM-7) connected by three intracellular (IL-1 to IL-3) and three extracellular loops (EL-1 to EL-3), and finally an intracellular C-terminus.", "The GPCR arranges itself into a tertiary structure resembling a barrel, with the seven transmembrane helices forming a cavity within the plasma membrane that serves a ligand-binding domain that is often covered by EL-2.Ligands may also bind elsewhere, however, as is the case for bulkier ligands (e.g., proteins or large peptides), which instead interact with the extracellular loops, or, as illustrated by the class C metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs), the N-terminal tail.", "The class C GPCRs are distinguished by their large N-terminal tail, which also contains a ligand-binding domain.", "Upon glutamate-binding to an mGluR, the N-terminal tail undergoes a conformational change that leads to its interaction with the residues of the extracellular loops and TM domains.", "The eventual effect of all three types of agonist-induced activation is a change in the relative orientations of the TM helices (likened to a twisting motion) leading to a wider intracellular surface and \"revelation\" of residues of the intracellular helices and TM domains crucial to signal transduction function (i.e., G-protein coupling).", "Inverse agonists and antagonists may also bind to a number of different sites, but the eventual effect must be prevention of this TM helix reorientation.The structure of the N- and C-terminal tails of GPCRs may also serve important functions beyond ligand-binding.", "For example, The C-terminus of M3 muscarinic receptors is sufficient, and the six-amino-acid polybasic (KKKRRK) domain in the C-terminus is necessary for its preassembly with Gq proteins.", "In particular, the C-terminus often contains serine (Ser) or threonine (Thr) residues that, when phosphorylated, increase the affinity of the intracellular surface for the binding of scaffolding proteins called β-arrestins (β-arr).", "Once bound, β-arrestins both sterically prevent G-protein coupling and may recruit other proteins, leading to the creation of signaling complexes involved in extracellular-signal regulated kinase (ERK) pathway activation or receptor endocytosis (internalization).", "As the phosphorylation of these Ser and Thr residues often occurs as a result of GPCR activation, the β-arr-mediated G-protein-decoupling and internalization of GPCRs are important mechanisms of desensitization.", "In addition, internalized \"mega-complexes\" consisting of a single GPCR, β-arr(in the tail conformation), and heterotrimeric G protein exist and may account for protein signaling from endosomes.A final common structural theme among GPCRs is palmitoylation of one or more sites of the C-terminal tail or the intracellular loops.", "Palmitoylation is the covalent modification of cysteine (Cys) residues via addition of hydrophobic acyl groups, and has the effect of targeting the receptor to cholesterol- and sphingolipid-rich microdomains of the plasma membrane called lipid rafts.", "As many of the downstream transducer and effector molecules of GPCRs (including those involved in negative feedback pathways) are also targeted to lipid rafts, this has the effect of facilitating rapid receptor signaling.GPCRs respond to extracellular signals mediated by a huge diversity of agonists, ranging from proteins to biogenic amines to protons, but all transduce this signal via a mechanism of G-protein coupling.", "This is made possible by a guanine-nucleotide exchange factor (GEF) domain primarily formed by a combination of IL-2 and IL-3 along with adjacent residues of the associated TM helices." ], [ "Mechanism", "Cartoon depicting the basic concept of GPCR conformational activation.", "Ligand binding disrupts an ionic lock between the E/DRY motif of TM-3 and acidic residues of TM-6.As a result, the GPCR reorganizes to allow activation of G-alpha proteins.", "The \"side perspective\" is a view from above and to the side of the GPCR as it is set in the plasma membrane (the membrane lipids have been omitted for clarity).", "The incorrectly labelled \"intracellular perspective\" shows an extracellular view looking down at the plasma membrane from outside the cell.The G protein-coupled receptor is activated by an external signal in the form of a ligand or other signal mediator.", "This creates a conformational change in the receptor, causing activation of a G protein.", "Further effect depends on the type of G protein.", "G proteins are subsequently inactivated by GTPase activating proteins, known as RGS proteins.===Ligand binding===GPCRs include one or more receptors for the following ligands:sensory signal mediators (e.g., light and olfactory stimulatory molecules);adenosine, bombesin, bradykinin, endothelin, γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), hepatocyte growth factor (HGF), melanocortins, neuropeptide Y, opioid peptides, opsins, somatostatin, GH, tachykinins, members of the vasoactive intestinal peptide family, and vasopressin;biogenic amines (e.g., dopamine, epinephrine, norepinephrine, histamine, serotonin, and melatonin);glutamate (metabotropic effect);glucagon;acetylcholine (muscarinic effect);chemokines;lipid mediators of inflammation (e.g., prostaglandins, prostanoids, platelet-activating factor, and leukotrienes);peptide hormones (e.g., calcitonin, C5a anaphylatoxin, follicle-stimulating hormone FSH, gonadotropin-releasing hormone GnRH, neurokinin, thyrotropin-releasing hormone TRH, and oxytocin);and endocannabinoids.GPCRs that act as receptors for stimuli that have not yet been identified are known as orphan receptors.However, in contrast to other types of receptors that have been studied, wherein ligands bind externally to the membrane, the ligands of GPCRs typically bind within the transmembrane domain.", "However, protease-activated receptors are activated by cleavage of part of their extracellular domain.=== Conformational change ===PDB entry 3SN6).", "The receptor is colored red, Gα green, Gβ cyan, and Gγ yellow.", "The C-terminus of Gα is located in a cavity created by an outward movement of the cytoplasmic parts of TM5 and 6.The transduction of the signal through the membrane by the receptor is not completely understood.", "It is known that in the inactive state, the GPCR is bound to a heterotrimeric G protein complex.", "Binding of an agonist to the GPCR results in a conformational change in the receptor that is transmitted to the bound Gα subunit of the heterotrimeric G protein via protein domain dynamics.", "The activated Gα subunit exchanges GTP in place of GDP which in turn triggers the dissociation of Gα subunit from the Gβγ dimer and from the receptor.", "The dissociated Gα and Gβγ subunits interact with other intracellular proteins to continue the signal transduction cascade while the freed GPCR is able to rebind to another heterotrimeric G protein to form a new complex that is ready to initiate another round of signal transduction.It is believed that a receptor molecule exists in a conformational equilibrium between active and inactive biophysical states.", "The binding of ligands to the receptor may shift the equilibrium toward the active receptor states.", "Three types of ligands exist: Agonists are ligands that shift the equilibrium in favour of active states; inverse agonists are ligands that shift the equilibrium in favour of inactive states; and neutral antagonists are ligands that do not affect the equilibrium.", "It is not yet known how exactly the active and inactive states differ from each other.===G-protein activation/deactivation cycle===Cartoon depicting the heterotrimeric G-protein activation/deactivation cycle in the context of GPCR signalingWhen the receptor is inactive, the GEF domain may be bound to an also inactive α-subunit of a heterotrimeric G-protein.", "These \"G-proteins\" are a trimer of α, β, and γ subunits (known as Gα, Gβ, and Gγ, respectively) that is rendered inactive when reversibly bound to Guanosine diphosphate (GDP) (or, alternatively, no guanine nucleotide) but active when bound to guanosine triphosphate (GTP).", "Upon receptor activation, the GEF domain, in turn, allosterically activates the G-protein by facilitating the exchange of a molecule of GDP for GTP at the G-protein's α-subunit.", "The cell maintains a 10:1 ratio of cytosolic GTP:GDP so exchange for GTP is ensured.", "At this point, the subunits of the G-protein dissociate from the receptor, as well as each other, to yield a Gα-GTP monomer and a tightly interacting Gβγ dimer, which are now free to modulate the activity of other intracellular proteins.", "The extent to which they may diffuse, however, is limited due to the palmitoylation of Gα and the presence of an isoprenoid moiety that has been covalently added to the C-termini of Gγ.Because Gα also has slow GTP→GDP hydrolysis capability, the inactive form of the α-subunit (Gα-GDP) is eventually regenerated, thus allowing reassociation with a Gβγ dimer to form the \"resting\" G-protein, which can again bind to a GPCR and await activation.", "The rate of GTP hydrolysis is often accelerated due to the actions of another family of allosteric modulating proteins called regulators of G-protein signaling, or RGS proteins, which are a type of GTPase-activating protein, or GAP.", "In fact, many of the primary effector proteins (e.g., adenylate cyclases) that become activated/inactivated upon interaction with Gα-GTP also have GAP activity.", "Thus, even at this early stage in the process, GPCR-initiated signaling has the capacity for self-termination.===Crosstalk===Proposed downstream interactions between integrin signaling and GPCRs.", "Integrins are shown elevating Ca2+ and phosphorylating FAK, which is weakening GPCR signaling.GPCRs downstream signals have been shown to possibly interact with integrin signals, such as FAK.", "Integrin signaling will phosphorylate FAK, which can then decrease GPCR Gαs activity." ], [ "Signaling", "G-protein-coupled receptor mechanismIf a receptor in an active state encounters a G protein, it may activate it.", "Some evidence suggests that receptors and G proteins are actually pre-coupled.", "For example, binding of G proteins to receptors affects the receptor's affinity for ligands.", "Activated G proteins are bound to GTP.Further signal transduction depends on the type of G protein.", "The enzyme adenylate cyclase is an example of a cellular protein that can be regulated by a G protein, in this case the G protein Gs.", "Adenylate cyclase activity is activated when it binds to a subunit of the activated G protein.", "Activation of adenylate cyclase ends when the G protein returns to the GDP-bound state.Adenylate cyclases (of which 9 membrane-bound and one cytosolic forms are known in humans) may also be activated or inhibited in other ways (e.g., Ca2+/calmodulin binding), which can modify the activity of these enzymes in an additive or synergistic fashion along with the G proteins.The signaling pathways activated through a GPCR are limited by the primary sequence and tertiary structure of the GPCR itself but ultimately determined by the particular conformation stabilized by a particular ligand, as well as the availability of transducer molecules.", "Currently, GPCRs are considered to utilize two primary types of transducers: G-proteins and β-arrestins.", "Because β-arr's have high affinity only to the phosphorylated form of most GPCRs (see above or below), the majority of signaling is ultimately dependent upon G-protein activation.", "However, the possibility for interaction does allow for G-protein-independent signaling to occur.===G-protein-dependent signaling===There are three main G-protein-mediated signaling pathways, mediated by four sub-classes of G-proteins distinguished from each other by sequence homology (Gαs, Gαi/o, Gαq/11, and Gα12/13).", "Each sub-class of G-protein consists of multiple proteins, each the product of multiple genes or splice variations that may imbue them with differences ranging from subtle to distinct with regard to signaling properties, but in general they appear reasonably grouped into four classes.", "Because the signal transducing properties of the various possible βγ combinations do not appear to radically differ from one another, these classes are defined according to the isoform of their α-subunit.While most GPCRs are capable of activating more than one Gα-subtype, they also show a preference for one subtype over another.", "When the subtype activated depends on the ligand that is bound to the GPCR, this is called functional selectivity (also known as agonist-directed trafficking, or conformation-specific agonism).", "However, the binding of any single particular agonist may also initiate activation of multiple different G-proteins, as it may be capable of stabilizing more than one conformation of the GPCR's GEF domain, even over the course of a single interaction.", "In addition, a conformation that preferably activates one isoform of Gα may activate another if the preferred is less available.", "Furthermore, feedback pathways may result in receptor modifications (e.g., phosphorylation) that alter the G-protein preference.", "Regardless of these various nuances, the GPCR's preferred coupling partner is usually defined according to the G-protein most obviously activated by the endogenous ligand under most physiological or experimental conditions.====Gα signaling====# The effector of both the Gαs and Gαi/o pathways is the cyclic-adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)-generating enzyme adenylate cyclase, or AC.", "While there are ten different AC gene products in mammals, each with subtle differences in tissue distribution or function, all catalyze the conversion of cytosolic adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to cAMP, and all are directly stimulated by G-proteins of the Gαs class.", "In contrast, however, interaction with Gα subunits of the Gαi/o type inhibits AC from generating cAMP.", "Thus, a GPCR coupled to Gαs counteracts the actions of a GPCR coupled to Gαi/o, and vice versa.", "The level of cytosolic cAMP may then determine the activity of various ion channels as well as members of the ser/thr-specific protein kinase A (PKA) family.", "Thus cAMP is considered a second messenger and PKA a secondary effector.# The effector of the Gαq/11 pathway is phospholipase C-β (PLCβ), which catalyzes the cleavage of membrane-bound phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2) into the second messengers inositol (1,4,5) trisphosphate (IP3) and diacylglycerol (DAG).", "IP3 acts on IP3 receptors found in the membrane of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) to elicit Ca2+ release from the ER, while DAG diffuses along the plasma membrane where it may activate any membrane localized forms of a second ser/thr kinase called protein kinase C (PKC).", "Since many isoforms of PKC are also activated by increases in intracellular Ca2+, both these pathways can also converge on each other to signal through the same secondary effector.", "Elevated intracellular Ca2+ also binds and allosterically activates proteins called calmodulins, which in turn tosolic small GTPase, Rho.", "Once bound to GTP, Rho can then go on to activate various proteins responsible for cytoskeleton regulation such as Rho-kinase (ROCK).", "Most GPCRs that couple to Gα12/13 also couple to other sub-classes, often Gαq/11.====Gβγ signaling====The above descriptions ignore the effects of Gβγ–signalling, which can also be important, in particular in the case of activated Gαi/o-coupled GPCRs.", "The primary effectors of Gβγ are various ion channels, such as G-protein-regulated inwardly rectifying K+ channels (GIRKs), P/Q- and N-type voltage-gated Ca2+ channels, as well as some isoforms of AC and PLC, along with some phosphoinositide-3-kinase (PI3K) isoforms.===G-protein-independent signaling===Although they are classically thought of working only together, GPCRs may signal through G-protein-independent mechanisms, and heterotrimeric G-proteins may play functional roles independent of GPCRs.", "GPCRs may signal independently through many proteins already mentioned for their roles in G-protein-dependent signaling such as β-arrs, GRKs, and Srcs.", "Such signaling has been shown to be physiologically relevant, for example, β-arrestin signaling mediated by the chemokine receptor CXCR3 was necessary for full efficacy chemotaxis of activated T cells.", "In addition, further scaffolding proteins involved in subcellular localization of GPCRs (e.g., PDZ-domain-containing proteins) may also act as signal transducers.", "Most often the effector is a member of the MAPK family.====Examples====In the late 1990s, evidence began accumulating to suggest that some GPCRs are able to signal without G proteins.", "The ERK2 mitogen-activated protein kinase, a key signal transduction mediator downstream of receptor activation in many pathways, has been shown to be activated in response to cAMP-mediated receptor activation in the slime mold ''D.", "discoideum'' despite the absence of the associated G protein α- and β-subunits.In mammalian cells, the much-studied β2-adrenoceptor has been demonstrated to activate the ERK2 pathway after arrestin-mediated uncoupling of G-protein-mediated signaling.", "Therefore, it seems likely that some mechanisms previously believed related purely to receptor desensitisation are actually examples of receptors switching their signaling pathway, rather than simply being switched off.In kidney cells, the bradykinin receptor B2 has been shown to interact directly with a protein tyrosine phosphatase.", "The presence of a tyrosine-phosphorylated ITIM (immunoreceptor tyrosine-based inhibitory motif) sequence in the B2 receptor is necessary to mediate this interaction and subsequently the antiproliferative effect of bradykinin.====GPCR-independent signaling by heterotrimeric G-proteins====Although it is a relatively immature area of research, it appears that heterotrimeric G-proteins may also take part in non-GPCR signaling.", "There is evidence for roles as signal transducers in nearly all other types of receptor-mediated signaling, including integrins, receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs), cytokine receptors (JAK/STATs), as well as modulation of various other \"accessory\" proteins such as GEFs, guanine-nucleotide dissociation inhibitors (GDIs) and protein phosphatases.", "There may even be specific proteins of these classes whose primary function is as part of GPCR-independent pathways, termed activators of G-protein signalling (AGS).", "Both the ubiquity of these interactions and the importance of Gα vs. Gβγ subunits to these processes are still unclear." ], [ "Details of cAMP and PIP2 pathways", "Activation effects of cAMP on protein kinase AThe effect of Rs and Gs in cAMP signal pathwayThe effect of Ri and Gi in cAMP signal pathwayThere are two principal signal transduction pathways involving the G protein-linked receptors: the cAMP signal pathway and the phosphatidylinositol signal pathway.===cAMP signal pathway===The cAMP signal transduction contains five main characters: stimulative hormone receptor (Rs) or inhibitory hormone receptor (Ri); stimulative regulative G-protein (Gs) or inhibitory regulative G-protein (Gi); adenylyl cyclase; protein kinase A (PKA); and cAMP phosphodiesterase.Stimulative hormone receptor (Rs) is a receptor that can bind with stimulative signal molecules, while inhibitory hormone receptor (Ri) is a receptor that can bind with inhibitory signal molecules.Stimulative regulative G-protein is a G-protein linked to stimulative hormone receptor (Rs), and its α subunit upon activation could stimulate the activity of an enzyme or other intracellular metabolism.", "On the contrary, inhibitory regulative G-protein is linked to an inhibitory hormone receptor, and its α subunit upon activation could inhibit the activity of an enzyme or other intracellular metabolism.Adenylyl cyclase is a 12-transmembrane glycoprotein that catalyzes the conversion of ATP to cAMP with the help of cofactor Mg2+ or Mn2+.", "The cAMP produced is a second messenger in cellular metabolism and is an allosteric activator of protein kinase A.Protein kinase A is an important enzyme in cell metabolism due to its ability to regulate cell metabolism by phosphorylating specific committed enzymes in the metabolic pathway.", "It can also regulate specific gene expression, cellular secretion, and membrane permeability.", "The protein enzyme contains two catalytic subunits and two regulatory subunits.", "When there is no cAMP，the complex is inactive.", "When cAMP binds to the regulatory subunits, their conformation is altered, causing the dissociation of the regulatory subunits, which activates protein kinase A and allows further biological effects.These signals then can be terminated by cAMP phosphodiesterase, which is an enzyme that degrades cAMP to 5'-AMP and inactivates protein kinase A.===Phosphatidylinositol signal pathway===In the phosphatidylinositol signal pathway, the extracellular signal molecule binds with the G-protein receptor (Gq) on the cell surface and activates phospholipase C, which is located on the plasma membrane.", "The lipase hydrolyzes phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2) into two second messengers: inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3) and diacylglycerol (DAG).", "IP3 binds with the IP3 receptor in the membrane of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria to open Ca2+ channels.", "DAG helps activate protein kinase C (PKC), which phosphorylates many other proteins, changing their catalytic activities, leading to cellular responses.The effects of Ca2+ are also remarkable: it cooperates with DAG in activating PKC and can activate the CaM kinase pathway, in which calcium-modulated protein calmodulin (CaM) binds Ca2+, undergoes a change in conformation, and activates CaM kinase II, which has unique ability to increase its binding affinity to CaM by autophosphorylation, making CaM unavailable for the activation of other enzymes.", "The kinase then phosphorylates target enzymes, regulating their activities.", "The two signal pathways are connected together by Ca2+-CaM, which is also a regulatory subunit of adenylyl cyclase and phosphodiesterase in the cAMP signal pathway." ], [ "Receptor regulation", "GPCRs become desensitized when exposed to their ligand for a long period of time.", "There are two recognized forms of desensitization: 1) homologous desensitization, in which the activated GPCR is downregulated; and 2) heterologous desensitization, wherein the activated GPCR causes downregulation of a different GPCR.", "The key reaction of this downregulation is the phosphorylation of the intracellular (or cytoplasmic) receptor domain by protein kinases.===Phosphorylation by cAMP-dependent protein kinases===Cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinases (protein kinase A) are activated by the signal chain coming from the G protein (that was activated by the receptor) via adenylate cyclase and cyclic AMP (cAMP).", "In a ''feedback mechanism'', these activated kinases phosphorylate the receptor.", "The longer the receptor remains active the more kinases are activated and the more receptors are phosphorylated.", "In β2-adrenoceptors, this phosphorylation results in the switching of the coupling from the Gs class of G-protein to the Gi class.", "cAMP-dependent PKA mediated phosphorylation can cause heterologous desensitisation in receptors other than those activated.===Phosphorylation by GRKs===The G protein-coupled receptor kinases (GRKs) are protein kinases that phosphorylate only active GPCRs.", "G-protein-coupled receptor kinases (GRKs) are key modulators of G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) signaling.", "They constitute a family of seven mammalian serine-threonine protein kinases that phosphorylate agonist-bound receptor.", "GRKs-mediated receptor phosphorylation rapidly initiates profound impairment of receptor signaling and desensitization.", "Activity of GRKs and subcellular targeting is tightly regulated by interaction with receptor domains, G protein subunits, lipids, anchoring proteins and calcium-sensitive proteins.Phosphorylation of the receptor can have two consequences:# ''Translocation'': The receptor is, along with the part of the membrane it is embedded in, brought to the inside of the cell, where it is dephosphorylated within the acidic vesicular environment and then brought back.", "This mechanism is used to regulate long-term exposure, for example, to a hormone, by allowing resensitisation to follow desensitisation.", "Alternatively, the receptor may undergo lysozomal degradation, or remain internalised, where it is thought to participate in the initiation of signalling events, the nature of which depending on the internalised vesicle's subcellular localisation.# ''Arrestin linking'': The phosphorylated receptor can be linked to ''arrestin'' molecules that prevent it from binding (and activating) G proteins, in effect switching it off for a short period of time.", "This mechanism is used, for example, with rhodopsin in retina cells to compensate for exposure to bright light.", "In many cases, arrestin's binding to the receptor is a prerequisite for translocation.", "For example, beta-arrestin bound to β2-adrenoreceptors acts as an adaptor for binding with clathrin, and with the beta-subunit of AP2 (clathrin adaptor molecules); thus, the arrestin here acts as a scaffold assembling the components needed for clathrin-mediated endocytosis of β2-adrenoreceptors.===Mechanisms of GPCR signal termination===As mentioned above, G-proteins may terminate their own activation due to their intrinsic GTP→GDP hydrolysis capability.", "However, this reaction proceeds at a slow rate (≈0.02 times/sec) and, thus, it would take around 50 seconds for any single G-protein to deactivate if other factors did not come into play.", "Indeed, there are around 30 isoforms of RGS proteins that, when bound to Gα through their GAP domain, accelerate the hydrolysis rate to ≈30 times/sec.", "This 1500-fold increase in rate allows for the cell to respond to external signals with high speed, as well as spatial resolution due to limited amount of second messenger that can be generated and limited distance a G-protein can diffuse in 0.03 seconds.", "For the most part, the RGS proteins are promiscuous in their ability to deactivate G-proteins, while which RGS is involved in a given signaling pathway seems more determined by the tissue and GPCR involved than anything else.", "In addition, RGS proteins have the additional function of increasing the rate of GTP-GDP exchange at GPCRs, (i.e., as a sort of co-GEF) further contributing to the time resolution of GPCR signaling.In addition, the GPCR may be desensitized itself.", "This can occur as:# a direct result of ligand occupation, wherein the change in conformation allows recruitment of GPCR-Regulating Kinases (GRKs), which go on to phosphorylate various serine/threonine residues of IL-3 and the C-terminal tail.", "Upon GRK phosphorylation, the GPCR's affinity for β-arrestin (β-arrestin-1/2 in most tissues) is increased, at which point β-arrestin may bind and act to both sterically hinder G-protein coupling as well as initiate the process of receptor internalization through clathrin-mediated endocytosis.", "Because only the liganded receptor is desensitized by this mechanism, it is called homologous desensitization# the affinity for β-arrestin may be increased in a ligand occupation and GRK-independent manner through phosphorylation of different ser/thr sites (but also of IL-3 and the C-terminal tail) by PKC and PKA.", "These phosphorylations are often sufficient to impair G-protein coupling on their own as well.# PKC/PKA may, instead, phosphorylate GRKs, which can also lead to GPCR phosphorylation and β-arrestin binding in an occupation-independent manner.", "These latter two mechanisms allow for desensitization of one GPCR due to the activities of others, or heterologous desensitization.", "GRKs may also have GAP domains and so may contribute to inactivation through non-kinase mechanisms as well.", "A combination of these mechanisms may also occur.Once β-arrestin is bound to a GPCR, it undergoes a conformational change allowing it to serve as a scaffolding protein for an adaptor complex termed AP-2, which in turn recruits another protein called clathrin.", "If enough receptors in the local area recruit clathrin in this manner, they aggregate and the membrane buds inwardly as a result of interactions between the molecules of clathrin, in a process called opsonization.", "Once the pit has been pinched off the plasma membrane due to the actions of two other proteins called amphiphysin and dynamin, it is now an endocytic vesicle.", "At this point, the adapter molecules and clathrin have dissociated, and the receptor is either trafficked back to the plasma membrane or targeted to lysosomes for degradation.At any point in this process, the β-arrestins may also recruit other proteins—such as the non-receptor tyrosine kinase (nRTK), c-SRC—which may activate ERK1/2, or other mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling through, for example, phosphorylation of the small GTPase, Ras, or recruit the proteins of the ERK cascade directly (i.e., Raf-1, MEK, ERK-1/2) at which point signaling is initiated due to their close proximity to one another.", "Another target of c-SRC are the dynamin molecules involved in endocytosis.", "Dynamins polymerize around the neck of an incoming vesicle, and their phosphorylation by c-SRC provides the energy necessary for the conformational change allowing the final \"pinching off\" from the membrane.===GPCR cellular regulation===Receptor desensitization is mediated through a combination phosphorylation, β-arr binding, and endocytosis as described above.", "Downregulation occurs when endocytosed receptor is embedded in an endosome that is trafficked to merge with an organelle called a lysosome.", "Because lysosomal membranes are rich in proton pumps, their interiors have low pH (≈4.8 vs. the pH≈7.2 cytosol), which acts to denature the GPCRs.", "In addition, lysosomes contain many degradative enzymes, including proteases, which can function only at such low pH, and so the peptide bonds joining the residues of the GPCR together may be cleaved.", "Whether or not a given receptor is trafficked to a lysosome, detained in endosomes, or trafficked back to the plasma membrane depends on a variety of factors, including receptor type and magnitude of the signal.GPCR regulation is additionally mediated by gene transcription factors.", "These factors can increase or decrease gene transcription and thus increase or decrease the generation of new receptors (up- or down-regulation) that travel to the cell membrane." ], [ "Receptor oligomerization", "G-protein-coupled receptor oligomerisation is a widespread phenomenon.", "One of the best-studied examples is the metabotropic GABAB receptor.", "This so-called constitutive receptor is formed by heterodimerization of GABABR1 and GABABR2 subunits.", "Expression of the GABABR1 without the GABABR2 in heterologous systems leads to retention of the subunit in the endoplasmic reticulum.", "Expression of the GABABR2 subunit alone, meanwhile, leads to surface expression of the subunit, although with no functional activity (i.e., the receptor does not bind agonist and cannot initiate a response following exposure to agonist).", "Expression of the two subunits together leads to plasma membrane expression of functional receptor.", "It has been shown that GABABR2 binding to GABABR1 causes masking of a retention signal of functional receptors." ], [ "Origin and diversification of the superfamily", "Signal transduction mediated by the superfamily of GPCRs dates back to the origin of multicellularity.", "Mammalian-like GPCRs are found in fungi, and have been classified according to the GRAFS classification system based on GPCR fingerprints.", "Identification of the superfamily members across the eukaryotic domain, and comparison of the family-specific motifs, have shown that the superfamily of GPCRs have a common origin.", "Characteristic motifs indicate that three of the five GRAFS families, ''Rhodopsin'', ''Adhesion'', and ''Frizzled'', evolved from the ''Dictyostelium discoideum'' cAMP receptors before the split of opisthokonts.", "Later, the ''Secretin'' family evolved from the ''Adhesion'' GPCR receptor family before the split of nematodes.", "Insect GPCRs appear to be in their own group and Taste2 is identified as descending from ''Rhodopsin''.", "Note that the ''Secretin''/''Adhesion'' split is based on presumed function rather than signature, as the classical Class B (7tm_2, ) is used to identify both in the studies." ], [ "See also", "*G protein-coupled receptors database*List of MeSH codes (D12.776)*Metabotropic receptor*Orphan receptor*Pepducins, a class of drug candidates targeted at GPCRs*Receptor activated solely by a synthetic ligand, a technique for control of cell signaling through synthetic GPCRs*TOG superfamily" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * *" ], [ "External links", "** GPCR Cell Line * * ; * * * GPCR-HGmod , a database of 3D structural models of all human G-protein coupled receptors, built by the GPCR-I-TASSER pipeline" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "GTPase" ], [ "Introduction", "'''GTPases''' are a large family of hydrolase enzymes that bind to the nucleotide guanosine triphosphate (GTP) and hydrolyze it to guanosine diphosphate (GDP).", "The GTP binding and hydrolysis takes place in the highly conserved P-loop \"G domain\", a protein domain common to many GTPases." ], [ "Functions", "GTPases function as molecular switches or timers in many fundamental cellular processes.Examples of these roles include: * Signal transduction in response to activation of cell surface receptors, including transmembrane receptors such as those mediating taste, smell and vision.", "* Protein biosynthesis (a.k.a.", "translation) at the ribosome.", "* Regulation of cell differentiation, proliferation, division and movement.", "* Translocation of proteins through membranes.", "* Transport of vesicles within the cell, and vesicle-mediated secretion and uptake, through GTPase control of vesicle coat assembly.GTPases are active when bound to GTP and inactive when bound to GDP.", "In the generalized receptor-transducer-effector signaling model of Martin Rodbell, signaling GTPases act as transducers to regulate the activity of effector proteins.", "This inactive-active switch is due to conformational changes in the protein distinguishing these two forms, particularly of the \"switch\" regions that in the active state are able to make protein-protein contacts with partner proteins that alter the function of these effectors." ], [ "Mechanism", "Hydrolysis of GTP bound to an (active) G domain-GTPase leads to deactivation of the signaling/timer function of the enzyme.", "The hydrolysis of the third (γ) phosphate of GTP to create guanosine diphosphate (GDP) and Pi, inorganic phosphate, occurs by the SN2 mechanism (see nucleophilic substitution) via a pentacoordinate transition state and is dependent on the presence of a magnesium ion Mg2+.GTPase activity serves as the shutoff mechanism for the signaling roles of GTPases by returning the active, GTP-bound protein to the inactive, GDP-bound state.", "Most \"GTPases\" have functional GTPase activity, allowing them to remain active (that is, bound to GTP) only for a short time before deactivating themselves by converting bound GTP to bound GDP.", "However, many GTPases also use accessory proteins named GTPase-activating proteins or GAPs to accelerate their GTPase activity.", "This further limits the active lifetime of signaling GTPases.", "Some GTPases have little to no intrinsic GTPase activity, and are entirely dependent on GAP proteins for deactivation (such as the ADP-ribosylation factor or ARF family of small GTP-binding proteins that are involved in vesicle-mediated transport within cells).To become activated, GTPases must bind to GTP.", "Since mechanisms to convert bound GDP directly into GTP are unknown, the inactive GTPases are induced to release bound GDP by the action of distinct regulatory proteins called guanine nucleotide exchange factors or GEFs.", "The nucleotide-free GTPase protein quickly rebinds GTP, which is in far excess in healthy cells over GDP, allowing the GTPase to enter the active conformation state and promote its effects on the cell.", "For many GTPases, activation of GEFs is the primary control mechanism in the stimulation of the GTPase signaling functions, although GAPs also play an important role.", "For heterotrimeric G proteins and many small GTP-binding proteins, GEF activity is stimulated by cell surface receptors in response to signals outside the cell (for heterotrimeric G proteins, the G protein-coupled receptors are themselves GEFs, while for receptor-activated small GTPases their GEFs are distinct from cell surface receptors).Some GTPases also bind to accessory proteins called guanine nucleotide dissociation inhibitors or GDIs that stabilize the inactive, GDP-bound state.The amount of active GTPase can be changed in several ways: # Acceleration of GDP dissociation by GEFs speeds up the accumulation of active GTPase.", "# Inhibition of GDP dissociation by guanine nucleotide dissociation inhibitors (GDIs) slows down accumulation of active GTPase.", "# Acceleration of GTP hydrolysis by GAPs reduces the amount of active GTPase.", "# Artificial ''GTP analogues'' like ''GTP-γ-S'', ''β,γ-methylene-GTP'', and ''β,γ-imino-GTP'' that cannot be hydrolyzed can lock the GTPase in its active state.# Mutations (such as those that reduce the intrinsic GTP hydrolysis rate) can lock the GTPase in the active state, and such mutations in the small GTPase Ras are particularly common in some forms of cancer." ], [ "G domain GTPases", "In most GTPases, the specificity for the base guanine versus other nucleotides is imparted by the base-recognition motif, which has the consensus sequence N/TKXD.", "The following classification is based on shared features; some examples have mutations in the base-recognition motif that shift their substrate specificity, most commonly to ATP.=== TRAFAC class ===The TRAFAC class of G domain proteins is named after the prototypical member, the translation factor G proteins.", "They play roles in translation, signal transduction, and cell motility.====Translation factor superfamily====Multiple classical translation factor family GTPases play important roles in initiation, elongation and termination of protein biosynthesis.", "Sharing a similar mode of ribosome binding due to the β-EI domain following the GTPase, the most well-known members of the family are EF-1A/EF-Tu, EF-2/EF-G, and class 2 release factors.", "Other members include EF-4 (LepA), BipA (TypA), ''SelB'' (bacterial selenocysteinyl-tRNA EF-Tu paralog), ''Tet'' (tetracycline resistance by ribosomal protection), and HBS1L (eukaryotic ribosome rescue protein similar to release factors).The superfamily also includes the Bms1 family from yeast.====Ras-like superfamily =========Heterotrimeric G proteins=====Heterotrimeric G protein complexes are composed of three distinct protein subunits named ''alpha'' (α), ''beta'' (β) and ''gamma'' (γ) subunits.", "The alpha subunits contain the GTP binding/GTPase domain flanked by long regulatory regions, while the beta and gamma subunits form a stable dimeric complex referred to as the beta-gamma complex.", "When activated, a heterotrimeric G protein dissociates into activated, GTP-bound alpha subunit and separate beta-gamma subunit, each of which can perform distinct signaling roles.", "The α and γ subunit are modified by lipid anchors to increase their association with the inner leaflet of the plasma membrane.Heterotrimeric G proteins act as the transducers of G protein-coupled receptors, coupling receptor activation to downstream signaling effectors and second messengers.", "In unstimulated cells, heterotrimeric G proteins are assembled as the GDP bound, inactive trimer (Gα-GDP-Gβγ complex).", "Upon receptor activation, the activated receptor intracellular domain acts as GEF to release GDP from the G protein complex and to promote binding of GTP in its place.", "The GTP-bound complex undergoes an activating conformation shift that dissociates it from the receptor and also breaks the complex into its component G protein alpha and beta-gamma subunit components.", "While these activated G protein subunits are now free to activate their effectors, the active receptor is likewise free to activate additional G proteins – this allows catalytic activation and amplification where one receptor may activate many G proteins.G protein signaling is terminated by hydrolysis of bound GTP to bound GDP.", "This can occur through the intrinsic GTPase activity of the α subunit, or be accelerated by separate regulatory proteins that act as GTPase-activating proteins (GAPs), such as members of the Regulator of G protein signaling (RGS) family).", "The speed of the hydrolysis reaction works as an internal clock limiting the length of the signal.", "Once Gα is returned to being GDP bound, the two parts of the heterotrimer re-associate to the original, inactive state.The heterotrimeric G proteins can be classified by sequence homology of the α unit and by their functional targets into four families: Gs family, Gi family, Gq family and G12 family.", "Each of these Gα protein families contains multiple members, such that the mammals have 16 distinct α-subunit genes.", "The Gβ and Gγ are likewise composed of many members, increasing heterotrimer structural and functional diversity.", "Among the target molecules of the specific G proteins are the second messenger-generating enzymes adenylyl cyclase and phospholipase C, as well as various ion channels.=====Small GTPases=====Small GTPases function as monomers and have a molecular weight of about 21 kilodaltons that consists primarily of the GTPase domain.", "They are also called small or monomeric guanine nucleotide-binding regulatory proteins, small or monomeric GTP-binding proteins, or small or monomeric G-proteins, and because they have significant homology with the first-identified such protein, named Ras, they are also referred to as Ras superfamily GTPases.", "Small GTPases generally serve as molecular switches and signal transducers for a wide variety of cellular signaling events, often involving membranes, vesicles or cytoskeleton.", "According to their primary amino acid sequences and biochemical properties, the many Ras superfamily small GTPases are further divided into five subfamilies with distinct functions: Ras, Rho (\"Ras-homology\"), Rab, Arf and Ran.", "While many small GTPases are activated by their GEFs in response to intracellular signals emanating from cell surface receptors (particularly growth factor receptors), regulatory GEFs for many other small GTPases are activated in response to intrinsic cell signals, not cell surface (external) signals.==== Myosin-kinesin superfamily ====This class is defined by loss of two beta-strands and additional N-terminal strands.", "Both namesakes of this superfamily, myosin and kinesin, have shifted to use ATP.=====Large GTPases=====See dynamin as a prototype for large monomeric GTPases.=== SIMIBI class ===Much of the SIMIBI class of GTPases is activated by dimerization.", "Named after the signal recognition particle (SRP), MinD, and BioD, the class is involved in protein localization, chromosome partitioning, and membrane transport.", "Several members of this class, including MinD and Get3, has shifted in substrate specificity to become ATPases.====Translocation factors====For a discussion of Translocation factors and the role of GTP, see signal recognition particle (SRP)." ], [ "Other GTPases", "While tubulin and related structural proteins also bind and hydrolyze GTP as part of their function to form intracellular tubules, these proteins utilize a distinct tubulin domain that is unrelated to the G domain used by signaling GTPases.There are also GTP-hydrolyzing proteins that use a P-loop from a superclass other than the G-domain-containg one.", "Examples include the NACHT proteins of its own superclass and McrB protein of the AAA+ superclass." ], [ "See also", "* G protein-coupled receptors* Growth factor receptor* Septins" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * MBInfo - RhoGTPases" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Galla Placidia" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Galla Placidia''' (392/93 – 27 November 450), daughter of the Roman emperor Theodosius I, was a mother, tutor, and advisor to emperor Valentinian III.", "She was queen consort to Ataulf, king of the Visigoths from 414 until his death in 415, briefly empress consort to Constantius III in 421, and managed the government administration as a regent during the early reign of Valentinian III until her death." ], [ "Family", "Placidia was the daughter of Theodosius I and his second wife, Galla, who was herself daughter of Valentinian I and his second wife, Justina.", "Galla Placidia's date of birth is not recorded, but she must have been born either in the period 388–89 or 392–93.Between these dates, her father was in Italy following his campaign against the usurper Magnus Maximus, while her mother remained in Constantinople.A surviving letter from Bishop Ambrose of Milan, dated 390, refers to a younger son of Theodosius named Gratianus, who died in infancy; as Gratian must have been born in the period 388–89, it is most probable that Galla Placidia was born during the second period, 392–93.Placidia's mother Galla died some time in 394, perhaps giving birth to a stillborn son.Placidia was a younger, paternal half-sister of emperors Arcadius and Honorius.", "Her older half-sister Pulcheria predeceased her parents according to Gregory of Nyssa, placing the death of Pulcheria prior to the death of Aelia Flaccilla, the first wife of Theodosius I, in 385.Coins issued in Placidia's honour in Constantinople after 425 give her name as AELIA PLACIDIA; this may have been intended to integrate Placidia with the eastern dynasty of Theodosius II.", "There is no evidence that the name Aelia was ever used in the west, or that it formed part of Placidia's official nomenclature." ], [ "Early life", "Placidia was granted her own household by her father in the early 390s and was thus financially independent while underage.", "She was summoned to the court of her father in Mediolanum (Milan) during 394, and was present at Theodosius' death on 17 January 395.She was granted the title of \"nobilissima puella\" (\"most noble girl\") during her childhood.Placidia spent most of her early years in the household of Stilicho and his wife, Serena.", "She is presumed to have learned weaving and embroidery.", "She might have also been given a classical education.", "Serena was a first cousin of Arcadius, Honorius and Placidia.", "The poem \"In Praise of Serena\" by Claudian and the ''Historia Nova'' by Zosimus clarify that Serena's father was an elder Honorius, a brother to Theodosius I.", "According to \"''De Consulatu Stilichonis\"'' by Claudian, Placidia was betrothed to Eucherius, only known son of Stilicho and Serena.", "Her scheduled marriage is mentioned in the text as the third union between Stilicho's family and the Theodosian dynasty, following those of Stilicho to Serena and Maria, their daughter, to Honorius.Stilicho was the magister militum of the Western Roman Empire.", "He was the only known person to hold the rank of \"magister militum in praesenti\" from 394 to 408 in both the Western and the Eastern Roman Empire.", "He was also titled \"magister equitum et peditum\" (\"Master of the Horse and of Foot\"), placing him in charge of both the cavalry and infantry forces of the Western Roman Empire.", "In 408, Arcadius died and was succeeded by his son Theodosius II, only seven years old.", "Stilicho planned to proceed to Constantinople and \"undertake the management of the affairs of Theodosius\", convincing Honorius not to travel to the East himself.", "Shortly after, Olympius, 'Magister Scrinii', attempted to convince Honorius that Stilicho was in fact conspiring to depose Theodosius II, to replace him with Eucherius.", "Stilicho was arrested and executed by Honorius's order on 22 August 408.Eucherius sought refuge in Rome but was arrested there and executed by the eunuchs Arsacius and Tarentius, on imperial orders.", "Honorius appointed Tarentius imperial chamberlain, and gave the next post under him to Arsacius." ], [ "First marriage", "Coin of 422In the disturbances that followed the fall of Stilicho, wives and children of ''foederati'' living in the cities of Italy were killed.", "Most of the ''foederati'', regarded as loyal to Stilicho, joined the forces of Alaric I, King of the Visigoths.", "Alaric led them to Rome and put it under siege, with minor interruptions, from autumn 408 to 24 August 410.Zosimus records that Placidia was within the city during the siege.", "When Serena was accused of conspiring with Alaric, the whole senate and Placidia sentenced her to death.Placidia was captured by Alaric before the fall of Rome, and accompanied the Visigoths from Italy to Gaul in 412.Their ruler Ataulf, having succeeded Alaric, entered an alliance with Honorius against Jovinus and Sebastianus, rival Western Roman emperors located in Gaul, and managed to defeat and execute both in 413.After the heads of Sebastianus and Jovinus arrived at Honorius' court in Ravenna in late August, to be forwarded for display among other usurpers on the walls of Carthage, relations between Ataulf and Honorius improved sufficiently for Ataulf to cement them by marrying Galla Placidia at Narbonne on 1 January 414.The nuptials were celebrated with high Roman festivities and magnificent gifts.", "Priscus Attalus gave the wedding speech, a classical epithalamium.", "The marriage was recorded by Hydatius and Jordanes, although the latter states that it was earlier, in 411 at Forum Livii (Forlì) (possibly a more informal event).Placidia and Ataulf had one son, Theodosius, born in Barcelona by the end of 414, but the child died early in the following year, eliminating an opportunity for a Romano-Visigothic line; years later the corpse was exhumed and reburied in the imperial mausoleum in Old St. Peter's Basilica, Rome.", "In Hispania, Ataulf imprudently accepted into his service a man identified as \"Dubius\" or \"Eberwolf\", a former follower of Sarus.", "Sarus had been a Germanic chieftain killed while fighting under Jovinus and Sebastianus, and his follower harbored a secret desire to avenge the death of his patron.", "In August/September, 415, in the palace at Barcelona, the man brought Ataulf's reign to a sudden end by killing him while he bathed.The Amali faction proceeded to proclaim Sigeric, a brother of Sarus, as the next king of the Visigoths.", "Sigeric killed Ataulf's six children from a former wife by taking them away from Sigesar, bishop of the Goths.", "Galla Placidia, Ataulf's widow, was forced to walk more than twelve miles on foot among the crowd of captives driven ahead of the mounted Sigeric.", "After 7 days of ruling, Sigeric was assassinated and replaced with Wallia, Ataulf's relative." ], [ "Second marriage", "Interior of the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia in Ravenna According to the ''Chronicon Albeldense'', included in the ''Códice de Roda'', Wallia was desperate for food supplies.", "He surrendered to Constantius III, at the time magister militum of Honorius, negotiating terms giving foederati status for the Visigoths.", "Placidia was returned to Honorius as part of the peace treaty.", "Her brother Honorius forced her into marriage to Constantius III on 1 January 417.Their daughter Justa Grata Honoria was probably born in 417 or 418.The history of Paul the Deacon mentions her first among the children of the marriage, suggesting that she was the eldest.", "Their son Valentinian III was born 2 July 419.Placidia intervened in the succession crisis following the death of Pope Zosimus on 26 December 418.Two factions of the Roman clergy had proceeded to elect their own popes, the first electing Eulalius (27 December) and the other electing Boniface I (28 December).", "They acted as rival popes, both in Rome, and their factions plunged the city into tumult.", "Symmachus, Prefect of Rome, sent his report to the imperial court at Ravenna, requesting an imperial decision on the matter.", "Placidia and, presumably, Constantius petitioned the emperor in favor of Eulalius.", "This was arguably the first intervention by an Emperor in the Papal election.Honorius initially confirmed Eulalius as the legitimate pope.", "As this failed to put an end to the controversy, Honorius called a synod of Italian bishops at Ravenna to decide the matter.", "The synod met from February to March 419 but failed to reach a conclusion.", "Honorius called a second synod in May, this time including Gaulish and African bishops.", "In the meantime, the two rival popes were ordered to leave Rome.", "As Easter approached, however, Eulalius returned to the city and attempted to seize the Basilica of St. John Lateran in order to \"preside at the paschal ceremonies\".", "Imperial troops managed to repel him, and on Easter (30 March 419) the ceremonies were led by Achilleus, Bishop of Spoleto.", "The conflict cost Eulalius the imperial favor, and Boniface was proclaimed the legitimate pope as of 3 April 419, returning to Rome a week later.", "Placidia had personally written to the African bishops, summoning them to the second synod.", "Three of her letters are known to have survived.On 8 February 421, Constantius was proclaimed an Augustus, becoming co-ruler with the childless Honorius.", "Placidia was proclaimed an Augusta.", "She was the only Empress in the West, since Honorius had divorced his second wife Thermantia in 408 and had never remarried.", "Neither title was recognised by Theodosius II, the Eastern Roman Emperor.", "Constantius reportedly complained about the loss of personal freedom and privacy that came with the imperial office.", "He died of an illness on 2 September 421." ], [ "Widow", "Medallions of Honorius and Galla Placidia, Ravenna, 425 According to Olympiodorus of Thebes, a historian used as a source by Zosimus, Sozomen and probably Philostorgius, the public grew suspicious of the increasingly scandalous public caresses she was said to have received from her own brother Honorius after her husband's death.", "However, the siblings' relationship suddenly turned hostile, and around this time, she may have plotted against him.", "After her soldiers clashed with those of Honorius, Galla Placidia herself was now forced to flee to Constantinople with her children.", "Despite this setback, Bonifacius, governor of the Diocese of Africa continued to be loyal to her.Placidia, Valentinian, and Honoria arrived in Constantinople around 422/423.On 15 August 423, Honorius died of edema, perhaps pulmonary edema.", "With no member of the Theodosian dynasty present at Ravenna to claim the throne, Theodosius II was expected to nominate a Western co-emperor.", "However, Theodosius hesitated and the decision was delayed.", "Taking advantage of the power vacuum, Castinus the Patrician proceeded to become a kingmaker.", "He declared Joannes, the ''primicerius notariorum'' \"chief notary\" (the head of the civil service), to be the new Western Roman Emperor.", "Among their supporters was Flavius Aetius.", "Joannes' rule was accepted in the provinces of Italia, Gaul and Hispania, but not in the province of Africa.Theodosius II reacted by preparing Valentinian III for eventual promotion to the imperial office.", "In 423/424, Valentinian was named ''nobilissimus''.", "In 424, Valentinian was betrothed to Licinia Eudoxia, his first cousin once removed.", "She was a daughter of Theodosius II and Aelia Eudocia.", "The year of their betrothal was recorded by Marcellinus Comes.", "At the time of their betrothal, Valentinian was approximately four years old, Licinia only two.The campaign against Joannes also started in the same year.", "Forces of the Eastern Roman army gathered at Thessaloniki, and were placed under the general command of Ardaburius, who had served in the Roman-Persian War.", "The invasion force was to cross the Adriatic Sea by two routes.", "Aspar, son of Ardaburius, led the cavalry by land, following the coast of the Adriatic from the Western Balkans to Northern Italy.", "Placidia and Valentinian joined this force.", "Along the way, Valentinian was proclaimed ''Caesar'' by Helion, a magister officiorum under Theodosius in 23 October 424.Ardaburius and the infantry boarded ships of the Eastern Roman navy in an attempt to reach Ravenna by sea.", "Aspar marched his forces to Aquileia, taking the city by surprise and with virtually no resistance.", "The fleet, on the other hand, was dispersed by a storm.", "Ardaburius and two of his galleys were captured by forces loyal to Joannes and were held prisoners in Ravenna.", "Ardaburius was treated well by Joannes, who probably intended to negotiate with Theodosius for an end to the hostilities.", "The prisoner was allowed the \"courteous freedom\" of walking the court and streets of Ravenna during his captivity.", "He took advantage of this privilege to come into contact with the forces of Joannes and convinced some of them to defect to Theodosius' side.", "The conspirators contacted Aspar and beckoned him to Ravenna.", "A shepherd led Aspar's cavalry force through the marshes of the Po to the gates of Ravenna; with the besiegers outside the walls and the defectors within, the city was quickly captured.", "Joannes was taken and his right hand cut off; he was then mounted on a donkey and paraded through the streets, and finally beheaded in the hippodrome of Aquileia.With Joannes dead, Valentinian was officially proclaimed the new Augustus of the Western Roman Empire on 23 October 425, by Helion, in the presence of the Roman Senate, with Theodosius II's support.", "Three days following Joannes' death, Aetius brought reinforcements for his army, a reported number of sixty thousand Huns from across the Danube.", "After some skirmishing, Placidia, Valentinian and Aetius came to an agreement and established peace.", "The Huns were paid off and sent home, while Aetius received the position of ''comes'' and ''magister militum per Gallias ''(commander-in-chief of the Roman army in Gaul)." ], [ "Regent", "Possible portrait from a statueGalla Placidia became a regent of Western Roman Empire for her son, Valentinian, in 425 until Aetius' rise.", "Among her early supporters were Bonifacius and Felix.", "Aetius, their rival for influence, managed to secure Arles against Theodoric I of the Visigoths.", "The Visigoths concluded a treaty and were given Gallic noblemen as hostages.", "The later Emperor Avitus visited Theodoric, lived at his court and taught his sons.", "Felix, her ally, was assassinated in 430, possibly by Aetius.===Conflict between Bonifacius and Aetius===Conflict between Placidia and Bonifacius started in 429.Placidia appointed Bonifacius general of Libya.", "Procopius records that Aetius played the two against each other, warning Placidia against Bonifacius and advising her to recall him to Rome; simultaneously writing to Bonifacius, warning him that Placidia was about to summon him for no good reason in order to put him away.Bonifacius, trusting the warning from Aetius, refused the summons; and, thinking his position untenable, sought an alliance with the Vandals in Spain.", "The Vandals subsequently crossed from Spain into Libya to join him.", "To friends of Bonifacius in Rome, this apparent act of hostility toward the Empire seemed entirely out of character for Bonifacius.", "They traveled to Carthage at Placidia's behest to intercede with him, and he showed them the letter from Aetius.", "The plot now revealed, his friends returned to Rome to apprise Placidia of the true situation.", "She did not move against Aetius, as he wielded great influence, and as the Empire was already in danger; but she urged Bonifacius to return to Rome \"and not to permit the empire of the Romans to lie under the hand of barbarians.", "\"Bonifacius now regretted his alliance with the Vandals and tried to persuade them to return to Spain.", "Gaiseric offered battle instead, and Bonifacius was besieged at Hippo Regius in Numidia by the sea (Augustine of Hippo was its bishop and died in this siege).", "Unable to take the city, the Vandals eventually raised the siege.", "The Romans, with reinforcements under Aspar, renewed the struggle but were routed and lost Africa to the Vandals.Bonifacius had meanwhile returned to Rome, where Placidia raised him to the rank of patrician and made him \"master-general of the Roman armies\".", "Aetius returned from Gaul with an army of \"barbarians\", and was met by Bonifacius in the bloody Battle of Ravenna (432).", "Bonifacius won the battle, but was mortally wounded and died a few days later.", "Aetius was compelled to retire to Pannonia.===Rise of Aetius===With the generals loyal to her having either died or defected to Aetius, Placidia acknowledged Aetius' political role as legitimate.", "In 433, Aetius was given the titles \"magister militum\" and \"patrician\".", "The appointments effectively left Aetius in control of the entire Western Roman army and gave him considerable influence over imperial policy.", "Aetius later played a pivotal role in the defense of the Western Empire against Attila.", "Placidia continued to act as regent until 437, though her direct influence over decisions was diminished.", "She would continue to exercise political influence until her death in 450—no longer, however, the only power at court.During these years, Galla Placidia befriended bishop Peter Chrysologus, both having a shared interest in building churches.Attila was diverted from Constantinople towards Italy by a letter from Placidia's own daughter Justa Grata Honoria in the spring of 450, asking him to rescue her from an unwanted marriage to a Roman senator that the Imperial family, including Placidia, was trying to force upon her.", "Honoria included her engagement ring with the letter.", "Though Honoria may not have intended a proposal of marriage, Attila chose to interpret her message as such.", "He accepted, asking for half of the western Empire as dowry.", "When Valentinian discovered the plan, only the influence of Placidia persuaded him not to kill Honoria.", "Valentinian wrote to Attila denying the legitimacy of the supposed marriage proposal.", "Attila, unconvinced, sent an emissary to Ravenna to proclaim that Honoria was innocent, that the proposal had been legitimate, and that he would come to claim what was rightfully his.", "Honoria was quickly married to Flavius Bassus Herculanus, though this did not prevent Attila from pressing his claim.Placidia died shortly afterwards at Rome, in November 450, and was buried in the Theodosian family mausoleum adjacent to Old St. Peter's Basilica, later the chapel of Saint Petronilla.", "She did not live to see Attila ravage Italy in 451–453, using Honoria's letter as his \"legitimate\" excuse." ], [ "Public works", "Being a devout Christian, she was involved in the building and restoration of various churches throughout her period of influence.", "She restored and expanded the Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls in Rome and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem.", "She built San Giovanni Evangelista, Ravenna in thanks for the sparing of her life and those of her children in a storm while crossing the Adriatic Sea.", "The dedicatory inscription reads \"Galla Placidia, along with her son Placidus Valentinian Augustus and her daughter Justa Grata Honoria Augusta, paid off their vow for their liberation from the danger of the sea.", "\"Her Mausoleum in Ravenna was one of the UNESCO World Heritage Sites inscribed in 1996.However, the building never served as her tomb, but was initially erected as a chapel dedicated to Lawrence of Rome.", "It is unknown whether the sarcophagi therein contained the bodies of other members of the Theodosian dynasty, or when they were placed in the building." ], [ "In literature", "* Two stanzas in Alexander Blok's poem \"Ravenna\" (May–June 1909) focus on her tomb; Olga Matich writes: \"For Blok, Galla Placidia represented a synthetic historical figure that linked different cultural histories.", "\"* Ezra Pound uses her tomb as an exemplar of the \"gold\" remaining from the past, for example in Canto XXI: \"Gold fades in the gloom,/ Under the blue-black roof, Placidia's...\"* Louis Zukofsky refers to it in his poem \"4 Other Countries\", reproduced in ''\"A\"'' 17: \"The gold that shines/ in the dark/ of Galla Placidia,/ the gold in the// Round vault rug of stone/ that shows its pattern as well as the stars/ my love might want on her floor...\"* Carl Jung refers to Galla Placidia in his autobiography ''Memories, Dreams, Reflections'', (Chapter IX, Section 'Ravenna and Rome').", "He reports a vision of \"four great mosaic frescoes of incredible beauty\" he experienced in the Neonian Baptistery right after visiting Galla's tomb at Ravenna.", "He had been, he says, \"personally affected by the figure of Galla Placidia\" and goes on to say: \"Her tomb seemed to me a final legacy through which I might reach her personality.", "Her fate and her whole being were vivid presences to me\".", "Jung was later surprised to discover that the mosaics he and an acquaintance remembered had actually never existed.", "* Galla Placidia is a major supporting character in R. A. Lafferty's semi-historical work ''The Fall of Rome'', which introduces her as \"the goblin child and sister of the two young emperors who, at the age of seventeen, and when all the rest of them were cowed, seized control of the Roman Senate and the City and represented the defiance in the last one hundred days of the world.\"" ], [ "In popular culture", "Galla Placidia portrayed by Colette Régis in ''Attila''* Galla Placidia is represented in the BBC's ''Ancient Rome: The Rise and Fall of an Empire'' by Natasha Barrero.", "* Spanish musician Jaume Pahissa wrote the opera ''Galla Placídia'' in 1913.", "* Galla Placidia is played by Colette Régis in the 1954 film ''Attila''.", "* Galla Placidia is played by Alice Krige in the 2001 American TV miniseries ''Attila''." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "****** *" ], [ "Further reading", "* McEvoy, M. A.", "(2013), ''Child Emperor Rule in the Late Roman West'', ''AD 367–455'''','' Oxford University Press.", "** * *" ], [ "External links", "* Pictures of the mausoleum of Galla Placidia* Entry of Aelia Flaccilla in the Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology * Zosimus, New History.", "London: Green and Chaplin (1814).", "Book 5." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Galicia (Spain)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Galicia''' ( ; or ; ) is an autonomous community of Spain and historic nationality under Spanish law.", "Located in the northwest Iberian Peninsula, it includes the provinces of A Coruña, Lugo, Ourense, and Pontevedra.Galicia is located in Atlantic Europe.", "It is bordered by Portugal to the south, the Spanish autonomous communities of Castile and León and Asturias to the east, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and the Cantabrian Sea to the north.", "It had a population of 2,701,743 in 2018 and a total area of .", "Galicia has over of coastline, including its offshore islands and islets, among them Cíes Islands, Ons, Sálvora, Cortegada Island, which together form the Atlantic Islands of Galicia National Park, and the largest and most populated, A Illa de Arousa.The area now called Galicia was first inhabited by humans during the Middle Paleolithic period, and takes its name from the Gallaeci, the Celtic people living north of the Douro River during the last millennium BC.", "Galicia was incorporated into the Roman Empire at the end of the Cantabrian Wars in 19 BC, and was made a Roman province in the 3rd century AD.", "In 410, the Germanic Suebi established a kingdom with its capital in Braga; this kingdom was incorporated into that of the Visigoths in 585.In 711, the Islamic Umayyad Caliphate invaded the Iberian Peninsula conquering the Visigoth kingdom of Hispania by 718, but soon Galicia was incorporated into the Christian kingdom of Asturias by 740.During the Middle Ages, the kingdom of Galicia was occasionally ruled by its own kings, but most of the time it was leagued to the kingdom of Leon and later to that of Castile, while maintaining its own legal and customary practices and culture.", "From the 13th century on, the kings of Castile, as kings of Galicia, appointed an ''Adiantado-mór'', whose attributions passed to the ''Governor and Captain General of the Kingdom of Galiza'' from the last years of the 15th century.", "The Governor also presided the ''Real Audiencia do Reino de Galicia'', a royal tribunal and government body.", "From the 16th century, the representation and voice of the kingdom was held by an assembly of deputies and representatives of the cities of the kingdom, the ''Cortes'' or ''Junta of the Kingdom of Galicia.''", "This institution was forcibly discontinued in 1833 when the kingdom was divided into four administrative provinces with no legal mutual links.", "During the 19th and 20th centuries, demand grew for self-government and for the recognition of the culture of Galicia.", "This resulted in the Statute of Autonomy of 1936, soon frustrated by Franco's ''coup d'état'' and subsequent long dictatorship.", "After democracy was restored the legislature passed the Statute of Autonomy of 1981, approved in referendum and currently in force, providing Galicia with self-government.The interior of Galicia is characterized by a hilly landscape; mountain ranges rise to in the east and south.", "The coastal areas are mostly an alternate series of rias and beaches.", "The climate of Galicia is usually temperate and rainy, with markedly drier summers; it is usually classified as Oceanic.", "Its topographic and climatic conditions have made animal husbandry and farming the primary source of Galicia's wealth for most of its history, allowing for a relatively high density of population.", "Except shipbuilding and food processing, Galicia was based on a farming and fishing economy until after the mid-20th century, when it began to industrialize.", "In 2018, the nominal gross domestic product was €62.900 billion, with a nominal GDP per capita of €23,300.Galicia is characterised, unlike other Spanish regions, by the absence of a metropolis dominating the territory.", "Indeed, the urban network is made up of 7 main cities: the four provincial capitals A Coruña, Pontevedra, Ourense and Lugo, the political capital Santiago de Compostela and the industrial cities Vigo and Ferrol.", "The population is largely concentrated in two main areas: from Ferrol to A Coruña on the northern coast, and in the Rías Baixas region in the southwest, including the cities of Vigo, Pontevedra, and the interior city of Santiago de Compostela.", "There are smaller populations around the interior cities of Lugo and Ourense.", "The political capital is Santiago de Compostela, in the province of A Coruña.", "Vigo, in the province of Pontevedra, is the largest municipality and A Coruña the most populated city in Galicia.", "Two languages are official and widely used today in Galicia: the native Galician; and Spanish, usually called ''Castilian''.", "While most Galicians are bilingual, a 2013 survey reported that 51% of the Galician population spoke Galician most often on a day-to-day basis, while 48% most often used Spanish.==Toponymy==A satellite view of GaliciaThe name ''Galicia'' derives from the Latin toponym Callaecia, later ''Gallaecia'', related to the name of an ancient Celtic tribe that resided north of the Douro river, the Gallaeci or Callaeci in Latin, or (''Kallaïkoí'') in Greek.", "These ''Callaeci'' were the first tribe in the area to help the Lusitanians against the invading Romans.", "The Romans applied their name to all the other tribes in the northwest who spoke the same language and lived the same life.The toponymy of the name has been studied since the 7th century by authors such as Isidore of Seville, who wrote that \"Galicians are called so, because of their fair skin, as the Gauls\", relating the name to the Greek word for milk.", "(See the etymology of the word ''galaxy''.)", "In the 21st century, some scholars (J.J. Moralejo, Carlos Búa) have derived the name of the ancient Callaeci either from Proto-Indo-European *kl(H)-no- 'hill', through a local relational suffix -aik-, also attested in Celtiberian, so meaning 'the hill (people)'; or from Proto-Celtic *kallī- 'forest', so meaning 'the forest (people)'.", "In any case, ''Galicia'', being ''per se'' a derivation of the ethnic name ''Kallaikói'', means 'the land of the Galicians'.Another recent proposal comes from linguist Francesco Benozzo after identifying the root ''gall-'' / ''kall-'' in a number of Celtic words with the meaning \"stone\" or \"rock\", as follows: ''gall'' (old Irish), ''gal'' (Middle Welsh), ''gailleichan'' (Scottish Gaelic), ''kailhoù'' (Breton), ''galagh'' (Manx) and ''gall'' (Gaulish).", "Hence, Benozzo explains the ethnonym ''Callaeci'' as being \"the stone people\" or \"the people of the stone\" (\"those who work with stones\"), about the builders of the ancient megaliths and stone formations so common in Galicia.The name evolved during the Middle Ages from ''Gallaecia'', sometimes written ''Galletia'', to ''Gallicia''.", "In the 13th century, with the written emergence of the Galician language, ''Galiza'' became the most usual written form of the name of the country, being replaced during the 15th and 16th centuries by the current form, ''Galicia'', which is also the spelling of the name in Spanish.", "The historical denomination ''Galiza'' became popular again during the end of the 19th and the first three-quarters of the 20th century and is still used with some frequency today.", "The Xunta de Galicia, the local devolved government, uses ''Galicia''.", "The Royal Galician Academy, the institution responsible for regulating the Galician language, whilst recognizing ''Galiza'' as a legitimate current denomination, has stated that the only official name of the country is ''Galicia''.Due to Galicia's history and culture with mythology, the land has been called \"''Terra Meiga''\" (land of the witches/witch(ing) land)." ], [ "History", "===Prehistory and antiquity===Bronze Age gold helmet from Leiro, RianxoThe oldest attestation of human presence in Galicia has been found in the Eirós Cave, in the municipality of Triacastela, which has preserved animal remains and Neanderthal stone objects from the Middle Paleolithic.", "The earliest culture to have left significant architectural traces is the Megalithic culture, which expanded along the western European coasts during the Neolithic and Calcolithic eras.", "Thousands of Megalithic tumuli are distributed throughout the country, mostly along the coastal areas.", "Within each tumulus is a stone burial chamber known locally as ''anta'' (dolmen), frequently preceded by a corridor.", "Galicia was later influenced by the Bell Beaker culture.", "Its rich mineral deposits of tin and gold led to the development of Bronze Age metallurgy, and the commerce of bronze and gold items all along the Atlantic coast of Western Europe.", "A shared elite culture evolved in this region during the Atlantic Bronze Age.", "''Palloza'' houses in eastern Galicia, an evolved form of the Iron Age local roundhousesDating from the end of the Megalithic era, and up to the Bronze Age, numerous stone carvings (petroglyphs) are found in open air.", "They usually represent cup and ring marks, labyrinths, deer, Bronze Age weapons, and riding and hunting scenes.", "Large numbers of these stone carvings can be found in the Rías Baixas regions, at places such as Tourón and Campo Lameiro.Castro de Baroña, an Iron Age fortified settlementThe Castro culture ('Culture of the Castles') developed during the Iron Age, and flourished during the second half of the first millennium BC.", "It is usually considered a local evolution of the Atlantic Bronze Age, with later developments and influences overlapping into the Roman era.", "Geographically, it corresponds to the people the Romans called Gallaeci, which were composed of a large series of nations or tribes, among them the ''Artabri'', ''Bracari'', ''Limici'', ''Celtici'', ''Albiones'' and ''Lemavi''.", "They were capable fighters: Strabo described them as the most difficult foes the Romans encountered in conquering Lusitania, while Appian mentions their warlike spirit, noting that the women bore their weapons side by side with their men, frequently preferring death to captivity.", "According to Pomponius Mela all the inhabitants of the coastal areas were Celtic people.local Iron Age head warrior from Rubiás, Bande.", "Now in Museo Provincial de Ourense.Gallaeci lived in ''castros''.", "These were usually annular forts, with one or more concentric earthen or stony walls, with a trench in front of each one.", "They were frequently located on hills, or in seashore cliffs and peninsulas.", "Some well known ''castros'' can be found on the seashore at: Fazouro, Santa Tegra, Baroña, and O Neixón; and inland at: San Cibrao de Lás, Borneiro, Castromao, and Viladonga.", "Some other distinctive features, such as temples, baths, reservoirs, warrior statues, and decorative carvings have been found associated with this culture, together with rich gold and metalworking traditions.The Roman legions first entered the area under Decimus Junius Brutus in 137–136 BC, but the country was only incorporated into the Roman Empire by the time of Augustus (29 BC – 19 BC).", "The Romans were interested in Galicia mainly for its mineral resources, most notably gold.", "Under Roman rule, most Galician hillforts began to be – sometimes forcibly – abandoned, and Gallaeci served frequently in the Roman army as auxiliary troops.", "Romans brought new technologies, new travel routes, new forms of organizing property, and a new language: Latin.", "The Roman Empire established its control over Galicia through camps (''castra'') as ''Aquis Querquennis'', Ciadella camp or Lucus Augusti (Lugo), roads (''viae'') and monuments as the lighthouse known as ''Tower of Hercules'', in Corunna, but the remoteness and lesser interest of the country since the 2nd century of our era, when the gold mines stopped being productive, led to a lesser degree of ''Romanization''.", "In the 3rd century, it was made a province, under the name Gallaecia, which included also northern Portugal, Asturias, and a large section of what today is known as Castile and León.===Early Middle Ages===Miro, king of Galicia, and Martin of Braga, from an 1145 manuscript of Martin's ''Formula Vitae Honestae'', now in the Austrian National Library.", "The original work was dedicated to King Miro with the header \"To King Miro, the most glorious and calm, the pious, famous for his Catholic faith\"In the early 5th century, the deep crisis suffered by the Roman Empire allowed different tribes of Central Europe (Suebi, Vandals and Alani) to cross the Rhine and penetrate the rule on 31 December 406.Its progress towards the Iberian Peninsula forced the Roman authorities to establish a treaty (''foedus'') by which the Suebi would settle peacefully and govern Galicia as imperial allies.", "So, from 409 Galicia was taken by the Suebi, forming the first medieval kingdom to be created in Europe, in 411, even before the fall of the Roman Empire, being also the first Germanic kingdom to mint coinage in Roman lands.", "During this period a Briton colony and bishopric (see Mailoc) was established in Northern Galicia (Britonia), probably as foederati and allies of the Suebi.", "In 585, the Visigothic King Leovigild invaded the Suebic kingdom of Galicia and defeated it, bringing it under Visigoth control.Later the Muslims invaded Spain (711), but the Arabs and Moors never managed to have any real control over Galicia, which was later incorporated into the expanding Christian Kingdom of Asturias, usually known as Gallaecia or Galicia (''Yillīqiya'' and ''Galīsiya'') by Muslim chroniclers, as well as by many European contemporaries.", "This era consolidated Galicia as a Christian society which spoke a Romance language.", "During the next century Galician noblemen took northern Portugal, conquering Coimbra in 871, thus freeing what was considered the southernmost city of ancient Galicia.===High and Low Middle Ages===Romanesque interior of the Cathedral of Santiago de CompostelaIn the 9th century, the rise of the cult of the Apostle James in Santiago de Compostela gave Galicia particular symbolic importance among Christians, an importance it would hold throughout the ''Reconquista''.", "As the Middle Ages went on, Santiago became a major pilgrim destination and the Way of Saint James (Camiño de Santiago) a major pilgrim road, a route for the propagation of Romanesque art and the words and music of the troubadors.", "During the 10th and 11th centuries, a period during which Galician nobility become related to the royal family, Galicia was at times headed by its own native kings, while Vikings (locally known as ''Leodemanes'' or ''Lordomanes'') occasionally raided the coasts.", "The Towers of Catoira (Pontevedra) were built as a system of fortifications to prevent and stop the Viking raids on Santiago de Compostela.In 1063, Ferdinand I of Castile divided his realm among his sons, and the Kingdom of Galicia was granted to Garcia II of Galicia.", "In 1072, it was forcibly annexed by Garcia's brother Alfonso VI of León; from that time Galicia was united with the Kingdom of León under the same monarchs.", "In the 13th century Alfonso X of Castile standardized the Castilian language (i.e.", "Spanish) and made it the language of court and government.", "Nevertheless, in his Kingdom of Galicia the Galician language was the only language spoken, and the most used in government and legal uses, as well as in literature.An illustration of the Cantigas de Santa Maria (13th century)During the 14th and 15th centuries, the progressive distancing of the kings from Galician affairs left the kingdom in the hands of the local knights, counts, and bishops, who frequently fought each other to increase their fiefs, or simply to plunder the lands of others.", "At the same time, the deputies of the Kingdom in the ''Cortes'' stopped being called.", "The Kingdom of Galicia, slipping away from the control of the King, responded with a century of fiscal insubordination.Gothic painting at Vilar de Donas' church, Palas de ReiOn the other hand, the lack of an effective royal justice system in the Kingdom led to the social conflict known as the ''Guerras Irmandiñas'' ('Wars of the brotherhoods'), when leagues of peasants and burghers, with the support of several knights, noblemen, and under legal protection offered by the remote king, toppled many of the castles of the Kingdom and briefly drove the noblemen into Portugal and Castile.", "Soon after, in the late 15th century, in the dynastic conflict between Isabella I of Castile and Joanna La Beltraneja, part of the Galician aristocracy supported Joanna.", "After Isabella's victory, she initiated an administrative and political reform which the chronicler Jeronimo Zurita defined as \"doma del Reino de Galicia\": 'It was then when the taming of Galicia began, because not just the local lords and knights, but all the people of that nation were the ones against the others very bold and warlike'.", "These reforms, while establishing a local government and tribunal (the ''Real Audiencia del Reino de Galicia''), and bringing the nobleman under submission, also brought most Galician monasteries and institutions under Castilian control, in what has been criticized as a process of centralisation.", "At the same time the kings began to call the ''Xunta'' or ''Cortes'' of the Kingdom of Galicia, an assembly of deputies or representatives of the cities of the Kingdom, to ask for monetary and military contributions.", "This assembly soon developed into the voice and legal representation of the Kingdom, and the depositary of its will and laws.===Early Modern===Tomb of the knight Sueiro Gómez de SoutomaiorThe modern period of the Kingdom of Galicia began with the defeat of some of the most powerful Galician lords, such as Pedro Álvarez de Sotomayor, called Pedro Madruga, and Rodrigo Henriquez Osorio, at the hands of the Castilian armies sent to Galicia between the years 1480 and 1486.Isabella I of Castile, considered a usurper by many Galician nobles, defeated all armed resistance and definitively established the royal power of the Castilian monarchy.", "Fearing a general revolt, the monarchs ordered the banishing of the rest of the great lords like Pedro de Bolaño, Diego de Andrade, or Lope Sánchez de Moscoso, among others.Map of the Kingdom of Galicia, 1603The establishment of the Santa Hermandad in 1480, and the Real Audiencia del Reino de Galicia in 1500—a tribunal and executive body directed by the Governor-Captain General as a direct representative of the King—implied initially the submission of the Kingdom to the Crown, after a century of unrest and fiscal insubordination.", "As a result, from 1480 to 1520 the Kingdom of Galicia contributed more than 10% of the total earnings of the Crown of Castille, including the Americas, well over its economic relevance.", "Like the rest of Spain, the 16th century was marked by population growth up to 1580, when the simultaneous wars with the Netherlands, France, and England hampered Galicia's Atlantic commerce, which consisted mostly in the exportation of sardines, wood, and some cattle and wine.In the late years of the 15th century the written form of the Galician language began a slow decline as it was increasingly replaced by Spanish, which would culminate in the ''Séculos Escuros'' \"the Dark Centuries\" of the language, roughly from the 16th century through to the mid-18th century, when written Galician almost completely disappeared except for private or occasional uses but the spoken language remained the common language of the people in the villages and even the cities.Maria Pita, heroine of the defense of A Coruña during the English siege of 1589From that moment Galicia, which participated to a minor extent in the American expansion of the Spanish Empire, found itself at the center of the Atlantic wars fought by Spain against the French and the Protestant powers of England and the Netherlands, whose privateers attacked the coastal areas, but major assaults were not common as the coastline was difficult and the harbors easily defended.", "The most famous assaults were upon the city of Vigo by Sir Francis Drake in 1585 and 1589, and the siege of A Coruña in 1589 by the ''English Armada''.", "Galicia also suffered occasional slave raids by Barbary pirates, but not as frequently as the Mediterranean coastal areas.", "The most famous Barbary attack was the bloody sack of the town of Cangas in 1617.At the time, the king's petitions for money and troops became more frequent, due to the human and economic exhaustion of Castile; the Junta of the Kingdom of Galicia (the local ''Cortes'' or representative assembly) was initially receptive to these petitions, raising large sums, accepting the conscription of the men of the kingdom, and even commissioning a new naval squadron which was sustained with the incomes of the Kingdom.Battle of Vigo Bay, 23 October 1702After the rupture of the wars with Portugal and Catalonia, the ''Junta'' changed its attitude, this time due to the exhaustion of Galicia, now involved not just in naval or oversea operations, but also in an exhausting war with the Portuguese, war which produced thousands of casualties and refugees and was heavily disturbing to the local economy and commerce.", "So, in the second half of the 17th century the ''Junta'' frequently denied or considerably reduced the initial petitions of the monarch, and though the tension did not rise to the levels experienced in Portugal or Catalonia, there were frequent urban mutinies and some voices even asked for the secession of the Kingdom of Galicia.===Late Modern and Contemporary===Battle of Corunna on 16 January 1809During the Peninsular War the successful uprising of the local people against the new French authorities, together with the support of the British Army, limited the occupation to six months in 1808–1809.During the pre-war period the Supreme Council of the Kingdom of Galicia (''Junta Suprema del Reino de Galicia''), auto-proclaimed interim sovereign in 1808, was the sole government of the country and mobilized near 40,000 men against the invaders.The 1833 territorial division of Spain put a formal end to the Kingdom of Galicia, unifying Spain into a single centralized monarchy.", "Instead of seven provinces and a regional administration, Galicia was reorganized into the current four provinces.", "Although it was recognized as a \"historical region\", that status was strictly honorific.", "In reaction, nationalist and federalist movements arose.Re-enactment of the Battle of CorunnaThe liberal General Miguel Solís Cuetos led a separatist coup attempt in 1846 against the authoritarian regime of Ramón María Narváez.", "Solís and his forces were defeated at the Battle of Cacheiras, 23 April 1846, and the survivors, including Solís himself, were shot.", "They have taken their place in Galician memory as the Martyrs of Carral or simply the Martyrs of Liberty.Defeated on the military front, Galicians turned to culture.", "The ''Rexurdimento'' focused on the recovery of the Galician language as a vehicle of social and cultural expression.", "Among the writers associated with this movement are Rosalía de Castro, Manuel Murguía, Manuel Leiras Pulpeiro, and Eduardo Pondal.In the early 20th century came another turn toward nationalist politics with ''Solidaridad Gallega'' (1907–1912) modeled on ''Solidaritat Catalana'' in Catalonia.", "Solidaridad Gallega failed, but in 1916 ''Irmandades da Fala'' (Brotherhood of the Language) developed first as a cultural association but soon as a full-blown nationalist movement.", "Vicente Risco and Ramón Otero Pedrayo were outstanding cultural figures of this movement, and the magazine ''Nós'' ('Us'), founded in 1920, its most notable cultural institution, Lois Peña Novo the outstanding political figure.Pro–devolved-government poster, 1936''Estatuto de Galicia''The Second Spanish Republic was declared in 1931.During the republic, the Partido Galeguista (PG) was the most important of a shifting collection of Galician nationalist parties.", "Following a referendum on a Galician Statute of Autonomy, Galicia was granted the status of an autonomous region.Galicia was spared the worst of the fighting in that war: it was one of the areas where the initial coup attempt at the outset of the war was successful, and it remained in Nationalist hands (Franco's army) throughout the war.", "While there were no pitched battles, there was repression and death: all political parties were abolished, as were all labor unions and Galician nationalist organizations as the ''Seminario de Estudos Galegos''.", "Galicia's statute of autonomy was annulled (as were those of Catalonia and the Basque provinces once those were conquered).", "According to Carlos Fernández Santander, at least 4,200 people were killed either extrajudicially or after summary trials, among them republicans, communists, Galician nationalists, socialists, and anarchists.", "Victims included the civil governors of all four Galician provinces; Juana Capdevielle, the wife of the governor of A Coruña; mayors such as Ánxel Casal of Santiago de Compostela, of the Partido Galeguista; prominent socialists such as Jaime Quintanilla in Ferrol and Emilio Martínez Garrido in Vigo; Popular Front deputies Antonio Bilbatúa, José Miñones, Díaz Villamil, Ignacio Seoane, and former deputy Heraclio Botana); soldiers who had not joined the rebellion, such as Generals Rogelio Caridad Pita and Enrique Salcedo Molinuevo and Admiral Antonio Azarola; and the founders of the PG, Alexandre Bóveda and Víctor Casas, as well as other professionals akin to republicans and nationalists, as the journalist Manuel Lustres Rivas or physician Luis Poza Pastrana.", "Many others were forced to escape into exile, or were victims of other reprisals and removed from their jobs and positions.General Francisco Franco – himself a Galician from Ferrol – ruled as dictator from the civil war until he died in 1975.Franco's centralizing regime suppressed any official use of the Galician language, including the use of Galician names for newborns, although its everyday oral use was not forbidden.", "Among the attempts at resistance were small leftist guerrilla groups such as those led by José Castro Veiga (\"O Piloto\") and Benigno Andrade (\"Foucellas\"), both of whom were ultimately captured and executed.", "In the 1960s, ministers such as Manuel Fraga Iribarne introduced some reforms allowing technocrats affiliated with Opus Dei to modernize administration in a way that facilitated capitalist economic development.", "However, for decades Galicia was largely confined to the role of a supplier of raw materials and energy to the rest of Spain, causing environmental havoc and leading to a wave of migration to Venezuela and to various parts of Europe.", "Fenosa, the monopolistic supplier of electricity, built hydroelectric dams, flooding many Galician river valleys.Memorial to the mayor and other republicans, including a syndicalist and a journal director, executed in Verín, 17 June 1937The Galician economy finally began to modernize with a French Citroën factory in Vigo, the modernization of the canning industry and the fishing fleet, and eventually a modernization of small peasant farming practices, especially in the production of cows' milk.", "In the province of Ourense, businessman and politician Eulogio Gómez Franqueira gave impetus to the raising of livestock and poultry by establishing the Cooperativa Orensana S.A. (Coren).During the last decade of Franco's rule, there was a renewal of nationalist feeling in Galicia.", "The early 1970s were a time of unrest among university students, workers, and farmers.", "In 1972, general strikes in Vigo and Ferrol cost the lives of Amador Rey and Daniel Niebla.", "Later, the bishop of Mondoñedo-Ferrol, Miguel Anxo Araúxo Iglesias, wrote a pastoral letter that was not well received by the Franco regime, about a demonstration in Bazán (Ferrol) where two workers died.As part of the transition to democracy upon the death of Franco in 1975, Galicia regained its status as an autonomous region within Spain with the Statute of Autonomy of 1981, which begins, \"Galicia, historical nationality, is constituted as an Autonomous Community to access to its self-government, in agreement with the Spanish Constitution and with the present Statute (...)\".", "Varying degrees of nationalist or independentist sentiment are evident at the political level.", "The ''Bloque Nacionalista Galego'' or BNG, is a conglomerate of left-wing parties and individuals that claims Galician political status as a nation.Estreleira, Galician nationalist flagFrom 1990 to 2005, Manuel Fraga, former minister and ambassador in the Franco dictatorship, presided over the Galician autonomous government, the Xunta de Galicia.", "Fraga was associated with the ''Partido Popular'' ('People's Party', Spain's main national conservative party) since its founding.", "In 2002, when the oil tanker Prestige sank and covered the Galician coast in oil, Fraga was accused by the grassroots movement ''Nunca Mais'' (\"Never again\") of having been unwilling to react.", "In the 2005 Galician elections, the 'People's Party' lost its absolute majority, though remaining (barely) the largest party in the parliament, with 43% of the total votes.", "As a result, power passed to a coalition of the ''Partido dos Socialistas de Galicia'' (PSdeG) ('Galician Socialists' Party'), a federal sister-party of Spain's main social-democratic party, the ''Partido Socialista Obrero Español'' (PSOE, 'Spanish Socialist Workers Party') and the nationalist ''Bloque Nacionalista Galego'' (BNG).", "As the senior partner in the new coalition, the PSdeG nominated its leader, Emilio Pérez Touriño, to serve as Galicia's new president, with Anxo Quintana, the leader of BNG, as its vice president.In 2009, the PSdG-BNG coalition lost the elections, and the government went back to the People's Party (conservative), even though the PSdG-BNG coalition obtained the most votes." ], [ "Geography", "As Catedrais beach in RibadeoGalicia has a surface area of .", "Its northernmost point, at 43°47′N, is Estaca de Bares (also the northernmost point of Spain); its southernmost, at 41°49′N, is on the Portuguese border in the Baixa Limia-Serra do Xurés Natural Park.", "The easternmost longitude is at 6°42′W on the border between the province of Ourense and the Castilian-Leonese province of Zamora) its westernmost at 9°18′W reached in two places: the A Nave Cape in Fisterra (also known as Finisterre), and Cape Touriñán, both in the province of A Coruña.===Topography===Cliffs of Vixía Herbeira near Cape Ortegal, the highest (613 m) in continental EuropeThe interior of Galicia is a hilly landscape, composed of relatively low mountain ranges, usually below high, without sharp peaks, rising to in the eastern mountains.", "There are many rivers, most (though not all) running down relatively gentle slopes in narrow river valleys, though at times their courses become far more rugged, as in the canyons of the Sil river, Galicia's second most important river after the Miño.Meadows in Pambre, Palas de ReiTopographically, a remarkable feature of Galicia is the presence of many firth-like inlets along the coast, estuaries that were drowned with rising sea levels after the ice age.", "These are called ''rías'' and are divided into the smaller ''Rías Altas'' (\"High Rías\"), and the larger ''Rías Baixas'' (\"Low Rías\").", "The ''Rías Altas'' include Ribadeo, Foz, Viveiro, O Barqueiro, Ortigueira, Cedeira, Ferrol, Betanzos, A Coruña, Corme e Laxe and Camariñas.", "The Rías Baixas, found south of Fisterra, include Corcubión, Muros e Noia, Arousa, Pontevedra and Vigo.", "The Rías Altas can sometimes refer only to those east of Estaca de Bares, with the others being called ''Rías Medias'' (\"Intermediate Rías\").Erosion by the Atlantic Ocean has contributed to the great number of capes.", "Besides the aforementioned Estaca de Bares in the far north, separating the Atlantic Ocean from the Cantabrian Sea, other notable capes are Cape Ortegal, Cape Prior, Punta Santo Adrao, Cape Vilán, Cape Touriñán (westernmost point in Galicia), Cape Finisterre or Fisterra, considered by the Romans, along with Finistère in Brittany and Land's End in Cornwall, to be the end of the known world.The ria of Ferrol is an important naval base of SpainAll along the Galician coast are various archipelagos near the mouths of the ''rías''.", "These archipelagos provide protected deepwater harbors and also provide habitat for seagoing birds.", "A 2007 inventory estimates that the Galician coast has 316 archipelagos, islets, and freestanding rocks.", "Among the most important of these are the archipelagos of Cíes, Ons, and Sálvora.", "Together with Cortegada Island, these make up the Atlantic Islands of Galicia National Park.", "Other significant islands are Islas Malveiras, Islas Sisargas, and, the largest and holding the largest population, Arousa Island.The coast of this 'green corner' of the Iberian Peninsula, some in length, attracts great numbers of tourists, although real estate development in the 2000–2010 decade has degraded it partially.", "'Tres Bispos' peak, Cervantes, LugoGalicia is quite mountainous, a fact which has contributed to isolate the rural areas, hampering communications, most notably in the inland.", "The main mountain range is the Macizo Galaico (Serra do Eixe, Serra da Lastra, Serra do Courel), also known as ''Macizo Galaico-Leonés'', located in the eastern parts, bordering with Castile and León.", "Noteworthy mountain ranges are O Xistral (northern Lugo), the Serra dos Ancares (on the border with León and Asturias), O Courel (on the border with León), O Eixe (the border between Ourense and Zamora), Serra de Queixa (in the center of Ourense province), O Faro (the border between Lugo and Pontevedra), Cova da Serpe (border of Lugo and A Coruña), Montemaior (A Coruña), Montes do Testeiro, Serra do Suído, and Faro de Avión (between Pontevedra and Ourense); and, to the south, A Peneda, O Xurés and O Larouco, all on the border of Ourense and Portugal.The highest point in Galicia is Trevinca or Pena Trevinca (), located in the Serra do Eixe, at the border between Ourense and León and Zamora provinces.", "Other tall peaks are Pena Survia () in the Serra do Eixe, O Mustallar () in Os Ancares, and Cabeza de Manzaneda () in Serra de Queixa, where there is a ski resort.===Hydrography===Riparian forest on the banks of the EumeGalicia is poetically known as the \"country of the thousand rivers\" (\"o país dos mil ríos\").", "The largest and most important of these rivers is the Miño, poetically known as ''O Pai Miño'' (Father Miño), which is long and discharges per second, with its affluent the Sil, which has created a spectacular canyon.", "Most of the rivers in the inland are tributaries of this river system, which drains some .", "Other rivers run directly into the Atlantic Ocean or the Cantabrian Sea, most of them having short courses.", "Only the Navia, Ulla, Tambre, and Limia have courses longer than .Galicia's many hydroelectric dams take advantage of the steep, deep, narrow rivers and their canyons.", "Due to their steep course, few of Galicia's rivers are navigable, other than the lower portion of the Miño and the portions of various rivers that have been dammed into reservoirs.", "Some rivers are navigable by small boats in their lower reaches: this is taken great advantage of in several semi-aquatic festivals and pilgrimages.===Environment===Sil and its canyonGalicia has preserved some of its dense forests.", "It is relatively unpolluted, and its landscapes composed of green hills, cliffs, and ''rias'' are generally different from what is commonly understood as Spanish landscape.", "Nevertheless, Galicia has some important environmental problems.Deforestation and forest fires are a problem in many areas, as is the continual spread of the eucalyptus tree, a species imported from Australia, actively promoted by the paper industry since the mid-20th century.", "Galicia is one of the more forested areas of Spain, but the majority of Galicia's plantations, usually growing eucalyptus or pine, lack any formal management.", "Massive eucalyptus plantation, especially of ''Eucalyptus globulus'', began in the Francisco Franco era, largely on behalf of the paper company Empresa Nacional de Celulosas de España (ENCE) in Pontevedra, which wanted it for its pulp.", "Galician photographer Delmi Álvarez began documenting the fires in Galicia in 2006 in a project called ''Queiman Galiza (Burn Galicia).''.", "Wood products figure significantly in Galicia's economy.", "Apart from tree plantations, Galicia is also notable for the extensive surface occupied by meadows used for animal husbandry, especially cattle, an important activity.", "Hydroelectric development in most rivers has been a serious concern for local conservationists during the last decades.Fauna, most notably the European wolf, has suffered because of the actions of livestock owners and farmers, and because of the loss of habitats, whilst the native deer species have declined because of hunting and development.Oil spills are a major issue.", "The Prestige oil spill in 2002 spilled more oil than the Exxon Valdez in Alaska.===Biodiversity===Galician Blond cowsGalicia has more than 2,800 plant species and 31 endemic plant taxa.", "Plantations and mixed forests of eucalyptus predominate in the west and north; a few oak forests (variously known locally as ''fragas'' or ''devesas'') remain, particularly in the north-central part of the province of Lugo and the north of the province of A Coruña (Fragas do Eume).", "In the interior regions of the country, oak and bushland predominate.Galicia has 262 inventoried species of vertebrates, including 12 species of freshwater fish, 15 amphibians, 24 reptiles, 152 birds, and 59 mammals.Iberian wolf, GaliciaThe animals most often thought of as being \"typical\" of Galicia are the livestock raised there.", "The Galician horse is native to the region, as is the Galician Blond cow and the domestic fowl known as the ''galiña de Mos''.", "The last is an endangered species, although it is showing signs of a comeback since 2001.Galicia is home to one of the largest populations of wolves in western Europe.", "Galicia's woodlands and mountains are also home to rabbits, hares, wild boars, and roe deer, all of which are popular with hunters.", "Several important bird migration routes pass through Galicia, and some of the community's relatively few environmentally protected areas are Special Protection Areas (such as on the Ría de Ribadeo) for these birds.", "From a domestic point of view, Galicia has been credited by the author Manuel Rivas as the \"land of one million cows\".", "Galician Blond and Holstein cattle coexist on meadows and farms." ], [ "Climate", "Pacios, Courel, LugoBeing located on the Atlantic coastline, Galicia has a very mild climate for the latitude and the marine influence affects most of the province to various degrees.", "In comparison to similar latitudes on the other side of the Atlantic, winters are exceptionally mild, with consistent rainfall.", "At sea level snow is exceptional, with temperatures just occasionally dropping below freezing; on the other hand, snow regularly falls in the eastern mountains from November to May.", "Overall, the climate of Galicia is comparable to the Pacific Northwest; the warmest coastal station of Pontevedra has a yearly mean temperature of .", "Ourense located somewhat inland is only slightly warmer with .", "Lugo, to the north, is colder, with , similar to the of Portland, Oregon.In coastal areas summers are tempered, with daily maximums averaging around in Vigo.", "Temperatures are further cooler in A Coruña, with a subdued normal.", "Temperatures are much higher in inland areas such as Ourense, where days above are regular.Pontevedra and the Ria de Pontevedra in the Rias Baixas.The lands of Galicia are ascribed to two different areas in the Köppen climate classification: a south area (roughly, the province of Ourense and Pontevedra) with appreciable summer drought, classified as a warm-summer Mediterranean climate (''Csb''), with mild temperatures and rainfall usual throughout the year; and the western and northern coastal regions, the provinces of Lugo and A Coruña, which are characterized by their Oceanic climate (''Cfb''), with a more uniform precipitation distribution along the year, and milder summers.", "However, precipitation in southern coastal areas are often classified as oceanic since the averages remain significantly higher than a typical Mediterranean climate.As an example, Santiago de Compostela, the capital city, has an average of 129 rainy days (> 1 mm) and per year (with just 17 rainy days in the three summer months) and 2,101 sunlight hours per year, with just 6 days with frosts per year.", "But the colder city of Lugo, to the east, has an average of 1,759 sunlight hours per year, 117 days with precipitations (> 1 mm) totalling , and 40 days with frosts per year.", "The more mountainous parts of the provinces of Ourense and Lugo receive significant snowfall during the winter months.", "The sunniest city is Pontevedra with 2,223 sunny hours per year.Climate data for some locations in Galicia (average 1981–2010): Cities July av.", "T January av.", "T Rain Days with rain (year/summer) Days with frost Sunlight hours A Coruña 130 / 18 0.1 2,010 Lugo 126 / 16 50 1,821 Ourense 97 / 11 27 2,054 Pontevedra 129 / 17 2 2,247 Santiago de Compostela 139 / 19 13 1,911 Vigo 131 / 18 4 2,169" ], [ "Government and politics", "===Local government===Galicia has partial self-governance, in the form of a devolved government, established on 16 March 1978 and reinforced by the Galician Statute of Autonomy, ratified on 28 April 1981.There are three branches of government: the executive branch, the Xunta de Galicia, consisting of the President and the other independently elected councillors; the legislative branch consisting of the Galician Parliament; and the judicial branch consisting of the High Court of Galicia and lower courts.====Executive====''Pazo de Raxoi'', in Santiago de Compostela, seat of the presidency of the local devolved governmentThe Xunta de Galicia is a collective entity with executive and administrative power.", "It consists of the President, a vice president, and twelve councillors.", "Administrative power is largely delegated to dependent bodies.", "The Xunta also coordinates the activities of the provincial councils () located in A Coruña, Pontevedra, Ourense and Lugo.The President of the Xunta directs and coordinates the actions of the Xunta.", "The president is simultaneously the representative of the autonomous community and of the Spanish state in Galicia.", "The president is a member of the parliament and is elected by its deputies and then formally named by the monarch of Spain.====Legislative====Parliament of GaliciaThe Galician Parliament consists of 75 deputies elected by universal adult suffrage under a system of proportional representation.", "The franchise includes also Galicians who reside abroad.", "Elections occur every four years.The last elections, held 12 July 2020, resulted in the following distribution of seats:* Partido Popular de Galicia (PPdeG): 42 deputies (47.96% of popular vote)* Bloque Nacionalista Galego (BNG): 19 deputies (23.79% of popular vote)* Partido Socialista de Galicia (PSdeG-PSOE): 14 deputies (19.39% of popular vote)====Judicial=======Municipal governments===Municipalities and parishes of GaliciaThere are 314 municipalities () in Galicia, each of which is run by a mayor–council government known as a .There is a further subdivision of local government known as an ; each has its own council () and mayor ().", "There are nine of these in Galicia: Arcos da Condesa, Bembrive, Camposancos, Chenlo, Morgadáns, Pazos de Reis, Queimadelos, Vilasobroso and Berán.Galicia is also traditionally subdivided in some 3,700 civil parishes, each one comprising one or more ''vilas'' (towns), ''aldeas'' (villages), ''lugares'' (hamlets) or ''barrios'' (neighbourhoods).===National government===Galicia's interests are represented at the national level by 25 elected deputies in the Congress of Deputies and 19 senators in the Senate – of these, 16 are elected and 3 are appointed by the Galician parliament.===Administrative divisions===Before the 1833 territorial division of Spain, Galicia was divided into seven administrative provinces:*A Coruña*Santiago*Betanzos*Mondoñedo*Lugo*Ourense*TuiFrom 1833, the seven original provinces of the 15th century were consolidated into four:*A Coruña, capital: A Coruña*Pontevedra, capital: Pontevedra*Ourense; capital: Ourense*Lugo; capital: LugoLocation A Coruña (Province).svg|A CoruñaLocation Lugo (Province).svg|LugoLocation Ourense (Province).svg|OurenseLocation Pontevedra (Province).svg|PontevedraGalicia is further divided into 53 ''comarcas'', 315 municipalities (93 in A Coruña, 67 in Lugo, 92 in Ourense, 62 in Pontevedra) and 3,778 parishes.", "Municipalities are divided into parishes, which may be further divided into ''aldeas'' (\"hamlets\") or ''lugares'' (\"places\").", "This traditional breakdown into such small areas is unusual when compared to the rest of Spain.", "Roughly half of the named population entities of Spain are in Galicia, which occupies only 5.8 percent of the country's area.", "It is estimated that Galicia has over a million named places, over 40,000 of them being communities." ], [ "Economy", "Zara (Inditex) in Dundee, ScotlandTextiles, fishing, livestock, forestry, and car manufacturing are the most dynamic sectors of the Galician economy.The companies based in the province of Coruña generate 70% of the entrepreneurial output of Galicia.", "Arteixo, an industrial municipality in the A Coruña metropolitan area, is the headquarters of Inditex, the world's largest fashion retailer.", "Of their eight brands, Zara is the best-known; indeed, it is the best-known Spanish brand of any sort on an international basis.", "For 2007, Inditex had 9,435 million euros in sales for a net profit of 1,250 million euros.", "The company president, Amancio Ortega, is the richest person in Spain and indeed Europe with a net worth of 45 billion euros.A major economic sector of Galicia is its fishing Industry; the main ports are A Coruña, Marín-Pontevedra, Vigo and Ferrol.", "Related to this fact, the European Fisheries Control Agency, which coordinates fishing controls in European Union waters, is based in Vigo.Galicia is a land of economic contrast.", "While the western coast, with its major population centers and its fishing and manufacturing industries, is prosperous and increasing in population, the rural hinterland—the provinces of Ourense and Lugo—is economically dependent on traditional agriculture, based on small landholdings called ''minifundios''.", "However, the rise of tourism, sustainable forestry, and organic and traditional agriculture are bringing other possibilities to the Galician economy without compromising the preservation of the natural resources and the local culture.Electric cars are made in the Citroën French factory in Vigo.Traditionally, Galicia depended mainly on agriculture and fishing.", "Nonetheless, today the tertiary sector of the economy (the service sector) is the largest, with 582,000 workers out of a regional total of 1,072,000 (as of 2002).The secondary sector (manufacturing) includes shipbuilding in Vigo, Marín-Pontevedra and Ferrol, textiles and granite work in A Coruña.", "A Coruña also manufactures automobiles.", "The French ''Centro de Vigo de PSA Peugeot Citroën'', founded in 1958, makes about 450,000 vehicles annually (455,430 in 2006); a Citroën C4 Picasso made in 2007 was their nine-millionth vehicle.Other companies with a large number of workers and a significant turnover are '''San José''', based in Pontevedra, belonging to the construction sector, and Gadisa and Vego, based in A Coruña and Froiz, based in Pontevedra, linked to the retail sector.Galicia is home to the savings bank, and to Spain's two oldest commercial banks Banco Etcheverría (the oldest) and Banco Pastor, owned since 2011 by Banco Popular Español.Galicia was late to catch the tourism boom that has swept Spain in recent decades, but the coastal regions (especially the Rías Baixas and Santiago de Compostela) are now significant tourist destinations and are especially popular with visitors from other regions in Spain, where the majority of tourists come from.", "In 2007, 5.7 million tourists visited Galicia, an 8% growth over the previous year, and part of a continual pattern of growth in this sector.", "85% of tourists who visit Galicia visit Santiago de Compostela.", "Tourism constitutes 12% of Galician GDP and employs about 12% of the regional workforce.The Gross domestic product (GDP) of the autonomous community was 62.6 billion euros in 2018, accounting for 5.2% of Spanish economic output.", "GDP per capita adjusted for purchasing power was 24,900 euros or 82% of the EU27 average in the same year.", "The GDP per employee was 95% of the EU average.The unemployment rate stood at 15.7% in 2017 and was lower than the national average.Year200620072008200920102011201220132014201520162017'''unemployment rate'''(in %)8.3% 7.6% 8.6% 12.4% 15.3%17.3% 20.5% 22.0% 21.7%19.3% 17.2% 15.7%===Transportation===An Aer Lingus plane in the Santiago de Compostela Airport.Galicia's main airport is Santiago de Compostela Airport.", "Having been used by 2,083,873 passengers in 2014, it connects the Galician capital with cities in Spain as well as several major European cities.", "There are two other domestic airports in Galicia: A Coruña Airport – Alvedro and Vigo-Peinador Airport.The most important Galician fishing port is the Port of Vigo; It is one of the European's leading fishing ports, with an annual catch worth 1,500 million euros.", "In 2007 the port took in of fish and seafood, and about of other cargoes.", "Other important ports are A Coruña, Marín-Pontevedra, Ferrol and the smaller port of Vilagarcía de Arousa, as well as important recreational ports in Pontevedra capital city and Burela.", "Beyond these, Galicia has 120 other organized ports.A cruise ship in the seaport of A Coruña.", "includes ''autopistas'' and ''autovías'' connecting the major cities, as well as national and secondary roads to the rest of the municipalities.", "The Autovía A-6 connects A Coruña and Lugo to Madrid, entering Galicia at Pedrafita do Cebreiro.", "The Autovía A-52 connects O Porriño, Ourense and Benavente, and enters Galicia at A Gudiña.", "Two more autovías are under construction.", "Autovía A-8 enters Galicia on the Cantabrian coast, and ends in Baamonde (Lugo province).", "Autovía A-76 enters Galicia in Valdeorras; it is an upgrade of the existing N-120 to Ourense.Within Galicia are the Autopista AP-9 from Ferrol to Portugal and the Autopista AP-53 (also known as AG-53, because it was initially built by the Xunta de Galicia) from Santiago to Ourense.", "Additional roads under construction include Autovía A-54 from Santiago de Compostela to Lugo, the Autovía A-57 that will pass through Pontevedra and Autovía A-56 from Lugo to Ourense.", "The Xunta de Galicia has built roads connecting comarcal capitals, such as the before mentioned AG-53, Autovía AG-55 connecting A Coruña to Carballo or AG-41 connecting Pontevedra to Sanxenxo.The first railway line in Galicia was inaugurated on 15 September 1873.It ran from O Carril, Vilagarcía da Arousa to Cornes, Conxo, Santiago de Compostela.", "A second line was inaugurated in 1875, connecting A Coruña and Lugo.", "In 1883, Galicia was first connected by rail to the rest of Spain, by way of O Barco de Valdeorras.", "Galicia today has roughly of rail lines.", "Several lines operated by Adif and Renfe Operadora connect all the important Galician cities.", "A line operated by FEVE connects Ferrol to Ribadeo and Oviedo.", "An old electrified line is the Ponferrada-Monforte de Lemos-Ourense-Vigo line.", "Several high-speed rail lines are under construction.", "Among these are the Olmedo-Zamora-Galicia high-speed rail line that opened partly in 2011, and the AVE Atlantic Axis route, which will connect all of the major Galician Atlantic coast cities A Coruña, Santiago de Compostela, Pontevedra and Vigo to Portugal." ], [ "Demographics", "===Population===Population densityGalicia's inhabitants are known as Galicians (, ).", "For well over a century Galicia has grown more slowly than the rest of Spain, due largely to a poorer economy compared with other regions of Spain and emigration to Latin America and to other parts of Spain.", "Sometimes Galicia has lost population in absolute terms.", "In 1857, Galicia had Spain's densest population and constituted 11.5% of the national population.", ", only 6.1% of the Spanish population resided in the autonomous community.", "This is due to an exodus of Galician people since the 19th century, first to South America and later to Central Europe and the development of population centers and industry in other parts of Spain.According to the 2006 census, Galicia has a fertility rate of 1.03 children per woman, compared to 1.38 nationally, and far below the figure of 2.1 that represents a stable populace.", "Lugo and Ourense provinces have the lowest fertility rates in Spain, 0.88 and 0.93, respectively.In northern Galicia, the A Coruña-Ferrol metropolitan area has become increasingly dominant in terms of population.", "The population of the city of A Coruña in 1900 was 43,971.The population of the rest of the province, including the City and Naval Station of nearby Ferrol and Santiago de Compostela, was 653,556.A Coruña's growth occurred after the Spanish Civil War at the same speed as other major Galician cities, but since the revival of democracy after the death of Francisco Franco, A Coruña has grown at a faster rate than all the other Galician cities.During the mid-20th century, the population rapidly increased in A Coruña, Vigo, and to a lesser degree, other major Galician cities, such as Ourense, Pontevedra or Santiago de Compostela as the rural population declined after the Spanish Civil War: many villages and hamlets of the four provinces of Galicia disappeared or nearly disappeared during the same period.", "Economic development and mechanization of agriculture resulted in the fields being abandoned, and most of the population moved to find jobs in the main cities.", "The number of people working in the tertiary and quaternary sectors of the economy increased significantly.Since 1999, the absolute number of births in Galicia has been increasing.", "In 2006, 21,392 births were registered in Galicia, 300 more than in 2005, according to the Instituto Galego de Estatística.", "Since 1981, the Galician life expectancy has increased by five years, thanks to a higher quality of life.", "* Birth rate (2006): 7.9 per 1,000 (all of Spain: 11.0 per 1,000)* Death rate (2006): 10.8 per 1,000 (all of Spain: 8.4 per 1,000)* Life expectancy at birth (2005): 80.4 years (all of Spain: 80.2 years)** Male: 76.8 years (all of Spain: 77.0 years)** Female: 84.0 years (all of Spain: 83.5 years)Roman Catholicism is, by far, the largest religion in Galicia.", "In 2012, the proportion of Galicians that identify themselves as Roman Catholic was 82.2%.As a Celtic region of Spain, Galicia has a tartan called Galicia National.===Urbanization===The principal cities are the four capitals A Coruña, Pontevedra, Ourense and Lugo, Santiago de Compostela – the political capital and archiepiscopal seat – and the industrial cities Vigo and Ferrol.Vista de la avenida de la Marina desde la parte de atrás de la Biblioteca Provincial de A Coruña.JPG|A CoruñaPraza Maior de Lugo, II.JPG|LugoPraza do Ferro (Ourense).jpg|OurensePontevedra-Remodelaciones (14316250282).jpg|PontevedraGrande place devant la cathédrale.jpg|Santiago de CompostelaVigo dende o monte do castro.jpg|VigoView of Ferrol Port.jpg|FerrolThe largest conurbations are:* Pontevedra-Vigo 660,000* A Coruña-Ferrol 640,000List of municipalities in Galicia by populationMunicipalityProvincePopulation (2021)MunicipalityProvincePopulation (2021)'''1''''''Vigo'''Pontevedra292,374   '''13''''''Carballo'''A Coruña31,414'''2''''''A Coruña'''A Coruña244,700   '''14''''''Culleredo'''A Coruña30,758'''3''''''Ourense'''Ourense103,756   '''15''''''Redondela'''Pontevedra29,192'''4''''''Lugo'''Lugo97,211   '''16''''''Ribeira'''A Coruña26,839'''5''''''Santiago de Compostela'''A Coruña98,179   '''17''''''Cangas'''Pontevedra26,708'''6''''''Pontevedra'''Pontevedra82,828   '''18''''''Cambre'''A Coruña24,616'''7''''''Ferrol'''A Coruña64,158   '''19''''''Marín'''Pontevedra24,248'''8''''''Narón'''A Coruña38,913   '''20''''''Ponteareas'''Pontevedra22,942'''9''''''Vilagarcía de Arousa'''Pontevedra37,545   '''21''''''A Estrada'''Pontevedra20,261'''10''''''Oleiros'''A Coruña37,271   '''22''''''Lalín'''Pontevedra20,199'''11''''''Arteixo'''A Coruña33,076   '''23''''''O Porriño'''Pontevedra20,212'''12''''''Ames'''A Coruña32,095   '''24''''''Moaña'''Pontevedra19,496===Migration===Like many rural areas of Western Europe, Galicia's history has been defined by mass emigration.", "Significant internal migration took place from Galicia in the late 19th and early 20th centuries to the industrialized Spanish cities of Barcelona, Bilbao, Zaragoza and Madrid.", "Other Galicians emigrated to Latin America – Argentina, Uruguay, Venezuela, Mexico, Brazil and Cuba in particular.The two cities with the greatest number of people of Galician descent outside Galicia are Buenos Aires, Argentina, and nearby Montevideo, Uruguay.", "Immigration from Galicia was so significant in these areas that Argentines and Uruguayans now commonly refer to all Spaniards as ''gallegos'' (Galicians).During the Franco years, there was a new wave of emigration out of Galicia to other European countries, most notably to France, Germany, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom.", "Many of these immigrant or expatriate communities have their groups or clubs, which they formed in the first decades of settling in a new place.", "The Galician diaspora is so widespread that websites such as Fillos de Galicia have been created in the 21st century to organize and form a network of ethnic Galicians throughout the world.After this, a third wave was a Spanish internal emigration to heavier industrialised areas of Spain, like the Basque Country or Catalonia.The proportion of foreign-born people in Galicia is only 2.9 percent compared to the national figure of 10 percent; among the autonomous communities, only Extremadura has a lower percentage of immigrants.", "Of the foreign nationals resident in Galicia, 17.93 percent are the ethnically related Portuguese, 10.93 percent are Colombian and 8.74 percent Brazilian.===Language===One of the oldest legal documents written in Galician, the ''Foro do bo burgo do Castro Caldelas''Galicia has two official languages: Galician (Galician: ''galego'') and Spanish (also known in Spain as ''Castellano'', i.e.", "''\"Castilian\"''), both of them Romance languages.", "The former (Galician) originated regionally; the latter (Castilian) was associated with Castile.", "Galician is recognized in the Statute of Autonomy of Galicia as the ''lingua propia'' (\"own language\") of Galicia.Galician and Portuguese share a common medieval phase known as Galician-Portuguese.", "The independence of Portugal since the late Middle Ages has favored the divergence of the Galician and Portuguese languages as they developed.", "Though considered to be independent languages in Galicia, the shared history between Galician and Portuguese has been widely acknowledged; in 2014, the Galician parliament approved Law 1/2014 on the promotion of Portuguese and links with the Lusophony.The official Galician language has been standardized by the based on literary tradition.", "Although there are local dialects, Galician media conform to this standard form, which is also used in primary, secondary, and university education.", "There are more than three million Galician speakers in the world.", "Galician ranks in the lower orders of the 150 most widely spoken languages on earth.For more than four centuries of Castilian domination, Spanish was the only official language in Galicia.", "Galician faded from day-to-day use in urban areas.", "Since the re-establishment of democracy in Spain—in particular since the passage and implementation of the ''Lei de Normalización Lingüística'' (\"Law of Linguistic Normalization\", Ley 3/1983, 15 June 1983)—the first generation of students in mass education has attended schools conducted in Galician.", "(Spanish is also taught.", ")Since the late 20th century and the establishment of Galicia's autonomy, the Galician language is resurgent.", "In the cities, it is generally used as a second language for most.", "According to a 2001 census, 99.16 percent of the population of Galicia understood the language, 91.04 percent spoke it, 68.65 percent could read it and 57.64 percent could write it.", "The first two numbers (understanding and speaking) were roughly the same as responses a decade earlier.", "But there were great gains in the percentage of the population who could read and write Galician: a decade earlier, only 49.3 percent of the population could read Galician, and 34.85 percent could write it.", "During the Franco era, the teaching of Galician was prohibited.", "Today older people may speak the language but have no written competence because of those years.", "Among the regional languages of Spain, Galician has the highest percentage of speakers in its population.The earliest known document in Galician-Portuguese dates from 1228.The ''Foro do bo burgo do Castro Caldelas'' was granted by Alfonso IX of León to the town of Burgo, in Castro Caldelas, after the model of the constitutions of the town of Allariz.", "A distinct Galician literature emerged during the Middle Ages: In the 13th century important contributions were made to the Romance canon in Galician-Portuguese, the most notable those by the troubadour Martín Codax, the priest Airas Nunes, King Denis of Portugal, and King Alfonso X of Castile, ''Alfonso O Sabio'' (\"Alfonso the Wise\"), the same monarch who began the process of standardization of the Spanish language.", "During this period, Galician-Portuguese was considered the language of love poetry in the Iberian Romance linguistic culture.", "The names and memories of Codax and other popular cultural figures are well preserved in modern Galicia.===Religion===Santiago de Compostela Cathedral, seat of the Archbishop of Santiago of Compostela, and third most important centre of pilgrimage in Christianity.Christianity is the most widely practised religion in Galicia.", "It was introduced in Late Antiquity and was practiced alongside the native Celtic religion for a few centuries which, incidentally, was re-established as an officially recognised religion in 2015.Still, today about 77.7% of Galicians identify as Catholic.", "Most Christians adhere to Catholicism, though only 32.1% of the population described themselves as active members.The Catholic Church in Galicia has had its primatial see in Santiago de Compostela since the 12th century.", "In fact, since the Middle Ages, the Galician Catholic Church has been organized into five dioceses: the Metropolitan see Santiago de Compostela, and four suffragan dioceses: Lugo, Ourense, Mondoñedo-Ferrol and Tui-Vigo.", "While in the 15th-century diocesan boundaries may have coincided with those of the civil province, this is no longer the case.", "The five dioceses of Galicia are subdivided into a total of 163 districts and 3,792 parishes.", "In a minority of cases, the parish priest is represented by an administrator.The patron saint of Galicia is Saint James the Greater.", "According to Catholic tradition, his body was discovered in 814 near Compostela.", "After that date, the relics of Saint James attracted an extraordinary number of pilgrims.", "Since the 9th century these relics have been kept in the heart of the church – the modern-day cathedral – dedicated to him.", "There are many other Galician and associated saints; some of the best-known are: Saint Ansurius, Saint Rudesind, Saint Mariña of Augas Santas, Saint Senorina, Trahamunda and Froilan.===Education===Galicia's education system is administered by the regional government's Ministry of Education and University Administration.", "76% of Galician teenagers achieve a high school degree – ranked fifth out of the 17 autonomous communities.There are three public universities in Galicia: University of A Coruña with campuses in A Coruña and Ferrol, University of Santiago de Compostela with campuses in Santiago de Compostela and Lugo and the University of Vigo with campuses in Pontevedra, Ourense and Vigo.===Health care===Galicia's public healthcare system is the (SERGAS).", "It is administered by the regional government's Ministry of Health." ], [ "Culture", "===Architecture and Art===Romanesque façade in the Cathedral of Ourense (1160); founded in the 6th century, its construction is attributed to King Chararic.Hundreds of ancient standing stone monuments like dolmens, menhirs, and megalithic tumuli were erected during the prehistoric period in Galicia.", "Amongst the best-known are the dolmens of Dombate, Corveira, Axeitos of Pedra da Arca, and menhirs like the Lapa de Gargantáns.", "From the Iron Age, Galicia has a rich heritage based mainly on a great number of hill forts, few of them excavated like Baroña, Sta.", "Tegra, San Cibrao de Lás and Formigueiros among others.", "With the introduction of Ancient Roman architecture, there was a development of basilicas, castra, city walls, cities, villas, Roman temples, Roman roads, and the Roman bridge of Ponte Vella.", "It was the Romans who founded some of the first cities in Galicia like Lugo and Ourense.", "Perhaps the best-known examples are the Roman Walls of Lugo and the Tower of Hercules in A Coruña.The castle of Pambre, Palas de Rei, which resisted the ''Irmandiños'' troopsDuring the Middle Ages, many fortified castles were built by Galician feudal nobles to mark their powers against their rivals.", "Although most of them were demolished during the Irmandiño Wars (1466–1469), some Galician castles that survived are Pambre, Castro Caldelas, Sobroso, Soutomaior and Monterrei.", "The ecclesiastical architecture was raised early in Galicia, and the first churches and monasteries as San Pedro de Rocas began to be built in the 5th and 6th centuries.", "However, the most famous medieval architecture in Galicia had been using Romanesque architecture like most of Western Europe.", "Some of the greatest examples of Romanesque churches in Galicia are the Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela, the Ourense Cathedral, Saint John of Caaveiro, Our Lady Mary of Cambre, and the Church of San Xoán of Portomarín among others.", "In the art of Galicia, the stone has a strong imprint, especially the granite, which served as a support from the prehistoric petroglyphs figures to the development of medieval art in the Galician Romanesque sculptures from Portico of Glory by Master Mateo, in Santiago de Compostela Cathedral.", "Medieval splendor was followed, as in literature, by a few centuries of darkness (the ''Séculos escuros'') until the arrival of the Compostela Baroque.", "In painting, the romanticism and impressionist-influenced landscapes of the 20th century were materialized by a generation of artists who died young, so they were called the \"Xeración Doente\" (Sick Generation).", "In the 20th century, the renovation came in the 20s by ''Os renovadores'', and by the ''Atlántica'' group after the dictatorship.===Cuisine===Polbo á feiraGalician cuisine often uses fish and shellfish.", "The ''empanada'' is a meat or fish pie, with a bread-like base, top, and crust with the meat or fish filling usually being in a tomato sauce including onions and garlic.", "''Caldo galego'' is a hearty soup whose main ingredients are potatoes and a local vegetable named grelo (broccoli rabe).", "The latter is also employed in ''lacón con grelos'', a typical carnival dish, consisting of pork shoulder boiled with ''grelos'', potatoes, and chorizo.", "''Centolla'' is the equivalent of king crab.", "It is prepared by being boiled alive, having its main body opened like a shell, and then having its innards mixed vigorously.", "Another popular dish is octopus, boiled (traditionally in a copper pot) and served on a wooden plate, cut into small pieces, and laced with olive oil, sea salt, and ''pimentón'' (Spanish paprika).", "This dish is called ''pulpo a la gallega'' or in Galician ''polbo á feira'', which roughly translates as 'fair-style octopus', most commonly translated as 'Galician-style octopus'.", "There are several regional varieties of cheese.", "The best-known one is the so-called ''tetilla'', named after its breast-like shape.", "Other highly regarded varieties include the San Simón cheese from Vilalba and the creamy cheese produced in the Arzúa-Ulloa area.", "A classical is ''filloas'', crêpe-like pancakes made with flour, broth or milk, and eggs.", "When cooked at a pig slaughter festival, they may also contain the animal's blood.", "A famous almond cake called ''Tarta de Santiago'' (St. James' cake) is a Galician sweet specialty mainly produced in Santiago de Compostela and all around Galicia.Galician winesGalicia has 30 products with ''Denominación de orixe'' (D.O.", "), some of them with ''Denominación de Orixe Protexida'' (D.O.P.).", "D.O.", "and D.O.P.", "are part of a system of regulation of quality and geographical origin among Spain's finest producers.", "Galicia produces a number of high-quality Galician wines, including Albariño, Ribeiro, Ribeira Sacra, Monterrei and Valdeorras.", "The grape varieties used are local and rarely found outside Galicia and Northern Portugal.", "Just as notably from Galicia comes the spirit ''Augardente''—the name means burning water—often referred to as Orujo in Spain and internationally or as caña in Galicia.", "This spirit is made from the distillation of the pomace of grapes.===Music=======Folk and traditionally based music====Galician pipersGalician representation at the Lorient Interceltic FestivalThe traditional music of Galicia and Asturias features highly distinctive folk styles that have some similarities with the neighboring area of Cantabria.", "The music is characterized by the use of bagpipes.", "*Luar na Lubre: a band inspired by traditional Galician music.", "They have collaborated with Mike Oldfield and other musicians.", "*Carlos Núñez: he has also collaborated with a great number of artists, being notable for his long-term friendship with The Chieftains.", "*Susana Seivane: virtuoso piper.", "She descends from a family of pipe makers and stated she preferred pipes instead of dolls during her childhood.", "*Milladoiro*Cristina Pato: bagpiper and member of Yo-Yo Ma's Silk Road Ensemble.", "*Tanxugueiras*Berrogüetto*Sangre de Muerdago: forest folk band led by Pablo C. Ursusson, member of the legendary Galician neo crust band Ekkaia.====Pop and rock====*Andrés Suárez: singer-songwriter from Ferrol, known for his poetic, insightful and often romantic lyrics.", "*Los Suaves: hard rock/heavy metal band active since the early 1980s, from Ourense*Deluxe: pop/rock band from A Coruña led by Xoel López*Siniestro Total: punk rock*Os Resentidos: led by Antón Reixa in the 1980s*Heredeiros da Crus: rock band singing in Galician language*Iván Ferreiro*Xoel Lopez*Bala*Triángulo de Amor Bizarro*Arrythmia*Broa*Chicharrón====Hip-hop====*Dios Ke Te Crew: a powerful band of hip-hop with socially compromised lyrics.", "*Ezetaerre*Malandrómeda*Rebeliom do Inframundo===Literature, poetry and philosophy===As with many other Romance languages, Galician-Portuguese emerged as a literary language in the Middle Ages, during the 12th and 13th centuries, when a rich lyric tradition developed, followed by a minor prose tradition, whilst being the predominant language used for legal and private texts till the 15th century.", "However, in the face of the hegemony of Spanish, during the so-called ''Séculos Escuros'' (\"Dark Centuries\") from 1530 to the late 18th century, it fell from major literary or legal written use.Rosalía de Castro.As a literary language it was revived again during the 18th and, most notably, the 19th-century (''Rexurdimento'' ''Resurgence'') with such writers as Rosalía de Castro, Manuel Murguía, Manuel Leiras Pulpeiro, and Eduardo Pondal.", "In the 20th century, before the Spanish Civil War the ''Irmandades da Fala'' (\"Brotherhood of the Language\") and ''Grupo Nós'' included such writers as Vicente Risco, Ramón Cabanillas and Castelao.", "Public use of Galician was largely suppressed during the Franco dictatorship but has been resurgent since the restoration of democracy.", "Though written primarily in Castilian, several works by the Nobel laureate Camilo José Cela, notably ''Mazurka for Two Dead Men'', are set in the author's native Galicia and make frequent allusions to Galician folklore, customs, and language.", "Other notable Galician authors who wrote mostly in Spanish, but always around Galician subjects, are Valle-Inclán, Wenceslao Fernández Flórez, Emilia Pardo Bazán and Gonzalo Torrente Ballester.", "Contemporary writers in Galician include Xosé Luís Méndez Ferrín, Manuel Rivas, Chus Pato, and Suso de Toro.===Public holidays===* (St. Joseph's Day) on 19 March (strictly religious)* (May Day) on 1 May* (Galician Literature Day) on 17 May* (Galicia's National Day) also known as the Feast of Saint James on 25 July* on 15 August (strictly religious)====Festivals====Laza, allegedly dressed as 16th-century Castilian tax collectors* ''Entroido'', or Carnival, is a traditional celebration in Galicia, historically disliked and even forbidden by the Catholic Church.", "Famous celebrations are held in Laza, Verín, and Xinzo de Limia.", "* Festa do Corpus Christi in Ponteareas, has been observed since 1857 on the weekend following Corpus Christi (a movable feast) and is known for its floral carpets.", "It was declared a Festival of Tourist Interest in 1968 and a Festival of National Tourist Interest in 1980.", "* Feira Franca, the first weekend of September, in Pontevedra recreates an open market that first occurred in 1467.The fair commemorates the height of Pontevedra's prosperity in the 15th and 16th centuries, through historical recreation, theater, animation, and demonstration of artistic activities.", "Held annually since 2000.", "* Arde Lucus, in June, celebrates the Celtic and Roman history of the city of Lugo, with recreations of Celtic weddings, Roman circus, etc.", "* Bonfires of Saint John, ''Noite de San Xoán'' or ''Noite da Queima'' is widely spread in all Galician territory, celebrated as a welcome to the summer solstice since the Celtic period, and Christianized in Saint John's day eve.", "Bonfires are believed to make ''meigas'' (malicious or fallen witches), flee.", "They are particularly relevant in the city of Corunna, where it became Fiesta of National Tourist Interest of Spain.", "The whole city participates in making great bonfires in each district, whereas the centre of the party is located on the beaches of Riazor and Orzan, in the very city heart, where hundreds of bonfires of different sizes are lighted.", "Also, grilled sardines are very typical.", "* Rapa das Bestas (\"shearing of the beasts\") in Sabucedo, the first weekend in July, is the most famous of several ''rapas'' in Galicia and was declared a Festival of National Tourist Interest in 1963.Wild colts are driven down from the mountains and brought to a closed area known as a ''curro'', where their manes are cut and the animals are marked and assisted after a long winter in the hills.", "In Sabucedo, unlike in other ''rapas'', the ''aloitadores'' (\"fighters\") each take on their task with no assistance.", "* Festival de Ortigueira (Ortigueira's Festival of Celtic World) lasts four days in July, in Ortigueira.", "First celebrated in 1978–1987 and revived in 1995, the festival is based on Celtic culture, folk music, and the encounter of different peoples throughout Spain and the world.", "Attended by over 100,000 people, it is considered a Festival of National Tourist Interest.", "* Festa da Dorna, 24 July, in Ribeira.", "Founded in 1948, declared a Galician Festival of Tourist Interest in 2005.Founded as a joke by a group of friends, it includes the Gran Prix de Carrilanas, a regatta of hand-made boats; the Icarus Prize for Unmotorized Flight; and a musical competition, the Canción de Tasca.", "* Festas do Apóstolo Santiago (Festas of the Apostle James): the events in honor of the patron saint of Galicia last for half a month.", "The religious celebrations take place on 24 July.", "Celebrants set off fireworks, including a pyrotechnic castle in the form of the façade of the cathedral.", "* Romería Vikinga de Catoira (\"Viking Festival of Catoira\"), the first Sunday in August, is a secular festival that has occurred since 1960 and was declared a Festival of International Tourist Interest in 2002.It commemorates the historic defense of Galicia and the treasures of Santiago de Compostela from Norman and Saracen pirate attacks.", "* Festas da Peregrina in Pontevedra, 2nd week of August, celebrating the Pilgrim Virgin of Pontevedra.", "There is a bullfighting festival at the same time.", "Pontevedra is the only city where there is a permanent bullring.reenactor dressed as a Roman soldier.", "''Festa do esquecemento'', Xinzo de Limia* Festa de San Froilán, 4–12 October, celebrating the patron saint of the city of Lugo.", "A Festival of National Tourist Interest, the festival was attended by 1,035,000 people in 2008.It is most famous for the booths serving ''polbo á feira'', an octopus dish.", "* Festa do marisco (Seafood Festival), October, in O Grove.", "Established in 1963; declared a Festival of National Tourist Interest in the 1980s.In 2015 only five ''corridas'' took place within Galicia.In addition, recent studies have stated that 92% of Galicians are firmly against bullfighting, the highest rate in Spain.", "Despite this, popular associations, such as ''Galicia Mellor Sen Touradas'' (\"Galicia Better without Bullfights\"), have blamed politicians for having no compromise to abolish it and have been very critical of local councils', especially those governed by the PP and PSOE, payment of subsidies for corridas.", "The province government of Pontevedra stopped the end of these subsidies and declared the province \"free of bullfights\".", "The province government of A Coruña approved a document supporting the abolition of these events." ], [ "Media", "===Television===Televisión de Galicia (TVG) is the autonomous community's public channel, which has broadcast since 24 July 1985 and is part of the Compañía de Radio-Televisión de Galicia (CRTVG).", "TVG broadcasts throughout Galicia and has two international channels, Galicia Televisión Europa and Galicia Televisión América, available throughout the European Union and the Americas through Hispasat.", "CRTVG also broadcasts a digital terrestrial television (DTT) channel known as tvG2 and is considering adding further DTT channels, with a 24-hour news channel projected for 2010.===Radio===Radio Galega (RG) is the autonomous community's public radio station and is part of CRTVG.", "Radio Galega began broadcasting on 24 February 1985, with regular programming starting on 29 March 1985.There are two regular broadcast channels: Radio Galega and Radio Galega Música.", "In addition, there is a DTT and internet channel, Son Galicia Radio, dedicated specifically to Galician music.Galicia has several free and community radio stations.", "Cuac FM is the headquarters of the Community Media Network (which brings together media non-profit oriented and serves their community).", "CUAC FM (A Coruña), Radio Filispim (Ferrol), Radio Roncudo (corme), Kalimera Radio (Santiago de Compostela), Radio Piratona (Vigo) and Radio Clavi (Lugo) are part of the Galician Network of Free and Association of Community Radio Broadcasters(ReGaRLiC)===Press===The most widely distributed newspaper in Galicia is ''La Voz de Galicia'', with 12 local editions and a national edition.", "Other major newspapers are ''El Correo Gallego'' (Santiago de Compostela), ''Faro de Vigo'' (Vigo), ''Diario de Pontevedra'' (Pontevedra), ''El Progreso'' (Lugo), (Ourense), and ''Galicia Hoxe'' – The first daily newspaper to publish exclusively in Galician.", "Other newspapers are ''Diario de Ferrol'', the sports paper ''DxT Campeón'', ''El Ideal Gallego'' from A Coruña, the ''Heraldo de Vivero'', ''Atlántico Diario'' from Vigo and the ''Xornal de Galicia''." ], [ "Sport", "Galicia has a long sporting tradition dating back to the early 20th century when the majority of sports clubs in Spain were founded.", "The most popular and well-supported teams in the region are Deportivo de La Coruña and Celta Vigo.", "When the two sides play, it is referred to as the Galician derby.", "Deportivo was champion of La Liga in the 1999–2000 season.Pontevedra CF from Pontevedra and Racing Ferrol from Ferrol are two other notable clubs from Galicia as well as CD Lugo and SD Compostela.", "The Galician Football Federation periodically fields a national team against international opposition.", "This fact causes some political controversy because matches involving other national football teams different from the Spanish official national team threaten its status as the only national football team of the State.", "The policy of centralization in sport is very strong as it is systematically used as a patriotic device with which to build a symbol of the supposed unity of Spain which is a plurinational state.Football aside, the most popular team sports in Galicia are futsal, handball and basketball.", "In basketball, Obradoiro CAB is the most successful team of note, and currently, the only Galician team that plays in the Liga ACB; other teams are CB Breogan, Club Ourense Baloncesto and OAR Ferrol.", "In the sport of handball, Club Balonmán Cangas plays in the top-flight (Liga ASOBAL).", "The sport is particularly popular in the province of Pontevedra with the three other Galician teams in the top two divisions: SD Teucro (Pontevedra), Octavio Pilotes Posada (Vigo) and SD Chapela (Redondela).In roller hockey HC Liceo is the most successful Galician team, in any sport, with numerous European and World titles.", "In futsal teams, Lobelle Santiago and Azkar Lugo.Galicia is also known for its tradition of participation in water sports both at sea and in rivers; these include rowing, yachting, canoeing and surfing.", "Its athletes have regularly won medals in the Olympics; currently, the most notable examples are David Cal, Carlos Pérez Rial, and Fernando Echavarri.Galician triathlon contenders Francisco Javier Gómez Noya and Iván Raña have been world champions.", "In 2006 the cyclist Oscar Pereiro won the Tour de France after the disqualification of American Floyd Landis, gaining the top position on the penultimate day of the race.", "Galicians are also prominent athletes in the sport of mountaineering—Chus Lago is the third woman to reach the summit of Everest without supplemental oxygen.===Emerging sports===Since 2011, several Gaelic football teams have been set up in Galicia.", "The first was Fillos de Breogán (A Coruña), followed Artabros (Oleiros), Irmandinhos (A Estrada), SDG Corvos (Pontevedra), and Suebia (Santiago de Compostela) with talk of creating a Galician league.", "Galicia also fielded a Gaelic football side (recognised as national by the GAA) that beat Brittany in July 2012 and was reported in the Spanish nationwide press.Rugby is growing in popularity, although the success of local teams is hampered by the absence of experienced ex-pat players from English-speaking countries typically seen at teams based on the Mediterranean coast or in the big cities.", "Galicia has a long-established Rugby Federation that organises its own women's, children's, and men's leagues.", "Galicia has also fielded a national side for friendly matches against other regions of Spain and Portugal.", "A team of ex-pat Galicians in Salvador, Brazil have also formed Galicia Rugby, a sister team of the local football club." ], [ "Symbols", "Coat of arms of the Kingdom of Galicia (''L'armorial Le Blancq'', c. 1560 AD).A golden chalice enclosed in a field of azure has been the symbol of Galicia since the 13th century.", "Originated as a Canting arms due to the phonetic similarity between the words \"chalice\" and ''Galyce'' (\"Galicia\" in old Norman language), the first documented mention of this emblem is on the ''Segar's Roll'', an English medieval roll of arms where are represented all the Christian kingdoms of 13th-century Europe.", "In the following centuries, the Galician emblem was variating; diverse shapes and several chalices (initially three and later one or five), would not be until the 16th century that its number was fixed finally as one single chalice.", "Centuries after, a field of crosses was slowly added to the azure background, and latterly also a silver host.", "Since then basically, the emblem of the kingdom would be kept until nowadays.The ancient flag of the Kingdom of Galicia was based mainly on its coat of arms until the 19th century.", "However, when in 1833 the Government of Spain decided to abolish the kingdom and divided it into four provinces, the Galician emblem, as well as the flag, lost its legal status and international validity.", "It would not be until the late 19th century that some Galician intellectuals (nationalist politicians and writers) began to use a new flag as a symbol of renewed national unity for Galicia.", "That flag, which was composed of a diagonal stripe over a white background, was designated the \"official flag of Galicia\" in 1984, after the fall of Franco's dictatorship.", "In addition, the Royal Academy of Galicia asked the Galician government to incorporate the ancient coat of arms of the kingdom onto the modern flag, being present in it since then.In addition to its coat of arms and flag, Galicia also has its own anthem.", "While it is true that the Kingdom of Galicia had during centuries a kind of unofficial anthem known as the \"Solemn March of the kingdom\", the Galician current anthem was not created until 1907, although its composition had begun already in 1880.Titled \"Os Pinos\" (\"The Pines\"), the Galician anthem lyrics were written by Eduardo Pondal, one of the greatest modern Galician poets, and its music was composed by Pascual Veiga.", "Performed for the first time in 1907 in Havana (Cuba) by Galician emigrants, the anthem was banned from 1927 by diverse Spanish Governments until 1977 when it was officially established by the Galician authorities." ], [ "Galicians" ], [ "Honour", "Galicia Peak in Vinson Massif, Antarctica is named after the autonomous community of Galicia." ], [ "Image gallery", "Dolmen axeitos.JPG|''Anta'' (dolmen) at Axeitos, Ribeira.", "Hundreds of megaliths are still preserved in GaliciaCabo Fisterra desde o Monte Pindo.jpg|''Fisterra'' or Cape Finisterre, meaning 'Land's End', one of the westernmost points in continental EuropeBreogan e Torre de Hércules.jpg|Tower of Hercules, a Roman lighthouse and a World Heritage monument, A CoruñaMuros_de_San_Cibrao_de_Las.jpg|Gates of the Iron Age oppidum of San Cibrao de Las, one of the largest ''castros'' of GaliciaGaiteiros em romaria galega.jpg|''Gaiteiros'', or bagpipe players.", "''Gaita'' ('bagpipe') is the most representative Galician musical instrumentQueimada_Galicia_4.jpg|''Queimada'', a traditional drink obtained after partially burning local ''augardente'' (grappa)2015 Hórreo de Lira.", "Carnota.", "Galiza 2.jpg|A ''hórreo'' or ''cabaceiro'' or ''canastro'', a traditional and ubiquitous granaryIglesia de San Jorge, La Coruña, España, 2015-09-25, DD 42.jpg|A ''cruceiro'', or wayside cross, and San Xurxo church in A CoruñaCiervo cuernos.jpg|Millenarian rock carvings, ''Laxe dos carballos'' at Campo Lameiro, in this detail depicts a deer hit by several spearsPontevedra 13 Praza da leña.jpg|Leña square, PontevedraCastelo (Monforte de Lemos).jpg|Castle and Monastery of San Vicente do Pino, Monforte de LemosMuralla.Lugo.Galicia.jpg|Roman Walls of Lugo, a World Heritage monumentDorna a vela.jpg|A traditional ''dorna'', a fisherman boat common in the Ria de ArousaFaro Silleiro.jpg|The rocky coast of Cabo Silleiro, Baiona" ], [ "See also", "*List of castros in Galicia*Pazos in Pontevedra and Terra de Montes*Timeline of Galician history" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* Bell, Aubrey F. B.", "(1922).", "''Spanish Galicia''.", "London: John Lane The Bodley Head Ltd.* Meakin, Annette M. B.", "(1909).", "''Galicia: The Switzerland of Spain''.", "London: Methuen & Co." ], [ "External links", "* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "G protein" ], [ "Introduction", "Phosducin-transducin beta-gamma complex.", "Beta and gamma subunits of G-protein are shown by blue and red, respectively.Guanosine diphosphateGuanosine triphosphate'''G proteins''', also known as '''guanine nucleotide-binding proteins''', are a family of proteins that act as molecular switches inside cells, and are involved in transmitting signals from a variety of stimuli outside a cell to its interior.", "Their activity is regulated by factors that control their ability to bind to and hydrolyze guanosine triphosphate (GTP) to guanosine diphosphate (GDP).", "When they are bound to GTP, they are 'on', and, when they are bound to GDP, they are 'off'.", "G proteins belong to the larger group of enzymes called GTPases.There are two classes of G proteins.", "The first function as monomeric small GTPases (small G-proteins), while the second function as heterotrimeric G protein complexes.", "The latter class of complexes is made up of ''alpha'' (Gα), ''beta'' (Gβ) and ''gamma'' (Gγ) subunits.", "In addition, the beta and gamma subunits can form a stable dimeric complex referred to as the beta-gamma complex.Heterotrimeric G proteins located within the cell are activated by G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) that span the cell membrane.", "Signaling molecules bind to a domain of the GPCR located outside the cell, and an intracellular GPCR domain then in turn activates a particular G protein.", "Some active-state GPCRs have also been shown to be \"pre-coupled\" with G proteins, whereas in other cases a collision coupling mechanism is thought to occur.", "The G protein triggers a cascade of further signaling events that finally results in a change in cell function.", "G protein-coupled receptors and G proteins working together transmit signals from many hormones, neurotransmitters, and other signaling factors.", "G proteins regulate metabolic enzymes, ion channels, transporter proteins, and other parts of the cell machinery, controlling transcription, motility, contractility, and secretion, which in turn regulate diverse systemic functions such as embryonic development, learning and memory, and homeostasis." ], [ "History", "G proteins were discovered in 1980 when Alfred G. Gilman and Martin Rodbell investigated stimulation of cells by adrenaline.", "They found that when adrenaline binds to a receptor, the receptor does not stimulate enzymes (inside the cell) directly.", "Instead, the receptor stimulates a G protein, which then stimulates an enzyme.", "An example is adenylate cyclase, which produces the second messenger cyclic AMP.", "For this discovery, they won the 1994 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.Nobel prizes have been awarded for many aspects of signaling by G proteins and GPCRs.", "These include receptor antagonists, neurotransmitters, neurotransmitter reuptake, G protein-coupled receptors, G proteins, second messengers, the enzymes that trigger protein phosphorylation in response to cAMP, and consequent metabolic processes such as glycogenolysis.Prominent examples include (in chronological order of awarding):* The 1947 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine to Carl Cori, Gerty Cori and Bernardo Houssay, for their discovery of how glycogen is broken down to glucose and resynthesized in the body, for use as a store and source of energy.", "Glycogenolysis is stimulated by numerous hormones and neurotransmitters including adrenaline.", "* The 1970 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine to Julius Axelrod, Bernard Katz and Ulf von Euler for their work on the release and reuptake of neurotransmitters.", "* The 1971 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine to Earl Sutherland for discovering the key role of adenylate cyclase, which produces the second messenger cyclic AMP.", "* The 1988 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine to George H. Hitchings, Sir James Black and Gertrude Elion \"for their discoveries of important principles for drug treatment\" targeting GPCRs.", "* The 1992 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine to Edwin G. Krebs and Edmond H. Fischer for describing how reversible phosphorylation works as a switch to activate proteins, and to regulate various cellular processes including glycogenolysis.", "* The 1994 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine to Alfred G. Gilman and Martin Rodbell for their discovery of \"G-proteins and the role of these proteins in signal transduction in cells\".", "* The 2000 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine to Eric Kandel, Arvid Carlsson and Paul Greengard, for research on neurotransmitters such as dopamine, which act via GPCRs.", "* The 2004 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine to Richard Axel and Linda B. Buck for their work on G protein-coupled olfactory receptors.", "* The 2012 Nobel Prize in Chemistry to Brian Kobilka and Robert Lefkowitz for their work on GPCR function." ], [ "Function", "G proteins are important signal transducing molecules in cells.", "\"Malfunction of GPCR G Protein-Coupled Receptor signaling pathways are involved in many diseases, such as diabetes, blindness, allergies, depression, cardiovascular defects, and certain forms of cancer.", "It is estimated that about 30% of the modern drugs' cellular targets are GPCRs.\"", "The human genome encodes roughly 800 G protein-coupled receptors, which detect photons of light, hormones, growth factors, drugs, and other endogenous ligands.", "Approximately 150 of the GPCRs found in the human genome still have unknown functions.Whereas G proteins are activated by G protein-coupled receptors, they are inactivated by RGS proteins (for \"Regulator of G protein signalling\").", "Receptors stimulate GTP binding (turning the G protein on).", "RGS proteins stimulate GTP hydrolysis (creating GDP, thus turning the G protein off)." ], [ "Diversity", "Sequence relationship among the 18 human Gα proteins.All eukaryotes use G proteins for signaling and have evolved a large diversity of G proteins.", "For instance, humans encode 18 different Gα proteins, 5 Gβ proteins, and 12 Gγ proteins." ], [ "Signaling", "G protein can refer to two distinct families of proteins.", "Heterotrimeric G proteins, sometimes referred to as the \"large\" G proteins, are activated by G protein-coupled receptors and are made up of alpha (α), beta (β), and gamma (γ) subunits.", "''\"Small\" G proteins'' (20-25kDa) belong to the Ras superfamily of small GTPases.", "These proteins are homologous to the alpha (α) subunit found in heterotrimers, but are in fact monomeric, consisting of only a single unit.", "However, like their larger relatives, they also bind GTP and GDP and are involved in signal transduction.=== Heterotrimeric ===Different types of heterotrimeric G proteins share a common mechanism.", "They are activated in response to a conformational change in the GPCR, exchanging GDP for GTP, and dissociating in order to activate other proteins in a particular signal transduction pathway.", "The specific mechanisms, however, differ between protein types.===Mechanism===Activation cycle of G-proteins (pink) by a G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR, light blue) receiving a ligand (red).", "Ligand binding to GPCRs (2) induces a conformation change that facilitates the exchange of GDP for GTP on the α subunit of the heterotrimeric complex (3-4).", "Both GTP-bound Gα in the active form and the released Gβγ dimer can then go on to stimulate a number of downstream effectors (5).", "When the GTP on Gα is hydrolyzed to GDP (6) the original receptor is restored (1).Receptor-activated G proteins are bound to the inner surface of the cell membrane.", "They consist of the Gα and the tightly associated Gβγ subunits.", "There are four main families of Gα subunits: Gαs (G stimulatory), Gαi (G inhibitory), Gαq/11, and Gα12/13.They behave differently in the recognition of the effector molecule, but share a similar mechanism of activation.==== Activation ====When a ligand activates the G protein-coupled receptor, it induces a conformational change in the receptor that allows the receptor to function as a guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF) that exchanges GDP for GTP.", "The GTP (or GDP) is bound to the Gα subunit in the traditional view of heterotrimeric GPCR activation.", "This exchange triggers the dissociation of the Gα subunit (which is bound to GTP) from the Gβγ dimer and the receptor as a whole.", "However, models which suggest molecular rearrangement, reorganization, and pre-complexing of effector molecules are beginning to be accepted.", "Both Gα-GTP and Gβγ can then activate different ''signaling cascades'' (or ''second messenger pathways'') and effector proteins, while the receptor is able to activate the next G protein.==== Termination ====The Gα subunit will eventually hydrolyze the attached GTP to GDP by its inherent enzymatic activity, allowing it to re-associate with Gβγ and starting a new cycle.", "A group of proteins called Regulator of G protein signalling (RGSs), act as GTPase-activating proteins (GAPs), are specific for Gα subunits.", "These proteins accelerate the hydrolysis of GTP to GDP, thus terminating the transduced signal.", "In some cases, the effector ''itself'' may possess intrinsic GAP activity, which then can help deactivate the pathway.", "This is true in the case of phospholipase C-beta, which possesses GAP activity within its C-terminal region.", "This is an alternate form of regulation for the Gα subunit.", "Such Gα GAPs do not have catalytic residues (specific amino acid sequences) to activate the Gα protein.", "They work instead by lowering the required activation energy for the reaction to take place.====Specific mechanisms=========Gαs====='''Gαs''' activates the cAMP-dependent pathway by stimulating the production of cyclic AMP (cAMP) from ATP.", "This is accomplished by direct stimulation of the membrane-associated enzyme adenylate cyclase.", "cAMP can then act as a second messenger that goes on to interact with and activate protein kinase A (PKA).", "PKA can phosphorylate a myriad downstream targets.The cAMP-dependent pathway is used as a signal transduction pathway for many hormones including:* ADH – Promotes water retention by the kidneys (created by the magnocellular neurosecretory cells of the posterior pituitary)* GHRH – Stimulates the synthesis and release of GH (somatotropic cells of the anterior pituitary)* GHIH – Inhibits the synthesis and release of GH (somatotropic cells of anterior pituitary)* CRH – Stimulates the synthesis and release of ACTH (anterior pituitary)* ACTH – Stimulates the synthesis and release of cortisol (zona fasciculata of the adrenal cortex in the adrenal glands)* TSH – Stimulates the synthesis and release of a majority of T4 (thyroid gland)* LH – Stimulates follicular maturation and ovulation in women; or testosterone production and spermatogenesis in men* FSH – Stimulates follicular development in women; or spermatogenesis in men* PTH – Increases blood calcium levels.", "This is accomplished via the parathyroid hormone 1 receptor (PTH1) in the kidneys and bones, or via the parathyroid hormone 2 receptor (PTH2) in the central nervous system and brain, as well as the bones and kidneys.", "* Calcitonin – Decreases blood calcium levels (via the calcitonin receptor in the intestines, bones, kidneys, and brain)* Glucagon – Stimulates glycogen breakdown in the liver* hCG – Promotes cellular differentiation, and is potentially involved in apoptosis.", "* Epinephrine – released by the ''adrenal medulla'' during the fasting state, when body is under metabolic duress.", "It stimulates glycogenolysis, in addition to the actions of glucagon.=====Gαi====='''Gαi''' inhibits the production of cAMP from ATP.e.g.", "somatostatin, prostaglandins=====Gαq/11====='''Gαq/11''' stimulates the membrane-bound phospholipase C beta, which then cleaves PIP2 (a minor membrane phosphoinositol) into two second messengers, IP3 and diacylglycerol (DAG).The Inositol Phospholipid Dependent Pathway is used as a signal transduction pathway for many hormones including:* ADH (Vasopressin/AVP) – Induces the synthesis and release of glucocorticoids (Zona fasciculata of adrenal cortex); Induces vasoconstriction (V1 Cells of Posterior pituitary)* TRH – Induces the synthesis and release of TSH (Anterior pituitary gland)* TSH – Induces the synthesis and release of a small amount of T4 (Thyroid Gland)* Angiotensin II – Induces Aldosterone synthesis and release (zona glomerulosa of adrenal cortex in kidney)* GnRH – Induces the synthesis and release of FSH and LH (Anterior Pituitary)=====Gα12/13=====*'''Gα12/13''' are involved in Rho family GTPase signaling (see Rho family of GTPases).", "This is through the RhoGEF superfamily involving the RhoGEF domain of the proteins' structures).", "These are involved in control of cell cytoskeleton remodeling, and thus in regulating cell migration.=====Gβ, Gγ=====*The '''Gβγ''' complexes sometimes also have active functions.", "Examples include coupling to and activating G protein-coupled inwardly-rectifying potassium channels.===Small GTPases===Small GTPases, also known as small G-proteins, bind GTP and GDP likewise, and are involved in signal transduction.", "These proteins are homologous to the alpha (α) subunit found in heterotrimers, but exist as monomers.", "They are small (20-kDa to 25-kDa) proteins that bind to guanosine triphosphate (GTP).", "This family of proteins is homologous to the Ras GTPases and is also called the Ras superfamily GTPases." ], [ "Lipidation", "In order to associate with the inner leaflet of the plasma membrane, many G proteins and small GTPases are lipidated, that is, covalently modified with lipid extensions.", "They may be myristoylated, palmitoylated or prenylated." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gary Gygax" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Ernest Gary Gygax''' ( ; July 27, 1938 – March 4, 2008) was an American game designer and author best known for co-creating the pioneering tabletop role-playing game ''Dungeons & Dragons'' (''D&D'') with Dave Arneson.In the 1960s, Gygax created an organization of wargaming clubs and founded the Gen Con gaming convention.", "In 1971, he co-developed ''Chainmail'', a miniatures wargame based on medieval warfare with Jeff Perren.", "He co-founded the company Tactical Studies Rules (TSR, Inc.) with childhood friend Don Kaye in 1973.The next year, he and Dave Arneson created ''D&D'', which expanded on Gygax's ''Chainmail'' and included elements of the fantasy stories he loved as a child.", "In 1976, he founded ''The Dragon'', a magazine based around the new game.", "In 1977, Gygax began work on a more comprehensive version of the game, called ''Advanced Dungeons & Dragons''.", "He designed numerous manuals for the game system, as well as several pre-packaged adventures called \"modules\" that gave a person running a ''D&D'' game (the \"Dungeon Master\") a rough script and ideas for how to run a game scenario.", "In 1983, he worked to license the ''D&D'' product line into the successful ''D&D'' cartoon series.After leaving TSR in 1986 over conflicts with its new majority owner, Gygax continued to create role-playing game titles independently, beginning with the multi-genre ''Dangerous Journeys'' in 1992.He designed another gaming system, ''Lejendary Adventure'', released in 1999.In 2005, Gygax was involved in the ''Castles & Crusades'' role-playing game, which was conceived as a hybrid between the third edition of ''D&D'' and the original version of the game conceived by Gygax.Gygax was married twice and had six children.", "In 2004, he had two strokes and narrowly avoided a subsequent heart attack; he was then diagnosed with an abdominal aortic aneurysm, and died in March 2008 at 69.Following Gygax's funeral, many mourners adjourned to the nearby American Legion hall to play games.", "This impromptu game event has become known since as Gary Con 0, and since then gamers celebrate in Lake Geneva each March with a large role-playing game convention in Gygax's honor." ], [ "Early life and inspiration", "Gygax was born in Chicago, the son of Almina Emelie \"Posey\" (Burdick) and Swiss immigrant and former Chicago Symphony Orchestra violinist Ernst Gygax.", "He was named Ernest after his father, but was commonly known as Gary, the middle name given to him by his mother after the actor Gary Cooper.", "The family lived on Kenmore Avenue, close enough to Wrigley Field that he could hear the roar of the crowds watching the Chicago Cubs play.", "At age 7, he became a member of a small group of friends who called themselves the \"Kenmore Pirates\".", "In 1946, after the Kenmore Pirates were involved in a fracas with another gang of boys, his father decided to move the family to Posey's family home in Lake Geneva, Wisconsin, where Posey's family had settled in the early 19th century, and where Gary's grandparents still lived.In this new setting, Gygax soon made friends with several of his peers, including Don Kaye and Mary Jo Powell.", "During his childhood and teen years, he developed a love of games and an appreciation for fantasy and science fiction literature.", "When he was five, he played card games such as pinochle and then board games such as chess.", "At age ten, he and his friends played the sort of make-believe games that eventually came to be called \"live action role-playing games\", with one of them acting as referee.", "His father introduced him to science fiction and fantasy through pulp novels.", "His interest in games, combined with an appreciation of history, eventually led Gygax to begin playing miniature war games in 1953 with his best friend, Don Kaye.", "As teenagers, Gygax and Kaye designed their own miniatures rules for toy soldiers with a large collection of and figures, where they used \"ladyfingers\" (small firecrackers) to simulate explosions.By his teens, Gygax had a voracious appetite for pulp fiction authors such as Robert E. Howard, Jack Vance, Fritz Leiber, H. P. Lovecraft, and Edgar Rice Burroughs.", "He was a mediocre student, and in 1956, a few months after his father died, he dropped out of high school in his junior year.", "He joined the Marines, but after being diagnosed with walking pneumonia, he received a medical discharge and moved back home with his mother.", "From there, he commuted to a job as a shipping clerk with Kemper Insurance Co. in Chicago.", "Shortly after his return, a friend introduced him to Avalon Hill's new wargame ''Gettysburg.''", "Gygax was soon obsessed with the game, often playing marathon sessions once or more a week.", "It was also from Avalon Hill that he ordered the first blank hex mapping sheets available, which he then employed to design his own games.About the same time that he discovered ''Gettysburg'', his mother reintroduced him to Mary Jo Powell, who had left Lake Geneva as a child and just returned.", "Gygax was smitten with her and, after a short courtship, persuaded her to marry him, despite being only 19.This caused some friction with Kaye, who had also been wooing Mary Jo.", "Kaye refused to attend Gygax's wedding.", "Kaye and Gygax reconciled after the wedding.The couple moved to Chicago where Gygax continued as a shipping clerk at Kemper Insurance.", "He found a job for Mary Jo there, but the company laid her off when she became pregnant with their first child.", "He also took anthropology classes at the University of Chicago.Despite his commitments to his job, raising a family, school, and his political volunteerism, Gygax continued to play wargames.", "It reached the point that Mary Jo, pregnant with their second child, believed he was having an affair and confronted him in a friend's basement only to discover him and his friends sitting around a map-covered table.In 1962, Gygax got a job as an insurance underwriter at Fireman's Fund Insurance Co. His family continued to grow, and after his third child was born, he decided to move his family back to Lake Geneva.", "Except for a few months he spent in Clinton, Wisconsin, after his divorce, and his time in Hollywood while he was the head of TSR's entertainment division, Lake Geneva was his home for the rest of his life.", "By 1966, Gygax was active in the wargame hobby world and was writing many magazine articles on the subject.", "He learned about H. G. Wells's ''Little Wars'' book for play of military miniatures wargames and Fletcher Pratt's ''Naval Wargame'' book.", "Gygax later looked for innovative ways to generate random numbers, and used not only common six-sided dice, but dice of all five Platonic solid shapes, which he discovered in a school supply catalog.Gygax cited as influences the fantasy and science fiction authors Robert E. Howard, L. Sprague de Camp, Jack Vance, Fletcher Pratt, Fritz Leiber, Poul Anderson, A. Merritt, and H. P. Lovecraft." ], [ "Wargames", "In 1967, Gygax co-founded the International Federation of Wargamers (IFW) with Bill Speer and Scott Duncan.", "The IFW grew rapidly, particularly by assimilating several preexisting wargaming clubs, and aimed to promote interest in wargames of all periods.", "It provided a forum for wargamers via its newsletters and societies, which enabled them to form local groups and share rules.", "In 1967, Gygax organized a 20-person gaming meet in the basement of his home; this event was later called \"Gen Con 0\".", "In 1968, he rented Lake Geneva's vine-covered Horticultural Hall for $50 () to hold the first Lake Geneva Convention, also known as the Gen Con gaming convention.", "Gen Con is now one of North America's largest annual hobby-game gatherings.", "Gygax met Dave Arneson, the future co-creator of ''D&D'', at the second Gen Con in August 1969.Together with Don Kaye, Mike Reese, and Leon Tucker, Gygax created a military miniatures society called Lake Geneva Tactical Studies Association (LGTSA) in 1970, with its first headquarters in Gygax's basement.", "Shortly thereafter in 1970, Gygax and Robert Kuntz founded the Castle & Crusade Society of the IFW.In October 1970, Gygax lost his job at the insurance company after almost nine years.", "Unemployed and now with five children he tried to use his enthusiasm for games to make a living by designing board games for commercial sale.", "This proved unsustainable when he grossed only $882 in 1971 ().", "He began cobbling shoes in his basement, which provided him with a steady income and gave him more time for game development.", "In 1971, he began doing some editing work at Guidon Games, a publisher of wargames, for which he produced the board games ''Alexander the Great'' and ''Dunkirk: The Battle of France''.", "Early that same year, Gygax published ''Chainmail'', a miniatures wargame that simulated medieval-era tactical combat, which he had originally written with hobby-shop owner Jeff Perren.", "The ''Chainmail'' medieval miniatures rules were originally published in the Castle & Crusade Society's fanzine ''The Domesday Book''.", "Guidon Games hired Gygax to produce a \"Wargaming with Miniatures\" series of games, and a new edition of ''Chainmail'' (1971) was the first book in the series.", "The first edition of ''Chainmail'' included a fantasy supplement to the rules.", "These comprised a system for warriors, wizards, and various monsters of nonhuman races drawn from the works of J. R. R. Tolkien and other sources.", "For a small publisher like Guidon Games, ''Chainmail'' was relatively successful, selling 100 copies per month.Gygax also collaborated on Tractics with Mike Reese and Leon Tucker, his contribution being the change to a 20-sided spinner or a coffee can with 20 numbered poker chips (eventually, 20-sided dice) to decide combat resolutions instead of the standard six-sided dice.", "He also collaborated with Arneson on the Napoleonic naval wargame ''Don't Give Up the Ship!", "''Dave Arneson briefly adapted the ''Chainmail'' rules for his fantasy ''Blackmoor'' campaign.", "In the fall of 1972, around late November, Arneson and friend David Megarry, inventor of the Dungeon!", "board game, traveled to Lake Geneva to showcase their respective games to Gygax, in his role as a representative of Guidon Games.", "Gygax saw potential in both games, and was especially excited by Arneson's role-playing game.", "Gygax and Arneson immediately started to collaborate on creating \"The Fantasy Game\", the role-playing game that evolved into ''Dungeons & Dragons''.Two weeks after Arneson's ''Blackmoor'' demonstration, Gygax had produced a 50-page set of rules, and was ready to try it on his two oldest children, Ernie and Elise, in a setting he called \"Greyhawk\".", "This group rapidly expanded to include Kaye, Kuntz, and eventually a large circle of players.", "Gygax sent the 50 pages of rules to his wargaming contacts and asked them to playtest the new game.", "Gygax and Arneson continued to trade notes about their respective campaigns.", "But the final draft contained changes not vetted by Arneson, and Gygax's vision differed on some rule details Arneson had preferred.Based on the feedback he received, Gygax created a 150-page revision of the rules by mid-1973.Several aspects of the system governing magic in the game were inspired by fantasy author Jack Vance's ''The Dying Earth'' stories (notably that ''magic-users'' in the game forget the spells that they have learned immediately upon casting them and must re-study them in order to cast them again), and the system as a whole drew upon the work of authors such as Robert E. Howard, L. Sprague de Camp, Michael Moorcock, Roger Zelazny, Poul Anderson, Tolkien, Bram Stoker, and others.", "He asked Guidon Games to publish it, but the three-volume rule set in a labeled box was beyond the small publisher's scope.", "Gygax pitched the game to Avalon Hill, but it did not understand the concept of role-playing and turned down his offer.By 1974, Gygax's Greyhawk group, which had started off with himself, Ernie Gygax, Don Kaye, Rob Kuntz, and Terry Kuntz, had grown to over 20 people, with Rob Kuntz becoming co-dungeon-master so that each of them could referee groups of only a dozen players." ], [ "TSR", "Gygax left Guidon Games in 1973 and in October, with Don Kaye as a partner, founded Tactical Studies Rules, later known as TSR, Inc.", "The two men each invested $1,000 in the venture—Kaye borrowed his share on his life insurance policy—to print a thousand copies of the ''Dungeons & Dragons'' boxed set.", "They also tried to raise money by immediately publishing a set of wargame rules called ''Cavaliers and Roundheads'', but sales were poor; when the printing costs for the thousand copies of ''Dungeons & Dragons'' rose from $2000 to $2500, they still did not have enough capital to publish it.", "Worried that the other playtesters and wargamers now familiar with Gygax's rules would bring a similar product to the market first, the two accepted an offer in December 1973 from gaming acquaintance Brian Blume to invest $2,000 in TSR to become an equal one-third partner.", "(Gygax accepted Blume's offer right away.", "Kaye was less enthusiastic, and after a week to consider the offer, he questioned Blume closely before acquiescing.)", "Blume's investment finally brought the financing that enabled them to publish ''D&D''.", "Gygax worked on rules for more miniatures and tabletop battle games including ''Classic Warfare'' (Ancient Period: 1500 BC to 500 AD) and ''Warriors of Mars''.TSR released the first commercial version of ''D&D'' in January 1974 as a boxed set.", "Sales of the hand-assembled print run of 1,000 copies, put together in Gygax's home, sold out in less than a year.", "(In 2018, a first printing of the boxed set sold at auction for more than $20,000.", ")At the end of 1974, with sales of D&D skyrocketing, the future looked bright for Gygax and Kaye, who were only 36.But in January 1975, Kaye unexpectedly died of a heart attack.", "He had not made any specific provision in his will regarding his share of the company, simply leaving his entire estate to his wife Donna.", "Although she had worked briefly for TSR as an accountant, she did not share her husband's enthusiasm for gaming, and made clear that she would not have anything to do with managing the company.", "Gygax called her \"less than personable... After Don died she dumped all the Tactical Studies Rules materials off on my front porch.", "It would have been impossible to manage a business with her involved as a partner.\"", "After Kaye's death, TSR was forced to relocate from Kaye's dining room to Gygax's basement.", "In July 1975, Gygax and Blume reorganized their company from a partnership to a corporation called TSR Hobbies.", "Gygax owned 150 shares, Blume the other 100 shares, and both had the option to buy up to 700 shares at any time in the future.", "But TSR Hobbies had nothing to publish—D&D was still owned by the three-way partnership of TSR, and neither Gygax nor Blume had the money to buy out Donna Kaye's shares.", "Blume persuaded a reluctant Gygax to allow his father, Melvin Blume, to buy Donna's shares, and those were converted to 200 shares in TSR Hobbies.", "In addition, Brian bought another 140 shares.", "These purchases reduced Gygax from majority shareholder in control of the company to minority shareholder; he effectively became the Blumes' employee.Gygax wrote the supplements ''Greyhawk'', ''Eldritch Wizardry'', and ''Swords & Spells'' for the original ''D&D game''.", "With Brian Blume, he also designed the wild west-oriented role-playing game ''Boot Hill''.", "The same year, Gygax created the magazine ''The Strategic Review'' with himself as editor.", "But wanting a more industry-wide periodical, he hired Tim Kask as TSR's first employee to change this magazine to the fantasy periodical ''The Dragon'', with Gygax as writer, columnist, and publisher (from 1978 to 1981).", "''The Dragon'' debuted in June 1976, and Gygax said of its success years later: \"When I decided that ''The Strategic Review'' was not the right vehicle, hired Tim Kask as a magazine editor for Tactical Studies Rules, and named the new publication he was to produce ''The Dragon'', I thought we would eventually have a great periodical to serve gaming enthusiasts worldwide ... At no time did I ever contemplate so great a success or so long a lifespan.", "\"In 1976, TSR moved out of Gygax's house into its first professional home, known as \"The Dungeon Hobby Shop\".", "Arneson was hired as part of the creative staff, but was let go after only ten months, another sign that Gygax and Arneson had creative differences over D&D.=== ''Advanced Dungeons & Dragons'' and Hollywood===The ''Dungeons & Dragons Basic Set'', released in 1977, was an introductory version of the original ''D&D'' geared toward new players and edited by J. Eric Holmes.", "The same year, TSR Hobbies released a completely new and complex version of ''D&D'', ''Advanced Dungeons & Dragons'' (''AD&D'').", "The ''Monster Manual'', released later that year, became the first supplemental rule book of the new system, and many more followed.", "''AD&D'' rules were not fully compatible with those of the ''D&D Basic Set'' and as a result, ''D&D'' and ''AD&D'' became distinct product lines.", "Splitting the game lines created a further rift between Gygax and Arneson; although Arneson received a 10% royalty on sales of all ''D&D'' products, Gygax refused to pay him royalties on ''AD&D'' books, claiming it was a new and different property.", "In 1979, Arneson sued TSR; they settled in March 1981 with the agreement that Arneson would receive a 2.5% royalty on all AD&D products, giving him a six-figure annual income for the next decade.Gygax wrote the ''AD&D'' hardcovers ''Players Handbook'', ''Dungeon Masters Guide'', ''Monster Manual,'' and ''Monster Manual II''.", "He also wrote or co-wrote many ''AD&D'' and basic ''D&D'' adventure modules, including ''The Keep on the Borderlands'', ''Tomb of Horrors'', ''Expedition to the Barrier Peaks'', ''The Temple of Elemental Evil'', ''The Forgotten Temple of Tharizdun'', ''Mordenkainen's Fantastic Adventure'', ''Isle of the Ape'', and all seven of the modules later combined into ''Queen of the Spiders''.", "In 1980, Gygax's long-time campaign setting Greyhawk was published in the form of the ''World of Greyhawk Fantasy World Setting'' folio, which was expanded in 1983 into the ''World of Greyhawk Fantasy Game Setting'' boxed set.", "Sales of the ''D&D'' game reached $8.5 million in 1980.Gygax also provided assistance on the ''Gamma World'' science fantasy role-playing game in 1981 and co-authored the ''Gamma World'' adventure ''Legion of Gold''.In 1979, a Michigan State University student, James Dallas Egbert III, allegedly disappeared into the school's steam tunnels while playing a live-action version of ''D&D''.", "In fact, Egbert was discovered in Louisiana several weeks later, but negative mainstream media attention focused on ''D&D'' as the cause.", "In 1982, Patricia Pulling's son killed himself.", "Blaming ''D&D'' for her son's suicide, Pulling formed the organization B.A.D.D.", "(Bothered About Dungeons & Dragons) to attack the game and TSR.", "Gygax defended the game on a segment of ''60 Minutes'' that aired in 1985.When death threats started arriving at the TSR office, he hired a bodyguard.", "Despite the negative publicity, or perhaps because of it, TSR's annual ''D&D'' sales increased in 1982 to $16 million, and in January 1983, ''The New York Times'' speculated that ''D&D'' might become \"the great game of the 1980s\" in the same manner that ''Monopoly'' was emblematic of the Great Depression.Brian Blume persuaded Gygax to allow Brian's brother Kevin to purchase Melvin Blume's shares.", "This gave the Blume brothers a controlling interest, and by 1981, Gygax and the Blumes were increasingly at loggerheads over the company's management.", "Gygax's frustrations at work and increased prosperity from his generous royalties brought a number of changes to his personal life.", "He and Mary Jo had been active members of the local Jehovah's Witnesses, but others in the congregation already felt uneasy about Gygax's smoking and drinking; his connection to the \"satanic\" game D&D caused enough friction that the Gygaxes finally disassociated themselves from Jehovah's Witnesses.", "Continuing to resent the amount of time her husband spent \"playing games\", Mary Jo had begun to drink excessively, and the couple argued frequently.", "Gygax, who had started smoking marijuana when he lost his insurance job in 1970, started to use cocaine, and had a number of extramarital affairs.", "In 1983, the two had an acrimonious divorce.At the same time, the Blumes, wanting to get Gygax out of Lake Geneva so they could manage the company without his \"interference\", split TSR Hobbies into TSR, Inc., and TSR Entertainment, Inc. Gygax became president of TSR Entertainment, Inc., and the Blumes sent him to Hollywood to develop TV and movie opportunities.", "He became co-producer of the licensed ''D&D'' cartoon series for CBS, which led its time slot for two years.Newly single, Gygax took advantage of his time on the West Coast, renting an immense mansion, increasing his cocaine use, and spending time with several young starlets.=== Leaving TSR ===Because he was occupied with getting a movie off the ground in Hollywood, Gygax had to leave the day-to-day operations of TSR to Kevin and Brian Blume.", "In 1984, after months of negotiation, he reached an agreement with Orson Welles to star in a D&D movie, and John Boorman to act as producer and director.", "But almost at the same time, he received word that back in Lake Geneva, TSR had run into severe financial difficulties and Kevin Blume was shopping the company for $6 million.Gygax immediately discarded his movie ambitions—his ''D&D'' movie was never made—and flew back to Lake Geneva.", "There, he discovered to his shock that although industry leader TSR was grossing $30 million, it was barely breaking even; it was in fact $1.5 million in debt and teetering on the edge of insolvency.", "After investigating, Gygax brought his findings to the five other company directors.", "(Since 1982, TSR, Inc. had conformed to the recommendations of the American Management Association by adding three \"outside\" directors to the board, increasing its size to six.)", "He charged that the financial crisis was due to Kevin Blume's mismanagement: excess inventory, overstaffing, too many company cars, and some questionable (and expensive) projects such as dredging up a 19th-century shipwreck.", "Gygax gained control and produced a new AD&D book, ''Unearthed Arcana'', and a Greyhawk novel, ''Saga of Old City'', featuring a protagonist called Gord the Rogue: both sold well.", "He hired a company manager, Lorraine Williams; in October 1985, having bought the Blumes' shares, she replaced Gygax as president and CEO, stating that Gygax would make no further creative contributions to TSR.", "Several of his projects were immediately shelved.", "Gygax took TSR to court in a bid to block the Blumes' sale of their shares to Williams, but lost.Sales of ''D&D'' reached $29 million in 1985, but Gygax resigned all positions with TSR in October 1986, settling his disputes with TSR in December.", "By the terms of the settlement, he gave up his rights except to Gord the Rogue and to those ''D&D'' characters whose names were anagrams or plays on his own name (for example, Yrag and Zagyg)." ], [ "After TSR", "=== 1985–1989: New Infinities Productions, Inc. ===Immediately after leaving TSR, Gygax was approached by a wargaming acquaintance, Forrest Baker, who had done some consulting work for TSR in 1983 and 1984.Tired of company management, Gygax was simply looking for a way to market more of his Gord the Rogue novels, but Baker had a vision for a new gaming company.", "He promised that he would handle the business end while Gygax would handle the creative projects.", "Baker also guaranteed that, using Gygax's name, he would be able to bring in one to two million dollars of investment.", "Gygax decided this was a good opportunity, and in October 1986, New Infinities Productions, Inc. (NIPI) was publicly announced.", "To help him with the creative work, Gygax poached Frank Mentzer and ''Dragon'' magazine editor Kim Mohan from TSR.", "But before a single product was released, Forrest Baker left NIPI when his promised outside investment of one to two million dollars failed to materialize.Against his will, Gygax was back in charge again; he immediately looked for a quick product to get NIPI off the ground.", "He had retained the rights to Gord the Rogue as part of his severance agreement with TSR, so he licensed Greyhawk from TSR and started writing new novels beginning with ''Sea of Death'' (1987); sales were brisk, and Gygax's Gord the Rogue novels kept New Infinities in business.Gygax brought in Don Turnbull from Games Workshop to manage the company, then worked with Mohan and Mentzer on a science fiction-themed RPG, ''Cyborg Commando'', which was published in 1987.But sales of the new game were not brisk.", "As game historian Shannon Appelcline noted in 2014, the game was \"seen as one of the biggest flops in the industry.\"", "Mentzer and Mohan wrote a series of generic RPG adventures, ''Gary Gygax Presents Fantasy Master'', and began working on a third line of products, which began with an adventure written by Mentzer, ''The Convert'' (1987).", "He had written it as an RPGA tournament for ''D&D'', but TSR was not interested in publishing it.", "Mentzer got verbal permission to publish it with New Infinities, but since the permission was not in writing TSR filed an injunction for a period to prevent the adventure's sale.Members of the Gygax family pose on the Throne of Reading at the Lake Geneva Public Library.During all this drama, Gygax had a romantic relationship with Gail Carpenter, his former assistant at TSR.", "In November 1986, she gave birth to Gygax's sixth child, Alex.", "Biographer Michael Witwer believes Alex's birth forced Gygax to reconsider the equation of work, gaming and family that, until this time, had been dominated by work and gaming.", "\"Gary, keenly aware that he had made mistakes as a father and husband in the past, was determined not to make them again ... Gary was also a realist, and knew what good fatherhood would demand, especially at his age.\"", "On August 15, 1987, on what would have been his parents' 50th wedding anniversary, Gygax married Carpenter.During 1987 and 1988, Gygax worked with Flint Dille on the ''Sagard the Barbarian'' books, as well as ''Role-Playing Mastery'' and its sequel, ''Master of the Game''.", "He also wrote two more Gord the Rogue novels, ''City of Hawks'' (1987), and ''Come Endless Darkness'' (1988).", "But by 1988, TSR had rewritten the setting for the world of Greyhawk, and Gygax was not happy with the new direction in which TSR was taking \"his\" creation.", "In a literary declaration that his old world was dead, and wanting to make a clean break with all things Greyhawk, Gygax destroyed his version of Oerth in the final Gord the Rogue novel, ''Dance of Demons''.With the Gord the Rogue novels finished, NIPI's main source of steady income dried up.", "The company needed a new product.", "Gygax announced in 1988 in a company newsletter that he and Rob Kuntz, his co-Dungeon Master during the early days of the Greyhawk campaign, were working as a team again.", "This time they would create a new multi-genre fantasy RPG called \"Infinite Adventures\", which would be supported by different gamebooks for different genres.", "This line would detail the Castle and City of Greyhawk as Gygax and Kuntz had originally envisioned them, now called \"Castle Dunfalcon\".", "Before work on this project could commence, NIPI ran out of money, was forced into bankruptcy, and dissolved in 1989.=== 1990–1994: ''Dangerous Journeys'' ===After NIPI folded, Gygax decided to create an entirely new RPG called ''The Carpenter Project'', one considerably more complex and \"rule heavy\" than his original and relatively simple ''D&D'' system, which had been encompassed by a mere 150 typewritten pages.", "He also wanted to create a horror setting for the new RPG called ''Unhallowed''.", "He began working on the RPG and the setting with the help of games designer Mike McCulley.", "Game Designers' Workshop became interested in publishing the new system, and it also drew the attention of JVC and NEC, who were looking for a new RPG system and setting to turn into a series of computer games.", "NEC and JVC were not interested in horror though, and work on the ''Unhallowed'' setting was shelved in favour of a fantasy setting called ''Mythus''.", "JVC also wanted a name change for the RPG, favoring ''Dangerous Dimensions'' over ''The Carpenter Project''.", "Work progressed favourably until March 1992, when TSR filed an injunction against ''Dangerous Dimensions'', claiming the name and initials were too similar to ''Dungeons & Dragons''.", "Gygax, with the approval of NEC and JVC, quickly changed the name to ''Dangerous Journeys''.The marketing strategy for ''Dangerous Journeys: Mythus'' was multi-pronged: in addition to the RPG and setting to be published by Game Designers' Workshop, and the ''Mythus'' computer game being prepared by NEC and JVC, there would also be a series of books based on the Mythus setting written by Gygax.", "So in addition to his work on the RPG and the ''Mythus'' setting, Gygax wrote three novels, released under publisher Penguin/Roc and later reprinted by Paizo Publishing: ''The Anubis Murders'', ''The Samarkand Solution'', and ''Death in Delhi''.In late 1992, the ''Dangerous Journeys'' RPG was released by Game Designers' Workshop, but TSR immediately applied for an injunction against the entire ''Dangerous Journeys'' RPG and the ''Mythus'' setting, arguing that ''Dangerous Journeys'' was based on ''D&D'' and ''AD&D''.", "Although the injunction failed, TSR moved forward with litigation.", "Gygax believed the legal action was without merit and fuelled by Lorraine Williams' personal enmity, but NEC and JVC both withdrew from the project, killing the ''Mythus'' computer game.", "By 1994, the legal costs associated with many months of pretrial discovery had drained all of Gygax's resources; believing that TSR was also suffering, Gygax offered to settle.", "In the end, TSR paid Gygax for the complete rights to ''Dangerous Journeys'' and ''Mythus''.=== 1995–2000: ''Lejendary Adventures'' ===Modena, Italy.", "His t-shirt advertises the third edition of ''D&D'', which was to be released the following year.In 1995, Gygax began work on a new computer role-playing game called ''Lejendary Adventures''.", "In contrast to the rules-heavy ''Dangerous Journeys'', this new system was a return to simple and basic rules.", "Although he was not able to successfully release a ''Lejendary Adventures'' computer game, Gygax decided to instead publish it as a tabletop game.Meanwhile, in 1996 the games industry was rocked by the news that TSR had run into insoluble financial problems and had been bought by Wizards of the Coast.", "While WotC was busy refocussing TSR's products, Christopher Clark of Inner City Games Designs approached Gygax in 1997 to suggest that they produce some adventures to sell in game stores while TSR was otherwise occupied; the result was a pair of fantasy adventures published by Inner City Games: ''A Challenge of Arms'' (1998) and ''The Ritual of the Golden Eyes'' (1999).", "Gygax introduced some investors to Clark's publication setup, and although the investors were not willing to fund publication of ''Legendary Adventures'', Clark and Gygax formed a partnership called Hekaforge Productions.", "Gygax was thus able to return to publish ''Lejendary Adventures'' in 1999.The game was published as a three-volume set: ''The Lejendary Rules for All Players'' (1999), ''Lejend Master's Lore'' (2000) and ''Beasts of Lejend'' (2000).The new owner of TSR, WotC's Peter Adkison, clearly did not harbor any of Lorraine Williams' ill-will toward Gygax: Adkison purchased all of Gygax's residual rights to D&D and AD&D for a six-figure sum.", "Although Gygax did not write any new supplements or books for TSR or WotC, he did agree to write the preface to the 1998 adventure ''Return to the Tomb of Horrors'', a paean to Gygax's original AD&D adventure ''Tomb of Horrors''.", "He also returned to the pages of Dragon Magazine, writing the \"Up on a Soapbox\" column from Issue #268 (January 2000) to Issue #320 (June 2004).=== 2000–2008: Later works and death===Gygax continued to work on ''Lejendary Adventures'' which he believed was his best work.", "However, sales were below expectation.On June 11, 2001, Stephen Chenault and Davis Chenault of Troll Lord Games announced that Gygax would be writing books for their company.", "Gygax's early work for Troll Lord included a series of hardcover books that eventually came to be called \"Gygaxian Fantasy Worlds\"; the first was ''The Canting Crew'' (2002), a look at the roguish underworld.", "He also wrote ''World Builder'' (2003) and ''Living Fantasy'' (2003), generic game design books usable in many different settings.", "After the first four books in the series, Gygax stepped down from writing and took on an advisory role, though the series logo still carried his name.", "Troll Lord also published a few adventures as a result of their partnership with Gygax, including ''The Hermit'' (2002) an adventure intended for d20 and also for ''Lejendary Adventures''.By 2002, Gygax had given Christopher Clark of Hekaforge an encyclopaedic 72,000-word text describing the Lejendary Earth.", "Clark split the manuscript up into five books and expanded it, with each of the final books coming to about 128,000 words, giving Hekaforge a third Lejendary Adventures line to supplement the core rules and adventures.", "Hekaforge managed to publish the first two of those Lejendary Earth sourcebooks, ''Gazetteer'' (2002) and ''Noble Kings and Great Lands'' (2003), but by 2003 the small company was having financial difficulties.", "Clark had to ask Troll Lord Games to become an \"angel\" investor by publishing the three remaining ''Lejendary Adventures'' books.On October 9, 2001, Necromancer Games announced that they would be publishing a d20 version of ''Necropolis'', an adventure originally planned by Gygax for New Infinities Productions and later printed in 1992 as a ''Mythus'' adventure by GDW; ''Gary Gygax's Necropolis'' was published a year later.Gygax also performed voiceover narration for cartoons and video games.", "In 2000, he voiced his own cartoon self for an episode of Futurama, \"Anthology of Interest I\" that also included the voices of Al Gore, Stephen Hawking and Nichelle Nichols.", "Gygax also performed as a guest Dungeon Master in the Delera's Tomb quest series of the massively multiplayer online role-playing game ''Dungeons & Dragons Online: Stormreach''.Gary Gygax at Gen Con in 2003.He is sitting in the Troll Lord Games booth with Stephen Chenault.", "During his time with TSR, Gygax had often mentioned the mysterious Castle Greyhawk which formed the centre of his own home campaign.", "But despite all of his written output over the previous 30 years, Gygax had never published details of the castle.", "In 2003, Gygax announced that he was again partnering with Rob Kuntz to publish the original and previously unpublished details of Castle Greyhawk and the City of Greyhawk in 6 volumes, although the project would use the rules for ''Castles and Crusades'' rather than ''D&D''.", "As Gygax wrote in an on-line forum: Since Wizards of the Coast, which had bought TSR in 1997, still owned the rights to the name \"Greyhawk\", Gygax changed the name of Castle Greyhawk to \"Castle Zagyg\", a reverse homophone of his own name, and also changed the name of the nearby city to \"Yggsburgh\", a play on his initials \"E.G.G.", "\"The scale of the project was enormous: By the time Gygax and Kuntz had stopped working on their original home campaign, the castle dungeons had encompassed 50 levels of cunningly complex passages with thousands of rooms and traps.", "This, plus plans for the city of Yggsburgh and encounter areas outside the castle and city, would clearly be too much to fit into the proposed 6 volumes.", "Gygax decided he would compress the castle dungeons into 13 levels, the size of his original Castle Greyhawk in 1973 by amalgamating the best of what could be gleaned from binders and boxes of old notes.", "However, neither Gygax nor Kuntz had kept careful or comprehensive plans.", "Because they had often made up details of play sessions on the spot, they usually just scribbled a quick map as they played, with cursory notes about monsters, treasures, and traps.", "These sketchy maps had contained just enough detail that the two could ensure their independent work would dovetail.", "All of these old notes now had to be deciphered, 25-year-old memories dredged up as to what had happened in each room, and a decision made whether to keep or discard each new piece.", "Recreating the city too would be a challenge.", "Although Gygax still had his old maps of the original city, all of his previously published work on the city was owned by WotC, so he would have to create most of the city from scratch while still maintaining the \"look and feel\" of his original.Due to creative differences, Kuntz backed out of the project, but created an adventure module that would be published at the same time as Gygax's first book.", "Gygax continued to painstakingly put Castle Zagyg together on his own, but even this slow and laborious process came to a complete halt when Gygax had a serious stroke in April 2004 and then another one a few weeks later.", "Although he returned to his keyboard after a seven-month convalescence, his output was reduced from 14-hour work days to only one or two hours per day.", "Finally in 2005, ''Castle Zagyg Part I: Yggsburgh'', the first book in the six-book series, appeared.", "Later that year, Troll Lord Games also published ''Castle Zagyg: Dark Chateau'' (2005), the adventure module written for the Yggsburgh setting by Rob Kuntz.", "Jeff Talanian helped with the creation of the dungeon, eventually resulting in publication of the limited edition ''CZ9: The East Marks Gazetteer'' (2007).That same year, Gygax was diagnosed with a potentially deadly abdominal aortic aneurysm.", "Doctors concurred that surgery was needed, but their estimates of success varied from 50% to 90%.", "With no firm medical consensus, Gygax came to believe that he would likely die on the operating table; he refused to consider surgery, although he realized that a rupture of the aneurysm – likely inevitable – would be fatal.", "In one concession to his condition, he switched from cigarettes, which he had smoked since high school, to cigars.It wasn't until 2008 that Gygax was able to finish the second volume of six volumes, ''Castle Zagyg: The Upper Works'', which described details of the castle above ground.", "The next two volumes were supposed to detail the dungeons beneath Castle Zagyg.", "However, before they could be written, Gygax died in March 2008.Three months after his death, Gygax Games – a new company formed by Gary's widow, Gail – withdrew all of the Gygax licenses from Troll Lord, and also from Hekaforge." ], [ "Personal life", "From an early age, Gygax hunted and was a target-shooter with both bow and gun.", "He was also an avid gun collector, and at various times owned a variety of rifles, shotguns, and handguns.He was an avid football fan, supporting the Chicago Bears.", "Gygax married Mary Jo Powell on 14 September 1958, the couple later had 5 children; Ernie, Elise, Heidi, Cindy and Luke.", "Gygax and his first wife became Jehovah's Witnesses.", "Later Gygax would separate from that religion but remain a Christian, and a few months before he died he cited his favorite Bible verse Matthew 5:15–16.After his divorce Gygax married Gail Carpenter, one of his former TSR accountants, on 15 August 1987.Their son, Alex, was born in 1986." ], [ "Awards and honors", "Immediately after Gygax's 2008 funeral, mourners adjourned to Lake Geneva's American Legion Hall to play games in the deceased's honor.", "Members of his family served refreshments and played games with friends.", "This event inspired Luke Gygax to create a locally hosted game event around the date of his father's death.", "Years later, Gary Con is so well-attended a dozen Lake Geneva hotels must be utilized in order to serve the demand.", "The funeral day event is now regarded as Gary Con 0.A plaque dedicated to Gary Gygax at Gen Con 2008 reading:The first DM,He taught us to roll the dice.He opened the door to new worlds.His work shaped our industry.He brought us Gen Con,For this we thank him.In fond memory of Gary Gygaxand in celebration of his spirit and accomplishments.As the \"father of role-playing games\", Gygax received many awards, honors, and tributes related to gaming:* He was inducted into the Academy of Adventure Gaming Arts and Design Origins Award Hall of Fame, also known as the Charles Roberts Awards Hall of Fame, in 1980.", "* ''Sync'' magazine named Gygax number one on the list of \"The 50 Biggest Nerds of All Time\".", "* ''SFX'' magazine listed him as number 37 on the list of the \"50 Greatest SF Pioneers\".", "* In 1999, ''Pyramid'' magazine named Gygax as one of \"The Millennium's Most Influential Persons\" \"in the realm of adventure gaming\".", "* Gygax was tied with J. R. R. Tolkien for number 18 on GameSpy's \"30 Most Influential People in Gaming\".", "* A strain of bacteria was named in honor of Gygax, \"''Arthronema gygaxiana sp nov UTCC393''\".", "*He was inducted into the Pop Culture Hall of Fame Class of 2019In 2008 Gail Gygax, the widow of Gary Gygax, began the process to establish a memorial to her late husband in Lake Geneva.", "On March 28, 2011 the City Council of Lake Geneva, Wisconsin, approved Gail Gygax's application for a site of memorial in Donian Park; however, the Gygax family was unable to raise the money at the time to complete the memorial during a 2012 funding campaign.", "The design of the monument is a stone castle look with medieval pole arms, a family crest and a dragon.Lake Geneva waterfront erected by his family.In 2014, with the approval of Gary's eldest son, Ernie, Epic Quest Publishing started a Kickstarter campaign to raise the initial funding for a museum dedicated to Gary featuring a gaming and event center and hall of fame for authors, artists, designers and game masters.Lake Geneva mayor Charlene Klein proclaimed July 27, 2023 as \"Gary Gygax Day\", and on that day dedicated a lakeside park bench in his honor.", "In her proclamation she reminds residents that in 1983 TSR employed over 400 people, \"over 6% of Lake Geneva's population at the time.\"" ], [ "In popular culture", "In 2000, Gygax voiced his cartoon self for the ''Futurama'' episode \"Anthology of Interest I\", that also included the voices of Al Gore, Stephen Hawking, and Nichelle Nichols.", "Gygax appeared as his 8-bit self on ''Code Monkeys'' in 2007-8.Stephen Colbert, an avid ''D&D'' gamer in his youth, dedicated the last part of the March 5, 2008, episode of ''The Colbert Report'' to Gygax.Numerous names in ''D&D'', such as Zagyg, Ring of Gaxx, and Gryrax, are anagrams or alterations of Gygax's name." ], [ "See also", "* Gary Gygax bibliography" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* ** Dungeons & Dragons Creator Gary Gygax Passes Away; Interview on BoingBoing Gadgets** ** Gygax Magazine* * Tribute to Gary Gygax at ''Black Gate''" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Governor of New South Wales" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''governor of New South Wales''' is the representative of the monarch, King Charles III, in the state of New South Wales.", "In an analogous way to the governor-general of Australia at the national level, the governors of the Australian states perform constitutional and ceremonial functions at the state level.", "The governor is appointed by the monarch on the advice of the premier of New South Wales, and serves in office for an unfixed period of time—known as serving ''At His Majesty's pleasure''—though five years is the general standard of office term.", "The current governor is retired judge Margaret Beazley, who succeeded David Hurley on 2 May 2019.The office has its origin in the 18th-century colonial governors of New South Wales upon its settlement in 1788, and is the oldest continuous institution in Australia.", "The present incarnation of the position emerged with the Federation of Australia and the ''New South Wales Constitution Act 1902'', which defined the viceregal office as the governor acting by and with the advice of the Executive Council of New South Wales.", "However, the post still ultimately represented the government of the United Kingdom until, after continually decreasing involvement by the British government, the passage in 1942 of the Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1942 (see Statute of Westminster) and the Australia Act 1986, after which the governor became the direct, personal representative of the sovereign." ], [ "Appointment", "Sir John Northcott, the first Australian-born governor (1946–57).The office of governor is prescribed by the New South Wales Constitution.", "The monarch, on the advice and recommendation of the premier of New South Wales, appoints the governor with a commission issued under the royal sign-manual and Public Seal of the State, who is from then until being sworn in by the premier and chief justice referred to as the ''governor-designate''.Besides the administration of the oaths of office, there is no set formula for the swearing-in of a governor-designate.", "The constitution act stipulates: \"Before assuming office, a person appointed to be Governor shall take the Oath or Affirmation of Allegiance and the Oath or Affirmation of Office in the presence of the Chief Justice or another Judge of the Supreme Court.\"", "The sovereign will also hold an audience with the appointee and will at that time induct the governor-designate as a Companion of the Order of Australia (AC).The incumbent will generally serve for at least five years, though this is only a developed convention, and the governor still technically acts at His Majesty's pleasure (or the ''Royal Pleasure'').", "The premier may therefore recommend to the King that the viceroy remain in his service for a longer period of time, sometimes upwards of more than seven years.", "A governor may also resign and three have died in office.", "In such a circumstance, or if the governor leaves the country for longer than one month, the lieutenant governor of New South Wales, concurrently held by the chief justice of New South Wales since 1872, serves as Administrator of the Government and exercises all powers of the governor.", "Furthermore, if the lieutenant governor becomes incapacitated while serving in the office of governor or is also absent from the state, the next most senior judge of the Supreme Court is sworn in as the administrator.=== Selection ===Between 1788 and 1957, all governors were born outside New South Wales and were often members of the peerage.", "Historian A. J. P. Taylor once noted that \"going out and governing New South Wales became the British aristocracy's 'abiding consolation'\".", "However, the position eventually became filled by Australians, with the first Australian-born governor, Sir John Northcott on 1 August 1946, being the first Australian-born governor of any state.", "However, as Northcott was born in Victoria, it was not until Sir Eric Woodward's appointment by Queen Elizabeth II in 1957 that the position was filled by a New South Welshman.", "This practice continued until 1996, when Queen Elizabeth II commissioned as her representative Gordon Samuels, a London-born immigrant to Australia.Early governors were frequently former politicians, many being members of the House of Lords by virtue of their peerage; however they were required by the tenets of constitutional monarchy to be non-partisan while in office.", "The first governors were all military officers and the majority of governors since have come from a military background, numbering 19.Samuels was the first governor in New South Wales history without a political or common public service background—a former justice of the Supreme Court of New South Wales.", "The first woman to hold this position is also the first Lebanese-Australian governor, Dame Marie Bashir." ], [ "Role", "As the sovereign lives outside New South Wales, the governor's primary task is to perform the sovereign's constitutional duties on their behalf.Lord Wakehurst takes the oath of office upon his arrival in Sydney in 1937.The governor is enpowered by the ''Constitution Act 1902'' to appoint the ministers of the Government of New South Wales.", "Convention dictates that the governor must select as premier an individual from Legislative Assembly that has the confidence of that body.", "The premier then advises the governor on who to appoint as ministers.", "The executive branch of government exercises power formally through the governor-in-council, the governor acting with the advice of the Executive Council of New South Wales.", "This council is made up of cabinet ministers and gives legal effect to decisions already reached in cabinet.", "While the governor must almost always act only on the advice of ministers, in exceptional circumstances they may act in the absence or contrary to advice—this is known as the reserve powers.", "The circumstances when these powers may be exercised is disputed, however in 1932 the governor justified the use of these powers to revoke the commission of premier Jack Lang during the 1932 New South Wales constitutional crisis on the grounds of alleged illegal activity by the premier.The governor alone is constitutionally mandated to summon parliament and may also prorogue and dissolve it on the advice of the premier.", "The governor grants royal assent in the King's name to bills as the final step required to give them the force of law.", "While in the past governors had the discretion to refuse or reserve assent to bills, usually where they were seen as unfavourable to imperial interests, now the only likely grounds on which a bill could be refused if it was passed contrary to manner and form requirements (for example the requirement to hold a referendum to approve of any law that abolished or changed the powers of either of the houses of parliament).", "A governor's view that a bill is likely unconstitutional is not a ground for the reservation of royal assent as the legality of a bill is determined by the courts.", "With most constitutional functions delegated to Cabinet, the governor acts in a primarily ceremonial fashion.", "The governor hosts members of Australia's royal family, as well as foreign royalty and heads of state.", "Also as part of international relations, the governor receives letters of credence and of recall from foreign consuls-general appointed to Sydney.", "When they are the longest-serving state governor, the governor of New South Wales holds a dormant commission to act as the administrator of the Commonwealth when the governor-general of Australia is absent from Australia, a role most recently held by Governor Bashir.The governor is also tasked with fostering unity and pride.", "The governor inducts individuals into the various national orders and present national medals and decorations, however the most senior awards such as ACs or the Victoria Cross are the sole prerogative of the governor general.", "The governor also ''ex-officio'' serves as Honorary Colonel of the Royal New South Wales Regiment (since 1960), Honorary Air Commodore of No.", "22 (City of Sydney) Squadron, Royal Australian Air Force (since 1937) and Honorary Commodore of the Royal Australian Navy, as well as the Chief Scout for New South Wales." ], [ "Symbols and protocol", "The governor is listed second in New South Wales' table of precedence, behind the governor-general.", "The incumbent governor is entitled to use the style of ''His'' or ''Her Excellency'', while in office.", "On 28 November 2013 the premier of NSW announced that the Queen had given approval for the title of \"The Honourable\" to be accorded to the governors and former governors of New South Wales.", "Upon installation, the governor serves as a Deputy Prior of the Most Venerable Order of the Hospital of Saint John of Jerusalem in Australia and is also traditionally invested as either a Knight or Dame of Justice or Grace of the Order.", "It is also customary that the governor is made a Companion of the Order of Australia, though this is not necessarily automatic.", "The use by the governor of an elaborate uniform, comprising a plain blue tailcoat, scarlet collar and cuffs (embroidered in silver), silver epaulettes, and a plumed bicorne hat, fell out of use with the appointment of the first Australian-born Governor, Sir John Northcott, in 1946.The musical vice regal salute—composed of the first and last four bars of the national anthem (\"Advance Australia Fair\")—is played on the arrival and departure of the general from a formal event in which a military or service guard is present.", "It is optional to play if no guard it at the event.", "The state badge of the New South Wales crowned with the St Edward's Crown is employed as the badge of the governor, appearing on the viceroy's flag and on other objects associated with the person or the office.To mark the viceroy's presence at any building, ship, aeroplane, or car in Australia, the governor's standard or flag is employed.", "Following the example of other states adopting unique Governor's standards, in 1980 the Government of New South Wales sought to introduce a new standard for the governor to replace the Union Flag that had been in use since 1788.Premier Neville Wran wrote to the Governor, Sir Roden Cutler, on 25 November 1980 advising: “His Excellency’s Ministers of State now consider that there should be a change in the Personal Standard of the Governor of New South Wales, such change to take effect at the conclusion of His Excellency’s term of office.", "The Premier therefore recommends for approval a change in the Governor’s distinctive flag from the Union Flag to the New South Wales State Flag with a Crown surmounting the State badge in the fly.” However, Cutler did not agree with this change, and it was recommended that the change be undertaken after he had left office.", "The new Governor's Standard was designed and presented by the Garter King of Arms to the Agent-General for New South Wales in London on 8 January 1981, who then sought Royal assent of the new design, which was given on 15 January 1981.The flag was first flown on 20 January 1981 over Parliament House for the official swearing-in of Governor Sir James Rowland, and was flown for the first time over Government House on 29 January 1981.;Past and present standards of the governorFile:Flag of Great Britain (1707–1800).svg|1788–1800File:Flag of the United Kingdom.svg|1800–1981File:Flag of the Governor of New South Wales.svg|1981–present" ], [ "History", "The First Fleet in Botany Bay at voyage's end in 1788.Its arrival marked the establishment of the colony of New South Wales and the office of the governor.Aside from the Crown itself, the office of Governor of New South Wales is the oldest constitutional office in Australia.", "Captain Arthur Phillip assumed office as Governor of New South Wales on 7 February 1788, when the Colony of New South Wales, the first British settlement in Australia, was formally proclaimed.", "The early colonial governors held an almost autocratic power due to the distance from and poor communications with Great Britain, until 1824 when the New South Wales Legislative Council, Australia's first legislative body, was appointed to advise the governor.Between 1850 and 1861, the Governor of New South Wales was titled Governor-General, in an early attempt at federalism imposed by Earl Grey.", "All communication between the Australian colonies and the British Government was meant to go through the Governor-General, and the other colonies had lieutenant-Governors.", "As South Australia (1836), Tasmania (January 1855) and Victoria (May 1855) obtained responsible government, their lieutenant-Governors were replaced by Governors.", "Although he had ceased acting as a Governor-General, Sir William Denison retained the title until his retirement in 1861.The six British colonies in Australia joined to form the Commonwealth of Australia in 1901.New South Wales and the other colonies became states in the federal system under the Constitution of Australia.", "In 1902, the ''New South Wales Constitution Act'' 1902 confirmed the modern system of government of New South Wales as a state.", "Like the new federal Governor-General and the other state governors, in the first years after federation, the governor of New South Wales continued to act both in their constitutional role, and as a liaison between the local government and the imperial government in London.", "The copy of the Australia Act 1986 (UK) bearing the Queen's signature, now displayed in CanberraIn 1942, the Commonwealth of Australia passed the ''Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1942'', which rendered Australia dominion status under the Statute of Westminster, and while Australia and Britain share the same person as monarch, that person acts in a distinct capacity when acting as the monarch of each dominion.", "The convention that the monarch acts in respect of Australian affairs on the advice of his or her Australian ministers, rather than his or her British ministers, became enshrined in law.", "For New South Wales however, because the Statute of Westminster did not disturb the constitutional arrangements of the Australian states, the governor remained (at least formally) in New South Wales the representative of the British monarch.", "This arrangement seemed incongruous with the Commonwealth of Australia's independent dominion status conferred by the Statute of Westminster, and with the federal structure.After much negotiation between the federal and state governments of Australia, the British government and Buckingham Palace, the ''Australia Act 1986'' removed any remaining constitutional roles of the British monarch and British government in the Australian states, and established that the governor of New South Wales (along with the other state governors) was the direct, personal representative of the Australian monarch, and not the British monarch or the British government, nor the governor-general of Australia or the Australian federal government." ], [ "Residences and household", "===Government House===Government House, Sydney, the official residence of the governorOn his arrival in Sydney in 1788, Governor Phillip resided in a temporary wood and canvas house before the construction of a more substantial house on a site now bounded by Bridge Street and Phillip Street, Sydney.", "This first Government House was extended and repaired by the following eight governors, but was generally in poor condition and was vacated when the governor relocated to the new building in 1845, designed by Edward Blore and Mortimer Lewis.With the federation of the Australian colonies in 1901, it was announced that Government House was to serve as the secondary residence of the new governor-general of Australia.", "As a consequence the NSW Government leased the residence of Cranbrook, Bellevue Hill as the residence of the governor.", "This arrangement lasted until 1913 when the NSW Government terminated the Commonwealth lease of Government House (the governor-general moved to the new Sydney residence of Admiralty House), the governor from 1913 to 1917, Sir Gerald Strickland, continued to live in Cranbrook and on his departure his successor returned to Government House.On 16 January 1996, Premier Bob Carr announced that the next governor would be Gordon Samuels, that he would not live or work at Government House and that he would retain his appointment as chairman of the New South Wales Law Reform Commission.", "On these changes, Carr said: \"The Office of the Governor should be less associated with pomp and ceremony, less encumbered by anachronistic protocol, more in tune with the character of the people.\"", "The state's longest-serving governor, Sir Roden Cutler, was also reported as saying: \"It's a political push to make way in New South Wales to lead the push for a republic.", "If they decide not to have a Governor and the public agrees with that, and Parliament agrees, and the queen agrees to it, that is a different matter, but while there is a Governor you have got to give him some respectability and credibility, because he is the host for the whole of New South Wales.", "For the life of me I cannot understand the logic of having a Governor who is part-time and doesn't live at Government House.", "It is such a degrading of the office and of the Governor.", "\"In October 2011, the new premier, Barry O'Farrell, announced that the governor, now Dame Marie Bashir, had agreed with O'Farrell's offer to move back into Government House: \"A lot of people believe the Governor should live at Government House.", "That's what it was built for ... At some stage a rural or regional governor will be appointed and we will need to provide accommodation at Government House so it makes sense to provide appropriate living areas\".", "With the Governor's return, management of the residence reverted to the Office of the Governor in December 2013.===Summer residence===\"Old\" Government House, Parramatta.In addition to the primary Sydney vice-regal residence, many governors had also felt the need for a 'summer retreat' to escape the hard temperatures of the Sydney summers.", "In 1790, Governor Phillip had a secondary residence built in the township of Parramatta.", "In 1799 the second governor, John Hunter, had the remains of Arthur Phillip's cottage cleared away, and a more permanent building erected on the same site.", "This residence remained occupied until the completion of the primary Government House in 1845, however the hard summers and growing size of Sydney convinced successive governors of the need for a rural residence.The governor from 1868 to 1872, the Earl Belmore, used Throsby Park in Moss Vale as his summer residence.", "His successor, Sir Hercules Robinson, often retired privately to the same area, in the Southern Highlands, for the same reason.", "In 1879 it was then decided that the colony should purchase a house at Sutton Forest for use as a permanent summer residence, and in 1881 the NSW Government purchased for £6000 a property known as \"Prospect\" that had been built by Robert Pemberton Richardson (of the firm Richardson & Wrench).", "This was renamed \"Hillview\", and became the primary summer governor's residence from 1885 to 1957.In 1957, seen as unnecessary and expensive, Hillview was put up for sale and purchased from the state government by Edwin Klein.", "Hillview was returned to the people of NSW in 1985 and is currently leased under the ownership of the Environment and Heritage Group of the Department of Planning & Environment.===Household===The viceregal household aids the governor in the execution of the royal constitutional and ceremonial duties and is managed by the Office of the Governor, whose current official secretary and chief of staff is Michael Miller RFD.", "These organised offices and support systems include aides-de-camp, press officers, financial managers, speech writers, trip organisers, event planners and protocol officers, chefs and other kitchen employees, waiters, and various cleaning staff, as well as tour guides.", "In this official and bureaucratic capacity, the entire household is often referred to as ''Government House''.", "These departments are funded through the annual budget, as is the governor's salary of $529,000." ], [ "List of governors of New South Wales", "The following individuals have served as a governor of New South Wales: No.", "Portrait Governor Term start Term end Time in officeGovernors appointed by George III (1760–1820):1 80px Captain Arthur Phillip 7 February 1788 10 December 1792 2 80px Captain John Hunter 11 September 1795 27 September 1800 3 80px Captain Philip Gidley King 28 September 1800 12 August 1806 4 80px Captain William Bligh 13 August 1806 26 January 1808 5 80px Major-General Lachlan Macquarie 1 January 1810 1 December 1821 Governors appointed by George IV (1820–1830):6 80px Major-General Sir Thomas Brisbane 1 December 1821 1 December 1825 7 80px Lieutenant General Sir Ralph Darling 19 December 1825 21 October 1831 Governors appointed by William IV (1830–1837):880px Major-General Sir Richard Bourke 3 December 1831 5 December 1837 Governors appointed by Queen Victoria (1837–1901):9 80px Major Sir George Gipps 24 February 1838 11 July 1846 10 80px Lieutenant Colonel Sir Charles Augustus FitzRoy 3 August 1846 28 January 1855 11 80px Sir William Denison 20 January 1855 22 January 1861 12 80px The Rt Hon.", "Sir John Young 16 May 1861 24 December 1867 13 80px The Rt Hon.", "The Earl Belmore 8 January 1868 21 February 1872 14 80px The Rt Hon.", "Sir Hercules Robinson 3 June 1872 19 March 1879 15 80px The Rt Hon.", "Lord Augustus Loftus 4 August 1879 9 November 1885 16 80px The Rt Hon.", "The Lord Carrington 12 December 1885 3 November 1890 17 80px The Rt Hon.", "The Earl of Jersey 15 January 1891 2 March 1893 18 80px The Rt Hon.", "Sir Robert Duff 29 May 1893 15 March 1895 19 80px The Rt Hon.", "The Viscount Hampden 21 November 1895 5 March 1899 20 80px The Rt Hon.", "The Earl Beauchamp 18 May 1899 30 April 1901 Governors appointed by Edward VII (1901–1910):21 80px Admiral Sir Harry Rawson 27 May 1902 27 May 1909 22 80px The Rt Hon.", "The Lord Chelmsford 28 May 1909 11 March 1913 Governors appointed by George V (1910–1936):23 80px The Hon.", "Sir Gerald Strickland 14 March 1913 27 October 1917 24 80px Sir Walter Davidson 18 February 1918 4 September 1923 25 80px Admiral Sir Dudley de Chair 28 February 1924 7 April 1930 26 80px Air Vice Marshal Sir Philip Game 29 May 1930 15 January 1935 27 80px The Rt.", "Hon.", "The Lord Gowrie 21 February 1935 22 January 1936 Governors appointed by Edward VIII (1936):2880px Admiral Sir Murray Anderson 6 August 1936 30 October 1936 Governors appointed by George VI (1936–1952):29 80px The Rt.", "Hon.", "The Lord Wakehurst 8 April 1937 8 January 1946 30 80px Lieutenant General Sir John Northcott 1 August 1946 31 July 1957 Governors appointed by Queen Elizabeth II (1952–2022):31 80px Lieutenant General Sir Eric Woodward 1 August 1957 31 July 1965 32 80px Sir Roden Cutler 20 January 1966 19 January 1981 ''''''33 80px Air Marshal Sir James Rowland 20 January 1981 20 January 1989 34 80px Rear Admiral Sir David Martin 20 January 1989 7 August 1990 35 Rear Admiral The Hon.", "Peter Sinclair 8 August 1990 29 February 1996 36 80px The Hon.", "Gordon Samuels 1 March 1996 28 February 2001 37 80px Professor The Hon.", "Dame Marie Bashir 1 March 2001 1 October 2014 38 80px General The Hon.", "David Hurley 2 October 2014 1 May 2019 39 80px The Hon.", "Margaret Beazley 2 May 2019 Incumbent" ], [ "See also", "* Spouse of the governor of New South Wales* Governor-General of Australia* Governors of the Australian states* Governor's Body Guard of Light Horse" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Governor of New South Wales official website" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Governor of Victoria" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''governor of Victoria''' is the representative of the monarch, currently King Charles III, in the Australian state of Victoria.The governor is appointed by the monarch on the advice of the premier of Victoria.", "The governor's role is to represent the Crown in right of Victoria.", "This role mainly includes performing ceremonial functions, such as opening and dissolving parliament, appointing the cabinet and granting royal assent.The governor's office and official residence is Government House next to the Royal Botanic Gardens and surrounded by Kings Domain in Melbourne.The current governor of Victoria is Margaret Gardner, who succeeded Linda Dessau in August 2023." ], [ "Powers", "In accordance with the conventions of the Westminster system of parliamentary government, the governor nearly always acts solely on the advice of the head of the elected government, the premier of Victoria.", "Nevertheless, the governor retains the reserve powers of the Crown, and has the right to dismiss the premier." ], [ "Role of governor", "The governor is appointed by the Monarch of Australia, on the advice of the premier of Victoria, to act as the monarch's representative as head of state in Victoria.", "The governor acts \"At His Majesty's pleasure\", meaning that the term of the governor can be terminated at any time by the monarch acting upon the advice of the premier.Since the Australia Acts of 1986, it is the governor and not the monarch who exercises all the powers of the head of state and the governor is not subject to the direction or supervision of the monarch but acts upon the advice of the premier.", "Upon appointment, the governor becomes a viceroy.", "The governor's main responsibilities fall into three categories – constitutional, ceremonial and community engagement." ], [ "Governor's personal standard", "The personal standard of the governor of Victoria is the same design as the state flag of Victoria, but with the blue background replaced by gold, and red stars depicting the Southern Cross.", "Above the Southern Cross is the Royal Crown.The current standard has been in place since 1984.Previously, the standard used by Victorian governors after 1870 had been the Union Jack with the Badge of the State of Victoria emblazoned in the centre.", "From 1903 to 1953, the Tudor Crown was used on the state flag and governor's standard and this was changed to the present crown in 1954.The governor's standard is flown at Government House and on vehicles conveying the governor.", "The standard is lowered over Government House when the governor is absent from Victoria.", ";Past and present standards of the governorFile:Flag of the Governor of Victoria (1870–1877).svg|1870–1877File:Flag of the Governor of Victoria (1877–1901).svg|1877–1903File:Flag of the Governor of Victoria (1903–1952).svg|1903–1953, bearing a Tudor crownFile:Flag of the Governor of Victoria (1952–1984).svg|1953–1984, bearing a St. Edward's crown File:Flag of the Governor of Victoria.svg|1984–present" ], [ "Related offices", "There is also a lieutenant-governor and an administrator.", "The chief justice of Victoria is ''ex officio'' the administrator, unless the chief justice is the lieutenant-governor, in which case, the next most senior judge is the administrator.", "The lieutenant-governor takes on the responsibilities of the governor when that post is vacant or when the governor is out of the state or unable to act.", "The administrator takes on those duties if both the governor and lieutenant-governor are not able to act for the above reasons.See Governors of the Australian states for a description and history of the office of governor.The Official Secretary to the Governor of Victoria is the head of the Office of the Governor which supports the Governor of Victoria in carrying out his or her official constitutional and ceremonial duties and community and international engagements.", "The official secretary manages the office and its administrative and service staff.", "All staff report to their respective managers, and through them to the Deputy Official Secretary and Official Secretary.", "The office also is in charge of maintaining Government House and its collections as a heritage and community asset of national importance.", "The official secretary is the Victorian nominee on the Council for the Order of Australia.The Office of the Governor was established under the ''Public Administration Act 2004'' (Vic) as an administrative office within the portfolio of the Department of Premier and Cabinet.", "The current official secretary is Joshua Puls and the current deputy official secretary (operations) is Taara Olorenshaw." ], [ "Australianisation of the office", "As with the other states, until the 1986 Australia Acts, the office of Governor of Victoria was an appointment of the British Foreign Office although local advice was considered and sometimes accepted.Until the appointment of Victorian-born Sir Henry Winneke in 1974, the governors of Victoria were British.", "Since then, governors have been Australian although several were born overseas, namely Davis McCaughey (born in Ireland) came to Australia for work and David de Kretser (born in Ceylon, now Sri Lanka) and Alex Chernov (born in Lithuania), both of whom came to Australia while at school." ], [ "List of governors of Victoria", "===Lieutenant-governors===Prior to the separation of the colony of Victoria from New South Wales in 1851, the area was called the Port Phillip District of New South Wales.", "The Governor of New South Wales appointed superintendents of the district.", "In 1839, Charles La Trobe was appointed superintendent.", "La Trobe became lieutenant-governor of the new colony of Victoria on separation on 1 July 1851.From 1850 to 1861, the Governor of New South Wales was titled Governor-general of New South Wales in an attempt to form a federal structure.", "Until Victoria obtained responsible government in 1855, the Governor-general of New South Wales appointed lieutenant-governors to Victoria.", "On Victoria obtaining responsible government in May 1855, the title of the then incumbent lieutenant-governor, Captain Sir Charles Hotham, became governor.", "'''No.'''", "'''Image''' '''Lieutenant-governor''' '''From''' '''To''' 1 80px Captain Charles La Trobe 1 July 1851 5 May 1854 2 80px Captain Sir Charles Hotham KCB RN 22 June 1854 22 May 1855===Governors=== '''No.'''", "'''Image''' '''Governor''' '''From''' '''To''' '''Notes''' 1 80px Sir Charles Hotham KCB 22 May 1855 31 December 1855 Edward Macarthur was administrator from January to December 1856 2 80px Sir Henry Barkly GCMG KCB FRS FRGS 26 December 1856 10 September 1863 3 80px Sir Charles Darling KCB 11 September 1863 7 May 1866 George Carey acted May to August 1866 4 80px The Rt Hon.", "Viscount Canterbury GCMG KCB 15 August 1866 2 March 1873 5 80px The Rt Hon Sir George Bowen GCMG 30 July 1873 22 February 1879 6 80px The Most Hon.", "Marquess of Normanby GCB GCMG PC 29 April 1879 18 April 1884 7 80px Sir Henry Brougham Loch GCMG KCB 15 July 1884 15 November 1889 8 80px The Right Hon.", "Earl of Hopetoun KT GCMG GCVO PC 28 November 1889 12 July 1895 9 80px The Rt Hon.", "Lord Brassey GCB JP DL TD 25 October 1895 31 March 1900 10 80px Sir George Clarke KCMG 28 September 1901 24 November 1903 11 80px The Hon.", "Major-General Sir Reginald Talbot KCB 25 April 1904 6 July 1908 12 80px The Rt Hon.", "Lord Carmichael GCSI GCIE KCMG DL 27 July 1908 19 May 1911 13 80pxThe Rt Hon.", "Sir John Fuller Bt KCMG 24 May 1911 24 November 1913 14 80px Sir Arthur Stanley KCMG 23 February 1914 30 January 1920 15 80px The Rt Hon.", "Earl of Stradbroke KCMG CB CVO CBE VD TD 24 February 1921 7 April 1926 16 The Rt Hon.", "Lord Somers KCMG DSO MC 28 June 1926 23 June 1931 17 80px The Rt Hon.", "Lord Huntingfield KCMG 14 May 1934 4 April 1939 18 80px The Rt Hon.", "Major General Lord Dugan GCMG CB DSO 17 July 1939 20 February 1949 19 General Sir Reginald Dallas Brooks GCMG KCB KCVO DSO 18 October 1949 7 May 1963 20 Major General Sir Rohan Delacombe KCMG KCVO KBE CB DSO 8 May 1963 31 May 1974 21 80px The Hon.", "Sir Henry Winneke AC KCMG KCVO OBE QC 1 June 1974 28 February 1982 22 Rear Admiral Sir Brian Murray KCMG AO 1 March 1982 3 October 1985 23 The Reverend Dr Davis McCaughey AC 18 February 1986 22 April 1992 24 The Hon.", "Richard McGarvie AC QC 23 April 1992 23 April 1997 25 The Hon.", "Sir James Gobbo AC CVO QC 24 April 1997 31 December 2000 26 80px Mr. John Landy AC CVO MBE 1 January 2001 7 April 2006 27 80px Professor David de Kretser AC 7 April 2006 7 April 2011 28 80px The Hon.", "Alex Chernov AC KC 8 April 2011 30 June 2015 29 80px The Hon.", "Linda Dessau AC CVO 1 July 2015 30 June 2023 30 80px The Hon.", "Margaret Gardner AC 9 August 2023 ''Incumbent''" ], [ "Line of succession", "There is also a lieutenant-governor and an administrator.", "The lieutenant-governor takes on the responsibilities of the governor when that post is vacant or when the governor is out of the state or unable to act.", "The lieutenant-governor is appointed by the governor on the advice of the premier of Victoria.", "Appointment as lieutenant-governor does not of itself confer any powers or functions.", "If there is no governor or if the governor is unavailable to act for a substantial period, the lieutenant-governor assumes office as administrator and exercises all the powers and functions of the governor.If expecting to be unavailable for a short period only, the governor, with the consent of the premier, usually commissions the lieutenant-governor to act as deputy for the governor, performing some or all of the powers and functions of the governor.The chief justice of Victoria is ''ex officio'' the administrator, unless the chief justice is the lieutenant-governor, in which case the next most senior judge is the administrator.", "The administrator takes on the governor's duties if both the governor and lieutenant-governor are not able to act for the above reasons.The current lieutenant-governor is James Angus, who was appointed to the role on 12 November 2021 to succeed Ken Lay." ], [ "See also", "* Governor-General of Australia* Governors of the Australian states" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* The Official Website of the Governor of Victoria* Governors of Victoria, Parliament of Victoria* Office of the Governor 50px Text was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "George Bernard Shaw" ], [ "Introduction", "'''George Bernard Shaw''' (26 July 1856 – 2 November 1950), known at his insistence as '''Bernard Shaw''', was an Irish playwright, critic, polemicist and political activist.", "His influence on Western theatre, culture and politics extended from the 1880s to his death and beyond.", "He wrote more than sixty plays, including major works such as ''Man and Superman'' (1902), ''Pygmalion'' (1913) and ''Saint Joan'' (1923).", "With a range incorporating both contemporary satire and historical allegory, Shaw became the leading dramatist of his generation, and in 1925 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature.Born in Dublin, Shaw moved to London in 1876, where he struggled to establish himself as a writer and novelist, and embarked on a rigorous process of self-education.", "By the mid-1880s he had become a respected theatre and music critic.", "Following a political awakening, he joined the gradualist Fabian Society and became its most prominent pamphleteer.", "Shaw had been writing plays for years before his first public success, ''Arms and the Man'' in 1894.Influenced by Henrik Ibsen, he sought to introduce a new realism into English-language drama, using his plays as vehicles to disseminate his political, social and religious ideas.", "By the early twentieth century his reputation as a dramatist was secured with a series of critical and popular successes that included ''Major Barbara'', ''The Doctor's Dilemma'', and ''Caesar and Cleopatra''.Shaw's expressed views were often contentious; he promoted eugenics and alphabet reform, and opposed vaccination and organised religion.", "He courted unpopularity by denouncing both sides in the First World War as equally culpable, and although not a republican, castigated British policy on Ireland in the postwar period.", "These stances had no lasting effect on his standing or productivity as a dramatist; the inter-war years saw a series of often ambitious plays, which achieved varying degrees of popular success.", "In 1938 he provided the screenplay for a filmed version of ''Pygmalion'' for which he received an Academy Award.", "His appetite for politics and controversy remained undiminished; by the late 1920s, he had largely renounced Fabian Society gradualism, and often wrote and spoke favourably of dictatorships of the right and left—he expressed admiration for both Mussolini and Stalin.", "In the final decade of his life, he made fewer public statements but continued to write prolifically until shortly before his death, aged ninety-four, having refused all state honours, including the Order of Merit in 1946.Since Shaw's death scholarly and critical opinion about his works has varied, but he has regularly been rated among British dramatists as second only to Shakespeare; analysts recognise his extensive influence on generations of English-language playwrights.", "The word ''Shavian'' has entered the language as encapsulating Shaw's ideas and his means of expressing them." ], [ "Life", "===Early years===Shaw's birthplace (2012 photograph).", "The plaque reads \"Bernard Shaw, author of many plays, was born in this house, 26 July 1856\".Shaw was born at 3 Upper Synge Street in Portobello, a lower-middle-class part of Dublin.", "He was the youngest child and only son of George Carr Shaw (1814–1885) and Lucinda Elizabeth (Bessie) Shaw (''née'' Gurly; 1830–1913).", "His elder siblings were Lucinda (Lucy) Frances (1853–1920) and Elinor Agnes (1855–1876).", "The Shaw family was of English descent and belonged to the dominant Protestant Ascendancy in Ireland; George Carr Shaw, an ineffectual alcoholic, was among the family's less successful members.", "His relatives secured him a sinecure in the civil service, from which he was pensioned off in the early 1850s; thereafter he worked irregularly as a corn merchant.", "In 1852 he married Bessie Gurly; in the view of Shaw's biographer Michael Holroyd she married to escape a tyrannical great-aunt.", "If, as Holroyd and others surmise, George's motives were mercenary, then he was disappointed, as Bessie brought him little of her family's money.", "She came to despise her ineffectual and often drunken husband, with whom she shared what their son later described as a life of \"shabby-genteel poverty\".By the time of Shaw's birth, his mother had become close to George John Lee, a flamboyant figure well known in Dublin's musical circles.", "Shaw retained a lifelong obsession that Lee might have been his biological father; there is no consensus among Shavian scholars on the likelihood of this.", "The young Shaw suffered no harshness from his mother, but he later recalled that her indifference and lack of affection hurt him deeply.", "He found solace in the music that abounded in the house.", "Lee was a conductor and teacher of singing; Bessie had a fine mezzo-soprano voice and was much influenced by Lee's unorthodox method of vocal production.", "The Shaws' house was often filled with music, with frequent gatherings of singers and players.In 1862, Lee and the Shaws agreed to share a house, No.", "1 Hatch Street, in an affluent part of Dublin, and a country cottage on Dalkey Hill, overlooking Killiney Bay.", "Shaw, a sensitive boy, found the less salubrious parts of Dublin shocking and distressing, and was happier at the cottage.", "Lee's students often gave him books, which the young Shaw read avidly; thus, as well as gaining a thorough musical knowledge of choral and operatic works, he became familiar with a wide spectrum of literature.Between 1865 and 1871, Shaw attended four schools, all of which he hated.", "His experiences as a schoolboy left him disillusioned with formal education: \"Schools and schoolmasters\", he later wrote, were \"prisons and turnkeys in which children are kept to prevent them disturbing and chaperoning their parents.\"", "In October 1871 he left school to become a junior clerk in a Dublin firm of land agents, where he worked hard, and quickly rose to become head cashier.", "During this period, Shaw was known as \"George Shaw\"; after 1876, he dropped the \"George\" and styled himself \"Bernard Shaw\".In June 1873, Lee left Dublin for London and never returned.", "A fortnight later, Bessie followed him; the two girls joined her.", "Shaw's explanation of why his mother followed Lee was that without the latter's financial contribution the joint household had to be broken up.", "Left in Dublin with his father, Shaw compensated for the absence of music in the house by teaching himself to play the piano.===London===Early in 1876 Shaw learned from his mother that Agnes was dying of tuberculosis.", "He resigned from the land agents, and in March travelled to England to join his mother and Lucy at Agnes's funeral.", "He never again lived in Ireland, and did not visit it for twenty-nine years.Shaw in 1879Initially, Shaw refused to seek clerical employment in London.", "His mother allowed him to live free of charge in her house in South Kensington, but he nevertheless needed an income.", "He had abandoned a teenage ambition to become a painter, and had not yet thought of writing for a living, but Lee found a little work for him, ghost-writing a musical column printed under Lee's name in a satirical weekly, ''The Hornet''.", "Lee's relations with Bessie deteriorated after their move to London.", "Shaw maintained contact with Lee, who found him work as a rehearsal pianist and occasional singer.Eventually Shaw was driven to applying for office jobs.", "In the interim he secured a reader's pass for the British Museum Reading Room (the forerunner of the British Library) and spent most weekdays there, reading and writing.", "His first attempt at drama, begun in 1878, was a blank-verse satirical piece on a religious theme.", "It was abandoned unfinished, as was his first try at a novel.", "His first completed novel, ''Immaturity'' (1879), was too grim to appeal to publishers and did not appear until the 1930s.", "He was employed briefly by the newly formed Edison Telephone Company in 1879–80 and, as in Dublin, achieved rapid promotion.", "Nonetheless, when the Edison firm merged with the rival Bell Telephone Company, Shaw chose not to seek a place in the new organisation.", "Thereafter he pursued a full-time career as an author.For the next four years Shaw made a negligible income from writing, and was subsidised by his mother.", "In 1881, for the sake of economy, and increasingly as a matter of principle, he became a vegetarian.", "In the same year he suffered an attack of smallpox; eventually he grew a beard to hide the resultant facial scar.", "In rapid succession he wrote two more novels: ''The Irrational Knot'' (1880) and ''Love Among the Artists'' (1881), but neither found a publisher; each was serialised a few years later in the socialist magazine ''Our Corner''.In 1880 Shaw began attending meetings of the Zetetical Society, whose objective was to \"search for truth in all matters affecting the interests of the human race\".", "Here he met Sidney Webb, a junior civil servant who, like Shaw, was busy educating himself.", "Despite difference of style and temperament, the two quickly recognised qualities in each other and developed a lifelong friendship.", "Shaw later reflected: \"You knew everything that I didn't know and I knew everything you didn't know ... We had everything to learn from one another and brains enough to do it\".William Archer, colleague and benefactor of ShawShaw's next attempt at drama was a one-act playlet in French, ''Un Petit Drame'', written in 1884 but not published in his lifetime.", "In the same year the critic William Archer suggested a collaboration, with a plot by Archer and dialogue by Shaw.", "The project foundered, but Shaw returned to the draft as the basis of ''Widowers' Houses'' in 1892, and the connection with Archer proved of immense value to Shaw's career.===Political awakening: Marxism, socialism, Fabian Society===On 5 September 1882 Shaw attended a meeting at the Memorial Hall, Farringdon, addressed by the political economist Henry George.", "Shaw then read George's book ''Progress and Poverty'', which awakened his interest in economics.", "He began attending meetings of the Social Democratic Federation (SDF), where he discovered the writings of Karl Marx, and thereafter spent much of 1883 reading ''Das Kapital''.", "He was not impressed by the SDF's founder, H. M. Hyndman, whom he found autocratic, ill-tempered and lacking leadership qualities.", "Shaw doubted the ability of the SDF to harness the working classes into an effective radical movement and did not join it—he preferred, he said, to work with his intellectual equals.After reading a tract, ''Why Are The Many Poor?", "'', issued by the recently formed Fabian Society, Shaw went to the society's next advertised meeting, on 16 May 1884.He became a member in September, and before the year's end had provided the society with its first manifesto, published as Fabian Tract No.", "2.He joined the society's executive committee in January 1885, and later that year recruited Webb and also Annie Besant, a fine orator.From 1885 to 1889 Shaw attended the fortnightly meetings of the British Economic Association; it was, Holroyd observes, \"the closest Shaw had ever come to university education\".", "This experience changed his political ideas; he moved away from Marxism and became an apostle of gradualism.", "When in 1886–87 the Fabians debated whether to embrace anarchism, as advocated by Charlotte Wilson, Besant and others, Shaw joined the majority in rejecting this approach.", "After a rally in Trafalgar Square addressed by Besant was violently broken up by the authorities on 13 November 1887 (\"Bloody Sunday\"), Shaw became convinced of the folly of attempting to challenge police power.", "Thereafter he largely accepted the principle of \"permeation\" as advocated by Webb: the notion whereby socialism could best be achieved by infiltration of people and ideas into existing political parties.Throughout the 1880s the Fabian Society remained small, its message of moderation frequently unheard among more strident voices.", "Its profile was raised in 1889 with the publication of ''Fabian Essays in Socialism'', edited by Shaw who also provided two of the essays.", "The second of these, \"Transition\", details the case for gradualism and permeation, asserting that \"the necessity for cautious and gradual change must be obvious to everyone\".", "In 1890 Shaw produced Tract No.", "13, ''What Socialism Is'', a revision of an earlier tract in which Charlotte Wilson had defined socialism in anarchistic terms.", "In Shaw's new version, readers were assured that \"socialism can be brought about in a perfectly constitutional manner by democratic institutions\".===Novelist and critic===The mid-1880s marked a turning point in Shaw's life, both personally and professionally: he lost his virginity, had two novels published, and began a career as a critic.", "He had been celibate until his twenty-ninth birthday, when his shyness was overcome by Jane (Jenny) Patterson, a widow some years his senior.", "Their affair continued, not always smoothly, for eight years.", "Shaw's sex life has caused much speculation and debate among his biographers, but there is a consensus that the relationship with Patterson was one of his few non-platonic romantic liaisons.The published novels, neither commercially successful, were his two final efforts in this genre: ''Cashel Byron's Profession'' written in 1882–83, and ''An Unsocial Socialist'', begun and finished in 1883.The latter was published as a serial in ''To-Day'' magazine in 1884, although it did not appear in book form until 1887.", "''Cashel Byron'' appeared in magazine and book form in 1886.William Morris (left) and John Ruskin: important influences on Shaw's aesthetic viewsIn 1884 and 1885, through the influence of Archer, Shaw was engaged to write book and music criticism for London papers.", "When Archer resigned as art critic of ''The World'' in 1886, he secured the succession for Shaw.", "The two figures in the contemporary art world whose views Shaw most admired were William Morris and John Ruskin, and he sought to follow their precepts in his criticisms.", "Their emphasis on morality appealed to Shaw, who rejected the idea of art for art's sake, and insisted that all great art must be didactic.Of Shaw's various reviewing activities in the 1880s and 1890s it was as a music critic that he was best known.", "After serving as deputy in 1888, he became musical critic of ''The Star'' in February 1889, writing under the pen-name Corno di Bassetto.", "In May 1890 he moved back to ''The World'', where he wrote a weekly column as \"G.B.S.\"", "for more than four years.", "In the 2016 version of the ''Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians'', Robert Anderson writes, \"Shaw's collected writings on music stand alone in their mastery of English and compulsive readability.\"", "Shaw ceased to be a salaried music critic in August 1894, but published occasional articles on the subject throughout his career, his last in 1950.From 1895 to 1898, Shaw was the theatre critic for ''The Saturday Review'', edited by his friend Frank Harris.", "As at ''The World'', he used the by-line \"G.B.S.\"", "He campaigned against the artificial conventions and hypocrisies of the Victorian theatre and called for plays of real ideas and true characters.", "By this time he had embarked in earnest on a career as a playwright: \"I had rashly taken up the case; and rather than let it collapse I manufactured the evidence\".===Playwright and politician: 1890s===After using the plot of the aborted 1884 collaboration with Archer to complete ''Widowers' Houses'' (it was staged twice in London, in December 1892), Shaw continued writing plays.", "At first he made slow progress; ''The Philanderer'', written in 1893 but not published until 1898, had to wait until 1905 for a stage production.", "Similarly, ''Mrs Warren's Profession'' (1893) was written five years before publication and nine years before reaching the stage.Shaw in 1894 at the time of ''Arms and the Man''Shaw's first play to bring him financial success was ''Arms and the Man'' (1894), a mock-Ruritanian comedy satirising conventions of love, military honour and class.", "The press found the play overlong, and accused Shaw of mediocrity, sneering at heroism and patriotism, heartless cleverness, and copying W.S.Gilbert's style.", "The public took a different view, and the management of the theatre staged extra matinée performances to meet the demand.", "The play ran from April to July, toured the provinces and was staged in New York.", "It earned him £341 in royalties in its first year, a sufficient sum to enable him to give up his salaried post as a music critic.", "Among the cast of the London production was Florence Farr, with whom Shaw had a romantic relationship between 1890 and 1894, much resented by Jenny Patterson.The success of ''Arms and the Man'' was not immediately replicated.", "''Candida'', which presented a young woman making a conventional romantic choice for unconventional reasons, received a single performance in South Shields in 1895; in 1897 a playlet about Napoleon called ''The Man of Destiny'' had a single staging at Croydon.", "In the 1890s Shaw's plays were better known in print than on the West End stage; his biggest success of the decade was in New York in 1897, when Richard Mansfield's production of the historical melodrama ''The Devil's Disciple'' earned the author more than £2,000 in royalties.In January 1893, as a Fabian delegate, Shaw attended the Bradford conference which led to the foundation of the Independent Labour Party.", "He was sceptical about the new party, and scorned the likelihood that it could switch the allegiance of the working class from sport to politics.", "He persuaded the conference to adopt resolutions abolishing indirect taxation, and taxing unearned income \"to extinction\".", "Back in London, Shaw produced what Margaret Cole, in her Fabian history, terms a \"grand philippic\" against the minority Liberal administration that had taken power in 1892.", "''To Your Tents, O Israel!''", "excoriated the government for ignoring social issues and concentrating solely on Irish Home Rule, a matter Shaw declared of no relevance to socialism.", "In 1894 the Fabian Society received a substantial bequest from a sympathiser, Henry Hunt Hutchinson—Holroyd mentions £10,000.Webb, who chaired the board of trustees appointed to supervise the legacy, proposed to use most of it to found a school of economics and politics.", "Shaw demurred; he thought such a venture was contrary to the specified purpose of the legacy.", "He was eventually persuaded to support the proposal, and the London School of Economics and Political Science (LSE) opened in the summer of 1895.By the later 1890s Shaw's political activities lessened as he concentrated on making his name as a dramatist.", "In 1897 he was persuaded to fill an uncontested vacancy for a \"vestryman\" (parish councillor) in London's St Pancras district.", "At least initially, Shaw took to his municipal responsibilities seriously; when London government was reformed in 1899 and the St Pancras vestry became the Metropolitan Borough of St Pancras, he was elected to the newly formed borough council.In 1898, as a result of overwork, Shaw's health broke down.", "He was nursed by Charlotte Payne-Townshend, a rich Anglo-Irish woman whom he had met through the Webbs.", "The previous year she had proposed that she and Shaw should marry.", "He had declined, but when she insisted on nursing him in a house in the country, Shaw, concerned that this might cause scandal, agreed to their marriage.", "The ceremony took place on 1 June 1898, in the register office in Covent Garden.", "The bride and bridegroom were both aged forty-one.", "In the view of the biographer and critic St John Ervine, \"their life together was entirely felicitous\".", "There were no children of the marriage, which it is generally believed was never consummated; whether this was wholly at Charlotte's wish, as Shaw liked to suggest, is less widely credited.", "In the early weeks of the marriage Shaw was much occupied writing his Marxist analysis of Wagner's ''Ring'' cycle, published as ''The Perfect Wagnerite'' late in 1898.In 1906 the Shaws found a country home in Ayot St Lawrence, Hertfordshire; they renamed the house \"Shaw's Corner\", and lived there for the rest of their lives.", "They retained a London flat in the Adelphi and later at Whitehall Court.===Stage success: 1900–1914===Gertrude Elliott and Johnston Forbes-Robertson in ''Caesar and Cleopatra'', New York, 1906During the first decade of the twentieth century, Shaw secured a firm reputation as a playwright.", "In 1904 J. E. Vedrenne and Harley Granville-Barker established a company at the Royal Court Theatre in Sloane Square, Chelsea to present modern drama.", "Over the next five years they staged fourteen of Shaw's plays.", "The first, ''John Bull's Other Island'', a comedy about an Englishman in Ireland, attracted leading politicians and was seen by Edward VII, who laughed so much that he broke his chair.", "The play was withheld from Dublin's Abbey Theatre, for fear of the affront it might provoke, although it was shown at the city's Royal Theatre in November 1907.Shaw later wrote that William Butler Yeats, who had requested the play, \"got rather more than he bargained for...", "It was uncongenial to the whole spirit of the neo-Gaelic movement, which is bent on creating a new Ireland after its own ideal, whereas my play is a very uncompromising presentment of the real old Ireland.\"", "Nonetheless, Shaw and Yeats were close friends; Yeats and Lady Gregory tried unsuccessfully to persuade Shaw to take up the vacant co-directorship of the Abbey Theatre after J. M. Synge's death in 1909.Shaw admired other figures in the Irish Literary Revival, including George Russell and James Joyce, and was a close friend of Seán O'Casey, who was inspired to become a playwright after reading ''John Bull's Other Island''.", "''Man and Superman'', completed in 1902, was a success both at the Royal Court in 1905 and in Robert Loraine's New York production in the same year.", "Among the other Shaw works presented by Vedrenne and Granville-Barker were ''Major Barbara'' (1905), depicting the contrasting morality of arms manufacturers and the Salvation Army; ''The Doctor's Dilemma'' (1906), a mostly serious piece about professional ethics; and ''Caesar and Cleopatra'', Shaw's counterblast to Shakespeare's ''Antony and Cleopatra'', seen in New York in 1906 and in London the following year.Now prosperous and established, Shaw experimented with unorthodox theatrical forms described by his biographer Stanley Weintraub as \"discussion drama\" and \"serious farce\".", "These plays included ''Getting Married'' (premiered 1908), ''The Shewing-Up of Blanco Posnet'' (1909), ''Misalliance'' (1910), and ''Fanny's First Play'' (1911).", "''Blanco Posnet'' was banned on religious grounds by the Lord Chamberlain (the official theatre censor in England), and was produced instead in Dublin; it filled the Abbey Theatre to capacity.", "''Fanny's First Play'', a comedy about suffragettes, had the longest initial run of any Shaw play—622 performances.", "''Androcles and the Lion'' (1912), a less heretical study of true and false religious attitudes than ''Blanco Posnet'', ran for eight weeks in September and October 1913.It was followed by one of Shaw's most successful plays, ''Pygmalion'', written in 1912 and staged in Vienna the following year, and in Berlin shortly afterwards.", "Shaw commented, \"It is the custom of the English press when a play of mine is produced, to inform the world that it is not a play—that it is dull, blasphemous, unpopular, and financially unsuccessful. ...", "Hence arose an urgent demand on the part of the managers of Vienna and Berlin that I should have my plays performed by them first.\"", "The British production opened in April 1914, starring Sir Herbert Tree and Mrs Patrick Campbell as, respectively, a professor of phonetics and a cockney flower-girl.", "There had earlier been a romantic liaison between Shaw and Campbell that caused Charlotte Shaw considerable concern, but by the time of the London premiere it had ended.", "The play attracted capacity audiences until July, when Tree insisted on going on holiday, and the production closed.", "His co-star then toured with the piece in the US.===Fabian years: 1900–1913===Shaw in 1914, aged 57In 1899, when the Boer War began, Shaw wished the Fabians to take a neutral stance on what he deemed, like Home Rule, to be a \"non-Socialist\" issue.", "Others, including the future Labour prime minister Ramsay MacDonald, wanted unequivocal opposition, and resigned from the society when it followed Shaw.", "In the Fabians' war manifesto, ''Fabianism and the Empire'' (1900), Shaw declared that \"until the Federation of the World becomes an accomplished fact we must accept the most responsible Imperial federations available as a substitute for it\".As the new century began, Shaw became increasingly disillusioned by the limited impact of the Fabians on national politics.", "Thus, although a nominated Fabian delegate, he did not attend the London conference at the Memorial Hall, Farringdon Street in February 1900, that created the Labour Representation Committee—precursor of the modern Labour Party.", "By 1903, when his term as borough councillor expired, he had lost his earlier enthusiasm, writing: \"After six years of Borough Councilling I am convinced that the borough councils should be abolished\".", "Nevertheless, in 1904 he stood in the London County Council elections.", "After an eccentric campaign, which Holroyd characterises as \"making absolutely certain of not getting in\", he was duly defeated.", "It was Shaw's final foray into electoral politics.", "Nationally, the 1906 general election produced a huge Liberal majority and an intake of 29 Labour members.", "Shaw viewed this outcome with scepticism; he had a low opinion of the new prime minister, Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman, and saw the Labour members as inconsequential: \"I apologise to the Universe for my connection with such a body\".In the years after the 1906 election, Shaw felt that the Fabians needed fresh leadership, and saw this in the form of his fellow-writer H. G. Wells, who had joined the society in February 1903.Wells's ideas for reform—particularly his proposals for closer cooperation with the Independent Labour Party—placed him at odds with the society's \"Old Gang\", led by Shaw.", "According to Cole, Wells \"had minimal capacity for putting his ideas across in public meetings against Shaw's trained and practised virtuosity\".", "In Shaw's view, \"the Old Gang did not extinguish Mr Wells, he annihilated himself\".", "Wells resigned from the society in September 1908; Shaw remained a member, but left the executive in April 1911.He later wondered whether the Old Gang should have given way to Wells some years earlier: \"God only knows whether the Society had not better have done it\".", "Although less active—he blamed his advancing years—Shaw remained a Fabian.In 1912 Shaw invested £1,000 for a one-fifth share in the Webbs' new publishing venture, a socialist weekly magazine called ''The New Statesman'', which appeared in April 1913.He became a founding director, publicist, and in due course a contributor, mostly anonymously.", "He was soon at odds with the magazine's editor, Clifford Sharp, who by 1916 was rejecting his contributions—\"the only paper in the world that refuses to print anything by me\", according to Shaw.===First World War===After the First World War began in August 1914, Shaw produced his tract ''Common Sense About the War'', which argued that the warring nations were equally culpable.", "Such a view was anathema in an atmosphere of fervent patriotism, and offended many of Shaw's friends; Ervine records that \"his appearance at any public function caused the instant departure of many of those present.", "\"Despite his errant reputation, Shaw's propagandist skills were recognised by the British authorities, and early in 1917 he was invited by Field Marshal Haig to visit the Western Front battlefields.", "Shaw's 10,000-word report, which emphasised the human aspects of the soldier's life, was well received, and he became less of a lone voice.", "In April 1917 he joined the national consensus in welcoming America's entry into the war: \"a first class moral asset to the common cause against junkerism\".Three short plays by Shaw were premiered during the war.", "''The Inca of Perusalem'', written in 1915, encountered problems with the censor for burlesquing not only the enemy but the British military command; it was performed in 1916 at the Birmingham Repertory Theatre.", "''O'Flaherty V.C.", "'', satirising the government's attitude to Irish recruits, was banned in the UK and was presented at a Royal Flying Corps base in Belgium in 1917.", "''Augustus Does His Bit'', a genial farce, was granted a licence; it opened at the Royal Court in January 1917.===Ireland===Dublin city centre in ruins after the Easter Rising, April 1916Shaw had long supported the principle of Irish Home Rule within the British Empire (which he thought should become the British Commonwealth).", "In April 1916 he wrote scathingly in ''The New York Times'' about militant Irish nationalism: \"In point of learning nothing and forgetting nothing these fellow-patriots of mine leave the Bourbons nowhere.\"", "Total independence, he asserted, was impractical; alliance with a bigger power (preferably England) was essential.", "The Dublin Easter Rising later that month took him by surprise.", "After its suppression by British forces, he expressed horror at the summary execution of the rebel leaders, but continued to believe in some form of Anglo-Irish union.", "In ''How to Settle the Irish Question'' (1917), he envisaged a federal arrangement, with national and imperial parliaments.", "Holroyd records that by this time the separatist party Sinn Féin was in the ascendency, and Shaw's and other moderate schemes were forgotten.In the postwar period, Shaw despaired of the British government's coercive policies towards Ireland, and joined his fellow-writers Hilaire Belloc and G. K. Chesterton in publicly condemning these actions.", "The Anglo-Irish Treaty of December 1921 led to the partition of Ireland between north and south, a provision that dismayed Shaw.", "In 1922 civil war broke out in the south between its pro-treaty and anti-treaty factions, the former of whom had established the Irish Free State.", "Shaw visited Dublin in August, and met Michael Collins, then head of the Free State's Provisional Government.", "Shaw was much impressed by Collins, and was saddened when, three days later, the Irish leader was ambushed and killed by anti-treaty forces.", "In a letter to Collins's sister, Shaw wrote: \"I met Michael for the first and last time on Saturday last, and am very glad I did.", "I rejoice in his memory, and will not be so disloyal to it as to snivel over his valiant death\".", "Shaw remained a British subject all his life, but took dual British-Irish nationality in 1934.===1920s===The rotating hut in the garden of Shaw's Corner, Ayot St Lawrence, where Shaw wrote most of his works after 1906Shaw's first major work to appear after the war was ''Heartbreak House'', written in 1916–17 and performed in 1920.It was produced on Broadway in November, and was coolly received; according to ''The Times'': \"Mr Shaw on this occasion has more than usual to say and takes twice as long as usual to say it\".", "After the London premiere in October 1921 ''The Times'' concurred with the American critics: \"As usual with Mr Shaw, the play is about an hour too long\", although containing \"much entertainment and some profitable reflection\".", "Ervine in ''The Observer'' thought the play brilliant but ponderously acted, except for Edith Evans as Lady Utterword.Shaw's largest-scale theatrical work was ''Back to Methuselah'', written in 1918–20 and staged in 1922.Weintraub describes it as \"Shaw's attempt to fend off 'the bottomless pit of an utterly discouraging pessimism'\".", "This cycle of five interrelated plays depicts evolution, and the effects of longevity, from the Garden of Eden to the year 31,920 AD.", "Critics found the five plays strikingly uneven in quality and invention.", "The original run was brief, and the work has been revived infrequently.", "Shaw felt he had exhausted his remaining creative powers in the huge span of this \"Metabiological Pentateuch\".", "He was now sixty-seven, and expected to write no more plays.This mood was short-lived.", "In 1920 Joan of Arc was proclaimed a saint by Pope Benedict XV; Shaw had long found Joan an interesting historical character, and his view of her veered between \"half-witted genius\" and someone of \"exceptional sanity\".", "He had considered writing a play about her in 1913, and the canonisation prompted him to return to the subject.", "He wrote ''Saint Joan'' in the middle months of 1923, and the play was premiered on Broadway in December.", "It was enthusiastically received there, and at its London premiere the following March.", "In Weintraub's phrase, \"even the Nobel prize committee could no longer ignore Shaw after Saint Joan\".", "The citation for the literature prize for 1925 praised his work as \"... marked by both idealism and humanity, its stimulating satire often being infused with a singular poetic beauty\".", "He accepted the award, but rejected the monetary prize that went with it, on the grounds that \"My readers and my audiences provide me with more than sufficient money for my needs\".After ''Saint Joan'', it was five years before Shaw wrote a play.", "From 1924, he spent four years writing what he described as his \"magnum opus\", a political treatise entitled ''The Intelligent Woman's Guide to Socialism and Capitalism''.", "The book was published in 1928 and sold well.", "At the end of the decade Shaw produced his final Fabian tract, a commentary on the League of Nations.", "He described the League as \"a school for the new international statesmanship as against the old Foreign Office diplomacy\", but thought that it had not yet become the \"Federation of the World\".Shaw returned to the theatre with what he called \"a political extravaganza\", ''The Apple Cart'', written in late 1928.It was, in Ervine's view, unexpectedly popular, taking a conservative, monarchist, anti-democratic line that appealed to contemporary audiences.", "The premiere was in Warsaw in June 1928, and the first British production was two months later, at Sir Barry Jackson's inaugural Malvern Festival.", "The other eminent creative artist most closely associated with the festival was Sir Edward Elgar, with whom Shaw enjoyed a deep friendship and mutual regard.", "He described ''The Apple Cart'' to Elgar as \"a scandalous Aristophanic burlesque of democratic politics, with a brief but shocking sex interlude\".During the 1920s Shaw began to lose faith in the idea that society could be changed through Fabian gradualism, and became increasingly fascinated with dictatorial methods.", "In 1922 he had welcomed Mussolini's accession to power in Italy, observing that amid the \"indiscipline and muddle and Parliamentary deadlock\", Mussolini was \"the right kind of tyrant\".", "Shaw was prepared to tolerate certain dictatorial excesses; Weintraub in his ODNB biographical sketch comments that Shaw's \"flirtation with authoritarian inter-war regimes\" took a long time to fade, and Beatrice Webb thought he was \"obsessed\" about Mussolini.===1930s===Shaw's enthusiasm for the Soviet Union dated to the early 1920s when he had hailed Lenin as \"the one really interesting statesman in Europe\".", "Having turned down several chances to visit, in 1931 he joined a party led by Nancy Astor.", "The carefully managed trip culminated in a lengthy meeting with Stalin, whom Shaw later described as \"a Georgian gentleman\" with no malice in him.", "At a dinner given in his honour, Shaw told the gathering: \"I have seen all the 'terrors' and I was terribly pleased by them\".", "In March 1933, he was a co-signatory to a letter in ''The Manchester Guardian'' protesting at the continuing misrepresentation of Soviet achievements: \"No lie is too fantastic, no slander is too stale ... for employment by the more reckless elements of the British press.", "\"Shaw's admiration for Mussolini and Stalin demonstrated his growing belief that dictatorship was the only viable political arrangement.", "When the Nazi Party came to power in Germany in January 1933, Shaw described Hitler as \"a very remarkable man, a very able man\", and professed himself proud to be the only writer in England who was \"scrupulously polite and just to Hitler\"; though his principal admiration was for Stalin, whose regime he championed uncritically throughout the decade.", "Shaw saw the 1939 Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact as a triumph for Stalin who, he said, now had Hitler under his thumb.Shaw's first play of the decade was ''Too True to Be Good'', written in 1931 and premiered in Boston in February 1932.The reception was unenthusiastic.", "Brooks Atkinson of ''The New York Times'' commenting that Shaw had \"yielded to the impulse to write without having a subject\", judged the play a \"rambling and indifferently tedious conversation\".", "The correspondent of the ''New York Herald Tribune'' said that most of the play was \"discourse, unbelievably long lectures\" and that although the audience enjoyed the play it was bewildered by it.Shaw in 1936, aged 80During the decade Shaw travelled widely and frequently.", "Most of his journeys were with Charlotte; she enjoyed voyages on ocean liners, and he found peace to write during the long spells at sea.", "Shaw met an enthusiastic welcome in South Africa in 1932, despite his strong remarks about the racial divisions of the country.", "In December 1932 the couple embarked on a round-the-world cruise.", "In March 1933 they arrived at San Francisco, to begin Shaw's first visit to the US.", "He had earlier refused to go to \"that awful country, that uncivilized place\", \"unfit to govern itself... illiberal, superstitious, crude, violent, anarchic and arbitrary\".", "He visited Hollywood, with which he was unimpressed, and New York, where he lectured to a capacity audience in the Metropolitan Opera House.", "Harried by the intrusive attentions of the press, Shaw was glad when his ship sailed from New York harbour.", "New Zealand, which he and Charlotte visited the following year, struck him as \"the best country I've been in\"; he urged its people to be more confident and loosen their dependence on trade with Britain.", "He used the weeks at sea to complete two plays—''The Simpleton of the Unexpected Isles'' and ''The Six of Calais''—and begin work on a third, ''The Millionairess''.Despite his contempt for Hollywood and its aesthetic values, Shaw was enthusiastic about cinema, and in the middle of the decade wrote screenplays for prospective film versions of ''Pygmalion'' and ''Saint Joan''.", "The latter was never made, but Shaw entrusted the rights to the former to the unknown Gabriel Pascal, who produced it at Pinewood Studios in 1938.Shaw was determined that Hollywood should have nothing to do with the film, but was powerless to keep it from winning one Academy Award (\"Oscar\"); he described his award for \"best-written screenplay\" as an insult, coming from such a source.", "He became the first person to have been awarded both a Nobel Prize and an Oscar.", "In a 1993 study of the Oscars, Anthony Holden observes that ''Pygmalion'' was soon spoken of as having \"lifted movie-making from illiteracy to literacy\".Shaw's final plays of the 1930s were ''Cymbeline Refinished'' (1936), ''Geneva'' (1936) and ''In Good King Charles's Golden Days'' (1939).", "The first, a fantasy reworking of Shakespeare, made little impression, but the second, a satire on European dictators, attracted more notice, much of it unfavourable.", "In particular, Shaw's parody of Hitler as \"Herr Battler\" was considered mild, almost sympathetic.", "The third play, an historical conversation piece first seen at Malvern, ran briefly in London in May 1940.James Agate commented that the play contained nothing to which even the most conservative audiences could take exception, and though it was long and lacking in dramatic action only \"witless and idle\" theatregoers would object.", "After their first runs none of the three plays were seen again in the West End during Shaw's lifetime.Towards the end of the decade, both Shaws began to suffer ill health.", "Charlotte was increasingly incapacitated by Paget's disease of bone, and he developed pernicious anaemia.", "His treatment, involving injections of concentrated animal liver, was successful, but this breach of his vegetarian creed distressed him and brought down condemnation from militant vegetarians.===Second World War and final years===Although Shaw's works since ''The Apple Cart'' had been received without great enthusiasm, his earlier plays were revived in the West End throughout the Second World War, starring such actors as Edith Evans, John Gielgud, Deborah Kerr and Robert Donat.", "In 1944 nine Shaw plays were staged in London, including ''Arms and the Man'' with Ralph Richardson, Laurence Olivier, Sybil Thorndike and Margaret Leighton in the leading roles.", "Two touring companies took his plays all round Britain.", "The revival in his popularity did not tempt Shaw to write a new play, and he concentrated on prolific journalism.", "A second Shaw film produced by Pascal, ''Major Barbara'' (1941), was less successful both artistically and commercially than ''Pygmalion'', partly because of Pascal's insistence on directing, to which he was unsuited.Following the outbreak of war on 3 September 1939 and the rapid conquest of Poland, Shaw was accused of defeatism when, in a ''New Statesman'' article, he declared the war over and demanded a peace conference.", "Nevertheless, when he became convinced that a negotiated peace was impossible, he publicly urged the neutral United States to join the fight.", "The London blitz of 1940–41 led the Shaws, both in their mid-eighties, to live full-time at Ayot St Lawrence.", "Even there they were not immune from enemy air raids, and stayed on occasion with Nancy Astor at her country house, Cliveden.", "In 1943, the worst of the London bombing over, the Shaws moved back to Whitehall Court, where medical help for Charlotte was more easily arranged.", "Her condition deteriorated, and she died in September.Shaw's final political treatise, ''Everybody's Political What's What'', was published in 1944.Holroyd describes this as \"a rambling narrative ... that repeats ideas he had given better elsewhere and then repeats itself\".", "The book sold well—85,000 copies by the end of the year.", "After Hitler's suicide in May 1945, Shaw approved of the formal condolences offered by the Irish Taoiseach, Éamon de Valera, at the German embassy in Dublin.", "Shaw disapproved of the postwar trials of the defeated German leaders, as an act of self-righteousness: \"We are all potential criminals\".Pascal was given a third opportunity to film Shaw's work with ''Caesar and Cleopatra'' (1945).", "It cost three times its original budget and was rated \"the biggest financial failure in the history of British cinema\".", "The film was poorly received by British critics, although American reviews were friendlier.", "Shaw thought its lavishness nullified the drama, and he considered the film \"a poor imitation of Cecil B. de Mille\".Garden of Shaw's CornerIn 1946, the year of Shaw's ninetieth birthday, he accepted the freedom of Dublin and became the first honorary freeman of the borough of St Pancras, London.", "In the same year the British government asked Shaw informally whether he would accept the Order of Merit.", "He declined, believing that an author's merit could only be determined by the posthumous verdict of history.", "1946 saw the publication, as ''The Crime of Imprisonment'', of the preface Shaw had written 20 years previously to a study of prison conditions.", "It was widely praised; a reviewer in the ''American Journal of Public Health'' considered it essential reading for any student of the American criminal justice system.Shaw continued to write into his nineties.", "His last plays were ''Buoyant Billions'' (1947), his final full-length work; ''Farfetched Fables'' (1948) a set of six short plays revisiting several of his earlier themes such as evolution; a comic play for puppets, ''Shakes versus Shav'' (1949), a ten-minute piece in which Shakespeare and Shaw trade insults; and ''Why She Would Not'' (1950), which Shaw described as \"a little comedy\", written in one week shortly before his ninety-fourth birthday.During his later years, Shaw enjoyed tending the gardens at Shaw's Corner.", "He died at the age of ninety-four of renal failure precipitated by injuries incurred when falling while pruning a tree.", "He was cremated at Golders Green Crematorium on 6 November 1950.His ashes, mixed with those of Charlotte, were scattered along footpaths and around the statue of Saint Joan in their garden." ], [ "Works", "===Plays===Shaw published a collected edition of his plays in 1934, comprising forty-two works.", "He wrote a further twelve in the remaining sixteen years of his life, mostly one-act pieces.", "Including eight earlier plays that he chose to omit from his published works, the total is sixty-two.====Early works====Shaw's first three full-length plays dealt with social issues.", "He later grouped them as \"Plays Unpleasant\".", "''Widowers' Houses'' (1892) concerns the landlords of slum properties, and introduces the first of Shaw's New Women—a recurring feature of later plays.", "''The Philanderer'' (1893) develops the theme of the New Woman, draws on Ibsen, and has elements of Shaw's personal relationships, the character of Julia being based on Jenny Patterson.", "In a 2003 study Judith Evans describes ''Mrs Warren's Profession'' (1893) as \"undoubtedly the most challenging\" of the three Plays Unpleasant, taking Mrs Warren's profession—prostitute and, later, brothel-owner—as a metaphor for a prostituted society.Shaw followed the first trilogy with a second, published as \"Plays Pleasant\".", "''Arms and the Man'' (1894) conceals beneath a mock-Ruritanian comic romance a Fabian parable contrasting impractical idealism with pragmatic socialism.", "The central theme of ''Candida'' (1894) is a woman's choice between two men; the play contrasts the outlook and aspirations of a Christian Socialist and a poetic idealist.", "The third of the Pleasant group, ''You Never Can Tell'' (1896), portrays social mobility, and the gap between generations, particularly in how they approach social relations in general and mating in particular.The \"Three Plays for Puritans\"—comprising ''The Devil's Disciple'' (1896), ''Caesar and Cleopatra'' (1898) and ''Captain Brassbound's Conversion'' (1899)—all centre on questions of empire and imperialism, a major topic of political discourse in the 1890s.", "The three are set, respectively, in 1770s America, Ancient Egypt, and 1890s Morocco.", "''The Gadfly'', an adaptation of the popular novel by Ethel Voynich, was unfinished and unperformed.", "''The Man of Destiny'' (1895) is a short curtain raiser about Napoleon.====1900–1909====Shaw's major plays of the first decade of the twentieth century address individual social, political or ethical issues.", "''Man and Superman'' (1902) stands apart from the others in both its subject and its treatment, giving Shaw's interpretation of creative evolution in a combination of drama and associated printed text.", "''The Admirable Bashville'' (1901), a blank verse dramatisation of Shaw's novel ''Cashel Byron's Profession'', focuses on the imperial relationship between Britain and Africa.", "''John Bull's Other Island'' (1904), comically depicting the prevailing relationship between Britain and Ireland, was popular at the time but fell out of the general repertoire in later years.", "''Major Barbara'' (1905) presents ethical questions in an unconventional way, confounding expectations that in the depiction of an armaments manufacturer on the one hand and the Salvation Army on the other the moral high ground must invariably be held by the latter.", "''The Doctor's Dilemma'' (1906), a play about medical ethics and moral choices in allocating scarce treatment, was described by Shaw as a tragedy.", "With a reputation for presenting characters who did not resemble real flesh and blood, he was challenged by Archer to present an on-stage death, and here did so, with a deathbed scene for the anti-hero.", "''Getting Married'' (1908) and ''Misalliance'' (1909)—the latter seen by Judith Evans as a companion piece to the former—are both in what Shaw called his \"disquisitionary\" vein, with the emphasis on discussion of ideas rather than on dramatic events or vivid characterisation.", "Shaw wrote seven short plays during the decade; they are all comedies, ranging from the deliberately absurd ''Passion, Poison, and Petrifaction'' (1905) to the satirical ''Press Cuttings'' (1909).====1910–1919====In the decade from 1910 to the aftermath of the First World War Shaw wrote four full-length plays, the third and fourth of which are among his most frequently staged works.", "''Fanny's First Play'' (1911) continues his earlier examinations of middle-class British society from a Fabian viewpoint, with additional touches of melodrama and an epilogue in which theatre critics discuss the play.", "''Androcles and the Lion'' (1912), which Shaw began writing as a play for children, became a study of the nature of religion and how to put Christian precepts into practice.", "''Pygmalion'' (1912) is a Shavian study of language and speech and their importance in society and in personal relationships.", "To correct the impression left by the original performers that the play portrayed a romantic relationship between the two main characters Shaw rewrote the ending to make it clear that the heroine will marry another, minor character.", "Shaw's only full-length play from the war years is ''Heartbreak House'' (1917), which in his words depicts \"cultured, leisured Europe before the war\" drifting towards disaster.", "Shaw named Shakespeare (''King Lear'') and Chekhov (''The Cherry Orchard'') as important influences on the piece, and critics have found elements drawing on Congreve (''The Way of the World'') and Ibsen (''The Master Builder'').The short plays range from genial historical drama in ''The Dark Lady of the Sonnets'' and ''Great Catherine'' (1910 and 1913) to a study of polygamy in ''Overruled''; three satirical works about the war (''The Inca of Perusalem'', ''O'Flaherty V.C.''", "and ''Augustus Does His Bit'', 1915–16); a piece that Shaw called \"utter nonsense\" (''The Music Cure'', 1914) and a brief sketch about a \"Bolshevik empress\" (''Annajanska'', 1917).====1920–1950====''Saint Joan'' (1923) drew widespread praise both for Shaw and for Sybil Thorndike, for whom he wrote the title role and who created the part in Britain.", "In the view of the commentator Nicholas Grene, Shaw's Joan, a \"no-nonsense mystic, Protestant and nationalist before her time\" is among the 20th century's classic leading female roles.", "''The Apple Cart'' (1929) was Shaw's last popular success.", "He gave both that play and its successor, ''Too True to Be Good'' (1931), the subtitle \"A political extravaganza\", although the two works differ greatly in their themes; the first presents the politics of a nation (with a brief royal love-scene as an interlude) and the second, in Judith Evans's words, \"is concerned with the social mores of the individual, and is nebulous.\"", "Shaw's plays of the 1930s were written in the shadow of worsening national and international political events.", "Once again, with ''On the Rocks'' (1933) and ''The Simpleton of the Unexpected Isles'' (1934), a political comedy with a clear plot was followed by an introspective drama.", "The first play portrays a British prime minister considering, but finally rejecting, the establishment of a dictatorship; the second is concerned with polygamy and eugenics and ends with the Day of Judgement.", "''The Millionairess'' (1934) is a farcical depiction of the commercial and social affairs of a successful businesswoman.", "''Geneva'' (1936) lampoons the feebleness of the League of Nations compared with the dictators of Europe.", "''In Good King Charles's Golden Days'' (1939), described by Weintraub as a warm, discursive high comedy, also depicts authoritarianism, but less satirically than ''Geneva''.", "As in earlier decades, the shorter plays were generally comedies, some historical and others addressing various political and social preoccupations of the author.", "Ervine writes of Shaw's later work that although it was still \"astonishingly vigorous and vivacious\" it showed unmistakable signs of his age.", "\"The best of his work in this period, however, was full of wisdom and the beauty of mind often displayed by old men who keep their wits about them.", "\"===Music and drama reviews=======Music====Shaw's collected musical criticism, published in three volumes, runs to more than 2,700 pages.", "It covers the British musical scene from 1876 to 1950, but the core of the collection dates from his six years as music critic of ''The Star'' and ''The World'' in the late 1880s and early 1890s.", "In his view music criticism should be interesting to everyone rather than just the musical élite, and he wrote for the non-specialist, avoiding technical jargon—\"Mesopotamian words like 'the dominant of D major'\".", "He was fiercely partisan in his columns, promoting the music of Wagner and decrying that of Brahms and those British composers such as Stanford and Parry whom he saw as Brahmsian.", "He campaigned against the prevailing fashion for performances of Handel oratorios with huge amateur choirs and inflated orchestration, calling for \"a chorus of twenty capable artists\".", "He railed against opera productions unrealistically staged or sung in languages the audience did not speak.====Drama====In Shaw's view, the London theatres of the 1890s presented too many revivals of old plays and not enough new work.", "He campaigned against \"melodrama, sentimentality, stereotypes and worn-out conventions\".", "As a music critic he had frequently been able to concentrate on analysing new works, but in the theatre he was often obliged to fall back on discussing how various performers tackled well-known plays.", "In a study of Shaw's work as a theatre critic, E. J.", "West writes that Shaw \"ceaselessly compared and contrasted artists in interpretation and in technique\".", "Shaw contributed more than 150 articles as theatre critic for ''The Saturday Review'', in which he assessed more than 212 productions.", "He championed Ibsen's plays when many theatregoers regarded them as outrageous, and his 1891 book ''Quintessence of Ibsenism'' remained a classic throughout the twentieth century.", "Of contemporary dramatists writing for the West End stage he rated Oscar Wilde above the rest: \"... our only thorough playwright.", "He plays with everything: with wit, with philosophy, with drama, with actors and audience, with the whole theatre\".", "Shaw's collected criticisms were published as ''Our Theatres in the Nineties'' in 1932.Shaw maintained a provocative and frequently self-contradictory attitude to Shakespeare (whose name he insisted on spelling \"Shakespear\").", "Many found him difficult to take seriously on the subject; Duff Cooper observed that by attacking Shakespeare, \"it is Shaw who appears a ridiculous pigmy shaking his fist at a mountain.\"", "Shaw was, nevertheless, a knowledgeable Shakespearian, and in an article in which he wrote, \"With the single exception of Homer, there is no eminent writer, not even Sir Walter Scott, whom I can despise so entirely as I despise Shakespear when I measure my mind against his,\" he also said, \"But I am bound to add that I pity the man who cannot enjoy Shakespear.", "He has outlasted thousands of abler thinkers, and will outlast a thousand more\".", "Shaw had two regular targets for his more extreme comments about Shakespeare: undiscriminating \"Bardolaters\", and actors and directors who presented insensitively cut texts in over-elaborate productions.", "He was continually drawn back to Shakespeare, and wrote three plays with Shakespearean themes: ''The Dark Lady of the Sonnets'', ''Cymbeline Refinished'' and ''Shakes versus Shav''.", "In a 2001 analysis of Shaw's Shakespearian criticisms, Robert Pierce concludes that Shaw, who was no academic, saw Shakespeare's plays—like all theatre—from an author's practical point of view: \"Shaw helps us to get away from the Romantics' picture of Shakespeare as a titanic genius, one whose art cannot be analyzed or connected with the mundane considerations of theatrical conditions and profit and loss, or with a specific staging and cast of actors.", "\"===Political and social writings===Shaw's political and social commentaries were published variously in Fabian tracts, in essays, in two full-length books, in innumerable newspaper and journal articles and in prefaces to his plays.", "The majority of Shaw's Fabian tracts were published anonymously, representing the voice of the society rather than of Shaw, although the society's secretary Edward Pease later confirmed Shaw's authorship.", "According to Holroyd, the business of the early Fabians, mainly under the influence of Shaw, was to \"alter history by rewriting it\".", "Shaw's talent as a pamphleteer was put to immediate use in the production of the society's manifesto—after which, says Holroyd, he was never again so succinct.After the turn of the twentieth century, Shaw increasingly propagated his ideas through the medium of his plays.", "An early critic, writing in 1904, observed that Shaw's dramas provided \"a pleasant means\" of proselytising his socialism, adding that \"Mr Shaw's views are to be sought especially in the prefaces to his plays\".", "After loosening his ties with the Fabian movement in 1911, Shaw's writings were more personal and often provocative; his response to the furore following the issue of ''Common Sense About the War'' in 1914, was to prepare a sequel, ''More Common Sense About the War''.", "In this, he denounced the pacifist line espoused by Ramsay MacDonald and other socialist leaders, and proclaimed his readiness to shoot all pacifists rather than cede them power and influence.", "On the advice of Beatrice Webb, this pamphlet remained unpublished.", "''The Intelligent Woman's Guide'', Shaw's main political treatise of the 1920s, attracted both admiration and criticism.", "MacDonald considered it the world's most important book since the Bible; Harold Laski thought its arguments outdated and lacking in concern for individual freedoms.", "Shaw's increasing flirtation with dictatorial methods is evident in many of his subsequent pronouncements.", "A ''New York Times'' report dated 10 December 1933 quoted a recent Fabian Society lecture in which Shaw had praised Hitler, Mussolini and Stalin: \"They are trying to get something done, and are adopting methods by which it is possible to get something done\".", "As late as the Second World War, in ''Everybody's Political What's What'', Shaw blamed the Allies' \"abuse\" of their 1918 victory for the rise of Hitler, and hoped that, after defeat, the Führer would escape retribution \"to enjoy a comfortable retirement in Ireland or some other neutral country\".", "These sentiments, according to the Irish philosopher-poet Thomas Duddy, \"rendered much of the Shavian outlook passé and contemptible\".", "\"Creative evolution\", Shaw's version of the new science of eugenics, became an increasing theme in his political writing after 1900.He introduced his theories in ''The Revolutionist's Handbook'' (1903), an appendix to ''Man and Superman'', and developed them further during the 1920s in ''Back to Methuselah''.", "A 1946 ''Life'' magazine article observed that Shaw had \"always tended to look at people more as a biologist than as an artist\".", "By 1933, in the preface to ''On the Rocks'', he was writing that \"if we desire a certain type of civilization and culture we must exterminate the sort of people who do not fit into it\"; critical opinion is divided on whether this was intended as irony.", "In an article in the American magazine ''Liberty'' in September 1938, Shaw included the statement: \"There are many people in the world who ought to be liquidated\".", "Many commentators assumed that such comments were intended as a joke, although in the worst possible taste.", "Otherwise, ''Life'' magazine concluded, \"this silliness can be classed with his more innocent bad guesses\".===Fiction===Shaw's fiction-writing was largely confined to the five unsuccessful novels written in the period 1879–1885.", "''Immaturity'' (1879) is a semi-autobiographical portrayal of mid-Victorian England, Shaw's \"own ''David Copperfield''\" according to Weintraub.", "''The Irrational Knot'' (1880) is a critique of conventional marriage, in which Weintraub finds the characterisations lifeless, \"hardly more than animated theories\".", "Shaw was pleased with his third novel, ''Love Among the Artists'' (1881), feeling that it marked a turning point in his development as a thinker, although he had no more success with it than with its predecessors.", "''Cashel Byron's Profession'' (1882) is, says Weintraub, an indictment of society which anticipates Shaw's first full-length play, ''Mrs Warren's Profession''.", "Shaw later explained that he had intended ''An Unsocial Socialist'' as the first section of a monumental depiction of the downfall of capitalism.", "Gareth Griffith, in a study of Shaw's political thought, sees the novel as an interesting record of conditions, both in society at large and in the nascent socialist movement of the 1880s.Shaw's only subsequent fiction of any substance was his 1932 novella ''The Adventures of the Black Girl in Her Search for God'', written during a visit to South Africa in 1932.The eponymous girl, intelligent, inquisitive, and converted to Christianity by insubstantial missionary teaching, sets out to find God, on a journey that after many adventures and encounters, leads her to a secular conclusion.", "The story, on publication, offended some Christians and was banned in Ireland by the Board of Censors.===Letters and diaries===\"The strenuous literary life—George Bernard Shaw at work\": 1904 caricature by Max BeerbohmShaw was a prolific correspondent throughout his life.", "His letters, edited by Dan H. Laurence, were published between 1965 and 1988.Shaw once estimated his letters would occupy twenty volumes; Laurence commented that, unedited, they would fill many more.", "Shaw wrote more than a quarter of a million letters, of which about ten per cent have survived; 2,653 letters are printed in Laurence's four volumes.", "Among Shaw's many regular correspondents were his childhood friend Edward McNulty; his theatrical colleagues (and ''amitiés amoureuses'') Mrs Patrick Campbell and Ellen Terry; writers including Lord Alfred Douglas, H. G. Wells and G. K. Chesterton; the boxer Gene Tunney; the nun Laurentia McLachlan; and the art expert Sydney Cockerell.", "In 2007 a 316-page volume consisting entirely of Shaw's letters to ''The Times'' was published.Shaw's diaries for 1885–1897, edited by Weintraub, were published in two volumes, with a total of 1,241 pages, in 1986.Reviewing them, the Shaw scholar Fred Crawford wrote: \"Although the primary interest for Shavians is the material that supplements what we already know about Shaw's life and work, the diaries are also valuable as a historical and sociological document of English life at the end of the Victorian age.\"", "After 1897, pressure of other writing led Shaw to give up keeping a diary.===Miscellaneous and autobiographical===Through his journalism, pamphlets and occasional longer works, Shaw wrote on many subjects.", "His range of interest and enquiry included vivisection, vegetarianism, religion, language, cinema and photography, on all of which he wrote and spoke copiously.", "Collections of his writings on these and other subjects were published, mainly after his death, together with volumes of \"wit and wisdom\" and general journalism.Despite the many books written about him (Holroyd counts 80 by 1939) Shaw's autobiographical output, apart from his diaries, was relatively slight.", "He gave interviews to newspapers—\"GBS Confesses\", to ''The Daily Mail'' in 1904 is an example—and provided sketches to would-be biographers whose work was rejected by Shaw and never published.", "In 1939 Shaw drew on these materials to produce ''Shaw Gives Himself Away'', a miscellany which, a year before his death, he revised and republished as ''Sixteen Self Sketches'' (there were seventeen).", "He made it clear to his publishers that this slim book was in no sense a full autobiography." ], [ "Beliefs and opinions", "Throughout his lifetime Shaw professed many beliefs, often contradictory.", "This inconsistency was partly an intentional provocation—the Spanish scholar-statesman Salvador de Madariaga describes Shaw as \"a pole of negative electricity set in a people of positive electricity\".", "In one area at least Shaw was constant: in his lifelong refusal to follow normal English forms of spelling and punctuation.", "He favoured archaic spellings such as \"shew\" for \"show\"; he dropped the \"u\" in words like \"honour\" and \"favour\"; and wherever possible he rejected the apostrophe in contractions such as \"won't\" or \"that's\".", "In his will, Shaw ordered that, after some specified legacies, his remaining assets were to form a trust to pay for fundamental reform of the English alphabet into a phonetic version of forty letters.", "Though Shaw's intentions were clear, his drafting was flawed, and the courts initially ruled the intended trust void.", "A later out-of-court agreement provided a sum of £8,300 for spelling reform; the bulk of his fortune went to the residuary legatees—the British Museum, the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art and the National Gallery of Ireland.", "Most of the £8,300 went on a special phonetic edition of ''Androcles and the Lion'' in the Shavian alphabet, published in 1962 to a largely indifferent reception.Shaw in 1905Shaw's views on religion and Christianity were less consistent.", "Having in his youth proclaimed himself an atheist, in middle age he explained this as a reaction against the Old Testament image of a vengeful Jehovah.", "By the early twentieth century, he termed himself a \"mystic\", although Gary Sloan, in an essay on Shaw's beliefs, disputes his credentials as such.", "In 1913 Shaw declared that he was not religious \"in the sectarian sense\", aligning himself with Jesus as \"a person of no religion\".", "In the preface (1915) to ''Androcles and the Lion'', Shaw asks \"Why not give Christianity a chance?\"", "contending that Britain's social order resulted from the continuing choice of Barabbas over Christ.", "In a broadcast just before the Second World War, Shaw invoked the Sermon on the Mount, \"a very moving exhortation, and it gives you one first-rate tip, which is to do good to those who despitefully use you and persecute you\".", "In his will, Shaw stated that his \"religious convictions and scientific views cannot at present be more specifically defined than as those of a believer in creative revolution\".", "He requested that no one should imply that he accepted the beliefs of any specific religious organisation, and that no memorial to him should \"take the form of a cross or any other instrument of torture or symbol of blood sacrifice\".Shaw espoused racial equality, and inter-marriage between people of different races.", "Despite his expressed wish to be fair to Hitler, he called anti-Semitism \"the hatred of the lazy, ignorant fat-headed Gentile for the pertinacious Jew who, schooled by adversity to use his brains to the utmost, outdoes him in business\".", "In ''The Jewish Chronicle'' he wrote in 1932, \"In every country you can find rabid people who have a phobia against Jews, Jesuits, Armenians, Negroes, Freemasons, Irishmen, or simply foreigners as such.", "Political parties are not above exploiting these fears and jealousies.", "\"In 1903 Shaw joined in a controversy about vaccination against smallpox.", "He called vaccination \"a peculiarly filthy piece of witchcraft\"; in his view immunisation campaigns were a cheap and inadequate substitute for a decent programme of housing for the poor, which would, he declared, be the means of eradicating smallpox and other infectious diseases.", "Less contentiously, Shaw was keenly interested in transport; Laurence observed in 1992 a need for a published study of Shaw's interest in \"bicycling, motorbikes, automobiles, and planes, climaxing in his joining the Interplanetary Society in his nineties\".", "Shaw published articles on travel, took photographs of his journeys, and submitted notes to the Royal Automobile Club.Shaw strove throughout his adult life to be referred to as \"Bernard Shaw\" rather than \"George Bernard Shaw\", but confused matters by continuing to use his full initials—G.B.S.—as a by-line, and often signed himself \"G.Bernard Shaw\".", "He left instructions in his will that his executor (the Public Trustee) was to license publication of his works only under the name Bernard Shaw.", "Shaw scholars including Ervine, Judith Evans, Holroyd, Laurence and Weintraub, and many publishers have respected Shaw's preference, although the Cambridge University Press was among the exceptions with its 1988 ''Cambridge Companion to George Bernard Shaw''." ], [ "Legacy and influence", "===Theatrical===Shaw did not found a school of dramatists as such, but Crawford asserts that today \"we recognise him as second only to Shakespeare in the British theatrical tradition ... the proponent of the theater of ideas\" who struck a death-blow to 19th-century melodrama.", "According to Laurence, Shaw pioneered \"intelligent\" theatre, in which the audience was required to think, thereby paving the way for the new breeds of twentieth-century playwrights from Galsworthy to Pinter.Crawford lists numerous playwrights whose work owes something to that of Shaw.", "Among those active in Shaw's lifetime he includes Noël Coward, who based his early comedy ''The Young Idea'' on ''You Never Can Tell'' and continued to draw on the older man's works in later plays.", "T. S. Eliot, by no means an admirer of Shaw, admitted that the epilogue of ''Murder in the Cathedral'', in which Becket's slayers explain their actions to the audience, might have been influenced by ''Saint Joan''.", "The critic Eric Bentley comments that Eliot's later play ''The Confidential Clerk'' \"had all the earmarks of Shavianism ... without the merits of the real Bernard Shaw\".", "Among more recent British dramatists, Crawford marks Tom Stoppard as \"the most Shavian of contemporary playwrights\"; Shaw's \"serious farce\" is continued in the works of Stoppard's contemporaries Alan Ayckbourn, Henry Livings and Peter Nichols.Shaw's complete playsShaw's influence crossed the Atlantic at an early stage.", "Bernard Dukore notes that he was successful as a dramatist in America ten years before achieving comparable success in Britain.", "Among many American writers professing a direct debt to Shaw, Eugene O'Neill became an admirer at the age of seventeen, after reading ''The Quintessence of Ibsenism''.", "Other Shaw-influenced American playwrights mentioned by Dukore are Elmer Rice, for whom Shaw \"opened doors, turned on lights, and expanded horizons\"; William Saroyan, who empathised with Shaw as \"the embattled individualist against the philistines\"; and S. N. Behrman, who was inspired to write for the theatre after attending a performance of ''Caesar and Cleopatra'': \"I thought it would be agreeable to write plays like that\".Assessing Shaw's reputation in a 1976 critical study, T. F. Evans described Shaw as unchallenged in his lifetime and since as the leading English-language dramatist of the (twentieth) century, and as a master of prose style.", "The following year, in a contrary assessment, the playwright John Osborne castigated ''The Guardian''s theatre critic Michael Billington for referring to Shaw as \"the greatest British dramatist since Shakespeare\".", "Osborne responded that Shaw \"is the most fraudulent, inept writer of Victorian melodramas ever to gull a timid critic or fool a dull public\".", "Despite this hostility, Crawford sees the influence of Shaw in some of Osborne's plays, and concludes that though the latter's work is neither imitative nor derivative, these affinities are sufficient to classify Osborne as an inheritor of Shaw.In a 1983 study, R. J. Kaufmann suggests that Shaw was a key forerunner—\"godfather, if not actually finicky paterfamilias\"—of the Theatre of the Absurd.", "Two further aspects of Shaw's theatrical legacy are noted by Crawford: his opposition to stage censorship, which was finally ended in 1968, and his efforts which extended over many years to establish a National Theatre.", "Shaw's short 1910 play ''The Dark Lady of the Sonnets'', in which Shakespeare pleads with Queen Elizabeth I for the endowment of a state theatre, was part of this campaign.Writing in ''The New Statesman'' in 2012 Daniel Janes commented that Shaw's reputation had declined by the time of his 150th anniversary in 2006 but had recovered considerably.", "In Janes's view, the many current revivals of Shaw's major works showed the playwright's \"almost unlimited relevance to our times\".", "In the same year, Mark Lawson wrote in ''The Guardian'' that Shaw's moral concerns engaged present-day audiences, and made him—like his model, Ibsen—one of the most popular playwrights in contemporary British theatre.The Shaw Festival in Niagara-on-the-Lake, Ontario, Canada is the second largest repertory theatre company in North America.", "It produces plays by or written during the lifetime of Shaw as well as some contemporary works.", "The Gingold Theatrical Group, founded in 2006, presents works by Shaw and others in New York City that feature the humanitarian ideals that his work promoted.", "It became the first theatre group to present all of Shaw's stage work through its monthly concert series ''Project Shaw''.===General===Bust by Jacob Epstein, 1934In the 1940s the author Harold Nicolson advised the National Trust not to accept the bequest of Shaw's Corner, predicting that Shaw would be totally forgotten within fifty years.", "In the event, Shaw's broad cultural legacy, embodied in the widely used term \"Shavian\", has endured and is nurtured by Shaw Societies in various parts of the world.", "The original society was founded in London in 1941 and survives; it organises meetings and events, and publishes a regular bulletin ''The Shavian''.", "The Shaw Society of America began in June 1950; it foundered in the 1970s but its journal, adopted by Penn State University Press, continued to be published as ''Shaw: The Annual of Bernard Shaw Studies'' until 2004.A second American organisation, founded in 1951 as \"The Bernard Shaw Society\", remains active .", "More recent societies have been established in Japan and India.Besides his collected music criticism, Shaw has left a varied musical legacy, not all of it of his choosing.", "Despite his dislike of having his work adapted for the musical theatre (\"my plays set themselves to a verbal music of their own\") two of his plays were turned into musical comedies: ''Arms and the Man'' was the basis of ''The Chocolate Soldier'' in 1908, with music by Oscar Straus, and ''Pygmalion'' was adapted in 1956 as ''My Fair Lady'' with book and lyrics by Alan Jay Lerner and music by Frederick Loewe.", "Although he had a high regard for Elgar, Shaw turned down the composer's request for an opera libretto, but played a major part in persuading the BBC to commission Elgar's Third Symphony, and was the dedicatee of ''The Severn Suite'' (1930).The substance of Shaw's political legacy is uncertain.", "In 1921 Shaw's erstwhile collaborator William Archer, in a letter to the playwright, wrote: \"I doubt if there is any case of a man so widely read, heard, seen, and known as yourself, who has produced so little effect on his generation.\"", "Margaret Cole, who considered Shaw the greatest writer of his age, professed never to have understood him.", "She thought he worked \"immensely hard\" at politics, but essentially, she surmises, it was for fun—\"the fun of a brilliant artist\".", "After Shaw's death, Pearson wrote: \"No one since the time of Tom Paine has had so definite an influence on the social and political life of his time and country as Bernard Shaw.", "\"In its obituary tribute to Shaw, ''The Times Literary Supplement'' concluded:" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Sources ======= Books ====* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ==== Shaw's writings ====* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ==== Journals ====** * ** ** * * * * * * * * *** * * * ** * *** * * ** * ====Newspapers====* ** * ************ **** ** * ** * * **** * *====Online====*** ****** **" ], [ "External links", "* * (About 50 ebooks of Shaw's works and some additional Shaw-related material)* * (More links to Shaw-related material)* (19 downloads for audiobooks)* (Information on Broadway productions, 1894 to present)* (Lists all film and TV versions of Shaw's works since 1921)* Shaw photographs held at LSE Library* International Shaw Society* The Shaw Society, UK, established in 1941* The Bernard Shaw Society, New York* Shaw collection at the Harry Ransom Center at The University of Texas at Austin* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Galvanization" ], [ "Introduction", "Galvanized surface with visible spangle'''Galvanization''' or '''galvanizing''' (also spelled '''galvanisation''' or '''galvanising''') is the process of applying a protective zinc coating to steel or iron, to prevent rusting.", "The most common method is hot-dip galvanizing, in which the parts are coated by submerging them in a bath of hot, molten zinc." ], [ "Protective action", "The zinc coating, when intact, prevents corrosive substances from reaching the underlying iron.", "Additional electroplating such as a chromate conversion coating may be applied to provide further surface passivation to the substrate material." ], [ "History and etymology", "Galvanized nailsThe process is named after the Italian physician, physicist, biologist and philosopher Luigi Galvani (9 September 1737 – 4 December 1798).", "The earliest known example of galvanized iron was encountered by Europeans on 17th-century Indian armour in the Royal Armouries Museum collection.", "The term \"galvanized\" can also be used metaphorically of any stimulus which results in activity by a person or group of people.", "In modern usage, the term \"galvanizing\" has largely come to be associated with zinc coatings, to the exclusion of other metals.", "Galvanic paint, a precursor to hot-dip galvanizing, was patented by Stanislas Sorel, of Paris, on June 10, 1837, as an adoption of a term from a highly fashionable field of contemporary science, despite having no evident relation to it." ], [ "Methods", "Hot-dip galvanizing deposits a thick, robust layer of zinc iron alloys on the surface of a steel item.", "In the case of automobile bodies, where additional decorative coatings of paint will be applied, a thinner form of galvanizing is applied by electrogalvanizing.", "The hot-dip process generally does not reduce strength to a measurable degree, with the exception of high-strength steels where hydrogen embrittlement can become a problem.", "Thermal diffusion galvanizing, or Sherardizing, provides a zinc diffusion coating on iron- or copper-based materials." ], [ "Eventual corrosion", "Rusted corrugated steel roofGalvanized steel can last for many decades if other supplementary measures are maintained, such as paint coatings and additional sacrificial anodes.", "Corrosion in non-salty environments is caused mainly by levels of sulfur dioxide in the air." ], [ "Galvanized construction steel", "This is the most common use for galvanized metal, and hundreds of thousands of tons of steel products are galvanized annually worldwide.", "In developed countries most larger cities have several galvanizing factories, and many items of steel manufacture are galvanized for protection.", "Typically these include: street furniture, building frameworks, balconies, verandahs, staircases, ladders, walkways, and more.", "Hot dip galvanized steel is also used for making steel frames as a basic construction material for steel frame buildings." ], [ "Galvanized piping", " In the early 20th century, galvanized piping replaced previously-used cast iron and lead in cold-water plumbing.", "Typically, galvanized piping rusts from the inside out, building up layers of plaque on the inside of the piping, causing both water pressure problems and eventual pipe failure.", "These plaques can flake off, leading to visible impurities in water and a slight metallic taste.", "The life expectancy of galvanized piping is about 40–50 years, but it may vary on how well the pipes were built and installed.", "Pipe longevity also depends on the thickness of zinc in the original galvanizing, which ranges on a scale from G01 to G360." ], [ "See also", "* Electroplating* Aluminized steel* Cathodic protection* Corrugated galvanized iron* Galvanic corrosion* Galvannealed – galvanization and annealing* Prepainted metal* Rust* Rustproofing* Sendzimir process* Sherardizing* Corrosion* Sacrificial metal* Corrosion engineering" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
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[ [ "Golden Rule" ], [ "Introduction", "Sucker Rod Factory in Toledo, Ohio, 1913.The '''Golden Rule''' is the principle of treating others as one would want to be treated by them.", "It is sometimes called an ethics of reciprocity, meaning that you should reciprocate to others how you would like them to treat you (not necessarily how they actually treat you).", "Various expressions of this rule can be found in the tenets of most religions and creeds through the ages.The maxim may appear as a positive or negative injunction governing conduct:* Treat others as you would like others to treat you (positive or directive form)* Do ''not'' treat others in ways that you would ''not'' like to be treated (negative or prohibitive form)* What you wish upon others, you wish upon yourself (empathetic or responsive form)" ], [ "Etymology", "The term \"Golden Rule\", or \"Golden law\", began to be used widely in the early 17th century in Britain by Anglican theologians and preachers; the earliest known usage is that of Anglicans Charles Gibbon and Thomas Jackson in 1604." ], [ "Ancient history", "===Ancient Egypt===Possibly the earliest affirmation of the maxim of reciprocity, reflecting the ancient Egyptian goddess Ma'at, appears in the story of \"The Eloquent Peasant\", which dates to the Middle Kingdom (): \"Now this is the command: Do to the doer to make him do.\"", "This proverb embodies the ''do ut des'' principle.", "A Late Period () papyrus contains an early negative affirmation of the Golden Rule: \"That which you hate to be done to you, do not do to another.", "\"===Ancient India=======Sanskrit tradition====In ''Mahābhārata'', the ancient epic of India, there is a discourse in which sage Brihaspati tells the king Yudhishthira the following about dharma, a philosophical understanding of values and actions that lend good order to life:The Mahābhārata is usually dated to the period between 400 BCE and 400 CE.====Tamil tradition====In Chapter 32 in the Book of Virtue of the Tirukkuṛaḷ (), Valluvar says:Furthermore, in verse 312, Valluvar says that it is the determination or code of the spotless (virtuous) not to do evil, even in return, to those who have cherished enmity and done them evil.", "According to him, the proper punishment to those who have done evil is to put them to shame by showing them kindness, in return and to forget both the evil and the good done on both sides (verse 314).===Ancient Greece===The Golden Rule in its prohibitive (negative) form was a common principle in ancient Greek philosophy.", "Examples of the general concept include:* \"Avoid doing what you would blame others for doing.\"", "– Thales ( – )* \"What you do not want to happen to you, do not do it yourself either.\"", "– Sextus the Pythagorean.", "The oldest extant reference to Sextus is by Origen in the third century of the common era.", "* \"Ideally, no one should touch my property or tamper with it, unless I have given him some sort of permission, and, if I am sensible I shall treat the property of others with the same respect.\"", "– Plato ( – )* \"Do not do to others that which angers you when they do it to you.\"", "– Isocrates (436–338 BCE)* \"It is impossible to live a pleasant life without living wisely and well and justly, and it is impossible to live wisely and well and justly without living pleasantly.\"", "– Epicurus (341–270 BC) where \"justly\" refers to \"an agreement made in reciprocal association ... against the infliction or suffering of harm.", "\"===Ancient Persia===The Pahlavi Texts of Zoroastrianism ( – 1000 CE) were an early source for the Golden Rule: \"That nature alone is good which refrains from doing to another whatsoever is not good for itself.\"", "Dadisten-I-dinik, 94,5, and \"Whatever is disagreeable to yourself do not do unto others.\"", "Shayast-na-Shayast 13:29===Ancient Rome===Seneca the Younger ( – 65 CE), a practitioner of Stoicism ( – 200 CE) expressed a hierarchical variation of the Golden Rule in his Letter 47, an essay regarding the treatment of slaves: \"Treat your inferior as you would wish your superior to treat you.\"" ], [ "Religious context", "The golden rule, as described in numerous world religionsAccording to Simon Blackburn, the Golden Rule \"can be found in some form in almost every ethical tradition\".", "A multi-faith poster showing the Golden Rule in sacred writings from 13 faith traditions (designed by Paul McKenna of Scarboro Missions, 2000) has been on permanent display at the Headquarters of the United Nations since 4 January 2002.Creating the poster \"took five years of research that included consultations with experts in each of the 13 faith groups.\"", "(See also the section on Global Ethic.", ")===Abrahamic religions=======Judaism====A rule of reciprocal altruism was stated positively in a well-known Torah verse (Hebrew: ):Rashi commented what constitutes revenge and grudge, using the example of two men.", "One man would not lend the other his ax, then the next day, the same man asks the other for his ax.", "If the second man should say, \"“I will not lend it to you, just as you did not lend to me,\" it constitutes revenge; if \"Here it is for you; I am not like you, who did not lend me,\" it constitutes a grudge.", "Rashi concludes his commentary by quoting Rabbi Akiva on love of neighbor: \"This is a fundamental all-inclusive principle of the Torah.", "\"Hillel the Elder ( – 10 CE), used this verse as a most important message of the Torah for his teachings.", "Once, he was challenged by a gentile who asked to be converted under the condition that the Torah be explained to him while he stood on one foot.", "Hillel accepted him as a candidate for conversion to Judaism but, drawing on Leviticus 19:18, briefed the man:Hillel recognized brotherly love as the fundamental principle of Jewish ethics.", "Rabbi Akiva agreed, while Simeon ben Azzai suggested that the principle of love must have its foundation in Genesis chapter 1, which teaches that all men are the offspring of Adam, who was made in the image of God.", "According to Jewish rabbinic literature, the first man Adam represents the ''unity of mankind''.", "This is echoed in the modern preamble of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.", "And it is also taught, that Adam is last in order according to the evolutionary character of God's creation:Why was only a single specimen of man created first?", "To teach us that he who destroys a single soul destroys a whole world and that he who saves a single soul saves a whole world; furthermore, so no race or class may claim a nobler ancestry, saying, 'Our father was born first'; and, finally, to give testimony to the greatness of the Lord, who caused the wonderful diversity of mankind to emanate from one type.", "And why was Adam created last of all beings?", "To teach him humility; for if he be overbearing, let him remember that the little fly preceded him in the order of creation.The Jewish Publication Society's edition of Leviticus states:Thou shalt not hate thy brother, in thy heart; thou shalt surely rebuke thy neighbour, and not bear sin because of him.", "18 Thou shalt not take vengeance, nor bear any grudge against the children of thy people, but thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself: I am the .This Torah verse represents one of several versions of the ''Golden Rule'', which itself appears in various forms, positive and negative.", "It is the earliest written version of that concept in a positive form.At the turn of the era, the Jewish rabbis were discussing the scope of the meaning of Leviticus 19:18 and 19:34 extensively:Commentators interpret that this applies to foreigners (= Samaritans), proselytes (= 'strangers who reside with you') and Jews.On the verse, \"Love your fellow as yourself\", the classic commentator Rashi quotes from Torat Kohanim, an early Midrashic text regarding the famous dictum of Rabbi Akiva: \"Love your fellow as yourself – Rabbi Akiva says this is a great principle of the Torah.", "\"Israel's postal service quoted from the previous Leviticus verse when it commemorated the Universal Declaration of Human Rights on a 1958 postage stamp.====Christianity====''The Sermon on the Mount'' by Carl Bloch (1877) portrays Jesus teaching during the Sermon on the MountThe \"Golden Rule\" was proclaimed by Jesus of Nazareth during his Sermon on the Mount and described by him as the second great commandment.", "The common English phrasing is \"Do unto others as you would have them do unto you\".", "A similar form of the phrase appeared in a Catholic catechism around 1567 (certainly in the reprint of 1583).", "Various applications of the Golden Rule are stated positively numerous times in the Old Testament: \"Thou shalt not avenge, nor bear any grudge against the children of thy people, but thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself.\"", "Or, in Leviticus 19:34: \"But treat them just as you treat your own citizens.", "Love foreigners as you love yourselves, because you were foreigners one time in Egypt.", "I am the Lord your God.", "\".The Old Testament Deuterocanonical books of Tobit and Sirach, accepted as part of the Scriptural canon by Catholic Church, Eastern Orthodoxy, and the Non-Chalcedonian Churches, express a negative form of the golden rule:Two passages in the New Testament quote Jesus of Nazareth espousing the positive form of the Golden rule:A similar passage, a parallel to the Great Commandment, is Luke 10:25.The passage in the book of Luke then continues with Jesus answering the question, \"Who is my neighbor?", "\", by telling the parable of the Good Samaritan, which John Wesley interprets as meaning that \"your neighbor\" is anyone in need.Jesus' teaching goes beyond the negative formulation of not doing what one would not like done to themselves, to the positive formulation of actively doing good to another that, if the situations were reversed, one would desire that the other would do for them.", "This formulation, as indicated in the parable of the Good Samaritan, emphasizes the needs for positive action that brings benefit to another, not simply restraining oneself from negative activities that hurt another.In one passage of the New Testament, Paul the Apostle refers to the golden rule, restating Jesus' second commandment:St. Paul also comments on the golden rule in the book of Romans:====Islam====The Arabian peninsula was known to not practice the golden rule prior to the advent of Islam.", "According to Th.", "Emil Homerin: \"Pre-Islamic Arabs regarded the survival of the tribe, as most essential and to be ensured by the ancient rite of blood vengeance.\"", "Homerin goes on to say:From the hadith, the collected oral and written accounts of Muhammad and his teachings during his lifetime:Ali ibn Abi Talib (4th Caliph in Sunni Islam, and first Imam in Shia Islam) says:Hussein bin Ali bin Awn al-Hashemi (102nd Caliph in Sunni Islam), repeated the Golden rule in the context of the Armenian genocide, thus, in 1917, he states:====Baháʼí Faith====The writings of the Baháʼí Faith encourage everyone to treat others as they would treat themselves and even prefer others over oneself:===Indian religions=======Hinduism====Also,====Buddhism====Buddha (Siddhartha Gautama, –543 BCE) made the negative formulation of the golden rule one of the cornerstones of his ethics in the 6th century BCE.", "It occurs in many places and in many forms throughout the Tripitaka.====Jainism====The Golden Rule is paramount in the Jainist philosophy and can be seen in the doctrines of ahimsa and karma.", "As part of the prohibition of causing any living beings to suffer, Jainism forbids inflicting upon others what is harmful to oneself.The following line from the Acaranga Sutra sums up the philosophy of Jainism:====Sikhism=======Chinese religions=======Confucianism====The same idea is also presented in V.12 and VI.30 of the ''Analects'' (), which can be found in the online Chinese Text Project.", "The phraseology differs from the Christian version of the Golden Rule.", "It does not presume to do anything unto others, but merely to avoid doing what would be harmful.", "It does not preclude doing good deeds and taking moral positions.====Taoism========Mohism====Mozi regarded the golden rule as a corollary to the cardinal virtue of impartiality, and encouraged egalitarianism and selflessness in relationships.===Iranian religions=======Zoroastrianism=======New religious movements=======Wicca======== Scientology =======Traditional African religions======= Yoruba ========Odinani====" ], [ "Secular context", "===Global ethic===The \"Declaration Toward a Global Ethic\" from the Parliament of the World's Religions (1993) proclaimed the Golden Rule (\"We must treat others as we wish others to treat us\") as the common principle for many religions.", "The Initial Declaration was signed by 143 leaders from all of the world's major faiths, including Baháʼí Faith, Brahmanism, Brahma Kumaris, Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Indigenous, Interfaith, Islam, Jainism, Judaism, Native American, Neo-Pagan, Sikhism, Taoism, Theosophist, Unitarian Universalist and Zoroastrian.", "In the folklore of several cultures the Golden Rule is depicted by the allegory of the long spoons.====Humanism====In the view of Greg M. Epstein, a Humanist chaplain at Harvard University, \" 'do unto others' ... is a concept that essentially no religion misses entirely.", "''But not a single one of these versions of the golden rule requires a God''\".", "Various sources identify the Golden Rule as a humanist principle:====Existentialism========Classical Utilitarianism====John Stuart Mill in his book, ''Utilitarianism'' (originally published in 1861), wrote, \"In the golden rule of Jesus of Nazareth, we read the complete spirit of the ethics of utility.", "'To do as you would be done by,' and 'to love your neighbour as yourself,' constitute the ideal perfection of utilitarian morality.\"" ], [ "Other contexts", "===Human rights===According to Marc H. Bornstein, and William E. Paden, the Golden Rule is arguably the most essential basis for the modern concept of human rights, in which each individual has a right to just treatment, and a reciprocal responsibility to ensure justice for others.However, Leo Damrosch argued that the notion that the Golden Rule pertains to \"rights\" per se is a contemporary interpretation and has nothing to do with its origin.", "The development of human \"rights\" is a modern political ideal that began as a philosophical concept promulgated through the philosophy of Jean Jacques Rousseau in 18th century France, among others.", "His writings influenced Thomas Jefferson, who then incorporated Rousseau's reference to \"inalienable rights\" into the United States Declaration of Independence in 1776.Damrosch argued that to confuse the Golden Rule with human rights is to apply contemporary thinking to ancient concepts." ], [ "Science and economics", "There has been research published arguing that some 'sense' of fair play and the Golden Rule may be stated and rooted in terms of neuroscientific and neuroethical principles.The Golden Rule can also be explained from the perspectives of psychology, philosophy, sociology, human evolution, and economics.", "Psychologically, it involves a person empathizing with others.", "Philosophically, it involves a person perceiving their neighbor also as \"I\" or \"self\".", "Sociologically, \"love your neighbor as yourself\" is applicable between individuals, between groups, and also between individuals and groups.", "In evolution, \"reciprocal altruism\" is seen as a distinctive advance in the capacity of human groups to survive and reproduce, as their exceptional brains demanded exceptionally long childhoods and ongoing provision and protection even beyond that of the immediate family.", "In economics, Richard Swift, referring to ideas from David Graeber, suggests that \"without some kind of reciprocity society would no longer be able to exist.", "\"Study of other primates provides evidence that the Golden Rule exists in other non-human species." ], [ "Criticism", "Philosophers such as Immanuel Kant and Friedrich Nietzsche have objected to the rule on a variety of grounds.", "One is the epistemic question of determining how others want to be treated.", "The obvious way is to ask them, but they might give duplicitous answers if they find this strategically useful, and they might also fail to understand the details of the choice situation as you understand it.", "We might also be biased to perceiving harms and benefits to ourselves more than to others, which could lead to escalating conflict if we are suspicious of others.", "Hence Linus Pauling suggested that we introduce a bias towards others into the golden rule: \"Do unto others 20 percent better than you would have them to unto you-to correct for subjective bias.", "\"One religion that officially rejects the Golden Rule is the Neo-Nazi religion of the \"Creativity Movement\" founded by Ben Klassen.", "Followers of the religion believe that the Golden Rule doesn't make sense and is a \"completely unworkable principle.", "\"===Differences in values or interests===George Bernard Shaw wrote, \"Do not do unto others as you would that they should do unto you.", "Their tastes may not be the same.\"", "This suggests that if your values are not shared with others, the way you want to be treated will not be the way they want to be treated.", "Hence, the Golden Rule of \"do unto others\" is \"dangerous in the wrong hands\", according to philosopher Iain King, because \"some fanatics have no aversion to death: the Golden Rule might inspire them to kill others in suicide missions.", "\"Walter Terence Stace, in ''The Concept of Morals'' (1937) argued that Shaw's remark===Differences in situations===Immanuel Kant famously criticized the golden rule for not being sensitive to differences of situation, noting that a prisoner duly convicted of a crime could appeal to the golden rule while asking the judge to release him, pointing out that the judge would not want anyone else to send him to prison, so he should not do so to others.", "On the other hand, in a critique of the consistency of Kant's writings, several authors have noted the ''\"similarity\"'' between the Golden Rule and Kant's ''Categorical Imperative'', introduced in ''Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals'' (See discussion at this link).This was perhaps a well-known objection, as Leibniz actually responded to it long before Kant made it, suggesting that the judge should put himself in the place, not merely of the criminal, but of all affected persons and then judging each option (to inflict punishment, or release the criminal, etc.)", "by whether there was a “greater good in which this lesser evil was included.”===Other responses to criticisms===Marcus George Singer observed that there are two importantly different ways of looking at the golden rule: as requiring (1) that you perform specific actions that you want others to do to you or (2) that you guide your behavior in the same general ways that you want others to.", "Counter-examples to the golden rule typically are more forceful against the first than the second.In his book on the golden rule, Jeffrey Wattles makes the similar observation that such objections typically arise while applying the golden rule in certain general ways (namely, ignoring differences in taste or situation, failing to compensate for subjective bias, etc.)", "But if we apply the golden rule to our own method of using it, asking in effect if we would want other people to apply the golden rule in such ways, the answer would typically be no, since others' ignoring of such factors will lead to behavior which we object to.", "It follows that we should not do so ourselves—according to the golden rule.", "In this way, the golden rule may be self-correcting.", "An article by Jouni Reinikainen develops this suggestion in greater detail.It is possible, then, that the golden rule can itself guide us in identifying which differences of situation are morally relevant.", "We would often want other people to ignore any prejudice against our race or nationality when deciding how to act towards us, but would also want them to not ignore our differing preferences in food, desire for aggressiveness, and so on.", "This principle of \"doing unto others, wherever possible, as ''they'' would be done by...\" has sometimes been termed the platinum rule." ], [ "Popular references", "Charles Kingsley's ''The Water Babies'' (1863) includes a character named Mrs Do-As-You-Would-Be-Done-By (and another, Mrs Be-Done-By-As-You-Did)." ], [ "See also", "* Empathy* Eye for an eye* General welfare clause* Kali's morality - a literary example of character not using the Golden Rule* Norm of reciprocity, social norm of in-kind responses to the behavior of others* Reciprocity (cultural anthropology), way of defining people's informal exchange of goods and labour* Reciprocity (evolution), mechanisms for the evolution of cooperation* Reciprocity (international relations), principle that favours, benefits, or penalties that are granted by one state to the citizens or legal entities of another, should be returned in kind* Reciprocity (social and political philosophy), concept of reciprocity as in-kind positive or negative responses for the actions of others; relation to justice; related ideas such as gratitude, mutuality, and the Golden Rule* Reciprocity (social psychology), in-kind positive or negative responses of individuals towards the actions of others* Serial reciprocity, where the benefactor of a gift or service will in turn provide benefits to a third party* Ubuntu (philosophy), an ethical philosophy originating from Southern Africa, which has been summarised as 'A person is a person through other people'" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * The Golden Rule Movie A teaching resource.", "* Golden Rule Day An annual global event every April 5.", "* Golden Rule Project - learning tools, etc.", "(based in Salt Lake City, Utah, US)* Monmouth Center for World Religions and Ethical Thought.", "The Golden Rule* * Scarboro Mission.", "The Golden Rule Educational, participatory, and interactive resources including videos, exercises, multi-disciplinary commentaries, The Golden Rule Poster, and interfaith dialogues on the Golden Rule.", "* St Columbans Mission Society – Interfaith Relations.", "The Golden Rule The Golden Rule Poster, etc." ] ]
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[ [ "Governor of New York" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''governor of New York''' is the head of government of the U.S. state of New York.", "The governor is the head of the executive branch of New York's state government and the commander-in-chief of the state's military forces.", "The governor has a duty to enforce state laws and the power to either approve or veto bills passed by the New York Legislature, to convene the legislature and grant pardons, except in cases of impeachment and treason.", "The governor is the highest paid governor in the country." ], [ "Powers and duties", "The original Certificate of Election of John Jay as Governor of New York (June 6, 1795)The governor has a duty to enforce state laws, and the power to either approve or veto bills passed by the New York State Legislature, to convene the legislature, and to grant pardons, except in cases of treason and impeachment.", "Unlike the other government departments that compose the executive branch of government, the governor is the head of the state Executive Department.", "The officeholder is afforded the courtesy style of ''His/Her Excellency'' while in office.Often considered a potential candidate to lead the executive branch of the federal government, 10 New York governors have been selected as presidential candidates by a major party, four of whom (Martin Van Buren, Grover Cleveland, Theodore Roosevelt, and Franklin D. Roosevelt) were elected as president of the United States.", "Meanwhile, six New York governors have gone on to serve as vice president.", "Additionally, two New York governors, John Jay and Charles Evans Hughes, have served as chief justice." ], [ "Qualifications", "Under the New York State Constitution, a person must be at least 30 years of age, a United States citizen, and a resident of the state of New York for at least five years prior to being elected to serve as governor." ], [ "List of governors of New York", "There have been a total of 57 governors as of August 24, 2021." ], [ "Appointments", "The governor is responsible for appointing their Executive Chamber.", "These appointments do not require the confirmation of the New York State Senate.", "Most political advisors report to the secretary to the governor, while most policy advisors report to the director of state operations, who also answers to the secretary to the governor, making that position, in practice, the true chief of staff and most powerful position in the Cabinet.", "The literal c''hief of staff'' is in charge of the Office of Scheduling and holds no authority over other cabinet officials.The governor is also charged with naming the heads of the various departments, divisions, boards, and offices within the state government.", "These nominees require confirmation by the state Senate.", "While some appointees may share the title of ''commissioner'', ''director'', etc., only department level-heads are considered members of the actual state cabinet, although the heads of the various divisions, boards, and offices may attend cabinet-level meetings from time to time." ], [ "History", "The position of governor in New York dates back to the British take over of New Amsterdam where the position replaced the former Dutch offices of director or director-general." ], [ "Line of succession", "The Constitution of New York has provided since 1777 for the election of a lieutenant governor of New York, who also acts as president of the State Senate, to the same term (keeping the same term lengths as the governor throughout all the constitutional revisions).", "Originally, in the event of the death, resignation or impeachment of the governor, or absence from the state, the lieutenant governor would take on the governor's duties and powers.", "Since the 1938 constitution, the lieutenant governor explicitly becomes governor upon such vacancy in the office.Should the office of lieutenant governor become vacant, the temporary president of the state senate performs the duties of a lieutenant governor until the governor can take back the duties of the office, or the next election; likewise, should both offices become vacant, the temporary president acts as governor, with the office of lieutenant governor remaining vacant.", "Although no provision exists in the constitution for it, precedent set in 2009 allows the governor to appoint a lieutenant governor should a vacancy occur.", "Should the temporary president be unable to fulfill the duties, the speaker of the assembly is next in the line of succession.", "The lieutenant governor is elected on the same ticket as the governor, but nominated separately.Line of succession:# Lieutenant Governor# Temporary President of the Senate#Speaker of the Assembly# Attorney General# Comptroller# Commissioner of Transportation# Commissioner of Health# Commissioner of Commerce# Industrial Commissioner# Chairman of the Public Service Commission#Secretary of State" ], [ "See also", "*Politics of New York (state)*List of governors of New York*First ladies and gentlemen of New York*List of colonial governors of New York*New York gubernatorial elections, for results of the elections for the Governor and Lieutenant Governor of New York." ], [ "Bibliography", "*" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * Governor's Office in the New York Codes, Rules and Regulations" ] ]
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[ [ "Glasnevin" ], [ "Introduction", " '''Glasnevin''' (, also known as ''Glas Naedhe'', meaning \"stream of O'Naeidhe\" after a local stream and an ancient chieftain) is a neighbourhood of Dublin, Ireland, situated on the River Tolka.", "While primarily residential, Glasnevin is also home to the National Botanic Gardens, Glasnevin Cemetery, the National Meteorological Office, and a range of other state bodies, and Dublin City University has its main campus and other facilities in and near the area.", "Glasnevin is also a civil parish in the ancient barony of Coolock." ], [ "Geography", "A mainly residential neighbourhood, Glasnevin is located on the Northside of the city of Dublin (about 3 km north of Dublin city centre).", "It was established on the northern bank of the River Tolka where the stream for which it may be named joins, and now extends north and south of the river.", "Three watercourses flow into the Tolka in the area.", "Two streams can be seen near the Catholic \"pyramid church\", the Claremont Stream or Nevin Stream, flowing south from Poppintree and Jamestown Industrial Estate branches, and what is sometimes called the \"Cemetery Drain\" coming north from the southern edge of Glasnevin Cemetery.", "In addition, a major diversion from the Wad River comes from the Ballymun area, joining near the Claremont Stream.The boundaries of Glasnevin stretch from the Royal Canal to Glasnevin Avenue and from the Finglas Road to the edges of Drumcondra.", "It spans the postal districts of Dublin 9 and 11, and is bordered to the northwest by Finglas, northeast by Ballymun and Santry, Whitehall to the east, Phibsborough and Drumcondra to the south and Cabra to the southwest." ], [ "History", "===Foundation===Glasnevin was reputedly founded by Saint Mobhi (sometimes known as St Berchan) in the sixth (or perhaps fifth) century as a monastery.", "His monastery continued to be used for many years afterwards - St. Colman is recorded as having paid homage to its founder when he returned from abroad to visit Ireland a century after St Mobhi's death in 544.St.", "Columba of Iona is thought to have studied under St. Mobhi, but left Glasnevin following an outbreak of plague and journeyed north to open the House at Derry; there is a long street (Iona Road) in Glasnevin named in his honour and the church on Iona Road is called Saint Columba's.===Middle Ages===A settlement grew up around the monastery, which survived until the Viking invasions in the eighth century.", "After raids on monasteries at Glendalough and Clondalkin, the monasteries at Glasnevin and Finglas were attacked and destroyed.By 822 Glasnevin, along with Grangegorman and Clonken or Clonkene (now known as Deansgrange), had become parts of the grange (farm) of Christ Church Cathedral and it seems to have maintained this connection up to the time of the Reformation.The Battle of Clontarf was fought on the banks of the River Tolka in 1014 (a field called the ''bloody acre'' is supposed to be part of the site).", "The Irish defeated the Danes in a battle, in which 7,000 Danes and 4,000 Irish died.The 12th century saw the Normans (who had conquered England and Wales in the eleventh century) invade Ireland.", "As local rulers continued fighting amongst themselves the Norman King of England Henry II was invited to intervene.", "He arrived in 1171, took control of much land, and then parcelled it out amongst his supporters.", "Glasnevin ended up under the jurisdiction of Finglas Abbey.", "Later, Laurence O'Toole, Archbishop of Dublin, took responsibility for Glasnevin and it became the property of the Priory of the Most Holy Trinity (Christ Church Cathedral).In 1240 a church and tower were reconstructed on the site of the Church of St. Mobhi in the monastery.", "The returns of the church for 1326 stated that 28 tenants resided in Glasnevin.", "The church was enlarged in 1346, along with a small hall known as the Manor Hall.===Late Middle Ages===When King Henry VIII broke from Rome an era of religious repression began.", "During the Dissolution of the Monasteries, Catholic Church property and land were appropriated to the new Church of Ireland, and monasteries (including the one at Glasnevin) were forcibly closed, later falling into ruin.", "Glasnevin had at this stage developed as a village, with its principal landmark and focal point being its \"bull-ring\" noted in 1542.By 1667 Glasnevin had expanded - but not by very much; it is recorded as containing 24 houses.", "The development of the village was given a fresh impetus when Sir John Rogerson built his country residence - \"The Glen\" or \"Glasnevin House\" - outside the village.The plantations of Ireland saw the settlement of Protestant English families on land previously held by Catholics.", "Lands at Glasnevin were leased to such families and a Protestant church was erected there in 1707.It was built on the site of the old Catholic Church and was named after St. Mobhi.", "The church was largely rebuilt in the mid-18th century.", "The attached churchyard became a graveyard for both Protestants and Catholics.", "It is said that Robert Emmet is buried there, this claim being made because once somebody working in the graveyard there dug up a headless body.===Early modern times===By now Glasnevin was an area for \"families of distinction\" - in spite of a comment attributed to the Protestant Archbishop of Dublin, William King that \"''when any couple had a mind to be wicked, they would retire to Glasnevin''\".", "In a letter, dated 1725 he described Glasnevin as \"''the receptacle for thieves and rogues ..", "The first search when anything was stolen, was there, and when any couple had a mind to retire to be wicked there was their harbour.", "But since the church was built, and service regularly settled, all these evils are banished.", "Good houses are built in it, and the place civilised.''\"", "Glasnevin National School was also built during this period.===19th and 20th centuries===In the 1830s, the civil parish population was recorded as 1,001, of whom 559 resided in the village.", "Glasnevin was described as a parish in the barony of Coolock, pleasantly situated and the residence of many families of distinction.On 1 June 1832, Charles Lindsay, Bishop of Kildare and Leighlin, and William John released their holdings of Sir John Rogerson's lands at Glasnevin, (including Glasnevin House) to George Hayward Lindsay.", "This transfer included the sum of 1,500 Pounds Sterling.", "Although this does not specifically cite the marriage of George Hayward Lindsay to Lady Mary Catherine Gore, George Lindsay almost certainly came into possession of the lands at Glasnevin as a result of his marriage.When Drumcondra began to rapidly expand in the 1870s, the residents of Glasnevin sought to protect their district and opposed being merged with the neighbouring suburb.", "One of the objectors was the property owner, Dr Henry Gogarty, the father of the Irish poet, Oliver St. John Gogarty.", "The combined areas of Drumcondra, Clonliffe and Glasnevin became a separate administrative unit, a township, in 1878.The township was merged into the City of Dublin in 1900, under the Dublin Corporation Act of that year.George Hayward Lindsay's eldest son, Lieutenant Colonel Henry Gore Lindsay, was in possession of his father's lands at Glasnevin when the area began to be developed at the beginning of the twentieth century.", "Gradual development of his lands began in 1903/04 but Glasnevin remained relatively undeveloped until the opening up of the Carroll Estate in 1914, which saw the creation of the redbrick residential roads running down towards Drumcondra.", "The process was accelerated by Dublin Corporation in the 1920s and the present shape of the suburb was in place by 1930.Among the developers who built estates in the area were Alexander Strain and his son-in-law George Linzell.", "Linzell built the first individual house built in the international style in Ireland, Balnagowan House, on St. Mobhi Boithrin in the late 1920s.The start of the 20th century also saw the opening of a short-lived railway station on the Drumcondra and North Dublin Link Railway line from Glasnevin Junction to Connolly Station (then Amiens Street).", "Glasnevin railway station opened on 1 April 1901 and closed on 1 December 1910." ], [ "Features", "Victorian-era and Edwardian-era housing is common in GlasnevinThe village has changed a lot over the years, and is now fully part of Dublin city.", "As well as the amenities of the National Botanic Gardens (Ireland) and local parks, the national meteorological office Met Éireann, the Central Fisheries Board, the National Standards Authority of Ireland, Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland, the Department of Defence and the national enterprise and trade board Enterprise Ireland are all located in the area.===National Botanic Gardens===The Curvilinear Range of glasshouses at the Irish National Botanic GardensThe house and lands of the poet Thomas Tickell were sold in 1790 to the Irish Parliament and given to the Royal Dublin Society for them to establish Ireland's first Botanic Gardens.", "The gardens were the first location in Ireland where the infection responsible for the 1845–1847 Great Famine was identified.", "Throughout the famine, research to stop the infection was undertaken at the gardens.The which border the River Tolka also adjoin the Prospect Cemetery.", "In 2002 the Botanic Gardens gained a new two-storey complex which included a new cafe and a large lecture theatre.", "The Irish National Herbarium is also located at the botanic gardens.===Glasnevin (Prospect) Cemetery===Crosses at Glasnevin CemeteryProspect Cemetery is located in Glasnevin, although better known as Glasnevin Cemetery, the most historically notable burial place in the country and the last resting place, among a host of historical figures, of Michael Collins, Éamon de Valera, Charles Stewart Parnell and also Arthur Griffith.", "This graveyard led to Glasnevin being known as \"the dead centre of Dublin\".", "It opened in 1832 and is the final resting place for thousands of ordinary citizens, as well as many Irish patriots.===Hart's Corner===Approaching Glasnevin via Phibsboro is what is known as ''Hart's Corner'' but which about 200 years ago was called Glasmanogue, and was then a well-known stage on the way to Finglas.", "At an earlier date, the name possessed a wider signification and was applied to a considerable portion of the adjoining district.===Delville===At the start of the 18th century a large house, known variously as The Glen and later as Delville, was built on the site of the present Bon Secours Hospital, Dublin.", "Its name, Delville, was an amalgamation of the surnames of two tenants, Dr. Helsam and Dr. Patrick Delany (as Heldeville), both fellows of Trinity College.When Delany married his first wife he acquired sole ownership, but it became more well-known as the home of Delany and his second wife, Mary Pendarves.", "She was a widow whom Delany married in 1743, and was an accomplished letter writer.The couple were friends of Dean Jonathan Swift and, through him, of Alexander Pope.", "Pope encouraged the Delaneys to develop a garden in a style then becoming popular in England - moving away from the very formal, geometric layout that was common.", "He redesigned the house in the style of a villa and had the gardens laid out in the latest Dutch fashion creating what was almost certainly Ireland's first naturalistic garden.The house was, under Mrs Delany, a centre of Dublin's intellectual life.", "Swift is said to have composed a number of his campaigning pamphlets while staying there.", "He and his lifelong companion Stella were both in the habit of visiting, and Swift satirised the grounds which he considered too small for the size of the house.", "Through her correspondence with her sister, Mrs Dewes, Mary wrote of Swift in 1733: \"he calls himself my master and corrects me when I speak bad English or do not pronounce my words distinctly\".Patrick Delany died in 1768 at the age of 82, prompting his widow to sell Delville and return to her native England until her death twenty years later.Church of Lady of Dolours (the 'pyramid church')===The Pyramid Church===Glasnevin is also a parish in the Fingal South West deanery of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Dublin.", "It is served by the Church of Lady of Dolours on the banks of the River Tolka.", "A timber church, which originally stood on Berkeley Road, was moved to a riverside site on Botanic Avenue early in the twentieth century; the altar in this church was from Newgate prison in Dublin.", "It served as the parish church until it was replaced, in 1972, by a structure resembling a pyramid when viewed from Botanic Avenue.", "The previous church was known locally as \"The Woodener\" or \"The Wooden\" and the new building is still known to older residents as \"The new Woodener\" or \"The Wigwam\".", "The church underwent some refurbishment work inside and in its grounds and car park during the first half of 2011.===Met Éireann===Met Éireann headquartersIn 1975 the new headquarters of Met Éireann, the Irish Meteorological Office, designed by Liam McCormick, opened on Glasnevin Hill, on the site of a former juvenile detention centre, Marlborough House.", "The Met Éireann building is a pyramidal shape and was originally to be covered in Welsh Slate, however, an indigenous material was deemed more appropriate, and the selected Irish stone curled and had to be replaced by metal sheeting.", "It is recognised as one of the most significant buildings to be erected in Dublin in the 1970s.===Griffith Avenue===Griffith AvenueThe tree-lined Griffith Avenue runs through Glasnevin, Drumcondra and Marino, and spans three electoral constituencies.", "Like nearby Griffith Park, it was named after Arthur Griffith, who was the founder and third leader of Sinn Féin, served as President of Dáil Éireann and is buried in Glasnevin Cemetery.A double-row of mature lime trees runs along both sides of Griffith Avenue from its junction with St Mobhi Road (in the west) to its junction with Malahide Road (in the east), a distance of 2.81km.", "It is reputed to be the longest tree-lined purely residential avenue in the northern hemisphere." ], [ "Amenities", "Scouting is represented in Glasnevin by the 1st Dublin (L.H.O) Scout Troop located on the corner of Griffith Avenue and Ballygall Road East.===Sport===The Gaelic games of Gaelic football, hurling, camogie and Gaelic handball are all organised locally by Na Fianna CLG, while soccer is played by local clubs Tolka Rovers, Glasnevin FC and Glasnaion FC.", "Basketball is organised by Tolka Rovers.", "Tennis is played in Charleville Lawn Tennis Club which was founded in 1894 and took its name from the original location at the corner of the Charleville and Cabra Roads.", "The move to its present location on Whitworth Road took place in 1904.Hockey is also played in Botanic Hockey club on the Old Finglas Road.", "Glasnevin Boxing Club and Football (soccer) club have a clubhouse on Mobhi road.Billy Whelan, one of the eight Manchester United players who lost their lives in the Munich air disaster of 6 February 1958, was born locally and is buried in Glasnevin Cemetery.===Education===There are several primary schools in Glasnevin.", "These include Lindsay Road National School (Presbyterian patronage) and Glasnevin National School (Church of Ireland patronage), founded by Dean Swift and constructed in a round shape; known as 'The Ink Bottle' this building was replaced in 1911.Also present are Glasnevin Educate Together National school, North Dublin National School Project, Scoil Mobhi, St. Brigid's GNS, St. Columba's NS and St.Vincent's CBS.There are several Roman Catholic secondary schools in the area St Vincent's (Christian Brothers) School, Scoil Chaitríona and St Mary's (Holy Faith) Secondary School.The main campus of Dublin City University lies on the border between Glasnevin, Whitehall and Ballymun, and the DCU Alpha centre is in central Glasnevin.", "Teagasc also run horticultural education courses from the College of Amenity Horticulture in the Botanic Gardens.Dublin City University Glasnevin Library" ], [ "Representation", "Glasnevin is part of the Dáil Éireann constituency of Dublin Central and Dublin North-West.==Notable people==*Margaret Buckley, former president of Sinn Féin (originally from Cork, lived on Marguerite Road, Glasnevin)*Saint Canice, early Christian abbot (studied under Mobhí of Glasnevin)*Saint Comgall, early Christian abbot and founder of a monastery at Bangor*Marian Finucane, architect, journalist and broadcaster*Colm Gallagher, Fianna Fail T.D.", "*Ian Gallahar, cyclist and commissaire*Alice Glenn, Fine Gael T.D.", "*Niamh Kavanagh, singer and winner of the Eurovision Song Contest*Robbie Kelleher, former All-Ireland winning Gaelic footballer*Anne Kernan (1933–2020), Irish physicist*Celia Lynch, Fianna Fáil TD and assistant government whip (originally from Galway, lived on Botanic Road)*Colm Meaney, actor*Damien McCaul, television presenter and radio DJ*Saint Mobhi, early Christian missionary and abbot of Glasnevin monastery*John O'Connell, Fianna Fáil TD and former Minister for Health, attended school in the area*Francis Martin O'Donnell, diplomat*Michael O'Hehir, sports commentator and journalist*James O'Higgins Norman, academic*John J. O'Kelly, politician, former President of Sinn Féin and government minister*Michael O'Riordan, founder of the Communist Party of Ireland*Róisín Owens, biochemist*Richard Brinsley Sheridan, satirist, playwright, and politician*Jonathan Swift, author and essayist who lived across the road from the Glasnevin Model School (now Glasnevin Educate Together)*Thomas Tickell, poet whose Glasnevin property was later developed as the National Botanic Gardens*David P. Tyndall, businessperson*Mona Tyndall, doctor and missionary*Macdara Woods, Irish poet who wrote ''Winter Fire & Snow'' with Brendan Graham" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* ''The Parish of Glasnevin'' from F.E.", "Ball's ''A History of the County Dublin'' (1920)* ''Account of Glasnevin'' from D'Alton's ''History of the County Dublin'' (1838)* ''Glasnevin, Finglas and the Adjacent District'' from ''The Neighbourhood of Dublin'' by Weston St. John Joyce (third and enlarged edition 1920)* ''The Tolka, Glasnevin and the Naul Road from North Dublin'' by Dillon Cosgrove (1909)" ], [ "External links", "* A History of Glasnevin from Egan's House* The Botanic Gardens" ] ]
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[ [ "George Abbot (author)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''George Abbot''' or '''Abbott''' (1604 – 2 February 1649) was an English lay writer, known as \"The Puritan\", and a politician who sat in the House of Commons in two periods between 1640 and 1649.He is known also for his part in defending Caldecote House against royalist forces in the early days of the English Civil War." ], [ "Life", "Abbott was the son of George Abbott of York (died 1607) and his wife Joan Penkeston.", "While ''Alumni Cantabrigienses'' states that he matriculated at King's College, Cambridge in 1622, the ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography'' discounts the identification, for lack of evidence.", "He owned property in Baddesley Clinton, Warwickshire, and was a good friend of Richard Vines, minister at Caldecote some way to the east.", "In April 1640, he was elected as a Member of Parliament (MP) for Tamworth in the Short Parliament.", "Memorial tablet to George Abbot in Caldecote Church, 1656 engravingIn the English Civil War, Abbot worked closely in Warwickshire with his stepfather William Purefoy, and made a notable defence, with his mother Joan, of the Purefoy house at Caldecote, Warwickshire, gaining the family coverage in the London press.", "On 15 August 1642, with eight men, his mother and maids, he held out for a time against Prince Rupert of the Rhine, with about 18 troops of horses and dragoons.", "In the aftermath of the Battle of Edgehill, in October of the same year, Richard Baxter moved to Coventry, and Abbot was one of those hearing him preach there.", "Baxter in writing on the Sabbath referred to \"my dear friend Mr. George Abbot\".", "In his memoirs ''Reliquiæ Baxterianæ'', Baxter placed Abbot's defence of Caldecote House, where barns were burnt, in local context: royalists under Spencer Compton, 2nd Earl of Northampton were attacking Warwick Castle, defended by John Bridges, and Coventry, defended by John Barker.Abbot was re-elected MP for Tamworth in 1645 for the Long Parliament and held the seat until his death in 1649.He died unmarried in his 44th year, and was buried in Caldecote church where his monument describes his defence of Caldecote." ], [ "Legacy", "By his will, Abbot endowed a free school at Caldecote.", "It was supported by land left to it at Baddesley Ensor." ], [ "Works", "Abbot was a lay theologian and scholar.", "His ''Whole Booke of Job Paraphrased, or made easy for any to understand'' (1640), was written in a terse style, and his ''Vindiciae Sabbathi'' (1641) influenced the Sabbatarian controversy.", "His ''The Whole Book of Psalms Paraphrased'' (1650) was published posthumously by Richard Vines, and dedicated to Joan Purefoy, his mother." ], [ "Mistaken identifications", "Abbot has been confused with others of the same name and has been described as a clergyman, which he never was.", "His writings have been incorrectly attributed in some bibliographical authorities to a relation of George Abbot the archbishop of Canterbury.", "One of the sons of Sir Morris Abbot called George was also an MP in the Long Parliament but for the constituency of Guildford." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Endnotes:**''MS.collections at Abbeyville for history of all of the name of Abbot'', by J.T.", "Abbot, Esq., F.S.A., Darlington;**William Dugdale, ''Antiquities of Warwickshire'', 1730 p. 1099;**Anthony à Wood, ''Athenae Oxonienses'' (Bliss), ii.141, 594;**Cox, ''Literature of the Sabbath''.", "**" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
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[ [ "Globular cluster" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''globular cluster''' is a spheroidal conglomeration of stars that is bound together by gravity, with a higher concentration of stars towards their centers.", "They can contain anywhere from tens of thousands to many millions of member stars, all orbiting in a stable, compact formation.", "Globular clusters are similar in form to dwarf spheroidal galaxies, and the distinction between the two is not always clear.", "Their name is derived from Latin (small sphere).", "Globular clusters are occasionally known simply as \"globulars\".Although one globular cluster, Omega Centauri, was observed in antiquity and long thought to be a star, recognition of the clusters' true nature came with the advent of telescopes in the 17th century.", "In early telescopic observations globular clusters appeared as fuzzy blobs, leading French astronomer Charles Messier to include many of them in his catalog of astronomical objects that he thought could be mistaken for comets.", "Using larger telescopes, 18th-century astronomers recognized that globular clusters are groups of many individual stars.", "Early in the 20th century the distribution of globular clusters in the sky was some of the first evidence that the Sun is far from the center of the Milky Way.Globular clusters are found in nearly all galaxies.", "In spiral galaxies like the Milky Way they are mostly found in the outer spheroidal part of the galaxythe galactic halo.", "They are the largest and most massive type of star cluster, tending to be older, denser, and composed of lower abundances of heavy elements than open clusters, which are generally found in the disks of spiral galaxies.", "The Milky Way has more than 150 known globulars, and there may be many more.The origin of globular clusters and their role in galactic evolution are unclear.", "Some are among the oldest objects in their galaxies and even the universe, constraining estimates of the universe's age.", "Star clusters were formerly thought to consist of stars that all formed at the same time from one star-forming nebula, but nearly all globular clusters contain stars that formed at different times, or that have differing compositions.", "Some clusters may have had multiple episodes of star formation, and some may be remnants of smaller galaxies captured by larger galaxies." ], [ "History of observations", "The first known globular cluster, now called M 22, was discovered in 1665 by Abraham Ihle, a German amateur astronomer.", "The cluster Omega Centauri, easily visible in the southern sky with the naked eye, was known to ancient astronomers like Ptolemy as a star, but was reclassified as a nebula by Edmond Halley in 1677, then finally as a globular cluster in the early 19th century by John Herschel.", "The French astronomer Abbé Lacaille listed NGC 104, , M 55, M 69, and in his 1751–1752 catalogue.", "The low resolution of early telescopes prevented individual stars in a cluster from being visually separated until Charles Messier observed M 4 in 1764.+ '''Early globular cluster discoveries'''Cluster nameDiscovered byYearM 22Abraham Ihle1665ω CenEdmond Halley1677M 5Gottfried Kirch1702M 13Edmond Halley1714M 71Philippe Loys de Chéseaux1745M 4Philippe Loys de Chéseaux1746M 15Jean-Dominique Maraldi1746M 2Jean-Dominique Maraldi1746When William Herschel began his comprehensive survey of the sky using large telescopes in 1782, there were 34 known globular clusters.", "Herschel discovered another 36 and was the first to resolve virtually all of them into stars.", "He coined the term ''globular cluster'' in his ''Catalogue of a Second Thousand New Nebulae and Clusters of Stars'' (1789).", "In 1914 Harlow Shapley began a series of studies of globular clusters, published across about forty scientific papers.", "He examined the clusters' RR Lyrae variables (stars which he assumed were Cepheid variables) and used their luminosity and period of variability to estimate the distances to the clusters.", "It was later found that RR Lyrae variables are fainter than Cepheid variables, causing Shapley to overestimate the distances.NGC 7006 is a highly concentrated, Class I globular cluster.A large majority of the Milky Way's globular clusters are found around the galactic core.", "In 1918 Shapley used this strongly asymmetrical distribution to determine the overall dimensions of the galaxy.", "Assuming a roughly spherical distribution of globular clusters around the galaxy's center, he used the positions of the clusters to estimate the position of the Sun relative to the Galactic Center.", "He correctly concluded that the Milky Way's center is in the Sagittarius constellation and not near the Earth.", "He overestimated the distance, finding typical globular cluster distances of ; the modern distance to the Galactic Center is roughly .", "Shapley's measurements indicated the Sun is relatively far from the center of the galaxy, contrary to what had been inferred from the observed uniform distribution of ordinary stars.", "In reality most ordinary stars lie within the galaxy's disk and are thus obscured by gas and dust in the disk, whereas globular clusters lie outside the disk and can be seen at much greater distances.The Messier 80 globular cluster in the constellation Scorpius is located about 30,000 light-years from the Sun and contains hundreds of thousands of stars.The count of known globular clusters in the Milky Way has continued to increase, reaching 83 in 1915, 93 in 1930, 97 by 1947, and 157 in 2010.Additional, undiscovered globular clusters are believed to be in the galactic bulge or hidden by the gas and dust of the Milky Way.", "For example, most of the Palomar Globular Clusters have only been discovered in the 1950s, with some located relatively close-by yet obscured by dust, while others reside in the very far reaches of the Milky Way halo.", "The Andromeda Galaxy, which is comparable in size to the Milky Way, may have as many as five hundred globulars.", "Every galaxy of sufficient mass in the Local Group has an associated system of globular clusters, as does almost every large galaxy surveyed.", "Some giant elliptical galaxies (particularly those at the centers of galaxy clusters), such as M 87, have as many as 13,000 globular clusters.===Classification===Shapley was later assisted in his studies of clusters by Henrietta Swope and Helen Sawyer Hogg.", "In 1927–1929 Shapley and Sawyer categorized clusters by the degree of concentration of stars toward each core.", "Their system, known as the Shapley–Sawyer Concentration Class, identifies the most concentrated clusters as Class I and ranges to the most diffuse Class XII.", "In 2015 astronomers from the Pontifical Catholic University of Chile proposed a new type of globular cluster on the basis of observational data: Dark globular clusters." ], [ "Formation", "NGC 2808 contains three distinct generations of stars.", "''NASA image''The formation of globular clusters is poorly understood.", "Globular clusters have traditionally been described as a simple star population formed from a single giant molecular cloud, and thus with roughly uniform age and metallicity (proportion of heavy elements in their composition).", "Modern observations show that nearly all globular clusters contain multiple populations; the globular clusters in the Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC) exhibit a bimodal population, for example.", "During their youth, these LMC clusters may have encountered giant molecular clouds that triggered a second round of star formation.", "This star-forming period is relatively brief, compared with the age of many globular clusters.", "It has been proposed that this multiplicity in stellar populations could have a dynamical origin.", "In the Antennae Galaxy, for example, the Hubble Space Telescope has observed clusters of clustersregions in the galaxy that span hundreds of parsecs, in which many of the clusters will eventually collide and merge.", "Their overall range of ages and (possibly) metallicities could lead to clusters with a bimodal, or even multiple, distribution of populations.Globular star cluster Messier 54Observations of globular clusters show that their stars primarily come from regions of more efficient star formation, and from where the interstellar medium is at a higher density, as compared to normal star-forming regions.", "Globular cluster formation is prevalent in starburst regions and in interacting galaxies.", "Some globular clusters likely formed in dwarf galaxies and were removed by tidal forces to join the Milky Way.", "In elliptical and lenticular galaxies there is a correlation between the mass of the supermassive black holes (SMBHs) at their centers and the extent of their globular cluster systems.", "The mass of the SMBH in such a galaxy is often close to the combined mass of the galaxy's globular clusters.No known globular clusters display active star formation, consistent with the hypothesis that globular clusters are typically the oldest objects in their galaxy and were among the first collections of stars to form.", "Very large regions of star formation known as super star clusters, such as Westerlund 1 in the Milky Way, may be the precursors of globular clusters.Many of the Milky Way's globular clusters have a retrograde orbit (meaning that they revolve around the galaxy in the reverse of the direction the galaxy is rotating), including the most massive, Omega Centauri.", "Its retrograde orbit suggests it may be a remnant of a dwarf galaxy captured by the Milky Way." ], [ "Composition", "Djorgovski 1's stars contain hydrogen and helium, but not much else.", "In astronomical terms they are ''metal-poor''.Globular clusters are generally composed of hundreds of thousands of low-metal, old stars.", "The stars found in a globular cluster are similar to those in the bulge of a spiral galaxy but confined to a spheroid in which half the light is emitted within a radius of only a few to a few tens of parsecs.", "They are free of gas and dust and it is presumed that all the gas and dust was long ago either turned into stars or blown out of the cluster by the massive first-generation stars.Globular clusters can contain a high density of stars; on average about 0.4stars per cubic parsec, increasing to 100 or 1000stars/pc in the core of the cluster.", "In comparison, the stellar density around the Sun is roughly 0.1 stars/pc.", "The typical distance between stars in a globular cluster is about one light year, but at its core the separation between stars averages about a third of a light yearthirteen times closer than the Sun is to its nearest neighbor, Proxima Centauri.Globular clusters are thought to be unfavorable locations for planetary systems.", "Planetary orbits are dynamically unstable within the cores of dense clusters because of the gravitational perturbations of passing stars.", "A planet orbiting at one astronomical unit around a star that is within the core of a dense cluster, such as 47 Tucanae, would survive only on the order of a hundred million years.", "There is a planetary system orbiting a pulsar (PSRB1620−26) that belongs to the globular cluster M4, but these planets likely formed after the event that created the pulsar.Some globular clusters, like Omega Centauri in the Milky Way and Mayall II in the Andromeda Galaxy, are extraordinarily massive, measuring several million solar masses () and having multiple stellar populations.", "Both are evidence that supermassive globular clusters formed from the cores of dwarf galaxies that have been consumed by larger galaxies.", "About a quarter of the globular cluster population in the Milky Way may have been accreted this way, as with more than 60% of the globular clusters in the outer halo of Andromeda.===Heavy element content===Globular clusters normally consist of Population II stars which, compared with Population I stars such as the Sun, have a higher proportion of hydrogen and helium and a lower proportion of heavier elements.", "Astronomers refer to these heavier elements as ''metals'' (distinct from the material concept) and to the proportions of these elements as the metallicity.", "Produced by stellar nucleosynthesis, the metals are recycled into the interstellar medium and enter a new generation of stars.", "The proportion of metals can thus be an indication of the age of a star in simple models, with older stars typically having a lower metallicity.The Dutch astronomer Pieter Oosterhoff observed two special populations of globular clusters, which became known as ''Oosterhoff groups''.", "The second group has a slightly longer period of RR Lyrae variable stars.", "While both groups have a low proportion of metallic elements as measured by spectroscopy, the metal spectral lines in the stars of Oosterhoff typeI (OoI) cluster are not quite as weak as those in typeII (OoII), and so typeI stars are referred to as ''metal-rich'' (e.g.", "Terzan 7), while typeII stars are ''metal-poor'' (e.g.", "ESO 280-SC06).", "These two distinct populations have been observed in many galaxies, especially massive elliptical galaxies.", "Both groups are nearly as old as the universe itself and are of similar ages.", "Suggested scenarios to explain these subpopulations include violent gas-rich galaxy mergers, the accretion of dwarf galaxies, and multiple phases of star formation in a single galaxy.", "In the Milky Way the metal-poor clusters are associated with the halo and the metal-rich clusters with the bulge.In the Milky Way a large majority of the metal-poor clusters are aligned on a plane in the outer part of the galaxy's halo.", "This observation supports the view that typeII clusters were captured from a satellite galaxy, rather than being the oldest members of the Milky Way's globular cluster system as was previously thought.", "The difference between the two cluster types would then be explained by a time delay between when the two galaxies formed their cluster systems.===Exotic components===Messier 53 contains an unusually large number of a type of star called ''blue stragglers''.Close interactions and near-collisions of stars occur relatively often in globular clusters because of their high star density.", "These chance encounters give rise to some exotic classes of starssuch as blue stragglers, millisecond pulsars, and low-mass X-ray binarieswhich are much more common in globular clusters.", "How blue stragglers form remains unclear, but most models attribute them to interactions between stars, such as stellar mergers, the transfer of material from one star to another, or even an encounter between two binary systems.", "The resulting star has a higher temperature than other stars in the cluster with comparable luminosity and thus differs from the main-sequence stars formed early in the cluster's existence.", "Some clusters have two distinct sequences of blue stragglers, one bluer than the other.Globular cluster M15 may have an intermediate-mass black hole at its core, but this claim is contested.Simulation of stellar motions in Messier 4, where astronomers suspect that an intermediate-mass black hole could be present.", "If confirmed, the black hole would be in the center of the cluster, and would have a sphere of influence (black hole) limited by the red circle.Astronomers have searched for black holes within globular clusters since the 1970s.", "The required resolution for this task is exacting; it is only with the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) that the first claimed discoveries were made, in 2002 and 2003.Based on HST observations, other researchers suggested the existence of a (solar masses) intermediate-mass black hole in the globular cluster M15 and a black hole in the Mayall II cluster of the Andromeda Galaxy.", "Both X-ray and radio emissions from MayallII appear consistent with an intermediate-mass black hole; however, these claimed detections are controversial.The heaviest objects in globular clusters are expected to migrate to the cluster center due to mass segregation.", "One research group pointed out that the mass-to-light ratio should rise sharply towards the center of the cluster, even without a black hole, in both M15 and Mayall II.", "Observations from 2018 find no evidence for an intermediate-mass black hole in any globular cluster, including M15, but cannot definitively rule out one with a mass of .", "Finally, in 2023, an analysis of HST and the Gaia spacecraft data from the closest globular cluster, Messier 4, revealed an excess mass of roughly in the center of this cluster, which appears to not be extended.", "This could thus be the best kinematic evidence for an intermediate-mass black hole (even if an unusually compact cluster of compact objects like white dwarfs, neutron stars or stellar-mass black holes cannot be completely discounted).The confirmation of intermediate-mass black holes in globular clusters would have important ramifications for theories of galaxy development as being possible sources for the supermassive black holes at their centers.", "The mass of these supposed intermediate-mass black holes is proportional to the mass of their surrounding clusters, following a pattern previously discovered between supermassive black holes and their surrounding galaxies." ], [ "Hertzsprung–Russell diagrams", "M3.There is a characteristic \"knee\" in the curve at magnitude 19 where stars begin entering the giant stage of their evolutionary path, the main-sequence turnoff.Hertzsprung–Russell diagrams (H–R diagrams) of globular clusters allow astronomers to determine many of the properties of their populations of stars.", "An H–R diagram is a graph of a large sample of stars plotting their absolute magnitude (their luminosity, or brightness measured from a standard distance), as a function of their color index.", "The color index, roughly speaking, measures the color of the star; positive color indices indicate a reddish star with a cool surface temperature, while negative values indicate a bluer star with a hotter surface.", "Stars on an H–R diagram mostly lie along a roughly diagonal line sloping from hot, luminous stars in the upper left to cool, faint stars in the lower right.", "This line is known as the main sequence and represents the primary stage of stellar evolution.", "The diagram also includes stars in later evolutionary stages such as the cool but luminous red giants.Constructing an H–R diagram requires knowing the distance to the observed stars to convert apparent into absolute magnitude.", "Because all the stars in a globular cluster have about the same distance from Earth, a color–magnitude diagram using their observed magnitudes looks like a shifted H–R diagram (because of the roughly constant difference between their apparent and absolute magnitudes).", "This shift is called the distance modulus and can be used to calculate the distance to the cluster.", "The modulus is determined by comparing features (like the main sequence) of the cluster's color–magnitude diagram to corresponding features in an H–R diagram of another set of stars, a method known as spectroscopic parallax or main-sequence fitting.===Properties===Since globular clusters form at once from a single giant molecular cloud, a cluster's stars have roughly the same age and composition.", "A star's evolution is primarily determined by its initial mass, so the positions of stars in a cluster's H–R or color–magnitude diagram mostly reflect their initial masses.", "A cluster's H–R diagram, therefore, appears quite different from H–R diagrams containing stars of a wide variety of ages.", "Almost all stars fall on a well-defined curve in globular cluster H–R diagrams, and that curve's shape indicates the age of the cluster.", "A more detailed H–R diagram often reveals multiple stellar populations as indicated by the presence of closely separated curves, each corresponding to a distinct population of stars with a slightly different age or composition.", "Observations with the Wide Field Camera 3, installed in 2009 on the Hubble Space Telescope, made it possible to distinguish these slightly different curves.The most massive main-sequence stars have the highest luminosity and will be the first to evolve into the giant star stage.", "As the cluster ages, stars of successively lower masses will do the same.", "Therefore, the age of a single-population cluster can be measured by looking for those stars just beginning to enter the giant star stage, which form a \"knee\" in the H–R diagram called the main-sequence turnoff, bending to the upper right from the main-sequence line.", "The absolute magnitude at this bend is directly a function of the cluster's age; an age scale can be plotted on an axis parallel to the magnitude.The morphology and luminosity of globular cluster stars in H–R diagrams are influenced by numerous parameters, many of which are still actively researched.", "Recent observations have overturned the historical paradigm that all globular clusters consist of stars born at exactly the same time, or sharing exactly the same chemical abundance.", "Some clusters feature multiple populations, slightly differing in composition and age; for example, high-precision imagery of cluster NGC 2808 discerned three close, but distinct, main sequences.", "Further, the placements of the cluster stars in an H–R diagram (including the brightnesses of distance indicators) can be influenced by observational biases.", "One such effect, called blending, arises when the cores of globular clusters are so dense that observations see multiple stars as a single target.", "The brightness measured for that seemingly single star is thus incorrecttoo bright, given that multiple stars contributed.", "The computed distance is in turn incorrect, so the blending effect can introduce a systematic uncertainty into the cosmic distance ladder and may bias the estimated age of the universe and the Hubble constant.===Consequences===The blue stragglers appear on the H–R diagram as a series diverging from the main sequence in the direction of brighter, bluer stars.", "White dwarfs (the final remnants of some Sun-like stars), which are much fainter and somewhat hotter than the main-sequence stars, lie on the bottom-left of an H–R diagram.", "Globular clusters can be dated by looking at the temperatures of the coolest white dwarfs, often giving results as old as 12.7 billion years.", "In comparison, open clusters are rarely older than about half a billion years.", "The ages of globular clusters place a lower bound on the age of the entire universe, presenting a significant constraint in cosmology.", "Astronomers were historically faced with age estimates of clusters older than their cosmological models would allow, but better measurements of cosmological parameters, through deep sky surveys and satellites, appear to have resolved this issue.Studying globular clusters sheds light on how the composition of the formational gas and dust affects stellar evolution; the stars' evolutionary tracks vary depending on the abundance of heavy elements.", "Data obtained from these studies are then used to study the evolution of the Milky Way as a whole." ], [ "Morphology", "+ '''Ellipticity of globular clusters'''GalaxyEllipticityMilky Way0.07±0.04LMC0.16±0.05SMC0.19±0.06M310.09±0.04In contrast to open clusters, most globular clusters remain gravitationally bound together for time periods comparable to the lifespans of most of their stars.", "Strong tidal interactions with other large masses result in the dispersal of some stars, leaving behind \"tidal tails\" of stars removed from the cluster.After formation, the stars in the globular cluster begin to interact gravitationally with each other.", "The velocities of the stars steadily change, and the stars lose any history of their original velocity.", "The characteristic interval for this to occur is the relaxation time, related to the characteristic length of time a star needs to cross the cluster and the number of stellar masses.", "The relaxation time varies by cluster, but a typical value is on the order of one billion years.Although globular clusters are generally spherical in form, ellipticity can form via tidal interactions.", "Clusters within the Milky Way and the Andromeda Galaxy are typically oblate spheroids in shape, while those in the Large Magellanic Cloud are more elliptical.===Radii===NGC 411 is classified as an open cluster.Astronomers characterize the morphology (shape) of a globular cluster by means of standard radii: the core radius (''r''''c''), the half-light radius (''r''''h''), and the tidal or Jacobi radius (''r''''t'').", "The radius can be expressed as a physical distance or as a subtended angle in the sky.", "Considering a radius around the core, the surface luminosity of the cluster steadily decreases with distance, and the core radius is the distance at which the apparent surface luminosity has dropped by half.", "A comparable quantity is the half-light radius, or the distance from the core containing half the total luminosity of the cluster; the half-light radius is typically larger than the core radius.Most globular clusters have a half-light radius of less than ten parsecs (pc), although some globular clusters have very large radii, like NGC 2419 (rh = 18 pc) and Palomar 14 (rh = 25 pc).", "The half-light radius includes stars in the outer part of the cluster that happen to lie along the line of sight, so theorists also use the half-mass radius (''r''''m'')the radius from the core that contains half the total mass of the cluster.", "A small half-mass radius, relative to the overall size, indicates a dense core.", "Messier 3 (M3), for example, has an overall visible dimension of about 18 arc minutes, but a half-mass radius of only 1.12 arc minutes.The tidal radius, or Hill sphere, is the distance from the center of the globular cluster at which the external gravitation of the galaxy has more influence over the stars in the cluster than does the cluster itself.", "This is the distance at which the individual stars belonging to a cluster can be separated away by the galaxy.", "The tidal radius of M3, for example, is about forty arc minutes, or about 113 pc.===Mass segregation, luminosity and core collapse===In most Milky Way clusters the surface brightness of a globular cluster as a function of decreasing distance to the core first increases, then levels off at a distance typically 1–2 parsecs from the core.", "About 20% of the globular clusters have undergone a process termed \"core collapse\".", "In such a cluster the luminosity increases steadily all the way to the core region.47 Tucanae is the second most luminous globular cluster in the Milky Way, after Omega Centauri.Models of globular clusters predict core collapse occurs when the more massive stars in a globular cluster encounter their less massive counterparts.", "Over time, dynamic processes cause individual stars to migrate from the center of the cluster to the outside, resulting in a net loss of kinetic energy from the core region and leading the region's remaining stars to occupy a more compact volume.", "When this gravothermal instability occurs, the central region of the cluster becomes densely crowded with stars, and the surface brightness of the cluster forms a power-law cusp.", "A massive black hole at the core could also result in a luminosity cusp.", "Over a long time this leads to a concentration of massive stars near the core, a phenomenon called mass segregation.The dynamical heating effect of binary star systems works to prevent an initial core collapse of the cluster.", "When a star passes near a binary system, the orbit of the latter pair tends to contract, releasing energy.", "Only after this primordial supply of energy is exhausted can a deeper core collapse proceed.", "In contrast, the effect of tidal shocks as a globular cluster repeatedly passes through the plane of a spiral galaxy tends to significantly accelerate core collapse.Core collapse may be divided into three phases.", "During a cluster's adolescence, core collapse begins with stars nearest the core.", "Interactions between binary star systems prevents further collapse as the cluster approaches middle age.", "The central binaries are either disrupted or ejected, resulting in a tighter concentration at the core.", "The interaction of stars in the collapsed core region causes tight binary systems to form.", "As other stars interact with these tight binaries they increase the energy at the core, causing the cluster to re-expand.", "As the average time for a core collapse is typically less than the age of the galaxy, many of a galaxy's globular clusters may have passed through a core collapse stage, then re-expanded.Globular cluster NGC 1854 is located in the Large Magellanic Cloud.The HST has provided convincing observational evidence of this stellar mass-sorting process in globular clusters.", "Heavier stars slow down and crowd at the cluster's core, while lighter stars pick up speed and tend to spend more time at the cluster's periphery.", "The cluster 47 Tucanae, made up of about one million stars, is one of the densest globular clusters in the Southern Hemisphere.", "This cluster was subjected to an intensive photographic survey that obtained precise velocities for nearly fifteen thousand stars in this cluster.The overall luminosities of the globular clusters within the Milky Way and the Andromeda Galaxy each have a roughly Gaussian distribution, with an average magnitude Mv and a variance σ2.This distribution of globular cluster luminosities is called the Globular Cluster Luminosity Function (GCLF).", "For the Milky Way, Mv = , σ = .", "The GCLF has been used as a \"standard candle\" for measuring the distance to other galaxies, under the assumption that globular clusters in remote galaxies behave similarly to those in the Milky Way.===N-body simulations===Computing the gravitational interactions between stars within a globular cluster requires solving the N-body problem.", "The naive computational cost for a dynamic simulation increases in proportion to ''N'' 2 (where N is the number of objects), so the computing requirements to accurately simulate a cluster of thousands of stars can be enormous.", "A more efficient method of simulating the N-body dynamics of a globular cluster is done by subdivision into small volumes and velocity ranges, and using ''probabilities'' to describe the locations of the stars.", "Their motions are described by means of the Fokker–Planck equation, often using a model describing the mass density as a function of radius, such as a Plummer model.", "The simulation becomes more difficult when the effects of binaries and the interaction with external gravitation forces (such as from the Milky Way galaxy) must also be included.", "In 2010 a low-density globular cluster's lifetime evolution was able to be directly computed, star-by-star.Completed N-body simulations have shown that stars can follow unusual paths through the cluster, often forming loops and falling more directly toward the core than would a single star orbiting a central mass.", "Additionally, some stars gain sufficient energy to escape the cluster due to gravitational interactions that result in a sufficient increase in velocity.", "Over long periods of time this process leads to the dissipation of the cluster, a process termed evaporation.", "The typical time scale for the evaporation of a globular cluster is 1010 years.", "The ultimate fate of a globular cluster must be either to accrete stars at its core, causing its steady contraction, or gradual shedding of stars from its outer layers.Binary stars form a significant portion of stellar systems, with up to half of all field stars and open cluster stars occurring in binary systems.", "The present-day binary fraction in globular clusters is difficult to measure, and any information about their initial binary fraction is lost by subsequent dynamical evolution.", "Numerical simulations of globular clusters have demonstrated that binaries can hinder and even reverse the process of core collapse in globular clusters.", "When a star in a cluster has a gravitational encounter with a binary system, a possible result is that the binary becomes more tightly bound and kinetic energy is added to the solitary star.", "When the massive stars in the cluster are sped up by this process, it reduces the contraction at the core and limits core collapse.===Intermediate forms===Messier 10 lies about 15,000 light-years from Earth, in the constellation of Ophiuchus.Cluster classification is not always definitive; objects have been found that can be classified in more than one categories.", "For example, BH 176 in the southern part of the Milky Way has properties of both an open and a globular cluster.In 2005 astronomers discovered a new, \"extended\" type of star cluster in the Andromeda Galaxy's halo, similar to the globular cluster.", "The three new-found clusters have a similar star count as globular clusters and share other characteristics, such as stellar populations and metallicity, but are distinguished by their larger sizeseveral hundred light years acrossand some hundred times lower density.", "Their stars are separated by larger distances; parametrically, these clusters lie somewhere between a globular cluster and a dwarf spheroidal galaxy.The formation of these extended clusters is likely related to accretion.", "It is unclear why the Milky Way lacks such clusters; Andromeda is unlikely to be the sole galaxy with them, but their presence in other galaxies remains unknown." ], [ "Tidal encounters", "When a globular cluster comes close to a large mass, such as the core region of a galaxy, it undergoes a tidal interaction.", "The difference in gravitational strength between the nearer and further parts of the cluster results in an asymmetric, tidal force.", "A \"tidal shock\" occurs whenever the orbit of a cluster takes it through the plane of a galaxy.Tidal shocks can pull stars away from the cluster halo, leaving only the core part of the cluster; these trails of stars can extend several degrees away from the cluster.", "These tails typically both precede and follow the cluster along its orbit and can accumulate significant portions of the original mass of the cluster, forming clump-like features.", "The globular cluster Palomar 5, for example, is near the apogalactic point of its orbit after passing through the Milky Way.", "Streams of stars extend outward toward the front and rear of the orbital path of this cluster, stretching to distances of 13,000 light years.", "Tidal interactions have stripped away much of Palomar5's mass; further interactions with the galactic core are expected to transform it into a long stream of stars orbiting the Milky Way in its halo.The Milky Way is in the process of tidally stripping the Sagittarius Dwarf Spheroidal Galaxy of stars and globular clusters through the Sagittarius Stream.", "As many as 20% of the globular clusters in the Milky Way's outer halo may have originated in that galaxy.", "Palomar 12, for example, most likely originated in the Sagittarius Dwarf Spheroidal but is now associated with the Milky Way.", "Tidal interactions like these add kinetic energy into a globular cluster, dramatically increasing the evaporation rate and shrinking the size of the cluster.", "The increased evaporation accelerates the process of core collapse." ], [ "Planets", "Astronomers are searching for exoplanets of stars in globular star clusters.", "A search in 2000 for giant planets in the globular cluster came up negative, suggesting that the abundance of heavier elements – low in globular clusters – necessary to build these planets may need to be at least 40% of the Sun's abundance.", "Because terrestrial planets are built from heavier elements such as silicon, iron and magnesium, member stars have a far lower likelihood of hosting Earth-mass planets than stars in the solar neighborhood.", "Globular clusters are thus unlikely to host habitable terrestrial planets.A giant planet was found in the globular cluster , orbiting a pulsar in the binary star system .", "The planet's eccentric and highly inclined orbit suggests it may have been formed around another star in the cluster, then \"exchanged\" into its current arrangement.", "The likelihood of close encounters between stars in a globular cluster can disrupt planetary systems; some planets break free to become rogue planets, orbiting the galaxy.", "Planets orbiting close to their star can become disrupted, potentially leading to orbital decay and an increase in orbital eccentricity and tidal effects." ], [ "See also" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "===Books===* * * ===Review articles===* * *" ], [ "External links", "* Globular Clusters, Students for the Exploration and Development of Space Messier pages* Milky Way Globular Clusters* Catalogue of Milky Way Globular Cluster Parameters by William E. Harris, McMaster University, Ontario, Canada* A galactic globular cluster database by Marco Castellani, Rome Astronomical Observatory, Italy* Catalogue of structural and kinematic parameters and galactic orbits of globular clusters by Holger Baumgardt, University of Queensland, Australia* SCYON, a newsletter dedicated to star clusters.", "* MODEST, a loose collaboration of scientists working on star clusters." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "George Vancouver" ], [ "Introduction", "Captain '''George Vancouver''' (22 June 1757 – 10 May 1798) was a British Royal Navy officer best known for his 1791–1795 expedition, which explored and charted North America's northwestern Pacific Coast regions, including the coasts of what are now the Canadian province of British Columbia and the U.S. states of Alaska, Washington, Oregon, and California.", "The expedition also explored the Hawaiian Islands and the southwest coast of Australia.Vancouver Island, the city of Vancouver in British Columbia, Vancouver River on the Sunshine Coast of British Columbia, Vancouver, Washington in the United States, Mount Vancouver on the Canadian–US border between Yukon and Alaska, and New Zealand's fourth-highest mountain, also Mount Vancouver, are all named after him." ], [ "Early life", "Vancouver was born on 22 June 1757 in the seaport town of King's Lynn in Norfolk, England, the sixth and youngest child of John Jasper Vancouver, a Dutch-born deputy collector of customs, and Bridget Berners.", "The surname Vancouver comes from Coevorden, Drenthe province, Netherlands (Koevern in Dutch Low Saxon)." ], [ "Career", "===Royal Navy===In 1771, at age 13, Vancouver entered the Royal Navy as a \"young gentleman\", a future candidate for midshipman.", "He was nominally an able seaman (AB) but, in reality, sailed as one of the midshipmen aboard , on James Cook's second voyage (1772–1775) searching for ''Terra Australis''.", "He also sailed with Cook's third voyage (1776–1780), this time aboard ''Resolution''s companion ship, , and was present during the first European sighting and exploration of the Hawaiian Islands.", "Upon his return to Britain in October 1780, Vancouver was commissioned as a lieutenant and posted aboard the sloop , initially on escort and patrol duty in the English Channel and North Sea.", "He accompanied the ship when it left Plymouth on 11 February 1782 for the West Indies.", "On 7 May 1782 he was appointed fourth lieutenant of the 74-gun ship of the line , which was at the time part of the British West Indies Fleet and assigned to patrolling the French-held Leeward Islands.", "Vancouver subsequently saw action at the Battle of the Saintes (April 1782), wherein he distinguished himself.", "Vancouver returned to England in June 1783.===Spanish Empire-sponsored voyages===In the late 1780s, the Spanish Empire commissioned an expedition to the Pacific Northwest.", "In 1789, the Nootka Crisis developed, and Spain and Britain came close to war over ownership of Nootka Sound on contemporary Vancouver Island, and – of greater importance – over the right to colonise and settle the Pacific Northwest coast.", "Henry Roberts had recently taken command of the survey ship (a new vessel named in honour of the ship on Cook's voyage) with the prospect of another round-the-world voyage, and Roberts selected Vancouver as his first lieutenant, but they both were then posted to other warships due to the crisis.", "Vancouver went with Joseph Whidbey to the 74-gun ship of the line .", "When the first Nootka Convention ended the crisis in 1790, Vancouver was given command of ''Discovery'' to take possession of Nootka Sound and to survey the coasts.===Explorations===Life-sized gilded statue of George Vancouver on the British Columbia Legislative Buildings in Victoria, British Columbia====Vancouver Expedition====Departing England with two ships, HMS ''Discovery'' and , on 1 April 1791, Vancouver commanded an expedition charged with exploring the Pacific region.", "In its first year the expedition travelled to Cape Town, Australia, New Zealand, Tahiti, and Hawaii, collecting botanical samples and surveying coastlines along the way.", "He formally claimed at Possession Point, King George Sound Western Australia, now the town of Albany, Western Australia for the British.", "Proceeding to North America, Vancouver followed the coasts of present-day Oregon and Washington northward.", "In April 1792 he encountered American Captain Robert Gray off the coast of Oregon just prior to Gray's sailing up the Columbia River.Vancouver entered the Strait of Juan de Fuca, between Vancouver Island and the present-day Washington state mainland, on 29 April 1792.His orders included a survey of every inlet and outlet on the west coast of the mainland, all the way north to Alaska.", "Most of this work was in small craft propelled by both sail and oar; manoeuvring larger sail-powered vessels in uncharted waters was generally impractical and dangerous.Vancouver named many features for his officers, friends, associates, and his ship ''Discovery'', including:* Mount Baker – after ''Discovery's'' 3rd Lieutenant Joseph Baker, the first on the expedition to spot it* Mount St. Helens – after his friend, Alleyne Fitzherbert, 1st Baron St Helens* Puget Sound – after ''Discovery's'' 2nd lieutenant Peter Puget, who explored its southern reaches.", "* Mount Rainier – after his friend, Rear Admiral Peter Rainier.", "* Port Gardner and Port Susan, Washington – after his former commander Vice Admiral Sir Alan Gardner and his wife Susannah, Lady Gardner.", "* Whidbey Island – after naval engineer Joseph Whidbey.", "* Discovery Passage, Discovery Island, Discovery Bay, Port Discovery and Discovery Park (Seattle).After a Spanish expedition in 1791, Vancouver was the second European to enter Burrard Inlet on 13 June 1792, naming it for his friend Sir Harry Burrard.", "It is the present day main harbour area of the City of Vancouver beyond Stanley Park.", "He surveyed Howe Sound and Jervis Inlet over the next nine days.", "Then, on his 35th birthday on 22 June 1792, he returned to Point Grey, the present-day location of the University of British Columbia.", "Here he unexpectedly met a Spanish expedition led by Dionisio Alcalá Galiano and Cayetano Valdés y Flores.", "Vancouver was ''\"mortified\"'' (''his word'') to learn they already had a crude chart of the Strait of Georgia based on the 1791 exploratory voyage of José María Narváez the year before, under command of Francisco de Eliza.", "For three weeks they cooperatively explored the Georgia Strait and the Discovery Islands area before sailing separately towards Nootka Sound.After the summer surveying season ended, in August 1792, Vancouver went to Nootka, then the region's most important harbour, on contemporary Vancouver Island.", "Here he was to receive any British buildings and lands returned by the Spanish from claims by Francisco de Eliza for the Spanish crown.", "The Spanish commander, Juan Francisco Bodega y Quadra, was very cordial and he and Vancouver exchanged the maps they had made, but no agreement was reached; they decided to await further instructions.", "At this time, they decided to name the large island on which Nootka was now proven to be located as ''Quadra and Vancouver Island''.", "Years later, as Spanish influence declined, the name was shortened to simply Vancouver Island.While at Nootka Sound Vancouver acquired Robert Gray's chart of the lower Columbia River.", "Gray had entered the river during the summer before sailing to Nootka Sound for repairs.", "Vancouver realised the importance of verifying Gray's information and conducting a more thorough survey.", "In October 1792, he sent Lieutenant William Robert Broughton with several boats up the Columbia River.", "Broughton got as far as the Columbia River Gorge, sighting and naming Mount Hood.Vancouver sailed south along the coast of Spanish Alta California, entered San Francisco Bay, later visiting Monterey; in both places, he was warmly received by the Spanish.", "Later he visited Chumash villages at Point Conception and near Mission San Buenaventura.", "Vancouver spent the winter in continuing exploration of the Sandwich Islands, the contemporary islands of Hawaii.====Further explorations====The next year, 1793, he returned to British Columbia and proceeded further north, unknowingly missing the overland explorer Alexander Mackenzie by only 48 days.", "He got to 56°30'N, having explored north from Point Menzies in Burke Channel to the northwest coast of Prince of Wales Island.", "He sailed around the latter island, as well as circumnavigating Revillagigedo Island and charting parts of the coasts of Mitkof, Zarembo, Etolin, Wrangell, Kuiu and Kupreanof Islands.", "With worsening weather, he sailed south to Alta California, hoping to find Bodega y Quadra and fulfil his territorial mission, but the Spaniard was not there.", "The Spanish governor refused to let a foreign official into the interior.", "Vancouver noted that the region's \"only defenses against foreign attack are a few poor cannons\".", "He again spent the winter in the Sandwich Islands.In 1794, he first went to Cook Inlet, the northernmost point of his exploration, and from there followed the coast south.", "Boat parties charted the east coasts of Chichagof and Baranof Islands, circumnavigated Admiralty Island, explored to the head of Lynn Canal, and charted the rest of Kuiu Island and nearly all of Kupreanof Island.", "He then set sail for Great Britain by way of Cape Horn, returning in September 1795, thus completing a circumnavigation of South America." ], [ "Later life", "In ''The Caneing in Conduit Street'' (1796), James Gillray caricatured Pitt's street corner assault on VancouverImpressed by the view from Richmond Hill, Vancouver retired to Petersham, which was then in Surrey and is now in London.Vancouver faced difficulties when he returned home to England.", "The accomplished and politically well-connected naturalist Archibald Menzies complained that his servant had been pressed into service during a shipboard emergency; sailing master Joseph Whidbey had a competing claim for pay as expedition astronomer; and Thomas Pitt, 2nd Baron Camelford, whom Vancouver had disciplined for numerous infractions and eventually sent home in disgrace, proceeded to harass him publicly and privately.Pitt's allies, including his cousin, Prime Minister William Pitt the Younger, attacked Vancouver in the press.", "Thomas Pitt took a more direct approach; on 29 August 1796 he sent Vancouver a letter heaping many insults on the head of his former captain, and challenging him to a duel.", "Vancouver gravely replied that he was unable \"in a private capacity to answer for his public conduct in his official duty,\" and offered instead to submit to formal examination by flag officers.", "Pitt chose instead to stalk Vancouver, ultimately assaulting him on a London street corner.", "The terms of their subsequent legal dispute required both parties to keep the peace, but nothing stopped Vancouver's civilian brother Charles from interposing and giving Pitt blow after blow until onlookers restrained the attacker.", "Charges and counter-charges flew in the press, with the wealthy Camelford faction having the greater firepower until Vancouver, ailing from his long naval service, died." ], [ "Death", "Vancouver's graveVancouver, at one time amongst Britain's greatest explorers and navigators, died in obscurity on 10 May 1798 at the age of 40, less than three years after completing his voyages and expeditions.", "No official cause of death was stated, as the medical records pertaining to Vancouver were destroyed; one doctor named John Naish claimed Vancouver died from kidney failure, while others believed it was a hyperthyroid condition.", "Vancouver's grave is in the churchyard of St Peter's Church, Petersham, in the London Borough of Richmond upon Thames, England.", "The Hudson's Bay Company placed a memorial plaque in the church in 1841.His grave in Portland stone, renovated in the 1960s, is now Grade II listed in view of its historical associations." ], [ "Legacy", "===Navigation===statue of George Vancouver in front of Vancouver City HallVancouver determined that the Northwest Passage did not exist at the latitudes that had long been suggested.", "His charts of the North American northwest coast were so extremely accurate that they served as the key reference for coastal navigation for generations.", "Robin Fisher, the academic vice-president of Mount Royal University in Calgary and author of two books on Vancouver, states:However, Vancouver failed to discover two of the largest and most important rivers on the Pacific coast, the Fraser River and the Columbia River.", "He also missed the Skeena River near Prince Rupert in northern British Columbia.", "Vancouver did eventually learn of the Columbia River before he finished his survey—from Robert Gray, captain of the American merchant ship that conducted the first Euroamerican sailing of the Columbia River on 11 May 1792, after first sighting it on an earlier voyage in 1788.However, neither the Columbia River nor the Fraser River were included on any of Vancouver's charts.Stephen R. Bown noted in ''Mercator's World'' magazine's November/December 1999 issue that:While it is difficult to comprehend how Vancouver missed the Fraser River, much of this river's delta was subject to flooding and summer freshet which prevented the captain from spotting any of its great channels as he sailed the entire shoreline from Point Roberts, Washington, to Point Grey in 1792.The Spanish expeditions to the Pacific Northwest, with the 1791 Francisco de Eliza expedition preceding Vancouver by a year, had also missed the Fraser River although they knew from its muddy plume that there was a major river located nearby.===Indigenous peoples===Vancouver generally established a rapport with both Indigenous peoples and European trappers.", "Historical records show Vancouver enjoyed good relations with native leaders both in Hawaii – with King Kamehameha I as well as the Pacific Northwest and California.", "Vancouver's journals exhibit a high degree of sensitivity to the indigenous populations he encountered.", "He wrote of meeting the Chumash people, and of his exploration of a small island on the Californian coast on which an important burial site was marked by a sepulchre of \"peculiar character\" lined with boards and fragments of military instruments lying near a square box covered with mats.", "Vancouver states:Vancouver also displayed contempt in his journals towards unscrupulous western traders who provided guns to natives, writing:Robin Fisher notes that Vancouver's \"relationships with aboriginal groups were generally peaceful; indeed, his detailed survey would not have been possible if they had been hostile.\"", "While there were hostile incidents at the end of Vancouver's last season – the most serious of which involved a clash with the Tlingit people at Behm Canal in southeast Alaska in 1794 – these were the exceptions to Vancouver's exploration of the US and Canadian Northwest coast.Despite a long history of warfare between Britain and Spain, Vancouver maintained excellent relations with his Spanish counterparts and even fêted a Spanish sea captain aboard his ship during his 1792 trip to the Vancouver region.===Namesakes=======Ship and cadet units====* HMCS ''Vancouver'' Halifax-class frigate of the Royal Canadian Navy (Named for the city, which is named for the man.)", "*TS Vancouver, Australian Navy Cadets* 47 RCSCC CAPTAIN VANCOUVER, Royal Canadian Sea Cadets ====Places====Many places around the world have been named after George Vancouver, including:=====Australia=====* Vancouver Peninsula, Cape Vancouver and Vancouver Breakers in King George Sound, Western Australia=====Canada=====* Mount Vancouver, in Yukon and neighbouring Alaska, eighth highest mountain in Canada* Vancouver, British Columbia, a major city on the mainland in southwestern British Columbia, the province's largest city** Vancouver Maritime Museum* Vancouver Bay, British Columbia, in Jervis Inlet, East of Powell River, named after Vancouver when Capt.", "George H. Richards resurveyed the area in 1860.", "* Vancouver Island, in British Columbia off the southwest coast of the mainland.", "North America's largest Pacific Island and location of the provincial capital at Victoria on its southern tip.", "*Vancouver River, a river flowing into the Jervis Inlet on the Sunshine Coast of British Columbia.=====New Zealand=====* Mount Vancouver, the sixth highest mountain in New Zealand.", "* Vancouver Arm of Breaksea Sound, Fiordland, South Island=====United Kingdom=====* Vancouver Road in Ham, London, near Petersham, his place of burial=====United States=====* Vancouver, Washington, a city in southwest Washington across the Columbia River from Portland, Oregon** Fort Vancouver, a Hudson's Bay Company trading post established in 1825====Memorials====Statue of George Vancouver in King's Lynn, his birthplace* Statues of Vancouver are located in his birthplace of King's Lynn, in front of Vancouver City Hall, and on top of the dome of the British Columbia Parliament Buildings.", "* The Vancouver Quarter Shopping Centre bears his name in King's Lynn.", "* Canada Post issued a pair of 14-cent stamps to mark the 200th anniversary of Captain Cook's arrival at Nootka Sound on Vancouver Island on 26 April 1978.George Vancouver was a crewman on this voyage.", "* ''Gate to the Northwest Passage'', a commemorative statue by Vancouver artist Alan Chung Hung was commissioned by Parks Canada and installed at the mouth of False Creek in Vanier Park near the Vancouver Maritime Museum in 1980.", "* Canada Post issued a 37-cent stamp inscribed ''Vancouver Explores the Coast'' on 17 March 1988.It was one of a set of four stamps issued to honour ''Exploration of Canada – Recognizers''.", "* The ''George Vancouver Rose'', named in his honour and hybridised by Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada.", "* First Capital Connect named Class 365 unit 365514 ''Captain George Vancouver'', operating on the route between King's Lynn and London.", "* Virgin CrossCountry named Class 221 unit 221129 ''George Vancouver'' in 2003, it was denamed on transfer to Arriva CrossCountry in 2007.", "* A commemorative monument is located on the beach in North Kihei, Maui, Hawaii, commemorating George Vancouver's contribution of coffee and root vegetables to the islands of Hawaii, inscribed by Pierre Elliot Trudeau 2 December 1967.", "* Statue of George Vancouver (2000), Vancouver, WashingtonMany collections were made on the voyage: one was donated by Archibald Menzies to the British Museum 1796; another made by surgeon George Goodman Hewett (1765–1834) was donated by Augustus Wollaston Franks to the British Museum in 1891.An account of these has been published.===250th birthday commemorations===1980 commemorative statue of George Vancouver by Vancouver artist Alan Chung Hung Canada Post issued a $1.55 postage stamp to commemorate the 250th anniversary of Vancouver's birth, on 22 June 2007.The stamp has an embossed image of Vancouver seen from behind as he gazes forward towards a mountainous coastline.", "This may be the first Canadian stamp not to show the subject's face.The City of Vancouver in Canada organised a celebration to commemorate the 250th anniversary of Vancouver's birth, in June 2007 at the Vancouver Maritime Museum.", "The one-hour festivities included the presentation of a massive 63 by 114 centimetre carrot cake, the firing of a gun salute by the Royal Canadian Artillery's 15th Field Regiment and a performance by the Vancouver Firefighter's Band.Vancouver's then-mayor, Sam Sullivan, officially declared 22 June 2007 to be \"George Day\".The Musqueam (xʷməθkʷəy̓əm) Elder sɁəyeɬəq (Larry Grant) attended the festivities and acknowledged that some of his people might disapprove of his presence, but also noted:" ], [ "Origins of the family name", "There has been some debate about the origins of the Vancouver name.", "It is now commonly accepted that the name Vancouver derives from the expression '''''van Coevorden''''', meaning \"(originating) from Coevorden\", a city in the northeast of the Netherlands.", "This city is apparently named after the \"Coeverden\" family of the 13th–15th century.In the 16th century, a number of businessmen from the Coevorden area (and the rest of the Netherlands) moved to England.", "Some of them were known as ''Van Coeverden''.", "Others adopted the surname Oxford, as in oxen fording (a river), which is approximately the English translation of ''Coevorden''.", "However, it is not the exact name of the noble family mentioned in the history books that claim Vancouver's noble lineage: that name was Coeverden not Coevorden.In the 1970s, Adrien Mansvelt, a former consul-general of the Netherlands based in Vancouver, published a collation of information in both historical and genealogical journals and in the ''Vancouver Sun'' newspaper.", "Mansvelt's theory was later presented by the city during the Expo 86 World's Fair, as historical fact.", "The information was then used by historian W. Kaye Lamb in his book ''A Voyage of Discovery to the North Pacific Ocean and Round the World, 1791–1795'' (1984).W.", "Kaye Lamb, in summarising Mansvelt's 1973 research, observes evidence of close family ties between the Vancouver family of Britain and the Van Coeverden family of the Netherlands as well as George Vancouver's own words from his diaries in referring to his Dutch ancestry:In 2006 John Robson, a librarian at the University of Waikato, conducted his own research into George Vancouver's ancestry, which he published in an article in the ''British Columbia History'' journal.", "Robson theorises that Vancouver's forebears may have been Flemish rather than Dutch; he believes that Vancouver is descended from the Vangover family of Ipswich in Suffolk and Colchester in Essex.", "Those towns had a significant Flemish population in the 16th and 17th centuries.George Vancouver named the south point of what is now Couverden Island, Alaska, ''Point Couverden'' during his exploration of the North American Pacific coast, in honour of his family's hometown of Coevorden.", "It is located at the western point of entry to Lynn Canal in southeastern Alaska.==Works by George Vancouver==The Admiralty instructed Vancouver to publish a narrative of his voyage which he started to write in early 1796 in Petersham.", "At the time of his death the manuscript covered the period up to mid-1795.The work, ''A Voyage of Discovery to the North Pacific Ocean, and Round the World'', was completed by his brother John and published in three volumes in the autumn of 1798.A second edition was published in 1801 in six volumes.", "* ''A Voyage of Discovery to the North Pacific Ocean: And Round the World, Volume 1''* ''A Voyage of Discovery to the North Pacific Ocean: And Round the World, Volume 2''* ''A Voyage of Discovery to the North Pacific Ocean: And Round the World, Volume 3''A modern annotated edition (1984) by W. Kaye Lamb was renamed ''The Voyage of George Vancouver 1791–1795'', and published in four volumes by the Hakluyt Society of London, England." ], [ "See also", "* European and American voyages of scientific exploration" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Godwin, George.", "\"Captain George Vancouver, 1757–1798.\"", "''History Today'' (Sep 1957) 7#9 pp 605–609.", "* Bown, Stephen R. ''Madness, Betrayal and the Lash: The Epic Voyage of Captain George Vancouver'' (Douglas & McIntyre 2008).", "* Godwin, George.", "''Vancouver A Life: 1757–1798'' (D. Appleton and Company, 1931).", "*''The Life and Voyages of Captain George Vancouver'' by Bern Anderson.", "Published by University of Washington Press, 1966.", "*''Captain Vancouver: A Portrait of His Life'' by Alison Gifford.", "Published by St. James Press, 1986.", "*''Journal of the Voyages of the H.M.S.", "Discovery and Chatham'' by Thomas Manby.", "Published by Ye Galleon Press, 1988.", "*''Vancouver's Voyage: Charting the Northwest Coast, 1791–1795'' by Robin Fisher and Gary Fiegehen.", "Published by Douglas & McIntyre, 1992.", "*''On Stormy Seas, The Triumphs and Torments of Captain George Vancouver'' by B.", "Guild Gillespie.", "Published by Horsdal & Schubart, 1992.", "*''Captain Vancouver: North-West Navigator'' by E.C.", "Coleman.", "Published by Tempus, 2007.", "*''Sailing with Vancouver: A Modern Sea Dog, Antique Charts and a Voyage Through Time'' by Sam McKinney.", "Published by Touchwood Editions, 2004.", "*''The Early Exploration of Inland Washington Waters: Journals and Logs from Six Expeditions, 1786–1792'' edited by Richard W. Blumenthal.", "Published by McFarland & Company, 2004.", "*''A Discovery Journal: George Vancouver's First Survey Season – 1792'' by John E. Roberts.", "Published by Trafford Publishing, 2005.", "*''With Vancouver in Inland Washington Waters: Journals of 12 Crewmen April–June 1792'' edited by Richard W. Blumenthal.", "Published by McFarland & Company, 2007.", "***" ], [ "External links", "* Biography at the ''Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online''* * George Vancouver (1757–1798), Explorer , illustrations in the National Portrait Gallery.", "* The True Meaning of Vancouver – Etymology of his name.", "* interactive Google map showing the path Vancouver followed during his 11-day survey of the southwest coast of British Columbia* Coevorden: What connection does Vancouver have with Coevorden, an industrial town of about 20,000 in the northeast Netherlands?", "- The History of Metropolitan Vancouver website.", "(''Retrieved on 11 June 2007'')* Vancouver History – Including historic street video of Vancouver from 1907.", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Great Vowel Shift" ], [ "Introduction", "Diagram of the changes in English vowels during the Great Vowel ShiftThe '''Great Vowel Shift''' was a series of changes in the pronunciation of the English language that took place primarily between 1400 and 1700, beginning in southern England and today having influenced effectively all dialects of English.", "Through this vowel shift, the pronunciation of all Middle English long vowels was changed.", "Some consonant sounds also changed, particularly those that became silent; the term ''Great Vowel Shift'' is sometimes used to include these consonantal changes.The standardization of English spelling began in the 15th and 16th centuries; the Great Vowel Shift is the major reason English spellings now often deviate considerably from how they represent pronunciations.", "The Great Vowel Shift was first studied by Otto Jespersen (1860–1943), a Danish linguist and Anglicist, who coined the term." ], [ "Causes", "The causes of the Great Vowel Shift are unknown and have been a source of intense scholarly debate; as yet, there is no firm consensus.", "The greatest changes occurred during the 15th and 16th centuries, and their origins are at least partly phonetic.", "* '''Population migration''': This is the most accepted theory; some scholars have argued that the rapid migration of peoples to the southeast of England from the east and central Midlands of England following the Black Death produced a clash of dialects that made Londoners distinguish their speech from the immigrants who came from other English cities by changing their vowel system.", "* '''French loan words''': Others argue that the influx of French loanwords was a major factor in the shift.", "* '''Middle-class hypercorrection''': Yet others assert that because of the increasing prestige of French pronunciations among the middle classes (perhaps related to the English aristocracy's switching from French to English around this time), a process of hypercorrection may have started a shift that unintentionally resulted in vowel pronunciations that are inaccurate imitations of French pronunciations.", "* '''War with France''': An opposing theory states that the wars with France and general anti-French sentiments caused hypercorrection deliberately to make English sound less like French." ], [ "Overall changes", "The main difference between the pronunciation of Middle English in the year 1400 and Modern English (Received Pronunciation) is in the value of the long vowels.Long vowels in Middle English had \"continental\" values, much like those in Italian and Standard German; in standard Modern English, they have entirely different pronunciations.", "The differing pronunciations of English vowel letters do not stem from the Great Shift as such but rather because English spelling did not adapt to the changes.German had undergone vowel changes quite similar to the Great Shift slightly earlier.", "Still, the spelling was changed accordingly (e.g., Middle High German → modern German \"to bite\").", "Word Vowel pronunciation Late Middle Englishbefore the GVS Modern Englishafter the GVS b''i''te iː ɑj m''ee''t eː ɪj m''ea''t ɛːser''e''ne m''a''te aː ɛj ''ou''t uː aw b''oo''t oː ʉw b''oa''t ɔ əwst''o''ne Word Diphthong pronunciation Late Middle Englishbefore the GVS Modern Englishafter the GVS day æɪ ɛj theyboyɔɪoj law ɑʊ oː knew eʊ ɪw dew ɛʊ know ɔʊ əwThis timeline uses representative words to show the main vowel changes between late Middle English in the year 1400 and Received Pronunciation in the mid-20th century.", "The Great Vowel Shift occurred in the lower half of the table, between 1400 and 1600–1700.The changes after 1700 are not considered part of the Great Vowel Shift.", "Pronunciation is given in the International Phonetic Alphabet:700px" ], [ "Details", "===Middle English vowel system===Before the Great Vowel Shift, Middle English in Southern England had seven long vowels, .", "The vowels occurred in, for example, the words ''bite'', ''meet'', ''meat'', ''mate'', ''boat'', ''boot'', and ''out'', respectively.+ Southern Middle Englishvowel system front back close : ''bite'' : ''mouse'' close-mid : ''meet'' : ''boot'' open-mid : ''meat'' : ''boat'' open : ''mate'' —The words had very different pronunciations in Middle English from those in Modern English.", "* '''Long ''i''''' in ''bite'' was pronounced as so Middle English ''bite'' sounded similar to Modern English ''beet'' .", "* '''Long ''e''''' in ''meet'' was pronounced as so Middle English ''meet'' sounded similar to Modern English ''mate'' *'''Long ''a''''' in ''mate'' was pronounced as , with a vowel similar to the broad ''a'' of ''spa''.", "* '''Long ''o''''' in ''boot'' was pronounced as , similar to modern ''oa'' in General American ''boat'' .In addition, Middle English had: * '''Long ''' in ''beat'', like modern short ''e'' in ''bed'' but pronounced longer.", "* '''Long ''' in ''boat'', with a vowel similar to ''aw'' in Modern English ''law''.", "* '''Long ''' in ''mouse'', similar to Modern English ''moose''.===Changes===After around 1300, the long vowels of Middle English began changing in pronunciation as follows:* '''Diphthongisation''' – The two close vowels, , became diphthongs (vowel breaking).", "* '''Vowel raising''' – The other five, , underwent an increase in tongue height (raising).These changes occurred over several centuries and can be divided into two phases.", "The first phase affected the close vowels and the close-mid vowels : were raised to , and became the diphthongs or .", "The second phase affected the open vowel and the open-mid vowels : were raised, in most cases changing to .The Great Vowel Shift changed vowels without merger, so Middle English before the vowel shift had the same number of vowel phonemes as Early Modern English after the vowel shift.After the Great Vowel Shift, some vowel phonemes began merging.", "Immediately after the Great Vowel Shift, the vowels of ''meet'' and ''meat'' were different, but they are merged in Modern English, and both words are pronounced as .However, during the 16th and the 17th centuries, there were many different mergers, and some mergers can be seen in individual Modern English words like ''great'', which is pronounced with the vowel as in ''mate'' rather than the vowel as in ''meat''.This is a simplified picture of the changes that happened between late Middle English (late ME), Early Modern English (EModE), and today's English (ModE).", "Pronunciations in 1400, 1500, 1600, and 1900 are shown.", "To hear recordings of the sounds, click the phonetic symbols.", "Word Vowel pronunciation Sound file late ME EModE ModE 1400 1500 1600 by 1900 bite File:ME-EME-bite.ogg out File:ME-EME-out.ogg meet File:ME-EME-meet.ogg boot File:ME-EME-boot.ogg meat File:ME-EME-meat.ogg boat File:ME-EME-boat.ogg mate File:ME-EME-mate.oggBefore labial consonants and also after , did not shift, and remains as in ''s'''ou'''p''.===First phase===The first phase of the Great Vowel Shift affected the Middle English close-mid vowels , as in ''beet'' and ''boot'', and the close vowels , as in ''bite'' and ''out''.", "The close-mid vowels became close , and the close vowels became diphthongs.", "The first phase was completed in 1500, meaning that by that time, words like ''beet'' and ''boot'' had lost their Middle English pronunciation and were pronounced with the same vowels as in Modern English.", "The words ''bite'' and ''out'' were pronounced with diphthongs, but not the same diphthongs as in Modern English.+ First phase of the Great Vowel Shift Word Vowel pronunciation 1400 1550 bite meet out boot Scholars agree that the Middle English close vowels became diphthongs around 1500, but disagree about what diphthongs they changed to.", "According to Lass, the words ''bite'' and ''out'' after diphthongisation were pronounced as and , similar to American English ''bait'' and ''oat'' .", "Later, the diphthongs shifted to , then , and finally to Modern English .", "This sequence of events is supported by the testimony of orthoepists before Hodges in 1644.However, many scholars such as , , and argue for theoretical reasons that, contrary to what 16th-century witnesses report, the vowels were immediately centralised and lowered to .Evidence from Northern English and Scots (see below) suggests that the close-mid vowels were the first to shift.", "As the Middle English vowels were raised towards , they forced the original Middle English out of place and caused them to become diphthongs .", "This type of sound change, in which one vowel's pronunciation shifts so that it is pronounced like a second vowel, and the second vowel is forced to change its pronunciation, is called a push chain.However, according to professor Jürgen Handke, for some time, there was a phonetic split between words with the vowel and the diphthong , in words where the Middle English shifted to the Modern English .", "For an example, ''high'' was pronounced with the vowel , and ''like'' and ''my'' were pronounced with the diphthong .", "Therefore, for logical reasons, the close vowels could have diphthongised before the close-mid vowels raised.", "Otherwise, ''high'' would probably rhyme with ''thee'' rather than ''my''.", "This type of chain is called a drag chain.===Second phase===The second phase of the Great Vowel Shift affected the Middle English open vowel , as in ''mate'', and the Middle English open-mid vowels , as in ''meat'' and ''boat''.", "Around 1550, Middle English was raised to .", "Then, after 1600, the new was raised to , with the Middle English open-mid vowels raised to close-mid .+ Second phase of the Great Vowel Shift Word Vowel pronunciation 1400 1550 1640 meat mate , boat ===Later mergers===During the first and the second phases of the Great Vowel Shift, long vowels were shifted without merging with other vowels, but after the second phase, several vowels merged.", "The later changes also involved the Middle English diphthong , as in ''day'', which often (but not always, see the ''pane-pain'' merger) monophthongised to , and merged with Middle English as in ''mate'' or as in ''meat''.During the 16th and 17th centuries, several different pronunciation variants existed among different parts of the population for words like ''meet'', ''meat'', ''mate'', and ''day''.", "Different pairs or trios of words were merged in pronunciation in each pronunciation variant.", "Four different pronunciation variants are shown in the table below.", "The fourth pronunciation variant gave rise to Modern English pronunciation.", "In Modern English, ''meet'' and ''meat'' are merged in pronunciation and both have the vowel , and ''mate'' and ''day'' are merged with the diphthong , which developed from the 16th-century long vowel .+ Meet-meat mergers Word MiddleEnglish 1500s pronunciation variants 1 2 3 4 meet meat day mate Modern English typically has the ''meet''–''meat'' merger: both ''meet'' and ''meat'' are pronounced with the vowel .", "Words like ''great'' and ''steak'', however, have merged with ''mate'' and are pronounced with the vowel , which developed from the shown in the table above.", "Before historic some of these vowels merged with , , ," ], [ "Northern English and Scots", "The Great Vowel Shift affected other dialects and the standard English of southern England but in different ways.", "In Northern England, the shift did not operate on the long back vowels because they had undergone an earlier shift.", "Similarly, the dialect in Scotland had a different vowel system before the Great Vowel Shift, as had shifted to in Early Scots.", "In the Scots equivalent of the Great Vowel Shift, the long vowels , and shifted to , and by the Middle Scots period and remained unaffected.The first step in the Great Vowel Shift in Northern and Southern English is shown in the table below.", "The Northern English developments of Middle English and were different from Southern English.", "In particular, the Northern English vowels in ''bite'', in ''feet'', and in ''boot'' shifted, while the vowel in ''house'' did not.", "These developments below fall under the label \"older\" to refer to Scots and a more conservative and increasingly rural Northern sound, while \"younger\" refers to a more mainstream Northern sound largely emerging just since the twentieth century.", "Word Vowel Middle English Modern English bite feet house boot The vowel systems of Northern and Southern Middle English immediately before the Great Vowel Shift were different in one way.", "In Northern Middle English, the back close-mid vowel in ''boot'' had already shifted to front (a sound change known as fronting), like the long '''' in German \"hear\".", "Thus, Southern English had a back close-mid vowel , but Northern English did not:+ Southern Middle Englishvowel system front back close close-mid open-mid open —+ Northern Middle Englishvowel system front back close close-mid — open-mid open —In Northern and Southern English, the first step of the Great Vowel Shift raised the close-mid vowels to become close.", "Northern Middle English had two close-mid vowels – in ''feet'' and in ''boot'' – which were raised to and .", "Later on, Northern English changed to in many dialects (though not in all, see ), so that ''boot'' has the same vowel as ''feet''.", "Southern Middle English had two close-mid vowels – in ''feet'' and in ''boot'' – which were raised to and .In Southern English, the close vowels in ''bite'' and in ''house'' shifted to become diphthongs, but in Northern English, in ''bite'' shifted but in ''house'' did not.If the vowel systems at the time of the Great Vowel Shift caused the difference between the Northern and Southern vowel shifts, did not shift because there was no back mid vowel in Northern English.", "In Southern English, shifting of to could have caused diphthongisation of original , but because Northern English had no back close-mid vowel to shift, the back close vowel did not diphthongise." ], [ "See also", "* Canaanite Shift* Chain shift* \"The Chaos\"—a poem using the irregularity of English spelling and pronunciation* Grimm's law* High German consonant shift* History of English* Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law* Phonological history of English vowels* Slavic palatalisation* Vowel shift" ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "Sources", "=== Citations ====== General and cited sources ===* * * * Studying Phonetics on the Net.", "* (See vol.", "2, 594–713 for discussion of long stressed vowels)* * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Great Vowel Shift Video lecture* *" ] ]
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[ [ "Gilbert Arthur à Beckett" ], [ "Introduction", "Gilbert Arthur à Beckett'''Gilbert Arthur à Beckett''' (April 7, 1837 – October 15, 1891) was an English writer." ], [ "Biography", "Beckett was born at Portland House Hammersmith, on 7 April 1837, the eldest son of the civil servant and humorist Gilbert Abbott à Beckett and the composer Mary Anne à Beckett, daughter of Joseph Glossop, clerk of the cheque to the hon.", "corps of gentlemen-at-arms.His brother was Arthur William à Beckett.", "He graduated from Christ Church, Oxford, as a Westminster scholar in 1860.He was entered at Lincoln's Inn on 15 October 1857, but gave his attention chiefly to drama, producing ''Diamonds and Hearts'' at the Haymarket Theatre in 1867; this was followed by other light comedies.", "His adaptation of a French operetta by Émile Jonas called ''The Two Harlequins'' opened the new Gaiety Theatre, London in 1868, together with his distant cousin, W. S. Gilbert's, ''Robert the Devil'' and another piece.Beckett's pieces include numerous burlesques and pantomimes, the libretti of ''Savonarola'' (Hamburg, 1884) and ''The Canterbury Pilgrims'' (Drury Lane, 1884) for the music of Dr. C. V. Stanford.With the composer Alfred Cellier, Beckett wrote the operetta ''Two Foster Brothers'' (St. George's Hall, 1877).In 1879, he had been asked by Tom Taylor, the editor of ''Punch'', to follow the example of his younger brother Arthur, and become a regular member of the staff of ''Punch.''", "Three years later he was 'appointed to the Table.'", "The ''Punch'' dinners 'were his greatest pleasure, and he attended them with regularity, although the paralysis of the legs, the result of falling down the stairway of Gower Street station, rendered his locomotion, and especially the mounting of Mr. Punch's staircase, a matter of painful exertion'.", "To ''Punch'' he contributed both prose and verse; he wrote, in greater part, the admirable parody of a boy's sensational shocker (March 1882), and he developed Jerrold's idea of humorous bogus advertisements under the heading 'How we advertise now.'", "The idea of one of Sir John Tenniel's best cartoons for ''Punch,'' entitled 'Dropping the Pilot,' illustrative of Bismarck's resignation in 1889, was due to him.Apart from his work on 'Punch,' he wrote songs and music for the German Reeds' entertainment, while in 1873 and 1874 he was collaborator in two dramatic productions which evoked a considerable amount of public attention.Scene from ''The Happy Land'', showing the impersonation of Gladstone, Lowe, and Ayrton, from ''The Illustrated London News'', March 22, 1873On 3 March 1873, ''The Happy Land'' was given at the Court Theatre, 1873, a daring political satire and burlesque of W. S. Gilbert's ''The Wicked World''.", "In this amusing piece of banter three statesmen (Gladstone, Lowe, and Ayrton) were represented as visiting Fairyland in order to impart to the inhabitants the secrets of popular government.", "The actors representing 'Mr.", "G.,' 'Mr.", "L.,' and 'Mr.", "A.'", "were dressed so as to resemble the ministers satirised, and the representation elicited a question in the House of Commons and an official visit of the Lord Chamberlain to the theatre, with the result that the actors had to change their 'make-up.", "'In the following year, he furnished the 'legend' to Herman Merivale's tragedy 'The White Pilgrim,' first given at the Court in February 1874.At the close of his life he furnished the 'lyrics' and most of the book for the operetta ''La Cigale'', which at the time of his death was nearing its four hundredth performance at the Lyric Theatre.In 1889, he suffered a great shock from the death by drowning of his only son, and he died in London on 15 October 1891, and was buried in Mortlake cemetery." ], [ "Legacy", "''Punch'' devoted some appreciative stanzas to his memory, bearing the epigraph 'Wearing the white flower of a blameless life' (24 Oct. 1891).", "His portrait appeared in the well-known drawing of 'The Mahogany Tree' (''Punch'', Jubilee Number, 18 July 1887), and likenesses were also given in the 'Illustrated London News' and in Spielmann's 'History of Punch' (1895)." ], [ "Family", "He married Emily, eldest daughter of William Hunt, J.P., of Bath, and his only daughter Minna married in 1896 Mr. Hugh Clifford, C.M.G., governor of Labuan and British North Borneo." ], [ "References", ";Attribution" ], [ "External links", "* Information about ''The Happy Land''*" ] ]
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[ [ "Glaucus (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "In Greek mythology, '''Glaucus''' was a Greek prophetic sea-god.", "'''Glaucus''', often transliterated to '''Glafkos''', may also refer to:" ], [ "People", "* Glaucus, son of Aepytus of Messenia* Glaucus (son of Sisyphus), of Potniae* Glaucus (son of Minos), of Crete* Glaucus (son of Hippolochus), of Lycia, grandson of the hero Bellerophon* Glaucus of Carystus, an ancient Greek athlete* Glaucus of Chios (c. 7th century BCE), Greek sculptor in metal* Apollonius Glaucus, 2nd-century Roman physician* Glafcos Clerides (1919–2013), former President of Cyprus" ], [ "Rivers", "* Glafkos (river), a river in Patras, Greece* Glaucus (river of Asia Minor), rivers in Asia Minor" ], [ "Ships", "* Greek submarine Glafkos (Υ-6), a ''Protefs''-class submarine of the Hellenic Navy* SS ''Glaucus'' (1871), shipwrecked in 1921* USS ''Glaucus'' (1863), a steamship of the Union Navy during the American Civil War" ], [ "Other", "* 1870 Glaukos, a Trojan asteroid* ''Glaucus'' (gastropod), a genus of nudibranchs in the family Glaucidae* Glaucus (mythology), characters named Glaucus in Greek mythology* ''Glaucus'' (sculpture), a sculpture by the French artist Auguste Rodin* The protagonist in the 1834 novel ''The Last Days of Pompeii'' by Edward Bulwer-Lytton* , a linea on Europa* Glaucus Sinus, now Gulf of Fethiye in Turkey* Project Glaucus, an underwater habitat in Plymouth Sound" ], [ "See also", "** Glaucias (disambiguation)* Glaucous* Glauce* Glaucia" ] ]
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[ [ "George Gordon, 1st Earl of Aberdeen" ], [ "Introduction", "'''George Gordon, 1st Earl of Aberdeen''' (3 October 163720 April 1720), was a Lord Chancellor of Scotland." ], [ "Early life", "Gordon, born on 3 October 1637, the second son of Sir John Gordon, 1st Baronet, of Haddo, Aberdeenshire, (executed in 1644); and his wife, Mary Forbes.", "He graduated MA, and was chosen professor at King's College, Aberdeen, in 1658.Subsequently, he travelled and studied civil law abroad." ], [ "Career", "At the Restoration the sequestration of his father's lands was annulled, and in 1665 he succeeded by the death of his elder brother as the ''3rd Baronet Gordon, of Haddo'' and to the family estates.", "He returned home in 1667, was admitted advocate in 1668 and gained a high legal reputation.", "He represented Aberdeenshire in the Parliament of Scotland of 1669 to 1674, the Convention of Estates of 1678 and the following parliamentary assembly of 1681/82.During his first session he strongly opposed the projected union of England and Scotland.", "In November 1678 he was made a Privy Counsellor for Scotland, and in 1680 was raised to the bench as Lord Haddo.", "He was a leading member of the Duke of York's administration, was created a Lord of the Articles in June and in November 1681 Lord President of the Privy Council.", "The same year he is reported as moving in the council for the torture of witnesses.In 1682 he was made Lord Chancellor of Scotland, and was created, on 13 November, Earl of Aberdeen, Viscount Formartine, and Lord Haddo, Methlick, Tarves and Kellie, in the Scottish peerage, being appointed also Sheriff of Aberdeen and Sheriff of Edinburgh later the same year.Burnet reflected unfavourably upon him, writing of him, \"...a proud and covetous man ... the new chancellor exceeded all that had gone before him.He executed the laws enforcing religious conformity with severity, and filled the parish churches, but resisted the excessive measures of tyranny prescribed by the English government; and in consequence of an intrigue of the Duke of Queensberry and Lord Perth, who gained the duchess of Portsmouth with a present of £27,000, he was dismissed in 1684.After his fall he was subjected to various petty prosecutions by his victorious rivals with the view of discovering some act of maladministration on which to found a charge against him, but the investigations only served to strengthen his credit.", "He took an active part in parliament in 1685 and 1686, but remained a non-juror during the whole of William's reign, being frequently fined for his non-attendance, and took the oaths for the first time after Anne's accession, on 11 May 1703.In the great affair of the Union in 1707, while protesting against the completion of the treaty till the act declaring the Scots aliens should be repealed, he refused to support the opposition to the measure itself and refrained from attending parliament when the treaty was settled.He is described by John Mackay as, \"...very knowing in the laws and constitution of his country and is believed to be the solidest statesman in Scotland, a fine orator, speaks slow but sure.His person was said to be deformed, and his ''want of mine or deportment'' was alleged as a disqualification for the office of Lord Chancellor." ], [ "Family", "He married Anne Lockhart, daughter and (eventual) sole heiress of George Lockhart of Tarbrax and Anne Lockhart.", "They had several children:*John Gordon (1673–1675)*George Gordon, Lord Haddo (1674after 1694), d.v.p.s.p.", "*Lady Anne Gordon (1675–1709), married Alexander Montgomerie, 9th Earl of Eglinton*James Gordon (1676–?", "), d.v.p.s.p.", "*Lady Jean Gordon (1678–?", ")*William Gordon, 2nd Earl of Aberdeen (1679–30 March 1746)*Lady Martha Gordon (1681– ?", "), married John Udny of Udny in March 1701*Lady Mary Gordon (1682–1753), married Alexander Fraser, 13th Lord Saltoun, 26 October 1707*Lady Margaret Gordon (d.1738)His only surviving son, William, succeeded him as 2nd earl of Aberdeen.", "He died on 20 April 1720, having amassed a large fortune." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* '''Attribution'''* Endnotes:**''Letters to George, earl of Aberdeen'' (with memoir: Spalding Club, 1851);**''Hist.", "Account of the Senators of the College of Justice'', by G. Brunton and D. Haig (1832), p. 408;**G. Crawfurd's ''Lives of the Officers of State'' (1726), p. 226;**''Memoirs of Affairs in Scotland'', by Sir G. Mackenzie (1821), p. 148;**Sir J. Lauder's (Lord Fountainhall) ''Journals'' (Scottish Hist.", "Society, vol.", "xxxvi., 1900);**J. Mackay's ''Memoirs'' (1733), p. 215;**A. Lang's ''Hist.", "of Scotland'', iii.", "369, 376." ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
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[ [ "George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of Aberdeen" ], [ "Introduction", "'''George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of Aberdeen''', (28 January 178414 December 1860), styled '''Lord Haddo''' from 1791 to 1801, was a British statesman, diplomat and landowner, successively a Tory, Conservative and Peelite politician and specialist in foreign affairs.", "He served as Prime Minister from 1852 until 1855 in a coalition between the Whigs and Peelites, with Radical and Irish support.", "The Aberdeen ministry was filled with powerful and talented politicians, whom Aberdeen was largely unable to control and direct.", "Despite his trying to avoid this happening, it took Britain into the Crimean War, and fell when its conduct became unpopular, after which Aberdeen retired from politics.Born into a wealthy family with the largest estates in Scotland, his personal life was marked by the loss of both parents by the time he was eleven, and of his first wife after only seven years of a happy marriage.", "His daughters died young, and his relations with his sons were difficult.", "He travelled extensively in Europe, including Greece, and he had a serious interest in the classical civilisations and their archaeology.", "His Scottish estates having been neglected by his father, he devoted himself (when he came of age) to modernising them according to the latest standards.After 1812 he became a diplomat, and in 1813, at age 29, was given the critically important embassy to Vienna, where he organised and financed the sixth coalition that defeated Napoleon.", "His rise in politics was equally rapid and lucky, and \"two accidents — Canning's death and Wellington's impulsive acceptance of the Canningite resignations\" led to his becoming Foreign Secretary for Prime Minister Wellington in 1828 despite \"an almost ludicrous lack of official experience\"; he had been a minister for less than six months.", "After holding the position for two years, followed by another cabinet role, by 1841 his experience led to his appointment as Foreign Secretary again under Robert Peel for a longer term.", "His diplomatic successes include organizing the coalition against Napoleon in 1812–1814, normalizing relations with post-Napoleonic France, settling the old border dispute between Canada and the United States, and ending the First Opium War with China in 1842, whereby Hong Kong was obtained.", "Aberdeen was a poor speaker, but this scarcely mattered in the House of Lords.", "He exhibited a \"dour, awkward, occasionally sarcastic exterior\".", "His friend William Ewart Gladstone, said of him that he was \"the man in public life of all others whom I have ''loved''.", "I say emphatically ''loved''.", "I have ''loved'' others, but never like him\"." ], [ "Early life", "Born in Edinburgh on 28 January 1784, he was the eldest son of George Gordon, Lord Haddo, son of George Gordon, 3rd Earl of Aberdeen.", "His mother was Charlotte, youngest daughter of William Baird of Newbyth.", "He lost his father on 18 October 1791 and his mother in 1795, and he was brought up by Henry Dundas, 1st Viscount Melville, and William Pitt the Younger.", "He was educated at Harrow, and St John's College, Cambridge, where he graduated with a Master of Arts in 1804.Before this, however, he had become Earl of Aberdeen on his grandfather's death in 1801, and had travelled all over Europe.", "On his return to Britain, he founded the Society of Athenian Travellers.", "In 1805, he married Lady Catherine Elizabeth, daughter of John Hamilton, 1st Marquess of Abercorn." ], [ "Political and diplomatic career, 1805–1828", "In December 1805, Lord Aberdeen took his seat as a Tory Scottish representative peer in the House of Lords.", "In 1808, he was created a Knight of the Thistle.", "Following the death of his wife from tuberculosis in 1812 he joined the Foreign Service.", "He was appointed Ambassador Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary to Austria, and signed the Treaty of Töplitz between Britain and Austria in Vienna in October 1813.In the company of the Austrian Emperor, Francis II, he was an observer at the decisive Coalition victory of the Battle of Leipzig in October 1813; he had met Napoleon in his earlier travels.", "He became one of the central diplomatic figures in European diplomacy at this time, and he was one of the British representatives at the Congress of Châtillon in February 1814, and at the negotiations which led to the Treaty of Paris in May of that year.Aberdeen was greatly affected by the aftermath of war which he witnessed at first hand.", "He wrote home:The near approach of war and its effects are horrible beyond what you can conceive.", "The whole road from Prague to Teplitz was covered with waggons full of wounded, dead, and dying.", "The shock and disgust and pity produced by such scenes are beyond what I could have supposed possible...the scenes of distress and misery have sunk deeper in my mind.", "I have been quite haunted by them.Returning home he was created a peer of the United Kingdom as '''Viscount Gordon''', of Aberdeen in the County of Aberdeen (1814), and made a member of the Privy Council.In July 1815, he married his former sister-in-law Harriet, daughter of John Douglas, and widow of James Hamilton, Viscount Hamilton; the marriage was much less happy than his first.", "During the ensuing thirteen years Aberdeen took a less prominent part in public affairs." ], [ "Political career, 1828–1852", "The Earl of Aberdeen by Thomas Lawrence in 1829John PartridgeLord Aberdeen served as Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster between January and June 1828 and subsequently as Foreign Secretary until 1830 under the Duke of Wellington.", "He resigned with Wellington over the Reform Bill of 1832.He was Secretary of State for War and the Colonies in the first Peel ministry (December 1834 - April 1835), and again Foreign Secretary between 1841 and 1846 under Sir Robert Peel (second Peel ministry).", "It was during his second stint as Foreign Secretary that he had the harbor settlement of 'Little Hong Kong', on the south side of Hong Kong Island, named after him.", "It was probably the most productive period of his career; he settled two disagreements with the US: the northeast boundary dispute by the Webster-Ashburton Treaty (1842), and the Oregon dispute by the Oregon Treaty of 1846.He enjoyed the trust of Queen Victoria, which was still important for a Foreign Secretary.", "He worked closely with Henry Bulwer, his ambassador to Madrid, to help arrange marriages for Queen Isabella and her younger sister the Infanta Luisa Fernanda.", "They helped stabilize Spain's internal and external relations.", "He sought better relations with France, relying on his friendship with Guizot, but Britain was annoyed with France on a series of issues, especially French colonial policies, the right to search slave ships, the French desire to control Belgium, disputes in the Pacific and the French intervention in Morocco.===In opposition===Aberdeen again followed his leader and resigned with Peel over the issue of the Corn Laws.", "After Peel's death in July 1850 he became the recognised leader of the Peelites.", "In August 1847, a general election of Parliament had been held which resulted in the election of 325 Tory/Conservative party members to Parliament.", "This represented 42.7% of the seats in Parliament.", "The main opposition to the Tory/Conservative Party was the Whig Party, which had 292 seats.While the Peelites agreed with the Whigs on issues dealing with international trade, there were other issues on which the Peelites disagreed with the Whigs.", "Indeed, Lord Aberdeen's own dislike of the Ecclesiastical Titles Assumption Bill, the rejection of which he failed to secure in 1851, prevented him from joining the Whig government of Lord John Russell in that year.", "Additionally, 113 of the members of Parliament elected in 1847 were Free Traders.", "These members agreed with the Peelites on the repeal of the \"Corn Laws\", but they felt that the tariffs on ''all'' consumer products should be removed.Furthermore, 36 members of Parliament elected in 1847 were members of the \"Irish Brigade\", who voted with the Peelites and the Whigs for the repeal of the Corn Laws because they sought an end the Great Irish Famine by means of cheaper wheat and bread prices for the poor and middle classes in Ireland.", "Currently, however, the Free Traders and the Irish Brigade had disagreements with the Whigs that prevented them from joining with the Whigs to form a government.", "Accordingly, the Tory/Conservative Party leader the Earl of Derby was asked to form a \"minority government\".", "Derby appointed Benjamin Disraeli as the Chancellor of the Exchequer for the minority government.", "The general election in July 1852 had no clear winner.When in December 1852 Disraeli submitted his budget to Parliament on behalf of the minority government, the Peelites, the Free Traders, and the Irish Brigade were all alienated by the proposed budget.", "Accordingly, those groups suddenly forgot their differences with the Whig Party and voted with the Whigs against the proposed budget.", "The vote was 286 in favour of the budget and 305 votes against the budget.", "Because the leadership of the minority government had made the vote on the budget vote a vote of confidence, the defeat of the Disraeli budget was a \"vote of no confidence\" in the minority government and meant its downfall.", "Lord Aberdeen was asked to form a new government; Gladstone became his Chancellor." ], [ "Prime Minister, 1852–1855<span class=\"anchor\" id=\"Premiership\"></span><!-- linked from redirects [[Premiership of George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of Aberdeen]], [[Premiership of Lord Aberdeen]], [[Premiership of the Earl of Aberdeen]], [[Prime ministership of Lord Aberdeen]], [[Prime ministership of the Earl of Aberdeen]] -->", "Aberdeen in the 1850s Following the downfall of the Tory/Conservative minority government under Lord Derby in December 1852, Lord Aberdeen formed a new government from the coalition of Free Traders, Peelites, and Whigs that had voted no confidence in the minority government.", "Lord Aberdeen was able to put together a coalition that held 53.8% of the seats of Parliament.", "Thus Lord Aberdeen, a Peelite, became Prime Minister and headed a coalition ministry of Whigs and Peelites.Although united on international trade issues and on questions of domestic reform, his cabinet also contained Lord Palmerston and Lord John Russell, who were certain to differ on questions of foreign policy.", "Charles Greville wrote in his ''Memoirs'', \"In the present cabinet are five or six first-rate men of equal, or nearly equal, pretensions, none of them likely to acknowledge the superiority or defer to the opinions of any other, and every one of these five or six considering himself abler and more important than their premier\"; and Sir James Graham wrote, \"It is a powerful team, but it will require good driving\", which Aberdeen was unable to provide.", "During the administration, much trouble was caused by the rivalry between Palmerston and Russell, and over the course of it Palmerston managed to out-manoeuvre Russell to emerge as the Whig heir apparent.", "The cabinet also included a single Radical, Sir William Molesworth, but much later, when justifying to the Queen his own new appointments, Gladstone told her: \"For instance, even in Ld Aberdeen's Govt, in 52, Sir William Molesworth had been selected, at that time, a very advanced Radical, but who was perfectly harmless, & took little, or no part....", "He said these people generally became very moderate, when they were in office\", which she admitted had been the case.One of the foreign policy issues on which Palmerston and Russell disagreed was the type of relationship that Britain should have with France and especially France's ruler, Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte.", "Bonaparte was the nephew of the famous Napoleon Bonaparte, who had become dictator and then Emperor of France from 1804 until 1814.The younger Bonaparte had been elected to a three-year term as President of the Second Republic of France on 20 December 1848.The Constitution of the Second Republic limited the President to a single term in office.", "Thus, Louis Bonaparte would be unable to succeed himself and after 20 December 1851 would no longer be president.", "Consequently, on 2 December 1851, shortly before the end of his single three-year term in office was to expire, Bonaparte staged a coup against the Second Republic in France, disbanded the elected Constituent Assembly, arrested some of the Republican leaders, and declared himself Emperor Napoleon III of France.", "This coup upset many democrats in England as well as in France.", "Some British government officials felt that Louis Bonaparte was seeking foreign adventure in the spirit of his uncle, Napoleon I. Consequently, these officials felt that any close association with Bonaparte would eventually lead Britain into another series of wars, like the wars with France and Napoleon dating from 1793 until 1815.British relations with France had scarcely improved since 1815.As prime minister, the Earl of Aberdeen was one of these officials who feared France and Bonaparte.However, other British government officials were beginning to worry more about the rising political dominance of the Russian Empire in eastern Europe and the corresponding decline of the Ottoman Empire.", "Lord Palmerston at the time of Louis Bonaparte's 2 December 1851 coup was serving as the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs in the Whig government of Prime Minister Lord John Russell.", "Without informing the rest of the cabinet or Queen Victoria, Palmerston had sent a private note to the French ambassador endorsing Louis Bonaparte's coup and congratulating Louis Bonaparte himself on the coup.", "Queen Victoria and members of the Russell government demanded that Palmerston be dismissed as Foreign Minister.", "Russell requested Palmerston's resignation and Palmerston reluctantly provided it.George Hamilton Gordon, 4th Earl of Aberdeen, In February 1852, Palmerston took revenge on Russell by voting with the Conservatives in a \"no confidence\" vote against the Russell government.", "This brought an end to the Russell Whig government and set the stage for a general election in July 1852 which eventually brought the Conservatives to power in a minority government under the Earl of Derby.", "Later in the year, another problem facing the Earl of Aberdeen in the formation of his own new government in December 1852 was Lord John Russell himself.", "Russell was the leader of the Whig Party, the largest group in the coalition government.", "Consequently, Lord Aberdeen, was required to appoint Russell as the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, which he had done on 29 December 1852.However, Russell sometimes liked to use this position to speak for the whole government, as if he were the prime minister.", "In 1832, Russell had been nicknamed \"Finality John\" because of his statement that the 1832 Reform Act had just been approved by both the House of Commons and the House of Lords would be the \"final\" expansion of the vote in Britain.", "There would be no further extension of the ballot to the common people of Britain.", "However, as political pressure in favour of further reform had risen over the twenty years since 1832, Russell had changed his mind.", "Russell had said, in January 1852, that he intended to introduce a new reform bill into the House of Commons which would equalise the populations of the districts from which members of Parliament were elected.", "Probably as a result of their continuing feud, Palmerston declared himself against this Reform Bill of 1852.As a result, support for the bill dwindled and Russell was forced to change his mind again and not introduce any Reform Bill in 1852.In order to form the coalition government, the Earl of Aberdeen had been required to appoint both Palmerston and Russell to his cabinet.", "Because of the controversy surrounding Palmerston's removal as Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, Palmerston could not now be appointed Foreign Minister again so soon after his removal from that position.", "Accordingly, on 28 December 1852, Aberdeen appointed Palmerston as Home Secretary and appointed Russell as Foreign Minister." ], [ "The \"Eastern Question\"", "Given the differences of opinion within the Lord Aberdeen cabinet over the direction of foreign policy with regard to relations between Britain and France under Napoleon III, it is not surprising that debate raged within the government as Louis Bonaparte, now assuming the title of Emperor Napoleon III.", "As Prime Minister of the Peelite/Whig coalition government, Aberdeen eventually led Britain into war on the side of the French and Ottomans against the Russian Empire.", "This war would eventually be called the Crimean War, but throughout the foreign policy negotiations surrounding the dismemberment of the Ottoman Empire, which would continue throughout the middle and end of nineteenth century, the problem would be referred to as the \"Eastern Question\".The cabinet was bitterly divided.", "Palmerston stirred up anti-reform feeling in Parliament and pro-war public opinion to out-maneuver Russell.", "The result was that the weak Aberdeen government went to war with Russia as the result of internal British political rivalries.", "Aberdeen accepted Russian arguments at face value because he sympathised with Russian interests against French pressure and was not in favour of the Crimean War.", "However, he was unable to resist the pressure that was being exerted on him by Palmerston's faction.", "In the end, the Crimean War proved to be the downfall of his government.The Eastern Question flared up on 2 December 1852, with the Napoleon's coup against the Second Republic.", "As Napoleon III was forming his new imperial government, he sent an ambassador to the Ottoman Empire with instructions to assert France's right to protect Christian sites in Jerusalem and the Holy Land.", "The Ottoman Empire agreed to this condition to avoid conflict or even war with France.", "Aberdeen, as Foreign Secretary in 1845, had himself tacitly authorised the construction of the first Anglican church in Jerusalem, following his predecessor's commission in 1838 of the first European Consul in Jerusalem on Britain's behalf, which lead to series of successive appointments by other nations.", "Both resulted from Lord Shaftesbury's canvassing with substantial public support.Nevertheless, Britain became increasingly worried about the situation in Turkey, and Prime Minister Aberdeen sent Lord Stratford de Redcliffe, a diplomat with vast experience in Turkey, as a special envoy to the Ottoman Empire to guard British interests.", "Russia protested the Turkish agreement with the French as a violation of the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca of 1778, which ended the Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774).", "Under the treaty, the Russians had been granted the exclusive right to protect the Christian sites in the Holy Land.", "Accordingly, on 7 May 1853, the Russians sent Prince Alexander Sergeyevich Menshikov, one their premier statesmen, to negotiate a settlement of the issue.", "Prince Menshikov called the attention of the Turks to the fact that during the Russo-Turkish War, the Russians had occupied the Turkish-controlled provinces of Wallachia and Moldavia on the north bank of the Danube River, and he reminded them that pursuant to the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca, the Russians had returned these \"Danubian provinces\" to Ottoman control in exchange for the right to protect the Christian sites in the Holy Land.", "Accordingly, the Turks reversed themselves and agreed with the Russians.The French sent one of their premier ships-of-the-line, the ''Charlemagne'', to the Black Sea as a show of force.", "In light of the French show of force, the Turks, again, reversed themselves and recognised the French right to protect the Christian sites.", "Lord Stratford de Redcliffe was advising the Ottomans during this time, and later it was alleged that he had been instrumental in persuading the Turks to reject the Russian arguments.As war became inevitable, Aberdeen wrote to Russell:The abstract justice of the cause, although indisputable, is but a poor consolation for the inevitable calamities of all war, or for a decision which I am not without fear may prove to have been impolitic and unwise.", "My conscience upbraids me the more, because seeing, as I did from the first, all that was to be apprehended, it is possible that by a little more energy and vigour, not on the Danube, but in Downing Street, it might have been prevented." ], [ "Crimean War 1853–1856", "The coalition Aberdeen ministry of 1854 after a painting by Sir John Gilbert, 1855In response this latest change of mind by the Ottomans, the Russians on 2 July 1853 occupied the Turkish satellite states of Wallachia and Moldavia, as they had during the Russo-Turkish War of 1768–1774.Almost immediately, the Russian troops deployed along the northern banks of the Danube River, implying that they might cross the river.", "Aberdeen ordered the British Fleet to Constantinople and later into the Black Sea.", "On 23 October 1853, the Ottoman Empire declared war on Russia.", "A Russian naval raid on Sinope, on 30 November 1853, resulted in the destruction of the Turkish fleet in the battle of Sinope.", "When Russia ignored an Anglo-French ultimatum to abandon the Danubian provinces, Britain and France declared war on Russia on 28 March 1854.In September 1854, British and French troops landed on the Crimean peninsula at Eupatoria, north of Sevastopol.", "The Allied troops then moved across the Alma River on 20 September 1854 at the battle of Alma and set siege to the fort of Sevastopol.A Russian attack on the allied supply base at Balaclava on 25 October 1854 was rebuffed.", "The Battle of Balaclava is noted for its famous (or rather infamous) Charge of the Light Brigade.", "On 5 November 1854, Russian forces tried to relieve the siege at Sevastopol and defeat the Allied armies in the field in the Battle of Inkerman.", "However, this attempt failed.", "Dissatisfaction as to the course of the war grew in England.", "As reports returned detailing the mismanagement of the conflict, Parliament began to investigate.", "On 29 January 1855, John Arthur Roebuck introduced a motion for the appointment of a select committee to enquire into the conduct of the war.", "This motion was carried by the large majority of 305 in favour and 148 against.Treating this as a vote of no confidence in his government, Aberdeen resigned, and retired from active politics, speaking for the last time in the House of Lords in 1858.In visiting Windsor Castle to resign, he told the Queen: \"Nothing could have been better, he said than the feeling of the members towards each other.", "Had it not been for the incessant attempts of Ld John Russell to keep up party differences, it must be acknowledged that the experiment of a coalition had succeeded admirably.", "We discussed future possibilities & agreed that nothing remained to be done, but to offer the Govt to Ld Derby,...\".", "The Queen continued to criticise Lord John Russell for his behaviour for the rest of his life; on his death in 1878 her journal records that he was \"A man of much talent, who leaves a name behind him, kind, & good, with a great knowledge of the constitution, who behaved very well, on many trying occasions; but he was impulsive, very selfish (as shown on many occasions, especially during Ld Aberdeen's administration) vain, & often reckless & imprudent\"." ], [ "Relations with the United States", "British-American relations had been troublesome under Palmerston, but Aberdeen proved much more conciliatory, and worked well with Daniel Webster, the American Secretary of State who was himself an Anglophile.", "In 1842, Aberdeen sent Lord Ashburton to Washington to settle all disputes, especially the border between Canada and Maine, the boundary along the Great Lakes, the Oregon boundary, the African slave trade, the Caroline affair about boundaries in 1837 and the Creole case of 1841 involving a slave revolt on the high seas.", "The Webster–Ashburton Treaty of 1842 solved the most of the problems amicably.", "Thus Maine got most of the disputed land, but Canada obtained a vital, strategic strip of land connecting it to a warm water port.", "Aberdeen helped solve the Oregon dispute amicably in 1846.However, as prime minister, Aberdeen had trouble with the United States.", "In 1854 an American naval vessel bombarded the mosquito port of Greytown, Nicaragua in retaliation for an insult; Britain protested.", "Later in 1846, the United States announced its intention of annexing Hawaii, and Britain not only complained but sent a naval force to make the point.", "Negotiations for reciprocal trade agreement between the United States and Canada dragged on for eight years until a reciprocity treaty was reached in 1854." ], [ "Legacy", "Aberdeen was generally successful as a hard-working diplomat, but his reputation has suffered greatly because of the lack of military success in the Crimean War and from the ridicule of enemies such as Disraeli who regarded him as weak, inefficient, and cold.", "Before the Crimean debacle that ended his career, Aberdeen scored numerous diplomatic triumphs, starting in 1813-14 when as ambassador to the Austrian Empire he negotiated the alliances and financing that led to the defeat of Napoleon.", "In Paris, he normalized relations with the newly restored Bourbon government and convinced London it could be trusted.", "He worked well with top European diplomats such as his friends Klemens von Metternich in Vienna and François Guizot in Paris.", "He brought Britain into the center of Continental diplomacy on critical issues, such as the local wars in Greece, Portugal, and Belgium.", "Simmering troubles on numerous issues with the United States were ended by friendly compromises.", "He played a central role in winning the Opium Wars against China, gaining control of Hong Kong in the process." ], [ "Family", "Bust of Aberdeen in Westminster Abbey by Matthew NobleLord Aberdeen married Lady Catherine Elizabeth (10 January 1784 – 29 February 1812; daughter of Lord Abercorn) on 28 July 1805.They had four children.", "* Lady Jane Hamilton-Gordon (11 February 1807 – 18 August 1824) died at the age of seventeen years old* Lady Charlotte Catherine Hamilton-Gordon (28 March 1808 – 24 July 1818) died at the age of ten years old.", "* Lady Alice Hamilton-Gordon (12 July 1809 – 21 April 1829) died at the age of nineteen years old.", "* unnamed Gordon, Lord Haddo (23 November 1810 – 23 November 1810)He remarried Harriet Douglas (paternal granddaughter of James Douglas, 14th Earl of Morton and maternal granddaughter of Edward Lascelles, 1st Earl of Harewood) on 8 July 1815.They had five children:* George John James Hamilton-Gordon, 5th Earl of Aberdeen (28 September 1816 – 22 March 1864).", "He married Lady Mary Baillie (younger sister of George Baillie-Hamilton, 10th Earl of Haddington) on 5 November 1840.They had six children.", "* General Sir Alexander Hamilton-Gordon (11 December 1817 – 19 May 1890).", "He married Caroline Herschel (daughter of Sir John Herschel, 1st Baronet) on 9 December 1852.They had nine children.", "* Lady Frances Hamilton-Gordon (4 December 1818 – 20 April 1834) died at the age of fifteen years old.", "* Reverend Hon.", "Douglas Hamilton-Gordon (13 March 1824 – 6 December 1901).", "He married Lady Ellen Douglas (maternal first cousin) on 15 July 1851.", "* Arthur Charles Hamilton-Gordon (26 November 1829 – 30 January 1912).", "He married Rachel Emily Shaw-Lefevre on 20 September 1865.They had two children.The Countess of Aberdeen died in August 1833.Lord Aberdeen died at Argyll House, St. James's, London, on 14 December 1860, and was buried in the family vault at Stanmore church.", "In 1994 the novelist, columnist, and politician Ferdinand Mount used George Gordon's life as the basis for a historical novel, ''Umbrella''.Apart from his political career, Aberdeen was also a scholar of the classical civilisations, who published ''An Inquiry into the Principles of Beauty in Grecian Architecture'' (London, 1822) and was referred to by his cousin Lord Byron in his ''English Bards and Scotch Reviewers'' (1809) as \"the travell'd thane, Athenian Aberdeen.\"", "He was appointed Chancellor of the University of Aberdeen in 1827 and was President of the Society of Antiquaries of London.===Ancestry===" ], [ "Religious interests", "Aberdeen's biographer Muriel Chamberlain summarises, \"Religion never came easy to him\".", "In his Scots landowning capacity \"North of the border, he considered himself ''ex officio'' a Presbyterian\".", "In England \"he privately considered himself an Anglican\"; as early as 1840 he told Gladstone he preferred what Aberdeen called \"the sister church of England\" and when in London worshipped at St James's Piccadilly.", "He was ultimately buried in the Anglican parish church at Stanmore, Middlesex.He was a member of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland from 1818 to 1828 and exercised his existing rights to present ministers to parishes on his Scottish estates through a time when the right of churches to veto the appointment or 'call' of a minister became so contentious as to lead in 1843 to the schism known as \"the Disruption\" when a third of ministers broke away to form the Free Church of Scotland.", "In the House of Lords, in 1840 and 1843, he raised two Compromise Bills to allow presbyteries but not congregations the right of veto.", "The first failed to pass (and was voted against by the General Assembly) but the latter, raised post-schism, became law for Scotland and remained in force until patronage of Scots livings was abolished in 1874.It was under his prime ministership that the revival of the Convocations of Canterbury and York began, though they did not obtain their potential power until 1859.He is said in the last few months of his life, after the Crimean War, to have declined to contribute to building a church on his Scotland estates because of a sense of guilt in having \"shed much blood\", citing biblically King David's being forbidden to build the Temple in Jerusalem." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * Anderson, Olive.", "''A liberal state at war: English politics and economics during the Crimean War'' (1967).", "* online* Balfour, Frances.", "''The life of George, fourth earl of Aberdeen'' (vol 1 1922) online** Balfour, Frances.", "''The life of George, fourth earl of Aberdeen'' (vol 2 1922) online* Butcher, Samuel J.", "\"Lord Aberdeen and Conservative Foreign Policy, 1841-1846\" (PhD Diss.", "University of East Anglia, 2015) online.", "* Cecil, Algernon.", "''British foreign secretaries, 1807-1916: studies in personality and policy'' (1927).", "pp 89–130.online* ** MacIntyre, Angus, review of ''Lord Aberdeen.", "A Political Biography'' by Muriel E. Chamberlain, ''The English Historical Review'', 100#396 (1985), pp.", "641–644, JSTOR* * Guymer, Laurence.", "\"The Wedding Planners: Lord Aberdeen, Henry Bulwer, and the Spanish Marriages, 1841–1846.\"", "''Diplomacy & Statecraft'' 21.4 (2010): 549–573.", "* Hoppen, K. Theodore.", "''The Mid-Victorian Generation 1846–1886'' (2000), Wide-ranging scholarly survey of the entire era.", "* Iremonger, Lucille.", "''Lord Aberdeen: a Biography of the Fourth Earl of Aberdeen, KG, KT, Prime Minister 1852–1855'' (Collins, 1978) online free to borrow* Martin, Kingsley.", "''The triumph of Lord Palmerston: a study of public opinion in England before the Crimean War'' (Hutchinson, 1963).", "Online* Martin, B. K., \"The Resignation of Lord Palmerston in 1853: Extracts from Unpublished Letters of Queen Victoria and Lord Aberdeen\", ''Cambridge Historical Journal'', Vol.", "1, No.", "1 (1923), pp.", "107–112, Cambridge University Press, JSTOR* Seton-Watson, R. W. ''Britain in Europe, 1789–1914: A survey of foreign policy'' (1937) pp 223–40.online* Temperley, Harold W. V. ''England and the Near East: The Crimea'' (1936) online* Temperley, Harold and L.M.", "Penson, eds.", "''Foundations of British Foreign Policy: From Pitt (1792) to Salisbury (1902)'' (1938), primary sources online" ], [ "External links", "* More about The Earl of Aberdeen on the Downing Street website.", "* * * * *" ] ]
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[ [ "GnuCash" ], [ "Introduction", "'''GnuCash''' is an accounting program that implements a double-entry bookkeeping system.", "It was initially aimed at developing capabilities similar to Intuit, Inc.'s Quicken application, but also has features for small business accounting.", "Recent development has been focused on adapting to modern desktop support-library requirements.GnuCash is part of the GNU Project, and runs on Linux, GNU, OpenBSD, FreeBSD, Solaris, macOS, and other Unix-like platforms.", "A Microsoft Windows (2000 or newer) port was made available starting with the 2.2.0 series.GnuCash includes scripting support via scheme, mostly used for creating custom reports." ], [ "History", "Programming on GnuCash began in 1997, and its first stable release was in 1998.Small Business Accounting was added in 2001.A Mac installer became available in 2004.A Windows port was released in 2007." ], [ "GnuCash for Android and GnuCash Mobile", "GnuCash for Android was initially developed as part of a Google Summer of Code Project.", "This was an expense-tracking companion app for GnuCash, as opposed to a stand-alone accounting package, and is now discontinued.", "Currently, there are more than 100,000 downloads on the Play Store.", "In 2022 a companion version dubbed GnuCash Mobile is also available on the App Store and Play Store and unlike previous iterations was released under the MIT License.", "GnuCash Mobile is developed using Flutter.", "Beyond mentoring the original GnuCash for Android developer and providing some publicity there was no connection between Gnucash for Android and the GnuCash project, nor is there any for the current so-called GnuCash Mobile app." ], [ "Backwards compatibility issues", "GnuCash maintains the ability to read older data files between major releases, as long as major releases are not skipped.", "If a user wishes to access historical data saved in old GnuCash files, they must install intermediate versions of GnuCash.", "For example, upgrading from 2.2 to 4.1 may not be possible; the user should upgrade from 2.2.9 to 2.4.15, then to 2.6.21, then 3.11, then 4.1.The other alternative is for users to export transactions files to a CSV format prior to upgrading GnuCash.", "Exporting of the account tree must be done as a separate step." ], [ "Features", "* Double-entry bookkeeping* Scheduled Transactions* Mortgage and Loan Repayment Assistant* Small Business Accounting Features* OFX, QIF Import, CSV Import* HBCI Support* Transaction-Import Matching Support* SQL Support* VAT/GST tracking and reporting* Multi-Currency Transaction Handling* Stock/Mutual Fund Portfolios* Online Stock and Mutual Fund Quotes* Built-in and custom reports and charts* Budget* Bank and Credit Card reconciliation* Check printing===Small business accounting features===* Invoicing and Credit Notes (Credit note functionality was added with version 2.6)* Accounts Receivable (A/R)* Accounts Payable (A/P) including bills due reminders* Employee expense voucher* Limited Payroll Management through the use of A/Receivable and A/Payable accounts.", "* Depreciation* Mapping to income tax schedules and TXF export for import into tax prep software (US)* Setting up tax tables and applying sales tax on invoices" ], [ "Technical design", "GnuCash is written primarily in C, with a small fraction in Scheme.", "One of the available features is pure fixed-point arithmetic to avoid rounding errors which would arise with floating-point arithmetic.", "This feature was introduced with version 1.6." ], [ "Users", "Users on the GnuCash mailing list have reported using it for the United States 501(c)(3) non-profit organizations successfully.", "However, the reports need to be exported and edited.In April 2011, the Minnesota State Bar Association made their GnuCash trust accounting guide freely available in PDF format." ], [ "Download statistics", "As of July 2018, SourceForge shows a count of over 6.3 million downloads of the stable releases starting from November 1999 Also, SourceForge shows that current downloads are running at ~7,000 per week.", "This does not include other software download sites as well as Linux distributions that provide download from their own repositories." ], [ "Project status", "Open Hub's analysis based on commits up to May 2018 (noninclusive) concluded that the project has a mature, well-established code base with increasing year-over-year development activity.", "Moreover, \"Over the past twelve months, 51 developers contributed new code to GnuCash.", "This is one of the largest open-source teams in the world, and is in the top 2% of all project teams on Open Hub.\"" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * *" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
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[ [ "George Robert Aberigh-Mackay" ], [ "Introduction", "'''George Robert Aberigh-Mackay''' (25 July 184812 January 1881) was a British educationalist and writer resident in India during his short adult life." ], [ "Biography", "George Robert Aberigh-Mackay was the son of the Reverend James Aberigh-Mackay D.D., B.D.", "and his first wife Lucretia Livingston née Reed.", "He was educated privately in Scotland, and then at Magdalen College School, Oxford and St Catharine's College, Cambridge.", "Entering the Indian education department in the North-Western Provinces in 1870, he became professor of English literature in Delhi College in 1873, tutor to the Raja of Rutlam in 1876, and principal of the Rajkumar College at Indore in 1877.He was appointed fellow of Calcutta University in 1880.He wrote a number of educational works, and extensive manuals giving first-hand data about the princely states and their rulers.", "He also wrote, mainly for ''The Pioneer'' newspaper, but also for other English and Indian papers, including letters in the Bombay Gazette under the nom de plume \"The Political Orphan\".He is best known for his book ''Twenty-one Days in India'' (1878–1879), a satire upon Anglo-Indian society and modes of thought.", "This book gave promise of a successful literary career, but the author died at the age of thirty-three.", "On 8 January 1881 he developed symptoms of tetanus after playing polo and tennis on the previous 2 days, and died on 12 January 1881 in Indore." ], [ "Family", "George Robert Aberigh-Mackay married Mary Ann Louisa Cherry on 13 October 1873 at Simla, Bengal, India; their children were:# Mary Livingston (''Miss Patty'') Aberigh-Mackay (1874–1952)# Frances Lilian Aberigh-Mackay (1875–?", ")# Beatrice Georgiana Aberigh-Mackay (1878–1948)# Katharine Madeline Aberigh-Mackay (1879–1945) married 1st Montague Tharp 2nd James Herbert Everett Evans." ], [ "Works", "Baboo.", "''Twenty-One Days in India'' (1878–1879).", "The Teapot Series by George Aberigh-Mackay*''Handbook of Hindustan'' (1875)*''Notes on Western Turkistan'' (1875)*''A Manual of Indian Sport'' (1878)*''The Native Chiefs and Their States in 1877: A Manual of reference'' (1878)*''Twenty One Days in India'' serialised in ''Vanity Fair'' from 1878—1879*''The Chiefs of Central India'' (1879)*''Serious Reflections and Other Contributions'' (1881) - posthumous publication of Aberigh-Mackay's writings as \"The Political Orphan\"" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gallon" ], [ "Introduction", " The '''gallon''' is a unit of volume in British imperial units and United States customary units.", "Three different versions are in current use: *the imperial gallon (imp gal), defined as , which is or was used in the United Kingdom, Ireland, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and some Caribbean countries;*the US gallon (US gal), defined as ), which is used in the United States and some Latin American and Caribbean countries; and *the US dry gallon (\"usdrygal\"), defined as US bushel (exactly ).There are two pints in a quart and four quarts in a gallon.", "Different sizes of pints account for the different sizes of the imperial and US gallons.The IEEE standard symbol for both US (liquid) and imperial gallon is '''gal''', not to be confused with the gal (symbol: Gal), a CGS unit of acceleration." ], [ "Definitions", "The gallon currently has one definition in the imperial system, and two definitions (liquid and dry) in the US customary system.", "Historically, there were many definitions and redefinitions.===English system gallons===There were a number of systems of liquid measurements in the United Kingdom prior to the 19th century.", "*Winchester or corn gallon was (1697 Act 8 & 9 Will III c22) **Henry VII (Winchester) corn gallon from 1497 onwards was **Elizabeth I corn gallon from 1601 onwards was **William III corn gallon from 1697 onwards was *Old English (Elizabethan) ale gallon was (1700 Act 11 Will III c15)*Old English (Queen Anne) wine gallon was standardized as in the 1706 Act 5 Anne c27, but it differed before that:**London 'Guildhall' gallon (before 1688) was **Jersey gallon (from 1562 onwards) was **Guernsey gallon (17th century origins till 1917) was *Irish gallon was (1495 Irish Act 10 Hen VII c22 confirmed by 1736 Act Geo II c9)===Imperial gallon===A Shell petrol station selling 2* and 4* (leaded petrol) by the gallon in the UK, circa 1980The British imperial gallon (frequently called simply \"gallon\") is defined as exactly 4.54609 dm3 (4.54609 litres).", "It is used in some Commonwealth countries, and until 1976 was defined as the volume of water at whose mass is .", "There are four imperial quarts in a gallon, two imperial pints in a quart, and there are 20 imperial fluid ounces in an imperial pint, yielding 160 fluid ounces in an imperial gallon.===US liquid gallon===A fuel station in the United States displaying fuel prices per US gallonThe US liquid gallon (frequently called simply \"gallon\") is legally defined as 231 cubic inches, which is exactly .", "A US liquid gallon can contain about of water at , and is about 16.7% less than the imperial gallon.", "There are four quarts in a gallon, two pints in a quart and 16 US fluid ounces in a US pint, which makes the US fluid ounce equal to of a US gallon.", "In order to overcome the effects of expansion and contraction with temperature when using a gallon to specify a quantity of material for purposes of trade, it is common to define the temperature at which the material will occupy the specified volume.", "For example, the volume of petroleum products and alcoholic beverages are both referenced to in government regulations.===US dry gallon===Since the dry measure is one-eighth of a US ''Winchester'' bushel of cubic inches, it is equal to exactly 268.8025 cubic inches, which is .", "The US dry gallon is not used in commerce, and is also not listed in the relevant statute, which jumps from the dry pint to the bushel." ], [ "Worldwide usage", "Petrol units used in the world:===Imperial gallon===As of 2021, the imperial gallon continues to be used as the standard petrol unit on 10 Caribbean island groups, consisting of:* four British Overseas Territories (Anguilla, the British Virgin Islands, the Cayman Islands, and Montserrat) and * six countries (Antigua and Barbuda, Dominica, Grenada, Saint Christopher and Nevis, Saint Lucia, and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines).All 12 of the Caribbean islands use miles per hour for speed limits signage, and drive on the left side of the road.The United Arab Emirates ceased selling petrol by the imperial gallon in 2010 and switched to the litre, with Guyana following suit in 2013.In 2014, Myanmar switched from the imperial gallon to the litre.Antigua and Barbuda has proposed switching to selling petrol by litres since 2015.In the European Union the gallon was removed from the list of legally defined primary units of measure catalogue in the EU directive 80/181/EEC for trading and official purposes, effective from 31 December 1994.Under the directive the gallon could still be used, but only as a supplementary or secondary unit.", "As a result of the EU directive Ireland and the United Kingdom passed legislation to replace the gallon with the litre as a primary unit of measure in trade and in the conduct of public business, effective from 31 December 1993, and 30 September 1995 respectively.", "Though the gallon has ceased to be a primary unit of trade, it can still be legally used in both the UK and Ireland as a supplementary unit.", "However, barrels and large containers of beer, oil and other fluids are commonly measured in multiples of an imperial gallon.", "Miles per imperial gallon is used as the primary fuel economy unit in the United Kingdom and as a supplementary unit in Canada on official documentation.=== US liquid gallon ===Other than the United States, petrol is sold by the US gallon in 13 other countries, and one US territory:* the Caribbean countries of Dominican Republic and Haiti,* the Central American countries of Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua,* the South American countries of Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru,* the Pacific Ocean countries of Marshall Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, and Palau, which are associated countries of the United States,* the African country of Liberia, a former protectorate of the United States, and* the US territories of American Samoa, the Northern Mariana Islands, Guam, and the US Virgin Islands.", "Puerto Rico ceased selling petrol by the US gallon in 1980.The latest country to cease using the gallon is El Salvador in June 2021.=== The Imperial and US liquid gallon ===Both the US gallon and imperial gallon are used in the Turks and Caicos Islands - to an increase in tax duties which was disguised by levying the same duty on the US gallon (3.79 L) as was previously levied on the Imperial gallon (4.55 L), and the Bahamas.", "=== Legacy ===In some parts of the Middle East, such as the United Arab Emirates and Bahrain, 18.9-litre water cooler bottles are marketed as five-gallon bottles." ], [ "Relationship to other units", "Both the US liquid and imperial gallon are divided into four quarts (''quart''er gallons), which in turn are divided into two pints, which in turn are divided into two cups (not in customary use outside the US), which in turn are further divided into two gills.", "Thus, both gallons are equal to four quarts, eight pints, sixteen cups, or thirty-two gills.The imperial gill is further divided into five fluid ounces, whereas the US gill is divided into four fluid ounces, meaning an imperial fluid ounce is of an imperial pint, or of an imperial gallon, while a US fluid ounce is of a US pint, or of a US gallon.", "Thus, the imperial gallon, quart, pint, cup and gill are approximately 20% larger than their US counterparts, meaning these are not interchangeable, but the imperial fluid ounce is only approximately 4% smaller than the US fluid ounce, meaning these are often used interchangeably.Historically, a common bottle size for liquor in the US was the \"fifth\", i.e.", "one-fifth of a US gallon (or one-sixth of an imperial gallon).", "While spirit sales in the US were switched to metric measures in 1976, a 750 mL bottle is still sometimes known as a \"fifth\"." ], [ "History", "milk bottle with a volume of one US gallonThe term derives most immediately from ''galun'', ''galon'' in Old Norman French, but the usage was common in several languages, for example in Old French and (bowl) in Old English.", "This suggests a common origin in Romance Latin, but the ultimate source of the word is unknown.The gallon originated as the base of systems for measuring wine and beer in England.", "The sizes of gallon used in these two systems were different from each other: the first was based on the wine gallon (equal in size to the US gallon), and the second one either the ale gallon or the larger imperial gallon.By the end of the 18th century, there were three definitions of the gallon in common use:*The ''corn gallon'', or ''Winchester gallon'', of about ,*The ''wine gallon'', or ''Queen Anne's gallon'', which was , and*The ''ale gallon'' of .The ''corn'' or ''dry gallon'' is used (along with the dry quart and pint) in the United States for grain and other dry commodities.", "It is one-eighth of the (Winchester) bushel, originally defined as a cylindrical measure of inches in diameter and 8 inches in depth, which made the dry gallon .", "The bushel was later defined to be 2150.42 cubic inches exactly, thus making its gallon exactly (); in previous centuries, there had been a corn gallon of between 271 and 272 cubic inches.The ''wine'', ''fluid'', or ''liquid gallon'' has been the standard US gallon since the early 19th century.", "The wine gallon, which some sources relate to the volume occupied by eight medieval merchant pounds of wine, was at one time defined as the volume of a cylinder 6 inches deep and 7 inches in diameter, i.e.", ".", "It was redefined during the reign of Queen Anne in 1706 as 231 cubic inches exactly, the earlier definition with approximated to .Although the wine gallon had been used for centuries for import duty purposes, there was no legal standard of it in the Exchequer, while a smaller gallon was actually in use, requiring this statute; the 231 cubic inch gallon remains the US definition today.In 1824, Britain adopted a close approximation to the ''ale gallon'' known as the ''imperial gallon'', and abolished all other gallons in favour of it.", "Inspired by the kilogram-litre relationship, the imperial gallon was based on the volume of 10 pounds of distilled water weighed in air with brass weights with the barometer standing at 30 inches of mercury and at a temperature of .In 1963, this definition was refined as the space occupied by 10 pounds of distilled water of density weighed in air of density against weights of density (the original \"brass\" was refined as the densities of brass alloys vary depending on metallurgical composition), which was calculated as to ten significant figures.The precise definition of exactly cubic decimetres (also , ≈ ) came after the litre was redefined in 1964.This was adopted shortly afterwards in Canada, and adopted in 1976 in the United Kingdom.===Sizes of gallons===Historically, gallons of various sizes were used in many parts of Western Europe.", "In these localities, it has been replaced as the unit of capacity by the litre.+ Comparison of gallons Volume Definition Invertedvolume(gal/cu ft) Weight aswater at (pounds/gal) Cylindrical approximation (cu in) (dm3) Diameter(in) Height(in) Volume rel.error (%)Current gallons 231 Statute of 5 Queen Anne (UK wine gallon, standard US gallon) 7.48 8.33 7 6 0.04 268.8025 Winchester, statute of 13 & 14 William III (corn gallon, US dry gallon) 6.43 9.71 18.5 1 ≈ 277.4194 4.54609 Standard imperial gallon ≈ 6.23 10 11 Historic gallons 216 (Roman unciae) ≈ 3.53961 Roman congius 8 7.8 5 11 0.01 224 ≈ 3.67070 Preserved at the Guildhall, London (old UK wine gallon) 7.71 8.09 9 3.5 0.6 264.8 ≈ 4.33929 Ancient Rumford quart (1228) 6.53 9.57 7.5 6 0.1 265.5 ≈ 4.35077 Exchequer (Henry VII, 1497, with rim) 6.51 9.59 13 2 0.01 266.25 ≈ 4.36306 Ancient Rumford (1228)           271 ≈ 4.44089 Exchequer (1601, ''E.'')", "(old ''corn'' gallon) 6.38 9.79 4.5 17 0.23 272 ≈ 4.45728 Corn gallon (1688)           ≈ 277.2026 ≈ 4.54254 Statute of 12 Anne (coal gallon) = corn gallons 6.23 10       ≈ 277.274 ≈ 4.54370 Imperial gallon, as originally determined in 1824 6.23 10       ≈ 277.4195 Imperial gallon as re-determined in 1895 and defined in 1963 ≈ 6.23 10       278 ≈ 4.55560 Exchequer (Henry VII, with copper rim) 6.21 10.04       278.4 ≈ 4.56216 Exchequer (1601 and 1602 pints) 6.21 10.06       280 ≈ 4.58838 Exchequer (1601 quart) 6.17 10.1       282 ≈ 4.62115 Treasury (beer and ale gallon pre-1824) 6.13 10.2" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gini coefficient" ], [ "Introduction", "Map of income inequality Gini coefficients by country (%).", "Based on World Bank data ranging from 1992 to 2020.A different map showing wealth Gini coefficients within countries for 2019230x230pxIn economics, the '''Gini coefficient''' ( ), also known as the '''Gini index''' or '''Gini ratio''', is a measure of statistical dispersion intended to represent the income inequality, the wealth inequality, or the consumption inequality within a nation or a social group.", "It was developed by Italian statistician and sociologist Corrado Gini.The Gini coefficient measures the inequality among the values of a frequency distribution, such as levels of income.", "A Gini coefficient of 0 reflects perfect equality, where all income or wealth values are the same, while a Gini coefficient of 1 (or 100%) reflects maximal inequality among values, a situation where a single individual has all the income while all others have none.The Gini coefficient was proposed by Corrado Gini as a measure of inequality of income or wealth.", "For OECD countries in the late 20th century, considering the effect of taxes and transfer payments, the income Gini coefficient ranged between 0.24 and 0.49, with Slovenia being the lowest and Mexico the highest.", "African countries had the highest pre-tax Gini coefficients in 2008–2009, with South Africa having the world's highest, estimated to be 0.63 to 0.7.However, this figure drops to 0.52 after social assistance is taken into account, and drops again to 0.47 after taxation.", "The country with the lowest Gini coefficient is Slovenia, with a Gini coefficient of 0.232.The Gini coefficient of the global income in 2005 has been estimated to be between 0.61 and 0.68 by various sources.There are some issues in interpreting a Gini coefficient, as the same value may result from many different distribution curves.", "To mitigate this, the demographic structure should be taken into account.", "Countries with an aging population, or those with an increased birth rate, experience an increasing pre-tax Gini coefficient even if real income distribution for working adults remains constant.", "Many scholars have devised over a dozen variants of the Gini coefficient." ], [ "History", "The Gini coefficient was developed by the Italian statistician Corrado Gini and published in his 1912 paper ''Variabilità e mutabilità'' ().", "Building on the work of American economist Max Lorenz, Gini proposed that the difference between the hypothetical straight line depicting perfect equality, and the actual line depicting people's incomes, be used as a measure of inequality." ], [ "Definition", "The Gini coefficient is equal to the area marked ''A'' divided by the total area of ''A'' and ''B'', i.e.", ".", "The axes run from 0 to 1, so ''A'' and ''B'' form a triangle of area and .The Gini coefficient is an index for the degree of inequality in the distribution of income/wealth, used to estimate how far a country's wealth or income distribution deviates from an equal distribution.The Gini coefficient is usually defined mathematically based on the Lorenz curve, which plots the proportion of the total income of the population (y-axis) that is cumulatively earned by the bottom ''x'' of the population (see diagram).", "The line at 45 degrees thus represents perfect equality of incomes.", "The Gini coefficient can then be thought of as the ratio of the area that lies between the line of equality and the Lorenz curve (marked ''A'' in the diagram) over the total area under the line of equality (marked ''A'' and ''B'' in the diagram); i.e., .", "If there are no negative incomes, it is also equal to 2''A'' and due to the fact that .Assuming non-negative income or wealth for all, the Gini coefficient's theoretical range is from 0 (total equality) to 1 (absolute inequality).", "This measure is often rendered as a percentage, spanning 0 to 100.However, if negative values are factored in, as in cases of debt, the Gini index could exceed 1.Typically, we presuppose a positive mean or total, precluding a Gini coefficient below zero.", "An alternative approach is to define the Gini coefficient as half of the relative mean absolute difference, which is equivalent to the definition based on the Lorenz curve.", "The mean absolute difference is the average absolute difference of all pairs of items of the population, and the relative mean absolute difference is the mean absolute difference divided by the average, , to normalize for scale.", "If ''x''''i'' is the wealth or income of person ''i'', and there are ''n'' persons, then the Gini coefficient ''G'' is given by::When the income (or wealth) distribution is given as a continuous probability density function ''p''(''x''), the Gini coefficient is again half of the relative mean absolute difference::where is the mean of the distribution, and the lower limits of integration may be replaced by zero when all incomes are positive." ], [ "Calculation", "rightWhile the income distribution of any particular country will not correspond perfectly to the theoretical models, these models can provide a qualitative explanation of the income distribution in a nation given the Gini coefficient.=== Example: Two levels of income ===The extreme cases are represented by the most equal possible society in which every person receives the same income (), and the most unequal society (with ''N'' individuals) where a single person receives 100% of the total income and the remaining people receive none ().A simple case assumes just two levels of income, low and high.", "If the high income group is a proportion ''u'' of the population and earns a proportion ''f'' of all income, then the Gini coefficient is .", "A more graded distribution with these same values ''u'' and ''f'' will always have a higher Gini coefficient than .", "For example, if the wealthiest ''u ='' 20% of the population has ''f ='' 80% of all income (see Pareto principle), the income Gini coefficient is at least 60%.", "In another example, if ''u ='' 1% of the world's population owns ''f ='' 50% of all wealth, the wealth Gini coefficient is at least 49%.=== Alternative expressions ===In some cases, this equation can be applied to calculate the Gini coefficient without direct reference to the Lorenz curve.", "For example, (taking ''y'' to indicate the income or wealth of a person or household):* For a population of ''n'' individuals with values , :::This may be simplified to:::The Gini coefficient can also be considered as half the relative mean absolute difference.", "For a random sample ''S'' with values , the sample Gini coefficient:is a consistent estimator of the population Gini coefficient, but is not in general unbiased.", "In simplified form::There does not exist a sample statistic that is always an unbiased estimator of the population Gini coefficient.=== Discrete probability distribution ===For a discrete probability distribution with probability mass function , where is the fraction of the population with income or wealth , the Gini coefficient is::where:If the points with non-zero probabilities are indexed in increasing order , then::where: and These formulas are also applicable in the limit, as === Continuous probability distribution ===When the population is large, the income distribution may be represented by a continuous probability density function ''f''(''x'') where ''f''(''x'') ''dx'' is the fraction of the population with wealth or income in the interval ''dx'' about ''x''.", "If ''F''(''x'') is the cumulative distribution function for ''f''(''x'')::and ''L''(''x'') is the Lorenz function::then the Lorenz curve ''L''(''F'') may then be represented as a function parametric in ''L''(''x'') and ''F''(''x'') and the value of ''B'' can be found by integration::The Gini coefficient can also be calculated directly from the cumulative distribution function of the distribution ''F''(''y'').", "Defining μ as the mean of the distribution, and specifying that ''F''(''y'') is zero for all negative values, the Gini coefficient is given by::The latter result comes from integration by parts.", "''(Note that this formula can be applied when there are negative values if the integration is taken from minus infinity to plus infinity.", ")''The Gini coefficient may be expressed in terms of the quantile function ''Q''(''F'') ''(inverse of the cumulative distribution function: Q(F(x)) = x)'': Since the Gini coefficient is independent of scale, if the distribution function can be expressed in the form ''f(x,φ,a,b,c...)'' where ''φ'' is a scale factor and ''a, b, c...'' are dimensionless parameters, then the Gini coefficient will be a function only of ''a, b, c...''.", "For example, for the exponential distribution, which is a function of only ''x'' and a scale parameter, the Gini coefficient is a constant, equal to 1/2.For some functional forms, the Gini index can be calculated explicitly.", "For example, if ''y'' follows a log-normal distribution with the standard deviation of logs equal to , then where is the error function ( since , where is the cumulative distribution function of a standard normal distribution).", "In the table below, some examples for probability density functions with support on are shown.", "The Dirac delta distribution represents the case where everyone has the same wealth (or income); it implies no variations between incomes.", ": Income Distribution function PDF(x) Gini Coefficient Dirac delta function 0 Uniform distribution Exponential distribution Log-normal distribution Pareto distribution Chi distribution Chi-squared distribution Gamma distribution Weibull distribution Beta distributionLog-logistic distribution* is the Gamma function* is the Beta function* is the Regularized incomplete beta function=== Other approaches ===Sometimes the entire Lorenz curve is not known, and only values at certain intervals are given.", "In that case, the Gini coefficient can be approximated using various techniques for interpolating the missing values of the Lorenz curve.", "If (''X''''k'', ''Y''''k'') are the known points on the Lorenz curve, with the ''X''''k'' indexed in increasing order (''X''''k'' – 1 ''k''), so that:* ''X''''k'' is the cumulated proportion of the population variable, for ''k'' = 0,...,''n'', with ''X''0 = 0, ''X''''n'' = 1.", "* ''Y''''k'' is the cumulated proportion of the income variable, for ''k'' = 0,...,''n'', with ''Y''0 = 0, ''Y''''n'' = 1.", "* ''Y''''k'' should be indexed in non-decreasing order (''Y''''k'' > ''Y''''k'' – 1)If the Lorenz curve is approximated on each interval as a line between consecutive points, then the area B can be approximated with trapezoids and::is the resulting approximation for G. More accurate results can be obtained using other methods to approximate the area B, such as approximating the Lorenz curve with a quadratic function across pairs of intervals or building an appropriately smooth approximation to the underlying distribution function that matches the known data.", "If the population mean and boundary values for each interval are also known, these can also often be used to improve the accuracy of the approximation.The Gini coefficient calculated from a sample is a statistic, and its standard error, or confidence intervals for the population Gini coefficient, should be reported.", "These can be calculated using bootstrap techniques, mathematically complicated and computationally demanding even in an era of fast computers.", "Economist Tomson Ogwang made the process more efficient by setting up a \"trick regression model\" in which respective income variables in the sample are ranked, with the lowest income being allocated rank 1.The model then expresses the rank (dependent variable) as the sum of a constant ''A'' and a normal error term whose variance is inversely proportional to ''y''''k''::Thus, ''G'' can be expressed as a function of the weighted least squares estimate of the constant ''A'' and that this can be used to speed up the calculation of the jackknife estimate for the standard error.", "Economist David Giles argued that the standard error of the estimate of ''A'' can be used to derive the estimate of ''G'' directly without using a jackknife.", "This method only requires using ordinary least squares regression after ordering the sample data.", "The results compare favorably with the estimates from the jackknife with agreement improving with increasing sample size.However, it has been argued that this depends on the model's assumptions about the error distributions and the independence of error terms.", "These assumptions are often not valid for real data sets.", "There is still ongoing debate surrounding this topic.Guillermina Jasso and Angus Deaton independently proposed the following formula for the Gini coefficient::where is mean income of the population, Pi is the income rank P of person i, with income X, such that the richest person receives a rank of 1 and the poorest a rank of ''N''.", "This effectively gives higher weight to poorer people in the income distribution, which allows the Gini to meet the Transfer Principle.", "Note that the Jasso-Deaton formula rescales the coefficient so that its value is one if all the are zero except one.", "Note however Allison's reply on the need to divide by N² instead.FAO explains another version of the formula." ], [ "Generalized inequality indices", "The Gini coefficient and other standard inequality indices reduce to a common form.", "Perfect equality—the absence of inequality—exists when and only when the inequality ratio, , equals 1 for all j units in some population (for example, there is perfect income equality when everyone's income equals the mean income , so that for everyone).", "Measures of inequality, then, are measures of the average deviations of the from 1; the greater the average deviation, the greater the inequality.", "Based on these observations the inequality indices have this common form::where ''p''''j'' weights the units by their population share, and ''f''(''r''''j'') is a function of the deviation of each unit's ''r''''j'' from 1, the point of equality.", "The insight of this generalized inequality index is that inequality indices differ because they employ different functions of the distance of the inequality ratios (the ''r''''j'') from 1." ], [ "Of income distributions", "Gini coefficients of income are calculated on a market income and a disposable income basis.", "The Gini coefficient on market income—sometimes referred to as a pre-tax Gini coefficient—is calculated on income before taxes and transfers.", "It measures inequality in income without considering the effect of taxes and social spending already in place in a country.", "The Gini coefficient on disposable income—sometimes referred to as the after-tax Gini coefficient—is calculated on income after taxes and transfers.", "It measures inequality in income after considering the effect of taxes and social spending already in place in a country.For OECD countries over the 2008–2009 period, the Gini coefficient (pre-taxes and transfers) for a total population ranged between 0.34 and 0.53, with South Korea the lowest and Italy the highest.", "The Gini coefficient (after-taxes and transfers) for a total population ranged between 0.25 and 0.48, with Denmark the lowest and Mexico the highest.", "For the United States, the country with the largest population among OECD countries, the pre-tax Gini index was 0.49, and the after-tax Gini index was 0.38 in 2008–2009.The OECD average for total populations in OECD countries was 0.46 for the pre-tax income Gini index and 0.31 for the after-tax income Gini index.", "Taxes and social spending that were in place in 2008–2009 period in OECD countries significantly lowered effective income inequality, and in general, \"European countries—especially Nordic and Continental welfare states—achieve lower levels of income inequality than other countries.", "\"Using the Gini can help quantify differences in welfare and compensation policies and philosophies.", "However, it should be borne in mind that the Gini coefficient can be misleading when used to make political comparisons between large and small countries or those with different immigration policies (see limitations section).The Gini coefficient for the entire world has been estimated by various parties to be between 0.61 and 0.68.The graph shows the values expressed as a percentage in their historical development for a number of countries.alt=The change in Gini indices has differed across countries.", "Some countries have change little over time, such as Belgium, Canada, Germany, Japan, and Sweden.", "Brazil has oscillated around a steady value.", "France, Italy, Mexico, and Norway have shown marked declines.", "China and the US have increased steadily.", "Australia grew to moderate levels before dropping.", "India sank before rising again.", "The UK and Poland stayed at very low levels before rising.", "Bulgaria had an increase of fits-and-starts.", ".svg alt text=== Regional income Gini indices ===According to UNICEF, Latin America and the Caribbean region had the highest net income Gini index in the world at 48.3, on an unweighted average basis in 2008.The remaining regional averages were: sub-Saharan Africa (44.2), Asia (40.4), Middle East and North Africa (39.2), Eastern Europe and Central Asia (35.4), and High-income Countries (30.9).", "Using the same method, the United States is claimed to have a Gini index of 36, while South Africa had the highest income Gini index score of 67.8.=== World income Gini index since 1800s ===Taking income distribution of all human beings, worldwide income inequality has been constantly increasing since the early 19th century (and will keep on increasing over the years) .", "There was a steady increase in the global income inequality Gini score from 1820 to 2002, with a significant increase between 1980 and 2002.This trend appears to have peaked and begun a reversal with rapid economic growth in emerging economies, particularly in the large populations of BRIC countries.The table below presents the estimated world income Gini coefficients over the last 200 years, as calculated by Milanovic.", "+ Income Gini coefficient - World, 1820–2005 Year World Gini coefficients 1820 0.43 1850 0.53 1870 0.56 1913 0.61 1929 0.62 1950 0.64 1960 0.64 1980 0.66 2002 0.71 2005 0.68More detailed data from similar sources plots a continuous decline since 1988.This is attributed to globalization increasing incomes for billions of poor people, mostly in countries like China and India.", "Developing countries like Brazil have also improved basic services like health care, education, and sanitation; others like Chile and Mexico have enacted more progressive tax policies.+ Income Gini coefficient - World, 1988–2013YearWorld Gini coefficients1988 0.801993 0.761998 0.742003 0.722008 0.702013 0.65" ], [ "Of social development", "The Gini coefficient is widely used in fields as diverse as sociology, economics, health science, ecology, engineering, and agriculture.", "For example, in social sciences and economics, in addition to income Gini coefficients, scholars have published education Gini coefficients and opportunity Gini coefficients.=== Education ===Education Gini index estimates the inequality in education for a given population.", "It is used to discern trends in social development through educational attainment over time.", "A study across 85 countries by three World Bank economists, Vinod Thomas, Yan Wang, and Xibo Fan, estimated Mali had the highest education Gini index of 0.92 in 1990 (implying very high inequality in educational attainment across the population), while the United States had the lowest education inequality Gini index of 0.14.Between 1960 and 1990, China, India and South Korea had the fastest drop in education inequality Gini Index.", "They also claim education Gini index for the United States slightly increased over the 1980–1990 period.Though India's education Gini Index has been falling from 1960 through 1990, most of the population still has not received any education, while 10 percent of the population received more than 40% of the total educational hours in the nation.", "This means that a large portion of capable children in the country are not receiving the support necessary to allow them to become positive contributors to society.", "This will lead to a deadweight loss to the national society because there are many people who are underdeveloped and underutilized.=== Opportunity ===Similar in concept to the Gini income coefficient, the Gini opportunity coefficient measures inequality in opportunities.", "The concept builds on Amartya Sen's suggestion that inequality coefficients of social development should be premised on the process of enlarging people's choices and enhancing their capabilities, rather than on the process of reducing income inequality.", "Kovacevic, in a review of the Gini opportunity coefficient, explained that the coefficient estimates how well a society enables its citizens to achieve success in life where the success is based on a person's choices, efforts and talents, not their background defined by a set of predetermined circumstances at birth, such as gender, race, place of birth, parent's income and circumstances beyond the control of that individual.In 2003, Roemer reported Italy and Spain exhibited the largest opportunity inequality Gini index amongst advanced economies.=== Income mobility ===In 1978, Anthony Shorrocks introduced a measure based on income Gini coefficients to estimate income mobility.", "This measure, generalized by Maasoumi and Zandvakili, is now generally referred to as Shorrocks index, sometimes as Shorrocks mobility index or Shorrocks rigidity index.", "It attempts to estimate whether the income inequality Gini coefficient is permanent or temporary and to what extent a country or region enables economic mobility to its people so that they can move from one (e.g., bottom 20%) income quantile to another (e.g., middle 20%) over time.", "In other words, the Shorrocks index compares inequality of short-term earnings, such as the annual income of households, to inequality of long-term earnings, such as 5-year or 10-year total income for the same households.Shorrocks index is calculated in several different ways, a common approach being from the ratio of income Gini coefficients between short-term and long-term for the same region or country.A 2010 study using social security income data for the United States since 1937 and Gini-based Shorrock's indices concludes that income mobility in the United States has had a complicated history, primarily due to the mass influx of women into the American labor force after World War II.", "Income inequality and income mobility trends have been different for men and women workers between 1937 and the 2000s.", "When men and women are considered together, the Gini coefficient-based Shorrocks index trends imply long-term income inequality has been substantially reduced among all workers, in recent decades for the United States.", "Other scholars, using just 1990s data or other short periods have come to different conclusions.", "For example, Sastre and Ayala conclude from their study of income Gini coefficient data between 1993 and 1998 for six developed economies that France had the least income mobility, Italy the highest, and the United States and Germany intermediate levels of income mobility over those five years." ], [ "Features", "The Gini coefficient has features that make it useful as a measure of dispersion in a population, and inequalities in particular.", "The coefficient ranges from 0, for perfect equality, to 1, indicating perfect inequality.", "The Gini is based on the comparison of cumulative proportions of the population against cumulative proportions of income they receive." ], [ "Limitations", "The Gini coefficient is a relative measure.", "The Gini coefficient of a developing country can rise (due to increasing inequality of income) even when the number of people in absolute poverty decreases.", "This is because the Gini coefficient measures relative, not absolute, wealth.", "Changing income inequality, measured by Gini coefficients, can be due to structural changes in a society such as growing population (increased birth rates, aging populations, increased divorce rates, extended family households splitting into nuclear families, emigration, immigration) and income mobility.", "Gini coefficients are simple, and this simplicity can lead to oversights and can confuse the comparison of different populations; for example, while both Bangladesh (per capita income of $1,693) and the Netherlands (per capita income of $42,183) had an income Gini coefficient of 0.31 in 2010, the quality of life, economic opportunity and absolute income in these countries are very different, i.e.", "countries may have identical Gini coefficients, but differ greatly in wealth.", "Basic necessities may be available to all in a developed economy, while in an undeveloped economy with the same Gini coefficient, basic necessities may be unavailable to most or unequally available due to lower absolute wealth.+ Table A.", "Different income distributions with the same Gini index Household group Country A annual income ($) Country B annual income ($) 1 20,000 9,000 2 30,000 40,000 3 40,000 48,000 4 50,000 48,000 5 60,000 55,000 Total income $200,000 $200,000 Country's Gini '''0.2''' '''0.2''';Different income distributions with the same Gini coefficientEven when the total income of a population is the same, in certain situations two countries with different income distributions can have the same Gini index (e.g.", "cases when income Lorenz Curves cross).", "Table A illustrates one such situation.", "Both countries have a Gini coefficient of 0.2, but the average income distributions for household groups are different.", "As another example, in a population where the lowest 50% of individuals have no income, and the other 50% have equal income, the Gini coefficient is 0.5; whereas for another population where the lowest 75% of people have 25% of income and the top 25% have 75% of the income, the Gini index is also 0.5.Economies with similar incomes and Gini coefficients can have very different income distributions.", "Bellù and Liberati claim that ranking income inequality between two populations is not always possible based on their Gini indices.", "Similarly, computational social scientist Fabian Stephany illustrates that income inequality within the population, e.g., in specific socioeconomic groups of same age and education, also remains undetected by conventional Gini indices.", ";Extreme wealth inequality, yet low-income Gini coefficientA Gini index does not contain information about absolute national or personal incomes.", "Populations can simultaneously have very low-income Gini indices and very high wealth Gini indexes.", "By measuring inequality in income, the Gini ignores the differential efficiency of the use of household income.", "By ignoring wealth (except as it contributes to income), the Gini can create the appearance of inequality when the people compared are at different stages in their life.", "Wealthy countries such as Sweden can show a low Gini coefficient for the disposable income of 0.31, thereby appearing equal, yet have a very high Gini coefficient for wealth of 0.79 to 0.86, suggesting an extremely unequal wealth distribution in its society.", "These factors are not assessed in income-based Gini.+ Table B.", "Same income distributions, but different Gini Index Household number Country Annual Income ($) Household combined number Country A combined Annual Income ($) 1 20,000 1 & 2 50,000 2 30,000 3 40,000 3 & 4 90,000 4 50,000 5 60,000 5 & 6 130,000 6 70,000 7 80,000 7 & 8 170,000 8 90,000 9 120,000 9 & 10 270,000 10 150,000 Total Income $710,000 $710,000 Country's Gini '''0.303''' '''0.293''';Small sample bias – sparsely populated regions more likely to have low Gini coefficientGini index has a downward-bias for small populations.", "Counties or states or countries with small populations and less diverse economies will tend to report small Gini coefficients.", "For economically diverse large population groups, a much higher coefficient is expected than for each of its regions.", "For example, taking the world economy as a whole and income distribution for all human beings, different scholars estimate the global Gini index to range between 0.61 and 0.68.As with other inequality coefficients, the Gini coefficient is influenced by the granularity of the measurements.", "For example, five 20% quantiles (low granularity) will usually yield a lower Gini coefficient than twenty 5% quantiles (high granularity) for the same distribution.", "Philippe Monfort has shown that using inconsistent or unspecified granularity limits the usefulness of Gini coefficient measurements.The Gini coefficient measure gives different results when applied to individuals instead of households, for the same economy and same income distributions.", "If household data is used, the measured value of income Gini depends on how the household is defined.", "The comparison is not meaningful when different populations are not measured with consistent definitions.Deininger and Squire (1996) show that the income Gini coefficient based on individual income rather than household income is different.", "For example, for the United States, they found that the individual income-based Gini index was 0.35, while for France, 0.43.According to their individual-focused method, in the 108 countries they studied, South Africa had the world's highest Gini coefficient at 0.62, Malaysia had Asia's highest Gini coefficient at 0.5, Brazil the highest at 0.57 in Latin America and the Caribbean region, and Turkey the highest at 0.5 in OECD countries.+ Table C. Household money income distributions and Gini Index, US Income bracket (in 2010 adjusted dollars) % of Population 1979 % of Population 2010 Under $15,000 14.6% 13.7% $15,000 – $24,999 11.9% 12.0% $25,000 – $34,999 12.1% 10.9% $35,000 – $49,999 15.4% 13.9% $50,000 – $74,999 22.1% 17.7% $75,000 – $99,999 12.4% 11.4% $100,000 – $149,999 8.3% 12.1% $150,000 – $199,999 2.0% 4.5% $200,000 and over 1.2% 3.9% Total Households 80,776,000 118,682,000 United States' Gini on pre-tax basis '''0.404''' '''0.469''';Gini coefficient is unable to discern the effects of structural changes in populationsExpanding on the importance of life-span measures, the Gini coefficient as a point-estimate of equality at a certain time ignores life-span changes in income.", "Typically, increases in the proportion of young or old members of a society will drive apparent changes in equality simply because people generally have lower incomes and wealth when they are young than when they are old.", "Because of this, factors such as age distribution within a population and mobility within income classes can create the appearance of inequality when none exist, taking into account demographic effects.", "Thus a given economy may have a higher Gini coefficient at any timepoint compared to another, while the Gini coefficient calculated over individuals' lifetime income is lower than the apparently more equal (at a given point in time) economy's.", "Essentially, what matters is not just inequality in any particular year but the distribution composition over time.Billionaire Thomas Kwok claimed the income Gini coefficient for Hong Kong has been high (0.434 in 2010), in part because of structural changes in its population.", "Over recent decades, Hong Kong has witnessed increasing numbers of small households, elderly households, and elderly living alone.", "The combined income is now split into more households.", "Many older people live separately from their children in Hong Kong.", "These social changes have caused substantial changes in household income distribution.", "The income Gini coefficient, claims Kwok, does not discern these structural changes in its society.", "Household money income distribution for the United States, summarized in Table C of this section, confirms that this issue is not limited to just Hong Kong.", "According to the US Census Bureau, between 1979 and 2010, the population of the United States experienced structural changes in overall households; the income for all income brackets increased in inflation-adjusted terms, household income distributions shifted into higher income brackets over time, while the income Gini coefficient increased.Another limitation of the Gini coefficient is that it is not a proper measure of egalitarianism, as it only measures income dispersion.", "For example, suppose two equally egalitarian countries pursue different immigration policies.", "In that case, the country accepting a higher proportion of low-income or impoverished migrants will report a higher Gini coefficient and, therefore, may exhibit more income inequality.", "; Inability to value benefits and income from informal economy affects Gini coefficient accuracySome countries distribute benefits that are difficult to value.", "Countries that provide subsidized housing, medical care, education or other such services are difficult to value objectively, as it depends on the quality and extent of the benefit.", "In absence of a free market, valuing these income transfers as household income is subjective.", "The theoretical model of the Gini coefficient is limited to accepting correct or incorrect subjective assumptions.In subsistence-driven and informal economies, people may have significant income in other forms than money, for example, through subsistence farming or bartering.", "These income tend to accrue to the segment of population below the poverty line or very poor in emerging and transitional economy countries such as those in sub-Saharan Africa, Latin America, Asia, and Eastern Europe.", "Informal economy accounts for over half of global employment and as much as 90 per cent of employment in some of the poorer sub-Saharan countries with high official Gini inequality coefficients.", "Schneider et al., in their 2010 study of 162 countries, report about 31.2%, or about $20 trillion, of world's GDP is informal.", "In developing countries, the informal economy predominates for all income brackets except the richer, urban upper-income bracket populations.", "Even in developed economies, 8% (United States) to 27% (Italy) of each nation's GDP is informal.", "The resulting informal income predominates as a livelihood activity for those in the lowest income brackets.", "The value and distribution of the incomes from informal or underground economy is difficult to quantify, making true income Gini coefficients estimates difficult.", "Different assumptions and quantifications of these incomes will yield different Gini coefficients.Gini has some mathematical limitations as well.", "It is not additive and different sets of people cannot be averaged to obtain the Gini coefficient of all the people in the sets." ], [ "Alternatives", "Given the limitations of the Gini coefficient, other statistical methods are used in combination or as an alternative measure of population dispersity.", "For example, ''entropy measures'' are frequently used (e.g.", "the Atkinson index or the Theil Index and Mean log deviation as special cases of the generalized entropy index).", "These measures attempt to compare the distribution of resources by intelligent agents in the market with a maximum entropy random distribution, which would occur if these agents acted like non-interacting particles in a closed system following the laws of statistical physics." ], [ "Relation to other statistical measures", "There is a summary measure of the diagnostic ability of a binary classifier system that is also called the ''Gini coefficient'', which is defined as twice the area between the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve and its diagonal.", "It is related to the AUC (Area Under the ROC Curve) measure of performance given by and to Mann–Whitney U.", "Although both Gini coefficients are defined as areas between certain curves and share certain properties, there is no simple direct relationship between the Gini coefficient of statistical dispersion and the Gini coefficient of a classifier.", "The Gini index is also related to the Pietra index — both of which measure statistical heterogeneity and are derived from the Lorenz curve and the diagonal line.In certain fields such as ecology, inverse Simpson's index is used to quantify diversity, and this should not be confused with the Simpson index .", "These indicators are related to Gini.", "The inverse Simpson index increases with diversity, unlike the Simpson index and Gini coefficient, which decrease with diversity.", "The Simpson index is in the range 0, 1, where 0 means maximum and 1 means minimum diversity (or heterogeneity).", "Since diversity indices typically increase with increasing heterogeneity, the Simpson index is often transformed into inverse Simpson, or using the complement , known as the Gini-Simpson Index." ], [ "Gini coefficients for pre-modern societies", "In recent decades, researchers have attempted to estimate Gini coefficients for pre-20th century societies.", "In the absence of household income surveys and income taxes, scholars have relied on proxy variables.", "These include wealth taxes in medieval European city states, patterns of landownership in Roman Egypt, variation of the size of houses in societies from ancient Greece to Aztec Mexico, and inheritance and dowries in Babylonian society.", "Other data does not directly document variations in wealth or income but are known to reflect inequality, such as the ratio of rents to wages or of labor to capital." ], [ "Other uses", "Although the Gini coefficient is most popular in economics, it can, in theory, be applied in any field of science that studies a distribution.", "For example, in ecology, the Gini coefficient has been used as a measure of biodiversity, where the cumulative proportion of species is plotted against the cumulative proportion of individuals.", "In health, it has been used as a measure of the inequality of health-related quality of life in a population.", "In education, it has been used as a measure of the inequality of universities.", "In chemistry it has been used to express the selectivity of protein kinase inhibitors against a panel of kinases.", "In engineering, it has been used to evaluate the fairness achieved by Internet routers in scheduling packet transmissions from different flows of traffic.The Gini coefficient is sometimes used for the measurement of the discriminatory power of rating systems in credit risk management.A 2005 study accessed US census data to measure home computer ownership and used the Gini coefficient to measure inequalities amongst whites and African Americans.", "Results indicated that although decreasing overall, home computer ownership inequality was substantially smaller among white households.A 2016 peer-reviewed study titled Employing the Gini coefficient to measure participation inequality in treatment-focused Digital Health Social Networks illustrated that the Gini coefficient was helpful and accurate in measuring shifts in inequality, however as a standalone metric it failed to incorporate overall network size.Discriminatory power refers to a credit risk model's ability to differentiate between defaulting and non-defaulting clients.", "The formula , in the calculation section above, may be used for the final model and at the individual model factor level to quantify the discriminatory power of individual factors.", "It is related to the accuracy ratio in population assessment models.The Gini coefficient has also been applied to analyze inequality in dating apps.Kaminskiy and Krivtsov extended the concept of the Gini coefficient from economics to reliability theory and proposed a Gini–type coefficient that helps to assess the degree of aging of non−repairable systems or aging and rejuvenation of repairable systems.", "The coefficient is defined between -1 and 1 and can be used in both empirical and parametric life distributions.", "It takes negative values for the class of decreasing failure rate distributions and point processes with decreasing failure intensity rate and is positive for the increasing failure rate distributions and point processes with increasing failure intensity rate.", "The value of zero corresponds to the exponential life distribution or the Homogeneous Poisson Process." ], [ "See also" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * * * * * Reprinted in * * * * * * * * * The Chinese version of this paper was published as *" ], [ "External links", "* Deutsche Bundesbank: Do banks diversify loan portfolios?, 2005 (on using e.g.", "the Gini coefficient for risk evaluation of loan portfolios)* Forbes: In praise of inequality* Measuring Software Project Risk With The Gini Coefficient, an application of the Gini coefficient to software* The World Bank: Measuring Inequality* Travis Hale, University of Texas Inequality Project:The Theoretical Basics of Popular Inequality Measures, online computation of examples: 1A, 1B* Article from The Guardian analysing inequality in the UK 1974–2006* World Income Inequality Database* BBC News: What is the Gini coefficient?", "* Income Distribution and Poverty in OECD Countries* U.S. Income Distribution: Just How Unequal?" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "GCHQ" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Government Communications Headquarters''' ('''GCHQ''') is an intelligence and security organisation responsible for providing signals intelligence (SIGINT) and information assurance (IA) to the government and armed forces of the United Kingdom.", "Primarily based at \"The Doughnut\" in the suburbs of Cheltenham, GCHQ is the responsibility of the country's Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs (Foreign Secretary), but it is not a part of the Foreign Office and its Director ranks as a Permanent Secretary.GCHQ was originally established after the First World War as the '''Government Code and Cypher School''' ('''GC&CS''') and was known under that name until 1946.During the Second World War it was located at Bletchley Park, where it was responsible for breaking the German Enigma codes.", "There are two main components of GCHQ, the Composite Signals Organisation (CSO), which is responsible for gathering information, and the National Cyber Security Centre (NCSC), which is responsible for securing the UK's own communications.", "The Joint Technical Language Service (JTLS) is a small department and cross-government resource responsible for mainly technical language support and translation and interpreting services across government departments.", "It is co-located with GCHQ for administrative purposes.In 2013, GCHQ received considerable media attention when the former National Security Agency contractor Edward Snowden revealed that the agency was in the process of collecting all online and telephone data in the UK via the Tempora programme.", "Snowden's revelations began a spate of ongoing disclosures of global surveillance.", "''The Guardian'' newspaper was forced to destroy computer hard drives with the files Snowden had given them because of the threats of a lawsuit under the Official Secrets Act." ], [ "Structure", "GCHQ is led by the Director of GCHQ, Anne Keast-Butler, and a Corporate Board, made up of executive and non-executive directors.", "Reporting to the Corporate Board are:*Sigint missions: comprising maths and cryptanalysis, IT and computer systems, linguistics and translation, and the intelligence analysis unit*Enterprise: comprising applied research and emerging technologies, corporate knowledge and information systems, commercial supplier relationships, and biometrics*Corporate management: enterprise resource planning, human resources, internal audit, and architecture*National Cyber Security Centre (NCSC)." ], [ "History", "===World War I===During the First World War, the British Army and Royal Navy had separate signals intelligence agencies, MI1b and NID25 (initially known as Room 40) respectively.", "In 1919, the Cabinet's Secret Service Committee, chaired by Lord Curzon, recommended that a peacetime codebreaking agency should be created, a task which was given to the Director of Naval Intelligence, Hugh Sinclair.", "Sinclair merged staff from NID25 and MI1b into the new organisation, which initially consisted of around 25–30 officers and a similar number of clerical staff.", "It was titled the \"Government Code and Cypher School\" (GC&CS), a cover-name which was chosen by Victor Forbes of the Foreign Office.", "Alastair Denniston, who had been a member of NID25, was appointed as its operational head.", "It was initially under the control of the Admiralty and located in Watergate House, Adelphi, London.", "Its public function was \"to advise as to the security of codes and cyphers used by all Government departments and to assist in their provision\", but also had a secret directive to \"study the methods of cypher communications used by foreign powers\".", "GC&CS officially formed on 1 November 1919, and produced its first decrypt prior to that date, on 19 October.Allidina Visram school in Mombasa, pictured above in 2006, was the location of the British \"Kilindini\" codebreaking outpost during World War II.Before the Second World War, GC&CS was a relatively small department.", "By 1922, the main focus of GC&CS was on diplomatic traffic, with \"no service traffic ever worth circulating\" and so, at the initiative of Lord Curzon, it was transferred from the Admiralty to the Foreign Office.", "GC&CS came under the supervision of Hugh Sinclair, who by 1923 was both the Chief of SIS and Director of GC&CS.", "In 1925, both organisations were co-located on different floors of Broadway Buildings, opposite St. James's Park.", "Messages decrypted by GC&CS were distributed in blue-jacketed files that became known as \"BJs\".", "In the 1920s, GC&CS was successfully reading Soviet Union diplomatic cyphers.", "However, in May 1927, during a row over clandestine Soviet support for the General Strike and the distribution of subversive propaganda, Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin made details from the decrypts public.===World War II===During the Second World War, GC&CS was based largely at Bletchley Park, in present-day Milton Keynes, working on understanding the German Enigma machine and Lorenz ciphers.", "In 1940, GC&CS was working on the diplomatic codes and ciphers of 26 countries, tackling over 150 diplomatic cryptosystems.", "Senior staff included Alastair Denniston, Oliver Strachey, Dilly Knox, John Tiltman, Edward Travis, Ernst Fetterlein, Josh Cooper, Donald Michie, Alan Turing, Gordon Welchman, Joan Clarke, Max Newman, William Tutte, I. J.", "(Jack) Good, Peter Calvocoressi and Hugh Foss.", "The 1943 British–US Communication Intelligence Agreement, BRUSA, connected the signal intercept networks of the GC&CS and the US National Security Agency (NSA).", "Equipment used to break enemy codes included the Colossus computer.", "Colossus consisted of ten networked computers.An outstation in the Far East, the Far East Combined Bureau, was set up in Hong Kong in 1935 and moved to Singapore in 1939.Subsequently, with the Japanese advance down the Malay Peninsula, the Army and RAF codebreakers went to the Wireless Experimental Centre in Delhi, India.", "The Navy codebreakers in FECB went to Colombo, Ceylon, then to Kilindini, near Mombasa, Kenya.===Post Second World War===GC&CS was renamed the Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ) in June 1946.The organisation was at first based in Eastcote in northwest London, then in 1951 moved to the outskirts of Cheltenham, setting up two sites at Oakley and Benhall.", "One of the major reasons for selecting Cheltenham was that the town had been the location of the headquarters of the United States Army Services of Supply for the European Theater during the War, which built up a telecommunications infrastructure in the region to carry out its logistics tasks.Following the Second World War, US and British intelligence have shared information as part of the UKUSA Agreement.", "The principal aspect of this is that GCHQ and its US equivalent, the National Security Agency (NSA), share technologies, infrastructure and information.GCHQ ran many signals intelligence (SIGINT) monitoring stations abroad.", "During the early Cold War, the remnants of the British Empire provided a global network of ground stations which were a major contribution to the UKUSA Agreement; the US regarded RAF Little Sai Wan in Hong Kong as the most valuable of these.", "The monitoring stations were largely run by inexpensive National Service recruits, but when this ended in the early 1960s, the increased cost of civilian employees caused budgetary problems.", "In 1965 a Foreign Office review found that 11,500 staff were involved in SIGINT collection (8,000 GCHQ staff and 3,500 military personnel), exceeding the size of the Diplomatic Service.", "Reaction to the Suez War led to the eviction of GCHQ from several of its best foreign SIGINT collection sites, including the new Perkar, Ceylon site and RAF Habbaniya, Iraq.", "The staff largely moved to tented encampments on military bases in Cyprus, which later became the Sovereign Base Area.During the Cuban Missile Crisis, GCHQ Scarborough intercepted radio communications from Soviet ships reporting their positions and used that to establish where they were heading.", "A copy of the report was sent directly to the White House Situation Room, providing initial indications of Soviet intentions with regards the US naval blockade of Cuba.Duncan Campbell and Mark Hosenball revealed the existence of GCHQ in 1976 in an article for ''Time Out''; as a result, Hosenball was deported from the UK.", "GCHQ had a very low profile in the media until 1983 when the trial of Geoffrey Prime, a KGB mole within it, created considerable media interest.====Trade union disputes====NUCPS banner on march in Cheltenham 1992In 1984, GCHQ was the centre of a political row when, in the wake of strikes which affected Sigint collection, the Conservative government of Margaret Thatcher prohibited its employees from belonging to a trade union.", "Following the breakdown of talks and the failure to negotiate a no-strike agreement, it was believed by the Thatcher Government that membership of a union would be in conflict with national security.", "A number of mass national one-day strikes were held to protest this decision, claimed by some as the first step to wider bans on trade unions.", "Appeals to British courts and European Commission of Human Rights were unsuccessful.", "The government offered a sum of money to each employee who agreed to give up their union membership.", "An appeal to the International Labour Organization resulted in a decision that the government's actions were in violation of Freedom of Association and Protection of the Right to Organise Convention.A no-strike agreement was eventually negotiated and the ban lifted by the incoming Labour government in 1997, with the Government Communications Group of the Public and Commercial Services Union (PCS) being formed to represent interested employees at all grades.", "In 2000, a group of 14 former GCHQ employees, who had been dismissed after refusing to give up their union membership, were offered re-employment, which three of them accepted.The legal case ''Council of Civil Service Unions v Minister for the Civil Service'' is significant beyond the dispute, and even beyond trade union law, in that it held for the first time that the royal prerogative is generally subject to judicial review, although the House of Lords ruled in favour of the Crown in this instance.===Post Cold War=======1990s: Post-Cold War restructuring====The Intelligence Services Act 1994 formalised the activities of the intelligence agencies for the first time, defining their purpose, and the British Parliament's Intelligence and Security Committee was given a remit to examine the expenditure, administration and policy of the three intelligence agencies.", "The objectives of GCHQ were defined as working as \"in the interests of national security, with particular reference to the defence and foreign policies of His Majesty's government; in the interests of the economic wellbeing of the United Kingdom; and in support of the prevention and the detection of serious crime\".", "During the introduction of the Intelligence Agency Act in late 1993, the former Prime Minister Jim Callaghan had described GCHQ as a \"full-blown bureaucracy\", adding that future bodies created to provide oversight of the intelligence agencies should \"investigate whether all the functions that GCHQ carries out today are still necessary.", "\"In late 1993 civil servant Michael Quinlan advised a deep review of the work of GCHQ following the conclusion of his \"Review of Intelligence Requirements and Resources\", which had imposed a 3% cut on the agency.", "The Chief Secretary to the Treasury, Jonathan Aitken, subsequently held face to face discussions with the intelligence agency directors to assess further savings in the wake of Quinlan's review.", "Aldrich (2010) suggests that Sir John Adye, the then Director of GCHQ performed badly in meetings with Aitken, leading Aitken to conclude that GCHQ was \"suffering from out-of-date methods of management and out-of-date methods for assessing priorities\".", "GCHQ's budget was £850 million in 1993, (£ as of ) compared to £125 million for the Security Service and SIS (MI5 and MI6).", "In December 1994 the businessman Roger Hurn was commissioned to begin a review of GCHQ, which was concluded in March 1995.Hurn's report recommended a cut of £100  million in GCHQ's budget; such a large reduction had not been suffered by any British intelligence agency since the end of World War II.", "The J Division of GCHQ, which had collected SIGINT on Russia, disappeared as a result of the cuts.", "The cuts had been mostly reversed by 2000 in the wake of threats from violent non-state actors, and risks from increased terrorism, organised crime and illegal access to nuclear, chemical and biological weapons.David Omand became the Director of GCHQ in 1996, and greatly restructured the agency in the face of new and changing targets and rapid technological change.", "Omand introduced the concept of \"Sinews\" (or \"SIGINT New Systems\") which allowed more flexible working methods, avoiding overlaps in work by creating fourteen domains, each with a well-defined working scope.", "The tenure of Omand also saw the construction of a modern new headquarters, intended to consolidate the two old sites at Oakley and Benhall into a single, more open-plan work environment.", "Located on a 176-acre site in Benhall, it would be the largest building constructed for secret intelligence operations outside the United States.Operations at GCHQ's Chung Hom Kok listening station in Hong Kong ended in 1994.GCHQ's Hong Kong operations were extremely important to their relationship with the NSA, who contributed investment and equipment to the station.", "In anticipation of the transfer of Hong Kong to the Chinese government in 1997, the Hong Kong stations operations were moved to Australian Defence Satellite Communications Station in Geraldton in Western Australia.Operations that used GCHQ's intelligence-gathering capabilities in the 1990s included the monitoring of communications of Iraqi soldiers in the Gulf War, of dissident republican terrorists and the Real IRA, of the various factions involved in the Yugoslav Wars, and of the criminal Kenneth Noye.", "In the mid 1990s GCHQ began to assist in the investigation of cybercrime.====2000s: Coping with the Internet====At the end of 2003, GCHQ moved in to its new building.", "Built on a circular plan around a large central courtyard, it quickly became known as the Doughnut.", "At the time, it was one of the largest public-sector building projects in Europe, with an estimated cost of £337 million.", "The new building, which was designed by Gensler and constructed by Carillion, became the base for all of GCHQ's Cheltenham operations.The public spotlight fell on GCHQ in late 2003 and early 2004 following the sacking of Katharine Gun after she leaked to ''The Observer'' a confidential email from agents at the United States' National Security Agency addressed to GCHQ agents about the wiretapping of UN delegates in the run-up to the 2003 Iraq war.GCHQ gains its intelligence by monitoring a wide variety of communications and other electronic signals.", "For this, a number of stations have been established in the UK and overseas.", "The listening stations are at Cheltenham itself, Bude, Scarborough, Ascension Island, and with the United States at Menwith Hill.", "Ayios Nikolaos Station in Cyprus is run by the British Army for GCHQ.In March 2010, GCHQ was criticised by the Intelligence and Security Committee for problems with its IT security practices and failing to meet its targets for work targeted against cyber attacks.As revealed by Edward Snowden in ''The Guardian'', GCHQ spied on foreign politicians visiting the 2009 G-20 London Summit by eavesdropping phonecalls and emails and monitoring their computers, and in some cases even ongoing after the summit via keyloggers that had been installed during the summit.According to Edward Snowden, at that time GCHQ had two principal umbrella programs for collecting communications:* \"Mastering the Internet\" (MTI) for Internet traffic, which is extracted from fibre-optic cables and can be searched by using the Tempora computer system.", "* \"Global Telecoms Exploitation\" (GTE) for telephone traffic.GCHQ has also had access to the US internet monitoring programme PRISM from at least as far back as June 2010.PRISM is said to give the National Security Agency and FBI easy access to the systems of nine of the world's top internet companies, including Google, Facebook, Microsoft, Apple, Yahoo, and Skype.From 2013, GCHQ realised that public attitudes to Sigint had changed and its former unquestioned secrecy was no longer appropriate or acceptable.", "The growing use of the Internet, together with its inherent insecurities, meant that the communications traffic of private citizens were becoming inextricably mixed with those of their targets and openness in the handling of this issue was becoming essential to their credibility as an organisation.", "The Internet had become a \"cyber commons\", with its dominance creating a \"second age of Sigint\".", "GCHQ transformed itself accordingly, including greatly expanded Public Relations and Legal departments, and adopting public education in cyber security as an important part of its remit.==== 2010s: Disinformation, discord and division ====In February 2014, ''The Guardian'', based on documents provided by Snowden, revealed that GCHQ had indiscriminately collected 1.8 million private Yahoo webcam images from users across the world.", "In the same month NBC and The Intercept, based on documents released by Snowden, revealed the Joint Threat Research Intelligence Group and the Computer Network Exploitation units within GCHQ.", "Their mission was cyber operations based on \"dirty tricks\" to shut down enemy communications, discredit, and plant misinformation on enemies.", "These operations were 5% of all GCHQ operations according to a conference slideshow presented by the GCHQ.Soon after becoming Director of GCHQ in 2014, Robert Hannigan wrote an article in the ''Financial Times'' on the topic of internet surveillance, stating that \"however much large US technology companies may dislike it, they have become the command and control networks of choice for terrorists and criminals\" and that GCHQ and its sister agencies \"cannot tackle these challenges at scale without greater support from the private sector\", arguing that most internet users \"would be comfortable with a better and more sustainable relationship between the intelligence agencies and the tech companies\".", "Since the 2013 global surveillance disclosures, large US technology companies have improved security and become less co-operative with foreign intelligence agencies, including those of the UK, generally requiring a US court order before disclosing data.", "However the head of the UK technology industry group techUK rejected these claims, stating that they understood the issues but that disclosure obligations \"must be based upon a clear and transparent legal framework and effective oversight rather than, as suggested, a deal between the industry and government\".In 2015, documents obtained by ''The Intercept'' from US National Security Agency whistleblower Edward Snowden revealed that GCHQ had carried out a mass-surveillance operation, codenamed KARMA POLICE, since about 2008.The operation swept up the IP address of Internet users visiting websites, and was established with no public scrutiny or oversight.", "KARMA POLICE is a powerful spying tool in conjunction with other GCHQ programs because IP addresses could be cross-referenced with other data.", "The goal of the program, according to the documents, was \"either (a) a web browsing profile for every visible user on the internet, or (b) a user profile for every visible website on the internet.", "\"In 2015, GCHQ admitted for the first time in court that it conducts computer hacking.In 2017, US Press Secretary Sean Spicer made allegations that GCHQ had conducted surveillance on US President Donald Trump.", "These unfounded claims were based on statements made during an opinion piece in a FOX media segment.", "The US government formally apologised for the unfounded allegations and promised they would not be repeated.", "British intelligence did gather information relating to Russian contacts made by Trump's campaign team in the run-up to his election, which were passed on to US intelligence agencies.On 31 October 2018, GCHQ joined Instagram." ], [ "Personnel awards", "GCHQ personnel are recognised annually by King Charles III (formerly the Prince of Wales) at the Prince of Wales's Intelligence Community Awards at St James's Palace or Clarence House alongside members of the Security Service (MI5), and Secret Intelligence Service (MI6).", "Awards and citations are given to teams within the agencies as well as individuals." ], [ "{{Anchor|Security Mission}}{{Anchor|London Communications Security Agency}}Security mission", "As well as a mission to gather intelligence, GCHQ has for a long time had a corresponding mission to assist in the protection of the British government's own communications.", "When the Government Code and Cypher School (GC&CS) was created in 1919, its overt task was providing security advice.", "GC&CS's Security section was located in Mansfield College, Oxford during the Second World War.In April 1946, GC&CS became GCHQ, and the now GCHQ Security section moved from Oxford to join the rest of the organisation at Eastcote later that year.===LCSA===From 1952 to 1954, the intelligence mission of GCHQ relocated to Cheltenham; the Security section remained at Eastcote, and in March 1954 became a separate, independent organisation: the '''London Communications Security Agency''' (LCSA), which in 1958 was renamed to the '''London Communications-Electronic Security Agency''' (LCESA).In April 1965, GPO and MOD units merged with LCESA to become the '''Communications-Electronic Security Department''' (CESD).===CESG===In October 1969, CESD was merged into GCHQ and becoming '''Communications-Electronic Security Group''' ('''CESG''').In 1977 CESG relocated from Eastcote to Cheltenham.CESG continued as the UK National Technical Authority for information assurance, including cryptography.", "CESG did not manufacture security equipment, but worked with industry to ensure the availability of suitable products and services, while GCHQ itself funded research into such areas, for example to the Centre for Quantum Computation at Oxford University and the Heilbronn Institute for Mathematical Research at the University of Bristol.In the 21st century, CESG ran a number of assurance schemes such as CHECK, CLAS, Commercial Product Assurance (CPA) and CESG Assisted Products Service (CAPS).====Public key encryption====In 1970 the concept for public-key encryption (public key infrastructure) was developed and proven by GCHQ's James H. Ellis.", "Ellis lacked the number theory skills required to build a workable system.", "In 1974 GCHQ mathematician Clifford Cocks had developed a workable public key cryptography algorithm and a workable PKI system.", "Cock's system was not available in the public domain until it was declassified in 1997.By 1997 broader public key cryptography commercial technologies had been independently developed and had become well established, in areas such as email security, digital signatures, and TLS (a fundamental TCP/IP security component) etc.", "Most notably in 1977 the RSA algorithm had been developed (equivalent to Cocks' system) and by 1997 was extremely well established.===NCSC===In 2016, the National Cyber Security Centre was established under GCHQ but located in London, as the UK's authority on cybersecurity.", "It absorbed and replaced CESG as well as activities that had previously existed outside GCHQ: the Centre for Cyber Assessment (CCA), Computer Emergency Response Team UK (CERT UK) and the cyber-related responsibilities of the Centre for the Protection of National Infrastructure (CPNI)." ], [ "Joint Technical Language Service", "The Joint Technical Language Service (JTLS) was established in 1955, drawing on members of the small Ministry of Defence technical language team and others, initially to provide standard English translations for organisational expressions in any foreign language, discover the correct English equivalents of technical terms in foreign languages and discover the correct expansions of abbreviations in any language.", "The remit of the JTLS has expanded in the ensuing years to cover technical language support and interpreting and translation services across the UK Government and to local public sector services in Gloucestershire and surrounding counties.", "The JTLS also produces and publishes foreign language working aids under crown copyright and conducts research into machine translation and on-line dictionaries and glossaries.", "The JTLS is co-located with GCHQ for administrative purposes." ], [ "International relationships", "GCHQ operates in partnership with equivalent agencies worldwide in a number of bi-lateral and multi-lateral relationships.", "The principal of these is with the United States (National Security Agency), Canada (Communications Security Establishment), Australia (Australian Signals Directorate) and New Zealand (Government Communications Security Bureau), through the mechanism of the UK-US Security Agreement, a broad intelligence-sharing agreement encompassing a range of intelligence collection methods.", "Relationships are alleged to include shared collection methods, such as the system described in the popular media as ECHELON, as well as analysed product." ], [ "Legal basis", "GCHQ's legal basis is established by the Intelligence Services Act 1994 Section 3 as follows:Activities that involve interception of communications are permitted under the Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000; this kind of interception can only be carried out after a warrant has been issued by a Secretary of State.", "The Human Rights Act 1998 requires the intelligence agencies, including GCHQ, to respect citizens' rights as described in the European Convention on Human Rights.===Oversight===The Prime Minister nominates cross-party Members of Parliament to an Intelligence and Security Committee.", "The remit of the Committee includes oversight of intelligence and security activities and reports are made directly to Parliament.", "Its functions were increased under the Justice and Security Act 2013 to provide for further access and investigatory powers.Judicial oversight of GCHQ's conduct is exercised by the Investigatory Powers Tribunal.", "The UK also has an independent Intelligence Services Commissioner and Interception of Communications Commissioner, both of whom are former senior judges.The Investigatory Powers Tribunal ruled in December 2014 that GCHQ does not breach the European Convention of Human Rights, and that its activities are compliant with Articles 8 (right to privacy) and 10 (freedom of expression) of the European Convention of Human Rights.", "However, the Tribunal stated in February 2015 that one particular aspect, the data-sharing arrangement that allowed UK Intelligence services to request data from the US surveillance programmes Prism and Upstream, had been in contravention of human rights law prior to this until two paragraphs of additional information, providing details about the procedures and safeguards, were disclosed to the public in December 2014.Furthermore, the IPT ruled that the legislative framework in the United Kingdom does not permit mass surveillance and that while GCHQ collects and analyses data in bulk, it does not practice mass surveillance.", "This complements independent reports by the Interception of Communications Commissioner, and a special report made by the Intelligence and Security Committee of Parliament; although several shortcomings and potential improvements to both oversight and the legislative framework were highlighted.===Abuses===Despite the inherent secrecy around much of GCHQ's work, investigations carried out by the UK government after the Snowden disclosures have admitted various abuses by the security services.", "A report by the Intelligence and Security Committee (ISC) in 2015 revealed that a small number of staff at UK intelligence agencies had been found to misuse their surveillance powers, in one case leading to the dismissal of a member of staff at GCHQ, although there were no laws in place at the time to make these abuses a criminal offence.Later that year, a ruling by the Investigatory Powers Tribunal found that GCHQ acted unlawfully in conducting surveillance on two human rights organisations.", "The closed hearing found the government in breach of its internal surveillance policies in accessing and retaining the communications of the Egyptian Initiative for Personal Rights and the Legal Resources Centre in South Africa.", "This was only the second time in the IPT's history that it had made a positive determination in favour of applicants after a closed session.At another IPT case in 2015, GCHQ conceded that \"from January 2010, the regime for the interception/obtaining, analysis, use, disclosure and destruction of legally privileged material has not been in accordance with the law for the purposes of Article 8(2) of the European convention on human rights and was accordingly unlawful\".", "This admission was made in connection with a case brought against them by Abdelhakim Belhaj, a Libyan opponent of the former Gaddafi regime, and his wife Fatima Bouchard.", "The couple accused British ministers and officials of participating in their unlawful abduction, kidnapping and removal to Libya in March 2004, while Gaddafi was still in power.On 25 May 2021, the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) ruled that the GCHQ is guilty of violating data privacy rules through their bulk interception of communications, and does not provide sufficient protections for confidential journalistic material because it gathers communications in bulk.====Surveillance of parliamentarians====In 2015 there was a complaint by Green Party MP Caroline Lucas that British intelligence services, including GCHQ, had been spying on MPs allegedly \"in defiance of laws prohibiting it.", "\"Then-Home Secretary, Theresa May, had told Parliament in 2014 that:The Investigatory Powers Tribunal investigated the complaint, and ruled that contrary to the allegation, there was no law that gave the communications of Parliament any special protection.", "The Wilson Doctrine merely acts as a political convention." ], [ "Constitutional legal case", "A controversial GCHQ case determined the scope of judicial review of prerogative powers (the Crown's residual powers under common law).", "This was ''Council of Civil Service Unions v Minister for the Civil Service'' 1985 AC 374 (often known simply as the \"GCHQ case\").", "In this case, a prerogative Order in Council had been used by the prime minister (who is the Minister for the Civil Service) to ban trade union activities by civil servants working at GCHQ.", "This order was issued without consultation.", "The House of Lords had to decide whether this was reviewable by judicial review.", "It was held that executive action is not immune from judicial review simply because it uses powers derived from common law rather than statute (thus the prerogative is reviewable)." ], [ "Leadership", "The following is a list of the heads and operational heads of GCHQ and GC&CS:*Sir Hugh Sinclair (1919–1939) (founder)*Alastair Denniston (1921–February 1942) (operational head)*Sir Edward Travis (February 1942 – 1952)*Sir Eric Jones (April 1952 – 1960)*Sir Clive Loehnis (1960–1964)*Sir Leonard Hooper (1965–1973)*Sir Arthur Bonsall (1973–1978)*Sir Brian John Maynard Tovey (1978–1983)*Sir Peter Marychurch (1983–1989)*Sir John Anthony Adye (1989–1996)*Sir David Omand (1996 –1997)*Sir Kevin Tebbit (1998)*Sir Francis Richards (1998–2003)*Sir David Pepper (2003–2008)*Sir Iain Lobban (2008–2014)*Robert Hannigan (2014–2017)*Sir Jeremy Fleming (2017–2023)*Anne Keast-Butler (2023–Present)" ], [ "Stations and former stations", "The following are stations and former stations that have operated since the Cold War.=== Current =======United Kingdom====*GCHQ Bude, Cornwall*GCHQ Cheltenham, Gloucestershire (headquarters)*GCHQ London*GCHQ Manchester*GCHQ Scarborough, North Yorkshire*RAF Digby, Lincolnshire*RAF Menwith Hill, North Yorkshire====Overseas====* GCHQ Ascension Island* GCHQ Cyprus* GCHQ Oman=== Former =======United Kingdom====*GCHQ Brora, Sutherland*GCHQ Cheadle, Staffordshire*GCHQ Culmhead, Somerset*GCHQ Hawklaw, Fife====Overseas====*GCHQ Hong Kong" ], [ "In popular culture", "In the historical drama film ''The Imitation Game'' (2014) Benedict Cumberbatch portrays Alan Turing in his efforts to break the Enigma code while employed by the Government Code and Cypher School.GCHQ have set a number of cryptic online challenges to the public, used to attract interest and for recruitment, starting in late 1999.The response to the 2004 challenge was described as \"excellent\", and the challenge set in 2015 had over 600,000 attempts.", "It also published the ''GCHQ Puzzle Book'' in 2016 which sold more than 300,000 copies, with the proceeds going to charity.", "A second book was published in October 2018.GCHQ appeared in the ''Doctor Who'' 2019 special \"Resolution\" where the Reconnaissance Scout Dalek storms the facility and exterminates the staff in order to use the organisation's resources to summon a Dalek fleet.GCHQ is the setting of the 2020 Sky One sitcom ''Intelligence'', featuring David Schwimmer as an incompetent American NSA officer liaising with GCHQ's Cyber Crimes unit.In October 2020, intelligence and security expert John Ferris published ''Behind the Enigma: The Authorised History of GCHQ, Britain's Secret Cyber-Intelligence Agency''.GCHQ is the setting of the 2022 Channel 4 drama ''The Undeclared War''.", "Set in the near future, it depicts a work experience student at the government agency during a cyberattack on the UK and the implications." ], [ "See also", "GCHQ units:* Joint Operations Cell* National Cyber Security CentreGCHQ specifics:*Capenhurst – said to be home to a GCHQ monitoring site in the 1990s*Hugh Alexander – head of the cryptanalysis division at GCHQ from 1949 to 1971*Operation Socialist, a 2010–2013 operation in Belgium*Zircon, the cancelled 1980s GCHQ satellite projectUK agencies:*British intelligence agencies*Joint Forces Intelligence Group*RAF Intelligence*UK cyber security communityElsewhere:*Signals intelligence by alliances, nations and industries*NSA – equivalent United States organisation" ], [ "Notes and references" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * ***" ], [ "External links", "* * His Majesty's Government Communications Centre* GovCertUK* GCHQ: Britain's Most Secret Intelligence Agency* BBC: A final look at GCHQ's top secret Oakley site in Cheltenham* INCENSER, or how NSA and GCHQ are tapping internet cables* The Secret History of GCHQ BBC documentary" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Francis Gary Powers" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Francis Gary Powers''' (August 17, 1929August 1, 1977) was an American pilot whose Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) Lockheed U-2 spy plane was shot down while flying a reconnaissance mission in Soviet Union airspace, causing the 1960 U-2 incident.He later worked as a helicopter pilot for KNBC in Los Angeles and died in a 1977 helicopter crash." ], [ "Early life and education", "Powers was born August 17, 1929, in Jenkins, Kentucky, the son of Oliver Winfield Powers (1904–1970), a coal miner, and his wife Ida Melinda Powers (; 1905–1991).", "His family eventually moved to Pound, Virginia, just across the state border.", "He was the second-born and only male of six children.His family lived in a mining town, and because of the hardships associated with living in such a town, his father wanted Powers to become a physician.", "He hoped his son would achieve the higher earnings of such a profession and felt that this would involve less hardship than any job in his hometown." ], [ "Education and service", "After graduating with a bachelor's degree from Milligan College in Tennessee in June 1950, Powers enlisted in the United States Air Force in October.", "He was commissioned as a second lieutenant in December 1952 after completing his advanced training with USAF Pilot Training Class 52-H at Williams Air Force Base, Arizona.", "Powers was then assigned to the 468th Strategic Fighter Squadron at Turner Air Force Base, Georgia, as a Republic F-84 Thunderjet pilot.Powers married Barbara Gay Moore in Newnan, Georgia, on April 2, 1955.In January 1956 he was recruited by the CIA.", "In May 1956 he began U-2 training at Watertown Strip, Nevada.", "His training was complete by August 1956 and his unit, the Second Weather Observational Squadron (Provisional) or Detachment 10-10, was deployed to Incirlik Air Base, Turkey.", "By 1960, Powers was already a veteran of many covert aerial reconnaissance missions.", "Family members believed that he was a NASA weather reconnaissance pilot.Powers while he was in Soviet custodyWooden U-2 model – one of two used by Powers when he testified to the Senate Committee.", "The wings and tail are detached to demonstrate the aircraft's breakup." ], [ "U-2 incident", "Pilot Francis Gary Powers at the American High AltitudeLockheed U-2 reconnaissance aircraftPowers was discharged from the Air Force in 1956 with the rank of captain.", "He then joined the CIA's U-2 program at the civilian grade of GS-12.U-2 pilots flew espionage missions at altitudes of , supposedly above the reach of Soviet air defenses.", "The U-2 was equipped with a state-of-the-art camera designed to take high-resolution photos from the stratosphere over hostile countries, including the Soviet Union.", "U-2 missions systematically photographed military installations and other important sites.===Reconnaissance mission===The primary mission of the U-2s was to overfly the Soviet Union.", "Soviet intelligence had been aware of encroaching U-2 flights at least since 1958 if not earlier but lacked effective countermeasures until 1960.On May 1, 1960, Powers' U-2A, ''56-6693'', departed from a military airbase in Peshawar, Pakistan, with support from the U.S. Air Station at Badaber (Peshawar Air Station).", "This was to be the first attempt \"to fly all the way across the Soviet Union ... but it was considered worth the gamble.", "The planned route would take us deeper into Russia than we had ever gone, while traversing important targets never before photographed.", "\"===Shot down===Powers was shot down by an S-75 Dvina (SA-2 \"Guideline\") surface-to-air missile over Sverdlovsk.", "A total of 14 Dvinas were launched, one of which hit a MiG-19 jet fighter which was sent to intercept the U-2 but could not reach a high enough altitude.", "Its pilot, Sergei Safronov, ejected but died of his injuries.", "Another Soviet aircraft, a newly manufactured Su-9 on a transit flight, also attempted to intercept Powers' U-2.The unarmed Su-9 was directed to ram the U-2 but missed because of the large differences in speed.As Powers flew near Kosulino in the Ural Region, three S-75 Dvinas were launched at his U-2, with the first one hitting the aircraft.", "\"What was left of the plane began spinning, only upside down, the nose pointing upward toward the sky, the tail down toward the ground.\"", "According to his book ''Operation Overflight'', Powers delayed activating the camera's self-destruct mechanism until he made sure he could exit the cockpit before the charges detonated.", "When ''g''-forces unexpectedly threw him from the spinning aircraft, he could no longer reach the destruct switches.", "While descending under his parachute, Powers had time to scatter his escape map, and rid himself of part of his suicide device, a silver dollar coin suspended around his neck containing a poison-laced injection pin, though he kept the poison pin.", "\"Yet I was still hopeful of escape.\"", "He hit the ground hard, was immediately captured, and taken to Lubyanka Prison in Moscow.", "Powers did note a second chute after landing on the ground, \"some distance away and very high, a lone red and white parachute\".===Attempted deception by the U.S. government===When the U.S. government learned of Powers' disappearance over the Soviet Union, they lied that a \"weather plane\" had strayed off course after its pilot had \"difficulties with his oxygen equipment\".", "What CIA officials did not realize was that the plane crashed almost fully intact and that the Soviets had recovered its pilot and the plane's equipment, including its top-secret high-altitude camera.", "Powers was interrogated extensively by the KGB for months before he made a confession and a public apology for his part in espionage.===Portrayal in U.S. media===Following admission by the White House that Powers had been captured alive, American media depicted Powers as an all-American pilot hero, who never smoked or touched alcohol.", "In fact, Powers smoked and drank socially.", "The CIA urged that his wife Barbara be given sedatives before speaking to the press and gave her talking points that she repeated to the press to portray her as a devoted wife.", "Her broken leg, according to the CIA disinformation, was the result of a water-skiing accident, when in fact it happened after she had had too much to drink and was dancing with another man.In the course of his trial for espionage in the Soviet Union, Powers confessed to the charges against him and apologized for violating Soviet airspace to spy on the Soviets.", "In the wake of his apology, American media often depicted Powers as a coward and even as a symptom of the decay of America's \"moral character.", "\"===Pilot testimony compromised by newspaper reports===Powers tried to limit the information he shared with the KGB to that which could be determined from the remains of his plane's wreckage.", "He was hampered by information appearing in the western press.", "A KGB major stated \"there's no reason for you to withhold information.", "We'll find it out anyway.", "Your Press will give it to us.\"", "However, he limited his divulging of CIA contacts to one individual, with a pseudonym of \"Collins\".", "At the same time, he repeatedly stated the maximum altitude for the U-2 was , lower than its actual flight ceiling.===Political consequence===The incident set back talks between Khrushchev and Eisenhower.", "Powers' interrogations ended on June 30, and his solitary confinement ended on July 9.On August 17, 1960, his trial began for espionage before the military division of the Supreme Court of the Soviet Union.", "Lieutenant General Borisoglebsky, Major General Vorobyev, and Major General Zakharov presided.", "Roman Rudenko acted as prosecutor in his capacity of Procurator General of the Soviet Union.", "Mikhail I. Grinev served as Powers' defense counsel.", "In attendance were his parents and sister, and his wife Barbara and her mother.", "His father brought along his attorney Carl McAfee, while the CIA provided two additional attorneys.===Conviction===On August 19, 1960, Powers was convicted of espionage, \"a grave crime covered by Article 2 of the Soviet Union's law 'On Criminality Responsibility for State Crimes'\".", "His sentence consisted of 10 years' confinement, three of which were to be in a prison, with the remainder in a labor camp.", "The US Embassy \"News Bulletin\" stated, according to Powers, \"as far as the government was concerned, I had acted in accordance with the instructions given me and would receive my full salary while imprisoned\".He was held in Vladimir Central Prison, about east of Moscow, in building number 2 from September 9, 1960, until February 8, 1962.His cellmate was Zigurds Krūmiņš, a Latvian political prisoner.", "Powers kept a diary and a journal while confined.", "Additionally, he learned carpet weaving from his cellmate to pass the time.", "He could send and receive a limited number of letters to and from his family.", "The prison now contains a small museum with an exhibit on Powers, who allegedly developed a good rapport with Soviet prisoners there.", "Some pieces of the plane and Powers' uniform are on display at the Monino Airbase museum near Moscow.===Prisoner exchange=======CIA opposition to exchange====The CIA, in particular chief of CIA Counterintelligence James Jesus Angleton, opposed exchanging Powers for Soviet KGB Colonel William Fisher, known as \"Rudolf Abel\", who had been caught by the FBI and tried and jailed for espionage.", "First, Angleton believed that Powers might have deliberately defected to the Soviet side.", "CIA documents released in 2010 indicate that U.S. officials did not believe Powers' account of the incident at the time, because it was contradicted by a classified National Security Agency (NSA) report which alleged that the U-2 had descended from before changing course and disappearing from radar.", "The NSA report remains classified as of 2022.In any event, Angleton suspected that Powers had already revealed all he knew to the Soviets and therefore reasoned that Powers was worthless to the U.S. On the other hand, according to Angleton, William Fisher had revealed little to the CIA, refusing to disclose even his real name, and for this reason, William Fisher was still of potential value.However, Barbara Powers, Gary Powers' wife, was allegedly often drinking and having affairs.", "On June 22, 1961, she was pulled over by the police after driving erratically and was caught driving under the influence.", "To avoid bad publicity for the wife of the well-known CIA operative, doctors tasked by the CIA to keep Barbara out of the limelight arranged to have her committed to a psychiatric ward in Augusta, Georgia, under strict supervision.", "She was eventually released to the care of her mother.", "However, the CIA feared that Gary Powers languishing in Soviet prison might learn of Barbara's plight and as a result reach a state of desperation causing him to reveal to the Soviets whatever secrets he had not already revealed.", "Thus, Barbara unwittingly may have aided the cause of the approval of the prisoner exchange involving her husband and William Fisher.", "Angleton and others at the CIA still opposed the exchange but President John F. Kennedy approved it.====The exchange====On February 10, 1962, Powers was exchanged, along with U.S. student Frederic Pryor, for Soviet KGB Colonel Rudolf Abel.", "Due to political differences between the Soviet Union and the German Democratic Republic at the time, Pryor was turned over to American authorities at Checkpoint Charlie, before the exchange of Powers for Fisher was allowed to proceed on the Glienicke Bridge.Powers credited his father with the swap idea.", "When released, Powers' total time in captivity was 1 year, 9 months, and 10 days." ], [ "Aftermath", "Clarence Johnson and Francis Gary Powers in front of a U-2Powers initially received a cold reception on his return home.", "He was criticized for not activating his aircraft's self-destruct charge to destroy the camera, photographic film, and related classified parts.", "He was also criticized for not using a CIA-issued \"suicide pill\" to kill himself (a coin with shellfish toxin embedded in its grooves, revealed during CIA testimony to the Church Committee in 1975).He was debriefed extensively by the CIA, Lockheed Corporation, and the Air Force, after which a statement was issued by CIA director John McCone that \"Mr.", "Powers lived up to the terms of his employment and instructions in connection with his mission and in his obligations as an American.\"", "On March 6, 1962, he appeared before a Senate Armed Services Select Committee hearing chaired by Senator Richard Russell Jr. which included Senators Prescott Bush, Leverett Saltonstall, Robert Byrd, Margaret Chase Smith, John Stennis, Strom Thurmond, and Barry Goldwater.", "During the hearing, Senator Saltonstall stated, \"I commend you as a courageous, fine young American citizen who lived up to your instructions and who did the best you could under very difficult circumstances.\"", "Senator Bush declared, \"I am satisfied he has conducted himself in exemplary fashion and in accordance with the highest traditions of service to one's country, and I congratulate him upon his conduct in captivity.\"", "Senator Goldwater sent him a handwritten note: \"You did a good job for your country.", "\"===Divorce and remarriage===Powers with first wife, Barbara, in 1962Powers sued his wife for divorce on August 14, 1962, claiming she cursed and abused him for no reason.", "Powers stated that the reasons for the divorce included her infidelity and alcoholism, adding that she constantly threw tantrums and overdosed on pills shortly after his return.", "He started a relationship with Claudia Edwards \"Sue\" Downey, whom he had met while working briefly at CIA Headquarters.", "Downey had a child, Dee, from her previous marriage.", "They were married on October 26, 1963.Their son Francis Gary Powers Jr. was born on June 5, 1965.The marriage proved to be a very happy one, and Sue worked hard to preserve her husband's legacy after his death.===Praise===During a speech in March 1964, former CIA Director Allen Dulles said of Powers, \"He performed his duty in a very dangerous mission and he performed it well, and I think I know more about that than some of his detractors and critics know, and I am glad to say that to him tonight.", "\"===Later career===Powers in 1973, reporting for KGILPowers worked for Lockheed as a test pilot from 1962 to 1970, though the CIA paid his salary.", "In 1970, he wrote the book ''Operation Overflight'' with co-author Curt Gentry.", "Lockheed fired him, because \"the book's publication had ruffled some feathers at Langley.\"", "Powers then became a traffic reporting airplane pilot for Los Angeles radio station KGIL.", "After that he became a helicopter news reporter for KNBC television." ], [ "Death", "Powers was piloting a helicopter for Los Angeles TV station KNBC Channel 4 over the San Fernando Valley on August 1, 1977, when the aircraft crashed, killing him and his cameraman George Spears.", "They had been recording video following brush fires in Santa Barbara County in the KNBC helicopter and were heading back when the crash occurred.His Bell 206 JetRanger helicopter ran out of fuel and crashed at the Sepulveda Dam recreational area in Encino, California, several miles short of its intended landing site at Burbank Airport.", "The National Transportation Safety Board report attributed the probable cause of the crash to pilot error.", "According to Powers' son, an aviation mechanic had repaired a faulty fuel gauge without informing Powers, who subsequently misread it.At the last moment, it is surmised that he noticed children playing in the area and directed the helicopter elsewhere to avoid landing on them.", "He might have landed safely if not for the last-second deviation, which compromised his autorotative descent.", "Powers was survived by his wife, children (Claudia Dee and Francis Gary Powers Jr.), and five sisters.", "He is buried in Arlington National Cemetery as an Air Force veteran." ], [ "Honors", "USAF Senior Pilot BadgeSilver StarDistinguished Flying CrossIntelligence Star(Valor Award)Prisoner of War MedalArmy Good Conduct MedalNational Defense Service Medalw/ 1 bronze service starKorean Service MedalAir Force Longevity Service Awardw/ two bronze oak leaf clustersUnited Nations Service Medal for KoreaPowers received the CIA's Intelligence Star in 1972 after his return from the Soviet Union.", "Powers was originally scheduled to receive it in 1963 along with other pilots involved in the CIA's U-2 program, but the award was postponed for political reasons.", "In 1970, Powers published his first—and only—book review, on a work about aerial reconnaissance, ''Unarmed and Unafraid'' by Glenn Infield, in the monthly magazine ''Business & Commercial Aviation''.", "\"The subject has great interest to me,\" he said, in submitting his review.In 1998, newly declassified information revealed that Powers' mission had been a joint USAF/CIA operation.", "In 2000, on the 40th anniversary of the U-2 Incident, his family was presented with his posthumously awarded Prisoner of War Medal, Distinguished Flying Cross, and National Defense Service Medal.", "In addition, CIA Director George Tenet authorized Powers to posthumously receive the CIA's coveted Director's Medal for extreme fidelity and extraordinary courage in the line of duty.On June 15, 2012, Powers was posthumously awarded the Silver Star medal for \"demonstrating 'exceptional loyalty' while enduring harsh interrogation in the Lubyanka Prison in Moscow for almost two years.\"", "Air Force Chief of Staff General Norton Schwartz presented the decoration to Powers' grandchildren, Trey Powers, 9, and Lindsey Berry, 29, in a Pentagon ceremony." ], [ "Legacy", "Powers' son, Francis Gary Powers Jr., founded the Cold War Museum in 1996.Affiliated with the Smithsonian Institution, it was essentially a traveling exhibit until it found a permanent home in 2011 on a former Army communications base outside Washington, D.C in Warrenton, Virginia." ], [ "In popular culture", "* In the 1976 telemovie ''Francis Gary Powers: The True Story of the U-2 Spy Incident'', Powers was played by Lee Majors.", "* In the 1989 song We Didn't Start the Fire by Billy Joel, one of the lines references the U2 based on this event.", "* In 1999, the History Channel aired ''Mystery of the U2'', hosted by Arthur Kent as part of their History Undercover series.", "The program was produced by Indigo Films.", "* In the 2015 movie ''Bridge of Spies'', dramatizing the negotiations to repatriate Powers, he is portrayed by Austin Stowell, with Tom Hanks starring as negotiator James Donovan.", "* In April 2018, ''The Aviationist'' featured an article about the song \"Powers Down\", a tribute to Powers." ], [ "See also", "* Rudolf Anderson* Cuban Missile Crisis" ], [ "References", "===Citations======Bibliography===** Powers, Francis Gary with Gentry, Curt.", "''Operation Overflight''.", "Hodder & Stoughton Ltd, 1971 (hard cover) .", "* ===Notes===" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Family webpage on Gary Powers* Info on The Cold War Museum* CIA FOIA documents on Gary Powers* FBI Records: The Vault – Francis Gary Powers* Documents and Photographs regarding the U-2 Spy Plane Incident of 1960, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library * Check-Six.com ''The Francis Gary Powers Helo Crash''* Transcripts of the Soviet court trial * 1962 Russia frees US spy plane pilot* View images of the ''Francis Gary Powers U-2 Pilot'' Cinderella stamps on the artist's webSite.", "* IMDB page for the 1976 TV movie.", "* ANC Explorer" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gospel of James" ], [ "Introduction", "''Annunciation to Joachim and Anna'', fresco by Gaudenzio Ferrari, 1544–45 (detail)The '''Gospel of James''' (or the '''Protoevangelium of James''') is a second-century infancy gospel telling of the miraculous conception of the Virgin Mary, her upbringing and marriage to Joseph, the journey of the couple to Bethlehem, the birth of Jesus, and events immediately following.", "It is the earliest surviving assertion of the perpetual virginity of Mary, meaning her virginity not just prior to the birth of Jesus, but during and afterwards, and despite being condemned by Pope Innocent I in 405 and rejected by the Gelasian Decree around 500, became a widely influential source for Mariology." ], [ "Composition", "===Date, authorship, and sources===The Gospel of James was well known to Origen in the early third century and probably to Clement of Alexandria at the end of the second, so is assumed to have been in circulation soon after ''circa'' 150 AD.", "The author claims to be James the brother of Jesus by an earlier marriage of Joseph, but in fact his identity is unknown.", "Early studies assumed a Jewish milieu, largely because of its frequent use and knowledge of the Septuagint (a Greek translation of the Jewish scriptures); further investigation demonstrated that it misunderstands and/or misrepresents many Jewish practices, but Judaism at this time was highly diverse, and recent trends in scholarship do not entirely dismiss a Jewish connection.", "Its origin is probably Syrian, and it possibly derives from a sect called the Encratites, whose founder, Tatian, taught that sex and marriage were symptoms of original sin.The gospel is a ''midrash'' (an elaboration) on the birth narratives found in the gospels of Matthew and Luke, and many of its elements, notably its very physical description of Mary's pregnancy and the examination of her hymen by the midwife Salome, suggest strongly that it was attempting to deny the arguments of docetists, Christians who held that Jesus was entirely supernatural.", "It also draws heavily on the Septuagint for historical analogies, turns of phrase, and details of Jewish life.", "Ronald Hock and Mary F. Foskett have drawn attention to the influence of Greco-Roman literature on its themes of virginity and purity.===Manuscripts and manuscript tradition===Scholars generally accept that the Gospel of James was originally composed in Greek.", "Over 100 Greek manuscripts have survived, and translations were made into Syriac, Ethiopic, Sahidic Coptic, Georgian, Old Church Slavonic, Armenian, Arabic, and presumably Latin, given that it was apparently known to the compiler of the Gelasian Decree.", "The oldest is Papyrus Bodmer 5 from the fourth or possibly third century, discovered in 1952 and now in the Bodmer Library, Geneva, while the fullest is a 10th-century Greek codex in the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris.", "The first widely printed edition (as opposed to hand-copied manuscripts) was a 1552 edition printed in Basel, Switzerland, by Guillaume Postel, who printed his Latin translation of a Greek version of the work.", "Postel also gave the work the Latin name (Proto-Gospel of James) because he believed (incorrectly) that the work antedated the main gospels of the New Testament (proto- for first, evangelion for gospel).", "Emile de Stryker published the standard modern critical edition in 1961, and in 1995 Ronald Hock published an English translation based on de Stryker." ], [ "Structure and content", "The Presentation of the Virgin in the Temple, an event that only appears in the Gospel of James, depicted on a Russian iconThe narrative is made up of three distinct sections with only slight ties to each other:# Chapters 1–17: A biography of Mary, dealing with her miraculous birth and holy infancy and childhood, her engagement to Joseph and virginal conception of Jesus# Chapters 18–20: The birth of Jesus, including proof that Mary continued to be a virgin even after the birth# Chapters 22–24: The death of Zacharias, father of John the BaptistMary is presented as an extraordinary child destined for great things from the moment of her conception.", "Her parents, the wealthy Joachim and his wife Anna (or Anne), are distressed that they have no children, and Joachim goes into the wilderness to pray, leaving Anna to lament her childless state.", "God hears Anna's prayer, angels announce the coming child, and in the seventh month of Anna's pregnancy (underlining the exceptional nature of Mary's future life), she is born.", "Anna dedicates the child to God and vows that she shall be raised in the Temple.", "Joachim and Anna name the child Mary, and when she is three years old, they send her to the Temple, where she is fed each day by an angel.When Mary approaches her 12th year, the priests decide that she can no longer stay in the Temple lest her menstrual blood render it unclean, and God finds a widower, Joseph, to act as her guardian: Joseph is depicted as elderly and the father of grown sons; he has no desire for sexual relations with Mary.", "He leaves on business, and Mary is called to the Temple to help weave the temple curtain.", "One day while Mary is spinning thread for the curtain, the angel Gabriel appears and tells her that she has been chosen to conceive Jesus the Saviour, but that she will not give birth as other women do.", "Joseph returns and finds Mary six months pregnant, and rebukes her, fearing that the priests will assume that he is the guilty party.", "They do, but the chastity of both is proven through the \"test of bitter waters\".The Roman census forces the holy couple to travel to Bethlehem, but Mary's time comes before they can reach the village.", "Joseph settles Mary in a cave, where she is guarded by his sons, while he goes in search of a midwife, and for an apocalyptic moment as he searches all creation stands still.", "He returns with a midwife, and as they stand at the mouth of the cave, a cloud overshadows it, an intense light fills it, and suddenly a baby is at Mary's breast.", "Joseph and the midwife marvel at the miracle, but a second midwife named Salome (the first is not given a name) insists on examining Mary, upon which her hand withers as a sign of her lack of faith; Salome prays to God for forgiveness and an angel appears and tells her to touch the Christ Child, upon which her hand is healed.The gospel concludes with the visit of the Three Magi, the massacre of the innocents in Bethlehem, the martyrdom of the High Priest Zechariah (father of John the Baptist), the election of his successor Simeon, and an epilogue telling the circumstances under which the work was supposedly composed." ], [ "Influence", "===Christianity===The Gospel of James was a widely influential source for Christian doctrine regarding Mary.", "According to Bernhard Lohse, it is the earliest assertion of her perpetual virginity, meaning her virginity not just prior to the birth of Jesus, but during the birth and afterwards.", "Its explanation of the gospels' \"brothers of Jesus\" (the ''adelphoi'') as the offspring of Joseph by an earlier marriage remains the position of the Eastern church, but in the West, influential theologian Jerome asserted that Joseph himself had been a perpetual virgin, and that the'' adelphoi ''were cousins of the Lord.", "Jerome's opposition to the Protevangelium led to a diminished influence and circulation in the western, Latin church.", "It was condemned by Pope Innocent I in 405 and rejected by the Gelasian Decree around 500.It was completely unknown in the West, and it was taken over by the widely read Gospel of Pseudo-Matthew, which popularized most of its stories.The Gospel of James was the first to give the name Anne to the mother of Mary, taking it probably from Hannah, the mother of the prophet Samuel, and Mary, like Samuel, is taken to spend her childhood in the temple.", "Some manuscripts say of Anne's pregnancy that it was the result of normal intercourse with her husband, but current scholars prefer the oldest texts, which say that Mary was conceived in Joachim's absence through divine intervention; nevertheless, the Gospel of James does not advance the idea of Mary's Immaculate Conception.Various manuscripts place the birth of Mary in the sixth, seventh, eighth, or ninth month, with the oldest having the seventh; this was in keeping with both the Judaism of the period, which had similar seventh-month births for significant individuals such as Samuel, Isaac, and Moses, as the sign of a miraculous or divine conception.", "Further signs of Mary's supremely holy nature follow, including Anne's vow that the infant would never walk on the earth (her bedroom is made a \"sanctuary\" where she is attended by \"undefiled daughters of the Hebrews\"), her blessing \"with the ultimate blessing\" by the priests on her first birthday with the declaration that because of her God will bring redemption to Israel, and the angels who bring her food in the Temple, where she is attended by the priests and engages herself in weaving the temple curtain.The ordeal of the bitter water serves to defend Jesus against accusation of illegitimacy levied in the second century by pagan and Jewish opponents of Christianity.", "Christian sensitivity to these charges made them eager to defend both the virgin birth of Jesus and the immaculate conception of Mary (i.e., her freedom from sin at the moment of her conception).===Islam===The Quranic stories of the Virgin Mary and the birth of Jesus can be traced to the canonical Christian gospels, to the Diatessaron (a second century gospel harmony), and to various apocryphan infancy gospels including the Gospel of James, which provides the Quran's mention of Mary fed by angels, the choice of her guardian through the casting of lots, and her occupation making a curtain for the Temple immediately before the Annunciation." ], [ "See also", "* Acts of the Apostles (genre)* Apocalyptic literature* ''Castelseprio'' – early fresco depiction of the trial by water* Gospel* History of Joseph the Carpenter* List of Gospels* List of New Testament papyri* New Testament apocrypha* Pseudepigraphy* Perpetual virginity of Mary* Salome (Gospel of James)* Meeting of Joachim and Anne at the Golden Gate" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Citations======Bibliography===************* ****** ****" ], [ "External links", "* Early Christian Writings website: ''Infancy Gospel of James''* The Infancy Gospel of James (based on the Greek text of Ronald F. Hock)* The Infancy Gospel of James (based on the critical Greek text of Émile de Strycker)* Protevangelium Jacobi (in Greek)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gene therapy" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Gene therapy''' is a medical technology that aims to produce a therapeutic effect through the manipulation of gene expression or through altering the biological properties of living cells.The first attempt at modifying human DNA was performed in 1980, by Martin Cline, but the first successful nuclear gene transfer in humans, approved by the National Institutes of Health, was performed in May 1989.The first therapeutic use of gene transfer as well as the first direct insertion of human DNA into the nuclear genome was performed by French Anderson in a trial starting in September 1990.Between 1989 and December 2018, over 2,900 clinical trials were conducted, with more than half of them in phase I.", "In 2003, Gendicine became the first gene therapy to receive regulatory approval.", "Since that time, further gene therapy drugs were approved, such as Glybera (2012), Strimvelis (2016), Kymriah (2017), Luxturna (2017), Onpattro (2018), Zolgensma (2019), Abecma (2021), Adstiladrin, Roctavian and Hemgenix (all 2022).", "Most of these approaches utilize adeno-associated viruses (AAVs) and lentiviruses for performing gene insertions, ''in vivo'' and ''ex vivo'', respectively.", "AAVs are characterized by stabilizing the viral capsid, lower immunogenicity, ability to transduce both dividing and nondividing cells, the potential to integrate site specifically and to achieve long-term expression in the in-vivo treatment.", "ASO / siRNA approaches such as those conducted by Alnylam and Ionis Pharmaceuticals require non-viral delivery systems, and utilize alternative mechanisms for trafficking to liver cells by way of GalNAc transporters.Not all medical procedures that introduce alterations to a patient's genetic makeup can be considered gene therapy.", "Bone marrow transplantation and organ transplants in general have been found to introduce foreign DNA into patients." ], [ "Background", "Gene therapy was first conceptualized in the 1960s, when the feasibility of adding new genetic functions to mammalian cells began to be researched.", "Several methods to do so were tested, including injecting genes with a micropipette directly into a living mammalian cell, and exposing cells to a precipitate of DNA that contained the desired genes.", "Scientists theorized that a virus could also be used as a vehicle, or vector, to deliver new genes into cells.One of the first scientists to report the successful direct incorporation of functional DNA into a mammalian cell was biochemist Dr. Lorraine Marquardt Kraus (6 September 1922 – 1 July 2016) at the University of Tennessee in Tennessee, United States.", "In 1961, she managed to genetically alter the hemoglobin of cells from bone marrow taken from a patient with sickle cell anaemia.", "She did this by incubating the patient’s cells in tissue culture with DNA extracted from a donor with normal hemoglobin.", "In 1968, researchers Theodore Friedmann, Jay Seegmiller, and John Subak-Sharpe at the National Institutes of Health (NIH), Bethesda, in the United States successfully corrected genetic defects associated with Lesch-Nyhan syndrome, a debilitating neurological disease, by adding foreign DNA to cultured cells collected from patients suffering from the disease.The first attempt, an unsuccessful one, at gene therapy (as well as the first case of medical transfer of foreign genes into humans not counting organ transplantation) was performed by geneticist Martin Cline of the University of California, Los Angeles in California, United States on 10 July 1980.Cline claimed that one of the genes in his patients was active six months later, though he never published this data or had it verified.After extensive research on animals throughout the 1980s and a 1989 bacterial gene tagging trial on humans, the first gene therapy widely accepted as a success was demonstrated in a trial that started on 14 September 1990, when Ashanthi DeSilva was treated for ADA-SCID.The first somatic treatment that produced a permanent genetic change was initiated in 1993.The goal was to cure malignant brain tumors by using recombinant DNA to transfer a gene making the tumor cells sensitive to a drug that in turn would cause the tumor cells to die.The polymers are either translated into proteins, interfere with target gene expression, or possibly correct genetic mutations.", "The most common form uses DNA that encodes a functional, therapeutic gene to replace a mutated gene.", "The polymer molecule is packaged within a \"vector\", which carries the molecule inside cells.Early clinical failures led to dismissals of gene therapy.", "Clinical successes since 2006 regained researchers' attention, although , it was still largely an experimental technique.", "These include treatment of retinal diseases Leber's congenital amaurosis and choroideremia, X-linked SCID, ADA-SCID, adrenoleukodystrophy, chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL), acute lymphocytic leukemia (ALL), multiple myeloma, haemophilia, and Parkinson's disease.", "Between 2013 and April 2014, US companies invested over $600 million in the field.The first commercial gene therapy, Gendicine, was approved in China in 2003, for the treatment of certain cancers.", "In 2011, Neovasculgen was registered in Russia as the first-in-class gene-therapy drug for treatment of peripheral artery disease, including critical limb ischemia.In 2012, Glybera, a treatment for a rare inherited disorder, lipoprotein lipase deficiency, became the first treatment to be approved for clinical use in either Europe or the United States after its endorsement by the European Commission.Following early advances in genetic engineering of bacteria, cells, and small animals, scientists started considering how to apply it to medicine.", "Two main approaches were considered – replacing or disrupting defective genes.", "Scientists focused on diseases caused by single-gene defects, such as cystic fibrosis, haemophilia, muscular dystrophy, thalassemia, and sickle cell anemia.", "Glybera treats one such disease, caused by a defect in lipoprotein lipase.DNA must be administered, reach the damaged cells, enter the cell and either express or disrupt a protein.", "Multiple delivery techniques have been explored.", "The initial approach incorporated DNA into an engineered virus to deliver the DNA into a chromosome.", "Naked DNA approaches have also been explored, especially in the context of vaccine development.Generally, efforts focused on administering a gene that causes a needed protein to be expressed.", "More recently, increased understanding of nuclease function has led to more direct DNA editing, using techniques such as zinc finger nucleases and CRISPR.", "The vector incorporates genes into chromosomes.", "The expressed nucleases then knock out and replace genes in the chromosome.", "these approaches involve removing cells from patients, editing a chromosome and returning the transformed cells to patients.Gene editing is a potential approach to alter the human genome to treat genetic diseases, viral diseases, and cancer.", "these approaches are being studied in clinical trials." ], [ "Classification", "=== Breadth of definition ===In 1986, a meeting at the Institute Of Medicine defined gene therapy as the addition or replacement of a gene in a targeted cell type.", "In the same year, the FDA announced that it had jurisdiction over approving \"gene therapy\" without defining the term.", "The FDA added a very broad definition in 1993 of any treatment that would ‘modify or manipulate the expression of genetic material or to alter the biological properties of living cells’.", "In 2018 this was narrowed to ‘products that mediate their effects by transcription or translation of transferred genetic material or by specifically altering host (human) genetic sequences’.Writing in 2018, in the Journal of Law and the Biosciences, Sherkow et al.", "argued for a narrower definition of gene therapy than the FDA's in light of new technology that would consist of any treatment that intentionally and permanently modified a cell's genome, with the definition of genome including episomes outside the nucleus but excluding changes due to episomes that are lost over time.", "This definition would also exclude introducing cells that did not derive from a patient themselves, but include ex vivo approaches, and would not depend on the vector used.During the COVID-19 pandemic, some academics insisted that the mRNA vaccines for COVID were not gene therapy to prevent the spread of incorrect information that the vaccine could alter DNA, other academics maintained that the vaccines were a gene therapy because they introduced genetic material into a cell.", "Fact-checkers, such as Full Fact, Reuters, PolitiFact, and FactCheck.org said that calling the vaccines a gene therapy was incorrect.", "Podcast host Joe Rogan was criticized for calling mRNA vaccines gene therapy as was British politician Andrew Bridgen, with fact checker Full Fact calling for Bridgen to be removed from the conservative party for this and other statements.=== Genes present or added ===Gene therapy encapsulates many forms of adding different nucleic acids to a cell.", "''Gene augmentation'' adds a new protein coding gene to a cell.", "One form of gene augmentiation is ''gene replacement therapy'', a treatment for monogenic recessive disorders where a single gene is not functional an additional functional gene is added.", "For diseases caused by multiple genes or a dominant gene, gene silencing or gene editing approaches are more appropriate but ''gene'' ''addition, a'' form of gene augmentation where new gene is added, may improve a cells function without modifying the genes that cause a disorder.=== Cell types ===Gene therapy may be classified into two types by the type of cell it affects: somatic cell and germline gene therapy.In somatic cell gene therapy (SCGT), the therapeutic genes are transferred into any cell other than a gamete, germ cell, gametocyte, or undifferentiated stem cell.", "Any such modifications affect the individual patient only, and are not inherited by offspring.", "Somatic gene therapy represents mainstream basic and clinical research, in which therapeutic DNA (either integrated in the genome or as an external episome or plasmid) is used to treat disease.", "Over 600 clinical trials utilizing SCGT are underway in the US.", "Most focus on severe genetic disorders, including immunodeficiencies, haemophilia, thalassaemia, and cystic fibrosis.", "Such single gene disorders are good candidates for somatic cell therapy.", "The complete correction of a genetic disorder or the replacement of multiple genes is not yet possible.", "Only a few of the trials are in the advanced stages.In germline gene therapy (GGT), germ cells (sperm or egg cells) are modified by the introduction of functional genes into their genomes.", "Modifying a germ cell causes all the organism's cells to contain the modified gene.", "The change is therefore heritable and passed on to later generations.", "Australia, Canada, Germany, Israel, Switzerland, and the Netherlands prohibit GGT for application in human beings, for technical and ethical reasons, including insufficient knowledge about possible risks to future generations and higher risks versus SCGT.", "The US has no federal controls specifically addressing human genetic modification (beyond FDA regulations for therapies in general).=== In vivo versus ex vivo therapies ===thumbIn ''in vivo'' gene therapy, a vector (typically, a virus) is introduced to the patient, which then achieves the desired biological effect by passing the genetic material (e.g.", "for a missing protein) into the patient's cells.", "In ''ex vivo'' gene therapies, such as CAR-T therapeutics, the patient's own cells (autologous) or healthy donor cells (allogeneic) are modified outside the body (hence, ''ex vivo'') using a vector to express a particular protein, such as a chimeric antigen receptor.", "''In vivo'' gene therapy is seen as simpler, since it does not require the harvesting of mitotic cells.", "However, ''ex vivo'' gene therapies are better tolerated and less associated with severe immune responses.", "The death of Jesse Gelsinger in a trial of an adenovirus-vectored treatment for ornithine transcarbamylase deficiency due to a systemic inflammatory reaction led to a temporary halt on gene therapy trials across the United States.", ", ''in vivo'' and ''ex vivo'' therapeutics are both seen as safe.=== Gene editing ===tracrRNA acts as guide RNA to introduce a specifically located gene modification based on the RNA 5' upstream of the crRNA.", "Cas9 binds the tracrRNA and needs a DNA binding sequence (5'NGG3'), which is called protospacer adjacent motif (PAM).", "After binding, Cas9 introduces a DNA double strand break, which is then followed by gene modification via homologous recombination (HDR) or non-homologous end joining (NHEJ).The concept of gene therapy is to fix a genetic problem at its source.", "If, for instance, a mutation in a certain gene causes the production of a dysfunctional protein resulting (usually recessively) in an inherited disease, gene therapy could be used to deliver a copy of this gene that does not contain the deleterious mutation and thereby produces a functional protein.", "This strategy is referred to as gene replacement therapy and could be employed to treat inherited retinal diseases.While the concept of gene replacement therapy is mostly suitable for recessive diseases, novel strategies have been suggested that are capable of also treating conditions with a dominant pattern of inheritance.", "* The introduction of CRISPR gene editing has opened new doors for its application and utilization in gene therapy, as instead of pure replacement of a gene, it enables correction of the particular genetic defect.", "Solutions to medical hurdles, such as the eradication of latent human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) reservoirs and correction of the mutation that causes sickle cell disease, may be available as a therapeutic option in the future.", "* Prosthetic gene therapy aims to enable cells of the body to take over functions they physiologically do not carry out.", "One example is the so-called vision restoration gene therapy, that aims to restore vision in patients with end-stage retinal diseases.", "In end-stage retinal diseases, the photoreceptors, as the primary light sensitive cells of the retina are irreversibly lost.", "By the means of prosthetic gene therapy light sensitive proteins are delivered into the remaining cells of the retina, to render them light sensitive and thereby enable them to signal visual information towards the brain.In vivo, gene editing systems using CRISPR have been used in studies with mice to treat cancer and have been effective at reducing tumors.", "In vitro, the CRISPR system has been used to treat HPV cancer tumors.", "Adeno-associated virus, Lentivirus based vectors have been to introduce the genome for the CRISPR system." ], [ "Vectors", "The delivery of DNA into cells can be accomplished by multiple methods.", "The two major classes are recombinant viruses (sometimes called biological nanoparticles or viral vectors) and naked DNA or DNA complexes (non-viral methods).===Viruses===Gene therapy using an adenovirus vector.", "In some cases, the adenovirus will insert the new gene into a cell.", "If the treatment is successful, the new gene will make a functional protein to treat a disease.In order to replicate, viruses introduce their genetic material into the host cell, tricking the host's cellular machinery into using it as blueprints for viral proteins.", "Retroviruses go a stage further by having their genetic material copied into the nuclear genome of the host cell.", "Scientists exploit this by substituting part of a virus's genetic material with therapeutic DNA or RNA.", "Like the genetic material (DNA or RNA) in viruses, therapeutic genetic material can be designed to simply serve as a temporary blueprint that degrades naturally, as in a ''non-integrative vectors'', or to enter the host's nucleus becoming a permanent part of the host's nuclear DNA in infected cells.A number of viruses have been used for human gene therapy, including viruses such as lentivirus, adenoviruses, herpes simplex, vaccinia, and adeno-associated virus.Adenovirus viral vectors (Ad) temporarily modify a cell's genetic expression with genetic material that is not integrated into the host cell's DNA.", "As of 2017, such vectors were used in 20% of trials for gene therapy.", "Adenovirus vectors are mostly used in cancer treatments and novel genetic vaccines such as the Ebola vaccine, vaccines used in clinical trials for HIV and SARS-CoV-2, or cancer vaccines.Lentiviral vectors based on lentivirus, a retrovirus, can modify a cell's nuclear genome to permanently express a gene, although vectors can be modified to prevent integration.", "Retroviruses were used in 18% of trials before 2018.Libmeldy is an ex vivo stem cell treatment for metachromatic leukodystrophy which uses a lentiviral vector and was approved by the european medical agency in 2020.Adeno-associated virus (AAV) is a virus that is incapable of transmission between cells unless the cell is infected by another virus, a helper virus.", "Adenovirus and the herpes viruses act as helper viruses for AAV.", "AAV persists within the cell outside of the cell's nuclear genome for an extended period of time through the formation of concatemers mostly organized as episomes.", "Genetic material from AAV vectors is integrated into the host cell's nuclear genome at a low frequency and likely mediated by the DNA-modifying enzymes of the host cell.", "Animal models suggest that integration of AAV genetic material into the host cell's nuclear genome may cause hepatocellular carcinoma, a form of liver cancer.=== Non-viral ===Non-viral vectors for gene therapy present certain advantages over viral methods, such as large scale production and low host immunogenicity.", "However, non-viral methods initially produced lower levels of transfection and gene expression, and thus lower therapeutic efficacy.", "Newer technologies offer promise of solving these problems, with the advent of increased cell-specific targeting and subcellular trafficking control.Methods for non-viral gene therapy include the injection of naked DNA, electroporation, the gene gun, sonoporation, magnetofection, the use of oligonucleotides, lipoplexes, dendrimers, and inorganic nanoparticles.", "These therapeutics can be administered directly or through scaffold enrichment.More recent approaches, such as those performed by companies such as Ligandal, offer the possibility of creating cell-specific targeting technologies for a variety of gene therapy modalities, including RNA, DNA and gene editing tools such as CRISPR.", "Other companies, such as Arbutus Biopharma and Arcturus Therapeutics, offer non-viral, non-cell-targeted approaches that mainly exhibit liver trophism.", "In more recent years, startups such as Sixfold Bio, GenEdit, and Spotlight Therapeutics have begun to solve the non-viral gene delivery problem.", "Non-viral techniques offer the possibility of repeat dosing and greater tailorability of genetic payloads, which in the future will be more likely to take over viral-based delivery systems.Companies such as Editas Medicine, Intellia Therapeutics, CRISPR Therapeutics, Casebia, Cellectis, Precision Biosciences, bluebird bio, Excision BioTherapeutics, and Sangamo have developed non-viral gene editing techniques, however frequently still use viruses for delivering gene insertion material following genomic cleavage by guided nucleases.", "These companies focus on gene editing, and still face major delivery hurdles.BioNTech, Moderna Therapeutics and CureVac focus on delivery of mRNA payloads, which are necessarily non-viral delivery problems.Alnylam, Dicerna Pharmaceuticals, and Ionis Pharmaceuticals focus on delivery of siRNA (antisense oligonucleotides) for gene suppression, which also necessitate non-viral delivery systems.In academic contexts, a number of laboratories are working on delivery of PEGylated particles, which form serum protein coronas and chiefly exhibit LDL receptor mediated uptake in cells ''in vivo''." ], [ "Treatment", "=== Cancer ===Suicide gene therapy graphic used to treat cancerThere have been attempts to treat cancer using gene therapy.", "As of 2017, 65% of gene therapy trials were for cancer treatment.Adenovirus vectors are useful for some cancer gene therapies because adenovirus can transiently insert genetic material into a cell without permanently altering the cell's nuclear genome.", "These vectors can be used to cause antigens to be added to cancers causing an immune response, or hinder angiogenesis by expressing certain proteins.", "An Adenovirus vector is used in the commercial products Gendicine and Oncorine.", "Another commercial product, Rexin G, uses a retrovirus-based vector and selectively binds to receptors that are more expressed in tumors.One approach, suicide gene therapy, works by introducing genes encoding enzymes that will cause a cancer cell to die.", "Another approach is the use oncolytic viruses, such as Oncorine, which are viruses that selectively reproduce in cancerous cells leaving other cells unaffected.mRNA has been suggested as a non-viral vector for cancer gene therapy that would temporarily change a cancerous cell's function to create antigens or kill the cancerous cells and there have been several trials.=== Genetic diseases ===Gene therapy approaches to replace a faulty gene with a healthy gene have been proposed and are being studied for treating some genetic diseases.", "As of 2017, 11.1% of gene therapy clinical trials targeted monogenic diseases.Diseases such as sickle cell disease that are caused by autosomal recessive disorders for which a person's normal phenotype or cell function may be restored in cells that have the disease by a normal copy of the gene that is mutated, may be a good candidate for gene therapy treatment.", "The risks and benefits related to gene therapy for sickle cell disease are not known.Gene therapy has been used in the eye.", "The eye is especially suitable for adeno-associated virus vectors.", "Luxturna is an approved gene therapy to treat Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy.", "Glybera, a treatment for pancreatitis caused by a genetic condition, and Zolgensma for the treatment of spinal muscular atrophy both use an adeno-associated virus vector.=== Infectious diseases ===As of 2017, 7% of genetic therapy trials targeted infectious diseases.", "69.2% of trials targeted HIV, 11% hepatitis B or C, and 7.1% malaria.===List of gene therapies for treatment of disease===Some genetic therapies have been approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the European Medicines Agency (EMA), and for use in Russia and China.+List of approved gene therapies for the treatment of diseaseINNBrand nameTypeManufacturerTargetUS Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approvedEuropean Medicines Agency (EMA) authorizedalipogene tiparvovecGlyberaIn vivoChiesi Farmaceuticilipoprotein lipase deficiencyNoWithdrawnatidarsagene autotemcelLibmeldy(Arylsulfatase A gene encoding autologous CD34+ cells)Ex vitroOrchard Therapeuticsmetachromatic leukodystrophyNo17 December 2020autologous CD34+Strimvelisadenosine deaminase deficiency (ADA-SCID)26 May 2016axicabtagene ciloleucelYescartalarge B-cell lymphoma18 October 201723 August 2018beremagene geperpavecVyjuvekIn vivoKrystal BiotechDystrophic epidermolysis bullosa (DEB)19 May 2023Nobetibeglogene autotemcelZynteglobeta thalassemia17 August 202229 May 2019brexucabtagene autoleucelTecartusEx vitroKite Pharmamantle cell lymphoma and acute lymphoblastic leukemia24 July 202014 December 2020cambiogenplasmidNeovasculgenvascular endothelial growth factor peripheral artery diseasedelandistrogene moxeparvovecElevidysIn vivoCatalentDuchenne muscular dystrophy22 June 2023Noelivaldogene autotemcelSkysonacerebral adrenoleukodystrophy16 July 2021exagamglogene autotemcelCasgevyEx vivoVertex Pharmaceuticalssickle cell diseaseDecember 2023gendicinehead and neck squamous cell carcinomaidecabtagene vicleucelAbecmaEx vivoCelgenemultiple myeloma26 March 2021Nolisocabtagene maraleucelBreyanziEx vivoJuno TherapeuticsB-cell lymphoma5 February 2021Nolovotibeglogene autotemcelLyfgeniaEx vivoBluebird Biosickle cell diseaseDecember 2023nadofaragene firadenovecAdstiladrinFerring Pharmaceuticalshigh-risk Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG)-unresponsive non-muscle-invasive bladder cancer (NMIBC) with carcinoma in situ (CIS)YesNoonasemnogene abeparvovecZolgensmaIn vivoNovartis Gene TherapiesSpinal muscular atrophy Type I24 May 201926 March 2020talimogene laherparepvecImlygicIn vivoAmgenmelanoma27 October 201516 December 2015tisagenlecleucelKymriahB cell lymphoblastic leukemia22 August 2018valoctocogene roxaparvovecRoctavianBioMarin International Limitedhemophilia AAugust 2022voretigene neparvovecLuxturnaIn vivoSpark Therapeuticsbiallelic RPE65 mutation associated Leber congenital amaurosis18 December 201722 November 2018" ], [ "Adverse effects, contraindications and hurdles for use", "Some of the unsolved problems include:* Off-target effects – The possibility of unwanted, likely harmful, changes to the genome present a large barrier to the widespread implementation of this technology.", "Improvements to the specificity of gRNAs and Cas enzymes present viable solutions to this issue as well as the refinement of the delivery method of CRISPR.", "It is likely that different diseases will benefit from different delivery methods.", "* Short-lived nature – Before gene therapy can become a permanent cure for a condition, the therapeutic DNA introduced into target cells must remain functional and the cells containing the therapeutic DNA must be stable.", "Problems with integrating therapeutic DNA into the nuclear genome and the rapidly dividing nature of many cells prevent it from achieving long-term benefits.", "Patients require multiple treatments.", "* Immune response – Any time a foreign object is introduced into human tissues, the immune system is stimulated to attack the invader.", "Stimulating the immune system in a way that reduces gene therapy effectiveness is possible.", "The immune system's enhanced response to viruses that it has seen before reduces the effectiveness to repeated treatments.", "* Problems with viral vectors – Viral vectors carry the risks of toxicity, inflammatory responses, and gene control and targeting issues.", "* Multigene disorders – Some commonly occurring disorders, such as heart disease, high blood pressure, Alzheimer's disease, arthritis, and diabetes, are affected by variations in multiple genes, which complicate gene therapy.", "* Some therapies may breach the Weismann barrier (between soma and germ-line) protecting the testes, potentially modifying the germline, falling afoul of regulations in countries that prohibit the latter practice.", "* Insertional mutagenesis – If the DNA is integrated in a sensitive spot in the genome, for example in a tumor suppressor gene, the therapy could induce a tumor.", "This has occurred in clinical trials for X-linked severe combined immunodeficiency (X-SCID) patients, in which hematopoietic stem cells were transduced with a corrective transgene using a retrovirus, and this led to the development of T cell leukemia in 3 of 20 patients.", "One possible solution is to add a functional tumor suppressor gene to the DNA to be integrated.", "This may be problematic since the longer the DNA is, the harder it is to integrate into cell genomes.", "CRISPR technology allows researchers to make much more precise genome changes at exact locations.", "* Cost – Alipogene tiparvovec or Glybera, for example, at a cost of $1.6 million per patient, was reported in 2013, to be the world's most expensive drug.===Deaths===Three patients' deaths have been reported in gene therapy trials, putting the field under close scrutiny.", "The first was that of Jesse Gelsinger, who died in 1999, because of immune rejection response.", "One X-SCID patient died of leukemia in 2003.In 2007, a rheumatoid arthritis patient died from an infection; the subsequent investigation concluded that the death was not related to gene therapy." ], [ "Regulations", "Regulations covering genetic modification are part of general guidelines about human-involved biomedical research.", "There are no international treaties which are legally binding in this area, but there are recommendations for national laws from various bodies.The Helsinki Declaration (Ethical Principles for Medical Research Involving Human Subjects) was amended by the World Medical Association's General Assembly in 2008.This document provides principles physicians and researchers must consider when involving humans as research subjects.", "The Statement on Gene Therapy Research initiated by the Human Genome Organization (HUGO) in 2001, provides a legal baseline for all countries.", "HUGO's document emphasizes human freedom and adherence to human rights, and offers recommendations for somatic gene therapy, including the importance of recognizing public concerns about such research.===United States===No federal legislation lays out protocols or restrictions about human genetic engineering.", "This subject is governed by overlapping regulations from local and federal agencies, including the Department of Health and Human Services, the FDA and NIH's Recombinant DNA Advisory Committee.", "Researchers seeking federal funds for an investigational new drug application, (commonly the case for somatic human genetic engineering,) must obey international and federal guidelines for the protection of human subjects.NIH serves as the main gene therapy regulator for federally funded research.", "Privately funded research is advised to follow these regulations.", "NIH provides funding for research that develops or enhances genetic engineering techniques and to evaluate the ethics and quality in current research.", "The NIH maintains a mandatory registry of human genetic engineering research protocols that includes all federally funded projects.An NIH advisory committee published a set of guidelines on gene manipulation.", "The guidelines discuss lab safety as well as human test subjects and various experimental types that involve genetic changes.", "Several sections specifically pertain to human genetic engineering, including Section III-C-1.This section describes required review processes and other aspects when seeking approval to begin clinical research involving genetic transfer into a human patient.", "The protocol for a gene therapy clinical trial must be approved by the NIH's Recombinant DNA Advisory Committee prior to any clinical trial beginning; this is different from any other kind of clinical trial.As with other kinds of drugs, the FDA regulates the quality and safety of gene therapy products and supervises how these products are used clinically.", "Therapeutic alteration of the human genome falls under the same regulatory requirements as any other medical treatment.", "Research involving human subjects, such as clinical trials, must be reviewed and approved by the FDA and an Institutional Review Board." ], [ "Gene doping", "Athletes may adopt gene therapy technologies to improve their performance.", "Gene doping is not known to occur, but multiple gene therapies may have such effects.", "Kayser et al.", "argue that gene doping could level the playing field if all athletes receive equal access.", "Critics claim that any therapeutic intervention for non-therapeutic/enhancement purposes compromises the ethical foundations of medicine and sports." ], [ "Genetic enhancement", "Genetic engineering could be used to cure diseases, but also to change physical appearance, metabolism, and even improve physical capabilities and mental faculties such as memory and intelligence.", "Ethical claims about germline engineering include beliefs that every fetus has a right to remain genetically unmodified, that parents hold the right to genetically modify their offspring, and that every child has the right to be born free of preventable diseases.", "For parents, genetic engineering could be seen as another child enhancement technique to add to diet, exercise, education, training, cosmetics, and plastic surgery.", "Another theorist claims that moral concerns limit but do not prohibit germline engineering.A 2020 issue of the journal ''Bioethics'' was devoted to moral issues surrounding germline genetic engineering in people.Possible regulatory schemes include a complete ban, provision to everyone, or professional self-regulation.", "The American Medical Association's Council on Ethical and Judicial Affairs stated that \"genetic interventions to enhance traits should be considered permissible only in severely restricted situations: (1) clear and meaningful benefits to the fetus or child; (2) no trade-off with other characteristics or traits; and (3) equal access to the genetic technology, irrespective of income or other socioeconomic characteristics.", "\"As early in the history of biotechnology as 1990, there have been scientists opposed to attempts to modify the human germline using these new tools, and such concerns have continued as technology progressed.", "With the advent of new techniques like CRISPR, in March 2015 a group of scientists urged a worldwide moratorium on clinical use of gene editing technologies to edit the human genome in a way that can be inherited.", "In April 2015, researchers sparked controversy when they reported results of basic research to edit the DNA of non-viable human embryos using CRISPR.", "A committee of the American National Academy of Sciences and National Academy of Medicine gave qualified support to human genome editing in 2017 once answers have been found to safety and efficiency problems \"but only for serious conditions under stringent oversight.\"" ], [ "History", "===1970s and earlier===In 1972, Friedmann and Roblin authored a paper in ''Science'' titled \"Gene therapy for human genetic disease?\".", "Rogers (1970) was cited for proposing that ''exogenous good DNA'' be used to replace the defective DNA in those with genetic defects.===1980s===In 1984, a retrovirus vector system was designed that could efficiently insert foreign genes into mammalian chromosomes.===1990s===The first approved gene therapy clinical research in the US took place on 14 September 1990, at the National Institutes of Health (NIH), under the direction of William French Anderson.", "Four-year-old Ashanti DeSilva received treatment for a genetic defect that left her with adenosine deaminase deficiency (ADA-SCID), a severe immune system deficiency.", "The defective gene of the patient's blood cells was replaced by the functional variant.", "Ashanti's immune system was partially restored by the therapy.", "Production of the missing enzyme was temporarily stimulated, but the new cells with functional genes were not generated.", "She led a normal life only with the regular injections performed every two months.", "The effects were successful, but temporary.Cancer gene therapy was introduced in 1992/93 (Trojan et al.", "1993).", "The treatment of glioblastoma multiforme, the malignant brain tumor whose outcome is always fatal, was done using a vector expressing antisense IGF-I RNA (clinical trial approved by NIH protocol no.1602 24 November 1993, and by the FDA in 1994).", "This therapy also represents the beginning of cancer immunogene therapy, a treatment which proves to be effective due to the anti-tumor mechanism of IGF-I antisense, which is related to strong immune and apoptotic phenomena.In 1992, Claudio Bordignon, working at the Vita-Salute San Raffaele University, performed the first gene therapy procedure using hematopoietic stem cells as vectors to deliver genes intended to correct hereditary diseases.", "In 2002, this work led to the publication of the first successful gene therapy treatment for ADA-SCID.", "The success of a multi-center trial for treating children with SCID (severe combined immune deficiency or \"bubble boy\" disease) from 2000 and 2002, was questioned when two of the ten children treated at the trial's Paris center developed a leukemia-like condition.", "Clinical trials were halted temporarily in 2002, but resumed after regulatory review of the protocol in the US, the United Kingdom, France, Italy, and Germany.In 1993, Andrew Gobea was born with SCID following prenatal genetic screening.", "Blood was removed from his mother's placenta and umbilical cord immediately after birth, to acquire stem cells.", "The allele that codes for adenosine deaminase (ADA) was obtained and inserted into a retrovirus.", "Retroviruses and stem cells were mixed, after which the viruses inserted the gene into the stem cell chromosomes.", "Stem cells containing the working ADA gene were injected into Andrew's blood.", "Injections of the ADA enzyme were also given weekly.", "For four years T cells (white blood cells), produced by stem cells, made ADA enzymes using the ADA gene.", "After four years more treatment was needed.In 1996, Luigi Naldini and Didier Trono developed a new class of gene therapy vectors based on HIV capable of infecting non-dividing cells that have since then been widely used in clinical and research settings, pioneering lentivirals vector in gene therapy.Jesse Gelsinger's death in 1999 impeded gene therapy research in the US.", "As a result, the FDA suspended several clinical trials pending the reevaluation of ethical and procedural practices.===2000s===The modified gene therapy strategy of antisense IGF-I RNA (NIH n˚ 1602) using antisense / triple helix anti-IGF-I approach was registered in 2002, by Wiley gene therapy clinical trial - n˚ 635 and 636.The approach has shown promising results in the treatment of six different malignant tumors: glioblastoma, cancers of liver, colon, prostate, uterus, and ovary (Collaborative NATO Science Programme on Gene Therapy USA, France, Poland n˚ LST 980517 conducted by J. Trojan) (Trojan et al., 2012).", "This anti-gene antisense/triple helix therapy has proven to be efficient, due to the mechanism stopping simultaneously IGF-I expression on translation and transcription levels, strengthening anti-tumor immune and apoptotic phenomena.====2002====Sickle cell disease can be treated in mice.", "The mice – which have essentially the same defect that causes human cases – used a viral vector to induce production of fetal hemoglobin (HbF), which normally ceases to be produced shortly after birth.", "In humans, the use of hydroxyurea to stimulate the production of HbF temporarily alleviates sickle cell symptoms.", "The researchers demonstrated this treatment to be a more permanent means to increase therapeutic HbF production.A new gene therapy approach repaired errors in messenger RNA derived from defective genes.", "This technique has the potential to treat thalassaemia, cystic fibrosis and some cancers.Researchers created liposomes 25 nanometers across that can carry therapeutic DNA through pores in the nuclear membrane.====2003====In 2003, a research team inserted genes into the brain for the first time.", "They used liposomes coated in a polymer called polyethylene glycol, which unlike viral vectors, are small enough to cross the blood–brain barrier.Short pieces of double-stranded RNA (short, interfering RNAs or siRNAs) are used by cells to degrade RNA of a particular sequence.", "If a siRNA is designed to match the RNA copied from a faulty gene, then the abnormal protein product of that gene will not be produced.Gendicine is a cancer gene therapy that delivers the tumor suppressor gene p53 using an engineered adenovirus.", "In 2003, it was approved in China for the treatment of head and neck squamous cell carcinoma.====2006====In March, researchers announced the successful use of gene therapy to treat two adult patients for X-linked chronic granulomatous disease, a disease which affects myeloid cells and damages the immune system.", "The study is the first to show that gene therapy can treat the myeloid system.In May, a team reported a way to prevent the immune system from rejecting a newly delivered gene.", "Similar to organ transplantation, gene therapy has been plagued by this problem.", "The immune system normally recognizes the new gene as foreign and rejects the cells carrying it.", "The research utilized a newly uncovered network of genes regulated by molecules known as microRNAs.", "This natural function selectively obscured their therapeutic gene in immune system cells and protected it from discovery.", "Mice infected with the gene containing an immune-cell microRNA target sequence did not reject the gene.In August, scientists successfully treated metastatic melanoma in two patients using killer T cells genetically retargeted to attack the cancer cells.In November, researchers reported on the use of VRX496, a gene-based immunotherapy for the treatment of HIV that uses a lentiviral vector to deliver an antisense gene against the HIV envelope.", "In a phase I clinical trial, five subjects with chronic HIV infection who had failed to respond to at least two antiretroviral regimens were treated.", "A single intravenous infusion of autologous CD4 T cells genetically modified with VRX496 was well tolerated.", "All patients had stable or decreased viral load; four of the five patients had stable or increased CD4 T cell counts.", "All five patients had stable or increased immune response to HIV antigens and other pathogens.", "This was the first evaluation of a lentiviral vector administered in a US human clinical trial.====2007====In May, researchers announced the first gene therapy trial for inherited retinal disease.", "The first operation was carried out on a 23-year-old British male, Robert Johnson, in early 2007.====2008====Leber's congenital amaurosis is an inherited blinding disease caused by mutations in the RPE65 gene.", "The results of a small clinical trial in children were published in April.", "Delivery of recombinant adeno-associated virus (AAV) carrying RPE65 yielded positive results.", "In May, two more groups reported positive results in independent clinical trials using gene therapy to treat the condition.", "In all three clinical trials, patients recovered functional vision without apparent side-effects.====2009====In September researchers were able to give trichromatic vision to squirrel monkeys.", "In November 2009, researchers halted a fatal genetic disorder called adrenoleukodystrophy in two children using a lentivirus vector to deliver a functioning version of ABCD1, the gene that is mutated in the disorder.===2010s=======2010====An April paper reported that gene therapy addressed achromatopsia (color blindness) in dogs by targeting cone photoreceptors.", "Cone function and day vision were restored for at least 33 months in two young specimens.", "The therapy was less efficient for older dogs.In September it was announced that an 18-year-old male patient in France with beta thalassemia major had been successfully treated.", "Beta thalassemia major is an inherited blood disease in which beta haemoglobin is missing and patients are dependent on regular lifelong blood transfusions.", "The technique used a lentiviral vector to transduce the human β-globin gene into purified blood and marrow cells obtained from the patient in June 2007.The patient's haemoglobin levels were stable at 9 to 10 g/dL.", "About a third of the hemoglobin contained the form introduced by the viral vector and blood transfusions were not needed.", "Further clinical trials were planned.", "Bone marrow transplants are the only cure for thalassemia, but 75% of patients do not find a matching donor.Cancer immunogene therapy using modified antigene, antisense/triple helix approach was introduced in South America in 2010/11 in La Sabana University, Bogota (Ethical Committee 14 December 2010, no P-004-10).", "Considering the ethical aspect of gene diagnostic and gene therapy targeting IGF-I, the IGF-I expressing tumors i.e.", "lung and epidermis cancers were treated (Trojan et al.", "2016).====2011====In 2007 and 2008, a man (Timothy Ray Brown) was cured of HIV by repeated hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (see also allogeneic stem cell transplantation, allogeneic bone marrow transplantation, allotransplantation) with double-delta-32 mutation which disables the CCR5 receptor.", "This cure was accepted by the medical community in 2011.It required complete ablation of existing bone marrow, which is very debilitating.In August two of three subjects of a pilot study were confirmed to have been cured from chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL).", "The therapy used genetically modified T cells to attack cells that expressed the CD19 protein to fight the disease.", "In 2013, the researchers announced that 26 of 59 patients had achieved complete remission and the original patient had remained tumor-free.Human HGF plasmid DNA therapy of cardiomyocytes is being examined as a potential treatment for coronary artery disease as well as treatment for the damage that occurs to the heart after myocardial infarction.In 2011, Neovasculgen was registered in Russia as the first-in-class gene-therapy drug for treatment of peripheral artery disease, including critical limb ischemia; it delivers the gene encoding for VEGF.", "Neovasculogen is a plasmid encoding the CMV promoter and the 165 amino acid form of VEGF.====2012====The FDA approved Phase I clinical trials on thalassemia major patients in the US for 10 participants in July.", "The study was expected to continue until 2015.In July 2012, the European Medicines Agency recommended approval of a gene therapy treatment for the first time in either Europe or the United States.", "The treatment used Alipogene tiparvovec (Glybera) to compensate for lipoprotein lipase deficiency, which can cause severe pancreatitis.", "The recommendation was endorsed by the European Commission in November 2012, and commercial rollout began in late 2014.Alipogene tiparvovec was expected to cost around $1.6 million per treatment in 2012, revised to $1 million in 2015, making it the most expensive medicine in the world at the time.", ", only the patients treated in clinical trials and a patient who paid the full price for treatment have received the drug.In December 2012, it was reported that 10 of 13 patients with multiple myeloma were in remission \"or very close to it\" three months after being injected with a treatment involving genetically engineered T cells to target proteins NY-ESO-1 and LAGE-1, which exist only on cancerous myeloma cells.====2013====In March researchers reported that three of five adult subjects who had acute lymphocytic leukemia (ALL) had been in remission for five months to two years after being treated with genetically modified T cells which attacked cells with CD19 genes on their surface, i.e.", "all B cells, cancerous or not.", "The researchers believed that the patients' immune systems would make normal T cells and B cells after a couple of months.", "They were also given bone marrow.", "One patient relapsed and died and one died of a blood clot unrelated to the disease.Following encouraging Phase I trials, in April, researchers announced they were starting Phase II clinical trials (called CUPID2 and SERCA-LVAD) on 250 patients at several hospitals to combat heart disease.", "The therapy was designed to increase the levels of SERCA2, a protein in heart muscles, improving muscle function.", "The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) granted this a breakthrough therapy designation to accelerate the trial and approval process.", "In 2016, it was reported that no improvement was found from the CUPID 2 trial.In July researchers reported promising results for six children with two severe hereditary diseases had been treated with a partially deactivated lentivirus to replace a faulty gene and after 7–32 months.", "Three of the children had metachromatic leukodystrophy, which causes children to lose cognitive and motor skills.", "The other children had Wiskott–Aldrich syndrome, which leaves them to open to infection, autoimmune diseases, and cancer.", "Follow up trials with gene therapy on another six children with Wiskott–Aldrich syndrome were also reported as promising.In October researchers reported that two children born with adenosine deaminase severe combined immunodeficiency disease (ADA-SCID) had been treated with genetically engineered stem cells 18 months previously and that their immune systems were showing signs of full recovery.", "Another three children were making progress.", "In 2014, a further 18 children with ADA-SCID were cured by gene therapy.", "ADA-SCID children have no functioning immune system and are sometimes known as \"bubble children\".Also in October researchers reported that they had treated six people with haemophilia in early 2011 using an adeno-associated virus.", "Over two years later all six were producing clotting factor.====2014====In January researchers reported that six choroideremia patients had been treated with adeno-associated virus with a copy of REP1.Over a six-month to two-year period all had improved their sight.", "By 2016, 32 patients had been treated with positive results and researchers were hopeful the treatment would be long-lasting.", "Choroideremia is an inherited genetic eye disease with no approved treatment, leading to loss of sight.In March researchers reported that 12 HIV patients had been treated since 2009 in a trial with a genetically engineered virus with a rare mutation (CCR5 deficiency) known to protect against HIV with promising results.Clinical trials of gene therapy for sickle cell disease were started in 2014.In February LentiGlobin BB305, a gene therapy treatment undergoing clinical trials for treatment of beta thalassemia gained FDA \"breakthrough\" status after several patients were able to forgo the frequent blood transfusions usually required to treat the disease.In March researchers delivered a recombinant gene encoding a broadly neutralizing antibody into monkeys infected with simian HIV; the monkeys' cells produced the antibody, which cleared them of HIV.", "The technique is named immunoprophylaxis by gene transfer (IGT).", "Animal tests for antibodies to ebola, malaria, influenza, and hepatitis were underway.In March, scientists, including an inventor of CRISPR, Jennifer Doudna, urged a worldwide moratorium on germline gene therapy, writing \"scientists should avoid even attempting, in lax jurisdictions, germline genome modification for clinical application in humans\" until the full implications \"are discussed among scientific and governmental organizations\".In December, scientists of major world academies called for a moratorium on inheritable human genome edits, including those related to CRISPR-Cas9 technologies but that basic research including embryo gene editing should continue.====2015====Researchers successfully treated a boy with epidermolysis bullosa using skin grafts grown from his own skin cells, genetically altered to repair the mutation that caused his disease.In November, researchers announced that they had treated a baby girl, Layla Richards, with an experimental treatment using donor T cells genetically engineered using TALEN to attack cancer cells.", "One year after the treatment she was still free of her cancer (a highly aggressive form of acute lymphoblastic leukaemia ALL).", "Children with highly aggressive ALL normally have a very poor prognosis and Layla's disease had been regarded as terminal before the treatment.====2016====In April the Committee for Medicinal Products for Human Use of the European Medicines Agency endorsed a gene therapy treatment called Strimvelis and the European Commission approved it in June.", "This treats children born with adenosine deaminase deficiency and who have no functioning immune system.", "This was the second gene therapy treatment to be approved in Europe.In October, Chinese scientists reported they had started a trial to genetically modify T cells from 10 adult patients with lung cancer and reinject the modified T cells back into their bodies to attack the cancer cells.", "The T cells had the PD-1 protein (which stops or slows the immune response) removed using CRISPR-Cas9.A 2016 Cochrane systematic review looking at data from four trials on topical cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) gene therapy does not support its clinical use as a mist inhaled into the lungs to treat cystic fibrosis patients with lung infections.", "One of the four trials did find weak evidence that liposome-based CFTR gene transfer therapy may lead to a small respiratory improvement for people with CF.", "This weak evidence is not enough to make a clinical recommendation for routine CFTR gene therapy.==== 2017 ====In February Kite Pharma announced results from a clinical trial of CAR-T cells in around a hundred people with advanced non-Hodgkin lymphoma.In March, French scientists reported on clinical research of gene therapy to treat sickle cell disease.In August, the FDA approved tisagenlecleucel for acute lymphoblastic leukemia.", "Tisagenlecleucel is an adoptive cell transfer therapy for B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia; T cells from a person with cancer are removed, genetically engineered to make a specific T-cell receptor (a chimeric T cell receptor, or \"CAR-T\") that reacts to the cancer, and are administered back to the person.", "The T cells are engineered to target a protein called CD19 that is common on B cells.", "This is the first form of gene therapy to be approved in the United States.", "In October, a similar therapy called axicabtagene ciloleucel was approved for non-Hodgkin lymphoma.In October, biophysicist and biohacker Josiah Zayner claimed to have performed the very first in-vivo human genome editing in the form of a self-administered therapy.On 13 November, medical scientists working with Sangamo Therapeutics, headquartered in Richmond, California, announced the first ever in-body human gene editing therapy.", "The treatment, designed to permanently insert a healthy version of the flawed gene that causes Hunter syndrome, was given to 44-year-old Brian Madeux and is part of the world's first study to permanently edit DNA inside the human body.", "The success of the gene insertion was later confirmed.", "Clinical trials by Sangamo involving gene editing using zinc finger nuclease (ZFN) are ongoing.In December the results of using an adeno-associated virus with blood clotting factor VIII to treat nine haemophilia A patients were published.", "Six of the seven patients on the high dose regime increased the level of the blood clotting VIII to normal levels.", "The low and medium dose regimes had no effect on the patient's blood clotting levels.In December, the FDA approved Luxturna, the first ''in vivo'' gene therapy, for the treatment of blindness due to Leber's congenital amaurosis.", "The price of this treatment is for both eyes.==== 2019 ====In May, the FDA approved onasemnogene abeparvovec (Zolgensma) for treating spinal muscular atrophy in children under two years of age.", "The list price of Zolgensma was set at per dose, making it the most expensive drug ever.In May, the EMA approved betibeglogene autotemcel (Zynteglo) for treating beta thalassemia for people twelve years of age and older.In July, Allergan and Editas Medicine announced phase I/II clinical trial of AGN-151587 for the treatment of Leber congenital amaurosis 10.This is the first study of a CRISPR-based ''in vivo'' human gene editing therapy, where the editing takes place inside the human body.", "The first injection of the CRISPR-Cas System was confirmed in March 2020.=== 2020s ======= 2020 ====In May, onasemnogene abeparvovec (Zolgensma) was approved by the European Union for the treatment of spinal muscular atrophy in people who either have clinical symptoms of SMA type 1 or who have no more than three copies of the ''SMN2'' gene, irrespective of body weight or age.In August, Audentes Therapeutics reported that three out of 17 children with X-linked myotubular myopathy participating the clinical trial of a AAV8-based gene therapy treatment AT132 have died.", "It was suggested that the treatment, whose dosage is based on body weight, exerts a disproportionately toxic effect on heavier patients, since the three patients who died were heavier than the others.", "The trial has been put on clinical hold.On 15 October, the Committee for Medicinal Products for Human Use (CHMP) of the European Medicines Agency (EMA) adopted a positive opinion, recommending the granting of a marketing authorisation for the medicinal product Libmeldy (autologous CD34+ cell enriched population that contains hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells transduced ex vivo using a lentiviral vector encoding the human arylsulfatase A gene), a gene therapy for the treatment of children with the \"late infantile\" (LI) or \"early juvenile\" (EJ) forms of metachromatic leukodystrophy (MLD).", "The active substance of Libmeldy consists of the child's own stem cells which have been modified to contain working copies of the ARSA gene.", "When the modified cells are injected back into the patient as a one-time infusion, the cells are expected to start producing the ARSA enzyme that breaks down the build-up of sulfatides in the nerve cells and other cells of the patient's body.", "Libmeldy was approved for medical use in the EU in December 2020.On 15 October, Lysogene, a French biotechnological company, reported the death of a patient in who has received LYS-SAF302, an experimental gene therapy treatment for mucopolysaccharidosis type IIIA (Sanfilippo syndrome type A).====2021====In May, a new method using an altered version of the HIV as a lentivirus vector was reported in the treatment of 50 children with ADA-SCID obtaining positive results in 48 of them, this method is expected to be safer than retroviruses vectors commonly used in previous studies of SCID where the development of leukemia was usually observed and had already been used in 2019, but in a smaller group with X-SCID.In June a clinical trial on six patients affected with transthyretin amyloidosis reported a reduction the concentration of missfolded transthretin (TTR) protein in serum through CRISPR-based inactivation of the ''TTR'' gene in liver cells observing mean reductions of 52% and 87% among the lower and higher dose groups.This was done in vivo without taking cells out of the patient to edit them and reinfuse them later.In July results of a small gene therapy phase I study was published reporting observation of dopamine restoration on seven patients between 4 and 9 years old affected by aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase deficiency (AADC deficiency).====2022====In February, the first ever gene therapy for Tay–Sachs disease was announced, it uses an adeno-associated virus to deliver the correct instruction for the HEXA gene on brain cells which causes the disease.", "Only two children were part of a compassionate trial presenting improvements over the natural course of the disease and no vector-related adverse events.In May, eladocagene exuparvovec is recommended for approval by the European Commission.In July results of a gene therapy candidate for haemophilia B called FLT180 were announced, it works using an adeno-associated virus (AAV) to restore the clotting factor IX (FIX) protein, normal levels of the protein were observed with low doses of the therapy but immunosuppression was necessitated to decrease the risk of vector-related immune responses.In December, a 13-year girl that had been diagnosed with T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukaemia was successfully treated at Great Ormond Street Hospital (GOSH) in the first documented use of therapeutic gene editing for this purpose, after undergoing six months of an experimental treatment, where all attempts of other treatments failed.", "The procedure included reprogramming a healthy T-cell to destroy the cancerous T-cells to first rid her of leukaemia, and then rebuilding her immune system using healthy immune cells.", "The GOSH team used BASE editing and had previously treated a case of acute lymphoblastic leukaemia in 2015 using TALENs.==== 2023 ====In May the FDA approved Vyjuvek for the treatment of wounds in patients with dystrophic epidermolysis bullosa (DEB) which is applied as a topical gel that delivers a herpes-simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) vector encoding the collagen type VII alpha 1 chain (COL7A1) gene that is dysfunctional on those affected by DEB .", "One trial found 65% of the Vyjuvek-treated wounds completely closed while only 26% of the placebo-treated at 24 weeks.", "It has been also reported its use as a eyedrops for a patient with DEB that had vision loss due to the widespread blistering with good results.In June the FDA gave an accelerated approval to Elevidys for Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) only for boys 4 to 5 years old as they are more likely to benefit from the therapy which consists of one-time intravenous infusion of a virus (AAV rh74 vector) that delivers a functioning “microdystrophin” gene (138 kDa) into the muscle cells to act in place of the normal dystrophin (427 kDa) that is found mutated in this disease.In July it was reported that it had been developed a new method to affect genetic expressions through direct current." ], [ "List of gene therapies", "* Gene therapy for color blindness* Gene therapy for epilepsy* Gene therapy for osteoarthritis* Gene therapy in Parkinson's disease* Gene therapy of the human retina" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links" ] ]
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[ [ "Galatea" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Galatea''' is an ancient Greek name meaning \"she who is milk-white\".", "'''Galatea''', '''Galathea''' or '''Gallathea''' may refer to:" ], [ "In mythology", "* Galatea, three different mythological figures from Greek mythology" ], [ "In the arts", "* ''Aci, Galatea e Polifemo'', cantata by Handel* ''Galatea'' (Raphael), or ''The Triumph of Galatea'', a 1512 fresco of Ovid's sea-nymph* ''Gallathea'', a late sixteenth-century play by John Lyly* ''Galatea, or Pygmalion Reversed'', an 1883 musical comedy by Henry Pottinger Stephens, W. Webster and Meyer Lutz* ''Galatea'', a 2009 play by Lawrence Aronovitch* ''La Galatea'', a sixteenth-century pastoral novel by Miguel de Cervantes* ''Galatea'' (novel), a 1953 novel by James M. Cain* ''Galatea'', a 1976 novel by Philip Pullman* '''', a 1977 ballet film with Ekaterina Maximova and Māris Liepa* ''Galatea 2.2'', a 1995 novel by Richard Powers* ''Galatea'' (video game), released in 2000* Galatea, a main figure in the ''Pygmalion and the Image'' series of four paintings by Sir Edward Coley Burne-Jones (1878)* Galatea, a major character in Pamphilus de amore, a widely-read poem from 1200* ''Galatea of the Spheres'', a 1952 painting by Salvador Dalí" ], [ "Fictional characters", "* Galatea, in the manga ''Claymore'' by Norihiro Yagi* Galatea, an android in the 2007 novel ''Soon I Will Be Invincible'' by Austin Grossman* Galatea, a villain in the 1990s Japanese anime series ''Bubblegum Crisis: Tokyo 2040''* Galatea, a supervillain appearing in ''Justice League Unlimited''* Galatea, a female robot in the film ''Bicentennial Man''* Galathea, a cow in the J. R. R. Tolkien novel ''Farmer Giles of Ham''* Galatea, a character in the mobile game ''Fate/Grand Order''* Galatea Dunkel, in the 1957 novel ''On the Road'' by Jack Kerouac" ], [ "In science", "* 74 Galatea, a large main belt asteroid* Galatea, a moon of Neptune* ''Galathea'', a genus of squat lobsters* Galatea, common name for plants of the genus ''Dieffenbachia'' * ''Galatea'', a taxonomic synonym for the plant genus ''Galatella''" ], [ "Places", "* Galatea, New Zealand, a village in the North Island* Galatea, Ohio, a community in the United States* Mount Galatea, in the Canadian Rockies* Galathea National Park, a national park in the Nicobar Islands, India" ], [ "Ships", "* List of ships named ''Galatea''" ], [ "Other uses", "* ''Galatea'' (locomotive), a preserved example of the LMS Jubilee class of steam locomotive* Galatea II a Thoroughbred racehorse* Galatea, a type of cotton twill fabric* Galatea AB, a Swedish beverage distributor" ], [ "See also", "* Galathée (disambiguation)* Galatia (disambiguation)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gulf of Oman" ], [ "Introduction", "Satellite view of Iran, Pakistan and the Gulf of Oman.Khor Fakkan, a city in the Emirate of Sharjah, has one of the major container ports in the eastern seaboard of the United Arab Emirates.U.S.", "Navy, French Navy, and Italian Navy aircraft carriers conduct operations in the U.S. 5th Fleet area of responsibility in the Gulf of Oman.The '''Gulf of Oman''' or '''Sea of Oman''' ( ''khalīj ʿumān''; ''daryâ-ye omân''), also known as '''Gulf of Makran''' or '''Sea of Makran''' ( ''khalīj makrān''; ''daryâ-ye makrān''), is a gulf that connects the Arabian Sea with the Strait of Hormuz, which then runs to the Persian Gulf.", "It borders Iran and Pakistan on the north, Oman on the south, and the United Arab Emirates on the west." ], [ "Extent", "The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Gulf of Oman as follows:" ], [ "Exclusive economic zone", "Exclusive economic zones in Persian Gulf:NumberCountryArea (Km2)1 '''''' 108,7792 '''''' 65,8503 '''''' 4,371 4 '''''' 2,000 Total'''Persian Gulf''' '''181,000'''" ], [ "Bordering countries", "Coastline length of bordering countries:# - 850 km coastline# - 750 km coastline# - 50 km coastline# - 50 km coastline" ], [ "Alternative names", "The western part of the Indian Ocean, by Vincenzo Maria Coronelli, 1693 from his system of global gores the Makran coastPaths that Alexander the Great tookThe Gulf of Oman historically and geographically has been referred to by different names by Arabian, Iranian, Indian, Pakistani, and European geographers and travelers, including Makran Sea and Akhzar Sea.# Makran Sea# Akhzar Sea# Persian Sea (consists of the whole of the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman)Until the 18th century, it was known as Makran Sea and is also visible on historical maps and museums." ], [ "Major ports", "*Port of Fujairah, Fujairah, United Arab Emirates*Khor Fakkan Container Terminal, Khor Fakkan, United Arab Emirates*Port of Chabahar, Chabahar, Iran*Port Sultan Qaboos, Muttrah, Oman" ], [ "International trade", "The Western side of the gulf connects to the Strait of Hormuz, a strategic route through which a third of the world's liquefied natural gas and 20% of global oil consumption passes from Middle East producers." ], [ "Ecology", "In 2018, scientists confirmed the Gulf of Oman contains one of the world's largest marine dead zones, where the ocean contains little or no oxygen and marine wildlife cannot exist.", "The dead zone encompasses nearly the entire Gulf of Oman and equivalent to the size of Florida, United States of America.", "The cause is a combination of increased ocean warming and increased runoff of nitrogen and phosphorus from fertilizers." ], [ "International underwater rail tunnel", "In 2018, a rail tunnel under the sea was suggested to link the UAE with the western coast of India.", "The bullet train tunnel would be supported by pontoons and be nearly in length." ], [ "Pop culture", "In the ''Battlefield'' video game series, the Gulf of Oman is a map used in ''Battlefield 2'', ''Battlefield 3'', ''Battlefield Play4Free'' and ''Battlefield 4'' with the United States Marines Corps (USMC) invading the shore of Oman with the fictional Middle Eastern Coalition (MEC) defending it in Battlefield 2, and with Russian Ground Forces defending it in Play4Free, Battlefield 3 and Battlefield 4." ], [ "See also", "* Strait of Hormuz* Persian Gulf* Eastern Arabia* Musandam Peninsula* History of the United Arab Emirates#The pearling industry and the Portuguese empire: 16th - 18th century* Saeed bin Butti#Perpetual Maritime Truce* Trucial States* Sultan bin Saqr Al Qasimi#Perpetual Maritime Truce of 1853* Persian Gulf campaign of 1809* Persian Gulf campaign of 1819* General Maritime Treaty of 1820* May 2019 Gulf of Oman incident* June 2019 Gulf of Oman incident* Geography of Oman* Geography of Iran* Geography of United Arab Emirates* Geography of Pakistan*" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* \"The Book of Duarte Barbosa\" by Duarte Barbosa, Mansel Longworth Dames.", "1989.p. 79.", "* \"The Natural History of Pliny\".", "by Pliny, Henry Thomas Riley, John Bostock.", "1855.p.", "117* \"The Countries and Tribes of the Persian Gulf\" by Samuel Barrett Miles - 1966.p.", "148* \"The Life & Strange Surprising Adventures of Robinson Crusoe of York, Mariner\".", "by Daniel Defoe.", "1895.p.", "279* \"The Outline of History: Being a Plain History of Life and Mankind\".", "by Herbert George Well.", "1920.p. 379.", "* \"The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge\" by Johann Jakob Herzog, Philip Schaff, Albert Hauck.", "1910.p.", "242" ] ]
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[ [ "Grammatical case" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''grammatical case''' is a category of nouns and noun modifiers (determiners, adjectives, participles, and numerals) which corresponds to one or more potential grammatical functions for a nominal group in a wording.", "In various languages, nominal groups consisting of a noun and its modifiers belong to one of a few such categories.", "For instance, in English, one says ''I see them'' and ''they see me'': the nominative pronouns ''I/they'' represent the perceiver and the accusative pronouns ''me/them'' represent the phenomenon perceived.", "Here, nominative and accusative are cases, that is, categories of pronouns corresponding to the functions they have in representation.English has largely lost its inflected case system but personal pronouns still have three cases, which are simplified forms of the nominative, accusative (including functions formerly handled by the dative) and genitive cases.", "They are used with personal pronouns: subjective case (I, you, he, she, it, we, they, who, whoever), objective case (me, you, him, her, it, us, them, whom, whomever) and possessive case (my, mine; your, yours; his; her, hers; its; our, ours; their, theirs; whose; whosever).", "Forms such as ''I'', ''he'' and ''we'' are used for the subject (\"'''I''' kicked the ball\"), and forms such as ''me'', ''him'' and ''us'' are used for the object (\"John kicked '''me'''\").As a language evolves, cases can merge (for instance, in Ancient Greek, the locative case merged with the dative), a phenomenon known as syncretism.Languages such as Sanskrit, Kannada, Latin, Tamil, and Russian have extensive case systems, with nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and determiners all inflecting (usually by means of different suffixes) to indicate their case.", "The number of cases differs between languages: Persian has two; modern English has three but for pronouns only; Torlakian dialects, Classical and Modern Standard Arabic have three; German, Icelandic, Modern Greek, and Irish have four; Romanian and Ancient Greek have five; Bengali, Latin, Russian, Slovak, Kajkavian, Slovenian, and Turkish each have at least six; Armenian, Czech, Georgian, Latvian, Lithuanian, Polish, Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian, Montenegrin and Ukrainian have seven; Mongolian, Marathi, Sanskrit, Kannada, Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam, Assamese and Greenlandic have eight; Old Nubian had nine; Basque has 13; Estonian has 14; Finnish has 15; Hungarian has 18; and Tsez has at least 36 cases.Commonly encountered cases include nominative, accusative, dative and genitive.", "A role that one of those languages marks by case is often marked in English with a preposition.", "For example, the English prepositional phrase ''with (his) foot'' (as in \"John kicked the ball with his foot\") might be rendered in Russian using a single noun in the instrumental case, or in Ancient Greek as (, meaning \"the foot\") with both words (the definite article, and the noun () \"foot\") changing to dative form.More formally, case has been defined as \"a system of marking dependent nouns for the type of relationship they bear to their heads\".", "Cases should be distinguished from thematic roles such as ''agent'' and ''patient''.", "They are often closely related, and in languages such as Latin, several thematic roles are realised by a somewhat fixed case for deponent verbs, but cases are a syntagmatic/phrasal category, and thematic roles are the function of a syntagma/phrase in a larger structure.", "Languages having cases often exhibit free word order, as thematic roles are not required to be marked by position in the sentence." ], [ "History", "It is widely accepted that the Ancient Greeks had a certain idea of the forms of a name in their own language.", "A fragment of Anacreon seems to prove this.", "Grammatical cases were first recognized by the Stoics and from some philosophers of the Peripatetic school.", "The advancements of those philosophers were later employed by the philologists of the Library of Alexandria." ], [ "Etymology", "The English word ''case'' used in this sense comes from the Latin , which is derived from the verb , \"to fall\", from the Proto-Indo-European root ''''.", "The Latin word is a calque of the Greek , , lit.", "\"falling, fall\".", "The sense is that all other cases are considered to have \"fallen\" away from the nominative.", "This imagery is also reflected in the word ''declension'', from Latin , \"to lean\", from the PIE root ''''.The equivalent to \"case\" in several other European languages also derives from ''casus'', including in French, in Italian, in Spanish, in Portuguese and in German.", "The Russian word (''padyézh'') is a calque from Greek and similarly contains a root meaning \"fall\", and the German and Czech simply mean \"fall\", and are used for both the concept of grammatical case and to refer to physical falls.", "The Dutch equivalent translates as 'noun case', in which 'noun' has the older meaning of both 'adjective (noun)' and '(substantive) noun'.", "The Finnish equivalent is , whose main meaning is \"position\" or \"place\"." ], [ "Indo-European languages", "On this sign in Russian memorializing an anniversary of the city of Balakhna, the word ''Balakhna ('''')'' on the right is in the nominative case, whereas the word ''Balakhne ('''')'' is in the dative case in ''Balakhne 500 Let'' ('Balakhna is 500 years old', literally 'There is 500 years to Balakhna') on the front of the sign.", "Furthermore, ''let'' is in the genitive (plural) case.Although not very prominent in modern English, cases featured much more saliently in Old English and other ancient Indo-European languages, such as Latin, Old Persian, Ancient Greek, and Sanskrit.", "Historically, the Indo-European languages had eight '''morphological cases''', although modern languages typically have fewer, using prepositions and word order to convey information that had previously been conveyed using distinct noun forms.", "Among modern languages, cases still feature prominently in most of the Balto-Slavic languages (except Macedonian and Bulgarian), with most having six to eight cases, as well as Icelandic, German and Modern Greek, which have four.", "In German, cases are mostly marked on articles and adjectives, and less so on nouns.", "In Icelandic, articles, adjectives, personal names and nouns are all marked for case, making it, among other things, the living Germanic language that could be said to most closely resemble Proto-Germanic.The eight historical Indo-European cases are as follows, with examples either of the English case or of the English syntactic alternative to case:CaseIndicatesSample case wordsSample sentenceInterrogativeNotesNominative Subject of a finite verbwe'''''We''' went to the store.", "''Who or what?Corresponds to English's subject pronouns.AccusativeDirect object of a transitive verbus,for us,the (object)''The clerk remembered '''us'''.", "''''John waited '''for us''' at the bus stop.", "''''Obey '''the law'''.", "''Whom or what?Corresponds to English's object pronouns and preposition ''for'' construction before the object, often marked by a definite article ''the''.", "Together with dative, it forms modern English's oblique case.DativeIndirect object of a verb us,to us,to the (object)''The clerk gave '''us''' a discount.", "''''The clerk gave a discount '''to us'''.", "''''According '''to the law'''...''Whom or to what?Corresponds to English's object pronouns and preposition ''to'' construction before the object, often marked by a definite article ''the''.", "Together with accusative, it forms modern English's oblique case.AblativeMovement ''away from''from us''The pigeon flew '''from us''' to a steeple.''Whence?", "From where/whom?GenitivePossessor of another noun's,of (the)'''''John's''' book was on the table.", "''''The pages '''of the book''' turned yellow.", "''''The table is made '''out of wood'''.''Whose?", "From what or what of?Roughly corresponds to English's possessive (possessive determiners and pronouns) and preposition ''of'' construction.CaseIndicatesSample case wordsSample sentenceInterrogativeNotesVocativeAddresseeJohn'''''John''', are you all right?", "''''Hello, '''John!", "''''''''''O John''''', how are you!", "(Archaic)Roughly corresponds to the archaic use of \"O\" in English.LocativeLocation, either physical or temporalin Japan,at the bus stop,in the future''We live '''in Japan'''.", "''''John is waiting for us '''at the bus stop'''.", "''We will see what will happen '''in the future'''.Where or wherein?", "When?Roughly corresponds to English prepositions ''in'', ''on'', ''at'', and ''by'' and other less common prepositions.InstrumentalA means or tool used or companion present in/while performing an actionwith a mop,by hand''We wiped the floor '''with a mop'''.", "''''This letter was written '''by hand'''.''How?", "With what or using what?", "By what means?", "With whom?Corresponds to English prepositions ''by'', ''with'' and ''via'' as well as synonymous constructions such as ''using'', ''by use of'' and ''through''.All of the above are just rough descriptions; the precise distinctions vary significantly from language to language, and as such they are often more complex.", "Case is based fundamentally on changes to the noun to indicate the noun's role in the sentence – one of the defining features of so-called fusional languages.", "Old English was a fusional language, but Modern English does not work this way.===Modern English===Modern English has largely abandoned the inflectional case system of Proto-Indo-European in favor of analytic constructions.", "The personal pronouns of Modern English retain morphological case more strongly than any other word class (a remnant of the more extensive case system of Old English).", "For other pronouns, and all nouns, adjectives, and articles, grammatical function is indicated only by word order, by prepositions, and by the \"Saxon genitive\" (''-'s'').Taken as a whole, English personal pronouns are typically said to have three morphological cases:* The ''nominative case'' (''subjective pronouns'' such as ''I'', ''he'', ''she'', ''we''), used for the subject of a finite verb and sometimes for the complement of a copula.", "* The ''oblique case'' (''object pronouns'' such as ''me'', ''him'', ''her'', ''us''), used for the direct or indirect object of a verb, for the object of a preposition, for an absolute disjunct, and sometimes for the complement of a copula.", "* The ''genitive case'' (''possessive pronouns'' such as ''my/mine'', ''his'', ''her/hers'', ''our/ours''), used for a grammatical possessor.", "This is not always considered to be a case; see .Most English personal pronouns have five forms: the nominative case form, the oblique case form, a distinct ''reflexive'' or ''intensive'' form (such as ''myself'', ''ourselves'') which is based upon the possessive determiner form but is coreferential to a preceding instance of nominative or oblique, and the possessive case forms, which include both a ''determiner'' form (such as ''my'', ''our'') and a predicatively-used ''independent'' form (such as ''mine'', ''ours'') which is distinct (with two exceptions: the third person singular masculine ''he'' and the third person singular neuter ''it'', which use the same form for both determiner and independent ''his car'', ''it is his'').", "The interrogative personal pronoun ''who'' exhibits the greatest diversity of forms within the modern English pronoun system, having definite nominative, oblique, and genitive forms (''who'', ''whom'', ''whose'') and equivalently-coordinating indefinite forms (''whoever'', ''whomever'', and ''whosever'').Although English ''pronouns'' can have subject and object forms (he/him, she/her), ''nouns'' show only a singular/plural and a possessive/non-possessive distinction (e.g.", "''chair'', ''chairs'', ''chair's'', ''chairs'''); there is no manifest difference in the form of ''chair'' between \"The chair is here.\"", "(subject) and \"I own the chair.\"", "(direct object), a distinction made instead by word order and context." ], [ "Hierarchy of cases", "Cases can be ranked in the following hierarchy, where a language that does not have a given case will tend not to have any cases to the right of the missing case:: nominative → accusative ''or'' ergative → genitive → dative → locative ''or'' prepositional → ablative ''and/or'' instrumental → ''others''.This is, however, only a general tendency.", "Many forms of Central German, such as Colognian and Luxembourgish, have a dative case but lack a genitive.", "In Irish nouns, the nominative and accusative have fallen together, whereas the dative–locative has remained separate in some paradigms; Irish also has genitive and vocative cases.", "In many modern Indo-Aryan languages, the accusative, genitive, and dative have merged to an oblique case, but many of these languages still retain vocative, locative, and ablative cases.", "Old English had an instrumental case, but neither a locative nor a prepositional case." ], [ "Case order", "The traditional case order (nom-gen-dat-acc) was expressed for the first time in ''The Art of Grammar'' in the 2nd century BC:Latin grammars, such as ''Ars grammatica'', followed the Greek tradition, but added the ablative case of Latin.", "Later other European languages also followed that Graeco-Roman tradition.However, for some languages, such as Latin, due to case syncretism the order may be changed for convenience, where the accusative or the vocative cases are placed after the nominative and before the genitive.", "For example:+ Latin water war Singular Plural Singular Plural Nominative aqua aquae bellum bella Vocative Accusative aquam aquās Genitive aquae aquārum bellī bellōrum Dative aquīs bellō bellīs Ablative aquāFor similar reasons, the customary order of the four cases in Icelandic is nominative–accusative–dative–genitive, as illustrated below: number case masculine feminine neuter neuter singular hattur borg glas gler hatt hatti glasi gleri hatts borgar glass glers plural hattar borgir glös gler hatta höttum borgum glösum gler(j)um hatta borga glasa gler(j)a" ], [ "Case concord systems", "In the most common case concord system, only the head-word (the noun) in a phrase is marked for case.", "This system appears in many Papuan languages as well as in Turkic, Mongolian, Quechua, Dravidian, Indo-Aryan, and other languages.", "In Basque and various Amazonian and Australian languages, only the phrase-final word (not necessarily the noun) is marked for case.", "In many Indo-European, Finnic, and Semitic languages, case is marked on the noun, the determiner, and usually the adjective.", "Other systems are less common.", "In some languages, there is double-marking of a word as both genitive (to indicate semantic role) and another case such as accusative (to establish concord with the head noun)." ], [ "Declension paradigms", "Declension is the process or result of altering nouns to the correct grammatical cases.", "Languages with rich nominal inflection (using grammatical cases for many purposes) typically have a number of identifiable declension classes, or groups of nouns with a similar pattern of case inflection or declension.", "Sanskrit has six declension classes, whereas Latin is traditionally considered to have five, and Ancient Greek three.", "For example, Slovak has fifteen noun declension classes, five for each gender (the number may vary depending on which paradigms are counted or omitted, this mainly concerns those that modify declension of foreign words; refer to article).In Indo-European languages, declension patterns may depend on a variety of factors, such as gender, number, phonological environment, and irregular historical factors.", "Pronouns sometimes have separate paradigms.", "In some languages, particularly Slavic languages, a case may contain different groups of endings depending on whether the word is a noun or an adjective.", "A single case may contain many different endings, some of which may even be derived from different roots.", "For example, in Polish, the genitive case has ''-a, -u, -ów, -i/-y, -e-'' for nouns, and ''-ego, -ej, -ich/-ych'' for adjectives.", "To a lesser extent, a noun's animacy or humanness may add another layer of complexity.", "For example, in Russian:vs.and" ], [ "Examples", "=== Australian Aboriginal languages ===Australian languages represent a diversity of case paradigms in terms of their alignment (i.e.", "nominative-accusative vs. ergative-absolutive) and the morpho-syntactic properties of case inflection including where/how many times across a noun phrase the case morphology will appear.", "For typical r-expression noun phrases, most Australian languages follow a basic ERG-ABS template with additional cases for peripheral arguments; however, many Australian languages, the function of case marking extends beyond the prototypical function of specifying the syntactic and semantic relation of an NP to a predicate.", "Dench and Evans (1988) use a five-part system for categorizing the functional roles of case marking in Australian languages.", "They are enumerated below as they appear in Senge (2015):# '''Relational''': a suffix which represents syntactic or semantic roles of a noun phrase in clauses.# '''Adnominal''': a suffix which relates a noun phrase to another within the one noun phrase.# '''Referential''': a suffix which attaches to a noun phrase in agreement with another noun phrase which represents one of the core arguments in the clause.# '''Subordinating''': a suffix which attaches to elements of a subordinate clause.", "Its functions are: (i) specifying temporal or logical (typically, causal and purposive) relationships between two clauses (Temporal-subordinator); (ii) indicating coreferential relationships between arguments in the two clauses (Concord-subordinator).# '''Derivational''': a suffix which attaches to a bare stem before other case suffixes and create a new lexical item.To illustrate this paradigm in action, take the case-system of Wanyjirra for whose description Senge invokes this system.", "Each of the case markers functions in the prototypical relational sense, but many extend into these additional functions:DerivationalAdnominalRelationalReferentialSubordinatorC-SUB*T-SUB*ErgativeDativeLocativeAllativePurposiveAblativeElativeComitativeOriginativeProprietivePrivativeWanyjirra is an example of a language in which case marking occurs on all sub-constituents of the NP; see the following example in which the demonstrative, head, and quantifier of the noun phrase all receive ergative marking:However, this is by no means always the case or even the norm for Australian languages.", "For many, case-affixes are considered special-clitics (i.e.", "phrasal-affixes, see Anderson 2005) because they have a singular fixed position within the phrase.", "For Bardi, the case marker usually appears on the first phrasal constituent while the opposite is the case for Wangkatja (i.e.", "the case marker is attracted to the rightmost edge of the phrase).", "See the following examples respectively:=== Basque ===Basque has the following cases, with examples given in the indefinite, definite singular, definite plural, and definite close plural of the word ''etxe'', \"house\", \"home\":* absolutive (''etxe, etxe'''a''', etxe'''ak''', etxe'''ok''''': \"house, the / a house, (the / some) houses, these houses\"),* ergative (''etxe'''k''', etxe'''ak''', etxe'''ek''', etxe'''ok'''''),* dative (''etxe'''ri''', etxe'''ari''', etxe'''ei''', etxe'''oi'''''),* genitive (''etxe'''ren''', etxe'''aren''', etxe'''en''', etxe'''on'''''),* destinative (or benefactive: ''etxe'''rentzat''', etxe'''arentzat''', etxe'''entzat''', etxe'''ontzat'''''),* motivative (or causal: ''etxe'''rengatik''', etxe'''arengatik''', etxe'''engatik''', etxe'''ongatik'''''),* sociative (''etxe'''rekin''', etxe'''arekin''', etxe'''ekin''', etxe'''okin'''''),* instrumental (''etxe'''z''', etxe'''az''', etxe'''ez''', etxe'''oz'''''),* locative or inesive (''etxe'''tan''', etxe'''an''', etxe'''etan''', etxe'''otan'''''),* ablative (''etxe'''tatik''', etxe'''tik''', exte'''etatik''', etxe'''otatik'''''),* adlative (''etxe'''tara''', etxe'''ra''', etxe'''etara''', etxe'''otara'''''),* directional adlative (''etxe'''tarantz''', etxe'''rantz''', etxe'''etarantz''', etxe'''otarantz'''''),* terminative adlative (''etxe'''taraino''', etxe'''raino''', etxe'''etaraino''', etxe'''otaraino'''''),* locative genitive (''etxe'''tako''', etxe'''ko''', etxe'''etako''', etxe'''otako'''''),* prolative (etxe'''tzat'''), only in the indefinite grammatical number,* partitive (etxe'''rik'''), only in the indefinite grammatical number, and* distributive (''Bost liburu ikasle'''ko''' banatu dituzte'', \"They have handed out five books to each student\"), only in the indefinite grammatical number.Some of them can be re-declined, even more than once, as if they were nouns (usually, from the genitive locative case), although they mainly work as noun modifiers before a noun clause:* ''etxearena'' (that which is of the house), ''etxearenarekin'' (with the one which pertains to the house), * ''neskarentzako'' (which is for the girl), ''neskarentzakoan'' (in the one which is for the girl), * ''neskekiko'' (which is with the girls), ''neskekikoa'' (the one which is for the girls), * ''arazoarengatiko'' (which is because of the problem), ''arazoarengatikoak'' (the ones which are due to the problems), * ''zurezkoaz'' (by means of the wooden one), * ''etxeetakoaz'' (about the one which is in the houses), ''etxeetakoari'' (to the one which is in the houses), * ''etxetiko'' (which comes from the house), ''etxetikoa'' (the one which comes from the house), etxetikoari (to the one which comes from the house), * ''etxeetarako'' (which goes to the houses), ''etxeetarakoa'' (the one which goes to the houses), ''etxeetarakoaz'' (about the one which goes to the houses), * ''etxeranzko'' (which goes towards the house), ''etxeranzkoa'' (the one which goes to the house), ''etxeranzkoarena'' (the one which belongs to the one which goes to the house), * ''etxerainoko'' (which goes up to the house), ''etxerainokoa'' (the one which goes up to the house), ''etxerainokoarekin'' (with the one which goes up to the houses)...=== German ===In German, grammatical case is largely preserved in the articles and adjectives, but nouns have lost many of their original endings.", "Below is an example of case inflection in German using the masculine definite article and one of the German words for \"sailor\".", "* (nominative) \"the sailor\" as a subject (e.g.", "''Der Seemann steht da'' – the sailor is standing there)* (genitive) \"the sailor's / of the sailor\" (e.g.", "– the name of the sailor is Otto)* (dative) \"to/for the sailor\" as an indirect object (e.g.", "– I gave a present to the sailor)* (accusative) \"the sailor\" as a direct object (e.g.", "– I saw the sailor)An example with the feminine definite article with the German word for \"woman\".", "* ''d'''ie''' Frau'' (nominative) \"the woman\" as a subject (e.g.", "''Die Frau isst'' - the woman eats)* ''d'''er''' Frau'' (genitive) \"the woman's / of the woman\" (e.g.", "''Die Katze der Frau ist weiß'' - the cat of the woman is white)* ''d'''er''' Frau'' (dative) \"to/for the woman\" as an indirect object (e.g.", "''Ich gab der Frau ein Geschenk'' - I gave a present to the woman)* ''d'''ie''' Frau'' (accusative) \"the woman\" as a direct object (e.g.", "''Ich sah die Frau'' - I saw the woman)An example with the neuter definite article with the German word for \"book\".", "* ''d'''as''' Buch (nominative)'' \"the book\" as a subject (e.g.", "''Das Buch ist gut -'' the book is good)* ''d'''es''' Buch'''(e)s''''' (genitive) \"the book's/ of the book\" (e.g.", "''Die Seiten des Buchs sind grün'' - the pages of the book are green)* ''d'''em''' Buch'''(e)''''' (dative) \"to/for the book\" as an indirect object (e.g.", "''Ich gab dem Buch einen Titel'' - I gave the book a title)* ''d'''as''' Buch'' (accusative) \"the book\" as a direct object (e.g.", "''Ich sah das Buch'' - I saw the book)Proper names for cities have two genitive nouns:* ''der Hauptbahnhof Berlin'''s''''' (primary genitive) \"the main train station of Berlin\"* ''der Berlin'''er''' Hauptbahnhof'' (secondary genitive) \"Berlin's main train station\"=== Hindi-Urdu ===Hindi-Urdu (Hindustani) has three noun cases, the ''nominative,'' ''oblique'', and ''vocative'' cases.", "The vocative case is now obsolete (but still used in certain regions) and the oblique case doubles as the vocative case.", "The pronoun cases in Hindi-Urdu are the ''nominative'', ''ergative'', ''accusative, dative'', and two ''oblique'' cases.", "The case forms which do not exist for certain pronouns are constructed using primary postpositions (or other grammatical particles) and the oblique case (shown in parentheses in the table below).The other cases are constructed adpositionally using the case-marking postpositions using the nouns and pronouns in their oblique cases.", "The oblique case is used exclusively with these 8 case-marking postpositions of Hindi-Urdu forming 10 grammatical cases, which are: ''ergative'' ने (ne), ''dative'' and ''accusative'' को (ko), ''instrumental'' and ''ablative'' से (se), ''genitive'' का (kā), ''inessive'' में (mẽ), ''adessive'' पे (pe), ''terminative'' तक (tak), ''semblative'' सा (sā).", "''Noun''''cases''''Masculine''''Feminine''''boy''''tree''''girl''''mother'''''''Singular'''''Nominativeलड़काlar̥kāपेड़per̥लड़कीlar̥kīमाताmātāObliqueलड़केlar̥keVocative'''''Plural'''''Nominativeलड़कियाँlar̥kiyãमाताएँmātaẽObliqueलड़कोंlar̥kõपेड़ोंper̥õलड़कियोंlar̥kiyõमाताओंmātāõVocativeमाताओmātāo''Pronoun''''cases''''1st Person''''2nd Person''''Singular''''Plural''''Singular''''Singular & Plural''''Intimate''''Familiar''''Formal''Nominativeमैंma͠iहमhamतूtūतुमtumआपāpErgativeमैंने ma͠ineहमने hamneतूने tūneतुमने tumneआपनेāpneAccusativeमुझेmujheहमेंhamẽतुझेtujheतुम्हेंtumhẽ(आपको)āpkoDativeObliqueमुझmujhहमhamतुझtujhतुमtumआपāpOblique(emphasised)मुझीmujhīहमींhamī̃तुझीtujhīतुम्हींtumhī̃(आप ही)āp hī''Pronoun''''cases''''Demonstrative''''Relative''''Interrogative''''Proximal''''Distal''''Singular''''Plural''''Singular''''Plural''''Singular''''Plural''''Singular''''Plural''Nominative(colloquial)येyeवोvoजोjoकौन, क्या'''1'''kaun, kyāNominative(literary)यहyahयेyeवहvahवेveErgativeइसने isneइन्होंनेinhõneउसनेusneउन्होंनेunhõneजिसनेjisneजिन्होंनेjinhõneकिसनेkisneकिन्होंनेkinhõneAccusativeइसेiseइन्हेंinhẽउसेuseउन्हेंunhẽजिसेjiseजिन्हेंjinhẽकिसेkiseकिन्हेंkinhẽDativeObliqueइसisइनinउसusउनunजिसjisजिनjinकिसkisकिनkinOblique(emphasised)इसीisīइन्हींinhī̃उसीusīउन्हींunhī̃(जिस भी)jis bhī(जिन भी)jin bhīकिसीkisīकिन्हींkinhī̃'''1''' ''कौन'' ''(kaun) is the animate interrogative pronoun and क्या (kyā) is the inanimate interrogative pronoun.", "'''''''Note:''' Hindi lacks 3rd person personal pronouns and to compensate the demonstrative pronouns are used as 3rd person personal pronouns.", "''=== Latin ===An example of a Latin case inflection is given below, using the singular forms of the Latin term for \"cook\", which belongs to Latin's second declension class.", "* (nominative) \"the cook\" as a subject (e.g.", "– the cook is standing there)* (genitive) \"the cook's / of the cook\" (e.g.", "– the cook's name is Claudius)* (dative) \"to/for the cook\" as an indirect object (e.g.", "– I gave a present to the cook)* (accusative) \"the cook\" as a direct object (e.g.", "– I saw the cook)* (ablative) \"by/with/from/in the cook\" in various uses not covered by the above (e.g.", "– I am taller than the cook: ablative of comparison)* (vocative) \"you the cook\" addressing the object (e.g.", "– I thank you, cook)For some toponyms, a seventh case, the locative, also exists, such as (in Mediolanum).The Romance languages have largely abandoned or simplified the grammatical cases of Latin.", "Much like English, most Romance case markers survive only in pronouns.=== Lithuanian ===Typically in Lithuanian, only the inflection changes for the seven different grammatical cases:* Nominative (''''): – – \"This is a dog.", "\"* Genitive (''''): – – \"Tom took the dog's bone.", "\"* Dative (''''): – – \"He gave the bone to another dog.", "\"* Accusative (''''): – – \"He washed the dog.", "\"* Instrumental (''''): – – He scared the cats with (using) the dog.", "* Locative (''''): – – \"We'll meet at the White Dog (Cafe).", "\"* Vocative (''''): – – \"He shouted: Hey, dog!", "\"=== Hungarian ===Hungarian declension is relatively simple with regular suffixes attached to the vast majority of nouns.", "The following table lists all of the cases used in Hungarian.+ '''''' – house, – two Case Meaning Suffix Example Meaning of the exampleNominative case subject house (as a subject)Accusative case direct object house (as an object)Dative case indirect object to the houseGenitive casepossessionof the house (belonging to)Instrumental-comitative case with (Assim.", ")''házzal'' with the houseCausal-final case for, for the purpose of for the houseTranslative case into (used to show transformation) (Assim.", ")''házzá'' turn into a houseTerminative case as far as, up to as far as the houseIllative caseinto (location) into the houseAdessive caseatat the houseAblative casefrom (away from)(away) from the houseElative casefrom (out of)from the inside of the houseSublative caseonto (movement towards a thing)onto the houseSuperessive caseon/upon (static position)on top of the houseDelative casefrom (movement away from a thing)from on top of the house, about the houseTemporal caseat (used to indicate time or moment)at two (o'clock)Sociative casewith (archaic)''-stul/-stül''''házastul''with the houseLocative casein''házban''in the house, inside the houseTypes oftypes or variants of a thingtwo types of houses=== Russian ===An example of a Russian case inflection is given below (with explicit stress marks), using the singular forms of the Russian term for \"sailor\", which belongs to Russian's first declension class.", "* (nominative) \"the sailor\" as a subject (e.g.", ": The sailor is standing there)* (genitive) \"the sailor's / of the sailor\" (e.g.", ": The sailor's son is an artist)* (dative) \"to/for the sailor\" as an indirect object (e.g.", ": (They/Someone) gave a present to the sailor)* (accusative) \"the sailor\" as a direct object (e.g.", ": (I) see the sailor)* (instrumental) \"with/by the sailor\" (e.g.", ": (I) have a friendship with the sailor)* (prepositional) \"about/on/in the sailor\" (e.g.", ": (I) think about the sailor)Up to ten additional cases are identified by linguists, although today all of them are either incomplete (do not apply to all nouns or do not form full word paradigm with all combinations of gender and number) or degenerate (appear identical to one of the main six cases).", "The most recognized additional cases are locative (), partitive (), and two forms of vocative — old () and neo-vocative ().", "Sometimes, so called count-form (for some countable nouns after numerals) is considered to be a sub-case.=== Sanskrit ===Grammatical case was analyzed extensively in Sanskrit.", "The grammarian Pāṇini identified six semantic roles or ''kāraka'', which are related to the following eight Sanskrit cases in order:CaseRoot word: वृक्ष (vṛ́kṣa) TreeSingularDualPlural Kartṛ कर्तृ Nominativeवृक्षःvṛkṣaḥवृक्षौvṛkṣauवृक्षाः / वृक्षासः¹vṛkṣāḥ / vṛkṣāsaḥ¹Sambodhana सम्बोधनVocativeवृक्षvṛkṣa Karmaकर्म Accusativeवृक्षम्vṛkṣamवृक्षान्vṛkṣān Karaṇaकरण Instrumentalवृक्षेणvṛkṣeṇaवृक्षाभ्याम्vṛkṣābhyāmवृक्षैः / वृक्षेभिः¹vṛkṣaiḥ / vṛkṣebhiḥ¹ Sampradānaसम्प्रदान Dativeवृक्षायvṛkṣāyaवृक्षेभ्यःvṛkṣebhyaḥ Apādānaअपादान Ablativeवृक्षात्vṛkṣāt Sambandhaसम्बन्ध Genitiveवृक्षस्यvṛkṣasyaवृक्षयोःvṛkṣayoḥवृक्षाणाम्vṛkṣāṇām Adhikaraṇa अधिकरण Locativeवृक्षेvṛkṣeवृक्षेषुvṛkṣeṣu'''¹''' VedicFor example, in the following sentence ''leaf'' is the agent (''kartā'', nominative case), ''tree'' is the source (''apādāna'', ablative case), and ''ground'' is the locus (''adhikaraṇa'', locative case).", "The declensions are reflected in the morphemes ''-āt'', ''-am'', and ''-au'' respectively.However, the cases may be deployed for other than the default thematic roles.", "A notable example is the passive construction.", "In the following sentence, ''Devadatta'' is the ''kartā'', but appears in the instrumental case, and ''rice'', the ''karman'', object, is in the nominative case (as subject of the verb).", "The declensions are reflected in the morphemes ''-ena'' and ''-am''.=== Tamil ===The Tamil case system is analyzed in native and missionary grammars as consisting of a finite number of cases.", "The usual treatment of Tamil case (Arden 1942) is one in which there are seven cases: nominative (first case), accusative (second case), instrumental (third), dative (fourth), ablative (fifth), genitive (sixth), and locative (seventh).", "In traditional analyses, there is always a clear distinction made between post-positional morphemes and case endings.", "The vocative is sometimes given a place in the case system as an eighth case, but vocative forms do not participate in usual morphophonemic alternations and do not govern the use of any postpositions.", "Modern grammarians, however, argue that this eight-case classification is coarse and artificial and that Tamil usage is best understood if each suffix or combination of suffixes is seen as marking a separate case.", "Case Suffixes Example: மன்னன் (mannan) king First case Nominative — * மன்னன் (mannan) Second case Accusative * ai* ஐ * மன்னனை (mannanai) Third case Instrumental * al* udan, * kondu* ஆல், உடன்* கொண்டு * மன்னனால் (mannanaal)* மன்னனுடன் (mannanudan)* மன்னனோடு (mannanOdu) Fourth case Dative * (u)kku* poruttu* aaga* கு* பொருட்டு* ஆக * மன்னனுக்கு (mannanukku)* மன்னனின் பொருட்டு (mannanin poruttu)* மன்னனுக்காக (mannanukkaaga) Fifth case Ablative * in* il* ilrundu* இன்* இல்* இருந்து * மன்னனின் (mannanin)* மன்னனில் (mannanil)* மன்னனிலிருந்து (mannanilirundu) Sixth case Genitive * athu* udaiya* அது* உடைய * மன்னனது (mannanadu)* மன்னனுடைய (mannanudaiya) Seventh case Locative * il* idam* kaṇ (Old Tamil)* இல்* இடம்* கண் (Old Tamil) * வீட்டில் (vīṭṭil)* மன்னனிடம் (mannanidam)Eighth case Vocative* e* a* ஏ* ஆ * மன்னனே (mannanE)* மன்னவா(mannavaa)=== Turkish ===Modern Turkish has six cases (In Turkish ''İsmin Hâlleri'').Nominative What?", "Who?", "Accusative What?", "Who?", "Dative To whom?", "Locative Where?", "Whom?", "Ablative Where from?", "From whom?", "Why?", "Genitive Whose?", "What's wrong?Singularçiçe'''k''' / (a/the) flower (nom) çiçe'''ği''' / (a/the) flower (acc) çiçe'''ğe''' / to (a/the) flower çiçek'''te''' / in (a/the) flower çiçe'''kten''' / from (a/the) flower çiçe'''ğin''' / of (a/the) flowerPluralçiçe'''kler''' / (the) flowers (nom)çiçe'''kleri''' / (the) flowers (acc)çiçe'''klere''' / to (the) flowersçiçe'''klerde''' / in (the) flowersçiçe'''klerden''' / from (the) flowersçiçe'''klerin''' / of (the) flowersThe accusative can exist only in the noun(whether it is derived from a verb or not).", "For example, \"Arkadaşlar bize gel'''meyi''' düşünüyorlar.\"", "(Friends are thinking of com'''ing''' to us).The dative can exist only in the noun (whether it is derived from a verb or not).", "For example, \"Bol bol kitap oku'''maya''' çalışıyorum.\"", "(I try '''to read''' a lot of books)." ], [ "Evolution", "As languages evolve, case systems change.", "In early Ancient Greek, for example, the genitive and ablative cases of given names became combined, giving five cases, rather than the six retained in Latin.", "In modern Hindi, the cases have been reduced to three: a direct case (for subjects and direct objects) and oblique case, and a vocative case.", "In English, apart from the pronouns discussed above, case has vanished altogether except for the possessive/non-possessive dichotomy in nouns.The evolution of the treatment of case relationships can be circular.", "Postpositions can become unstressed and sound like they are an unstressed syllable of a neighboring word.", "A postposition can thus merge into the stem of a head noun, developing various forms depending on the phonological shape of the stem.", "Affixes can then be subject to various phonological processes such as assimilation, vowel centering to the schwa, phoneme loss, and fusion, and these processes can reduce or even eliminate the distinctions between cases.", "Languages can then compensate for the resulting loss of function by creating postpositions, thus coming full circle.Recent experiments in agent-based modeling have shown how case systems can emerge and evolve in a population of language users.", "The experiments demonstrate that language users may introduce new case markers to reduce the cognitive effort required for semantic interpretation, hence facilitating communication through language.", "Case markers then become generalized through analogical reasoning and reuse." ], [ "Linguistic typology", "===Morphosyntactic alignment===Languages are categorized into several case systems, based on their ''morphosyntactic alignment''—how they group verb agents and patients into cases:* ''Nominative–accusative'' (or simply ''accusative''): The argument (subject) of an intransitive verb is in the same case as the agent (subject) of a transitive verb; this case is then called the ''nominative case'', with the patient (direct object) of a transitive verb being in the ''accusative case''.", "* ''Ergative–absolutive'' (or simply ''ergative''): The argument (subject) of an intransitive verb is in the same case as the patient (direct object) of a transitive verb; this case is then called the ''absolutive case'', with the agent (subject) of a transitive verb being in the ''ergative case''.", "* ''Ergative–accusative'' (or ''tripartite''): The argument (subject) of an intransitive verb is in its own case (the ''intransitive case''), separate from that of the agent (subject) or patient (direct object) of a transitive verb (which is in the ergative case or accusative case, respectively).", "* ''Active–stative'' (or simply ''active''): The argument (subject) of an intransitive verb can be in one of two cases; if the argument is an ''agent'', as in \"He ate\", then it is in the same case as the agent (subject) of a transitive verb (sometimes called the ''agentive case''), and if it is a ''patient'', as in \"He tripped\", then it is in the same case as the patient (direct object) of a transitive verb (sometimes called the ''patientive case'').", "* ''Trigger'': One noun in a sentence is the topic or focus.", "This noun is in the trigger case, and information elsewhere in the sentence (for example a verb affix in Tagalog) specifies the role of the trigger.", "The trigger may be identified as the agent, patient, etc.", "Other nouns may be inflected for case, but the inflections are overloaded; for example, in Tagalog, the subject and object of a verb are both expressed in the genitive case when they are not in the trigger case.The following are systems that some languages use to mark case instead of, or in addition to, declension:* '''Positional''': Nouns are not inflected for case; the position of a noun in the sentence expresses its case.", "* Adpositional: Nouns are accompanied by words that mark case.===Language families===*With a few exceptions, most languages in the Finno-Ugric family make extensive use of cases.", "Finnish has 15 cases according to the traditional description (or up to 30 depending on the interpretation).", "However, only 12 are commonly used in speech (see Finnish noun cases and Finnish locative system).", "Estonian has 14 (see Estonian locative system) and Hungarian has 18, both with additional archaic cases used for some words.", "*Turkic, Mongolic, and Tungusic languages also exhibit complex case systems.", "Since the abovementioned languages, along with Korean and Japanese, shared certain similarities, linguists proposed an Altaic family and reconstructed its case system; although the hypothesis had been largely discredited.", "*The Tsez language, a Northeast Caucasian language, has 64 cases.", "*The original version of John Quijada's constructed language Ithkuil has 81 noun cases, and its descendant Ilaksh and Ithkuil after the 2011 revision both have 96 noun cases.The lemma form of words, which is the form chosen by convention as the canonical form of a word, is usually the most unmarked or basic case, which is typically the nominative, trigger, or absolutive case, whichever a language may have." ], [ "See also", "* Agreement (linguistics)* Case hierarchy* Declension* Differential object marking* Inflection* List of grammatical cases* Phi features* Thematic relation* Verbal case* Voice (grammar)" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===General references===* * Ivan G. Iliev (2007) On the Nature of Grammatical Case ... (Case and Vocativeness)* Iliev, Iv.", "The Russian Genitive of Negation and Its Japanese Counterpart.", "International Journal of Russian Studies.", "1, 2018" ], [ "External links", "* Grammatical Features Inventory – DOI: 10.15126/SMG.18/1.04*World Atlas of Language Structures Online** Chapter 28: Case Syncretism** Chapter 49: Number of Cases** Chapter 50: Asymmetrical Case Marking** Chapter 51: Position of Case Affixes** Chapter 98: Alignment of Case Marking of Full Noun Phrases** Chapter 99: Alignment of Case Marking of Pronouns" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gestapo" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''''' (; ), abbreviated '''Gestapo''' ( , ), was the official secret police of Nazi Germany and in German-occupied Europe.The force was created by Hermann Göring in 1933 by combining the various political police agencies of Prussia into one organisation.", "On 20 April 1934, oversight of the Gestapo passed to the head of the ''Schutzstaffel'' (SS), Heinrich Himmler, who was also appointed Chief of German Police by Hitler in 1936.Instead of being exclusively a Prussian state agency, the Gestapo became a national one as a sub-office of the (SiPo; Security Police).", "From 27 September 1939, it was administered by the Reich Security Main Office (RSHA).", "It became known as (Dept) 4 of the RSHA and was considered a sister organisation to the (SD; Security Service).The Gestapo committed widespread atrocities during its existence.", "The power of the Gestapo was used to focus upon political opponents, ideological dissenters (clergy and religious organisations), career criminals, the Sinti and Roma population, handicapped persons, homosexuals, and above all, the Jews.", "Those arrested by the Gestapo were often held without judicial process, and political prisoners throughout Germany—and from 1941, throughout the occupied territories under the Night and Fog Decree ()—simply disappeared while in Gestapo custody.", "Contrary to popular perception, the Gestapo was actually a relatively small organization with limited surveillance capability; despite this the Gestapo proved extremely effective due to the willingness of ordinary Germans to report on fellow citizens.", "During World War II, the Gestapo played a key role in the Holocaust.", "After the war ended, the Gestapo was declared a criminal organisation by the International Military Tribunal (IMT) at the Nuremberg trials, and several top Gestapo members were sentenced to death." ], [ "History", "After Adolf Hitler became Chancellor of Germany, Hermann Göring—future commander of the Luftwaffe and the number two man in the Nazi Party—was named Interior Minister of Prussia.", "This gave Göring command of the largest police force in Germany.", "Soon afterward, Göring detached the political and intelligence sections from the police and filled their ranks with Nazis.", "On 26 April 1933, Göring merged the two units as the , which was abbreviated by a post office clerk for a franking stamp and became known as the \"Gestapo\".", "He originally wanted to name it the Secret Police Office (), but the German initials, \"GPA\", were too similar to those of the Soviet State Political Directorate (, or GPU).Rudolf Diels, first Commander of the Gestapo; 1933–1934Heinrich Himmler and Hermann Göring at the meeting to formally hand over control of the Gestapo (Berlin, 1934)The first commander of the Gestapo was Rudolf Diels, a protégé of Göring.", "Diels was appointed with the title of chief of (Department 1a) of the Prussian Secret Police.", "Diels was best known as the primary interrogator of Marinus van der Lubbe after the Reichstag fire.", "In late 1933, the Reich Interior Minister Wilhelm Frick wanted to integrate all the police forces of the German states under his control.", "Göring outflanked him by removing the Prussian political and intelligence departments from the state interior ministry.", "Göring took over the Gestapo in 1934 and urged Hitler to extend the agency's authority throughout Germany.", "This represented a radical departure from German tradition, which held that law enforcement was (mostly) a (state) and local matter.", "In this, he ran into conflict with (SS) chief Heinrich Himmler who was police chief of the second most powerful German state, Bavaria.", "Frick did not have the political power to take on Göring by himself so he allied with Himmler.", "With Frick's support, Himmler (pushed on by his right-hand man, Reinhard Heydrich) took over the political police in state-after-state.", "Soon only Prussia was left.Concerned that Diels was not ruthless enough to effectively counteract the power of the (SA), Göring handed over control of the Gestapo to Himmler on 20 April 1934.Also on that date, Hitler appointed Himmler chief of all German police outside Prussia.", "Heydrich, named chief of the Gestapo by Himmler on 22 April 1934, also continued as head of the SS Security Service (; SD).", "Himmler and Heydrich both immediately began installing their own personnel in select positions, several of whom were directly from the Bavarian Political Police, such as Heinrich Müller, Franz Josef Huber and Josef Meisinger.", "Many of the Gestapo employees in the newly established offices were young and highly educated in a wide variety of academic fields and moreover, represented a new generation of National Socialist adherents, who were hard-working, efficient, and prepared to carry the Nazi state forward through the persecution of their political opponents.By the spring of 1934, Himmler's SS controlled the SD and the Gestapo, but for him, there was still a problem, as technically the SS (and the Gestapo by proxy) was subordinated to the SA, which was under the command of Ernst Röhm.", "Himmler wanted to free himself entirely from Röhm, whom he viewed as an obstacle.", "Röhm's position was menacing as more than 4.5 million men fell under his command once the militias and veterans organisations were absorbed by the SA, a fact which fuelled Röhm's aspirations; his dream of fusing the SA and ''Reichswehr'' together was undermining Hitler's relationships with the leadership of Germany's armed forces.", "Several Nazi chieftains, among them Göring, Joseph Goebbels, Rudolf Hess, and Himmler, began a concerted campaign to convince Hitler to take action against Röhm.", "Both the SD and Gestapo released information concerning an imminent putsch by the SA.", "Once persuaded, Hitler acted by setting Himmler's SS into action, who then proceeded to murder over 100 of Hitler's identified antagonists.", "The Gestapo supplied the information which implicated the SA and ultimately enabled Himmler and Heydrich to emancipate themselves entirely from the organisation.", "For the Gestapo, the next two years following the Night of the Long Knives, a term describing the putsch against Röhm and the SA, were characterised by \"behind-the-scenes political wrangling over policing\".1938 Gestapo border inspection stamp applied when leaving GermanyOn 17 June 1936, Hitler decreed the unification of all police forces in Germany and named Himmler as Chief of German Police.", "This action effectively merged the police into the SS and removed it from Frick's control.", "Himmler was nominally subordinate to Frick as police chief, but as , he answered only to Hitler.", "This move also gave Himmler operational control over Germany's entire detective force.", "The Gestapo became a national state agency.", "Himmler also gained authority over all of Germany's uniformed law enforcement agencies, which were amalgamated into the new (Orpo; Order Police), which became a national agency under SS general Kurt Daluege.", "Shortly thereafter, Himmler created the (Kripo; Criminal Police), merging it with the Gestapo into the (SiPo; Security Police), under Heydrich's command.", "Heinrich Müller was at that time the Gestapo operations chief.", "He answered to Heydrich, Heydrich answered only to Himmler, and Himmler answered only to Hitler.The Gestapo had the authority to investigate cases of treason, espionage, sabotage and criminal attacks on the Nazi Party and Germany.", "The basic Gestapo law passed by the government in 1936 gave the Gestapo to operate without judicial review—in effect, putting it above the law.", "The Gestapo was specifically exempted from responsibility to administrative courts, where citizens normally could sue the state to conform to laws.", "As early as 1935, a Prussian administrative court had ruled that the Gestapo's actions were not subject to judicial review.", "The SS officer Werner Best, one-time head of legal affairs in the Gestapo, summed up this policy by saying, \"As long as the police carries out the will of the leadership, it is acting legally\".On 27 September 1939, the security and police agencies of Nazi Germany—with the exception of the Order Police—were consolidated into the Reich Security Main Office (RSHA), headed by Heydrich.", "The Gestapo became (Department IV) of RSHA and Müller became the Gestapo Chief, with Heydrich as his immediate superior.", "After Heydrich's 1942 assassination, Himmler assumed the leadership of the RSHA until January 1943, when Ernst Kaltenbrunner was appointed chief.", "Müller remained the Gestapo Chief.", "His direct subordinate Adolf Eichmann headed the Gestapo's Office of Resettlement and then its Office of Jewish Affairs ( or Sub-Department IV, Section B4).", "During the Holocaust, Eichmann's department within the Gestapo coordinated the mass deportation of European Jews to the Nazis' extermination camps.The power of the Gestapo included the use of what was called, —\"protective custody\", a euphemism for the power to imprison people without judicial proceedings.", "An oddity of the system was that the prisoner had to sign his own , an order declaring that the person had requested imprisonment—presumably out of fear of personal harm.", "In addition, political prisoners throughout Germany—and from 1941, throughout the occupied territories under the Night and Fog Decree ()—simply disappeared while in Gestapo custody.", "Up to 30 April 1944, at least 6,639 persons were arrested under orders.", "However, the total number of people who disappeared as a result of this decree is not known." ], [ "Counterintelligence", "The Polish government-in-exile in London during World War II received sensitive military information about Nazi Germany from agents and informants throughout Europe.", "After Germany conquered Poland (in the autumn of 1939), Gestapo officials believed that they had neutralised Polish intelligence activities.", "However, certain Polish information about the movement of German police and SS units to the East during 1941 German invasion of the Soviet Union was similar to information British intelligence secretly obtained through intercepting and decoding German police and SS messages sent by radio telegraphy.In 1942, the Gestapo discovered a cache of Polish intelligence documents in Prague and were surprised to see that Polish agents and informants had been gathering detailed military information and smuggling it out to London, via Budapest and Istanbul.", "The Poles identified and tracked German military trains to the Eastern front and identified four Order Police battalions sent to occupied areas of the Soviet Union in October 1941 that engaged in war crimes and mass murder.Polish agents also gathered detailed information about the morale of German soldiers in the East.", "After uncovering a sample of the information the Poles had reported, Gestapo officials concluded that Polish intelligence activity represented a very serious danger to Germany.", "As late as 6 June 1944, Heinrich Müller—concerned about the leakage of information to the Allies—set up a special unit called that was meant to root out the Polish intelligence network in western and southwestern Europe.In Austria, there were groups still loyal to the Habsburgs, who unlike most across the Greater German Reich, remained determined to resist the Nazis.", "These groups became a special focus of the Gestapo because of their insurrectionist goals—the overthrow of the Nazi regime, the re-establishment of an independent Austria under Habsburg leadership—and Hitler's hatred of the Habsburg family.", "Hitler vehemently rejected the centuries' old Habsburg pluralist principles of \"live and let live\" with regard to ethnic groups, peoples, minorities, religions, cultures and languages.", "Habsburg loyalist Karl Burian's (who was later executed) plan to blow up the Gestapo headquarters in Vienna represented a unique attempt to act aggressively against the Gestapo.", "Burian's group had also set up a secret courier service to Otto von Habsburg in Belgium.", "Individuals in Austrian resistance groups led by Heinrich Maier also managed to pass along the plans and the location of production facilities for V-1, V-2 rockets, Tiger tanks, and aircraft (Messerschmitt Bf 109, Messerschmitt Me 163 Komet, etc.)", "to the Allies.", "The Maier group informed very early about the mass murder of Jews.", "The resistance group, later discovered by the Gestapo because of a double agent of the Abwehr, was in contact with Allen Dulles, the head of the US Office of Strategic Services in Switzerland.", "Although Maier and the other group members were severely tortured, the Gestapo did not uncover the essential involvement of the resistance group in Operation Crossbow and Operation Hydra." ], [ "Suppression of resistance and persecution", "Early in the regime's existence, harsh measures were meted out to political opponents and those who resisted Nazi doctrine, such as members of the Communist Party of Germany (KPD); a role originally performed by the SA until the SD and Gestapo undermined their influence and took control of Reich security.", "Because the Gestapo seemed omniscient and omnipotent, the atmosphere of fear they created led to an overestimation of their reach and strength; a faulty assessment which hampered the operational effectiveness of underground resistance organisations.===Trade unions===Shortly after the Nazis came to power, they decided to dissolve the 28 federations of the General German Trade Union Confederation, because Hitler—after noting their success in the works council elections—intended to consolidate all German workers under the Nazi government's administration, a decision he made on 7 April 1933.As a preface to this action, Hitler decreed May 1 as National Labor Day to celebrate German workers, a move the trade union leaders welcomed.", "With their trade union flags waving, Hitler gave a rousing speech to the 1.5 million people assembled on Berlin's that was nationally broadcast, during which he extolled the nation's revival and working class solidarity.", "On the following day, the newly formed Gestapo officers, who had been shadowing some 58 trade union leaders, arrested them wherever they could find them—many in their homes.", "Meanwhile, the SA and police occupied trade union headquarters, arrested functionaries, confiscated their property and assets; all by design so as to be replaced on 12 May by the German Labour Front (DAF), a Nazi organisation placed under the leadership of Robert Ley.", "For their part, this was the first time the Gestapo operated under its new name since its 26 April 1933 founding in Prussia.===Religious dissent===Many parts of Germany (where religious dissent existed upon the Nazi seizure of power) saw a rapid transformation; a change as noted by the Gestapo in conservative towns such as Würzburg, where people acquiesced to the regime either through accommodation, collaboration, or simple compliance.", "Increasing religious objections to Nazi policies led the Gestapo to carefully monitor church organisations.", "For the most part, members of the church did not offer political resistance but simply wanted to ensure that organizational doctrine remained intact.However, the Nazi regime sought to suppress any source of ideology other than its own, and set out to muzzle or crush the churches in the so-called .", "When Church leaders (clergy) voiced their misgiving about the euthanasia program and Nazi racial policies, Hitler intimated that he considered them \"traitors to the people\" and went so far as to call them \"the destroyers of Germany\".", "The extreme anti-semitism and neo-pagan heresies of the Nazis caused some Christians to outright resist, and Pope Pius XI to issue the encyclical Mit brennender Sorge denouncing Nazism and warning Catholics against joining or supporting the Party.", "Some pastors, like the Protestant clergyman Dietrich Bonhoeffer, paid for their opposition with their lives.In an effort to counter the strength and influence of spiritual resistance, Nazi records reveal that the Gestapo's monitored the activities of bishops very closely—instructing that agents be set up in every diocese, that the bishops' reports to the Vatican should be obtained and that the bishops' areas of activity must be found out.", "Deans were to be targeted as the \"eyes and ears of the bishops\" and a \"vast network\" established to monitor the activities of ordinary clergy: \"The importance of this enemy is such that inspectors of security police and of the security service will make this group of people and the questions discussed by them their special concern\".In ''Dachau: The Official History 1933–1945'', Paul Berben wrote that clergy were watched closely, and frequently denounced, arrested and sent to Nazi concentration camps: \"One priest was imprisoned in Dachau for having stated that there were good folk in England too; another suffered the same fate for warning a girl who wanted to marry an S.S. man after abjuring the Catholic faith; yet another because he conducted a service for a deceased communist\".", "Others were arrested simply on the basis of being \"suspected of activities hostile to the State\" or that there was reason to \"suppose that his dealings might harm society\".", "Over 2,700 Catholic, Protestant, and Orthodox clergy were imprisoned at Dachau alone.", "After Heydrich (who was staunchly anti-Catholic and anti-Christian) was assassinated in Prague, his successor, Ernst Kaltenbrunner, relaxed some of the policies and then disbanded Department IVB (religious opponents) of the Gestapo.===Homosexuality===Violence and arrest were not confined to that opposing political parties, membership in trade unions, or those with dissenting religious opinions, but also homosexuality.", "It was viewed negatively by Hitler.", "Homosexuals were correspondingly considered a threat to the (National Community).", "From the Nazis rise to national power in 1933, the number of court verdicts against homosexuals steadily increased and only declined once the Second World War started.", "In 1934, a special Gestapo office was set up in Berlin to deal with homosexuality.Despite male homosexuality being considered a greater danger to \"national survival\", lesbianism was likewise viewed as unacceptable—deemed gender nonconformity—and a number of individual reports on lesbians can be found in Gestapo files.", "Between 1933 and 1935, some 4,000 men were arrested; between 1936 and 1939, another 30,000 men were convicted.", "If homosexuals showed any signs of sympathy to the Nazis' identified racial enemies, they were considered an even greater danger.", "According to Gestapo case files, the majority of those arrested for homosexuality were males between eighteen and twenty-five years of age.===Student opposition===Between June 1942 and March 1943, student protests were calling for an end to the Nazi regime.", "These included the non-violent resistance of Hans and Sophie Scholl, two leaders of the White Rose student group.", "However, resistance groups and those who were in moral or political opposition to the Nazis were stalled by the fear of reprisals from the Gestapo.", "Fearful of an internal overthrow, the forces of the Gestapo were unleashed on the opposition.", "Groups like the White Rose and others, such as the Edelweiss Pirates, and the Swing Youth, were placed under close Gestapo observation.", "Some participants were sent to concentration camps.", "Leading members of the most famous of these groups, the White Rose, were arrested by the police and turned over to the Gestapo.", "For several leaders the punishment was death.", "During the first five months of 1943, the Gestapo arrested thousands suspected of resistance activities and carried out numerous executions.", "Student opposition leaders were executed in late February, and a major opposition organisation, the Oster Circle, was destroyed in April 1943.Efforts to resist the Nazi regime amounted to very little and had only minor chances of success, particularly since a broad percentage of the German people did not support such actions.===General opposition and military conspiracy===Between 1934 and 1938, opponents of the Nazi regime and their fellow travellers began to emerge.", "Among the first to speak out were religious dissenters but following in their wake were educators, aristocratic businessmen, office workers, teachers, and others from nearly every walk of life.", "Most people quickly learned that open opposition was dangerous since Gestapo informants and agents were widespread.", "However, a significant number of them still worked against the National Socialist government.In May 1935, the Gestapo broke up and arrested members of the \"Markwitz Circle\", a group of former socialists in contact with Otto Strasser, who sought Hitler's downfall.", "From the mid-1930s into the early 1940s—various groups made up of communists, idealists, working-class people, and far-right conservative opposition organisations covertly fought against Hitler's government, and several of them fomented plots that included Hitler's assassination.", "Nearly all of them, including: the Römer Group, Robby Group, Solf Circle, , the Party of the Radical Middle Class, , and were either discovered or infiltrated by the Gestapo.", "This led to corresponding arrests, being sent to concentration camps and execution.", "One of the methods employed by the Gestapo to contend with these resistance factions was 'protective detention' which facilitated the process in expediting dissenters to concentration camps and against which there was no legal defence.Photograph from 1939: shown from left to right are Franz Josef Huber, Arthur Nebe, Heinrich Himmler, Reinhard Heydrich and Heinrich Müller planning the investigation of the bomb assassination attempt on Adolf Hitler on 8 November 1939 in Munich.Early efforts to resist the Nazis with aid from abroad were hindered when the opposition's peace feelers to the Western Allies did not meet with success.", "This was partly because of the Venlo incident of 9 November 1939, in which SD and Gestapo agents, posing as anti-Nazis in the Netherlands, kidnapped two British Secret Intelligence Service (SIS) officers after having lured them to a meeting to discuss peace terms.", "This prompted Winston Churchill to ban any further contact with the German opposition.", "Later, the British and Americans did not want to deal with anti-Nazis because they were fearful that the Soviet Union would believe they were attempting to make deals behind their back.The German opposition was in an unenviable position by the late spring and early summer of 1943.On one hand, it was next to impossible for them to overthrow Hitler and the party; on the other, the Allied demand for an unconditional surrender meant no opportunity for a compromise peace, which left the military and conservative aristocrats who opposed the regime no option (in their eyes) other than continuing the military struggle.", "Despite the fear of the Gestapo after mass arrests and executions in the spring, the opposition still plotted and planned.", "One of the more famous schemes, Operation Valkyrie, involved a number of senior German officers and was carried out by Colonel Claus Schenk Graf von Stauffenberg.", "In an attempt to assassinate Hitler, Stauffenberg planted a bomb underneath a conference table inside the Wolf's Lair field headquarters.", "Known as the 20 July plot, this assassination attempt failed and Hitler was only slightly injured.", "Reports indicate that the Gestapo was caught unaware of this plot as they did not have sufficient protections in place at the appropriate locations nor did they take any preventative steps.", "Stauffenberg and his group were shot on 21 July 1944; meanwhile, his fellow conspirators were rounded up by the Gestapo and sent to a concentration camp.", "Thereafter, there was a show trial overseen by Roland Freisler, followed by their execution.Some Germans were convinced that it was their duty to apply all possible expedients to end the war as quickly as possible.", "Sabotage efforts were undertaken by members of the (military intelligence) leadership, as they recruited people known to oppose the Nazi regime.", "The Gestapo cracked down ruthlessly on dissidents in Germany, just as they did everywhere else.", "Opposition became more difficult.", "Arrests, torture, and executions were common.", "Terror against \"state enemies\" had become a way of life to such a degree that the Gestapo's presence and methods were eventually normalised in the minds of people living in Nazi Germany." ], [ "Organisation", "In January 1933, Hermann Göring, Hitler's minister without portfolio, was appointed the head of the Prussian Police and began filling the political and intelligence units of the Prussian Secret Police with Nazi Party members.", "A year after the organisation's inception, Göring wrote in a British publication about having created the organisation on his own initiative and how he was \"chiefly responsible\" for the elimination of the Marxist and Communist threat to Germany and Prussia.", "Describing the activities of the organisation, Göring boasted about the utter ruthlessness required for Germany's recovery, the establishment of concentration camps for that purpose, and even went on to claim that excesses were committed in the beginning, recounting how beatings took place here and there.", "On 26 April 1933, he reorganised the force's as the (better-known by the \"sobriquet\" Gestapo), a secret state police intended to serve the Nazi cause.", "Less than two weeks later in early May 1933, the Gestapo moved into their Berlin headquarters at Prinz-Albrecht-Straße 8.As a result of its 1936 merger with the Kripo (National criminal police) to form sub-units of the (SiPo; Security Police), the Gestapo was officially classified as a government agency.", "Himmler's subsequent appointment to (Chief of German Police) and status as made him independent of Interior Minister Wilhelm Frick's nominal control.The SiPo was placed under the direct command of Reinhard Heydrich who was already chief of the Nazi Party's intelligence service, the (SD).", "The idea was to fully identify and integrate the party agency (SD) with the state agency (SiPo).", "Most SiPo members joined the SS and held a rank in both organisations.", "Nevertheless, in practice there was jurisdictional overlap and operational conflict between the SD and Gestapo.Heinrich Müller, Chief of the Gestapo; 1939–1945In September 1939, the SiPo and SD were merged into the newly created (RSHA; Reich Security Main Office).", "Both the Gestapo and Kripo became distinct departments within the RSHA.", "Although the was officially disbanded, the term SiPo was figuratively used to describe any RSHA personnel throughout the remainder of the war.", "In lieu of naming convention changes, the original construct of the SiPo, Gestapo, and Kripo cannot be fully comprehended as \"discrete entities\", since they ultimately formed \"a conglomerate in which each was wedded to each other and the SS through its Security Service, the SD\".The creation of the RSHA represented the formalisation, at the top level, of the relationship under which the SD served as the intelligence agency for the security police.", "A similar co-ordination existed in the local offices.", "Within Germany and areas which were incorporated within the Reich for the purpose of civil administration, local offices of the Gestapo, criminal police, and SD were formally separate.", "They were subject to co-ordination by inspectors of the security police and SD on the staffs of the local higher SS and police leaders, however, and one of the principal functions of the local SD units was to serve as the intelligence agency for the local Gestapo units.", "In the occupied territories, the formal relationship between local units of the Gestapo, criminal police, and SD was slightly closer.The Gestapo became known as RSHA (\"Department or Office IV\") with Heinrich Müller as its chief.", "In January 1943, Himmler appointed Ernst Kaltenbrunner RSHA chief; almost seven months after Heydrich had been assassinated.", "The specific internal departments of were as follows:*Department A (Political Opponents)**Communists (A1)**Counter-sabotage (A2)**Reactionaries, liberals and opposition (A3)**Protective services (A4)*Department B (Sects and Churches)**Catholicism (B1)**Protestantism (B2)**Freemasons and other churches (B3)**Jewish affairs (B4)*Department C (Administration and Party Affairs), central administrative office of the Gestapo, responsible for card files of all personnel including all officials.", "**Files, card, indexes, information and administration (C1)**Protective custody (C2)**Press office (C3)**NSDAP matters (C4)*Department D (Occupied Territories), administration for regions outside the .", "**Protectorate affairs, Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia, regions of Yugoslavia, Greece (D1)***1st Belgrade Special Combat detachment**General Government(D2)**Confidential office – hostile foreigners, emigrants (D3)**Occupied territories – France, Belgium, Holland, Norway, Denmark (D4)**Occupied Eastern territories (D5)*Department E (Security and counterintelligence)**In the (E1)**Policy and economic formation (E2)**West (E3)**Scandinavia (North)(E4)**East (E5)**South (E6)In 1941 , the central command office of the Gestapo was formed.", "However, these internal departments remained and the Gestapo continued to be a department under the RSHA umbrella.", "The local offices of the Gestapo, known as Gestapo and , answered to a local commander known as the (\"Inspector of the Security Police and Security Service\") who, in turn, was under the dual command of of the Gestapo and also his local SS and Police Leader.In total, there were some fifty-four regional Gestapo offices across the German federal states.", "The Gestapo also maintained offices at all Nazi concentration camps, held an office on the staff of the SS and Police Leaders, and supplied personnel as needed to formations such as the .", "Personnel assigned to these auxiliary duties were often removed from the Gestapo chain of command and fell under the authority of branches of the SS.", "It was the Gestapo chief, SS-''Brigadierführer'' Heinrich Müller, who kept Hitler abreast of the killing operations in the Soviet Union and who issued orders to the four that their continual work in the east was to be \"presented to the Führer.", "\"===Female Criminal Investigation Career===According to regulations issued by the Reich Security Main Office in 1940, women who had been trained in social work or having a similar education could be hired as female detectives.", "Female youth leaders, lawyers, business administrators with experience in social work, female leaders in the and personnel administrators in the Bund Deutscher Mädel were hired as detectives after a one-year course, if they had several years professional experience.", "Later, nurses, kindergarten teachers, and trained female commercial employees with an aptitude for police work were hired as female detectives after a two-year course as and could promote to a .", "After another two or three years in that grade, the female detective could advance to .", "Further promotions to and were also possible." ], [ "Membership", "Gestapo members in Klatovy, German-occupied Czechoslovakia|leftIn 1933, there was no purge of the German police forces.", "The vast majority of Gestapo officers came from the police forces of the Weimar Republic; members of the SS, the SA, and the Nazi Party also joined the Gestapo but were less numerous.", "By March 1937, the Gestapo employed an estimated 6,500 people in fifty-four regional offices across the Reich.", "Additional staff were added in March 1938 consequent the annexation of Austria and again in October 1938 with the acquisition of the Sudetenland.", "In 1939, only 3,000 out of the total of 20,000 Gestapo men held SS ranks, and in most cases, these were honorary.", "One man who served in the Prussian Gestapo in 1933 recalled that most of his co-workers \"were by no means Nazis.", "For the most part they were young professional civil service officers...\" The Nazis valued police competence more than politics, so in general in 1933, almost all of the men who served in the various state police forces under the Weimar Republic stayed on in their jobs.", "In Würzburg, which is one of the few places in Germany where most of the Gestapo records survived, every member of the Gestapo was a career policeman or had a police background.The Canadian historian Robert Gellately wrote that most Gestapo men were not Nazis, but at the same time were not opposed to the Nazi regime, which they were willing to serve, in whatever task they were called upon to perform.", "Over time, membership in the Gestapo included ideological training, particularly once Werner Best assumed a leading role for training in April 1936.Employing biological metaphors, Best emphasised a doctrine which encouraged members of the Gestapo to view themselves as 'doctors' to the 'national body' in the struggle against \"pathogens\" and \"diseases\"; among the implied sicknesses were \"communists, Freemasons, and the churches—and above and behind all these stood the Jews\".", "Heydrich thought along similar lines and advocated both defensive and offensive measures on the part of the Gestapo, so as to prevent any subversion or destruction of the National Socialist body.Whether trained as police originally or not, Gestapo agents themselves were shaped by their socio-political environment.", "Historian George C. Browder contends that there was a four-part process (authorisation, bolstering, routinisation, and dehumanisation) in effect which legitimised the psycho-social atmosphere conditioning members of the Gestapo to radicalised violence.", "Browder also describes a sandwich effect, where from above; Gestapo agents were subjected to ideologically oriented racism and criminal biological theories; and from below, the Gestapo was transformed by SS personnel who did not have the proper police training, which showed in their propensity for unrestrained violence.", "This admixture certainly shaped the Gestapo's public image which they sought to maintain despite their increasing workload; an image which helped them identify and eliminate enemies of the Nazi state." ], [ "Population ratios, methods and effectiveness", "Contrary to popular belief, the Gestapo was not the all-pervasive, omnipotent agency in German society.", "In Germany proper, many towns and cities had fewer than 50 official Gestapo personnel.", "For example, in 1939 Stettin and Frankfurt am Main only had a total of 41 Gestapo men combined.", "In Düsseldorf, the local Gestapo office of only 281 men were responsible for the entire Lower Rhine region, which comprised 4 million people.", "\"V-men\", as undercover Gestapo agents were known, were used to infiltrate Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) and Communist opposition groups, but this was more the exception than the rule.", "The Gestapo office in Saarbrücken had 50 full-term informers in 1939.The District Office in Nuremberg, which had the responsibility for all of northern Bavaria, employed a total of 80–100 full-term informers between 1943 and 1945.The majority of Gestapo informers were not full-term employees working undercover, but were rather ordinary citizens who chose to denounce other people to the Gestapo.According to Canadian historian Robert Gellately's analysis of the local offices established, the Gestapo was—for the most part—made up of bureaucrats and clerical workers who depended upon denunciations by citizens for their information.", "Gellately argued that it was because of the widespread willingness of Germans to inform on each other to the Gestapo that Germany between 1933 and 1945 was a prime example of panopticism.", "The Gestapo—at times—was overwhelmed with denunciations and most of its time was spent sorting out the credible from the less credible denunciations.", "Many of the local offices were understaffed and overworked, struggling with the paper load caused by so many denunciations.", "Gellately has also suggested that the Gestapo was \"a reactive organisation...constructed within German society and whose functioning was structurally dependent on the continuing co-operation of German citizens\".After 1939, when many Gestapo personnel were called up for war-related work such as service with the , the level of overwork and understaffing at the local offices increased.", "For information about what was happening in German society, the Gestapo continued to be mostly dependent upon denunciations.", "80% of all Gestapo investigations were started in response to information provided by denunciations by ordinary Germans; while 10% were started in response to information provided by other branches of the German government and another 10% started in response to information that the Gestapo itself unearthed.", "The information supplied by denunciations often led the Gestapo in determining who was arrested.The popular picture of the Gestapo with its spies everywhere terrorising German society has been rejected by many historians as a myth invented after the war as a cover for German society's widespread complicity in allowing the Gestapo to work.", "Work done by social historians such as Detlev Peukert, Robert Gellately, Reinhard Mann, Inge Marssolek, René Otto, Klaus-Michael Mallmann and Paul Gerhard, which by focusing on what the local offices were doing has shown the Gestapos almost total dependence on denunciations from ordinary Germans, and very much discredited the older \"Big Brother\" picture with the Gestapo having its eyes and ears everywhere.", "For example, of the 84 cases in Würzburg of (\"race defilement\"—sexual relations with non-Aryans), 45 (54%) were started in response to denunciations by ordinary people, two (2%) by information provided by other branches of the government, 20 (24%) via information gained during interrogations of people relating to other matters, four (5%) from information from (Nazi) NSDAP organisations, two (2%) during \"political evaluations\" and 11 (13%) have no source listed while none were started by Gestapos own \"observations\" of the people of Würzburg.An examination of 213 denunciations in Düsseldorf showed that 37% were motivated by personal conflicts, no motive could be established in 39%, and 24% were motivated by support for the Nazi regime.", "The Gestapo always showed a special interest in denunciations concerning sexual matters, especially cases concerning with Jews or between Germans and foreigners, in particular Polish slave workers; the Gestapo applied even harsher methods to the foreign workers in the country, especially those from Poland, Jews, Catholics and homosexuals.", "As time went by, anonymous denunciations to the Gestapo caused trouble to various NSDAP officials, who often found themselves being investigated by the Gestapo.Of the political cases, 61 people were investigated for suspicion of belonging to the KPD, 44 for the SPD and 69 for other political parties.", "Most of the political investigations took place between 1933 and 1935 with the all-time high of 57 cases in 1935.After that year, political investigations declined with only 18 investigations in 1938, 13 in 1939, two in 1941, seven in 1942, four in 1943 and one in 1944.The \"other\" category associated with non-conformity included everything from a man who drew a caricature of Hitler to a Catholic teacher suspected of being lukewarm about teaching National Socialism in his classroom.", "The \"administrative control\" category concerned those who were breaking the law concerning residency in the city.", "The \"conventional criminality\" category concerned economic crimes such as money laundering, smuggling and homosexuality.Normal methods of investigation included various forms of blackmail, threats and extortion to secure \"confessions\".", "Beyond that, sleep deprivation and various forms of harassment were used as investigative methods.", "Failing that, torture and planting evidence were common methods of resolving a case, especially if the case concerned someone Jewish.", "Brutality on the part of interrogators—often prompted by denunciations and followed with roundups—enabled the Gestapo to uncover numerous resistance networks; it also made them seem like they knew everything and could do anything they wanted.While the total number of Gestapo officials was limited when contrasted against the represented populations, the average (Nazi term for the \"member of the German people\") was typically not under observation, so the statistical ratio between Gestapo officials and inhabitants is \"largely worthless and of little significance\" according to some recent scholars.", "As historian Eric Johnson remarked, \"The Nazi terror was selective terror\", with its focus upon political opponents, ideological dissenters (clergy and religious organisations), career criminals, the Sinti and Roma population, handicapped persons, homosexuals and above all, upon the Jews.", "\"Selective terror\" by the Gestapo, as mentioned by Johnson, is also supported by historian Richard Evans who states that, \"Violence and intimidation rarely touched the lives of most ordinary Germans.", "Denunciation was the exception, not the rule, as far as the behaviour of the vast majority of Germans was concerned.\"", "The involvement of ordinary Germans in denunciations also needs to be put into perspective so as not to exonerate the Gestapo.", "As Evans makes clear, \"...it was not the ordinary German people who engaged in surveillance, it was the Gestapo; nothing happened until the Gestapo received a denunciation, and it was the Gestapo's active pursuit of deviance and dissent that was the only thing that gave denunciations meaning.\"", "The Gestapo's effectiveness remained in the ability to \"project\" omnipotence...they co-opted the assistance of the German population by using denunciations to their advantage; proving in the end a powerful, ruthless and effective organ of terror under the Nazi regime that was seemingly everywhere.", "Lastly, the Gestapo's effectiveness, while aided by denunciations and the watchful eye of ordinary Germans, was more the result of the co-ordination and co-operation amid the various police organs within Germany, the assistance of the SS, and the support provided by the various Nazi Party organisations; all of them together forming an organised persecution network." ], [ "Operations in Nazi-occupied territories", "As an instrument of Nazi power, terror, and repression, the Gestapo operated throughout occupied Europe.", "Much like their affiliated organisations, the SS and the SD, the Gestapo \"played a leading part\" in enslaving and deporting workers from occupied territory, torturing and executing civilians, singling out and murdering Jews, and subjecting Allied prisoners of war to terrible treatment.", "To this end, the Gestapo was \"a vital component both in Nazi repression and the Holocaust.\"", "Once the German armies advanced into enemy territory, they were accompanied by staffed by officers from the Gestapo and Kripo, who usually operated in the rear areas to administer and police the occupied land.", "Whenever a region came fully under German military occupational jurisdiction, the Gestapo administered all executive actions under the military commander's authority, albeit operating relatively independent of it.A former partisan and Soviet officer named Hersch Gurewicz attested to the torture methods used by the Gestapo.", "He recalled a partisan was strapped to a table in a room and \"a German turned the lever and the table moved apart in sections like a rack.", "The man screamed and his leg bones snapped through his skin.", "The lever turned again and his arms ripped in jagged tears.", "After the man fainted, his torturers shot him dead.\"", "He also claimed that he had been strapped down and a wire slowly forced up his nose, into his lung, causing him to go unconscious.", "Later he was tied to a horse, which was made to gallop full speed, and recalled being smashed into the ground repeatedly, before being knocked out by a solid object.Occupation meant administration and policing, a duty assigned to the SS, the SD, and the Gestapo even before hostilities began, as was the case for Czechoslovakia.", "Correspondingly, Gestapo offices were established in a territory once occupied.", "Some locals aided the Gestapo, whether as professional police auxiliaries or in other duties.", "Nonetheless, operations performed either by German members of the Gestapo or auxiliaries from willing collaborators of other nationalities were inconsistent in both disposition and effectiveness.", "Varying degrees of pacification and police enforcement measures were necessary in each place, dependent on how cooperative or resistant the locals were to Nazi mandates and racial policies.Throughout the Eastern territories, the Gestapo and other Nazi organisations co-opted the assistance of indigenous police units, nearly all of whom were uniformed and able to carry out drastic actions.", "Many of the auxiliary police personnel operating on behalf of German Order Police, the SD, and Gestapo were members of the , which included staffing by Ukrainians, Belarusians, Russians, Estonians, Lithuanians, and Latvians.", "While in many countries the Nazis occupied in the East, the local domestic police forces supplemented German operations, noted Holocaust historian, Raul Hilberg, asserts that \"those of Poland were least involved in anti-Jewish actions.\"", "Nonetheless, German authorities ordered the mobilisation of reserve Polish police forces, known as the Blue Police, which strengthened the Nazi police presence and carried out numerous \"police\" functions; in some cases, its functionaries even identified and rounded up Jews or performed other unsavory duties on behalf of their German masters.In places like Denmark, there were some 550 uniformed Danes in Copenhagen working with the Gestapo, patrolling and terrorising the local population at the behest of their German overseers, many of whom were arrested after the war.", "Other Danish civilians, like in many places across Europe, acted as Gestapo informants but this should not be seen as wholehearted support for the Nazi program, as motives for cooperation varied.", "Whereas in France, the number of members in the (French Gestapo) who worked on behalf of the Nazis was upwards of 30,000 to 32,000; they conducted operations nearly indistinguishable from their German equivalents." ], [ "Nuremberg trials", "Gestapo building at Prinz-Albrecht-Straße 8, after the 1945 bombingBetween 14 November 1945 and 3 October 1946, the Allies established an International Military Tribunal (IMT) to try 22 major Nazi war criminals and six groups for crimes against peace, war crimes and crimes against humanity.", "Nineteen of the 22 were convicted, and twelve—Martin Bormann (in absentia), Hans Frank, Wilhelm Frick, Hermann Göring, Alfred Jodl, Ernst Kaltenbrunner, Wilhelm Keitel, Joachim von Ribbentrop, Alfred Rosenberg, Fritz Sauckel, Arthur Seyss-Inquart, Julius Streicher—were given the death penalty.", "Three—Walther Funk, Rudolf Hess, Erich Raeder—received life terms; and the remaining four—Karl Dönitz, Konstantin von Neurath, Albert Speer, and Baldur von Schirach—received shorter prison sentences.", "Three others—Hans Fritzsche, Hjalmar Schacht, and Franz von Papen—were acquitted.", "At that time, the Gestapo was condemned as a criminal organisation, along with the SS.", "However, Gestapo leader Heinrich Müller was never tried, as he disappeared at the end of the war.German Gestapo agents arrested after the liberation of Liège, Belgium are pictured in a cell at the Citadel of Liège, October 1944Leaders, organisers, investigators and accomplices participating in the formulation or execution of a common plan or conspiracy to commit the crimes specified were declared responsible for all acts performed by any persons in execution of such plan.", "The official positions of defendants as heads of state or holders of high government offices were not to free them from responsibility or mitigate their punishment; nor was that a defendant acted pursuant to an order of a superior to excuse him from responsibility, although it might be considered by the IMT in mitigation of punishment.At the trial of any individual member of any group or organisation, the IMT was authorised to declare (in connection with any act of which the individual was convicted) that the group or organisation to which he belonged was a criminal organisation.", "When a group or organisation was thus declared criminal, the competent national authority of any signatory had the right to bring persons to trial for membership in that organisation, with the criminal nature of the group or organisation assumed proved.The IMT subsequently convicted three of the groups: the Nazi leadership corps, the SS (including the SD) and the Gestapo.", "Gestapo members Hermann Göring, Ernst Kaltenbrunner and Arthur Seyss-Inquart were individually convicted.", "While three groups were acquitted of collective war crimes charges, this did not relieve individual members of those groups from conviction and punishment under the denazification programme.", "Members of the three convicted groups, however, were subject to apprehension by Britain, the United States, the Soviet Union, and France.", "These groups—the Nazi Party and government leadership, the German General staff and High Command (OKW); the (SA); the (SS), including the (SD); and the Gestapo—had an aggregate membership exceeding two million, making a large number of their members liable to trial when the organisations were convicted." ], [ "Aftermath", "In 1997, Cologne transformed the former regional Gestapo headquarters in Cologne—the EL-DE Haus—into a museum to document the Gestapo's actions.After the war, U.S. Counterintelligence Corps employed the former Lyon Gestapo chief Klaus Barbie for his anti-communist efforts and also helped him escape to Bolivia." ], [ "Leadership" ], [ "Principal agents and officers", "*Heinrich Baab (SiPo-SD Frankfurt)*Klaus Barbie (SiPo-SD Lyon)*Werner Best (SiPo-SD Copenhagen)*Karl Bömelburg (Head of Gestapo, Southern France)*Theodor Dannecker (SiPo-SD Paris)*Rudolf Diels (Gestapo Chief 1933–1934)*Adolf Eichmann (RSHA Berlin)*Gerhard Flesch*Hermann Göring (Founder of the Gestapo)*Viktor Harnischfeger (Düsseldorf Gestapo Criminal Commissar)*Reinhard Heydrich (SD, SiPo, Gestapo Chief 1934–1939, RSHA Chief 1939–1942)*Heinrich Himmler ()*Ernst Kaltenbrunner (RSHA Chief 1943–1945)*Herbert Kappler (SD Chief Rome)*Werner Knab*Helmut Knochen (Paris)*Kurt Lischka (Paris)*Ernst Misselwitz ( SiPo-SD Paris)*Heinrich Müller (Gestapo Chief 1939–1945)*Karl Oberg (Paris)*Pierre Paoli (Head of Gestapo, Central France)*Oswald Poche (Chief of Frankfurt Lindenstrasse station)*Henry Rinnan (Norwegian agent)*Karl Eberhard Schöngarth*Max Wielen" ], [ "Ranks and uniforms", "The Gestapo was a secretive plainclothes agency and agents typically wore civilian suits.", "There were strict protocols protecting the identity of Gestapo field personnel.", "When asked for identification, an operative was required only to present his warrant disc and not a picture identification.", "This disc identified the operative as a member of the Gestapo without revealing personal information, except when ordered to do so by an authorised official.Leitstellung (district office) staff did wear the grey SS service uniform, but with police-pattern shoulderboards, and SS rank insignia on the left collar patch.", "The right collar patch was black without the sig runes.", "The SD sleeve diamond (SD ) insignia was worn on the lower left sleeve, even by SiPo men who were not in the SD.", "Uniforms worn by Gestapo men assigned to the in occupied territories, were at first indistinguishable from the Waffen-SS field uniform.", "Complaints from the Waffen-SS led to a change of rank insignia shoulder boards from those of the Waffen-SS to those of the .The Gestapo maintained police detective ranks which were used for all officers, both those who were and who were not concurrently SS members.Junior careerSenior careerOrpo equivalentSS equivalent'''''Kriminalassistentanwärter''''''''''Kriminalassistent''''''''''Kriminaloberassistent''''''''''Kriminalsekretär''''''''''Kriminalobersekretär''''''''''''''''Kriminalkommissar''''' with less than three years in that rank'''''' with less than three years in that rank'''''''''''Oberregierungs und Kriminalrat''''''''''Regierungs und KriminaldirektorReichskriminaldirektor'''''*Junior career = .", "*Senior career = Sources:;Rank insignia ''Rank insignia'' '''''' 100px '''''' '''''' 100px '''''' '''''' 100px '''''' '''''''''''' '''''' 100px '''''''''''''''''' '''with more than three years in the grade''' 100px '''''' '''''' '''''' '''''' 100px '''''' '''''Regierungs und Kriminaldirektor''''' 100px '''''''''''Reichskriminaldirektor''''' 100px ''''''* Source:" ], [ "See also", "*Geheime Feldpolizei" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "Bibliography", "*****Bauz, Ingrid; Sigrid Brüggemann; Roland Maier, eds.", "(2013).", "''Die Geheime Staatspolizei in Württemberg und Hohenzollern''.", "Stuttgart: Schmetterling.", ".", "************************ *********Krausnick, Helmut, et al.", "(1968).", "''Anatomy of the SS State''.", "New York; Walker and Company.", "*** ***********************************" ], [ "External links", "* Festung Furulund – magasinet – Dagbladet.no * Collection of testimonies concerning Gestapo activity in occupied Poland during WWII in \"Chronicles of Terror\" database" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Grammatical conjugation" ], [ "Introduction", "Spanish verb ''correr'', \"to run\", the lexeme is \"corr-\".", "Red represents the speaker, purple the addressee (or speaker/hearer) and teal a third person.One person represents the singular number and two, the plural number.", "Dawn represents the past (specifically the preterite), noon the present and night the future.In linguistics, '''conjugation''' () is the creation of derived forms of a verb from its principal parts by inflection (alteration of form according to rules of grammar).", "For instance, the verb ''break'' can be conjugated to form the words ''break'', ''breaks'', ''broke'', ''broken'' and ''breaking''.", "While English has a relatively simple conjugation, other languages such as French and Arabic or Spanish are more complex, with each verb having dozens of conjugated forms.", "Some languages such as Georgian and Basque have highly complex conjugation systems with hundreds of possible conjugations for every verb.Verbs may inflect for grammatical categories such as person, number, gender, case, tense, aspect, mood, voice, possession, definiteness, politeness, causativity, clusivity, interrogatives, transitivity, valency, polarity, telicity, volition, mirativity, evidentiality, animacy, associativity, pluractionality, and reciprocity.", "Verbs may also be affected by agreement, polypersonal agreement, incorporation, noun class, noun classifiers, and verb classifiers.", "Agglutinative and polysynthetic languages tend to have the most complex conjugations, albeit some fusional languages such as Archi can also have extremely complex conjugation.", "Typically the principal parts are the root and/or several modifications of it (stems).", "All the different forms of the same verb constitute a lexeme, and the canonical form of the verb that is conventionally used to represent that lexeme (as seen in dictionary entries) is called a lemma.The term conjugation is applied only to the inflection of verbs, and not of other parts of speech (inflection of nouns and adjectives is known as declension).", "Also it is often restricted to denoting the formation of finite forms of a verb – these may be referred to as ''conjugated forms'', as opposed to non-finite forms, such as the infinitive or gerund, which tend not to be marked for most of the grammatical categories.", "'''Conjugation''' is also the traditional name for a group of verbs that share a similar conjugation pattern in a particular language (a ''verb class'').", "For example, Latin is said to have four conjugations of verbs.", "This means that any regular Latin verb can be conjugated in any person, number, tense, mood, and voice by knowing which of the four conjugation groups it belongs to, and its principal parts.", "A verb that does not follow all of the standard conjugation patterns of the language is said to be an irregular verb.", "The system of all conjugated variants of a particular verb or class of verbs is called a '''verb paradigm'''; this may be presented in the form of a '''conjugation table'''." ], [ "Verbal agreement", "'''Verbal agreement''', or '''concord''', is a morpho-syntactic construct in which properties of the subject and/or objects of a verb are indicated by the verb form.", "Verbs are then said to agree with their subjects (resp.", "objects).Many English verbs exhibit subject agreement of the following sort: whereas ''I go'', ''you go'', ''we go'', ''they go'' are all grammatical in standard English, ''he go'' is not (except in the subjunctive, as \"They requested that ''he go'' with them\").", "Instead, a special form of the verb ''to go'' has to be used to produce ''he goes''.", "On the other hand ''I goes'', ''you goes'' etc.", "are not grammatical in standard English.", "(Things are different in some English dialects that lack agreement.)", "A few English verbs have no special forms that indicate subject agreement (''I may'', ''you may'', ''he may''), and the verb ''to be'' has an additional form ''am'' that can only be used with the pronoun ''I'' as the subject.Verbs in written French exhibit more intensive agreement morphology than English verbs: (I am), (\"you are\", singular informal), (she is), (we are), (\"you are\", plural), (they are).", "Historically, English used to have a similar verbal paradigm.", "Some historic verb forms are used by Shakespeare as slightly archaic or more formal variants (''I do'', ''thou dost'', ''he doth'', typically used by nobility) of the modern forms.Some languages with verbal agreement can leave certain subjects implicit when the subject is fully determined by the verb form.", "In Spanish, for instance, subject pronouns do not need to be explicitly present, but in French, its close relative, they are obligatory.", "The Spanish equivalent to the French (I am) can be simply (lit.", "\"am\").", "The pronoun (I) in the explicit form is used only for emphasis or to clear ambiguity in complex texts.Some languages have a richer agreement system in which verbs agree also with some or all of their objects.", "Ubykh exhibits verbal agreement for the subject, direct object, indirect object, benefaction and ablative objects (, ''you gave it to him for me'').Basque can show agreement not only for subject, direct object and indirect object but it also can exhibit agreement for the listener as the implicit benefactor: means \"they brought us the car\" (neuter agreement for the listener), but means \"they brought us the car\" (agreement for feminine singular listener).Languages with a rich agreement morphology facilitate relatively free word order without leading to increased ambiguity.", "The canonical word order in Basque is subject–object–verb, but all permutations of subject, verb and object are permitted.===Nonverbal person agreement===In some languages, predicative adjectives and copular complements receive a form of person agreement that is distinct from that used on ordinary predicative verbs.", "Although that is a form of conjugation in that it refers back to the person of the subject, it is not \"verbal\" because it always derives from pronouns that have become clitic to the nouns to which they refer.", "An example of nonverbal person agreement, along with contrasting verbal conjugation, can be found from Beja (person agreement affixes in bold):* ''wun.tu.", "'''wi''''', “you (fem.)", "are big”* ''hadá.b.", "'''wa''''', “you (masc.)", "are a sheik”* '''''e'''.n.fór'', “he flees”Another example can be found from Ket:* ''fèmba.", "'''di''''', “I am a Tungus”* '''''dɨ'''.fen'', “I am standing”In Turkic, and a few Uralic and Australian Aboriginal languages, predicative adjectives and copular complements take affixes that are identical to those used on predicative verbs, but their negation is different.", "For example, in Turkish:* ''koş.u.yor.", "'''sun''''' “you are running”* ''çavuş.", "'''sun''''' “you are a sergeant”Under negation, that becomes (negative affixes in bold):* ''koş.", "'''mu'''.yor.sun'' “you are not running”* ''çavuş '''değil'''.sin'' “you are not a sergeant”Therefore, the person agreement affixes used with predicative adjectives and nominals in Turkic languages are considered to be nonverbal in character.", "In some analyses, they are viewed as a form of verbal takeover by a copular strategy.==Factors that affect conjugation==These common grammatical categories affect how verbs can be conjugated:*Finite verb forms:**Grammatical person**Grammatical number**Grammatical gender**Grammatical tense**Grammatical aspect**Grammatical mood**Grammatical voice*Non-finite verb forms.Here are other factors that may affect conjugation:*Degree of formality (see T–V distinction, Honorific speech in Japanese, Korean speech levels)*Clusivity (of personal pronouns)*Transitivity*Valency" ], [ "Examples", "Indo-European languages usually inflect verbs for several grammatical categories in complex paradigms, although some, like English, have simplified verb conjugation to a large extent.", "Below is the conjugation of the verb ''to be'' in the present tense (of the infinitive, if it exists, and indicative moods), in English, German, Yiddish, Dutch, Afrikaans, Icelandic, Faroese, Swedish, Norwegian, Latvian, Bulgarian, Serbo-Croatian, Polish, Slovenian, Macedonian, Urdu or Hindi, Persian, Latin, French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Russian, Albanian, Armenian, Irish, Ukrainian, Ancient Attic Greek and Modern Greek.", "This is usually the most irregular verb.", "The similarities in corresponding verb forms may be noticed.", "Some of the conjugations may be disused, like the English ''thou''-form, or have additional meanings, like the English ''you''-form, which can also stand for second person singular or be impersonal.", "\"To be\" in several Indo-European languages Branch Language Presentinfinitive Present indicative Singular persons Plural persons 1st 2nd 3rd 1st 2nd 3rd Germanic Proto-Germanic *immi *izi\t *isti\t *izum\t *izud\t *sindi\t Anglo-Saxon eom eart is sindsindon English am areart1be'st1 isare11 are German bin bist ist sind seid sind Yiddish''transliterated'' בין''bin'' ביסט''bist'' איז''iz'' זענען''zenen'' זענט''zent'' זענען''zenen'' Luxembourgish sinn bass ass sinn sidd sinn Dutch ben bentzijt2 is zijn Afrikaans is Old Norse em estert eser erum eruð eru Icelandic er ert er erum eruð eru Faroese eri ert er eru Norwegian 3 (Bokmål), 4 (Nynorsk) er Danish er Swedish är äräro5 Italic Latin esse es est sumus estis sunt Italian sono sei è siamosemo5 sietesète5 sonoenno5 French suis es est sommes êtes sont Catalan sóc etseres14 és som sou són Lombard ''(a)'' son ''te'' sé ''l'''è somsem5 sî ''i'' è''(i)'' enn14 Venetian son ''te'' si ''el'' ze semo si ''i'' ze Spanish soy eres es somos soisson son Galician son es é somos sodes son Portuguese sou és é somos sois são Sardinian (LSC) so ses est semus seis sunt Friulian soi sês è sin sês son Neapolitan songo, so sî è simmo site songo, so Romanian a sunt ești este suntem sunteți sunt Celtic Irish bheith bíonn bímidbíonn Welsh (standard form) rydw rwyt mae rydych rydyn maen Breton on out eo omp oc'h int Greek Ancient6''transliterated'' ''eînai'' ''eimí'' ''eî'' ''estí'' ''esmén'' ''esté'' ''eisí'' Modern''transliterated'' όντας7''óntas'' είμαι''eímai'' είσαι''eísai'' είναι''eínai'' είμαστε''eímaste'' είσ(ασ)τε''eís(as)te'' είναι''eínai'' Albanian ''me qenë'' jam je është jemi jeni janë Armenian Western''transliterated'' ĕllal ''em'' ''es'' ''ē'' ''enk‘'' ''ēk‘'' ''en'' Eastern''transliterated'' ''linel'' ''em'' ''es'' ''ē'' ''enk‘'' ''ek‘'' ''en'' Slavic Czech jsem jsi je jsme jste jsou Slovak som si je sme ste sú Polish jestem jesteś jest jesteśmy jesteście są Russian''transliterated'' ''byt''' есть''yest''' Ukrainian''transliterated'' ''buty'' є''ye'' Serbo-Croatian'' strong'' biti jesam jesi jest(e) jesmo jeste jesu Serbo-Croatian'' clitic'' ''none'' sam si je smo ste su Slovenian biti sem si je smo ste so Bulgarian''transliterated'' ''none'' съм''săm'' си''si'' е''e'' сме''sme'' сте''ste'' са''să'' Macedonian''transliterated'' ''none'' ''sum'' си''si'' е''e'' сме''sme'' сте''ste'' се''se'' Baltic Latvian esmu esi ir esam esat ir Lithuanian esu esi yra esame esate yra Indo-Iranian Persian''transliterated'' ''budan'' ''æm'' ''ei'' ''æst'' (''æ'')10 ''eem'' ''eed (spoken: een)'' ''and (spoken: an)'' Sanskrit''transliterated'' '''' अस्मि''asmi'' असि''asi'' अस्ति''asti'' स्मः''smah'' स्थ''stha'' सन्ति''santi'' Hindustani''Devanagari Script''''Perso-Arabic Script''''transliterated'' ''(ISO 15819)'' हूँ''hūm̥'' है''hai'' हैं''haim̥'' हो''ho'' हैं''haim̥'' Marathi''transliterated (ISO 15819)'' आहे''āhe'' आहेस''āhes'' आहे''āhe'' आहोत''āhot'' आहात''āhāt'' आहेत''āhet'' Gujarati''transliterated (ISO 15819)'' છું''chũ'' છે''che'' છીએ''chīe'' છો''cho'' છે''che'' Bengali''transliterated (ISO 15819)'' হই''hoi'' হও12''hôo'' হয়12''hôy'' হই''hoi'' হও12''hôo'' হয়12''hôy'' Assamese''transliterated (ISO 15819)'' হওঁ''hoü̃'' হোৱা''hüa'' হয়''hoy'' হওঁ''hoü̃'' হোৱা''hüa'' হয়''hoy'':1 Archaic, poetical; used only with the pronoun 'thou'.", ":2 In Flemish dialects.", ":3 In the bokmål written standard.", ":4 In the nynorsk written standard.", "''vera'' and ''vere'' are both alternate forms.", ":5 Arhcaic:6 Attic.", ":7 'eínai' is only used as a noun (\"being, existence\").", ":8 Ptc: .", ":9 In the Tosk and Geg dialects, respectively.", ":10 Existential: هست (hæst) has another meaning.", "Usage of (''æ'') is considered to be colloquial, now.", "See, Indo-European copula:11 With the Singular they 3rd person pronoun.", ":12 Bengali verbs are further conjugated according to formality.", "There are three verb forms for 2nd person pronouns: হও (''hôo'', familiar), হোস (''hoś'', very familiar) and হন (''hôn'', polite).", "Also two forms for 3rd person pronouns: হয় (''hôy'', familiar) and হন (''hôn'', polite).", "Plural verb forms are exact same as singular.", ":13 Valencian.", ":14 Western varieties only." ], [ "Conjugation classes", "=== Pama-Nyungan languages ===One common feature of Pama–Nyungan languages, the largest family of Australian Aboriginal languages, is the notion of conjugation classes, which are a set of groups into which each lexical verb falls.", "They determine how a verb is conjugated for Tense–aspect–mood.", "The classes can but do not universally correspond to the transitivity or valency of the verb in question.", "Generally, of the two to six conjugation classes in a Pama-Nyungan language, two classes are open with a large membership and allow for new coinages, and the remainder are closed and of limited membership.==== Wati ====In Wati languages, verbs generally fall into four classes:* '''l''' class* '''∅''' class* '''n''' class* '''ng''' classThey are labelled by using common morphological components of verb endings in each respective class in infinitival forms.", "In the Wanman language these each correspond to '''''la'', ''ya'', ''rra'',''' and '''''wa''''' verbs respectively.+Example Verb Conjugations in WarnmanClassPastPresentFutureImperativePast ContinuousHabitual'''LA''' -rna -npa/-rni -nku -la -rninyala''waka-rna''''waka-rni''''waka-nku''''waka-la''''waka-rninya''''waka-la''spearedis spearingwill spearspear it!used to spearspears'''YA''' -nya -manyi -ku -∅/-ya -minya -∅/-ya''wanti-nya''''wanti-manyi''''wanti-ku''''wanti-ya''''wanti-minya''''wanti-ya''stayedis stayingwill staystay!used to staystays'''RRA''' -na -npa -nku -rra -ninya -rra''ya-na''''ya-npa''''ya-nku''''ya-rra''''ya-ninya''''ya-rra''wentis goingwill gogo!used to gogoes'''WA''' -nya -nganyi -ngku -wa -nganyinya -wa''pi-nya''''pi-nganyi''''pi-ngku''''pi-wa''''pi-nganyinya''''pi-wa''hitis hittingwill hithit it!used to hithitsSee also a similar table of verb classes and conjugations in Pitjantjatjara, a Wati language wherein the correlating verb classes are presented below also by their imperative verbal endings '''-la, -∅, -ra''' and '''-wa''' respectively+Example Verb Conjugations in PitjantjatjaraClassPastPresentFutureImperativePast ContinuousHabitual'''LA''' -nu -ni -lku -la -ningi -lpai''kati-nu''''kati-ni''''kati-leu''''kati-la''''kati-ningi''''kati-lpai''tookis takingwill taketake it!used to taketakes'''∅''' -ngu -nyi -ku -∅ -ngi -pai''tawa-ngu''''tawa-nyi''''tawa-ku''''tawa-'''∅'''''''tawa-ngi''''tawa-pai''dugis diggingwill digdig!used to digdigs'''RA''' -nu -nangi -nkuku -ra -nangi -nkupai''a-nu''''a-nangi''''a-nkuku''a-ra''a-nangi''''a-nkupai''wentis goingwill gogo!used to gogoes'''WA''' -ngu -nganyi -nguku -wa -ngangi -ngkupai''pu-ngu''''pu-nganyi''''pu-nguku''''pu-wa''''pu-ngangi''''pu-ngkupai''hitis hittingwill hithit it!used to hithits==== Ngayarta ====Ngarla, a member of the Ngayarda sub-family of languages has a binary conjugation system labelled:* '''l''' class* '''∅''' classIn the case of Ngarla, there is a notably strong correlation between conjugation class and transitivity, with transitive/ditransitive verbs falling in the '''l'''-class and intransitive/semi-transitive verbs in the '''∅-'''class.+Example Verb Conjugations in NgarlaClassPresentRemote PastPastPast ContinuousHabitualFutureSpeculativePurposiveOptativePresent ContrafactualPast ContrafactualAnticipatory'''L'''''jaa-rri''''jaa-rnta''''jaa-rnu''''jaa-yinyu''''jaa-yirnta''''jaa-n''''jaa-mpi''''jaa-lu''''jaa-nmara''''jaa-rrima''''jaa-nmarnta''''jaa-rnmarta''is choppingchopped (long ago)choppedused to chopchopswill chopcould have choppedin order to chopought to chopwere ''x'' choppinghad ''x'' choppedshould ''x'' chop'''∅'''''warni-yan''''warni-rnta''''warni-nyu''''warni-yanu''''warni-yanta''''warni-Ø''''warni-rnpi''''warni-kura''''warni-mara''''warni-yanma''''warni-marnta''''warni-nyamarta''is fallingfell (long ago)fellused to fallfallswill fallcould have fallenin order to fallought to fallwere ''x'' fallinghad ''x'' fallenshould ''x'' fallThese classes even extend to how verbs are nominalized as instruments with the '''l-'''class verb including the addition of an ''/l/'' before the nominalizing suffix and the blank class remaining blank:'''l-class example:''''''∅-class example'''==== Yidiny ====Yidiny has a ternary verb class system with two open classes and one closed class (~20 members).", "Verbs are classified as:* '''-n''' class (open, intransitive/semi-transitive)* '''-l''' class (open, transitive/ditransitive)* '''-r''' class (closed, intransitive)+Example Verb Conjugations in YidinyClassimperativePresent/FuturePastPurposiveApprehensive'''N''' -n -ng -nyu -na -ntyi''nyina-n''''nyina-ng''''nyina-nyu''''nyina-na''''nyina-ntyi''sit!is sitting / will sitsatin order to sitlest ''x'' sit'''L''' -l -lnyu -lna -ltyi''patya-∅''''patya-l''''patya-lnyu''''patya-lna''''patya-ltyi''bite it!is biting / will bitebitin order to bitelest ''x'' bite'''R''' -rr -r -rnyu -rna -rtyi''pakya-rr''''pakya-r''''pakya-rnyu''''-pakya-rna''''pakya-rtyi''feel sore!is feeling / will feel sorefelt sorein order to feel sorelest ''x'' feel sore" ], [ "See also", "*Agreement (linguistics)*Declension (nouns, adjectives, ''etc.", "'')*Inflection*Redundancy (linguistics)*Screeve*Strong inflection*Verb*Verb argument*Volition (linguistics)*Weak inflection=== Conjugations by language ===*:Category:Grammatical conjugation*Indo-European copula* Archivium: Italian verbs conjugator, for regular and irregular verbs" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gomoku" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Gomoku''''', also called ''Five in a Row'', is an abstract strategy board game.", "It is traditionally played with Go pieces (black and white stones) on a 15×15 Go board while in the past a 19×19 board was standard.", "Because pieces are typically not moved or removed from the board, gomoku may also be played as a paper-and-pencil game.", "The game is known in several countries under different names." ], [ "Rules", "Players alternate turns placing a stone of their color on an empty intersection.", "Black plays first.", "The winner is the first player to form an unbroken line of five stones of their color horizontally, vertically, or diagonally.", "In some rules, this line must be exactly five stones long; six or more stones in a row does not count as a win and is called an overline.", "If the board is completely filled and no one can make a line of 5 stones, then the game ends in a draw." ], [ "Origin", "Historical records indicate that the origins of gomoku can be traced back to the mid-1700s during the Edo period.", "It is said that the 10th generation of Kuwanaya Buemon, a merchant who frequented the Nijō family, was highly skilled in this game, which subsequently spread among the people.", "By the late Edo period, around 1850, books had been published on gomoku.", "The earliest published book on gomoku that can be verified is the in 1856.The name \"gomoku\" is from the Japanese language, in which it is referred to as .", "''Go'' means five, ''moku'' is a counter word for pieces and ''narabe'' means ''line-up''.", "The game is popular in China, where it is called ''Wuziqi'' (五子棋).", "''Wu'' (五 wǔ) means ''five'', ''zi'' (子 zǐ) means ''piece'', and ''qi'' (棋 qí) refers to a board game category in Chinese.", "The game is also popular in Korea, where it is called ''omok'' (오목 五目) which has the same structure and origin as the Japanese name.In the nineteenth century, the game was introduced to Britain where it was known as '''Go Bang''', said to be a corruption of the Japanese word ''goban'', which was itself adapted from the Chinese ''k'i pan (qí pán)'' \"go-board.\"" ], [ "First-player advantage", "Gomoku has a strong advantage for the first player when unrestricted.Championships in gomoku previously used the \"'''Pro'''\" opening rule, which mandated that the first player place the first stone in the center of the board.", "The second player's stone placement was unrestricted.", "The first player's second stone had to be placed at least three intersections away from the first player's first stone.", "This rule was used in the 1989 and 1991 world championships.", "When the win–loss ratio of these two championships was calculated, the first player (black) won 67 percent of games.This was deemed too unbalanced for tournament play, so tournament gomoku adopted the Swap2 opening protocol in 2009.In Swap2, the first player places three stones, two black and one white, on the board.", "The second player then selects one of three options: play as black, play as white and place another white stone, or place two more stones, one white and one black, and let the first player choose the color.The win ratio of the first player has been calculated to be around 52 percent using the Swap2 opening protocol, greatly balancing the game and largely solving the first-player advantage." ], [ "Variants", "=== Freestyle gomoku ===Freestyle gomoku has no restrictions on either player and allows a player to win by creating a line of five or more stones, with each player alternating turns placing one stone at a time.==== Swap after 1st move ====The rule of \"swap after 1st move\" is a variant of the freestyle gomoku rule, and is mostly played in China.", "The game can be played on a 19×19 or 15×15 board.", "As per the rule, once the first player places a black stone on the board, the second player has the right to swap colors.", "The rest of the game proceeds as freestyle gomoku.", "This rule is set to balance the advantage of black in a simple way.=== Renju ===Black (the player who makes the first move) has long been known to have an advantage, even before L. Victor Allis proved that black can force a win (see below).", "Renju attempts to mitigate this imbalance with extra rules that aim to reduce black's first player advantage.It is played on a 15×15 board, with the rules of three and three, four and four, and overlines applied to Black only.", "* The rule of three and three bans a move that simultaneously forms two open rows of three stones (rows not blocked by an opponent's stone at either end).", "* The rule of four and four bans a move that simultaneously forms two rows of four stones (open or not).", "*Overlines prevent a player from winning if they form a line of 6 or more stones.Renju also makes use of various tournament opening rules, such as Soosõrv-8, the current international standard.=== Caro ===In Caro, (also called gomoku+, popular among Vietnamese), the winner must have an overline or an unbroken row of five stones that is not blocked at either end (overlines are immune to this rule).", "This makes the game more balanced and provides more power for White to defend.=== Omok ===Omok is similar to Freestyle gomoku; however, it is played on a 19×19 board and includes the rule of ''three and three.", "''=== Ninuki-renju ===Also called Wu, Ninuki Renju is a variant which adds capturing to the game; A pair of stones of the same color may be captured by the opponent by means of custodial capture (sandwiching a line of two stones lengthwise).", "The winner is the player either to make a perfect five in a row, or to capture five pairs of the opponent's stones.", "It uses a 15x15 board and the rules of three and three and overlines.", "It also allows the game to continue after a player has formed a row of five stones if their opponent can capture a pair across the line.=== Pente ===Pente is related to Ninuki-Renju, and has the same custodial capture method, but is most often played on a 19x19 board and does not use the rules of three and three, four and four, or overlines.", "'''Pro''' Opening Rule: Black places first stone in the center of board.", "White can place anywhere, but places to the South-East.", "Black places their second stone three spaces away.=== Tournament Opening Rules ===Tournament rules are used in professional play to balance the game and mitigate the first player advantage.", "The tournament rule used for the gomoku world championships since 2009 is the Swap2 opening rule.", "For all of the following professional rules, an overline (six or more stones in a row) does not count as a win.", "'''Swap''' Opening Rule: Tentative Black places two black stones and one white stone anywhere on the board.", "Tentative white chooses which color to play as.==== Pro ====The first player's first stone must be placed in the center of the board.", "The second player's first stone may be placed anywhere on the board.", "The first player's second stone must be placed at least three intersections away from the first stone (two empty intersections in between the two stones).==== Long Pro ====The first player's first stone must be placed in the center of the board.", "The second player's first stone may be placed anywhere on the board.", "The first player's second stone must be placed at least four intersections away from the first stone (three empty intersections in between the two stones).", "'''Swap2''' Opening Rule: Tentative Black places two black stones and one white stone anywhere on the board.", "Tentative White responds by picking option number three and placing two more stones, one of each color, on the board and passes the choice of which color to play as to tentative Black.==== Swap ====The tentative first player places three stones (two black, and one white) anywhere on the board.", "The tentative second player then chooses which color to play as.", "Play proceeds from there as normal with white playing their second stone.==== Swap2 ====The tentative first player places three stones on the board, two black and one white.", "The tentative second player then has three options:# They can choose to play as white and place a second white stone# They can swap their color and choose to play as black# Or they can place two more stones, one black and one white, and pass the choice of which color to play back to the tentative first player.Because the tentative first player doesn't know where the tentative second player will place the additional stones if they take option 3, the swap2 opening protocol limits excessive studying of a line by only one of the players." ], [ "Theoretical generalizations", "''m'',''n'',''k''-games are a generalization of gomoku to a board with ''m''×''n'' intersections, and ''k'' in a row needed to win.Connect(''m'',''n'',''k'',''p'',''q'') games are another generalization of gomoku to a board with ''m''×''n'' intersections, ''k'' in a row needed to win, ''p'' stones for each player to place, and ''q'' stones for the first player to place for the first move only.", "Each player may play only at the lowest unoccupied place in a column.", "In particular, Connect(''m'',''n'',6,2,1) is called Connect6." ], [ "Example game", "First gameThis game on the 15×15 board is adapted from the paper \"Go-Moku and Threat-Space Search\".The opening moves show clearly black's advantage.", "An open row of three (one that is not blocked by an opponent's stone at either end) has to be blocked immediately, or countered with a threat elsewhere on the board.", "If not blocked or countered, the open row of three will be extended to an open row of four, which threatens to win in two ways.White has to block open rows of three at moves 10, 14, 16 and 20, but black only has to do so at move 9.Move 20 is a blunder for white (it should have been played next to black 19).", "Black can now force a win against any defense by white, starting with move 21.Second game (continuation from first game)There are two forcing sequences for black, depending on whether white 22 is played next to black 15 or black 21.The diagram on the right shows the first sequence.", "All the moves for white are forced.", "Such long forcing sequences are typical in gomoku, and expert players can read out forcing sequences of 20 to 40 moves rapidly and accurately.Other second gameThe diagram on the right shows the second forcing sequence.", "This diagram shows why white 20 was a blunder; if it had been next to black 19 (at the position of move 32 in this diagram) then black 31 would not be a threat and so the forcing sequence would fail." ], [ "World championships", "World Gomoku Championships have occurred 2 times in 1989, 1991.Since 2009 tournament play has resumed, with the opening rule changed to swap2.List of the tournaments occurred and title holders follows.+ World ChampionshipTitle yearHosting city, countryGoldSilverBronzeOpening rule1989 Kyoto, Japan Sergey Chernov Yuriy Tarannikov Hirouji SakamotoPro1991 Moscow, Soviet Union Yuriy Tarannikov Ando Meritee Sergey ChernovPro2009 Pardubice, Czech Republic Artur Tamioła Attila Demján Pavel LaubeSwap22011 Huskvarna, Sweden Attila Demján Artur Tamioła Michał ŻukowskiSwap22013 Tallinn, Estonia Attila Demján Pavel Laube Mikhail KozhinSwap22015 Suzdal, Russia Rudolf Dupszki Gergő Tóth Mikhail KozhinSwap22017 Prague, Czech Republic Zoltán László Rudolf Dupszki Denis OsipovSwap22019 Tallinn, Estonia Martin Muzika Oleg Bulatowsky Michał ŻukowskiSwap22023 Budapest, Hungary Pavel Laube Adrian Fitzermann Martin MuzikaSwap2 Pavel Laube Igor Eged Štěpán Tesařík Marek Hanzl Lu Wei-Yuan Chen Ko-Han Chang Yi-Feng Sung Pei-JungSwap22018 Płock, Poland-1 Edvard Rizvanov Denis Osipov Ilya Muratov Maksim Karasev Mikhail Kozhin Zoltán László Gergő Tóth Márk Horváth Gábor Gyenes Attila Hegedűs Łukasz Majksner Michał Żukowski Michał Zajk Marek Gorzecki Paweł TarasińskiSwap22020Cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic" ], [ "Computers and gomoku", "Researchers have been applying artificial intelligence techniques on playing gomoku for several decades.", "Joseph Weizenbaum published a short paper in Datamation in 1962 entitled \"How to Make a Computer Appear Intelligent\" that described the strategy used in a gomoku program that could beat novice players.", "In 1994, L. Victor Allis raised the algorithm of proof-number search (pn-search) and dependency-based search (db-search), and proved that when starting from an empty 15×15 board, the first player has a winning strategy using these searching algorithms.", "This applies to both free-style gomoku and standard gomoku without any opening rules.", "It seems very likely that black wins on larger boards too.", "In any size of a board, freestyle gomoku is an ''m'',''n'',''k''-game, hence it is known that the first player can force a win or a draw.", "In 2001, Allis's winning strategy was also approved for renju, a variation of gomoku, when there was no limitation on the opening stage.However, neither the theoretical values of all legal positions, nor the opening rules such as Swap2 used by the professional gomoku players have been solved yet, so the topic of gomoku artificial intelligence is still a challenge for computer scientists, such as the problem on how to improve the gomoku algorithms to make them more strategic and competitive.", "Nowadays, most of the state-of-the-art gomoku algorithms are based on the alpha-beta pruning framework.Reisch proved that Generalized gomoku is PSPACE-complete.", "He also observed that the reduction can be adapted to the rules of k-in-a-Row for fixed k. Although he did not specify exactly which values of k are allowed, the reduction would appear to generalize to any k ≥ 5.There exist several well-known tournaments for gomoku programs since 1989.The Computer Olympiad started with the gomoku game in 1989, but gomoku has not been in the list since 1993.The Renju World Computer Championship was started in 1991, and held for 4 times until 2004.The Gomocup tournament is played since 2000 and taking place every year, still active now, with more than 30 participants from about 10 countries.", "The Hungarian Computer Go-Moku Tournament was also played twice in 2005.There were also two Computer vs. Human tournaments played in the Czech Republic, in 2006 and 2011.Not until 2017 were the computer programs proved to be able to outperform the world human champion in public competitions.", "In the Gomoku World Championship 2017, there was a match between the world champion program Yixin and the world champion human player Rudolf Dupszki.", "Yixin won the match with a score of 2–0." ], [ "In popular culture", "Gomoku was featured in a 2018 Korean drama by Baek Seung-Hwa starring Park Se-wan.", "The film follows Baduk Lee (Park Se-wan), a former go prodigy who retired after a humiliating loss on time.", "Years later, Baduk Lee works part time at a go club, where she meets Ahn Kyung Kim, who introduces her to an Omok (Korean gomoku) tournament.", "Lee is initially uninterested and considers Omok a children's game, but after her roommate loses money on an impulse purchase, she enters the tournament for the prize money and loses badly, being humiliated once again.", "Afterwards, she begins training to redeem herself and becomes a serious omok player." ], [ "See also", "* Renju* Pente* Pegity* Connect6* Connection game* Reversi" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Five-in-a-Row (Renju) For Beginners to Advanced Players" ], [ "External links", "* Gomoku World* Renju International Federation website* Gomocup tournament" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gegenschein" ], [ "Introduction", "The gegenschein appears in this image as a bright spot on the diagonal band (running top left to lower right) above the Very Large Telescope.", "(The Andromeda Galaxy and Pleiades are prominent in the lower half of the image.", ")'''Gegenschein''' (; ; ) or '''counterglow''' is a faintly bright spot in the night sky centered at the antisolar point.", "The backscatter of sunlight by interplanetary dust causes this optical phenomenon." ], [ "Explanation", "Like zodiacal light, gegenschein is sunlight scattered by interplanetary dust.", "Most of this dust orbits the Sun near the ecliptic plane, with a possible concentration of particles centered at the point of the Earth–Sun system.Gegenschein is distinguished from zodiacal light by its high angle of reflection of the incident sunlight on the dust particles.", "It forms a slightly brighter elliptical spot of 8–10° across directly opposite the Sun within the dimmer band of zodiacal light and zodiac constellation.", "The intensity of the gegenschein is relatively enhanced because each dust particle is seen at full phase, having a difficult to measure apparent magnitude of +5 to +6, with a very low surface brightness in the +10 to +12 magnitude range." ], [ "History", "It is commonly stated that the gegenschein was first described by the French Jesuit astronomer and professor (1692–1776) in 1730.Further observations were supposedly made by the German explorer Alexander von Humboldt during his South American journey from 1799 to 1803.It was Humboldt who first used the German term ''Gegenschein''.", "However, research conducted in 2021 by Texas State University astronomer and professor Donald Olson discovered that the Danish astronomer Theodor Brorsen was actually the first person to observe and describe one in 1854, although Brorsen had thought that Pézenas had observed it first.", "Olson believes what Pézenas actually observed was an auroral event, as he described the phenomenon as having a red glow; Olson found many other reports of auroral activity from around Europe and Asia on the same date Pézenas made his observation.", "Humboldt's report instead described glowing triangular patches on both the western and eastern horizons shortly after sunset, while true gegenschein is most visible near local midnight when it is highest in the sky.Brorsen published the first thorough investigations of the gegenschein in 1854.T.", "W. Backhouse discovered it independently in 1876, as did Edward Emerson Barnard in 1882.In modern times, the gegenschein is not visible in most inhabited regions of the world due to light pollution." ], [ "See also", "*Antisolar point*Earth's shadow*Heiligenschein*Interplanetary dust cloud*Kordylewski cloud*Opposition surge, the apparent brightening of a coarse surface or an aggregate of many particles when illuminated from directly behind the observer*Sylvanshine" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Gegenschein page on EarthSky.org* Photos of gegenschein on SwissEduc.ch taken from Stromboli volcano* \"Zodiacal Light and the Gegenschein\", an essay by J. E. Littleton**" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Glyph" ], [ "Introduction", "Various glyphs representing the lower case letter \"a\"; they are allographs of the grapheme A '''glyph''' () is any kind of purposeful mark.", "In typography, a glyph is \"the specific shape, design, or representation of a character\".", "It is a particular graphical representation, in a particular typeface, of an element of written language.", "A grapheme, or part of a grapheme (such as a diacritic), or sometimes several graphemes in combination (a composed glyph) can be represented by a glyph." ], [ "Glyphs, graphemes and characters", "In most languages written in any variety of the Latin alphabet except English, the use of diacritics to signify a sound mutation is common.", "For example, the grapheme requires two glyphs: the basic and the grave accent .", "In general, a diacritic is regarded as a glyph, even if it is contiguous with the rest of the character like a cedilla in French, Catalan or Portuguese, the ogonek in several languages, or the stroke on a Polish \"Ł\".", "Although these marks originally had no independent meaning, they have since acquired meaning in the field of mathematics and computing, for instance.Conversely, in the languages of Western Europe, the dot on a lower-case is not a glyph in because it does not convey any distinction, and an in which the dot has been accidentally omitted is still likely to be recognized correctly.", "However, in Turkish and adjacent languages, this dot is a glyph because that language has two distinct versions of the letter ''i'', with and without a dot.", "In Japanese syllabaries, some of the characters are made up of more than one separate mark, but in general these separate marks are not glyphs because they have no meaning by themselves.", "However, in some cases, additional marks fulfil the role of diacritics, to differentiate distinct characters.", "Such additional marks constitute glyphs.", "Some characters such as \"æ\" in Icelandic and the \"ß\" in German may be regarded as glyphs.", "They were originally typographic ligatures, but over time have become characters in their own right; these languages treat them as unique letters.", "However, a ligature such as \"fi\", that is treated in some typefaces as a single unit, is arguably not a glyph as this is just a design choice of that typeface, essentially an allographic feature, and includes more than one grapheme.", "In normal handwriting, even long words are often written \"joined up\", without the pen leaving the paper, and the form of each written letter will often vary depending on which letters precede and follow it, but that does not make the whole word into a single glyph.Older models of typewriters required the use of multiple glyphs to depict a single character, as an overstruck apostrophe and period to create an exclamation mark.", "If there is more than one allograph of a unit of writing, and the choice between them depends on context or on the preference of the author, they now have to be treated as separate glyphs, because mechanical arrangements have to be available to differentiate between them and to print whichever of them is required.", "In computing as well as typography, the term \"character\" refers to a grapheme or grapheme-like unit of text, as found in natural language writing systems (''scripts'').", "In typography and computing, the range of graphemes is broader than in a written language in other ways too: a typeface often has to cope with a range of different languages each of which contribute their own graphemes, and it may also be required to print non-linguistic symbols such as dingbats.", "The range of glyphs required increases correspondingly.", "In summary, in typography and computing, a glyph is a graphical unit." ], [ "See also", "* * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "**" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Goth subculture" ], [ "Introduction", "A woman dressed in gothic style in the 1980s'''Goth''' is a music-based subculture that began in the United Kingdom during the early 1980s.", "It was developed by fans of gothic rock, an offshoot of the post-punk music genre.", "Post-punk artists who presaged the gothic rock genre and helped develop and shape the subculture include Siouxsie and the Banshees, Bauhaus, the Cure, and Joy Division.The goth subculture has survived much longer than others of the same era, and has continued to diversify and spread throughout the world.", "Its imagery and cultural proclivities indicate influences from 19th-century Gothic fiction and from horror films.", "The scene is centered on music festivals, nightclubs, and organized meetings, especially in Western Europe.", "The subculture has associated tastes in music, aesthetics, and fashion.The music preferred by goths includes a number of styles such as gothic rock, death rock, cold wave, dark wave, and ethereal wave.", "The Gothic fashion style draws influences from punk, new wave, New Romantic fashion and the dressing styles of earlier periods such as the Victorian, Edwardian, and Belle Époque eras.", "The style most often includes dark (usually solid black) attire, dark makeup, and black hair." ], [ "Music", "===Origins and development===Siouxsie Sioux of Siouxsie and the Banshees in 1980The term ''gothic rock'' was coined by music critic John Stickney in 1967 to describe a meeting he had with Jim Morrison in a dimly lit wine-cellar, which he called \"the perfect room to honor the Gothic rock of the Doors\".", "That same year, the Velvet Underground song \"All Tomorrow's Parties\" created a kind of \"mesmerizing gothic-rock masterpiece\" according to music historian Kurt Loder.", "In the late 1970s, the ''gothic'' adjective was used to describe the atmosphere of post-punk bands such as Siouxsie and the Banshees, Magazine, and Joy Division.", "In a live review about a Siouxsie and the Banshees' concert in July 1978, critic Nick Kent wrote, concerning their music, \"Parallels and comparisons can now be drawn with gothic rock architects like the Doors and, certainly, early Velvet Underground\".", "In March 1979, in his review of Magazine's second album ''Secondhand Daylight'', Kent noted there was \"a new austere sense of authority\" in the music, with a \"dank neo-Gothic sound\".", "Later that year, the term was also used by Joy Division's manager, Tony Wilson on 15 September in an interview for the BBC TV programme's ''Something Else''.", "Wilson described Joy Division as \"gothic\" compared to the pop mainstream, right before a live performance of the band.", "The term was later applied to \"newer bands such as Bauhaus who had arrived in the wake of Joy Division and Siouxsie and the Banshees\".", "Bauhaus's first single issued in 1979, \"Bela Lugosi's Dead\", is generally credited as the starting point of the gothic rock genre.In 1979, ''Sounds'' described Joy Division as \"Gothic\" and \"theatrical\".", "In February 1980, ''Melody Maker'' qualified the same band as \"masters of this Gothic gloom\".", "Critic Jon Savage would later say that their singer Ian Curtis wrote \"the definitive Northern Gothic statement\".", "However, it was not until the early 1980s that gothic rock became a coherent music subgenre within post-punk, and followers of these bands started to come together as a distinctly recognizable movement.", "They may have taken the \"goth\" mantle from a 1981 article published in UK rock weekly ''Sounds'': \"The face of Punk Gothique\", written by Steve Keaton.", "In a text about the audience of UK Decay, Keaton asked: \"Could this be the coming of Punk Gothique?", "With Bauhaus flying in on similar wings could it be the next big thing?\"", "The F Club night in Leeds in Northern England, which had opened in 1977 firstly as a punk club, became instrumental to the development of the goth subculture in the 1980s.", "In July 1982, the opening of the Batcave in London's Soho provided a prominent meeting point for the emerging scene, which would be briefly labelled \"positive punk\" by the ''NME'' in a special issue with a front cover in early 1983.The term ''Batcaver'' was then used to describe old-school goths.Bauhaus—Live in concert, 3 February 2006Outside the British scene, deathrock developed in California during the late 1970s and early 1980s as a distinct branch of American punk rock, with acts such as Christian Death, Kommunity FK and 45 Grave at the forefront.===Gothic genre===The bands that defined and embraced the gothic rock genre included Bauhaus, early Adam and the Ants, the Cure, the Birthday Party, Southern Death Cult, Specimen, Sex Gang Children, UK Decay, Virgin Prunes, Killing Joke, and the Damned.", "Near the peak of this first generation of the gothic scene in 1983, ''The Face'' Paul Rambali recalled \"several strong Gothic characteristics\" in the music of Joy Division.", "In 1984, Joy Division's bassist Peter Hook named Play Dead as one of their heirs: \"If you listen to a band like Play Dead, who I really like, Joy Division played similar music to Play Dead.", "\"Robert Smith of the CureBy the mid-1980s, bands began proliferating and became increasingly popular, including the Sisters of Mercy, the Mission, Alien Sex Fiend, the March Violets, Xmal Deutschland, the Membranes, and Fields of the Nephilim.", "Record labels like Factory, 4AD and Beggars Banquet released much of this music in Europe, and through a vibrant import music market in the US, the subculture grew, especially in New York and Los Angeles, California, where many nightclubs featured \"gothic/industrial\" nights and bands like Black Tape for a Blue Girl, Theatre of Ice, Human Drama and The Wake became key figures for the genre to expand on an nationwide level.", "The popularity of 4AD bands resulted in the creation of similar US labels, such as Wax Trax!", "Records and Projekt.The 1990s saw further growth for some 1980s bands and the emergence of many new acts, as well as new goth-centric US record labels such as Cleopatra Records, among others.", "According to Dave Simpson of ''The Guardian'', \"In the 90s, goths all but disappeared as dance music became the dominant youth cult\".", "As a result, the goth movement went underground and fractured into cyber goth, shock rock, industrial metal, gothic metal, and Medieval folk metal.", "Marilyn Manson was seen as a \"goth-shock icon\" by ''Spin''.In 1993, Jack Off Jill's front woman Jessicka coined the term Riot Goth to define music and aesthetics that were similar to riotgrrrl – bloody babydoll dresses and songs that addressed issues such as abuse, selfharm, depression and feminism.", "Jack Off Jill is referred to as \"legendary\" by Alternative Press and \"cult heroes\" by The Guardian." ], [ "Art, historical and cultural influences", "The Goth subculture of the 1980s drew inspiration from a variety of sources.", "Some of them were modern or contemporary, others were centuries-old or ancient.", "Michael Bibby and Lauren M. E. Goodlad liken the subculture to a bricolage.", "Among the music-subcultures that influenced it were punk, new wave, and glam.", "But it also drew inspiration from B-movies, Gothic literature, horror films, vampire cults and traditional mythology.", "Among the mythologies that proved influential in Goth were Celtic mythology, Christian mythology, Egyptian mythology, and various traditions of Paganism.The figures that the movement counted among its historic canon of ancestors were equally diverse.", "They included the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, Friedrich Nietzsche (1844‒1900), Comte de Lautréamont (1846‒1870), Salvador Dalí (1904‒1989) and Jean-Paul Sartre (1905‒1980).", "Writers that have had a significant influence on the movement also represent a diverse canon.", "They include Ann Radcliffe (1764‒1823), John William Polidori (1795‒1821), Edgar Allan Poe (1809‒1849), Sheridan Le Fanu (1814–1873), Bram Stoker (1847‒1912), Oscar Wilde (1854‒1900), H. P. Lovecraft (1890‒1937), Anne Rice (1941‒2021), William Gibson (1948‒present), Ian McEwan (1948‒present), Storm Constantine (1956‒2021), and Poppy Z. Brite (1967‒present).===18th and 19th centuries===Mary Shelley's ''Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus'' (1818) has come to define Gothic fiction in the Romantic period.", "Frontispiece to 1831 edition shown.Gothic literature is a genre of fiction that combines romance and dark elements to produce mystery, suspense, terror, horror and the supernatural.", "According to David H. Richter, settings were framed to take place at \"...ruinous castles, gloomy churchyards, claustrophobic monasteries, and lonely mountain roads\".", "Typical characters consisted of the cruel parent, sinister priest, courageous victor, and the helpless heroine, along with supernatural figures such as demons, vampires, ghosts, and monsters.", "Often, the plot focused on characters ill-fated, internally conflicted, and innocently victimized by harassing malicious figures.", "In addition to the dismal plot focuses, the literary tradition of the gothic was to also focus on individual characters that were gradually going insane.English author Horace Walpole, with his 1764 novel ''The Castle of Otranto'' is one of the first writers who explored this genre.", "The American Revolutionary War-era \"American Gothic\" story of the Headless Horseman, immortalized in \"The Legend of Sleepy Hollow\" (published in 1820) by Washington Irving, marked the arrival in the New World of dark, romantic storytelling.", "The tale was composed by Irving while he was living in England, and was based on popular tales told by colonial Dutch settlers of the Hudson Valley, New York.", "The story would be adapted to film in 1922, in 1949 as the animated ''The Adventures of Ichabod and Mr. Toad'', and again in 1999.Throughout the evolution of the goth subculture, classic Romantic, Gothic and horror literature has played a significant role.", "E. T. A. Hoffmann (1776–1822), Edgar Allan Poe (1809–1849), Charles Baudelaire (1821–1867), H. P. Lovecraft (1890–1937), and other tragic and Romantic writers have become as emblematic of the subculture as the use of dark eyeliner or dressing in black.", "Baudelaire, in fact, in his preface to ''Les Fleurs du mal'' (''Flowers of Evil'') penned lines that could serve as a sort of goth malediction:''C'est l'Ennui!", "—l'œil chargé d'un pleur involontaire,''''Il rêve d'échafauds en fumant son houka.", "''''Tu le connais, lecteur, ce monstre délicat,''''—Hypocrite lecteur,—mon semblable,—mon frère!", "''It is Boredom!", "— an eye brimming with an involuntary tear,He dreams of the gallows while smoking his water-pipe.You know him, reader, this delicate monster,—Hypocrite reader,—my twin,—my brother!====Visual art influences====Ophelia'' (1851) by John Everett MillaisThe gothic subculture has influenced different artists—not only musicians—but also painters and photographers.", "In particular their work is based on mystic, morbid and romantic motifs.", "In photography and painting the spectrum varies from erotic artwork to romantic images of vampires or ghosts.", "There is a marked preference for dark colours and sentiments, similar to Gothic fiction.", "At the end of the 19th century, painters like John Everett Millais and John Ruskin invented a new kind of Gothic.===20th century influences===Batcave style clothing.Some people credit Jalacy \"Screamin' Jay\" Hawkins, perhaps best known for his 1956 song \"I Put A Spell on You\", as a foundation of modern goth style and music.", "Some people credit the band Bauhaus' first single \"Bela Lugosi's Dead\", released in August 1979, with the start of goth subculture.In the early 90s, Jack Off Jill, fronted by vocalist Jessicka, pioneered the 'Riot Goth' sound, combining elements of the goth and riot grrrl genres.", "Through their lyrics, the band tackled issues such as misogyny and racism, giving them significant underground appeal.===21st century influences===The British sitcom ''The IT Crowd'' featured a recurring goth character named Richmond Avenal, played by Noel Fielding.", "Fielding said in an interview that he himself had been a goth at age fifteen and that he had a series of goth girlfriends.", "This was the first time he dabbled in makeup.", "Fielding said that he loved his girlfriends dressing him up.The game Visigoths vs.", "Mall Goths (2020) by Lucian Kahn is about \"two versions of Goths – the ancient Roman peoples and the black-clad teenagers\" and is set in LA in the 1990s." ], [ "Characteristics of the scene", "===Icons===Goth icons include several bandleaders: Siouxsie Sioux, of Siouxsie and the Banshees; Robert Smith, of the Cure; Peter Murphy, of Bauhaus; Dave Vanian, of The Damned; Rozz Williams, of Christian Death; Olli Wisdom, leader of the band Specimen and keyboardist Jonathan Melton aka Jonny Slut, who evolved the Batcave style.", "Nick Cave was dubbed as \"the grand lord of gothic lushness\".===Fashion===A gothic model pictured in June 2008====Influences====One female role model is Theda Bara, the 1910s femme fatale known for her dark eyeshadow.", "In 1977, Karl Lagerfeld hosted the Soirée Moratoire Noir party, specifying \"tenue tragique noire absolument obligatoire\" (black tragic dress absolutely required).", "The event included elements associated with leatherman style.Siouxsie Sioux was particularly influential on the dress style of the gothic rock scene; Paul Morley of ''NME'' described Siouxsie and the Banshees' 1980 gig at Futurama: \"Siouxsie was modeling her newest outfit, the one that will influence how all the girls dress over the next few months.", "About half the girls at Leeds had used Sioux as a basis for their appearance, hair to ankle\".", "Robert Smith, Musidora, Bela Lugosi, Bettie Page, Vampira, Morticia Addams, Nico, Rozz Williams, David Bowie and Lux Interior are also style icons.The 1980s established designers such as Drew Bernstein of Lip Service, and the 1990s saw a surge of US-based gothic fashion designers, many of whom continue to evolve the style to the present day.", "Style magazines such as ''Gothic Beauty'' have given repeat features to a select few gothic fashion designers who began their labels in the 1990s, such as Kambriel, Rose Mortem, and Tyler Ondine of Heavy Red.American model Gabbriette who has been known for her goth aesthetic, has been at the forefront of what has been dubbed the \"Succubus Chic\" trend of 2023.====Styling====Gothic fashion is marked by conspicuously dark, antiquated and homogeneous features.", "It is stereotyped as eerie, mysterious, complex and exotic.", "A dark, sometimes morbid fashion and style of dress, typical gothic fashion includes colored black hair and black period-styled clothing.", "Both male and female goths can wear dark eyeliner and dark fingernail polish, most especially black.", "Styles are often borrowed from punk fashion and—more currently—from the Victorian and Elizabethan periods.", "It also frequently expresses pagan, occult or other religious imagery.", "Gothic fashion and styling may also feature silver jewelry and piercings.A gothic clothing store in 2010Ted Polhemus described goth fashion as a \"profusion of black velvets, lace, fishnets and leather tinged with scarlet or purple, accessorized with tightly laced corsets, gloves, precarious stilettos and silver jewelry depicting religious or occult themes\".", "Of the male \"goth look\", goth historian Pete Scathe draws a distinction between the Sid Vicious archetype of black spiky hair and black leather jacket in contrast to the gender ambiguous individuals wearing makeup.", "The first is the early goth gig-going look, which was essentially punk, whereas the second evolved into the Batcave nightclub look.", "Early goth gigs were often very hectic affairs, and the audience dressed accordingly.In contrast to the LARP-based Victorian and Elizabethan pomposity of the 2000s, the more Romantic side of 1980s trad-goth—mainly represented by women—was characterized by new wave/post-punk-oriented hairstyles (both long and short, partly shaved and teased) and street-compliant clothing, including black frill blouses, midi dresses or tea-length skirts, and floral lace tights, Dr. Martens, spike heels (pumps), and pointed toe buckle boots (winklepickers), sometimes supplemented with accessories such as bracelets, chokers and bib necklaces.", "This style, retroactively referred to as ''Ethergoth'', took its inspiration from Siouxsie Sioux and mid-1980s musicians from the 4AD roster like Elizabeth Fraser and Lisa Gerrard.", "''\"Serene, thoughtful and creative, ethergoths are defined by their affinity ... darkwave and classically inspired Gothic music.", "Ethergoths are more likely to be found sipping tea, writing poetry and listening to the Cocteau Twins than jumping up and down at a club.", "\"''''The New York Times'' noted: \"The costumes and ornaments are a glamorous cover for the genre's somber themes.", "In the world of Goth, nature itself lurks as a malign protagonist, causing flesh to rot, rivers to flood, monuments to crumble and women to turn into slatterns, their hair streaming and lipstick askew\".Cintra Wilson declares that the origins of the dark romantic style are found in the \"Victorian cult of mourning\".", "Valerie Steele is an expert in the history of the style.====Reciprocity====Two goths in Victorian-inspired clothingGoth fashion has a reciprocal relationship with the fashion world.", "In the later part of the first decade of the 21st century, designers such as Alexander McQueen, Anna Sui, Rick Owens, Gareth Pugh, Ann Demeulemeester, Philipp Plein, Hedi Slimane, John Richmond, John Galliano, Olivier Theyskens and Yohji Yamamoto brought elements of goth to runways.", "This was described as \"Haute Goth\" by Cintra Wilson in the ''New York Times''.Thierry Mugler, Claude Montana, Jean Paul Gaultier and Christian Lacroix have also been associated with the fashion trend.", "In Spring 2004, Riccardo Tisci, Jean Paul Gaultier, Raf Simons and Stefano Pilati dressed their models as \"glamorous ghouls dressed in form-fitting suits and coal-tinted cocktail dresses\".", "Swedish designer Helena Horstedt and jewelry artist Hanna Hedman also practice a goth aesthetic.===Films and television===The Hunger'', an influence in the early days of the goth subcultureSome of the early gothic rock and deathrock artists adopted traditional horror film images and drew on horror film soundtracks for inspiration.", "Their audiences responded by adopting appropriate dress and props.", "Use of standard horror film props such as swirling smoke, rubber bats, and cobwebs featured as gothic club décor from the beginning in The Batcave.", "Such references in bands' music and images were originally tongue-in-cheek, but as time went on, bands and members of the subculture took the connection more seriously.", "As a result, morbid, supernatural and occult themes became more noticeably serious in the subculture.", "The interconnection between horror and goth was highlighted in its early days by ''The Hunger'', a 1983 vampire film starring David Bowie, Catherine Deneuve and Susan Sarandon.", "The film featured gothic rock group Bauhaus performing ''Bela Lugosi's Dead'' in a nightclub.", "Tim Burton created a storybook atmosphere filled with darkness and shadow in some of his films like ''Beetlejuice'' (1988), ''Batman'' (1989), ''Edward Scissorhands'' (1990), ''Batman Returns'' (1992) and the stop motion films ''The Nightmare Before Christmas'' (1993), which was produced/co-written by Burton, and ''Corpse Bride'' (2005), which he co-produced.", "The Nickelodeon cartoon ''Invader Zim'' is also based on the goth subculture.As the subculture became well-established, the connection between goth and horror fiction became almost a cliché, with goths quite likely to appear as characters in horror novels and film.", "For example, ''The Craft'', ''The Crow'', ''The Matrix'' and ''Underworld'' film series drew directly on goth music and style.", "The dark comedies ''Beetlejuice'', ''The Faculty'', ''American Beauty'', ''Wedding Crashers'', and a few episodes of the animated TV show ''South Park'' portray or parody the goth subculture.", "In ''South Park'', several of the fictional schoolchildren are depicted as goths.", "The goth kids on the show are depicted as finding it annoying to be confused with the Hot Topic \"vampire\" kids from the episode \"The Ungroundable\" in season 12, and even more frustrating to be compared with emo kids.", "The goth kids are usually depicted listening to gothic music, writing or reading Gothic poetry, drinking coffee, flipping their hair, and smoking.Morticia Addams from The Addams Family created by Charles Addams is a fictional character and the mother in the Addams Family.", "Morticia was played by Carolyn Jones in the 1964 television show ''The Addams Family'' and by Anjelica Huston in the 1991 version, and voiced by Charlize Theron in 2019 animated film.A recurring sketch in the 1990s on NBC's ''Saturday Night Live'' was ''Goth Talk'', in which a public access channel broadcast hosted by unpopular young goths would continually be interrupted by the more \"normal\" kids in school.", "The sketch featured series regulars Will Ferrell, Molly Shannon, and Chris Kattan.===Books and magazines===A prominent American literary influence on the gothic scene was provided by Anne Rice's re-imagining of the vampire in 1976.In ''The Vampire Chronicles'', Rice's characters were depicted as self-tormentors who struggled with alienation, loneliness, and the human condition.", "Not only did the characters torment themselves, but they also depicted a surreal world that focused on uncovering its splendour.", "These Chronicles assumed goth attitudes, but they were not intentionally created to represent the gothic subculture.", "Their romance, beauty, and erotic appeal attractedmany goth readers, making her works popular from the 1980s through the 1990s.", "While Goth has embraced Vampire literature both in its 19th century form and in its later incarnations, Rice's postmodern take on the vampire mythos has had a \"special resonance\" in the subculture.", "Her vampire novels feature intense emotions, period clothing, and \"cultured decadence\".", "Her vampires are socially alienated monsters, but they are also stunningly attractive.", "Rice's goth readers tend to envision themselves in much the same terms and view characters like Lestat de Lioncourt as role models.Richard Wright's novel ''Native Son'' contains gothic imagery and themes that demonstrate the links between blackness and the gothic; themes and images of \"premonitions, curses, prophecies, spells, veils, demonic possessions, graves, skeletons\" are present, suggesting gothic influence.", "Other classic themes of the gothic are present in the novel, such as transgression and unstable identities of race, class, gender, and nationality.The re-imagining of the vampire continued with the release of Poppy Z. Brite's book ''Lost Souls'' in October 1992.Despite the fact that Brite's first novel was criticized by some mainstream sources for allegedly \"lacking a moral center: neither terrifyingly malevolent supernatural creatures nor (like Anne Rice's protagonists) tortured souls torn between good and evil, these vampires simply add blood-drinking to the amoral panoply of drug abuse, problem drinking and empty sex practiced by their human counterparts\", many of these so-called \"human counterparts\" identified with the teen angst and goth music references therein, keeping the book in print.", "Upon release of a special 10th anniversary edition of ''Lost Souls'', ''Publishers Weekly''—the same periodical that criticized the novel's \"amorality\" a decade prior—deemed it a \"modern horror classic\" and acknowledged that Brite established a \"cult audience\".The 2002 release ''21st Century Goth'' by Mick Mercer, an author, noted music journalist and leading historian of gothic rock, explored the modern state of the goth scene around the world, including South America, Japan, and mainland Asia.", "His previous 1997 release, ''Hex Files: The Goth Bible'', similarly took an international look at the subculture.In the US, ''Propaganda'' was a gothic subculture magazine founded in 1982.In Italy, ''Ver Sacrum'' covers the Italian goth scene, including fashion, sexuality, music, art and literature.", "Some magazines, such as the now-defunct ''Dark Realms'' and ''Goth Is Dead'' included goth fiction and poetry.", "Other magazines cover fashion (e.g., ''Gothic Beauty''); music (e.g., ''Severance'') or culture and lifestyle (e.g., ''Althaus'' e-zine).On 31 October 2011, ECW Press published the ''Encyclopedia Gothica'' written by author and poet Liisa Ladouceur with illustrations done by Gary Pullin.", "This non-fiction book describes over 600 words and phrases relevant to Goth subculture.Brian Craddock's 2017 novel Eucalyptus Goth charts a year in the life of a household of 20-somethings in Brisbane, Australia.", "The central characters are deeply entrenched in the local gothic subculture, with the book exploring themes relevant to the characters, notably unemployment, mental health, politics, and relationships.In 2023, several books about the music genre and the subculture, were released.", "John Robb's ''The Art of Darkness: The History of Goth'' was hailed in ''The Times'' as a \"new magestrial survey\", and Cathi Unsworth's ''Season of the Witch: The Book of Goth'' was praised in ''Mojo'' as a \"superb history of the dark and all its risings\".===Graphic art===Visual contemporary graphic artists with this aesthetic include Gerald Brom, Dave McKean, and Trevor Brown as well as illustrators Edward Gorey, Charles Addams, Lorin Morgan-Richards, and James O'Barr.", "The artwork of Polish surrealist painter Zdzisław Beksiński is often described as gothic.", "British artist Anne Sudworth published a book on gothic art in 2007.===Events===A poster for the 2007 Drop Dead FestivalThere are large annual goth-themed festivals in Germany, including Wave-Gotik-Treffen in Leipzig and M'era Luna in Hildesheim), both annually attracting tens of thousands of people.", "Castle Party is the biggest goth festival in Poland.===Interior design===In the 1980s, goths decorated their walls and ceilings with black fabrics and accessories like rosaries, crosses and plastic roses.", "Black furniture and cemetery-related objects such as candlesticks, death lanterns and skulls were also part of their interior design.", "In the 1990s, the interior design approach of the 1980s was replaced by a less macabre style." ], [ "Sociology", "===Gender and sexuality===Since the late 1970s, the UK goth scene refused \"traditional standards of sexual propriety\" and accepted and celebrated \"unusual, bizarre or deviant sexual practices\".", "In the 2000s, many members \"claim overlapping memberships in the queer, polyamorous, bondage-discipline/sadomasochism, and pagan communities\".Though sexual empowerment is not unique to women in the goth scene, it remains an important part of many goth women's experience: The scene's \"celebration of active sexuality\" enables goth women to \"resist mainstream notions of passive femininity\".", "They have an \"active sexuality\" approach which creates \"gender egalitarianism\" within the scene, as it \"allows them to engage in sexual play with multiple partners while sidestepping most of the stigma and dangers that women who engage in such behavior\" outside the scene frequently incur, while continuing to \"see themselves as strong\".Men dress up in an androgynous way: \"Men 'gender blend,' wearing makeup and skirts\".", "In contrast, the \"women are dressed in sexy feminine outfits\" that are \"highly sexualized\" and which often combine \"corsets with short skirts and fishnet stockings\".", "Androgyny is common among the scene: \"androgyny in Goth subcultural style often disguises or even functions to reinforce conventional gender roles\".", "It was only \"valorised\" for male goths, who adopt a \"feminine\" appearance, including \"make-up, skirts and feminine accessories\" to \"enhance masculinity\" and facilitate traditional heterosexual courting roles.===Identity===While goth is a music-based scene, the goth subculture is also characterized by particular aesthetics, outlooks, and a \"way of seeing and of being seen\".", "In more recent years, goths have been able to meet people with similar interests, learn from each other and take part in the scene through social media, manifesting in the same practices which take place in goth clubs.", "This is not a new phenomenon since before the rise of social media online forums had the same function for goths.", "Observers have raised the issue of to what degree individuals are truly members of the goth subculture.", "On one end of the spectrum is the \"Uber goth\", a person who is described as seeking a pallor so much that they apply \"as much white foundation and white powder as possible\".", "On the other end of the spectrum exists what another writer terms \"poseurs\" – \"goth wannabes, usually young kids going through a goth phase who do not hold to goth sensibilities but want to be part of the goth crowd\".", "It has been said that a \"mall goth\" is a teen who dresses in a goth style and spends time in malls with a Hot Topic store, but who does not know much about goth subculture or its music, thus making them a poseur.", "In one case, even a well-known performer has been labelled with the pejorative term – a \"number of goths, especially those who belonged to this subculture before the late-1980s, reject Marilyn Manson as a poseur who undermines the true meaning of goth\".===Media and academic commentary===The BBC described academic research that indicated that goths are \"refined and sensitive, keen on poetry and books, not big on drugs or anti-social behaviour\".", "Teens often stay in the subculture \"into their adult life\", and they are likely to become well-educated and enter professions such as medicine or law.", "The subculture carries on appealing to teenagers who are looking for meaning and for identity.", "The scene teaches teens that there are difficult aspects to life that you \"have to make an attempt to understand\" or explain.", "''The Guardian'' reported that a \"glue binding the goth scene together was drug use\"; however, in the scene, drug use was varied.", "Goth is one of the few subculture movements that is not associated with a single drug, in the way that the Hippie subculture is associated with cannabis and the Mod subculture is associated with amphetamines.", "A 2006 study of young goths found that those with higher levels of goth identification had higher drug use.===Perception on nonviolence===A study conducted by the University of Glasgow, involving 1,258 youth interviewed at ages 11, 13, 15 and 19, found goth subculture to be strongly nonviolent and tolerant, thus providing \"valuable social and emotional support\" to teens vulnerable to self harm and mental illness.====School shootings====In the weeks following the 1999 Columbine High School massacre, media reports about the teen gunmen, Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold, portrayed them as part of a gothic cult.", "An increased suspicion of goth subculture subsequently manifested in the media.", "This led to a moral panic over teen involvement in goth subculture and a number of other activities, such as violent video games.", "Harris and Klebold had initially been thought to be members of \"The Trenchcoat Mafia\", an informal club within Columbine High School.", "Later, such characterizations were considered incorrect.Media reported that the gunman in the 2006 Dawson College shooting in Montreal, Quebec, Kimveer Singh Gill, was interested in goth subculture.", "Gill's self-professed love of Goth culture was the topic of media interest, and it was widely reported that the word \"Goth\", in Gill's writings, was a reference to the alternative industrial and goth subculture rather than a reference to gothic rock music.", "Gill, who committed suicide after the attack, wrote in his online journal: \"I'm so sick of hearing about jocks and preps making life hard for the goths and others who look different, or are different\".", "Gill described himself in his profile on Vampirefreaks.com as \"Trench... the Angel of Death\" and he stated that \"Metal and Goth kick ass\".", "An image gallery on Gill's Vampirefreaks.com blog had photos of him pointing a gun at the camera or wearing a long black trench coat.Mick Mercer stated that Gill was \"not a Goth.", "Never a Goth.", "The bands he listed as his chosen form of ear-bashing were relentlessly metal and standard grunge, rock and goth metal, with some industrial presence\".", "Mercer stated that \"Kimveer Gill listened to metal\", \"He had nothing whatsoever to do with Goth\" and further commented \"I realise that like many Neos neophyte, Kimveer Gill may even have believed he somehow was a Goth, because they're Neophytes only really noted for spectacularly missing the point\".===Prejudice and violence directed at goths===In part because of public misunderstanding surrounding gothic aesthetics, people in the goth subculture sometimes suffer prejudice, discrimination, and intolerance.", "As is the case with members of various other subcultures and alternative lifestyles, outsiders sometimes marginalize goths, either by intention or by accident.", "Actress Christina Hendricks talked of being bullied as a goth at school and how difficult it was for her to deal with societal pressure: \"Kids can be pretty judgmental about people who are different.", "But instead of breaking down and conforming, I stood firm.", "That is also probably why I was unhappy.", "My mother was mortified and kept telling me how horrible and ugly I looked.", "Strangers would walk by with a look of shock on their face, so I never felt pretty.", "I just always felt awkward\".On 11 August 2007, while walking through Stubbylee Park in Bacup, Lancashire, a young couple, Sophie Lancaster and Robert Maltby, were attacked by a group of teenagers.", "Lancaster subsequently died from the severe head injuries she suffered in the attack.", "It later emerged that the attackers had attacked the couple because they were goths.", "On 29 April 2008, two of the attackers, Ryan Herbert and Brendan Harris, were convicted for the murder of Lancaster and given life sentences.", "Three others were given lesser sentences for the assault on her boyfriend Robert Maltby.", "In delivering the sentence, Judge Anthony Russell stated, \"This was a hate crime against these completely harmless people targeted because their appearance was different to yours\".", "He went on to defend the goth community, calling goths \"perfectly peaceful, law-abiding people who pose no threat to anybody\".", "Judge Russell added that he \"recognised it as a hate crime without Parliament having to tell him to do so and had included that view in his sentencing\".", "Despite this ruling, a bill to add discrimination based on subculture affiliation to the definition of hate crime in British law was not presented to parliament.In 2013, police in Manchester announced they would be treating attacks on members of alternative subcultures, such as goths, the same as they do for attacks based on race, religion, and sexual orientation.A more recent phenomenon is the emergence of goth YouTubers who very often address the prejudice and violence against goths.", "These personalities create videos as a response to problems that they personally face, which include challenges such as bullying, and dealing with negative descriptions of themselves.", "Viewers often engage closely with these YouTubers, asking them for advice on how to deal with related personal struggles and getting responses in the form of personal messages or videos.", "These interactions take the form of an informal mentoring which contributes to the building of solidarity within the goth scene.===Self-harm study===A study published on the ''British Medical Journal'' concluded that \"identification as belonging to the Goth subculture at some point in their lives was the best predictor of self harm and attempted suicide among young teens\", and that it was most possibly due to self-selection, with people committing self harm joining the goth subculture in order to get support from individuals with similar experiences.According to ''The Guardian'', some goth teens are more likely to harm themselves or attempt suicide.", "A medical journal study of 1,300 Scottish schoolchildren until their teen years found that the 53% of the 25 goth teens sampled had attempted to harm themselves and 47% had attempted suicide.", "The study found that the \"correlation was stronger than any other predictor\".The authors held that most self-harm by teens was done before joining the subculture, and that joining the subculture would actually protect them and help them deal with distress in their lives, while cautioning that the study was based on a small sample size and needed replication to confirm the results.", "The study was criticized for using only a small sample of goth teens and not taking into account other influences and differences between types of goths." ], [ "See also", "* Dark academia* Visual kei" ], [ "References", "===Citations======Bibliography===* * * * * * * * * * * Robb, John (2023).", "''The Art of Darkness : The History Of Goth''.", "Louder Than War Books.", "* * * * * Unsworth, Cathi (2023).", "''Season of the Witch: The Book of Goth''.", "Nine Eight Books.", "* *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * A first-person account of an individual's life within the Goth subculture.", "* A chronological/aesthetic history of Goth covering the spectrum from Gothic architecture to the Cure.", "* Includes a lengthy explanation of Gothic history, music, fashion, and proposes a link between mystic/magical spirituality and dark subcultures.", "* Covering literature, music, cinema, BDSM, fashion, and subculture topics.", "* * * An international survey of the Goth scene.", "* An exploration of the modern state of the Goth subculture worldwide.", "* A global view of the goth scene from its birth in the late 1970s to the present day.", "* * An etiquette guide to \"gently persuade others in her chosen subculture that being a polite Goth is much, much more subversive than just wearing T-shirts with \"edgy\" sayings on them\".", "* An illustrated view of the goth subculture." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Global warming potential" ], [ "Introduction", "greenhouse gases over a 100-year period: Perfluorotributylamine, nitrous oxide, methane and carbon dioxide (the latter is the reference value, therefore it has a GWP of one)'''Global warming potential''' ('''GWP''') is an index to measure of how much infrared thermal radiation a greenhouse gas would absorb over a given time frame after it has been added to the atmosphere (or ''emitted'' to the atmosphere).", "The GWP makes different greenhouse gases comparable with regards to their \"effectiveness in causing radiative forcing\".", "It is expressed as a multiple of the radiation that would be absorbed by the same mass of added carbon dioxide (), which is taken as a reference gas.", "Therefore, the GWP is one for .", "For other gases it depends on how strongly the gas absorbs infrared thermal radiation, how quickly the gas leaves the atmosphere, and the time frame being considered.For example, methane has a GWP over 20 years (GWP-20) of 81.2 meaning that, for example, a leak of a tonne of methane is equivalent to emitting 81.2 tonnes of carbon dioxide measured over 20 years.", "As methane has a much shorter atmospheric lifetime than carbon dioxide, its GWP is much less over longer time periods, with a GWP-100 of 27.9 and a GWP-500 of 7.95.The '''carbon dioxide equivalent''' (e or eq or -e) can be calculated from the GWP.", "For any gas, it is the mass of that would warm the earth as much as the mass of that gas.", "Thus it provides a common scale for measuring the climate effects of different gases.", "It is calculated as GWP times mass of the other gas." ], [ "Definition", "The global warming potential (GWP) is defined as an \"index measuring the radiative forcing following an emission of a unit mass of a given substance, accumulated over a chosen time horizon, relative to that of the reference substance, carbon dioxide (CO2).", "The GWP thus represents the combined effect of the differing times these substances remain in the atmosphere and their effectiveness in causing radiative forcing.", "\"In turn, ''radiative forcing'' is a scientific concept used to quantify and compare the external drivers of change to Earth's energy balance.", "Radiative forcing is the change in energy flux in the atmosphere caused by natural or anthropogenic factors of climate change as measured in watts per meter squared." ], [ "Values", "Global warming potential of five greenhouse gases over 100-year timescale.", "The global warming potential (GWP) depends on both the efficiency of the molecule as a greenhouse gas and its atmospheric lifetime.", "GWP is measured relative to the same mass of and evaluated for a specific timescale.", "Thus, if a gas has a high (positive) radiative forcing but also a short lifetime, it will have a large GWP on a 20-year scale but a small one on a 100-year scale.", "Conversely, if a molecule has a longer atmospheric lifetime than its GWP will increase when the timescale is considered.", "Carbon dioxide is defined to have a GWP of 1 over all time periods.Methane has an atmospheric lifetime of 12 ± 2 years.", "The 2021 IPCC report lists the GWP as 83 over a time scale of 20 years, 30 over 100 years and 10 over 500 years.", "A 2014 analysis, however, states that although methane's initial impact is about 100 times greater than that of , because of the shorter atmospheric lifetime, after six or seven decades, the impact of the two gases is about equal, and from then on methane's relative role continues to decline.", "The decrease in GWP at longer times is because methane decomposes to water and through chemical reactions in the atmosphere.Examples of the atmospheric lifetime and GWP relative to for several greenhouse gases are given in the following table:+Atmospheric lifetime and global warming potential (GWP) relative to at different time horizon for various greenhouse gases (more values provided at global warming potential)Gas nameChemical formulaLifetime (years)Radiative Efficiency (Wmppb, molar basis).Global warming potential (GWP) for given time horizon20-yr.100-yr.500-yr.Carbon dioxide(A)111Methane (fossil)12833010Methane (non-fossil)1281277.3Nitrous oxide109273273130CFC-11528 3216 2262 093CFC-1210010 80010 2005 200HCFC-22125 2801 760549HFC-3252 693771220HFC-134a144 1441 526436Tetrafluoromethane50 0005 3017 38010 587Hexafluoroethane10 0008 21011 10018 200Sulfur hexafluoride3 20017 50023 50032 600Nitrogen trifluoride50012 80016 10020 700(A) No single lifetime for atmospheric can be given.Estimates of GWP values over 20, 100 and 500 years are periodically compiled and revised in reports from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.", "The most recent report is the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report (Working Group I) from 2023.The IPCC lists many other substances not shown here.", "Some have high GWP but only a low concentration in the atmosphere.", "The values given in the table assume the same mass of compound is analyzed; different ratios will result from the conversion of one substance to another.", "For instance, burning methane to carbon dioxide would reduce the global warming impact, but by a smaller factor than 25:1 because the mass of methane burned is less than the mass of carbon dioxide released (ratio 1:2.74).", "For a starting amount of 1 tonne of methane, which has a GWP of 25, after combustion there would be 2.74 tonnes of , each tonne of which has a GWP of 1.This is a net reduction of 22.26 tonnes of GWP, reducing the global warming effect by a ratio of 25:2.74 (approximately 9 times).", "Greenhouse gas Lifetime (years) Global warming potential, GWP 20 years 100 years 500 yearsHydrogen (H2)4–7 33 (20-44) 11 (6–16) Methane ()11.8567284 / 86f9680.8 (biogenic) 82.5 (fossil)212528 / 34f3239 (biogenic)40 (fossil)6.57.6Nitrous oxide ()109280289264 / 268f273310298265 / 298f273170153130HFC-134a (hydrofluorocarbon)14.03,710 / 3,790f4,1441,300 / 1,550f1,526435436CFC-11 (chlorofluorocarbon)52.06,900 / 7,020f8,3214,660 / 5,350f6,2261,6202,093Carbon tetrafluoride (CF / PFC-14)50,0004,880 / 4,950f5,3016,630 / 7,350f7,38011,20010,587 HFC-23 (hydrofluorocarbon)22212,00010,80014,80012,40012,200Sulfur hexafluoride 3,20016,30017,50022,80023,50032,600=== Earlier values from 2007 ===The values provided in the table below are from 2007 when they were published in the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report.", "These values are still used (as of 2020) for some comparisons.", "Greenhouse gasChemical formula100-year Global warming potentials (2007 estimates, for 2013–2020 comparisons)Carbon dioxideCO21MethaneCH425Nitrous oxideN2O298Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)HFC-23CHF314,800Difluoromethane (HFC-32)CH2F2675Fluoromethane (HFC-41)CH3F92HFC-43-10meeCF3CHFCHFCF2CF31,640Pentafluoroethane (HFC-125)C2HF53,500HFC-134C2H2F4 (CHF2CHF2)1,1001,1,1,2-Tetrafluoroethane (HFC-134a)C2H2F4 (CH2FCF3)1,430HFC-143C2H3F3 (CHF2CH2F)3531,1,1-Trifluoroethane (HFC-143a)C2H3F3 (CF3CH3)4,470HFC-152CH2FCH2F53HFC-152aC2H4F2 (CH3CHF2)124HFC-161CH3CH2F121,1,1,2,3,3,3-Heptafluoropropane (HFC-227ea)C3HF73,220HFC-236cbCH2FCF2CF31,340HFC-236eaCHF2CHFCF31,370HFC-236faC3H2F69,810HFC-245caC3H3F5693HFC-245faCHF2CH2CF31,030HFC-365mfcCH3CF2CH2CF3794PerfluorocarbonsCarbon tetrafluoride – PFC-14CF47,390Hexafluoroethane – PFC-116C2F612,200Octafluoropropane – PFC-218C3F88,830Perfluorobutane – PFC-3-1-10C4F108,860Octafluorocyclobutane – PFC-318c-C4F810,300Perfluouropentane – PFC-4-1-12C5F129,160Perfluorohexane – PFC-5-1-14C6F149,300Perfluorodecalin – PFC-9-1-18bC10F187,500Perfluorocyclopropanec-C3F617,340Sulfur hexafluoride (SF6)Sulfur hexafluorideSF622,800Nitrogen trifluoride (NF3)Nitrogen trifluorideNF317,200Fluorinated ethersHFE-125CHF2OCF314,900Bis(difluoromethyl) ether (HFE-134)CHF2OCHF26,320HFE-143aCH3OCF3756HCFE-235da2CHF2OCHClCF3350HFE-245cb2CH3OCF2CF3708HFE-245fa2CHF2OCH2CF3659HFE-254cb2CH3OCF2CHF2359HFE-347mcc3CH3OCF2CF2CF3575HFE-347pcf2CHF2CF2OCH2CF3580HFE-356pcc3CH3OCF2CF2CHF2110HFE-449sl (HFE-7100)C4F9OCH3297HFE-569sf2 (HFE-7200)C4F9OC2H559HFE-43-10pccc124 (H-Galden 1040x)CHF2OCF2OC2F4OCHF21,870HFE-236ca12 (HG-10)CHF2OCF2OCHF22,800HFE-338pcc13 (HG-01)CHF2OCF2CF2OCHF21,500(CF3)2CFOCH3343CF3CF2CH2OH42(CF3)2CHOH195HFE-227eaCF3CHFOCF31,540HFE-236ea2CHF2OCHFCF3989HFE-236faCF3CH2OCF3487HFE-245fa1CHF2CH2OCF3286HFE-263fb2CF3CH2OCH311HFE-329mcc2CHF2CF2OCF2CF3919HFE-338mcf2CF3CH2OCF2CF3552HFE-347mcf2CHF2CH2OCF2CF3374HFE-356mec3CH3OCF2CHFCF3101HFE-356pcf2CHF2CH2OCF2CHF2265HFE-356pcf3CHF2OCH2CF2CHF2502HFE-365mcfI’ll t3CF3CF2CH2OCH311HFE-374pc2CHF2CF2OCH2CH3557– (CF2)4CH (OH) –73(CF3)2CHOCHF2380(CF3)2CHOCH327PerfluoropolyethersPFPMIECF3OCF(CF3)CF2OCF2OCF310,300Trifluoromethyl sulfur pentafluorideSF5CF317,400=== Importance of time horizon ===A substance's GWP depends on the number of years (denoted by a subscript) over which the potential is calculated.", "A gas which is quickly removed from the atmosphere may initially have a large effect, but for longer time periods, as it has been removed, it becomes less important.", "Thus methane has a potential of 25 over 100 years (GWP100 = 25) but 86 over 20 years (GWP20 = 86); conversely sulfur hexafluoride has a GWP of 22,800 over 100 years but 16,300 over 20 years (IPCC Third Assessment Report).", "The GWP value depends on how the gas concentration decays over time in the atmosphere.", "This is often not precisely known and hence the values should not be considered exact.", "For this reason when quoting a GWP it is important to give a reference to the calculation.The GWP for a mixture of gases can be obtained from the mass-fraction-weighted average of the GWPs of the individual gases.Commonly, a time horizon of 100 years is used by regulators.=== Water vapour ===Water vapour does contribute to anthropogenic global warming, but as the GWP is defined, it is negligible for H2O: an estimate gives a 100-year GWP between -0.001 and 0.0005.H2O can function as a greenhouse gas because it has a profound infrared absorption spectrum with more and broader absorption bands than .", "Its concentration in the atmosphere is limited by air temperature, so that radiative forcing by water vapour increases with global warming (positive feedback).", "But the GWP definition excludes indirect effects.", "GWP definition is also based on emissions, and anthropogenic emissions of water vapour (cooling towers, irrigation) are removed via precipitation within weeks, so its GWP is negligible." ], [ "Calculation methods", "The radiative forcing (warming influence) of long-lived atmospheric greenhouse gases has accelerated, almost doubling in 40 years.When calculating the GWP of a greenhouse gas, the value depends on the following factors:* the absorption of infrared radiation by the given gas* the time horizon of interest (integration period)* the atmospheric lifetime of the gasA high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime.", "The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated.", "Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength, this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength.", "A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a \"window\" of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent.", "The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph.Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum, the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change.Just as radiative forcing provides a simplified means of comparing the various factors that are believed to influence the climate system to one another, global warming potentials (GWPs) are one type of simplified index based upon radiative properties that can be used to estimate the potential future impacts of emissions of different gases upon the climate system in a relative sense.", "GWP is based on a number of factors, including the radiative efficiency (infrared-absorbing ability) of each gas relative to that of carbon dioxide, as well as the decay rate of each gas (the amount removed from the atmosphere over a given number of years) relative to that of carbon dioxide.The '''radiative forcing capacity''' (RF) is the amount of energy per unit area, per unit time, absorbed by the greenhouse gas, that would otherwise be lost to space.", "It can be expressed by the formula:where the subscript ''i'' represents a wavenumber interval of 10 inverse centimeters.", "Absi represents the integrated infrared absorbance of the sample in that interval, and Fi represents the RF for that interval.The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) provides the generally accepted values for GWP, which changed slightly between 1996 and 2001, except for methane, which had its GWP almost doubled.", "An exact definition of how GWP is calculated is to be found in the IPCC's 2001 Third Assessment Report.", "The GWP is defined as the ratio of the time-integrated radiative forcing from the instantaneous release of 1 kg of a trace substance relative to that of 1 kg of a reference gas:where TH is the time horizon over which the calculation is considered; ax is the radiative efficiency due to a unit increase in atmospheric abundance of the substance (i.e., Wm−2 kg−1) and x(t) is the time-dependent decay in abundance of the substance following an instantaneous release of it at time t=0.The denominator contains the corresponding quantities for the reference gas (i.e.", ").", "The radiative efficiencies ax and ar are not necessarily constant over time.", "While the absorption of infrared radiation by many greenhouse gases varies linearly with their abundance, a few important ones display non-linear behaviour for current and likely future abundances (e.g., , CH4, and N2O).", "For those gases, the relative radiative forcing will depend upon abundance and hence upon the future scenario adopted.Since all GWP calculations are a comparison to which is non-linear, all GWP values are affected.", "Assuming otherwise as is done above will lead to lower GWPs for other gases than a more detailed approach would.", "Clarifying this, while increasing has less and less effect on radiative absorption as ppm concentrations rise, more powerful greenhouse gases like methane and nitrous oxide have different thermal absorption frequencies to that are not filled up (saturated) as much as , so rising ppms of these gases are far more significant." ], [ "Applications", "=== Carbon dioxide equivalent ===Carbon dioxide equivalent (e or eq or -e) of a quantity of gas is calculated from its GWP.", "For any gas, it is the mass of which would warm the earth as much as the mass of that gas.", "Thus it provides a common scale for measuring the climate effects of different gases.", "It is calculated as GWP multiplied by mass of the other gas.", "For example, if a gas has GWP of 100, two tonnes of the gas have e of 200 tonnes, and 9 tonnes of the gas has e of 900 tonnes.On a global scale, the warming effects of one or more greenhouse gases in the atmosphere can also be expressed as an equivalent atmospheric concentration of .", "e can then be the atmospheric concentration of which would warm the earth as much as a particular concentration of some other gas or of all gases and aerosols in the atmosphere.", "For example, e of 500 parts per million would reflect a mix of atmospheric gases which warm the earth as much as 500 parts per million of would warm it.", "Calculation of the equivalent atmospheric concentration of of an atmospheric greenhouse gas or aerosol is more complex and involves the atmospheric concentrations of those gases, their GWPs, and the ratios of their molar masses to the molar mass of .e calculations depend on the time-scale chosen, typically 100 years or 20 years, since gases decay in the atmosphere or are absorbed naturally, at different rates.The following units are commonly used:* By the UN climate change panel (IPCC): billion metric tonnes = n×109 tonnes of equivalent (Gteq)* In industry: million metric tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalents (MMTCDE) and MMT eq.", "* For vehicles: grams of carbon dioxide equivalent per mile (ge/mile) or per kilometer (ge/km)For example, the table above shows GWP for methane over 20 years at 86 and nitrous oxide at 289, so emissions of 1 million tonnes of methane or nitrous oxide are equivalent to emissions of 86 or 289 million tonnes of carbon dioxide, respectively.=== Use in Kyoto Protocol and for reporting to UNFCCC ===Under the Kyoto Protocol, in 1997 the Conference of the Parties standardized international reporting, by deciding (see decision number 2/CP.3) that the values of GWP calculated for the IPCC Second Assessment Report were to be used for converting the various greenhouse gas emissions into comparable equivalents.After some intermediate updates, in 2013 this standard was updated by the Warsaw meeting of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC, decision number 24/CP.19) to require using a new set of 100-year GWP values.", "They published these values in Annex III, and they took them from the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report, which had been published in 2007.Those 2007 estimates are still used for international comparisons through 2020, although the latest research on warming effects has found other values, as shown in the tables above.Though recent reports reflect more scientific accuracy, countries and companies continue to use the IPCC Second Assessment Report (SAR) and IPCC Fourth Assessment Report values for reasons of comparison in their emission reports.", "The IPCC Fifth Assessment Report has skipped the 500-year values but introduced GWP estimations including the climate-carbon feedback (f) with a large amount of uncertainty." ], [ "Other metrics to compare greenhouse gases", "The ''Global Temperature change Potential'' (GTP) is another way to compare gases.", "While GWP estimates infrared thermal radiation absorbed, GTP estimates the resulting rise in average surface temperature of the world, over the next 20, 50 or 100 years, caused by a greenhouse gas, relative to the temperature rise which the same mass of would cause.", "Calculation of GTP requires modeling how the world, especially the oceans, will absorb heat.", "GTP is published in the same IPCC tables with GWP.", "''GWP*'' has been proposed to take better account of short-lived climate pollutants (SLCP) such as methane, relating a change in the rate of emissions of SLCPs to a fixed quantity of .", "However GWP* has itself been criticised both for its suitability as a metric and for inherent design features which can perpetuate injustices and inequity." ], [ "See also", "*Carbon accounting*Carbon footprint*Emission intensity" ], [ "References", "===Sources===***" ], [ "External links", "* List of Global Warming Potentials and Atmospheric Lifetimes from the U.S. EPA* GWP and the different meanings of e explained" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Grothendieck topology" ], [ "Introduction", "In category theory, a branch of mathematics, a '''Grothendieck topology''' is a structure on a category ''C'' that makes the objects of ''C'' act like the open sets of a topological space.", "A category together with a choice of Grothendieck topology is called a '''site'''.Grothendieck topologies axiomatize the notion of an open cover.", "Using the notion of covering provided by a Grothendieck topology, it becomes possible to define sheaves on a category and their cohomology.", "This was first done in algebraic geometry and algebraic number theory by Alexander Grothendieck to define the étale cohomology of a scheme.", "It has been used to define other cohomology theories since then, such as ℓ-adic cohomology, flat cohomology, and crystalline cohomology.", "While Grothendieck topologies are most often used to define cohomology theories, they have found other applications as well, such as to John Tate's theory of rigid analytic geometry.There is a natural way to associate a site to an ordinary topological space, and Grothendieck's theory is loosely regarded as a generalization of classical topology.", "Under meager point-set hypotheses, namely sobriety, this is completely accurate—it is possible to recover a sober space from its associated site.", "However simple examples such as the indiscrete topological space show that not all topological spaces can be expressed using Grothendieck topologies.", "Conversely, there are Grothendieck topologies that do not come from topological spaces.The term \"Grothendieck topology\" has changed in meaning.", "In it meant what is now called a Grothendieck pretopology, and some authors still use this old meaning.", "modified the definition to use sieves rather than covers.", "Much of the time this does not make much difference, as each Grothendieck pretopology determines a unique Grothendieck topology, though quite different pretopologies can give the same topology." ], [ "Overview", "André Weil's famous Weil conjectures proposed that certain properties of equations with integral coefficients should be understood as geometric properties of the algebraic variety that they define.", "His conjectures postulated that there should be a cohomology theory of algebraic varieties that gives number-theoretic information about their defining equations.", "This cohomology theory was known as the \"Weil cohomology\", but using the tools he had available, Weil was unable to construct it.In the early 1960s, Alexander Grothendieck introduced étale maps into algebraic geometry as algebraic analogues of local analytic isomorphisms in analytic geometry.", "He used étale coverings to define an algebraic analogue of the fundamental group of a topological space.", "Soon Jean-Pierre Serre noticed that some properties of étale coverings mimicked those of open immersions, and that consequently it was possible to make constructions that imitated the cohomology functor .", "Grothendieck saw that it would be possible to use Serre's idea to define a cohomology theory that he suspected would be the Weil cohomology.", "To define this cohomology theory, Grothendieck needed to replace the usual, topological notion of an open covering with one that would use étale coverings instead.", "Grothendieck also saw how to phrase the definition of covering abstractly; this is where the definition of a Grothendieck topology comes from." ], [ "Definition", "=== Motivation ===The classical definition of a sheaf begins with a topological space .", "A sheaf associates information to the open sets of .", "This information can be phrased abstractly by letting be the category whose objects are the open subsets of and whose morphisms are the inclusion maps of open sets and of .", "We will call such maps ''open immersions'', just as in the context of schemes.", "Then a presheaf on is a contravariant functor from to the category of sets, and a sheaf is a presheaf that satisfies the gluing axiom (here including the separation axiom).", "The gluing axiom is phrased in terms of pointwise covering, i.e., covers if and only if .", "In this definition, is an open subset of .", "Grothendieck topologies replace each with an entire family of open subsets; in this example, is replaced by the family of all open immersions .", "Such a collection is called a ''sieve''.", "Pointwise covering is replaced by the notion of a ''covering family''; in the above example, the set of all as varies is a covering family of .", "Sieves and covering families can be axiomatized, and once this is done open sets and pointwise covering can be replaced by other notions that describe other properties of the space .=== Sieves ===In a Grothendieck topology, the notion of a collection of open subsets of ''U'' stable under inclusion is replaced by the notion of a sieve.", "If ''c'' is any given object in ''C'', a '''sieve''' on ''c'' is a subfunctor of the functor Hom(−, ''c''); (this is the Yoneda embedding applied to ''c'').", "In the case of ''O''(''X''), a sieve ''S'' on an open set ''U'' selects a collection of open subsets of ''U'' that is stable under inclusion.", "More precisely, consider that for any open subset ''V'' of ''U'', ''S''(''V'') will be a subset of Hom(''V'', ''U''), which has only one element, the open immersion ''V'' → ''U''.", "Then ''V'' will be considered \"selected\" by ''S'' if and only if ''S''(''V'') is nonempty.", "If ''W'' is a subset of ''V'', then there is a morphism ''S''(''V'') → ''S''(''W'') given by composition with the inclusion ''W'' → ''V''.", "If ''S''(''V'') is non-empty, it follows that ''S''(''W'') is also non-empty.If ''S'' is a sieve on ''X'', and ''f'': ''Y'' → ''X'' is a morphism, then left composition by ''f'' gives a sieve on ''Y'' called the '''pullback of''' ''S'' '''along''' ''f'', denoted by ''f''''S''.", "It is defined as the fibered product ''S'' ×Hom(−, ''X'') Hom(−, ''Y'') together with its natural embedding in Hom(−, ''Y'').", "More concretely, for each object ''Z'' of ''C'', ''f''''S''(''Z'') = { ''g'': ''Z'' → ''Y'' | ''fg'' ''S''(''Z'') }, and ''f''''S'' inherits its action on morphisms by being a subfunctor of Hom(−, ''Y'').", "In the classical example, the pullback of a collection {''V''i} of subsets of ''U'' along an inclusion ''W'' → ''U'' is the collection {''V''i∩W}.=== Grothendieck topology ===A '''Grothendieck topology''' ''J'' on a category ''C'' is a collection, ''for each object c of C'', of distinguished sieves on ''c'', denoted by ''J''(''c'') and called '''covering sieves''' of ''c''.", "This selection will be subject to certain axioms, stated below.", "Continuing the previous example, a sieve ''S'' on an open set ''U'' in ''O''(''X'') will be a covering sieve if and only if the union of all the open sets ''V'' for which ''S''(''V'') is nonempty equals ''U''; in other words, if and only if ''S'' gives us a collection of open sets that cover ''U'' in the classical sense.==== Axioms ====The conditions we impose on a Grothendieck topology are:* (T 1) (Base change) If ''S'' is a covering sieve on ''X'', and ''f'': ''Y'' → ''X'' is a morphism, then the pullback ''f''''S'' is a covering sieve on ''Y''.", "* (T 2) (Local character) Let ''S'' be a covering sieve on ''X'', and let ''T'' be any sieve on ''X''.", "Suppose that for each object ''Y'' of ''C'' and each arrow ''f'': ''Y'' → ''X'' in ''S''(''Y''), the pullback sieve ''f''''T'' is a covering sieve on ''Y''.", "Then ''T'' is a covering sieve on ''X''.", "* (T 3) (Identity) Hom(−, ''X'') is a covering sieve on ''X'' for any object ''X'' in ''C''.The base change axiom corresponds to the idea that if {''Ui''} covers ''U'', then {''Ui'' ∩ ''V''} should cover ''U'' ∩ ''V''.", "The local character axiom corresponds to the idea that if {''Ui''} covers ''U'' and {''Vij''}''j Ji'' covers ''Ui'' for each ''i'', then the collection {''Vij''} for all ''i'' and ''j'' should cover ''U''.", "Lastly, the identity axiom corresponds to the idea that any set is covered by itself via the identity map.==== Grothendieck pretopologies ====In fact, it is possible to put these axioms in another form where their geometric character is more apparent, assuming that the underlying category ''C'' contains certain fibered products.", "In this case, instead of specifying sieves, we can specify that certain collections of maps with a common codomain should cover their codomain.", "These collections are called '''covering families'''.", "If the collection of all covering families satisfies certain axioms, then we say that they form a '''Grothendieck pretopology'''.", "These axioms are:* (PT 0) (Existence of fibered products) For all objects ''X'' of ''C'', and for all morphisms ''X''0 → ''X'' that appear in some covering family of ''X'', and for all morphisms ''Y'' → ''X'', the fibered product ''X''0 ×''X'' ''Y'' exists.", "* (PT 1) (Stability under base change) For all objects ''X'' of ''C'', all morphisms ''Y'' → ''X'', and all covering families {''X''''α'' → ''X''}, the family {''X''''α'' ×''X'' ''Y'' → ''Y''} is a covering family.", "* (PT 2) (Local character) If {''X''''α'' → ''X''} is a covering family, and if for all α, {''X''''βα'' → ''X''''α''} is a covering family, then the family of composites {''X''''βα'' → ''X''''α'' → ''X''} is a covering family.", "* (PT 3) (Isomorphisms) If ''f'': ''Y'' → ''X'' is an isomorphism, then {''f''} is a covering family.For any pretopology, the collection of all sieves that contain a covering family from the pretopology is always a Grothendieck topology.For categories with fibered products, there is a converse.", "Given a collection of arrows {''X''''α'' → ''X''}, we construct a sieve ''S'' by letting ''S''(''Y'') be the set of all morphisms ''Y'' → ''X'' that factor through some arrow ''X''''α'' → ''X''.", "This is called the sieve '''generated by''' {''X''''α'' → ''X''}.", "Now choose a topology.", "Say that {''X''''α'' → ''X''} is a covering family if and only if the sieve that it generates is a covering sieve for the given topology.", "It is easy to check that this defines a pretopology.", "(PT 3) is sometimes replaced by a weaker axiom:* (PT 3') (Identity) If 1''X'' : ''X'' → ''X'' is the identity arrow, then {1''X''} is a covering family.", "(PT 3) implies (PT 3'), but not conversely.", "However, suppose that we have a collection of covering families that satisfies (PT 0) through (PT 2) and (PT 3'), but not (PT 3).", "These families generate a pretopology.", "The topology generated by the original collection of covering families is then the same as the topology generated by the pretopology, because the sieve generated by an isomorphism ''Y'' → ''X'' is Hom(−, ''X'').", "Consequently, if we restrict our attention to topologies, (PT 3) and (PT 3') are equivalent." ], [ "Sites and sheaves", "Let ''C'' be a category and let ''J'' be a Grothendieck topology on ''C''.", "The pair (''C'', ''J'') is called a '''site'''.A '''presheaf''' on a category is a contravariant functor from ''C'' to the category of all sets.", "Note that for this definition ''C'' is not required to have a topology.", "A sheaf on a site, however, should allow gluing, just like sheaves in classical topology.", "Consequently, we define a '''sheaf''' on a site to be a presheaf ''F'' such that for all objects ''X'' and all covering sieves ''S'' on ''X'', the natural map Hom(Hom(−, ''X''), ''F'') → Hom(''S'', ''F''), induced by the inclusion of ''S'' into Hom(−, ''X''), is a bijection.", "Halfway in between a presheaf and a sheaf is the notion of a '''separated presheaf''', where the natural map above is required to be only an injection, not a bijection, for all sieves ''S''.", "A '''morphism''' of presheaves or of sheaves is a natural transformation of functors.", "The category of all sheaves on ''C'' is the '''topos''' defined by the site (''C'', ''J'').Using the Yoneda lemma, it is possible to show that a presheaf on the category ''O''(''X'') is a sheaf on the topology defined above if and only if it is a sheaf in the classical sense.Sheaves on a pretopology have a particularly simple description: For each covering family {''X''''α'' → ''X''}, the diagram:must be an equalizer.", "For a separated presheaf, the first arrow need only be injective.Similarly, one can define presheaves and sheaves of abelian groups, rings, modules, and so on.", "One can require either that a presheaf ''F'' is a contravariant functor to the category of abelian groups (or rings, or modules, etc.", "), or that ''F'' be an abelian group (ring, module, etc.)", "object in the category of all contravariant functors from ''C'' to the category of sets.", "These two definitions are equivalent." ], [ "Examples of sites", "=== The discrete and indiscrete topologies ===Let '''C''' be any category.", "To define the '''discrete topology''', we declare all sieves to be covering sieves.", "If '''C''' has all fibered products, this is equivalent to declaring all families to be covering families.", "To define the '''indiscrete topology''', also known as the '''coarse''' or '''chaotic''' topology, we declare only the sieves of the form Hom(−, ''X'') to be covering sieves.", "The indiscrete topology is generated by the pretopology that has only isomorphisms for covering families.", "A sheaf on the indiscrete site is the same thing as a presheaf.=== The canonical topology ===Let '''C''' be any category.", "The Yoneda embedding gives a functor Hom(−, ''X'') for each object ''X'' of '''C'''.", "The '''canonical topology''' is the biggest (finest) topology such that every representable presheaf, i.e.", "presheaf of the form Hom(−, ''X''), is a sheaf.", "A covering sieve or covering family for this site is said to be ''strictly universally epimorphic'' because it consists of the legs of a colimit cone (under the full diagram on the domains of its constituent morphisms) and these colimits are stable under pullbacks along morphisms in '''C'''.", "A topology that is less fine than the canonical topology, that is, for which every covering sieve is strictly universally epimorphic, is called '''subcanonical'''.", "Subcanonical sites are exactly the sites for which every presheaf of the form Hom(−, ''X'') is a sheaf.", "Most sites encountered in practice are subcanonical.=== Small site associated to a topological space ===We repeat the example that we began with above.", "Let ''X'' be a topological space.", "We defined ''O''(''X'') to be the category whose objects are the open sets of ''X'' and whose morphisms are inclusions of open sets.", "Note that for an open set ''U'' and a sieve ''S'' on ''U'', the set ''S''(''V'') contains either zero or one element for every open set ''V''.", "The covering sieves on an object ''U'' of ''O''(''X'') are those sieves ''S'' satisfying the following condition:*If ''W'' is the union of all the sets ''V'' such that ''S''(''V'') is non-empty, then ''W'' = ''U''.This notion of cover matches the usual notion in point-set topology.This topology can also naturally be expressed as a pretopology.", "We say that a family of inclusions {''V''''α'' ''U''} is a covering family if and only if the union ''V''''α'' equals ''U''.", "This site is called the '''small site associated to a topological space ''X''.=== Big site associated to a topological space ===Let ''Spc'' be the category of all topological spaces.", "Given any family of functions {''u''''α'' : ''V''''α'' → ''X''}, we say that it is a '''surjective family''' or that the morphisms ''u''''α'' are '''jointly surjective''' if ''u''''α''(''V''''α'') equals ''X''.", "We define a pretopology on ''Spc'' by taking the covering families to be surjective families all of whose members are open immersions.", "Let ''S'' be a sieve on ''Spc''.", "''S'' is a covering sieve for this topology if and only if:*For all ''Y'' and every morphism ''f'' : ''Y'' → ''X'' in ''S''(''Y''), there exists a ''V'' and a ''g'' : ''V'' → ''X'' such that ''g'' is an open immersion, ''g'' is in ''S''(''V''), and ''f'' factors through ''g''.", "*If ''W'' is the union of all the sets ''f''(''Y''), where ''f'' : ''Y'' → ''X'' is in ''S''(''Y''), then ''W'' = ''X''.Fix a topological space ''X''.", "Consider the comma category ''Spc/X'' of topological spaces with a fixed continuous map to ''X''.", "The topology on ''Spc'' induces a topology on ''Spc/X''.", "The covering sieves and covering families are almost exactly the same; the only difference is that now all the maps involved commute with the fixed maps to ''X''.", "This is the '''big site associated to a topological space '''''X''''' '''.", "Notice that ''Spc'' is the big site associated to the one point space.", "This site was first considered by Jean Giraud.=== The big and small sites of a manifold ===Let ''M'' be a manifold.", "''M'' has a category of open sets ''O''(''M'') because it is a topological space, and it gets a topology as in the above example.", "For two open sets ''U'' and ''V'' of ''M'', the fiber product ''U'' ×''M'' ''V'' is the open set ''U'' ∩ ''V'', which is still in ''O''(''M'').", "This means that the topology on ''O''(''M'') is defined by a pretopology, the same pretopology as before.Let ''Mfd'' be the category of all manifolds and continuous maps.", "(Or smooth manifolds and smooth maps, or real analytic manifolds and analytic maps, etc.)", "''Mfd'' is a subcategory of ''Spc'', and open immersions are continuous (or smooth, or analytic, etc.", "), so ''Mfd'' inherits a topology from ''Spc''.", "This lets us construct the big site of the manifold ''M'' as the site ''Mfd/M''.", "We can also define this topology using the same pretopology we used above.", "Notice that to satisfy (PT 0), we need to check that for any continuous map of manifolds ''X'' → ''Y'' and any open subset ''U'' of ''Y'', the fibered product ''U'' ×''Y'' ''X'' is in ''Mfd/M''.", "This is just the statement that the preimage of an open set is open.", "Notice, however, that not all fibered products exist in ''Mfd'' because the preimage of a smooth map at a critical value need not be a manifold.=== Topologies on the category of schemes ===The category of schemes, denoted ''Sch'', has a tremendous number of useful topologies.", "A complete understanding of some questions may require examining a scheme using several different topologies.", "All of these topologies have associated small and big sites.", "The big site is formed by taking the entire category of schemes and their morphisms, together with the covering sieves specified by the topology.", "The small site over a given scheme is formed by only taking the objects and morphisms that are part of a cover of the given scheme.The most elementary of these is the Zariski topology.", "Let ''X'' be a scheme.", "''X'' has an underlying topological space, and this topological space determines a Grothendieck topology.", "The Zariski topology on ''Sch'' is generated by the pretopology whose covering families are jointly surjective families of scheme-theoretic open immersions.", "The covering sieves ''S'' for ''Zar'' are characterized by the following two properties:*For all ''Y'' and every morphism ''f'' : ''Y'' → ''X'' in ''S''(''Y''), there exists a ''V'' and a ''g'' : ''V'' → ''X'' such that ''g'' is an open immersion, ''g'' is in ''S''(''V''), and ''f'' factors through ''g''.", "*If ''W'' is the union of all the sets ''f''(''Y''), where ''f'' : ''Y'' → ''X'' is in ''S''(''Y''), then ''W'' = ''X''.Despite their outward similarities, the topology on ''Zar'' is ''not'' the restriction of the topology on ''Spc''!", "This is because there are morphisms of schemes that are topologically open immersions but that are not scheme-theoretic open immersions.", "For example, let ''A'' be a non-reduced ring and let ''N'' be its ideal of nilpotents.", "The quotient map ''A'' → ''A/N'' induces a map Spec ''A/N'' → Spec ''A'', which is the identity on underlying topological spaces.", "To be a scheme-theoretic open immersion it must also induce an isomorphism on structure sheaves, which this map does not do.", "In fact, this map is a closed immersion.The étale topology is finer than the Zariski topology.", "It was the first Grothendieck topology to be closely studied.", "Its covering families are jointly surjective families of étale morphisms.", "It is finer than the Nisnevich topology, but neither finer nor coarser than the ''cdh'' and l′ topologies.There are two flat topologies, the ''fppf'' topology and the ''fpqc'' topology.", "''fppf'' stands for '''', and in this topology, a morphism of affine schemes is a covering morphism if it is faithfully flat, of finite presentation, and is quasi-finite.", "''fpqc'' stands for '''', and in this topology, a morphism of affine schemes is a covering morphism if it is faithfully flat.", "In both categories, a covering family is defined to be a family that is a cover on Zariski open subsets.", "In the fpqc topology, any faithfully flat and quasi-compact morphism is a cover.", "These topologies are closely related to descent.", "The ''fpqc'' topology is finer than all the topologies mentioned above, and it is very close to the canonical topology.Grothendieck introduced crystalline cohomology to study the ''p''-torsion part of the cohomology of characteristic ''p'' varieties.", "In the ''crystalline topology'', which is the basis of this theory, the underlying category has objects given by infinitesimal thickenings together with divided power structures.", "Crystalline sites are examples of sites with no final object." ], [ "Continuous and cocontinuous functors", "There are two natural types of functors between sites.", "They are given by functors that are compatible with the topology in a certain sense.=== Continuous functors ===If (''C'', ''J'') and (''D'', ''K'') are sites and ''u'' : ''C'' → ''D'' is a functor, then ''u'' is '''continuous''' if for every sheaf ''F'' on ''D'' with respect to the topology ''K'', the presheaf ''Fu'' is a sheaf with respect to the topology ''J''.", "Continuous functors induce functors between the corresponding topoi by sending a sheaf ''F'' to ''Fu''.", "These functors are called '''pushforwards'''.", "If and denote the topoi associated to ''C'' and ''D'', then the pushforward functor is .", "''u''''s'' admits a left adjoint ''u''''s'' called the '''pullback'''.", "''u''''s'' need not preserve limits, even finite limits.In the same way, ''u'' sends a sieve on an object ''X'' of ''C'' to a sieve on the object ''uX'' of ''D''.", "A continuous functor sends covering sieves to covering sieves.", "If ''J'' is the topology defined by a pretopology, and if ''u'' commutes with fibered products, then ''u'' is continuous if and only if it sends covering sieves to covering sieves and if and only if it sends covering families to covering families.", "In general, it is ''not'' sufficient for ''u'' to send covering sieves to covering sieves (see SGA IV 3, 1.9.3).=== Cocontinuous functors ===Again, let (''C'', ''J'') and (''D'', ''K'') be sites and ''v'' : ''C'' → ''D'' be a functor.", "If ''X'' is an object of ''C'' and ''R'' is a sieve on ''vX'', then ''R'' can be pulled back to a sieve ''S'' as follows: A morphism ''f'' : ''Z'' → ''X'' is in ''S'' if and only if ''v''(''f'') : ''vZ'' → ''vX'' is in ''R''.", "This defines a sieve.", "''v'' is '''cocontinuous''' if and only if for every object ''X'' of ''C'' and every covering sieve ''R'' of ''vX'', the pullback ''S'' of ''R'' is a covering sieve on ''X''.Composition with ''v'' sends a presheaf ''F'' on ''D'' to a presheaf ''Fv'' on ''C'', but if ''v'' is cocontinuous, this need not send sheaves to sheaves.", "However, this functor on presheaf categories, usually denoted , admits a right adjoint .", "Then ''v'' is cocontinuous if and only if sends sheaves to sheaves, that is, if and only if it restricts to a functor .", "In this case, the composite of with the associated sheaf functor is a left adjoint of ''v''* denoted ''v''*.", "Furthermore, ''v''* preserves finite limits, so the adjoint functors ''v''* and ''v''* determine a geometric morphism of topoi .=== Morphisms of sites ===A continuous functor ''u'' : ''C'' → ''D'' is a '''morphism of sites''' ''D'' → ''C'' (''not'' ''C'' → ''D'') if ''u''''s'' preserves finite limits.", "In this case, ''u''''s'' and ''u''''s'' determine a geometric morphism of topoi .", "The reasoning behind the convention that a continuous functor ''C'' → ''D'' is said to determine a morphism of sites in the opposite direction is that this agrees with the intuition coming from the case of topological spaces.", "A continuous map of topological spaces ''X'' → ''Y'' determines a continuous functor ''O''(''Y'') → ''O''(''X'').", "Since the original map on topological spaces is said to send ''X'' to ''Y'', the morphism of sites is said to as well.A particular case of this happens when a continuous functor admits a left adjoint.", "Suppose that ''u'' : ''C'' → ''D'' and ''v'' : ''D'' → ''C'' are functors with ''u'' right adjoint to ''v''.", "Then ''u'' is continuous if and only if ''v'' is cocontinuous, and when this happens, ''u''''s'' is naturally isomorphic to ''v''* and ''u''''s'' is naturally isomorphic to ''v''*.", "In particular, ''u'' is a morphism of sites." ], [ "See also", "*Fibered category*Lawvere–Tierney topology" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "***** *" ], [ "External links", "* The birthday of Grothendieck topologies* The birthday of Grothendieck topologies (non-archived version)" ] ]
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[ [ "Greens" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Greens''' may refer to:*Leaf vegetables such as collard greens, mustard greens, spring greens, winter greens, spinach, etc." ], [ "Politics", "===Supranational===* Green politics* Green party, political parties adhering to Green politics* Global Greens* European Green Party===Established parties===* Green Party (disambiguation)* The Greens (disambiguation)===Other===* Green Party of the United States* Australian Greens* Green armies, peasant-based groups participating in the Russian Civil War of 1917–23* Green Movement (disambiguation)* The Greens, an early 20th-century nationalist and separatist political and military movement in Montenegro* Greens, a political faction and associated chariot-racing team in the Byzantine empire; involved in the deadly Nika riots of 532" ], [ "Places", "* Greens Farms, Connecticut, United States* Greens Ledge Light on Long Island Sound, United States* Greens Norton village in Northamptonshire, England* Greens Pool beach on the south coast of Western Australia* Greens Restaurant in San Francisco, California, United States* Millennium Greens and Doorstep Greens, locally owned and managed public spaces in England* Breckenridge Greens (Edmonton), Potter Greens, Suder Greens - neighbourhoods in Alberta, Canada" ], [ "In sport", "* Ashland Greens basketball team in Pennsylvania, United States* Bentleigh Greens soccer team in a suburb of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia* Baywood Greens public golf club in Long Neck, Delaware, United States* Greens Worldwide sports management company* Greens (golf), the very closely mown areas of a golf course around the holes, maintained by a Greenskeeper" ], [ "Manufacturing", "* A British brand of railway locomotives, road rollers and other products; see Thomas Green & Son" ], [ "See also", "* Green (disambiguation)" ] ]
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[ [ "Ghost in the Shell" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Ghost in the Shell''''' is a Japanese cyberpunk media franchise based on the seinen manga series of the same name written and illustrated by Masamune Shirow.", "The manga, first serialized in 1989 under the subtitle of ''The Ghost in the Shell'', and later published as its own tankōbon volumes by Kodansha, told the story of the fictional counter-cyberterrorist organization Public Security Section 9, led by protagonist Major Motoko Kusanagi, and is set in mid-21st century Japan.Animation studio Production I.G has produced several anime adaptations of the series.", "These include the 1995 film of the same name and its 2004 sequel, ''Ghost in the Shell 2: Innocence''; the 2002 television series, ''Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex'', and its 2020 follow-up, ''Ghost in the Shell: SAC_2045''; and the ''Ghost in the Shell: Arise'' original video animation (OVA) series.", "In addition, an American-produced live-action film was released on March 31, 2017." ], [ "Overview", "===Title===The original editor Koichi Yuri says: At first, ''Ghost in the Shell'' came from Shirow, but when Yuri asked \"something more flashy\", Shirow came up with \"攻殻機動隊 ''Koukaku Kidou Tai (Shell Squad)''\" for Yuri.", "But Shirow was attached to including \"Ghost in the Shell\" as well even if in smaller type.===Setting===Primarily set in the mid-twenty-first century in the fictional Japanese city of , otherwise known as , the manga and the many anime adaptations follow the members of Public Security Section 9, a task-force consisting of various professionals skilled at solving and preventing crime, mostly with some sort of police background.", "Political intrigue and counter-terrorism operations are standard fare for Section 9, but the various actions of corrupt officials, companies, and cyber-criminals in each scenario are unique and require the diverse skills of Section 9's staff to prevent a series of incidents from escalating.", "In this post-cyberpunk iteration of a possible future, computer technology has advanced to the point that many members of the public possess cyberbrains, technology that allows them to interface their biological brain with various networks.", "The level of cyberization varies from simple minimal interfaces to almost complete replacement of the brain with cybernetic parts, in cases of severe trauma.", "This can also be combined with various levels of prostheses, with a fully prosthetic body enabling a person to become a cyborg.", "The main character of ''Ghost in the Shell'', Major Motoko Kusanagi, is such a cyborg, having had a terrible accident befall her as a child that ultimately required her to use a full-body prosthesis to house her cyberbrain.", "This high level of cyberization, however, opens the brain up to attacks from highly skilled hackers, with the most dangerous being those who will hack a person to bend to their whims." ], [ "Media", "===Literature=======Original manga====The original ''Ghost in the Shell'' manga ran in Japan from April 1989 to November 1990 in Kodansha's manga anthology ''Young Magazine'', and was released in a ''tankōbon'' volume on October 5, 1991.", "''Ghost in the Shell 2: Man-Machine Interface'' followed in 1997 for 9 issues in ''Young Magazine'', and was collected in the ''Ghost in the Shell: Solid Box'' on December 1, 2000.Four stories from ''Man-Machine Interface'' that were not released in tankobon format from previous releases were later collected in ''Ghost in the Shell 1.5: Human-Error Processor'', and published by Kodansha on July 23, 2003.Several art books have also been published for the manga.===Films=======Animated films====Two animated films based on the original manga have been released, both directed by Mamoru Oshii and animated by Production I.G.", "''Ghost in the Shell'' was released in 1995 and follows the \"Puppet Master\" storyline from the manga.", "It was re-released in 2008 as ''Ghost in the Shell 2.0'' with new audio and updated 3D computer graphics in certain scenes.", "''Innocence'', otherwise known as ''Ghost in the Shell 2: Innocence'', was released in 2004, with its story based on a chapter from the first manga.====Live-action film====In 2008, DreamWorks and producer Steven Spielberg acquired the rights to a live-action film adaptation of the original ''Ghost in the Shell'' manga.", "On January 24, 2014, Rupert Sanders was announced as director, with a screenplay by William Wheeler.", "In April 2016, the full cast was announced, which included Juliette Binoche, Chin Han, Lasarus Ratuere and Kaori Momoi, and Scarlett Johansson in the lead role; the casting of Johansson drew accusations of whitewashing.", "Principal photography on the film began on location in Wellington, New Zealand, on February 1, 2016.Filming wrapped in June 2016.", "''Ghost in the Shell'' premiered in Tokyo on March 16, 2017, and was released in the United States on March 31, 2017, in 2D, 3D and IMAX 3D.", "It received mixed reviews, with praise for its visuals and Johansson's performance but criticism for its script.===Television=======''Stand Alone Complex'' TV series, film and ONA====In 2002, ''Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex'' premiered on Animax, presenting a new telling of ''Ghost in the Shell'' independent from the original manga, focusing on Section 9's investigation of the Laughing Man hacker.", "It was followed in 2004 by a second season titled ''Ghost in the Shell: S.A.C.", "2nd GIG'', which focused on the Individual Eleven terrorist group.", "The primary storylines of both seasons were compressed into OVAs broadcast as ''Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex The Laughing Man'' in 2005 and ''Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex Individual Eleven'' in 2006.Also in 2006, ''Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex - Solid State Society'', featuring Section 9's confrontation with a hacker known as the Puppeteer, was broadcast, serving as a finale to the anime series.", "The extensive score for the series and its films was composed by Yoko Kanno.On April 7, 2017, Kodansha and Production I.G announced that Kenji Kamiyama and Shinji Aramaki would be co-directing a new ''Kōkaku Kidōtai'' anime production.", "On December 7, 2018, it was reported by Netflix that they had acquired the worldwide streaming rights to the original net animation (ONA) anime series, titled ''Ghost in the Shell: SAC_2045'', and that it would premiere on April 23, 2020.The series will be in 3DCG and Sola Digital Arts will be collaborating with Production I.G on the project.", "It was later revealed that Ilya Kuvshinov will handle character designs.", "It was stated that the new series will have two seasons of 12 episodes each.", "For the first season, the opening theme song music was “Fly with me” as performed by Daiki Tsuneta, while the ending was “Sustain++” as performed by Mili.In addition to the anime, a series of published books, two separate manga adaptations, and several video games for consoles and mobile phones have been released for ''Stand Alone Complex''.====''Arise'' OVA, TV series and film====In 2013, a new iteration of the series titled ''Ghost in the Shell: Arise'' premiered, taking an original look at the ''Ghost in the Shell'' world, set before the original manga.", "It was released as a series of four original video animation (OVA) episodes (with limited theatrical releases) from 2013 to 2014, then recompiled as a 10-episode television series under the title of ''Kōkaku Kidōtai: Arise - Alternative Architecture''.", "An additional fifth OVA titled ''Pyrophoric Cult'', originally premiering in the ''Alternative Architecture'' broadcast as two original episodes, was released on August 26, 2015.Kazuchika Kise served as the chief director of the series, with Tow Ubukata as head writer.", "Cornelius was brought onto the project to compose the score for the series, with the Major's new voice actress Maaya Sakamoto also providing vocals for certain tracks.", "''Ghost in the Shell: The New Movie'', also known as ''Ghost in the Shell: Arise − The Movie'' or ''New Ghost in the Shell'', is a 2015 film directed by Kazuya Nomura that serves as a finale to the ''Ghost in the Shell: Arise'' story arc.", "The film is a continuation to the plot of the ''Pyrophoric Cult'' episode of ''Arise'', and ties up loose ends from that arc.A manga adaptation was serialized in Kodansha's ''Young Magazine'', which started on March 13 and ended on August 26, 2013.===Video games===''Ghost in the Shell'' was developed by Exact and released for the PlayStation on July 17, 1997, in Japan by Sony Computer Entertainment.", "It is a third-person shooter featuring an original storyline where the character plays a rookie member of Section 9.The video game's soundtrack ''Megatech Body'' features various techno artists, such as Takkyu Ishino, Scan X and Mijk Van Dijk.Several video games were also developed to tie into the ''Stand Alone Complex'' television series, in addition to a first-person shooter by Nexon and Neople titled ''Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex - First Assault Online'', released in 2016." ], [ "Legacy", "''Ghost in the Shell'' influenced some prominent filmmakers.", "The Wachowskis, creators of ''The Matrix'' and its sequels, showed it to producer Joel Silver, saying, \"We wanna do that for real.\"", "''The Matrix'' series took several concepts from the film, including the Matrix digital rain, which was inspired by the opening credits of ''Ghost in the Shell'', and the way characters access the Matrix through holes in the back of their necks.", "Other parallels have been drawn to James Cameron's ''Avatar'', Steven Spielberg's ''A.I.", "Artificial Intelligence'' and Jonathan Mostow's ''Surrogates''.", "James Cameron cited ''Ghost in the Shell'' as a source of inspiration, citing it as an influence on ''Avatar''.Bungie's 2001 third-person action game ''Oni'' draws substantial inspiration from ''Ghost in the Shell'' setting and characters.", "''Ghost in the Shell'' also influenced video games such as the ''Metal Gear Solid'' series, ''Deus Ex'', and ''Cyberpunk 2077''." ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * Madman Entertainment's Australian distribution release site*" ] ]
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[ [ "Gauss–Legendre algorithm" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Gauss–Legendre algorithm''' is an algorithm to compute the digits of .", "It is notable for being rapidly convergent, with only 25 iterations producing 45 million correct digits of .", "However, it has some drawbacks (for example, it is computer memory-intensive) and therefore all record-breaking calculations for many years have used other methods, almost always the Chudnovsky algorithm.", "For details, see Chronology of computation of .The method is based on the individual work of Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777–1855) and Adrien-Marie Legendre (1752–1833) combined with modern algorithms for multiplication and square roots.", "It repeatedly replaces two numbers by their arithmetic and geometric mean, in order to approximate their arithmetic-geometric mean.The version presented below is also known as the '''Gauss–Euler''', '''Brent–Salamin''' (or '''Salamin–Brent''') '''algorithm'''; it was independently discovered in 1975 by Richard Brent and Eugene Salamin.", "It was used to compute the first 206,158,430,000 decimal digits of on September 18 to 20, 1999, and the results were checked with Borwein's algorithm." ], [ "Algorithm", "# Initial value setting: # Repeat the following instructions until the difference of and is within the desired accuracy: # is then approximated as: The first three iterations give (approximations given up to and including the first incorrect digit)::::The algorithm has quadratic convergence, which essentially means that the number of correct digits doubles with each iteration of the algorithm." ], [ "Mathematical background", "=== Limits of the arithmetic–geometric mean ===The arithmetic–geometric mean of two numbers, a0 and b0, is found by calculating the limit of the sequences:which both converge to the same limit.If and then the limit is where is the complete elliptic integral of the first kind:If , , then:where is the complete elliptic integral of the second kind:: and :Gauss knew of these two results.=== Legendre’s identity ===Legendre proved the following identity: :=== Elementary proof with integral calculus ===The Gauss-Legendre algorithm can be proven to give results converging to π using only integral calculus.", "This is done here and here." ], [ "See also", "* Numerical approximations of" ], [ "References" ] ]
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[ [ "Great Internet Mersenne Prime Search" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Great Internet Mersenne Prime Search''' ('''GIMPS''') is a collaborative project of volunteers who use freely available software to search for Mersenne prime numbers.GIMPS was founded in 1996 by George Woltman, who also wrote the Prime95 client and its Linux port MPrime.", "Scott Kurowski wrote the back end PrimeNet server to demonstrate volunteer computing software by Entropia, a company he founded in 1997.GIMPS is registered as Mersenne Research, Inc. with Kurowski as Executive Vice President and board director.", "GIMPS is said to be one of the first large scale volunteer computing projects over the Internet for research purposes., the project has found a total of seventeen Mersenne primes, fifteen of which were the largest known prime number at their respective times of discovery.", "The largest known prime is 282,589,933 − 1 (or M82,589,933 for short) and was discovered on December 7, 2018, by Patrick Laroche.", "On December 4, 2020, the project passed a major milestone after all exponents below 100 million were checked at least once.From its inception until 2018, the project relied primarily on the Lucas–Lehmer primality test as it is an algorithm that is both specialized for testing Mersenne primes and particularly efficient on binary computer architectures.", "Before applying it to a given Mersenne number, there was a trial division phase, used to rapidly eliminate many Mersenne numbers with small factors.", "Pollard's ''p'' − 1 algorithm is also used to search for smooth factors.In 2018, GIMPS adopted a Fermat primality test as an alternative option for primality testing, while keeping the Lucas-Lehmer test as a double-check for Mersenne numbers detected as probable primes by the Fermat test.", "(While the Lucas-Lehmer test is deterministic and the Fermat test is only probabilistic, the probability of the Fermat test finding a Fermat pseudoprime that is not prime is vastly lower than the error rate of the Lucas-Lehmer test due to computer hardware errors.", ")In September 2020, GIMPS began to support primality proofs based on verifiable delay functions.", "The proof files are generated while the Fermat primality test is in progress.", "These proofs, together with an error-checking algorithm devised by Robert Gerbicz, provide a complete confidence in the correctness of the test result and eliminate the need for double checks.", "First-time Lucas-Lehmer tests were deprecated in April 2021.GIMPS also has sub-projects to factor known composite Mersenne and Fermat numbers." ], [ "History", "The project began in early January 1996, with a program that ran on i386 computers.The name for the project was coined by Luke Welsh, one of its earlier searchers and the co-discoverer of the 29th Mersenne prime.Within a few months, several dozen people had joined, and over a thousand by the end of the first year.Joel Armengaud, a participant, discovered the primality of M1,398,269 on November 13, 1996.Since then, GIMPS has discovered a new Mersenne prime every 1 to 2 years on average.", "However, no new Mersenne prime has been found since 2018, constituting the longest period without a new discovery since the start of the project (over 5 years as of 2024)." ], [ "Status", ", GIMPS has a sustained average aggregate throughput of approximately 4.71 PetaFLOPS (or PFLOPS).", "In November 2012, GIMPS maintained 95 TFLOPS, theoretically earning the GIMPS virtual computer a rank of 330 among the TOP500 most powerful known computer systems in the world.", "The preceding place was then held by an 'HP Cluster Platform 3000 BL460c G7' of Hewlett-Packard.", "As of July 2021 TOP500 results, the current GIMPS numbers would no longer make the list.Previously, this was approximately 50 TFLOPS in early 2010, 30 TFLOPS in mid-2008, 20 TFLOPS in mid-2006, and 14 TFLOPS in early 2004." ], [ "Software license", "Although the GIMPS software's source code is publicly available, technically it is not free software, since it has a restriction that users must abide by the project's distribution terms.Specifically, if the software is used to discover a prime number with at least 100,000,000 decimal digits, the user will only win $50,000 of the $150,000 prize offered by the Electronic Frontier Foundation.", "(On the other hand, they will win $3,000 when discovering a smaller prime not qualifying for the prize.", ")Third-party programs for testing Mersenne numbers, such as Mlucas and Glucas (for non-x86 systems), do not have this restriction.GIMPS also \"reserves the right to change this EULA without notice and with reasonable retroactive effect''.''\"" ], [ "Primes found", "All Mersenne primes are of the form , where ''p'' is a prime number itself.", "The smallest Mersenne prime in this table is The first column is the rank of the Mersenne prime in the (ordered) sequence of all Mersenne primes; GIMPS has found all known Mersenne primes beginning with the 35th.", "# Discovery date Prime M''p'' Digits count Processor 35 November 13, 1996 M1398269 420,921 Pentium (90 MHz) 36 August 24, 1997 M2976221 895,932 Pentium (100 MHz) 37 January 27, 1998 M3021377 909,526 Pentium (200 MHz) 38 June 1, 1999 M6972593 2,098,960 Pentium (350 MHz) 39 November 14, 2001 M13466917 4,053,946 AMD T-Bird (800 MHz) 40 November 17, 2003 M20996011 6,320,430 Pentium (2 GHz) 41 May 15, 2004 M24036583 7,235,733 Pentium 4 (2.4 GHz) 42 February 18, 2005 M25964951 7,816,230 Pentium 4 (2.4 GHz) 43 December 15, 2005 M30402457 9,152,052 Pentium 4 (2 GHz overclocked to 3 GHz) 44 September 4, 2006 M32582657 9,808,358 Pentium 4 (3 GHz) 45 September 6, 2008 M37156667 11,185,272 Intel Core 2 Duo (2.83 GHz) 46 June 4, 2009 M42643801 12,837,064 Intel Core 2 Duo (3 GHz) 47 August 23, 2008 M43112609 12,978,189 Intel Core 2 Duo E6600 CPU (2.4 GHz) 48 January 25, 2013 M57885161 17,425,170 Intel Core 2 Duo E8400 @ 3.00 GHz 49 January 7, 2016 M74207281 22,338,618 Intel Core i7-4790 50 December 26, 2017 M77232917 23,249,425 Intel Core i5-6600 51 December 7, 2018 M82589933 24,862,048 Intel Core i5-4590T , 65,723,341 is the largest exponent below which all other prime exponents have been checked twice, so it is not verified whether any undiscovered Mersenne primes exist between the 48th (M57885161) and the 51st (M82589933) on this chart; the ranking is therefore provisional.", "Furthermore, 114,055,847 is the largest exponent below which all other prime exponents have been tested at least once, so all Mersenne numbers below the 51st (M82589933) have been tested.", "The number M82589933 has 24,862,048 decimal digits.", "To help visualize the size of this number, if it were to be saved to disk, the resulting text file would be nearly 25 megabytes long (most books in plain text format clock in under two megabytes).", "A standard word processor layout (50 lines per page, 75 digits per line) would require 6,629 pages to display it.", "If one were to print it out using standard printer paper, single-sided, it would require approximately 14 reams (14 × 500 = 7000 sheets) of paper.Whenever a possible prime is reported to the server, it is verified first (by one or more independent tests on different machines) before being announced.", "The importance of this was illustrated in 2003, when a false positive was reported to the server as being a Mersenne prime but verification failed.The official \"discovery date\" of a prime is the date that a human first noticed the result for the prime, which may differ from the date that the result was first reported to the server.", "For example, M74207281 was reported to the server on September 17, 2015, but the report was overlooked until January 7, 2016." ], [ "See also", "* Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing* List of volunteer computing projects* PrimeGrid" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Game.com" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Game.com''' is a fifth-generation handheld game console released by Tiger Electronics on September 12, 1997.A smaller version, the Game.com Pocket Pro, was released in mid-1999.The first version of the Game.com can be connected to a 14.4 kbit/s modem for Internet connectivity, hence its name referencing the top level domain .com.", "It was the first video game console to include a touchscreen and the first handheld console to include Internet connectivity." ], [ "History", "Tiger Electronics had previously introduced its R-Zone game console in 1995 – as a competitor to Nintendo's Virtual Boy – but the system was a failure.", "Prior to the R-Zone, Tiger had also manufactured handheld games consisting of LCD screens with imprinted graphics.===Original version===The back of the original Game.com consoleBy February 1997, Tiger was planning to release a new game console as a direct competitor to Nintendo's Game Boy.", "Prior to its release, Tiger Electronics stated that the Game.com would \"change the gaming world as we know it,\" while a spokesperson stated that it would be \"one of this summer's hits.\"", "The Game.com, the only new game console of the year, was on display at the Electronic Entertainment Expo (E3) in May 1997, with sales expected to begin in July.", "Dennis Lynch of the ''Chicago Tribune'' considered the Game.com to be the \"most interesting hand-held device\" on display at E3, describing it as a \"sort of Game Boy for adults\".The Game.com was released in the United States on September 12, 1997, with a retail price of $69.95, while an Internet-access cartridge was scheduled for release in October.", "''Lights Out'' was included with the console as a pack-in game and Solitaire was built into the handheld itself.", "The console's release marked Tiger's largest product launch ever.", "Tiger also launched a website for the system at the domain \"game.com\".", "The Game.com was marketed with a television commercial in which a spokesperson insults gamers who ask questions about the console, while stating that it \"plays more games than you idiots have brain cells\"; GamesRadar stated that the advertisement \"probably didn't help matters much\".", "By the end of 1997, the console had been released in the United Kingdom, at a retail price of £79.99.The Game.com came in a black-and-white color, and featured a design similar to Sega's Game Gear console.", "The screen is larger than the Game Boy's and has higher resolution.", "The Game.com included a phone directory, a calculator, and a calendar, and had an older target audience with its PDA features.", "Tiger designed the console's features to be simple and cheap.", "The device was powered by four AA batteries, and an optional AC adapter was also available.", "One of the major peripherals that Tiger produced for the system was the compete.com serial cable, allowing players to connect their consoles to play multiplayer games.", "The console includes two game cartridge slots.", "In addition to reducing the need to swap out cartridges, this enabled Game.com games to include online elements, since both a game cartridge and the modem cartridge could be inserted at the same time.The Game.com was the first video game console to feature a touchscreen and also the first handheld video game console to have Internet connectivity.", "The Game.com's black-and-white monochrome touchscreen measures approximately one and a half inches by two inches, and is divided into square zones that are imprinted onto the screen itself, to aid players in determining where to apply the stylus.", "The touchscreen lacks a backlight.", "The Game.com was also the first handheld gaming console to have internal memory, which is used to save information such as high scores and contact information.As 1998 opened, the Game.com was considered the only remaining viable competitor for the Game Boy, and Tiger planned to emphasize the Game.com's internet capabilities in marketing, as well as release new games based on major films and Giga Pets.===Game.com Pocket Pro===Because of poor sales with the original Game.com, Tiger developed an updated version known as the Game.com Pocket Pro.", "The console was shown at the American International Toy Fair in February 1999, and was later shown along with several future games at E3 in May 1999.The Game.com Pocket Pro had been released by June 1999, with a retail price of $29.99.The new console was available in five different colors: green, orange, pink, purple, and teal.Although it lacked color like its predecessor, the Pocket Pro was reduced in size to be equivalent to the Game Boy Pocket.", "The screen size was also reduced, and the new console featured only one cartridge slot.", "Unlike the original Game.com, the Pocket Pro required only two AA batteries.", "The Game.com Pocket Pro included a phone directory, a calendar and a calculator, but lacked Internet capabilities.The Game.com Pocket Pro's primary competitor was the Game Boy Color.", "Despite several games based on popular franchises, the Game.com console line failed to sell in large numbers, and was discontinued in 2000 because of poor sales.", "The Game.com was a commercial failure, with less than 300,000 units sold, although the idea of a touchscreen would later be used successfully in the Nintendo DS, released in 2004." ], [ "Internet features", "Game.com modemAccessing the Internet required the use of an Internet cartridge and a dial-up modem, neither of which were included with the console.", "Email messages could be read and sent on the Game.com using the Internet cartridge, and the Game.com supported text-only web browsing through Internet service providers.", "Email messages could not be saved to the Game.com's internal memory.", "In addition to a Game.com-branded 14.4 kbit/s modem, Tiger also offered an Internet service provider through Delphi that was made to work specifically with the Game.com.Tiger subsequently released the Web Link cartridge, allowing players to connect their system to a desktop computer.", "Using the Web Link cartridge, players could upload their high scores to the Game.com website for a chance to be listed on a webpage featuring the top high scores.", "None of the console's games made use of the Internet feature." ], [ "Technical specifications", " Dimensions (L x W x D)Original: / Pocket Pro: Processor chipSharp SM8521 8-Bit CPU; 10 MHz clock speedDisplay resolution200 x 160, Original: 3.5 in.", "/ Pocket Pro: 2.8 in.Touchscreen12 x 10 grid-based touchscreen Color systemBlack and White, with 4 gray levelsAudioMonaural.", "Total of four audio channels: two 4-bit waveform generators (each with its own frequency, volume control and waveform data), one noise generator, and one direct 8-bit PCM output channel.", "Power source4 AA batteries (Pocket Pro: 2 AA batteries) or AC adapter PortsSerial Comm Port for the compete.com cable, internet cable and weblink cable;3.5 mm Audio Out Jack for headphones; DC9 V in (AC Adapter); 2 cartridge slots (1 on the Pocket Pro) ButtonsPower (On/Off); Action (A, B, C, D); 3 Function (Menu, Sound, Pause); 1 Eight-way Directional Pad; Volume; Contrast; Reset (On system's underside)" ], [ "Games", "The ''Lights Out'' cartridge which came bundled with the consoleSeveral games were available for the Game.com at the time of its 1997 launch, in comparison to hundreds of games available for the Game Boy.", "Tiger planned to have a dozen games available by the end of 1997, and hoped to have as many as 50 games available in 1998, with all of them to be produced or adapted internally by Tiger.", "Some third parties expressed interest in developing for the system, but Tiger decided against signing any initially.", "Tiger secured licenses for several popular game series, including ''Duke Nukem'', ''Resident Evil'', and ''Mortal Kombat Trilogy''.", "Game prices initially ranged between $19 and $29.Cartridge size was in the 16 megabit range.At the time of the Pocket Pro's 1999 release, the Game.com library consisted primarily of games intended for an older audience.", "Some games that were planned for release in 1999 would be exclusive to Game.com consoles.", "Game prices at that time ranged from $14 to $30.Twenty games were ultimately released for the Game.com, most of them developed internally by Tiger, in addition to the built-in game Solitaire.#''Solitaire'' (Built in)#''Batman & Robin''#''Centipede''#''Duke Nukem 3D''#''Fighters Megamix''#''Frogger''#''Henry''#''Indy 500''#''Jeopardy!", "''#''Lights Out'' (Pack in)#''The Lost World: Jurassic Park''#''Monopoly''#''Mortal Kombat Trilogy''#''Quiz Wiz: Cyber Trivia''#''Resident Evil 2''#''Scrabble''#''Sonic Jam''#''Tiger Casino''#''Wheel of Fortune''#''Wheel of Fortune 2''#''Williams Arcade Classics''===Cancelled games===The following is a list of games that were announced in various forms or known to be in development for the console but were never released.#''A Bug’s Life''#''Castlevania: Symphony of the Night''#''Command & Conquer: Red Alert''#''Deer Hunter''#''Holyfield Champion Boxing'' (planned to include “Real Feel” force feedback in cart)#''Furbyland ''#''Giga Pets Deluxe''#''Godzilla''#''The Legend of the Lost Creator''#''Madden 98''#''Metal Gear Solid''#''Mutoids''#''Name That Tune''#''Nascar Racing''#''NBA Hangtime''#''Shadow Madness''#''Sonic 3D Blast''#''Small Soldiers''#''Turok: Dinosaur Hunter''#''WCW Whiplash''" ], [ "Reception", "At the time of the Game.com's launch in 1997, Chris Johnston of VideoGameSpot believed that the console would have difficulty competing against the Game Boy.", "Johnston also believed that text-based Internet and email would attract only limited appeal, stating that such features were outdated.", "Johnston concluded that the Game.com \"is a decent system, but Nintendo is just way too powerful in the industry.\"", "Chip and Jonathan Carter wrote that the console did not play action games as well as it did with other games, although they praised the console's various options and wrote, \"Graphically, we'd have to say this has the potential to perform better than Game Boy.", "As for sound, Game.com delivers better than any other hand-held on the market.\"", "A team of four ''Electronic Gaming Monthly'' editors gave the Game.com scores of 5.5, 4.5, 5.0, and 4.0.They were impressed by the PDA features and touchscreen, but commented that the games library had thus far failed to deliver on the Game.com's great potential.", "They elaborated that while the non-scrolling games, particularly ''Wheel of Fortune'', were great fun and made good use of the touchscreen, the more conventional action games were disappointing and suffered from prominent screen blurring.", "''Wisconsin State Journal'' stated that the Game.com offered \"some serious\" advantages over the Game Boy, including its touchscreen.", "It was also stated that in comparison to the Game Boy, the Game.com's 8-bit processor provided \"marginal improvements\" in the quality of speed and graphics.", "The newspaper noted that the Game.com had a \"tiny, somewhat blurry screen.\"", "''The Philadelphia Inquirer'' wrote a negative review of the Game.com, particularly criticizing Internet connectivity issues.", "Also criticized was the system's lack of a backlit screen, as the use of exterior lighting could cause difficulty in viewing the screen, which was highly reflective.Steven L. Kent, writing for the ''Chicago Tribune'', wrote that the console had an elegant design, as well as better sound and a higher-definition screen than the Game Boy: \"Elegant design, however, has not translated into ideal game play.", "Though Tiger has produced fighting, racing and shooting games for Game.com, the games have noticeably slow frame rates.", "The racing game looks like a flickering silent picture show.\"", "Cameron Davis of VideoGames.com wrote, \"Sure, this is no Game Boy Color-killer, but the Game.Com was never meant to be.", "To deride it by comparing it with more powerful and established formats would be a bit unfair\".", "Davis also wrote, \"The touch screen is pretty sensitive, but it works well - you won't need more than a few seconds to get used to it.\"", "However, he criticized the screen's squared zones: \"more often than not it proves distracting when you are playing games that don't require it.", "\"''GamePro'' criticized the Pocket Pro's lack of screen color and its difficult controls, but considered its two best qualities to be its cheap price and a game library of titles exclusive to the console.", "''The Philadelphia Inquirer'' also criticized the Pocket Pro's lack of a color screen, as well as \"frustrating\" gameplay caused by the \"unresponsive\" controls, including the stylus.", "The newspaper stated that, \"Even at $29.99, the pocket.pro is no bargain.", "\"===Legacy===Brett Alan Weiss of the website AllGame wrote, \"The Game.com, the little system that (almost) could, constantly amazes me with the strength and scope of its sound effects.", "...", "It's astounding what power comes out of such a tiny little speaker.\"", "In 2004, Kent included the modem and \"some PDA functionality\" as the console's strengths, while listing its \"Slow processor\" and \"lackluster library of games\" as weaknesses.", "In 2006, ''Engadget'' stated that \"You can't fault Tiger Electronics for their ambition,\" but wrote that the Game.com \"didn't do any one thing particularly well\", criticizing its text-only Internet access and stating that its \"disappointing games were made even worse\" by the \"outdated\" screen.In 2009, ''PC World'' ranked the Game.com at number nine on its list of the 10 worst video game systems ever released, criticizing its Internet aspect, its game library, its low-resolution touchscreen, and its \"Silly name that attempted to capitalize on Internet mania.\"", "However, ''PC World'' positively noted its \"primitive\" PDA features and its solitaire game, considered by the magazine to be the system's best game.", "In 2011, Mikel Reparaz of GamesRadar ranked the Game.com at number 3 on a list of 7 failed handheld consoles, writing that while the Game.com had several licensed games, it \"doesn't actually mean much when they all look like cruddy, poorly animated Game Boy ports.\"", "Raparaz also stated that the Game.com \"looked dated even by Game Boy standards,\" noting that the Game Boy Pocket had a sharper display screen.", "Reparaz stated that the Game.com's continuation into 2000 was a \"pretty significant achievement\" considering its competition from the Game Boy Color.In 2013, Jeff Dunn of GamesRadar criticized the Game.com for its \"blurry\" and \"imprecise\" touchscreen, as well as its \"limited and unwieldy\" Internet and email interfaces.", "Dunn also criticized the \"painful\" Internet setup process, and stated that all of the console's available games were \"ugly and horrible.\"", "Dunn noted, however, that the Game.com's Internet aspect was a \"smart\" feature.", "In 2016, Motherboard stated that the Game.com was \"perhaps one of the worst consoles of all time,\" due largely to its low screen quality.", "In 2018, Nadia Oxford of USgamer noted the Game.com's \"paper-thin\" library of games and stated that the console \"died in record time because it was poorly-made, to say the least.\"" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Game.com official website (archive)* The end of the game.com*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "General Packet Radio Service" ], [ "Introduction", "Sony Ericsson K310a showing Wikipedia homepage via internet GPRS.", "'''General Packet Radio Service''' ('''GPRS'''), also called '''2.5G''', is a packet oriented mobile data standard on the 2G cellular communication network's global system for mobile communications (GSM).", "GPRS was established by European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) in response to the earlier CDPD and i-mode packet-switched cellular technologies.", "It is now maintained by the 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP).GPRS is typically sold according to the total volume of data transferred during the billing cycle, in contrast with circuit switched data, which is usually billed per minute of connection time, or sometimes by one-third minute increments.", "Usage above the GPRS bundled data cap may be charged per MB of data, speed limited, or disallowed.GPRS is a best-effort service, implying variable throughput and latency that depend on the number of other users sharing the service concurrently, as opposed to circuit switching, where a certain quality of service (QoS) is guaranteed during the connection.", "In 2G systems, GPRS provides data rates of 56–114 kbit/s.", "2G cellular technology combined with GPRS is sometimes described as ''2.5G'', that is, a technology between the second (2G) and third (3G) generations of mobile telephony.", "It provides moderate-speed data transfer, by using unused time-division multiple access (TDMA) channels in, for example, the GSM system.", "GPRS is integrated into GSM Release 97 and newer releases.", "Mobile devices with GPRS started to roll out around the year 2001." ], [ "Technical overview", "The GPRS core network allows 2G, 3G and WCDMA mobile networks to transmit IP packets to external networks such as the Internet.", "The GPRS system is an integrated part of the GSM network switching subsystem.=== Services offered ===GPRS extends the GSM Packet circuit switched data capabilities and makes the following services possible:* SMS messaging and broadcasting* \"Always on\" internet access* Multimedia messaging service (MMS)* Push-to-talk over cellular (PoC)* Instant messaging and presence—wireless village* Internet applications for smart devices through wireless application protocol (WAP)* Point-to-point (P2P) service: inter-networking with the Internet (IP)* Point-to-multipoint (P2M) service: point-to-multipoint multicast and point-to-multipoint group callsIf SMS over GPRS is used, an SMS transmission speed of about 30 SMS messages per minute may be achieved.", "This is much faster than using the ordinary SMS over GSM, whose SMS transmission speed is about 6 to 10 SMS messages per minute.=== Frequencies ===As the GPRS standard is an extension of GSM capabilities, the service operates on the 2G and 3G cellular communication GSM frequencies.", "GPRS devices can typically use (one or more) of the frequencies within one of the frequency bands the radio supports (850, 900, 1800, 1900 MHz).", "Depending on the device, location and intended use, regulations may be imposed either restricting or explicitly specifying authorised frequency bands.GSM-850 and GSM-1900 are used in the United States, Canada, and many other countries in the Americas.", "GSM-900 and GSM-1800 are used in: Europe, Middle East, Africa and most of Asia.", "In South Americas these bands are used in Costa Rica (GSM-1800), Brazil (GSM-850, 900 and 1800), Guatemala (GSM-850, GSM-900 and 1900), El Salvador (GSM-850, GSM-900 and 1900).", "There is a more comprehensive record of international cellular service frequency assignments=== Protocols supported ===GPRS supports the following protocols:* Internet Protocol (IP).", "In practice, built-in mobile browsers use IPv4 before IPv6 is widespread.", "* Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) is typically not supported by mobile phone operators but if a cellular phone is used as a modem for a connected computer, PPP may be used to tunnel IP to the phone.", "This allows an IP address to be dynamically assigned (using IPCP rather than DHCP) to the mobile equipment.", "* X.25 connections are typically used for applications like wireless payment terminals, although it has been removed from the standard.", "X.25 can still be supported over PPP, or even over IP, but this requires either a network-based router to perform encapsulation or software built into the end-device/terminal; e.g., user equipment (UE).When TCP/IP is used, each phone can have one or more IP addresses allocated.", "GPRS will store and forward the IP packets to the phone even during handover.", "The TCP restores any packets lost (e.g.", "due to a radio noise induced pause).=== Hardware ===Devices supporting GPRS are grouped into three classes:;Class A: Can be connected to GPRS service and GSM service (voice, SMS) simultaneously.", "Such devices are now available.", ";Class B: Can be connected to GPRS service and GSM service (voice, SMS), but using only one at a time.", "During GSM service (voice call or SMS), GPRS service is suspended and resumed automatically after the GSM service (voice call or SMS) has concluded.", "Most GPRS mobile devices are Class B.;Class C: Are connected to either GPRS service or GSM service (voice, SMS) and must be switched manually between one service and the other.Because a Class A device must service GPRS and GSM networks together, it effectively needs two radios.", "To avoid this hardware requirement, a GPRS mobile device may implement the dual transfer mode (DTM) feature.", "A DTM-capable mobile can handle both GSM packets and GPRS packets with network coordination to ensure both types are not transmitted at the same time.", "Such devices are considered pseudo-Class A, sometimes referred to as \"simple class A\".", "Some networks have supported DTM since 2007.Huawei E220 3G/GPRS ModemUSB 3G/GPRS modems have a terminal-like interface over USB with V.42bis, and data formats.", "Some models include an external antenna connector.", "Modem cards for laptop PCs, or external USB modems are available, similar in shape and size to a computer mouse, or a pendrive.=== Addressing ===A GPRS connection is established by reference to its access point name (APN).", "The APN defines the services such as wireless application protocol (WAP)access, short message service (SMS), multimedia messaging service (MMS), and for Internet communication services such as email and World Wide Web access.In order to set up a GPRS connection for a wireless modem, a user must specify an APN, optionally a user name and password, and very rarely an IP address, provided by the network operator.=== GPRS modems and modules ===GSM module or GPRS modules are similar to modems, but there's one difference: the modem is an external piece of equipment, whereas the GSM module or GPRS module can be integrated within an electrical or electronic equipment.", "It is an embedded piece of hardware.", "A GSM mobile, on the other hand, is a complete embedded system in itself.", "It comes with embedded processors dedicated to provide a functional interface between the user and the mobile network." ], [ "Coding schemes and speeds", "The upload and download speeds that can be achieved in GPRS depend on a number of factors such as:* the number of BTS TDMA time slots assigned by the operator* the channel encoding used.", "* the maximum capability of the mobile device expressed as a GPRS multislot class=== Multiple access schemes ===The multiple access methods used in GSM with GPRS are based on frequency-division duplex (FDD) and TDMA.", "During a session, a user is assigned to one pair of up-link and down-link frequency channels.", "This is combined with time domain statistical multiplexing which makes it possible for several users to share the same frequency channel.", "The '''packets''' have constant length, corresponding to a GSM time slot.", "The down-link uses first-come first-served packet scheduling, while the up-link uses a scheme very similar to reservation ALOHA (R-ALOHA).", "This means that slotted ALOHA (S-ALOHA) is used for reservation inquiries during a contention phase, and then the actual data is transferred using dynamic TDMA with first-come first-served.=== Channel encoding ===The channel encoding process in GPRS consists of two steps: first, a cyclic code is used to add parity bits, which are also referred to as the Block Check Sequence, followed by coding with a possibly punctured convolutional code.", "The Coding Schemes CS-1 to CS-4 specify the number of parity bits generated by the cyclic code and the puncturing rate of the convolutional code.", "In Coding Schemes CS-1 through CS-3, the convolutional code is of rate 1/2, i.e.", "each input bit is converted into two coded bits.", "In Coding Schemes CS-2 and CS-3, the output of the convolutional code is punctured to achieve the desired code rate.", "In Coding Scheme CS-4, no convolutional coding is applied.", "The following table summarises the options.", "GPRSCoding scheme Bitrate including RLC/MAC overhead(kbit/s/slot) Bitrate excluding RLC/MAC overhead(kbit/s/slot) Modulation Code rate CS-1 9.20 8.00 GMSK 1/2 CS-2 13.55 12.00 GMSK ≈2/3 CS-3 15.75 14.40 GMSK ≈3/4 CS-4 21.55 20.00 GMSK 1The least robust, but fastest, coding scheme (CS-4) is available near a base transceiver station (BTS), while the most robust coding scheme (CS-1) is used when the mobile station (MS) is further away from a BTS.Using the CS-4 it is possible to achieve a user speed of 20.0 kbit/s per time slot.", "However, using this scheme the cell coverage is 25% of normal.", "CS-1 can achieve a user speed of only 8.0 kbit/s per time slot, but has 98% of normal coverage.", "Newer network equipment can adapt the transfer speed automatically depending on the mobile location.In addition to GPRS, there are two other GSM technologies which deliver data services: circuit-switched data (CSD) and high-speed circuit-switched data (HSCSD).", "In contrast to the shared nature of GPRS, these instead establish a dedicated circuit (usually billed per minute).", "Some applications such as video calling may prefer HSCSD, especially when there is a continuous flow of data between the endpoints.The following table summarises some possible configurations of GPRS and circuit switched data services.", ": Technology Download (kbit/s) Upload (kbit/s) TDMA timeslots allocated (DL+UL) CSD 9.6 9.6 1+1 HSCSD 28.8 14.4 2+1 HSCSD 43.2 14.4 3+1 GPRS 85.6 21.4 (Class 8 & 10 and CS-4) 4+1 GPRS 64.2 42.8 (Class 10 and CS-4) 3+2 EGPRS (EDGE) 236.8 59.2 (Class 8, 10 and MCS-9) 4+1 EGPRS (EDGE) 177.6 118.4 (Class 10 and MCS-9) 3+2=== Multislot Class ===The multislot class determines the speed of data transfer available in the Uplink and Downlink directions.", "It is a value between 1 and 45 which the network uses to allocate radio channels in the uplink and downlink direction.", "Multislot class with values greater than 31 are referred to as high multislot classes.A multislot allocation is represented as, for example, 5+2.The first number is the number of downlink timeslots and the second is the number of uplink timeslots allocated for use by the mobile station.", "A commonly used value is class 10 for many GPRS/EGPRS mobiles which uses a maximum of 4 timeslots in downlink direction and 2 timeslots in uplink direction.", "However simultaneously a maximum number of 5 simultaneous timeslots can be used in both uplink and downlink.", "The network will automatically configure for either 3+2 or 4+1 operation depending on the nature of data transfer.Some high end mobiles, usually also supporting UMTS, also support GPRS/EDGE multislot class 32.According to 3GPP TS 45.002 (Release 12), Table B.1, mobile stations of this class support 5 timeslots in downlink and 3 timeslots in uplink with a maximum number of 6 simultaneously used timeslots.", "If data traffic is concentrated in downlink direction the network will configure the connection for 5+1 operation.", "When more data is transferred in the uplink the network can at any time change the constellation to 4+2 or 3+3.Under the best reception conditions, i.e.", "when the best EDGE modulation and coding scheme can be used, 5 timeslots can carry a bandwidth of 5*59.2 kbit/s = 296 kbit/s.", "In uplink direction, 3 timeslots can carry a bandwidth of 3*59.2 kbit/s = 177.6 kbit/s.==== Multislot Classes for GPRS/EGPRS ====: Multislot Class Downlink TS Uplink TS Active TS 1 1 1 2 2 2 1 3 3 2 2 3 4 3 1 4 5 2 2 4 6 3 2 4 7 3 3 4 8 4 1 5 9 3 2 5 10 4 2 5 11 4 3 5 12 4 4 5 30 5 1 6 31 5 2 6 32 5 3 6 33 5 4 6 34 5 5 6==== Attributes of a multislot class ====Each multislot class identifies the following:* the maximum number of Timeslots that can be allocated on uplink* the maximum number of Timeslots that can be allocated on downlink* the total number of timeslots which can be allocated by the network to the mobile* the time needed for the MS to perform adjacent cell signal level measurement and get ready to transmit* the time needed for the MS to get ready to transmit* the time needed for the MS to perform adjacent cell signal level measurement and get ready to receive* the time needed for the MS to get ready to receive.The different multislot class specification is detailed in the Annex B of the 3GPP Technical Specification 45.002 (Multiplexing and multiple access on the radio path)" ], [ "Usability", "The maximum speed of a GPRS connection offered in 2003 was similar to a modem connection in an analog wire telephone network, about 32–40 kbit/s, depending on the phone used.", "Latency is very high; round-trip time (RTT) is typically about 600–700 ms and often reaches 1s.", "GPRS is typically prioritized lower than speech, and thus the quality of connection varies greatly.Devices with latency/RTT improvements (via, for example, the extended UL TBF mode feature) are generally available.", "Also, network upgrades of features are available with certain operators.", "With these enhancements the active round-trip time can be reduced, resulting in significant increase in application-level throughput speeds." ], [ "History", "GPRS opened in 2000 as a packet-switched data service embedded in the channel-switched cellular radio network GSM.", "GPRS extends the reach of the fixed Internet by connecting mobile terminals worldwide.The CELLPAC protocol developed 1991–1993 was the trigger point for starting in 1993 the specification of standard GPRS by ETSI SMG.", "Especially, the CELLPAC Voice & Data functions introduced in a 1993 ETSI Workshop contribution anticipate what was later known to be the roots of GPRS.", "This workshop contribution is referenced in 22 GPRS-related US patents.", "Successor systems to GSM/GPRS like W-CDMA (UMTS) and LTE rely on key GPRS functions for mobile Internet access as introduced by CELLPAC.According to a study on history of GPRS development, Bernhard Walke and his student Peter Decker are the inventors of GPRS — the first system providing worldwide mobile Internet access." ], [ "Enhanced GPRS" ], [ "See also", "* Code-division multiple access (CDMA)* GPRS core network* High Speed Packet Access (HSDPA)* IP Multimedia Subsystem* List of interface bit rates* Sub-network dependent convergence protocol (SNDCP)* UMTS" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* 3GPP AT command set for user equipment (UE)* * Free GPRS resources * GSM World, the trade association for GSM and GPRS network operators.", "* Palowireless GPRS resource center* GPRS attach and PDP context activation sequence diagram" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gnosis" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Gnosis''' is the common Greek noun for knowledge (γνῶσις, ''gnōsis'', f.).", "The term was used among various Hellenistic religions and philosophies in the Greco-Roman world.", "It is best known for its implication within Gnosticism, where it signifies a spiritual knowledge or insight into humanity's real nature as divine, leading to the deliverance of the divine spark within humanity from the constraints of earthly existence." ], [ "Etymology", "''Gnosis'' is a feminine Greek noun which means \"knowledge\" or \"awareness.\"", "It is often used for personal knowledge compared with intellectual knowledge (εἴδειν ''eídein''), as with the French ''connaître'' compared with ''savoir'', the Portuguese ''conhecer'' compared with ''saber'', the Spanish ''conocer'' compared with ''saber'', the Italian ''conoscere'' compared with ''sapere'', the German ''kennen'' rather than ''wissen'', or the Modern Greek γνωρίζω compared with ξέρω.A related term is the adjective ''gnostikos'', \"cognitive\", a reasonably common adjective in Classical Greek.", "The terms do not appear to indicate any mystic, esoteric or hidden meaning in the works of Plato, but instead expressed a sort of higher intelligence and ability analogous to talent.In the Hellenistic era the term became associated with the mystery cults.In the Acts of Thomas, translated by G.R.S.", "Mead, the \"motions of gnosis\" are also referred to as \"kingly motions\".Irenaeus used the phrase \"knowledge falsely so-called\" ('''', from 1 Timothy 6:20) for the title of his book ''On the Detection and Overthrow of False Knowledge'', that contains the adjective ''gnostikos'', which is the source for the 17th-century English term \"Gnosticism\"." ], [ "Comparison with ''epignosis''", "The difference and meaning of ''epignosis'' () contrasted with gnosis is disputed.", "One proposed distinction is between the abstract and absolute knowledge (''gnosis'') and a practical or more literal knowledge (''epignosis'').", "Other interpretations have suggested that 2 Peter is referring to an \"epignosis of Jesus Christ\", what J.", "B. Lightfoot described as a \"larger and more thorough knowledge\".", "Conversion to Christianity is seen as evidence of the deeper knowledge protecting against false doctrine." ], [ "Gnosticism", "serpentine deity found on a Gnostic gem in Bernard de Montfaucon's ''L'antiquité expliquée et représentée en figures'' may be a depiction of the Demiurge.Gnosticism originated in the late 1st century CE in non-rabbinical Jewish and early Christian sects.", "In the formation of Christianity, various sectarian groups, labeled \"gnostics\" by their opponents, emphasised spiritual knowledge (''gnosis'') of the divine spark within, over faith (''pistis'') in the teachings and traditions of the various communities of Christians.", "Gnosticism presents a distinction between the highest, unknowable God, and the Demiurge, \"creator\" of the material universe.", "The Gnostics considered the most essential part of the process of salvation to be this personal knowledge, in contrast to faith as an outlook in their worldview along with faith in the ecclesiastical authority.In Gnosticism, the biblical serpent in the Garden of Eden was praised and thanked for bringing knowledge (''gnosis'') to Adam and Eve and thereby freeing them from the malevolent Demiurge's control.", "Gnostic Christian doctrines rely on a dualistic cosmology that implies the eternal conflict between good and evil, and a conception of the serpent as the liberating savior and bestower of knowledge to humankind opposed to the Demiurge or creator god, identified with the Hebrew God of the Old Testament.", "Gnostic Christians considered the Hebrew God of the Old Testament as the evil, false god and creator of the material universe, and the Unknown God of the Gospel, the father of Jesus Christ and creator of the spiritual world, as the true, good God.", "In the Archontic, Sethian, and Ophite systems, Yaldabaoth (Yahweh) is regarded as the malevolent Demiurge and false god of the Old Testament who generated the material universe and keeps the souls trapped in physical bodies, imprisoned in the world full of pain and suffering that he created.However, not all Gnostic movements regarded the creator of the material universe as inherently evil or malevolent.", "For instance, Valentinians believed that the Demiurge is merely an ignorant and incompetent creator, trying to fashion the world as good as he can, but lacking the proper power to maintain its goodness.", "All Gnostics were regarded as heretics by the proto-orthodox Early Church Fathers.=== Mandaeism ===In Mandaeism, the concept of ''manda'' (\"knowledge\", \"wisdom\", \"intellect\") is roughly equivalent to the Gnostic concept of gnosis.", "Mandaeism ('having knowledge') is the only surviving Gnostic religion from antiquity.", "Mandaeans formally refer to themselves as ''Nasurai'' (Nasoraeans) meaning guardians or possessors of secret rites and knowledge.", "The Mandaeans emphasize salvation of the soul through secret knowledge (gnosis) of its divine origin.", "Mandaeism \"provides knowledge of whence we have come and whither we are going.\"" ], [ "Christian usage", "Despite rejection of Gnosticism, Christianity has sometimes used the term or derivatives of it in a laudatory rather than lambasting sense.", "===New Testament===The New Testament uses the term γνῶσις (Strong's G1108, Transliteration gnōsis) 28 times.=== Patristic literature ===The Church Fathers used the word ''gnosis'' (knowledge) to mean spiritual knowledge or specific knowledge of the divine.", "This positive usage was to contrast it with how gnostic sectarians used the word.", "Cardiognosis (\"knowledge of the heart\") from Eastern Christianity related to the tradition of the starets and in Roman Catholic theology is the view that only God knows the condition of one's relationship with God.Boston College Catholic philosopher Dermot Moran notes that=== Eastern Orthodox thought ===''Gnosis'' in Orthodox Christian (primarily Eastern Orthodox) thought is the spiritual knowledge of a saint (one who has obtained theosis) or divinely-illuminated human being.", "Within the cultures of the term's provenance (Byzantine and Hellenic) ''Gnosis'' was a knowledge or insight into the infinite, divine and uncreated in all and above all, rather than knowledge strictly into the finite, natural or material world.", "Gnosis is transcendental as well as mature understanding.", "It indicates direct spiritual, experiential knowledge and intuitive knowledge, mystic rather than that from rational or reasoned thinking.", "Gnosis itself is gained through understanding at which one can arrive via inner experience or contemplation such as an internal epiphany of intuition and external epiphany such as the theophany.In the ''Philokalia,'' it is emphasized that such knowledge is not secret knowledge but rather a maturing, transcendent form of knowledge derived from contemplation (''theoria'' resulting from practice of ''hesychasm)'', since knowledge cannot truly be derived from knowledge, but rather, knowledge can only be derived from ''theoria'' (to witness, see (vision) or experience).", "Knowledge, thus plays an important role in relation to ''theosis'' (deification/personal relationship with God) and ''theoria'' (revelation of the divine, vision of God).", "Gnosis, as the proper use of the spiritual or noetic faculty plays an important role in Orthodox Christian theology.", "Its importance in the economy of salvation is discussed periodically in the ''Philokalia'' where as direct, personal knowledge of God (''noesis'') it is distinguished from ordinary epistemological knowledge (episteme—i.e., speculative philosophy)." ], [ "Islam", "=== Sufism ===Knowledge (or ''gnosis'') in Sufism refers to knowledge of Self and God.", "The gnostic is called ''al-arif bi'lah'' or \"one who knows by God\".", "The goal of the Sufi practitioner is to remove inner obstacles to the knowledge of God.", "Sufism, understood as the quest for Truth, is to seek for the separate existence of the Self to be consumed by Truth, as stated by the Sufi poet Mansur al-Hallaj, who was executed for saying \"I am the Truth\" (ana'l haqq)." ], [ "Jewish usage", "=== Hellenistic Jewish literature ===The Greek word ''gnosis'' (knowledge) is used as a standard translation of the Hebrew word \"knowledge\" ( ) in the Septuagint, thus:Philo also refers to the \"knowledge\" (''gnosis'') and \"wisdom\" (''sophia'') of God." ], [ "See also" ], [ "References", "=== Sources ===*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Georgian" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Georgian''' may refer to:" ], [ "Common meanings", "* Anything related to, or originating from Georgia (country)**Georgians, an indigenous Caucasian ethnic group**Georgian language, a Kartvelian language spoken by Georgians**Georgian scripts, three scripts used to write the language**Georgian (Unicode block), a Unicode block containing the Mkhedruli and Asomtavruli scripts**Georgian cuisine, cooking styles and dishes with origins in the nation of Georgia and prepared by Georgian people around the world* Someone from Georgia (U.S. state)* Georgian era, a period of British history (1714–1837)**Georgian architecture, the set of architectural styles current between 1714 and 1837" ], [ "Places", "*Georgian Bay, a bay of Lake Huron*Georgian Cliff, a cliff on Alexander Island, Antarctica" ], [ "Airlines", "*Georgian Airways, an airline based in Tbilisi, Georgia*Georgian International Airlines, an airline based in Tbilisi, Georgia*Air Georgian, an airline based in Ontario, Canada*Sky Georgia, an airline based in Tbilisi, Georgia" ], [ "Schools", "*Georgian College, in Barrie, Ontario, Canada*Georgian International Academy, a research and academic institution in Tbilisi, Georgia*Georgian Technical University, a technical university in Tbilisi, Georgia" ], [ "Arts and entertainment", "*The Georgians (Frank Guarente), an American jazz and dance band of the 1920s*The Georgians (Nat Gonella), a British jazz band of the 1930s*Georgian poets, a group of early 20th century English poets*Georgian Theatre Royal, a theatre and playhouse in Richmond, North Yorkshire, UK" ], [ "People", "*Georgian Păun (born 1985), Romanian footballer*Georgian Popescu (born 1984), Romanian amateur boxer*Georgian Tobă (born 1989), Romanian footballer" ], [ "Other uses", "*''Atlanta Georgian'', a defunct Hearst-owned newspaper*Augusta Georgians, an American minor league baseball team from 1920 to 1921*Georgian Mall, a mall in Barrie, Ontario, Canada*Georgian (train), a Chicago-to-Atlanta passenger train route" ], [ "See also", "*Georgia (disambiguation)**" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Georgian architecture" ], [ "Introduction", "Middle-class house in Salisbury cathedral close, England, with minimal classical detail.Very grand terrace houses at The Circus, Bath (1754), with basement \"areas\" and a profusion of columns.", "Massachusetts Hall at Harvard University, 1718-20Classically proportioned 19th century Georgian manor house, Throckley Hall (1820).", "Principal elevation, South Wing.", "'''Georgian architecture''' is the name given in most English-speaking countries to the set of architectural styles current between 1714 and 1830.It is named after the first four British monarchs of the House of Hanover, George I, George II, George III, and George IV, who reigned in continuous succession from August 1714 to June 1830.The Georgian cities of the British Isles were Edinburgh, Bath, pre-independence Dublin, and London, and to a lesser extent York and Bristol.", "The style was revived in the late 19th century in the United States as Colonial Revival architecture and in the early 20th century in Great Britain as '''Neo-Georgian architecture'''; in both it is also called '''Georgian Revival architecture'''.", "In the United States, the term ''Georgian'' is generally used to describe all buildings from the period, regardless of style; in Britain it is generally restricted to buildings that are \"architectural in intention\", and have stylistic characteristics that are typical of the period, though that covers a wide range.The Georgian style is highly variable, but marked by symmetry and proportion based on the classical architecture of Greece and Rome, as revived in Renaissance architecture.", "Ornament is also normally in the classical tradition, but typically restrained, and sometimes almost completely absent on the exterior.", "The period brought the vocabulary of classical architecture to smaller and more modest buildings than had been the case before, replacing English vernacular architecture (or becoming the new vernacular style) for almost all new middle-class homes and public buildings by the end of the period.Georgian architecture is characterized by its proportion and balance; simple mathematical ratios were used to determine the height of a window in relation to its width or the shape of a room as a double cube.", "Regularity, as with ashlar (uniformly cut) stonework, was strongly approved, imbuing symmetry and adherence to classical rules: the lack of symmetry, where Georgian additions were added to earlier structures remaining visible, was deeply felt as a flaw, at least before John Nash began to introduce it in a variety of styles.", "Regularity of housefronts along a street was a desirable feature of Georgian town planning.", "Until the start of the Gothic Revival in the early 19th century, Georgian designs usually lay within the Classical orders of architecture and employed a decorative vocabulary derived from ancient Rome or Greece." ], [ "Characteristics", "In towns, which expanded greatly during the period, landowners turned into property developers, and rows of identical terraced houses became the norm.", "Even the wealthy were persuaded to live in these in town, especially if provided with a square of garden in front of the house.", "There was an enormous amount of building in the period, all over the English-speaking world, and the standards of construction were generally high.", "Where they have not been demolished, large numbers of Georgian buildings have survived two centuries or more, and they still form large parts of the core of cities such as London, Edinburgh, Dublin, Newcastle upon Tyne and Bristol.The period saw the growth of a distinct and trained architectural profession; before the mid-century \"the high-sounding title, 'architect' was adopted by anyone who could get away with it\".", "This contrasted with earlier styles, which were primarily disseminated among craftsmen through the direct experience of the apprenticeship system.", "But most buildings were still designed by builders and landlords together, and the wide spread of Georgian architecture, and the Georgian styles of design more generally, came from dissemination through pattern books and inexpensive suites of engravings.", "Authors such as the prolific William Halfpenny (active 1723–1755) had editions in America as well as Britain.A similar phenomenon can be seen in the commonality of housing designs in Canada and the United States (though of a wider variety of styles) from the 19th century through the 1950s, using pattern books drawn up by professional architects that were distributed by lumber companies and hardware stores to contractors and homebuilders.", "From the mid-18th century, Georgian styles were assimilated into an architectural vernacular that became part and parcel of the training of every architect, designer, builder, carpenter, mason and plasterer, from Edinburgh to Maryland." ], [ "Styles", "Georgian succeeded the English Baroque of Sir Christopher Wren, Sir John Vanbrugh, Thomas Archer, William Talman, and Nicholas Hawksmoor; this in fact continued into at least the 1720s, overlapping with a more restrained Georgian style.", "The architect James Gibbs was a transitional figure, his earlier buildings are Baroque, reflecting the time he spent in Rome in the early 18th century, but he adjusted his style after 1720.Major architects to promote the change in direction from Baroque were Colen Campbell, author of the influential book ''Vitruvius Britannicus'' (1715–1725); Richard Boyle, 3rd Earl of Burlington and his protégé William Kent; Isaac Ware; Henry Flitcroft and the Venetian Giacomo Leoni, who spent most of his career in England.", "Neoclassical grandeur; Stowe House 1770-79 by Robert Adam modified in execution by Thomas PittOther prominent architects of the early Georgian period include James Paine, Robert Taylor, and John Wood, the Elder.", "The European Grand Tour became very common for wealthy patrons in the period, and Italian influence remained dominant, though at the start of the period Hanover Square, Westminster (1713 on), developed and occupied by Whig supporters of the new dynasty, seems to have deliberately adopted German stylistic elements in their honour, especially vertical bands connecting the windows.The styles that resulted fall within several categories.", "In the mainstream of Georgian style were both Palladian architecture—and its whimsical alternatives, Gothic and Chinoiserie, which were the English-speaking world's equivalent of European Rococo.", "From the mid-1760s a range of Neoclassical modes were fashionable, associated with the British architects Robert Adam, James Gibbs, Sir William Chambers, James Wyatt, George Dance the Younger, Henry Holland and Sir John Soane.", "John Nash was one of the most prolific architects of the late Georgian era known as The Regency style, he was responsible for designing large areas of London.", "Greek Revival architecture was added to the repertory, beginning around 1750, but increasing in popularity after 1800.Leading exponents were William Wilkins and Robert Smirke.In Britain, brick or stone are almost invariably used; brick is often disguised with stucco.", "The Georgian terraces of Dublin are noted for their almost uniform use of red brick, for example, whereas equivalent terraces in Edinburgh are constructed from stone.", "In America and other colonies wood remained very common, as its availability and cost-ratio with the other materials was more favourable.", "Raked roofs were mostly covered in earthenware tiles until Richard Pennant, 1st Baron Penrhyn led the development of the slate industry in Wales from the 1760s, which by the end of the century had become the usual material." ], [ "Types of buildings", "===Houses===Westover Plantation - Georgian country house on a James River plantation in VirginiaVersions of revived Palladian architecture dominated English country house architecture.", "Houses were increasingly placed in grand landscaped settings, and large houses were generally made wide and relatively shallow, largely to look more impressive from a distance.", "The height was usually highest in the centre, and the Baroque emphasis on corner pavilions often found on the continent generally avoided.", "In grand houses, an entrance hall led to steps up to a ''piano nobile'' or mezzanine floor where the main reception rooms were.", "Typically the basement area or \"rustic\", with kitchens, offices and service areas, as well as male guests with muddy boots, came some way above ground, and was lit by windows that were high on the inside, but just above ground level outside.", "A single block was typical, with perhaps a small court for carriages at the front marked off by railings and a gate, but rarely a stone gatehouse, or side wings around the court.Windows in all types of buildings were large and regularly placed on a grid; this was partly to minimize window tax, which was in force throughout the period in the United Kingdom.", "Some windows were subsequently bricked-in.", "Their height increasingly varied between the floors, and they increasingly began below waist-height in the main rooms, making a small balcony desirable.", "Before this the internal plan and function of the rooms can generally not be deduced from the outside.", "To open these large windows the sash window, already developed by the 1670s, became very widespread.", "Corridor plans became universal inside larger houses.Internal courtyards became more rare, except beside the stables, and the functional parts of the building were placed at the sides, or in separate buildings nearby hidden by trees.", "The views to and from the front and rear of the main block were concentrated on, with the side approaches usually much less important.", "The roof was typically invisible from the ground, though domes were sometimes visible in grander buildings.", "The roofline was generally clear of ornament except for a balustrade or the top of a pediment.", "Columns or pilasters, often topped by a pediment, were popular for ornament inside and out, and other ornament was generally geometrical or plant-based, rather than using the human figure.", "Neoclassical interior by Robert Adam, Syon House, LondonInside ornament was far more generous, and could sometimes be overwhelming.", "The chimneypiece continued to be the usual main focus of rooms, and was now given a classical treatment, and increasingly topped by a painting or a mirror.", "Plasterwork ceilings, carved wood, and bold schemes of wallpaint formed a backdrop to increasingly rich collections of furniture, paintings, porcelain, mirrors, and objets d'art of all kinds.", "Wood-panelling, very common since about 1500, fell from favour around the mid-century, and wallpaper included very expensive imports from China.Smaller houses in the country, such as vicarages, were simple regular blocks with visible raked roofs, and a central doorway, often the only ornamented area.", "Similar houses, often referred to as \"villas\" became common around the fringes of the larger cities, especially London, and detached houses in towns remained common, though only the very rich could afford them in central London.In towns even most better-off people lived in terraced houses, which typically opened straight onto the street, often with a few steps up to the door.", "There was often an open space, protected by iron railings, dropping down to the basement level, with a discreet entrance down steps off the street for servants and deliveries; this is known as the \"area\".", "This meant that the ground floor front was now removed and protected from the street and encouraged the main reception rooms to move there from the floor above.", "Often, when a new street or set of streets was developed, the road and pavements were raised up, and the gardens or yards behind the houses remained at a lower level, usually representing the original one.Georgian townhouses on Baggot Street, DublinTown terraced houses for all social classes remained resolutely tall and narrow, each dwelling occupying the whole height of the building.", "This contrasted with well-off continental dwellings, which had already begun to be formed of wide apartments occupying only one or two floors of a building; such arrangements were only typical in England when housing groups of batchelors, as in Oxbridge colleges, the lawyers in the Inns of Court or The Albany after it was converted in 1802.In the period in question, only in Edinburgh were working-class purpose-built tenements common, though lodgers were common in other cities.", "A curving crescent, often looking out at gardens or a park, was popular for terraces where space allowed.", "In early and central schemes of development, plots were sold and built on individually, though there was often an attempt to enforce some uniformity, but as development reached further out schemes were increasingly built as a uniform scheme and then sold.The late Georgian period saw the birth of the semi-detached house, planned systematically, as a suburban compromise between the terraced houses of the city and the detached \"villas\" further out, where land was cheaper.", "There had been occasional examples in town centres going back to medieval times.", "Most early suburban examples are large, and in what are now the outer fringes of Central London, but were then in areas being built up for the first time.", "Blackheath, Chalk Farm and St John's Wood are among the areas contesting being the original home of the semi.", "Sir John Summerson gave primacy to the Eyre Estate of St John's Wood.", "A plan for this exists dated 1794, where \"the whole development consists of ''pairs of semi-detached houses'', So far as I know, this is the first recorded scheme of the kind\".", "In fact the French Wars put an end to this scheme, but when the development was finally built it retained the semi-detached form, \"a revolution of striking significance and far-reaching effect\".===Churches===St Martin-in-the-Fields, London (1720), James GibbsThe courtyard of Somerset House, from the North Wing entrance.", "Built for government offices.Until the Church Building Act 1818, the period saw relatively few churches built in Britain, which was already well-supplied, although in the later years of the period the demand for Non-conformist and Roman Catholic places of worship greatly increased.", "Anglican churches that were built were designed internally to allow maximum audibility, and visibility, for preaching, so the main nave was generally wider and shorter than in medieval plans, and often there were no side-aisles.", "Galleries were common in new churches.", "Especially in country parishes, the external appearance generally retained the familiar signifiers of a Gothic church, with a tower or spire, a large west front with one or more doors, and very large windows along the nave, but all with any ornament drawn from the classical vocabulary.", "Where funds permitted, a classical temple portico with columns and a pediment might be used at the west front.", "Interior decoration was generally chaste; however, walls often became lined with plaques and monuments to the more prosperous members of the congregation.In the colonies new churches were certainly required, and generally repeated similar formulae.", "British Non-conformist churches were often more classical in mood, and tended not to feel the need for a tower or steeple.The archetypal Georgian church is St Martin-in-the-Fields in London (1720), by Gibbs, who boldly added to the classical temple façade at the west end a large steeple on top of a tower, set back slightly from the main frontage.", "This formula shocked purists and foreigners, but became accepted and was very widely emulated, at home and in the colonies, for example at St Andrew's Church, Chennai in India.", "And in Dublin, the extremely similar St. George's Church, Dublin.", "The 1818 Act allocated some public money for new churches required to reflect changes in population, and a commission to allocate it.", "Building of Commissioners' churches gathered pace in the 1820s, and continued until the 1850s.", "The early churches, falling into the Georgian period, show a high proportion of Gothic Revival buildings, along with the classically inspired.===Public buildings===Public buildings generally varied between the extremes of plain boxes with grid windows and Italian Late Renaissance palaces, depending on budget.", "Somerset House in London, designed by Sir William Chambers in 1776 for government offices, was as magnificent as any country house, though never quite finished, as funds ran out.", "Barracks and other less prestigious buildings could be as functional as the mills and factories that were growing increasingly large by the end of the period.", "But as the period came to an end many commercial projects were becoming sufficiently large, and well-funded, to become \"architectural in intention\", rather than having their design left to the lesser class of \"surveyors\"." ], [ "Colonial Georgian architecture", "Hyde Park Barracks (1819), Georgian architecture in SydneyGeorgian architecture was widely disseminated in the English colonies during the Georgian era.", "American buildings of the Georgian period were very often constructed of wood with clapboards; even columns were made of timber, framed up, and turned on an oversized lathe.", "At the start of the period the difficulties of obtaining and transporting brick or stone made them a common alternative only in the larger cities, or where they were obtainable locally.", "Dartmouth College, Harvard University and the College of William and Mary offer leading examples of Georgian architecture in the Americas.Unlike the Baroque style that it replaced, which was mostly used for palaces and churches, and had little representation in the British colonies, simpler Georgian styles were widely used by the upper and middle classes.", "Perhaps the best remaining house is the pristine Hammond-Harwood House (1774) in Annapolis, Maryland, designed by the colonial architect William Buckland and modelled on the Villa Pisani at Montagnana, Italy as depicted in Andrea Palladio's ''I quattro libri dell'architettura'' (\"The Four Books of Architecture\").After independence, in the former American colonies, Federal-style architecture represented the equivalent of Regency architecture, with which it had much in common.In Canada, the United Empire Loyalists embraced Georgian architecture as a sign of their fealty to Britain, and the Georgian style was dominant in the country for most of the first half of the 19th century.", "The Grange, for example, is a Georgian manor built in Toronto in 1817.In Montreal, English-born architect John Ostell worked on a significant number of remarkable constructions in the Georgian style such as the Old Montreal Custom House and the Grand séminaire de Montréal.In Australia, the Old Colonial Georgian residential and non-residential styles were developed in the period from ." ], [ "Post-Georgian developments", "Winfield House in London was designed and built in the 1930s and is listed by Historic England as an important Neo-Georgian townhouseAfter about 1840, Georgian conventions were slowly abandoned as a number of revival styles, including Gothic Revival, that had originated in the Georgian period, developed and contested in Victorian architecture, and in the case of Gothic became better researched, and closer to their originals.", "Neoclassical architecture remained popular, and was the opponent of Gothic in the Battle of the Styles of the early Victorian period.", "In the United States the Federalist Style contained many elements of Georgian style, but incorporated revolutionary symbols.In the early decades of the twentieth century when there was a growing nostalgia for its sense of order, the style was revived and adapted and in the United States came to be known as the Colonial Revival.", "The revived Georgian style that emerged in Britain during the same period is usually referred to as '''Neo-Georgian'''; the work of Edwin Lutyens and Vincent Harris includes some examples.", "The British town of Welwyn Garden City, established in the 1920s, is an example of ''pastiche'' or Neo-Georgian development of the early 20th century in Britain.", "Versions of the Neo-Georgian style were commonly used in Britain for certain types of urban architecture until the late 1950s, Bradshaw Gass & Hope's Police Headquarters in Salford of 1958 being a good example.", "Architects such as Raymond Erith, and Donald McMorran were among the few architects who continued the neo-Georgian style into the 1960s.", "Both in the United States and Britain, the Georgian style is still employed by architects like Quinlan Terry, Julian Bicknell, Ben Pentreath, Robert Adam Architects, and Fairfax and Sammons for private residences.", "A debased form in commercial housing developments, especially in the suburbs, is known in the UK as '''mock-Georgian'''." ], [ "Gallery", "File:Ditchleyfront2.jpg|Ditchley House in Oxfordshire, a country house.", "James Gibbs, 1722File:Connecticut Hall, Yale University.jpg|Connecticut Hall at Yale University, a relatively unornamented iteration of the Georgian style (1750)File:Sutton Lodge, Brighton Rd, SUTTON, Surrey, Greater London (4).jpg|Sutton Lodge, Sutton, London, once used by the Prince Regent, George IV of the United KingdomFile:Georgian House at Pery Square,Limerick.jpg|alt=|Georgian period townhouses in Pery Square, Newtown Pery, Limerick, Ireland, after 1769File:Kedleston Hall 20080730-04.jpg|Kedleston Hall by Matthew Brettingham and Robert Adam, begun 1769, a large English country houseFile:Pulteney Bridge, Bath 2.jpg|One of Robert Adam's masterpieces, in a largely Georgian setting: Pulteney Bridge, Bath, 1774File:CarpentersHall00.jpg|Carpenters' Hall in Philadelphia by Robert Smith, 1775 example of American colonial architectureFile:City Hall, Dublin-5198644 fc442a39.jpg|Royal Exchange, Dublin, 1779File:Guildhall2, Dunfermline.jpg|A former guildhall in Dunfermline, Scotland built between 1805 and 1811File:University Hall (Harvard University) - east facade.JPG|University Hall of Harvard University by Charles Bulfinch (1815), exemplary of Georgian ornamental restraintFile:Western side of Bryanston Square - geograph.org.uk - 1046267.jpg|Western side of Bryanston Square, London, with its gardens.", "1810-15File:The west curve of Park Crescent, London - geograph.org.uk - 1524047.jpg|Late Georgian Regency; the west curve of Park Crescent, London, by John Nash, 1806–21File:The Grange, Toronto, Ontario (1817).jpg|The Grange, a Georgian manor in Toronto built for D'Arcy Boulton in 1817File:St James Anglican Church - Sydney NSW (12865646023).jpg|St James' Church, Sydney in Colonial Georgian architecture, built in 1824File:Town Hall , Chesterfield (3659529763).jpg|Neo-Georgian - Chesterfield Town Hall (1938), Derbyshire, by Bradshaw Gass & HopeFile:Georgian Terrace facing North Inch (geograph 4891241).jpg|Rose Terrace, Perth, Scotland" ], [ "See also", "* Golden ratio* Jamaican Georgian architecture* Canning, Liverpool* Clifton, Bristol* Georgian Dublin* Grainger Town, Newcastle upon Tyne* New Town, Edinburgh, an 18th- and 19th-century development that contains some of the largest surviving examples of Georgian-style architecture and layout.", "* Newtown Pery, Limerick* The Georgian Group" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "*Fletcher, Banister and Fletcher, Banister, ''A History of Architecture'', 1901 edn., Batsford*Esher, Lionel, ''The Glory of the English House'', 1991, Barrie and Jenkins, *Jenkins, Simon (1999), ''England's Thousand Best Churches'', 1999, Allen Lane, *Jenkins, Simon (2003), ''England's Thousand Best Houses'', 2003, Allen Lane, *Musson, Jeremy, ''How to Read a Country House'', 2005, Ebury Press, *Pevsner, Nikolaus.", "''The Englishness of English Art'', Penguin, 1964 edn.", "*Sir John Summerson, ''Georgian London'' (1945), 1988 revised edition, Barrie & Jenkins, .", "(Also see revised edition, edited by Howard Colvin, 2003)" ], [ "Further reading", "* Howard Colvin, ''A Biographical Dictionary of British Architects'', 3rd ed., 1995.", "* John Cornforth, ''Early Georgian Interiors'' (Paul Mellon Centre), 2005.", "* James Stevens Curl, ''Georgian Architecture''.", "* Christopher Hussey, ''Early Georgian Houses'', ''Mid-Georgian Houses'', ''Late Georgian Houses''.", "Reissued in paperback, Antique Collectors Club, 1986.", "* Frank Jenkins, ''Architect and Patron'', 1961.", "* Barrington Kaye, ''The Development of the Architectural Profession in Britain'', 1960.", "* McAlester, Virginia & Lee, ''A Field Guide to American Houses'', 1996..* Sir John Summerson, ''Architecture in Britain'' (series: ''Pelican History of Art'').", "Reissued in paperback 1970.", "* Richard Sammons, '' The Anatomy of the Georgian Room''.", "Period Homes, March 2006." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Goshen, Indiana" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Goshen''' ( ) is a city in and the county seat of Elkhart County, Indiana, United States.", "It is the smaller of the two principal cities of the Elkhart–Goshen Metropolitan Statistical Area, which in turn is part of the South Bend–Elkhart–Mishawaka Combined Statistical Area.", "It is located in the northern part of Indiana near the Michigan border, in a region known as Michiana.", "Goshen is located 10 miles southeast of Elkhart, 25 miles southeast of South Bend, 120 miles east of Chicago, and 150 miles north of Indianapolis.", "The population was 34,517 at the 2020 census.The city is known as an extremely prominent recreational vehicle and accessories manufacturing center, the home of Goshen College, a small Mennonite liberal arts college, and the Elkhart County 4-H Fair, one of the largest county fairs in the United States." ], [ "History", "Before the arrival of white colonists, the land that is today Goshen, Indiana, was populated by Native Americans, specifically the Miami people, the Peoria people, and Potawatomi peoples.", "These people inhabited this land for thousands of years.", "In 1830, the US Congress passed the Indian Removal Act, requiring all indigenous people to relocate west of the Mississippi River.Goshen was platted in 1831.It was named after the Land of Goshen.", "The initial settlers consisted entirely of old stock \"Yankee\" immigrants, who were descended from the English Puritans who settled New England in the 1600s.", "The New England Yankee population that founded towns such as Goshen considered themselves the \"chosen people,\" and identified with the Israelites of the Old Testament and they thought of North America as their Canaan.", "They founded a large number of towns and counties across what is known as the Northern Tier of the upper midwest.", "It was in this context that Goshen was named.The Yankee migration to Indiana was a result of several factors, one of which was the overpopulation of New England.", "The old-stock Yankee population had large families, often bearing up to ten children in one household.", "Most people were expected to have their own piece of land to farm, and due to the massive and nonstop population boom, land in New England became scarce as every son claimed his own farmstead.", "As a result, there was not enough land for every family to have a self-sustaining farm, and Yankee settlers began leaving New England for the Midwestern United States.They were aided in this effort by the construction and completion of the Erie Canal which made traveling to the region much easier, causing an additional surge in migrants coming from New England.", "Added to this was the end of the Black Hawk War, which made the region much safer for white settlers to travel through and settle in.", "However, the Black Hawk War also forced the native people who called Goshen home for so long to leave.", "The 1833 Treaty of Chicago ultimately set the conditions that would force the Potawatomi in particular to leave the Midwest, Goshen included, in 1837.This forced exile is known today as the Potawatomi Trail of Death.These settlers were primarily members of the Congregational Church, though due to the Second Great Awakening, many of them had converted to Methodism, and some had become Baptists before coming to what is now Indiana.", "The Congregational Church has subsequently gone through many divisions, and some factions, including those in Goshen, are now known as the Church of Christ and the United Church of Christ.", "When the New Englanders arrived in what is now Elkhart County there was nothing but a dense virgin forest and wild prairie.", "They laid out farms, constructed roads, erected government buildings, and established post routes.This double tornado hit the Midway Trailer Court northwest of Goshen on U.S. 33, Palm Sunday, 1965.On Palm Sunday, April 11, 1965, a large outbreak of tornadoes struck the Midwest.", "The most famous pair of tornadoes devastated the Midway Trailer Park (now inside the city limits of Goshen), and the Sunnyside Housing Addition in Dunlap, Indiana.", "Another, smaller F4 tornado also struck neighborhoods on the southeast side of Goshen on the same day.", "Statewide, 137 Hoosiers died in the storms—55 of them in Elkhart County.", "Days later, President Lyndon B. Johnson visited the Dunlap site.The Goshen Historic District, added in 1983 to the National Register of Historic Places is bounded by Pike, RR, Cottage, Plymouth, Main, Purl, the Canal, and Second Sts.", "with the Elkhart County Courthouse at its center.In April 2006, Goshen was the site of an immigration march.", "Officials estimated that from 2,000 to 3,000 people marched from Linway Plaza to the County Courthouse.Goshen has been called a \"sundown town\", and African Americans were allegedly prevented from living in, or entering, the town, under threat of violence.", "However, there was never a city ordinance or official policy to enforce such a restriction.", "Nevertheless, in March 2015, the city issued a formal apology for racial discrimination in the past.", "A documentary made at Goshen College, \"Goshen: A Sundown Town's Transformation,\" tells the story of why Goshen has been called a sundown town.The Elkhart County Courthouse, Fort Wayne Street Bridge, Goshen Carnegie Public Library, Goshen Historic District, William N. Violett House, and Violett-Martin House and Gardens are listed on the National Register of Historic Places." ], [ "Geography", "Goshen is located at .", "The Elkhart River winds its way through the city and through a dam on the south side making the Goshen Dam Pond.", "Rock Run Creek also runs through town.", "The city is divided east/west by Main Street and north/south by Lincoln Avenue.According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which is land and is water.=== Environmental leadership ===In February 2018, the Elkhart River flooded as a result of heavy rain and snowmelt.", "The river rose to a record 13.2 feet, damaging more than 300 structures and prompting evacuations.", "City government has responded to the increase in severe weather such as flooding, hail, and heavy rains with measures including stormwater management, and \"an initiative to grow the town's tree canopy by 45%.\"", "Goshen completed 92 solar projects in 2019.Goshen outranked Phoenix, Sacramento, Los Angeles, San Francisco, and Denver with its 2019 production of 116 watts of solar power per capita.===Climate===" ], [ "Demographics", "Elkhart County courthouse in Goshen.===2020 census===+'''Goshen city, Indiana – demographic profile''' (''NH = Non-Hispanic'')Race / EthnicityPop 2010Pop 2020% 2010% 2020White alone (NH)21,14020,05766.65%58.11%Black or African American alone (NH)7401,0792.33%3.13%Native American or Alaska Native alone (NH)72450.23%0.13%Asian alone (NH)3764711.19%1.36%Pacific Islander alone (NH)9130.03%0.04%Some Other Race alone (NH)381200.12%0.35%Mixed Race/Multi-Racial (NH)4411,0831.39%3.14%Hispanic or Latino (any race)8,90311,64928.07%33.75%'''Total''''''31,719''''''34,517''''''100.00%''''''100.00%'''''Note: the US Census treats Hispanic/Latino as an ethnic category.", "This table excludes Latinos from the racial categories and assigns them to a separate category.", "Hispanics/Latinos can be of any race.", "''===2010 census===As of the census of 2010, there were 31,719 people, 11,344 households, and 7,580 families residing in the city.", "The population density was .", "There were 12,631 housing units at an average density of .", "The racial makeup of the city was 78.2% White, 2.6% African American, 0.5% Native American, 1.2% Asian, 14.8% from other races, and 2.7% from two or more races.", "Hispanic or Latino of any race were 28.1% of the population.There were 11,344 households, of which 36.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 47.4% were married couples living together, 13.1% had a female householder with no husband present, 6.3% had a male householder with no wife present, and 33.2% were non-families.", "27.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13.2% had someone who was 65 years of age or older living alone.", "The average household size was 2.67, and the average family size was 3.23.The median age in the city was 32.4 years.", "27.4% of residents were under 18; 11.3% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 26.1% were from 25 to 44; 20% were from 45 to 64, and 14.9% were 65 years of age or older.", "The gender makeup of the city was 48.9% male and 51.1% female.===2000 census===As of the census of 2000, there were 29,383 people, 10,675 households, and 7,088 families residing in the city.", "The population density was .", "There were 11,264 housing units at an average density of .", "The racial makeup of the city was 83.15% White, 1.53% Black or African American, 0.26% Native American, 1.10% Asian, 0.02% Pacific Islander, 12.00% from other races, and 1.94% from two or more races.", "19.33% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.There were 10,675 households, of which 32.6% had children under 18 living with them, 50.8% were married couples living together, 10.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 33.6% were non-families.", "27.5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 12.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.", "The average household size was 2.61, and the average family size was 3.14.In the city, the population was spread out, with 25.9% under 18, 12.9% from 18 to 24, 30.0% from 25 to 44, 17.6% from 45 to 64, and 13.6% who were 65 years of age or older.", "The median age was 32 years.", "For every 100 females, there were 100.6 males.", "For every 100 females aged 18 and over, there were 97.7 males.The median income for a household in the city was $39,383, and the median income for a family was $46,877.Males had a median income of $32,159 versus $23,290 for females.", "The per capita income for the city was $18,899.About 6.0% of families and 9.3% of the population were below the poverty line, including 11.8% of those under age 18 and 5.3% of those aged 65 or over." ], [ "Economy", "Industry in Goshen centers around the automotive and Recreational Vehicle business.", "There are automotive component manufacturers such as Benteler; firms that build custom bodies onto chassis such as Supreme, Independent Protection, and Showhauler Trucks.", "RV manufacturing companies include Dutchmen, Forest River, and Keystone." ], [ "Government", "The government consists of a mayor, a clerk-treasurer, a city council, and a youth advisor.", "The mayor and clerk are elected in a citywide vote.", "The city council consists of seven members.", "Five are elected from individual districts.", "Two are elected at large.", "The youth advisor position was added in 2016 and is elected by the students of Goshen High School.", "Gina Leichty, a member of the Democratic Party, is the first woman to become Mayor of Goshen in its 192-year history.", "Leichty became Mayor following the resignation of former mayor Jeremy Stutsman.", "Stutsman left the mayorship to be CEO of a local nonprofit housing agency, LaCasa." ], [ "Education", "Goshen Community Schools serves the portion of the city in Elkhart Township.", "This system consists of six elementary schools, Goshen Intermediate School, Goshen Junior High School, and Goshen High School.In 2012, ''U.S.", "News & World Report'' ranked Goshen High School as the 12th best high school in Indiana and the top 6% of high schools in the country.Additionally, Goshen is served by Bethany Christian Schools, a private Christian school for grades 4–12.Small parts of the city of Goshen are covered by several other school districts, including Fairfield Community Schools, Middlebury Community Schools, Concord Community Schools, and WaNee Community Schools.Goshen College, located on the south side of town, has an enrollment of approximately 800, with 40% male and 60% female.", "Tuition and fees for the 2017–2018 year were $33,200.The town has a free lending library, the Goshen Public Library." ], [ "Transportation", "===Airports===Goshen Municipal Airport is a public-use airport located about 3.5 miles southeast of downtown Goshen.", "The Goshen Board of Aviation Commissioners owns the airport.The closest airports with regularly scheduled commercial service are South Bend International Airport (about away) and Fort Wayne International Airport (about away).", "O'Hare International Airport in Chicago is about away.===Bus===The Interurban Trolley bus connects Goshen to the nearby city of Elkhart and the unincorporated town of Dunlap via Concord and Elkhart-Goshen routes.", "The routes pass at Elkhart's Amtrak station, allowing passengers to connect to the ''Capitol Limited'' and ''Lake Shore Limited'' trains.", "Riders can also transfer to the North Pointe and Bittersweet/Mishawaka routes.", "The former allows riders to connect to Elkhart's Greyhound bus station, while the later connects the riders to the city of Mishawaka and town of Osceola.", "The Bittersweet/Mishawaka route also allows them to transfer to TRANSPO Route 9 to connect to destinations throughout the South Bend-Goshen metropolitan region and the South Shore Line's South Bend International Airport station." ], [ "Recreation", "Pumpkinvine Nature TrailCruising on First Friday, July 2011.Goshen has seven parks and has a few different greenways and trails winding through the city, one of which runs along the old Mill Race and hydraulic canal, which was once used to power an old hydroelectric power plant.", "Plans were drawn up in 2005 call for the plant to be reopened and redevelopment to begin along the canal.The Pumpkinvine Nature Trail runs from Goshen to Middlebury and Shipshewana, along the former Pumpkin Vine Railroad.", "The trail starts northeast of Goshen at Abshire Park.", "It is one of the recreational highlights of Goshen.", "Along with the Maple City Greenway and the Millrace trail, they provide many miles of easily accessible trails for walking, running, and biking.The Elkhart County Fairgrounds are also located in the city, where the Elkhart County 4-H Fair is held in late July.", "It is the largest county fair in Indiana and one of the largest 4-H County Fairs in the United States.The Goshen Air Show is also an annual event that takes place at the Goshen Municipal Airport.In 2007, Downtown Goshen, Inc., a public-private partnership formed from the merger of Face of the City and the Downtown Action Team, started a First Fridays program.", "Occurring year round, First Fridays happens on the first Friday of each month with stores open until 9, music and other entertainment, and other events occurring within Goshen's downtown district.One favorite pastime of Goshen residents is driving cars." ], [ "Culture", "The south side Wal-Mart is rumored to be the first Wal-Mart in the United States to provide a covered stable for its frequent Amish customers.", "The Amish built the stable with lumber and other supplies donated by Wal-Mart.", "''Lonesome Jim'' (2005) which was written by former resident James Strouse, directed by Steve Buscemi and starred Liv Tyler and Casey Affleck, was shot in Goshen." ], [ "Notable people", "=== Mayors of Goshen ===+NameTermEnd DatePol.", "PartyHenry Daniel WilsonMay 1868May 1869Dem.Melvin Barnes HascallMay 1869May 1871Joseph A S MitchellMay 1871May 1873Dem.George Freese, SrMay 1873May 1875Republ., ProhibitionistCharles Bidwell Alderman1875; 1877; 1879;May 1882Dem.Philemon Doud HardingMay 1882May 1884Dem.Josiah B. CobbMay 1884May 1886Republi.Philemon Doud Harding1886 See AboveMay 1888DemCharles Wesley MillerMay 1888May 1890Republ.John H. LeshMay 1890May 1892Republ.John B. WalkMay 1892Sept 1894Republ.Dr Joseph H Heatwole1894; 1896July 1898Republ.Benjamin F DeahlFilled Unexpired term (July 1898-May 1900); 1900-1902May 1902Dem.George Finely Alderman5/1/1902May.1904Dem.Alfred Lowry1/1/1904Dec.", "1906Republ.Charles Kohler1/1/1906Dec.", "1908Dem.Samuel Franklin Spohn1/1/1909Dec.", "1918Dem.Daniel Jackson \"DJ\" TroyerJan.", "1918Apr.", "1919Republ.William Herbert CharnleyApr.", "1919Dec.", "1918Republ.George R. RimplerJan.", "1922Dec.", "1925Dem.John Orrien AbshireJan.", "1926Dec.", "1929Clell Eugene FirestoneDec.", "1930; 1934Dec.", "1938Dem.Gordon Douglas PeaseJan.", "1938Dec.", "1942Republ.Frank S. EbersoleJan.", "1943Dec.", "1947Republ.Rollin Richard Roth, SrJan.", "1948Dec.", "1955Republ.Ray Bernard MessickJan.", "1956-59Dec.", "1963Ralph Bowman ShenkJan.", "1964; 1968;Dec. 1975Republ.Steven Regis ChisickJan.", "1976Dec.", "1979Dem.Max Ronald ChiddisterJan.", "1980Dec.", "1987Republ.Michael S. PuroJan.", "1988Mar.1997Dem.Allan J. KauffmanApr.", "1997Dec.", "2015Dem.Jeremy P. StutsmanJan.", "2016Jun.", "2023Dem.Gina M. LeichtyJun.", "2023Dem.===Politicians===* John Baker, U.S. Representative from Indiana (1832–1915)* Ebenezer M. Chamberlain, U.S. Representative from Indiana (1805–1861)* Joseph Hutton Defrees, U.S. Representative from Indiana (1812–1885)* Charles W. Miller, Indiana Attorney General, Mayor of Goshen* Joseph Mitchell, Justice of the Indiana Supreme Court, third Mayor of Goshen===Entertainment===* James Carew, silent film actor (1876–1938)* Howard Hawks, film director (1896–1977)* Kenneth Hawks, film director (1898–1930)* Philip Proctor, comedian and actor, Firesign Theatre (b.", "1940)* Raymond L. Schrock, screenwriter (1892–1950)* Tim Showalter, musician (Strand of Oaks)* James C. Strouse, screenwriter* Jordon Hodges, actor* Lotus, band (formed at Goshen College, 1998)===Sports===* Shek Borkowski, coach of Haiti national soccer team* Rick Mirer, NFL quarterback* Patricia Roy, AAGPBL player; IHSAA Commissioner* Doug Weaver, college football player and head coach* Justin Yoder, soap box racer===Other===* Frederick A.", "Herring, physician and botanist (1812–1908)* Ida Shepard Oldroyd, conchologist and curator (1856–1940)* Lois Gunden, a Righteous Among the Nations (1915–2005)* Kate Bolduan, CNN anchor* Andrew Tate, social media influencer" ], [ "Sister cities", "Goshen has two sister cities as designated by Sister Cities International.", "* Bexbach, Saarland, Germany* Emmeloord, Flevoland, Netherlands" ], [ "See also", "*" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Official website* Goshen Chamber of Commerce* Goshen on citydata.com – collection of statistics and graphs of Goshen demographics.", "* Pumpkinvine Nature Trail" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gallipoli" ], [ "Introduction", "Satellite image of the Gallipoli peninsula and surrounding areaANZAC Cove in GallipoliThe '''Gallipoli''' peninsula (; ; ) is located in the southern part of East Thrace, the European part of Turkey, with the Aegean Sea to the west and the Dardanelles strait to the east.Gallipoli is the Italian form of the Greek name (), meaning 'beautiful city', the original name of the modern town of Gelibolu.", "In antiquity, the peninsula was known as the '''Thracian Chersonese''' (; ).The peninsula runs in a south-westerly direction into the Aegean Sea, between the Dardanelles (formerly known as the Hellespont), and the Gulf of Saros (formerly the bay of Melas).", "In antiquity, it was protected by the Long Wall, a defensive structure built across the narrowest part of the peninsula near the ancient city of Agora.", "The isthmus traversed by the wall was only 36 stadia in breadth or about , but the length of the peninsula from this wall to its southern extremity, Cape Mastusia, was 420 stadia or about ." ], [ "History", "===Antiquity and Middle Ages===Map of the Thracian ChersoneseIn ancient times, the Gallipoli Peninsula was known as the Thracian Chersonese (from Greek , 'peninsula') to the Greeks and later the Romans.", "It was the location of several prominent towns, including Cardia, Pactya, Callipolis (Gallipoli), Alopeconnesus (), Sestos, Madytos, and Elaeus.", "The peninsula was renowned for its wheat.", "It also benefited from its strategic importance on the main route between Europe and Asia, as well as from its control of the shipping route from Crimea.", "The city of Sestos was the main crossing-point on the Hellespont.According to Herodotus, the Thracian tribe of Dolonci () (or 'barbarians' according to Cornelius Nepos) held possession of the peninsula before Greek colonizers arrived.", "Then, settlers from Ancient Greece, mainly of Ionian and Aeolian stock, founded about 12 cities on the peninsula in the 7th century BC.", "The Athenian statesman Miltiades the Elder founded a major Athenian colony there around 560 BC.", "He took authority over the entire peninsula, augmenting its defences against incursions from the mainland.", "It eventually passed to his nephew, the more famous Miltiades the Younger, about 524 BC.", "The peninsula was abandoned to the Persians in 493 BC after the beginning of the Greco-Persian Wars (499–478 BC).The Persians were eventually expelled, after which the peninsula was for a time ruled by Athens, which enrolled it into the Delian League in 478 BC.", "The Athenians established a number of cleruchies on the Thracian Chersonese and sent an additional 1,000 settlers around 448 BC.", "Sparta gained control after the decisive battle of Aegospotami in 404 BC, but the peninsula subsequently reverted to the Athenians.", "During the 4th century BC, the Thracian Chersonese became the focus of a bitter territorial dispute between Athens and Macedon, whose king Philip II sought possession.", "It was eventually ceded to Philip in 338 BC.After the death of Philip's son Alexander the Great in 323 BC, the Thracian Chersonese became the object of contention among Alexander's successors.", "Lysimachus established his capital Lysimachia here.", "In 278 BC, Celtic tribes from Galatia in Asia Minor settled in the area.", "In 196 BC, the Seleucid king Antiochus III seized the peninsula.", "This alarmed the Greeks and prompted them to seek the aid of the Romans, who conquered the Thracian Chersonese, which they gave to their ally Eumenes II of Pergamon in 188 BC.", "At the extinction of the Attalid dynasty in 133 BC it passed again to the Romans, who from 129 BC administered it in the Roman province of Asia.", "It was subsequently made a state-owned territory () and during the reign of the emperor Augustus it was imperial property.Map of the peninsula and its surroundingsThe Thracian Chersonese was part of the Eastern Roman Empire from its foundation in 395 AD.", "In 443 AD, Attila the Hun invaded the Gallipoli Peninsula during one of the last stages of his grand campaign that year.", "He captured both Callipolis and Sestus.", "Aside from a brief period from 1204 to 1235, when it was controlled by the Republic of Venice, the Byzantine Empire ruled the territory until 1356.During the night between 1 and 2 March 1354, a strong earthquake destroyed the city of Gallipoli and its city walls, weakening its defenses.===Ottoman era=======Ottoman conquest====Within a month after the devastating 1354 earthquake the Ottomans besieged and captured the town of Gallipoli, making it the first Ottoman stronghold in Europe and the staging area for Ottoman expansion across the Balkans.", "The Savoyard Crusade recaptured Gallipoli for Byzantium in 1366, but the beleaguered Byzantines were forced to hand it back in September 1376.The Greeks living there were allowed to continue their everyday activities.", "In the 19th century, Gallipoli (, ) was a district () in the Vilayet of Adrianople, with about thirty thousand inhabitants: comprising Greeks, Turks, Armenians and Jews.====Crimean War (1853–1856)====The port of Gallipoli, Gallipoli became a major encampment for British and French forces in 1854 during the Crimean War, and the harbour was also a stopping-off point between the western Mediterranean and Istanbul (formerly Constantinople).In March 1854 British and French engineers constructed an line of defence to protect the peninsula from a possible Russian attack and so secure control of the route to the Mediterranean Sea.====First Balkan War (1912–1913)====During the First Balkan War, the 1913 Battle of Bulair and several minor skirmishes took place where the Ottoman army fought in the Greek villages near Gallipoli\".", "The Report of the International Commission on the Balkan Wars mention destruction and massacres in the area by the Ottoman army against Greek and Bulgarian population.The Ottoman Government, under the pretext that a village was within the firing line, ordered its evacuation within three hours.", "The residents abandoned everything they possessed, left their village and went to Gallipoli.", "Seven of the Greek villagers who stayed two minutes later than the three-hour limit allowed for the evacuation were shot by the soldiers.", "After the end of the Balkan War the exiles were allowed to return.", "But as the Government allowed only the Turks to rebuild their houses and furnish them, the exiled Greeks were compelled to remain in Gallipoli.====World War I: Gallipoli Campaign (1914–1918)====Landing at Gallipoli in April 1915The Sphinx overlooking Anzac CoveDuring World War I (1914-1918), French, British, and allied forces (Australian, New Zealand, Newfoundland, Irish and Indian) fought the Gallipoli campaign (1915-1916) in and near the peninsula, seeking to secure a sea route to relieve their eastern ally, Russia.", "The Ottomans set up defensive fortifications along the peninsula and contained the invading forces.In early 1915, attempting to seize a strategic advantage in World War I by capturing Istanbul (formerly Constantinople), the British authorised an attack on the peninsula by French, British, and British Empire forces.", "The first Australian troops landed at ANZAC Cove early in the morning of 25 April 1915.After eight months of heavy fighting the last Allied soldiers withdrew by 9 January 1916.The campaign, one of the greatest Ottoman victories during the war, is considered by historians as a humiliating Allied failure.", "Turks regard it as a defining moment in their nation's history: a final surge in the defence of the motherland as the Ottoman Empire crumbled.", "The struggle formed the basis for the Turkish War of Independence and the founding of the Republic of Turkey eight years later under President Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, who first rose to prominence as a commander at Gallipoli.The Ottoman Empire instituted the Gallipoli Star as a military decoration in 1915 and awarded it throughout the rest of World War I.The campaign was the first major military action of Australia and New Zealand (or ANZACs) as independent dominions.", "The date of the landing, 25 April, is known as \"ANZAC Day\".", "It remains the most significant commemoration of military casualties and \"returned soldiers\" in Australia and New Zealand.On the Allied side one of the promoters of the expedition was Britain's First Lord of the Admiralty, Winston Churchill, whose bullish optimism caused damage to his reputation that took years to repair.Whilst the underlying strategic concept of the campaign was sound the military forces of the WW1 lacked the logistical, technological and tactical capabilities to undertake an operation of this scope against a determined, well equipped defender.The all arms coordination and logistical capabilities required to successfully prosecute such a campaign would only be achieved three decades later, during the successful Allied amphibious invasions of Europe and the Pacific during WW2.Prior to the Allied landings in April 1915, the Ottoman Empire deported Greek residents from Gallipoli and the surrounding region and from the islands in the sea of Marmara, to the interior where they were at the mercy of hostile Turks.", "The Greeks had little time to pack and the Ottoman authorities permitted them to take only some bedding and the rest was handed over to the Government.", "The Turks then plundered the houses and properties.", "A testimony of a deportee described how the deportees were forced onto crowded steamers, standing-room only, then on disembarking, men of military age were removed (for forced labour in the labour battalions of the Ottoman army).", "The rest were \"scattered… among the farms like ownerless cattle.", "\"The Metropolitan of Gallipoli wrote on 17 July 1915 that the extermination of the Christian refugees was methodical.", "He also mentions that \"The Turks, like beasts of prey, immediately plundered all the Christians' property and carried it off.", "The inhabitants and refugees of my district are entirely without shelter, awaiting to be sent no one knows where ...\".", "Many Greeks died from hunger and there were frequent cases of rape of women and young girls, as well as their forced conversion to Islam.", "In some cases, Muhacirs appeared in the villages even before the Greek inhabitants were deported and stoned the houses and threatened the inhabitants that they would kill them if they did not leave.====Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922)====Greek troops occupied Gallipoli on 4 August 1920 during the Greco-Turkish War of 1919–22, considered part of the Turkish War of Independence.", "After the Armistice of Mudros of 30 October 1918 it became a Greek prefecture centre as ''Kallipolis''.", "However, Greece was forced to cede Eastern Thrace after the Armistice of Mudanya of October 1922.Gallipoli was briefly handed over to British troops on 20 October 1922, but finally returned to Turkish rule on 26 November 1922.In 1920, after the defeat of the Russian White army of General Pyotr Wrangel, a significant number of émigré soldiers and their families evacuated to Gallipoli from the Crimean Peninsula.", "From there, many went to European countries, such as Yugoslavia, where they found refuge.There are now many cemeteries and war memorials on the Gallipoli peninsula.===Turkish Republic===Between 1923 and 1926 Gallipoli became the centre of Gelibolu Province, comprising the districts of Gelibolu, Eceabat, Keşan and Şarköy.", "After the dissolution of the province, it became a district centre in Çanakkale Province." ], [ "Notable people", "*Ahmed Bican (1398 – ), author*Piri Reis (1465/70 – 1553), admiral, geographer and cartographer*Mustafa Âlî (1541–1600), Ottoman historian, politician and writer*Sofia Vembo (1910–1978), Greek singer and actress" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "** Gallipoli Peninsula Historical National Park photos with info* Tours of Gallipoli * Australia's role in the Gallipoli Campaign – Website (ABC and Dept of Veteran's Affairs)" ] ]
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[ [ "Gram stain" ], [ "Introduction", "Micrograph of a gram-positive coccus and a gram-negative rod.A Gram stain of mixed ''Staphylococcus aureus'' (''S.", "aureus'' ATCC 25923, gram-positive cocci, in purple) and ''Escherichia coli'' (''E.", "coli'' ATCC 11775, gram-negative bacilli, in red), the most common Gram stain reference bacteria'''Gram stain''' ('''Gram staining''' or '''Gram's method'''), is a method of staining used to classify bacterial species into two large groups: gram-positive bacteria and gram-negative bacteria.", "It may also be used to diagnose a fungal infection.", "The name comes from the Danish bacteriologist Hans Christian Gram, who developed the technique in 1884.Gram staining differentiates bacteria by the chemical and physical properties of their cell walls.", "Gram-positive cells have a thick layer of peptidoglycan in the cell wall that retains the primary stain, crystal violet.", "Gram-negative cells have a thinner peptidoglycan layer that allows the crystal violet to wash out on addition of ethanol.", "They are stained pink or red by the counterstain, commonly safranin or fuchsine.", "Lugol's iodine solution is always added after addition of crystal violet to strengthen the bonds of the stain with the cell membrane.Gram staining is almost always the first step in the identification of a bacterial group.", "While Gram staining is a valuable diagnostic tool in both clinical and research settings, not all bacteria can be definitively classified by this technique.", "This gives rise to ''gram-variable'' and ''gram-indeterminate'' groups." ], [ "History", "The method is named after its inventor, the Danish scientist Hans Christian Gram (1853–1938), who developed the technique while working with Carl Friedländer in the morgue of the city hospital in Berlin in 1884.Gram devised his technique not for the purpose of distinguishing one type of bacterium from another but to make bacteria more visible in stained sections of lung tissue.", "He published his method in 1884, and included in his short report the observation that the typhus bacillus did not retain the stain.English translation in: Translation is also at:" ], [ "Uses", "Gram stain of ''Candida albicans'' from a vaginal swab.", "The small oval chlamydospores are 2–4 µm in diameter.Gram staining is a bacteriological laboratory technique used to differentiate bacterial species into two large groups (gram-positive and gram-negative) based on the physical properties of their cell walls.", "Gram staining can also be used to diagnose a fungal infection.", "Gram staining is not used to classify archaea, since these microorganisms yield widely varying responses that do not follow their phylogenetic groups.Some organisms are gram-variable (meaning they may stain either negative or positive); some are not stained with either dye used in the Gram technique and are not seen.", "=== Medical ===Example of a workup algorithm of possible bacterial infection in cases with no specifically requested targets (non-bacteria, mycobacteria etc.", "), with most common situations and agents seen in a New England community hospital setting.", "In this setting, Gram stain is used even before agar plate cultures for blood and cerebrospinal fluid specimens.", "Furthermore, for cases having undergone culture, Gram stain is shown as a major determinant for further workup.Gram stains are performed on body fluid or biopsy when infection is suspected.", "Gram stains yield results much more quickly than culturing, and are especially important when infection would make an important difference in the patient's treatment and prognosis; examples are cerebrospinal fluid for meningitis and synovial fluid for septic arthritis." ], [ "Staining mechanism", "Purple-stained gram-positive (left) and pink-stained gram-negative (right)Gram-positive bacteria have a thick mesh-like cell wall made of peptidoglycan (50–90% of cell envelope), and as a result are stained purple by crystal violet, whereas gram-negative bacteria have a thinner layer (10% of cell envelope), so do not retain the purple stain and are counter-stained pink by safranin.", "There are four basic steps of the Gram stain:# Applying a primary stain (crystal violet) to a heat-fixed smear of a bacterial culture.", "Heat fixation kills some bacteria but is mostly used to affix the bacteria to the slide so that they do not rinse out during the staining procedure.# The addition of iodine, which binds to crystal violet and traps it in the cell# Rapid decolorization with ethanol or acetone# Counterstaining with safranin.", "Carbol fuchsin is sometimes substituted for safranin since it more intensely stains anaerobic bacteria, but it is less commonly used as a counterstain.+Summary of Gram stainApplication of Reagent Cell color Gram-positive Gram-negative Primary dye crystal violet purple purple mordant iodine purple purple Decolorizer alcohol/acetone purple colorless Counter stain safranin/carbol fuchsin purple pink or redCrystal violet (CV) dissociates in aqueous solutions into and chloride () ions.", "These ions penetrate the cell wall of both gram-positive and gram-negative cells.", "The ion interacts with negatively charged components of bacterial cells and stains the cells purple.Iodide ( or ) interacts with and forms large complexes of crystal violet and iodine (CV–I) within the inner and outer layers of the cell.", "Iodine is often referred to as a mordant, but is a trapping agent that prevents the removal of the CV–I complex and, therefore, colors the cell.When a decolorizer such as alcohol or acetone is added, it interacts with the lipids of the cell membrane.", "A gram-negative cell loses its outer lipopolysaccharide membrane, and the inner peptidoglycan layer is left exposed.", "The CV–I complexes are washed from the gram-negative cell along with the outer membrane.", "In contrast, a gram-positive cell becomes dehydrated from an ethanol treatment.", "The large CV–I complexes become trapped within the gram-positive cell due to the multilayered nature of its peptidoglycan.", "The decolorization step is critical and must be timed correctly; the crystal violet stain is removed from both gram-positive and negative cells if the decolorizing agent is left on too long (a matter of seconds).After decolorization, the gram-positive cell remains purple and the gram-negative cell loses its purple color.", "Counterstain, which is usually positively charged safranin or basic fuchsine, is applied last to give decolorized gram-negative bacteria a pink or red color.", "Both gram-positive bacteria and gram-negative bacteria pick up the counterstain.", "The counterstain, however, is unseen on gram-positive bacteria because of the darker crystal violet stain." ], [ "Examples", "=== Gram-positive bacteria ===Gram-stain of gram-positive streptococci surrounded by pus cellsGram-positive bacteria generally have a single membrane (''monoderm'') surrounded by a thick peptidoglycan.This rule is followed by two phyla: Bacillota (except for the classes Mollicutes and Negativicutes) and the Actinomycetota.", "In contrast, members of the Chloroflexota (green non-sulfur bacteria) are monoderms but possess a thin or absent (class Dehalococcoidetes) peptidoglycan and can stain negative, positive or indeterminate; members of the Deinococcota stain positive but are diderms with a thick peptidoglycan.Historically, the gram-positive forms made up the phylum Firmicutes, a name now used for the largest group.", "It includes many well-known genera such as ''Lactobacillus, Bacillus'', ''Listeria'', ''Staphylococcus'', ''Streptococcus'', ''Enterococcus'', and ''Clostridium''.", "It has also been expanded to include the Mollicutes, bacteria such as ''Mycoplasma and Thermoplasma'' that lack cell walls and so cannot be Gram-stained, but are derived from such forms.Some bacteria have cell walls which are particularly adept at retaining stains.", "These will appear positive by Gram stain even though they are not closely related to other gram-positive bacteria.", "These are called acid-fast bacteria, and can only be differentiated from other gram-positive bacteria by special staining procedures.=== Gram-negative bacteria ===Gram negative Neisseria gonorrhoeae and pus cellsGram-negative bacteria generally possess a thin layer of peptidoglycan between two membranes (''diderm'').", "Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is the most abundant antigen on the cell surface of most gram-negative bacteria, contributing up to 80% of the outer membrane of ''E.", "coli'' and ''Salmonella''.", "Most bacterial phyla are gram-negative, including the cyanobacteria, green sulfur bacteria, and most Pseudomonadota (exceptions being some members of the Rickettsiales and the insect-endosymbionts of the Enterobacteriales).=== Gram-variable and gram-indeterminate bacteria ===Some bacteria, after staining with the Gram stain, yield a gram-variable pattern: a mix of pink and purple cells are seen.", "In cultures of ''Bacillus, Butyrivibrio'', and ''Clostridium'', a decrease in peptidoglycan thickness during growth coincides with an increase in the number of cells that stain gram-negative.", "In addition, in all bacteria stained using the Gram stain, the age of the culture may influence the results of the stain.Gram-indeterminate bacteria do not respond predictably to Gram staining and, therefore, cannot be determined as either gram-positive or gram-negative.", "Examples include many species of ''Mycobacterium'', including ''Mycobacterium bovis'', ''Mycobacterium leprae'' and ''Mycobacterium tuberculosis'', the latter two of which are the causative agents of leprosy and tuberculosis, respectively.", "Bacteria of the genus ''Mycoplasma'' lack a cell wall around their cell membranes, which means they do not stain by Gram's method and are resistant to the antibiotics that target cell wall synthesis." ], [ "Orthographic note", "The term ''Gram staining'' is derived from the surname of Hans Christian Gram; the eponym (Gram) is therefore capitalized but not the common noun (stain) as is usual for scientific terms.", "The initial letters of ''gram-positive'' and ''gram-negative'', which are eponymous adjectives, can be either capital ''G'' or lowercase ''g'', depending on what style guide (if any) governs the document being written.", "Lowercase style is used by the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and other style regimens such as the AMA style.", "Dictionaries may use lowercase, uppercase, or both.", "Uppercase ''Gram-positive'' or ''Gram-negative'' usage is also common in many scientific journal articles and publications.", "When articles are submitted to journals, each journal may or may not apply house style to the postprint version.", "Preprint versions contain whichever style the author happened to use.", "Even style regimens that use lowercase for the adjectives ''gram-positive'' and ''gram-negative'' still typically use capital for ''Gram stain''." ], [ "See also", "* Bacterial cell structure* Ziehl–Neelsen stain" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Gram staining technique video" ] ]
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[ [ "Gram-positive bacteria" ], [ "Introduction", "Rod-shaped gram-positive ''Bacillus anthracis'' bacteria in a cerebrospinal fluid sample stand out from round white blood cells, which also accept the crystal violet stain.Violet-stained gram-positive cocci and pink-stained gram-negative bacilliIn bacteriology, '''gram-positive bacteria''' are bacteria that give a positive result in the Gram stain test, which is traditionally used to quickly classify bacteria into two broad categories according to their type of cell wall.The Gram stain is used by microbiologists to place bacteria into two main categories, Gram-positive (+) and Gram-negative (-).", "Gram-positive bacteria have a thick layer of peptidoglycan within the cell wall, and Gram-negative bacteria have a thin layer of peptidoglycan.Gram-positive bacteria take up the crystal violet stain used in the test, and then appear to be purple-coloured when seen through an optical microscope.", "This is because the thick layer of peptidoglycan in the bacterial cell wall retains the stain after it is washed away from the rest of the sample, in the decolorization stage of the test.Conversely, gram-negative bacteria cannot retain the violet stain after the decolorization step; alcohol used in this stage degrades the outer membrane of gram-negative cells, making the cell wall more porous and incapable of retaining the crystal violet stain.", "Their peptidoglycan layer is much thinner and sandwiched between an inner cell membrane and a bacterial outer membrane, causing them to take up the counterstain (safranin or fuchsine) and appear red or pink.Despite their thicker peptidoglycan layer, gram-positive bacteria are more receptive to certain cell wall–targeting antibiotics than gram-negative bacteria, due to the absence of the outer membrane." ], [ "Characteristics", "Gram-positive and gram-negative cell wall structureStructure of gram-positive cell wallIn general, the following characteristics are present in gram-positive bacteria:# Cytoplasmic lipid membrane# Thick peptidoglycan layer# Teichoic acids and lipoids are present, forming lipoteichoic acids, which serve as chelating agents, and also for certain types of adherence.# Peptidoglycan chains are cross-linked to form rigid cell walls by a bacterial enzyme DD-transpeptidase.# A much smaller volume of periplasm than that in gram-negative bacteria.Only some species have a capsule, usually consisting of polysaccharides.", "Also, only some species are flagellates, and when they do have flagella, have only two basal body rings to support them, whereas gram-negative have four.", "Both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria commonly have a surface layer called an S-layer.", "In gram-positive bacteria, the S-layer is attached to the peptidoglycan layer.", "Gram-negative bacteria's S-layer is attached directly to the outer membrane.", "Specific to gram-positive bacteria is the presence of teichoic acids in the cell wall.", "Some of these are lipoteichoic acids, which have a lipid component in the cell membrane that can assist in anchoring the peptidoglycan." ], [ "Classification", "Along with cell shape, Gram staining is a rapid method used to differentiate bacterial species.", "Such staining, together with growth requirement and antibiotic susceptibility testing, and other macroscopic and physiologic tests, forms a basis for practical classification and subdivision of the bacteria (e.g., see figure and pre-1990 versions of ''Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology'').660pxHistorically, the kingdom Monera was divided into four divisions based primarily on Gram staining: Bacillota (positive in staining), Gracilicutes (negative in staining), Mollicutes (neutral in staining) and Mendocutes (variable in staining).", "Based on 16S ribosomal RNA phylogenetic studies of the late microbiologist Carl Woese and collaborators and colleagues at the University of Illinois, the monophyly of the gram-positive bacteria was challenged, with major implications for the therapeutic and general study of these organisms.", "Based on molecular studies of the 16S sequences, Woese recognised twelve bacterial phyla.", "Two of these were gram-positive and were divided on the proportion of the guanine and cytosine content in their DNA.", "The high G + C phylum was made up of the Actinobacteria, and the low G + C phylum contained the Firmicutes.", "The Actinomycetota include the ''Corynebacterium'', ''Mycobacterium'', ''Nocardia'' and ''Streptomyces'' genera.", "The (low G + C) Bacillota, have a 45–60% GC content, but this is lower than that of the Actinomycetota." ], [ "Importance of the outer cell membrane in bacterial classification", "The structure of peptidoglycan, composed of N-acetylglucosamine and N-acetylmuramic acidAlthough bacteria are traditionally divided into two main groups, gram-positive and gram-negative, based on their Gram stain retention property, this classification system is ambiguous as it refers to three distinct aspects (staining result, envelope organization, taxonomic group), which do not necessarily coalesce for some bacterial species.", "The gram-positive and gram-negative staining response is also not a reliable characteristic as these two kinds of bacteria do not form phylogenetic coherent groups.", "However, although Gram staining response is an empirical criterion, its basis lies in the marked differences in the ultrastructure and chemical composition of the bacterial cell wall, marked by the absence or presence of an outer lipid membrane.All gram-positive bacteria are bounded by a single-unit lipid membrane, and, in general, they contain a thick layer (20–80 nm) of peptidoglycan responsible for retaining the Gram stain.", "A number of other bacteria—that are bounded by a single membrane, but stain gram-negative due to either lack of the peptidoglycan layer, as in the mycoplasmas, or their inability to retain the Gram stain because of their cell wall composition—also show close relationship to the gram-positive bacteria.", "For the bacterial cells bounded by a single cell membrane, the term ''monoderm bacteria'' has been proposed.In contrast to gram-positive bacteria, all typical gram-negative bacteria are bounded by a cytoplasmic membrane and an outer cell membrane; they contain only a thin layer of peptidoglycan (2–3 nm) between these membranes.", "The presence of inner and outer cell membranes defines a new compartment in these cells: the periplasmic space or the periplasmic compartment.", "These bacteria have been designated as diderm bacteria.", "The distinction between the monoderm and diderm bacteria is supported by conserved signature indels in a number of important proteins (viz.", "DnaK, GroEL).", "Of these two structurally distinct groups of bacteria, monoderms are indicated to be ancestral.", "Based upon a number of observations including that the gram-positive bacteria are the major producers of antibiotics and that, in general, gram-negative bacteria are resistant to them, it has been proposed that the outer cell membrane in gram-negative bacteria (diderms) has evolved as a protective mechanism against antibiotic selection pressure.", "Some bacteria, such as ''Deinococcus'', which stain gram-positive due to the presence of a thick peptidoglycan layer and also possess an outer cell membrane are suggested as intermediates in the transition between monoderm (gram-positive) and diderm (gram-negative) bacteria.", "The diderm bacteria can also be further differentiated between simple diderms lacking lipopolysaccharide, the archetypical diderm bacteria where the outer cell membrane contains lipopolysaccharide, and the diderm bacteria where outer cell membrane is made up of mycolic acid.=== Exceptions ===In general, gram-positive bacteria are monoderms and have a single lipid bilayer whereas gram-negative bacteria are diderms and have two bilayers.", "Exceptions include:* Some taxa lack peptidoglycan (such as the class Mollicutes, some members of the Rickettsiales, and the insect-endosymbionts of the Enterobacteriales) and are gram-indeterminate.", "* The Deinococcota have gram-positive stains, although they are structurally similar to gram-negative bacteria with two layers.", "* The Chloroflexota have a single layer, yet (with some exceptions) stain negative.", "Two related phyla to the Chloroflexi, the TM7 clade and the Ktedonobacteria, are also monoderms.Some Bacillota species are not gram-positive.", "The class Negativicutes, which includes ''Selenomonas'', are diderm and stain gram-negative.", "Additionally, a number of bacterial taxa (viz.", "Negativicutes, Fusobacteriota, Synergistota, and Elusimicrobiota) that are either part of the phylum Bacillota or branch in its proximity are found to possess a diderm cell structure.", "However, a conserved signature indel (CSI) in the HSP60 (GroEL) protein distinguishes all traditional phyla of gram-negative bacteria (e.g., Pseudomonadota, Aquificota, Chlamydiota, Bacteroidota, Chlorobiota, \"Cyanobacteria\", Fibrobacterota, Verrucomicrobiota, Planctomycetota, Spirochaetota, Acidobacteriota, etc.)", "from these other atypical diderm bacteria, as well as other phyla of monoderm bacteria (e.g., Actinomycetota, Bacillota, Thermotogota, Chloroflexota, etc.).", "The presence of this CSI in all sequenced species of conventional LPS (lipopolysaccharide)-containing gram-negative bacterial phyla provides evidence that these phyla of bacteria form a monophyletic clade and that no loss of the outer membrane from any species from this group has occurred." ], [ "Pathogenicity", "Colonies of a gram-positive pathogen of the oral cavity, ''Actinomyces'' sp.In the classical sense, six gram-positive genera are typically pathogenic in humans.", "Two of these, ''Streptococcus'' and ''Staphylococcus'', are cocci (sphere-shaped).", "The remaining organisms are bacilli (rod-shaped) and can be subdivided based on their ability to form spores.", "The non-spore formers are ''Corynebacterium'' and ''Listeria'' (a coccobacillus), whereas ''Bacillus'' and ''Clostridium'' produce spores.", "The spore-forming bacteria can again be divided based on their respiration: ''Bacillus'' is a facultative anaerobe, while ''Clostridium'' is an obligate anaerobe.", "Also, ''Rathybacter'', ''Leifsonia'', and ''Clavibacter'' are three gram-positive genera that cause plant disease.", "Gram-positive bacteria are capable of causing serious and sometimes fatal infections in newborn infants.", "Novel species of clinically relevant gram-positive bacteria also include ''Catabacter hongkongensis'', which is an emerging pathogen belonging to Bacillota." ], [ "Bacterial transformation", "Transformation is one of three processes for horizontal gene transfer, in which exogenous genetic material passes from a donor bacterium to a recipient bacterium, the other two processes being conjugation (transfer of genetic material between two bacterial cells in direct contact) and transduction (injection of donor bacterial DNA by a bacteriophage virus into a recipient host bacterium).", "In transformation, the genetic material passes through the intervening medium, and uptake is completely dependent on the recipient bacterium.As of 2014 about 80 species of bacteria were known to be capable of transformation, about evenly divided between gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria; the number might be an overestimate since several of the reports are supported by single papers.", "Transformation among gram-positive bacteria has been studied in medically important species such as ''Streptococcus pneumoniae'', ''Streptococcus mutans'', ''Staphylococcus aureus'' and ''Streptococcus sanguinis'' and in gram-positive soil bacterium ''Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus cereus''." ], [ "Orthographic note", "The adjectives ''gram-positive'' and ''gram-negative'' derive from the surname of Hans Christian Gram; as eponymous adjectives, their initial letter can be either capital ''G'' or lower-case ''g'', depending on which style guide (e.g., that of the CDC), if any, governs the document being written.", "This is further explained at ''Gram staining § Orthographic note''." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * 3D structures of proteins associated with plasma membrane of gram-positive bacteria* 3D structures of proteins associated with outer membrane of gram-positive bacteria" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gram-negative bacteria" ], [ "Introduction", "Microscopic image of gram-negative ''Pseudomonas aeruginosa'' bacteria (pink-red rods)'''Gram-negative bacteria''' are bacteria that do not retain the crystal violet stain used in the Gram staining method of bacterial differentiation.", "Their defining characteristic is their cell envelope, which consists of a thin peptidoglycan cell wall sandwiched between an inner (cytoplasmic) membrane and an outer membrane.", "These bacteria are found in all environments that support life on Earth.Within this category, notable species include the model organism ''Escherichia coli'', along with various pathogenic bacteria, such as ''Pseudomonas aeruginosa'', ''Chlamydia trachomatis'', and ''Yersinia pestis''.", "They pose significant challenges in the medical field due to their outer membrane, which acts as a protective barrier against numerous antibiotics (including penicillin), detergents that would normally damage the inner cell membrane, and the antimicrobial enzyme lysozyme produced by animals as part of their innate immune system.", "Furthermore, the outer leaflet of this membrane contains a complex lipopolysaccharide (LPS) whose lipid A component can trigger a toxic reaction when the bacteria are lysed by immune cells.", "This reaction may lead to septic shock, resulting in low blood pressure, respiratory failure, reduced oxygen delivery, and lactic acidosis.Several classes of antibiotics have been developed to target gram-negative bacteria, including aminopenicillins, ureidopenicillins, cephalosporins, beta-lactam-betalactamase inhibitor combinations (such as piperacillin-tazobactam), folate antagonists, quinolones, and carbapenems.", "Many of these antibiotics also cover gram-positive bacteria.", "The antibiotics that specifically target gram-negative organisms include aminoglycosides, monobactams (such as aztreonam), and ciprofloxacin." ], [ "Characteristics", "Gram-negative cell wall structureGram-positive and -negative bacteria are differentiated chiefly by their cell wall structureConventional gram-negative (LPS-diderm) bacteria display :* An inner cell membrane is present (cytoplasmic)* A thin peptidoglycan layer is present (this is much thicker in gram-positive bacteria)* Has outer membrane containing lipopolysaccharides (LPS, which consists of lipid A, core polysaccharide, and O antigen) in its outer leaflet and phospholipids in the inner leaflet* Porins exist in the outer membrane, which act like pores for particular molecules* Between the outer membrane and the cytoplasmic membrane there is a space filled with a concentrated gel-like substance called periplasm* The S-layer is directly attached to the outer membrane rather than to the peptidoglycan* If present, flagella have four supporting rings instead of two* Teichoic acids or lipoteichoic acids are absent* Lipoproteins are attached to the polysaccharide backbone* Some contain Braun's lipoprotein, which serves as a link between the outer membrane and the peptidoglycan chain by a covalent bond* Most, with few exceptions, do not form spores" ], [ "Classification", "Along with cell shape, Gram staining is a rapid diagnostic tool and once was used to group species at the subdivision of Bacteria.Historically, the kingdom Monera was divided into four divisions based on Gram staining: Firmacutes (+), Gracillicutes (−), Mollicutes (0) and Mendocutes (var.", ").Since 1987, the monophyly of the gram-negative bacteria has been disproven with molecular studies.", "However some authors, such as Cavalier-Smith still treat them as a monophyletic taxon (though not a clade; his definition of monophyly requires a single common ancestor but does not require holophyly, the property that all descendants be encompassed by the taxon) and refer to the group as a subkingdom \"Negibacteria\"." ], [ "Taxonomy", "Bacteria are traditionally classified based on their Gram-staining response into the gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria.", "Having just one membrane, the gram-positive bacteria are also known as monoderm bacteria, while gram-negative bacteria, having two membranes, are also known as '''diderm bacteria'''.", "It was traditionally thought that the groups represent lineages, i.e., the extra membrane only evolved once, such that gram-negative bacteria are more closely related to one another than to any gram-positive bacteria.", "While this is often true, the classification system breaks down in some cases, with lineage groupings not matching the staining result.", "Thus, Gram staining cannot be reliably used to assess familial relationships of bacteria.", "Nevertheless, staining often gives reliable information about the composition of the cell membrane, distinguishing between the presence or absence of an outer lipid membrane.Of these two structurally distinct groups of prokaryotic organisms, monoderm prokaryotes are thought to be ancestral.", "Based upon a number of different observations, including that the gram-positive bacteria are the most sensitive to antibiotics and that the gram-negative bacteria are, in general, resistant to antibiotics, it has been proposed that the outer cell membrane in gram-negative bacteria (diderms) evolved as a protective mechanism against antibiotic selection pressure.", "Some bacteria such as ''Deinococcus'', which stain gram-positive due to the presence of a thick peptidoglycan layer, but also possess an outer cell membrane are suggested as intermediates in the transition between monoderm (gram-positive) and diderm (gram-negative) bacteria.", "The diderm bacteria can also be further differentiated between simple diderms lacking lipopolysaccharide (LPS); the archetypical diderm bacteria, in which the outer cell membrane contains lipopolysaccharide; and the diderm bacteria, in which the outer cell membrane is made up of mycolic acid (e. g. ''Mycobacterium'').The conventional LPS-''diderm'' group of gram-negative bacteria (e.g., Pseudomonadota, Aquificota, Chlamydiota, Bacteroidota, Chlorobiota, \"Cyanobacteria\", Fibrobacterota, Verrucomicrobiota, Planctomycetota, Spirochaetota, Acidobacteriota; \"Hydrobacteria\") are uniquely identified by a few conserved signature indel (CSI) in the HSP60 (GroEL) protein.", "In addition, a number of bacterial taxa (including Negativicutes, Fusobacteriota, Synergistota, and Elusimicrobiota) that are either part of the phylum Bacillota (a monoderm group) or branches in its proximity are also found to possess a diderm cell structure.", "They lack the GroEL signature.", "The presence of this CSI in all sequenced species of conventional lipopolysaccharide-containing gram-negative bacterial phyla provides evidence that these phyla of bacteria form a monophyletic clade and that no loss of the outer membrane from any species from this group has occurred.=== Example species ===The proteobacteria are a major superphylum of gram-negative bacteria, including ''E.", "coli'', ''Salmonella'', ''Shigella'', and other Enterobacteriaceae, ''Pseudomonas'', ''Moraxella'', ''Helicobacter'', ''Stenotrophomonas'', ''Bdellovibrio'', acetic acid bacteria, ''Legionella'' etc.", "Other notable groups of gram-negative bacteria include the cyanobacteria, spirochaetes, green sulfur, and green non-sulfur bacteria.Medically-relevant gram-negative cocci include the four types that cause a sexually transmitted disease (''Neisseria gonorrhoeae''), a meningitis (''Neisseria meningitidis''), and respiratory symptoms (''Moraxella catarrhalis'', ''Haemophilus influenzae'').Medically relevant gram-negative bacilli include a multitude of species.", "Some of them cause primarily respiratory problems (''Klebsiella pneumoniae'', ''Legionella pneumophila'', ''Pseudomonas aeruginosa''), primarily urinary problems (''Escherichia coli'', ''Proteus mirabilis'', ''Enterobacter cloacae'', ''Serratia marcescens''), and primarily gastrointestinal problems (''Helicobacter pylori'', ''Salmonella enteritidis'', ''Salmonella typhi'').Gram-negative bacteria associated with hospital-acquired infections include ''Acinetobacter baumannii'', which cause bacteremia, secondary meningitis, and ventilator-associated pneumonia in hospital intensive-care units." ], [ "Bacterial transformation", "Transformation is one of three processes for horizontal gene transfer, in which exogenous genetic material passes from one bacterium to another, the other two being conjugation (transfer of genetic material between two bacterial cells in direct contact) and transduction (injection of foreign DNA by a bacteriophage virus into the host bacterium).", "In transformation, the genetic material passes through the intervening medium, and uptake is completely dependent on the recipient bacterium.As of 2014 about 80 species of bacteria were known to be capable of transformation, about evenly divided between gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria; the number might be an overestimate since several of the reports are supported by single papers.", "Transformation has been studied in medically important gram-negative bacteria species such as ''Helicobacter pylori'', ''Legionella pneumophila'', ''Neisseria meningitidis'', ''Neisseria gonorrhoeae'', ''Haemophilus influenzae'' and ''Vibrio cholerae''.", "It has also been studied in gram-negative species found in soil such as ''Pseudomonas stutzeri'', ''Acinetobacter baylyi'', and gram-negative plant pathogens such as ''Ralstonia solanacearum'' and ''Xylella fastidiosa''." ], [ "Role in disease", "Example of a workup algorithm of possible bacterial infection in cases with no specifically requested targets (non-bacteria, mycobacteria etc.", "), with most common situations and agents seen in a New England setting.", "Clinically significant Gram-negative bacteria are usually rods, as shown near bottom right.", "Although some gram-negative bacteria can be recognized by \"bench tests\", diagnosis in the modern microbiology lab usually involves MALDI-TOF and/or multitarget assay.One of the several unique characteristics of gram-negative bacteria is the structure of the bacterial outer membrane.", "The outer leaflet of this membrane contains lipopolysaccharide (LPS), whose lipid A portion acts as an endotoxin.", "If gram-negative bacteria enter the circulatory system, LPS can trigger an innate immune response, activating the immune system and producing cytokines (hormonal regulators).", "This leads to inflammation and can cause a toxic reaction, resulting in fever, an increased respiratory rate, and low blood pressure.", "That is why some infections with gram-negative bacteria can lead to life-threatening septic shock.The outer membrane protects the bacteria from several antibiotics, dyes, and detergents that would normally damage either the inner membrane or the cell wall (made of peptidoglycan).", "The outer membrane provides these bacteria with resistance to lysozyme and penicillin.", "The periplasmic space (space between the two cell membranes) also contains enzymes which break down or modify antibiotics.", "Drugs commonly used to treat gram negative infections include amino, carboxy and ureido penicillins (ampicillin, amoxicillin, pipercillin, ticarcillin) these drugs may be combined with beta-lactamase inhibitors to combat the presence of enzymes that can digest these drugs (known as beta-lactamases) in the peri-plasmic space.", "Other classes of drugs that have gram negative spectrum include cephalosporins, monobactams (aztreonam), aminoglycosides, quinolones, macrolides, chloramphenicol, folate antagonists, and carbapenems." ], [ "Orthographic note", "The adjectives ''gram-positive'' and ''gram-negative'' derive from the surname of Hans Christian Gram, a Danish bacteriologist; as eponymous adjectives, their initial letter can be either capital ''G'' or lower-case ''g'', depending on which style guide (e.g., that of the CDC), if any, governs the document being written.", "This is further explained at ''Gram staining § Orthographic note''." ], [ "See also", "* Autochaperone* Gram-variable and gram-indeterminate bacteria* OMPdb (2011)* Outer membrane receptor" ], [ "References", "* ===Notes===" ], [ "External links", "* 3D structures of proteins from inner membranes of Ellie Wyithe's gram-negative bacteria" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Greyhound" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''English''' '''Greyhound''', or simply the '''Greyhound''', is a breed of dog, a sighthound which has been bred for coursing, greyhound racing and hunting.", "Since the rise in large-scale adoption of retired racing Greyhounds, the breed has seen a resurgence in popularity as a family pet.Greyhounds are defined as the fastest dog breed in the world, a tall, muscular, smooth-coated, \"S-shaped\" type of sighthound with a long tail and tough feet.", "Greyhounds are a separate breed from other related sighthounds, such as the Italian greyhound.The Greyhound is a gentle and intelligent breed whose combination of long, powerful legs, deep chest, flexible spine, and slim build allows it to reach average race speeds exceeding .", "The Greyhound can reach a full speed of at least (47 Mph) as recorded by Shall Not on the Richmond straight track on April 29, 2023 for the second sectional between 110m and 220m" ], [ "Appearance", "A blue female greyhoundMales are usually tall at the withers, and weigh on average .", "Females tend to be smaller, with shoulder heights ranging from and weights from , although weights can be above and below these average weights.", "Greyhounds have very short fur, which is easy to maintain.", "There are approximately 30 recognized color forms, of which variations of white, brindle, fawn (pale tan to dark deer-red), black, red, and blue (gray) can appear uniquely or in combination.", "Greyhounds are dolichocephalic, with a skull which is relatively long in comparison to its breadth, and an elongated muzzle." ], [ "Pets", "Margaret Gorman with her pet Greyhound, \"Long Goodie\", in April 1925Greyhounds are considered to make good pets, and are known for their loving nature and enjoyment of the company of humans or other dogs, though how well a Greyhound tolerates the company of other small animals such as cats depends on the individual dog's personality.", "Greyhounds will typically chase small animals; most Greyhounds will easily be able to coexist happily with any other dog breeds as well as cats and other pets.Greyhounds live most happily as pets in quiet environments.", "They do well in families with children, as long as the children are taught to treat the dog properly with politeness and appropriate respect.", "Greyhounds have a sensitive nature, and gentle commands work best as training methods.Occasionally, a Greyhound may bark; however, they are generally not barkers, which is beneficial in suburban environments, and they are usually as friendly to strangers as they are with their own families.", "A 2008 University of Pennsylvania study found that Greyhounds are one of the least aggressive dog breeds towards strangers, owners, and other dogs.A common misconception regarding Greyhounds is that they are hyperactive.", "This is usually not the case with retired racing Greyhounds.", "Greyhounds can live comfortably as apartment dogs, as they do not require much space and sleep almost 18 hours per day.", "Due to their calm temperament, Greyhounds can make better \"apartment dogs\" than smaller, more active breeds.Many Greyhound adoption groups recommend that owners keep their Greyhounds on a leash whenever outdoors, except in fully enclosed areas.", "This is due to their prey drive, their speed, and the assertion that Greyhounds have no road sense.", "In some jurisdictions, it is illegal for Greyhounds to be allowed off leash, even in off-leash dog parks.", "Due to their size and strength, adoption groups recommend that fences be between tall, to prevent Greyhounds from jumping over them.", "As with most breeds being rehomed, Greyhounds that are adopted after racing tend to need time to adjust to their new lives with a human family.", "Many guides and books have been published to aid Greyhound owners in helping their pet get comfortable in their new home." ], [ "Service dogs", "Greyhounds are very intelligent and can be trained as service dogs for people with disabilities because of their size, temperament, and strength.", "They also excel at assisting with mobility tasks." ], [ "Sport", "=== Coursing ===\"Gray-Hound\" in a 1658 English woodcutThe original primary use of Greyhounds, both in the British Isles and on the Continent of Europe, was in the coursing of deer for meat and sport; later, specifically in Britain, they specialized in competition hare coursing.", "Some Greyhounds are still used for coursing, although artificial lure sports like lure coursing and racing are far more common and popular.", "Many leading 300- to 550-yard sprinters have bloodlines traceable back through Irish sires, within a few generations of racers that won events such as the Irish Coursing Derby or the Irish Cup.=== Racing ===Until the early 20th century, Greyhounds were principally bred and trained for hunting and coursing.", "During the 1920s, modern greyhound racing was introduced into the United States, England (1926), Northern Ireland (1927), Scotland (1927), and the Republic of Ireland (1927).", "Australia also has a significant racing culture.In the United States, aside from professional racing, many Greyhounds enjoy success on the amateur race track.", "Organizations like the Large Gazehound Racing Association (LGRA) and the National Oval Track Racing Association (NOTRA) provide opportunities for Greyhounds to compete." ], [ "Companion", "Historically, the Greyhound has, since its first appearance as a hunting type and breed, enjoyed a specific degree of fame and definition in Western literature, heraldry and art as the most elegant or noble companion and hunter of the canine world.", "In modern times, the professional racing industry, with its large numbers of track-bred greyhounds, as well as international adoption programs aimed at re-homing dogs has redefined the breed as a sporting dog that will supply friendly companionship in its retirement.", "This has been prevalent in recent years due to track closures in the United States.", "Outside the racing industry and coursing community, the Kennel Clubs' registered breed still enjoys a modest following as a show dog and pet." ], [ "Health and physiology", "Illustration of the Greyhound skeletonGreyhounds are typically a healthy and long-lived breed, and hereditary illness is rare.", "Some Greyhounds have been known to develop esophageal achalasia, gastric dilatation volvulus (also known as bloat), and osteosarcoma.", "Because the Greyhound's lean physique makes it ill-suited to sleeping on hard surfaces, owners of both racing and companion Greyhounds generally provide soft bedding; without bedding, Greyhounds are prone to develop painful skin sores.", "The average lifespan of a Greyhound is 10 to 14 years.The key to the speed of a Greyhound can be found in its light but muscular build, large heart, highest percentage of fast twitch muscle of any breed, double suspension gallop, and extreme flexibility of its spine.", "\"Double suspension rotary gallop\" describes the fastest running gait of the Greyhound in which all four feet are free from the ground in two phases, contracted and extended, during each full stride.Due to the Greyhound's unique physiology and anatomy, a veterinarian who understands the issues relevant to the breed is generally needed when the dogs need treatment, particularly when anesthesia is required.", "Greyhounds cannot metabolize barbiturate-based anesthesia in the same way that other breeds can because their livers have lower amounts of oxidative enzymes.", "Greyhounds demonstrate unusual blood chemistry, which can be misread by veterinarians not familiar with the breed and can result in an incorrect diagnosis.Greyhounds are very sensitive to insecticides.", "Many vets do not recommend the use of flea collars or flea spray on Greyhounds if the product is pyrethrin-based.", "Products like Advantage, Frontline, Lufenuron, and Amitraz are safe for use on Greyhounds, however, and are very effective in controlling fleas and ticks.Greyhounds have higher levels of red blood cells than other breeds.", "Since red blood cells carry oxygen to the muscles, this higher level allows the hound to move larger quantities of oxygen faster from the lungs to the muscles.", "Conversely, Greyhounds have lower levels of platelets than other breeds.Delayed haemorrhage following trauma or routine surgery is more common in Greyhounds, with one study reporting significant haemorrhage in 26% of Greyhounds following routine gonadectomy, compared to 0-2% in other dog breeds.", "This is often termed greyhound fibrinolytic syndrome or breed-associated hyperfibrinolysis, where in there is a disorder of the fibrinolysis system without derangement of the primary or secondary coagulation systems, and is also not related to platelet count.", "In this syndrome there is initial adequate hemostasis following trauma or routine surgical procedures, however 36–48 hours later the site undergoes inappropriate hyperfibrinolysis.", "This results in delayed bleeding which can result in significant morbidity and mortality.", "Standard pre-operative blood work does not identify those at risk It is distinct from common bleeding disorders in other breeds such von Willebrand's disease, which is uncommon in Greyhounds.", "Although high-quality research data are lacking, it is thought that this condition can be prevented and treated by administering antifibrinolytic medication such as tranexamic acid via the oral or parenteral route.", "Intensive care and blood product administration may also be required in severe cases.Greyhounds do not have undercoats and thus are less likely to trigger dog allergies in humans (they are sometimes incorrectly referred to as \"hypoallergenic\").", "The lack of an undercoat, coupled with a general lack of body fat, also makes Greyhounds more susceptible to extreme temperatures (both hot and cold); because of this, they must be housed inside.", "Some Greyhounds are susceptible to corns on their paw pads; a variety of methods are used to treat them." ], [ "History", "Bronze figure probably of a (sighthound), Roman period (50–270 AD)Sighthounds unleashed in Paolo Uccello's ''Night Hunt'' (Ashmolean Museum)===Origins===The ancient skeletal remains of a dog identified as being of the greyhound/saluki form were excavated at Tell Brak in modern Syria, and dated as being approximately 4,000 years old.Historical literature by Arrian on the vertragus (from the Latin , a word of Celtic origin), the first recorded sighthound in Europe and possible antecedent of the Greyhound, suggested that its origin lies with the Celts from Eastern Europe or Eurasia.", "Systematic archaeozoology of Britain conducted in 1974 ruled out the existence of a true greyhound-type in Britain prior to the Roman occupation, which was further confirmed in 2000.Written evidence from the early period of Roman occupation, the Vindolanda tablets (No.", "594), demonstrate that the occupying troops from Continental Europe either had with them in the North of England, or certainly knew of, the vertragus and its hunting use.An archaeological find at the Chotěbuz fort in the Czech Republic of sighthound type, \"gracile\" bones dating from the 8th to 9th century AD, anatomically defined as those of a high \"greyhound\", were also genetically compared with the modern Greyhound and other sighthounds, and found to be almost completely identical with the modern Greyhound breed, with the exception of only four deletions and one substitution in the DNA sequences, which were interpreted as differences probably arising from 11 centuries of breeding of this type of dog.All modern pedigree Greyhounds derive from the Greyhound stock recorded and registered first in private studbooks in the 18th century, then in public studbooks in the 19th century, which ultimately were registered with coursing, racing, and kennel club authorities of the United Kingdom.", "Historically, these sighthounds were used primarily for hunting in the open where their pursuit speed and keen eyesight were essential.Contemporary illustration of Saint Guinefort, a greyhound sainted by people in the Dombes region of France around the 13th century===Etymology===The name \"Greyhound\" is generally believed to come from the Old English .", "is the antecedent of the modern \"hound\", but the meaning of is undetermined, other than in reference to dogs in Old English and Old Norse.", "The word \"hund\" is still used for dogs in general in Scandinavian languages today.", "Its origin does not appear to have any common root with the modern word \"grey\" for color, and indeed the Greyhound is seen with a wide variety of coat colors.", "The lighter colors, patch-like markings and white appeared in the breed that was once ordinarily grey in color.The Greyhound is the only dog mentioned by name in the Bible (, ''zarir mosna'im'') in .", "Many versions, including the Jewish Publication Society and King James Version, name the Greyhound as one of the \"three that are stately of stride\".", "However, some newer biblical translations, including the New International Version, have changed this to 'strutting rooster', which appears to be an alternative translation.", "However, the Douay–Rheims Bible translation from the late 4th-century Latin Vulgate into English translates this term as \"a cock\".According to Pokorny, the English term 'Greyhound' does not mean \"grey dog/hound\", but simply \"fair dog\".", "Subsequent words have been derived from the Proto-Indo-European root '''*g'her-''' \"shine, twinkle\": English 'grey', Old High German \"grey, old\", Old Icelandic \"piglet, pig\", Old Icelandic \"to dawn\", \"morning twilight\", Old Irish \"sun\", Old Church Slavonic \"morning twilight, brightness\".", "The common sense of these words is \"to shine; bright\".In 1928, the first winner of Best in Show at Crufts was breeder/owner Mr. H. Whitley's Greyhound ''Primley Sceptre''.", "Greyhounds have won the award three times in total, the most recent being in 1956.Historically, English Greyhounds were grouped: two for coursing, as a \"Brace\", three for hunting, as a \"Leash\", otherwise known as a \"couple and a half\"." ], [ "See also", "* Dogs portal* List of dog breeds* Afghan Hound* Azawakh* Borzoi (formerly known as Russian Wolfhound)* Combai* Chippiparai* Fastest animal* Galgo Español (Spanish Greyhound)* Hortaya borzaya (Russian shorthaired sighthound)* Irish Wolfhound* Italian Greyhound* Kanni* Longdog (cross between two sighthound breeds)* Lurcher (sighthound ancestry)* Magyar agár (Hungarian Greyhound)* Mudhol Hound* Polish Greyhound* Rajapalayam (India)* Rampur Greyhound* Saluki* Scottish Deerhound* Sloughi * Whippet" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* \"The Greyhound in 1864: ...\" Walsh 1864* \"The Greyhound, ...\" Dalziel 1887* ''Of Greyhounds and of Their Nature'', Chapter XV: \"The Master of Game\", Edward of York circa 1406* \"The Greyhound\" Roger D. Williams, in ''The American Book of the Dog'' Editor George O. Shields.", "Chicago: Rand Mcnally, 1891* ''Greyhound Nation: A Coevolutionary History of England, 1200–1900''.", "Edmund Russell, Cambridge University Press, 2018.", "* ''The Greyhound and the Hare: A History of the Breed and the Sport''.", "Charles Blanning, The National Coursing Club, 2018.", "* ''Twenty Two Waterloo Cups 1981-2005''.", "Charles Blanning, Fullerton Press in association with the National Coursing Club, 2022.", "* ''High speed galloping in the cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) and the racing greyhound (Canis familiaris): spatio-temporal and kinetic characteristics''.", "Hudson et al.", "''Journal of Experimental Biology'' 215.14, 2012." ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Geometric algebra" ], [ "Introduction", "In mathematics, a '''geometric algebra''' (also known as a real Clifford algebra) is an extension of elementary algebra to work with geometrical objects such as vectors.", "Geometric algebra is built out of two fundamental operations, addition and the geometric product.", "Multiplication of vectors results in higher-dimensional objects called multivectors.", "Compared to other formalisms for manipulating geometric objects, geometric algebra is noteworthy for supporting vector division and addition of objects of different dimensions.The geometric product was first briefly mentioned by Hermann Grassmann, who was chiefly interested in developing the closely related exterior algebra.", "In 1878, William Kingdon Clifford greatly expanded on Grassmann's work to form what are now usually called Clifford algebras in his honor (although Clifford himself chose to call them \"geometric algebras\").", "Clifford defined the Clifford algebra and its product as a unification of the Grassmann algebra and Hamilton's quaternion algebra.", "Adding the dual of the Grassmann exterior product (the \"meet\") allows the use of the Grassmann–Cayley algebra, and a conformal version of the latter together with a conformal Clifford algebra yields a conformal geometric algebra (CGA) providing a framework for classical geometries.", "In practice, these and several derived operations allow a correspondence of elements, subspaces and operations of the algebra with geometric interpretations.", "For several decades, geometric algebras went somewhat ignored, greatly eclipsed by the vector calculus then newly developed to describe electromagnetism.", "The term \"geometric algebra\" was repopularized in the 1960s by Hestenes, who advocated its importance to relativistic physics.The scalars and vectors have their usual interpretation, and make up distinct subspaces of a geometric algebra.", "Bivectors provide a more natural representation of the pseudovector quantities of vector calculus, such as oriented area, oriented angle of rotation, torque, angular momentum and the electromagnetic field.", "A trivector can represent an oriented volume, and so on.", "An element called a blade may be used to represent a subspace of and orthogonal projections onto that subspace.", "Rotations and reflections are represented as elements.", "Unlike a vector algebra, a geometric algebra naturally accommodates any number of dimensions and any quadratic form such as in relativity.Examples of geometric algebras applied in physics include the spacetime algebra (and the less common algebra of physical space) and the conformal geometric algebra.", "Geometric calculus, an extension of GA that incorporates differentiation and integration, can be used to formulate other theories such as complex analysis and differential geometry, e.g.", "by using the Clifford algebra instead of differential forms.", "Geometric algebra has been advocated, most notably by David Hestenes and Chris Doran, as the preferred mathematical framework for physics.", "Proponents claim that it provides compact and intuitive descriptions in many areas including classical and quantum mechanics, electromagnetic theory and relativity.", "GA has also found use as a computational tool in computer graphics and robotics." ], [ "Definition and notation", "There are a number of different ways to define a geometric algebra.", "Hestenes's original approach was axiomatic, \"full of geometric significance\" and equivalent to the universal Clifford algebra.Given a finite-dimensional vector space over a field with a symmetric bilinear form (the ''inner product'', e.g.", "the Euclidean or Lorentzian metric) , the '''geometric algebra''' of the quadratic space is the Clifford algebra which members are called multors or here multivectors.", "(The term multivector is often used more specificly for elements of exterior algebra.)", "As usual in this domain, for the remainder of this article, only the real case, , will be considered.", "The notation (respectively ) will be used to denote a geometric algebra for which the bilinear form has the signature (respectively ).The essential product in the algebra is called the ''geometric product'', and the product in the contained exterior algebra is called the ''exterior product'' (frequently called the ''wedge product'' and less often the ''outer product'').", "It is standard to denote these respectively by juxtaposition (i.e., suppressing any explicit multiplication symbol) and the symbol .", "The above definition of the geometric algebra is abstract, so we summarize the properties of the geometric product by the following set of axioms.", "The geometric product has the following properties, for multors :* (closure)* , where is the identity element (existence of an identity element)* (associativity)* and (distributivity)* , where is any element of the subspace of the algebra.The exterior product has the same properties, except that the last property above is replaced by for .Note that in the last property above, the real number need not be nonnegative if is not positive-definite.", "An important property of the geometric product is the existence of elements having a multiplicative inverse.", "For a vector , if then exists and is equal to .", "A nonzero element of the algebra does not necessarily have a multiplicative inverse.", "For example, if is a vector in such that , the element is both a nontrivial idempotent element and a nonzero zero divisor, and thus has no inverse.It is usual to identify and with their images under the natural embeddings and .", "In this article, this identification is assumed.", "Throughout, the terms ''scalar'' and ''vector'' refer to elements of and respectively (and of their images under this embedding).=== Geometric product ===Given two vectors and , if the geometric product is anticommutative; they are perpendicular (top) because , if it is commutative; they are parallel (bottom) because .For vectors and , we may write the geometric product of any two vectors and as the sum of a symmetric product and an antisymmetric product:: Thus we can define the ''inner product'' of vectors as: so that the symmetric product can be written as: Conversely, is completely determined by the algebra.", "The antisymmetric part is the exterior product of the two vectors, the product of the contained exterior algebra:: Then by simple addition:: the ungeneralized or vector form of the geometric product.The inner and exterior products are associated with familiar concepts from standard vector algebra.", "Geometrically, and are parallel if their geometric product is equal to their inner product, whereas and are perpendicular if their geometric product is equal to their exterior product.", "In a geometric algebra for which the square of any nonzero vector is positive, the inner product of two vectors can be identified with the dot product of standard vector algebra.", "The exterior product of two vectors can be identified with the signed area enclosed by a parallelogram the sides of which are the vectors.", "The cross product of two vectors in dimensions with positive-definite quadratic form is closely related to their exterior product.Most instances of geometric algebras of interest have a nondegenerate quadratic form.", "If the quadratic form is fully degenerate, the inner product of any two vectors is always zero, and the geometric algebra is then simply an exterior algebra.", "Unless otherwise stated, this article will treat only nondegenerate geometric algebras.The exterior product is naturally extended as an associative bilinear binary operator between any two elements of the algebra, satisfying the identities: where the sum is over all permutations of the indices, with the sign of the permutation, and are vectors (not general elements of the algebra).", "Since every element of the algebra can be expressed as the sum of products of this form, this defines the exterior product for every pair of elements of the algebra.", "It follows from the definition that the exterior product forms an alternating algebra.The equivalent structure equation for Clifford algebra is : where is the Pfaffian of and provides combinations, , of indicies divided into and parts and is the parity of the combination.The Pfaffian provides a metric for the exterior algebra and, as pointed out by Claude Chevalley, Clifford algebra reduces to the exterior algebra with a zero quadratic form.", "The role the Pfaffian plays can be understood from a geometric viewpoint by developing Clifford algebra from simplices.", "This derivation provides a better connection between Pascal's triangle and simplices because it provides an interpretation of the first column of ones.=== Blades, grades, and canonical basis ===A multivector that is the exterior product of linearly independent vectors is called a ''blade'', and is said to be of grade .", "A multivector that is the sum of blades of grade is called a (homogeneous) multivector of grade .", "From the axioms, with closure, every multivector of the geometric algebra is a sum of blades.Consider a set of linearly independent vectors spanning an -dimensional subspace of the vector space.", "With these, we can define a real symmetric matrix (in the same way as a Gramian matrix): By the spectral theorem, can be diagonalized to diagonal matrix by an orthogonal matrix via: Define a new set of vectors , known as orthogonal basis vectors, to be those transformed by the orthogonal matrix:: Since orthogonal transformations preserve inner products, it follows that and thus the are perpendicular.", "In other words, the geometric product of two distinct vectors is completely specified by their exterior product, or more generally: Therefore, every blade of grade can be written as the exterior product of vectors.", "More generally, if a degenerate geometric algebra is allowed, then the orthogonal matrix is replaced by a block matrix that is orthogonal in the nondegenerate block, and the diagonal matrix has zero-valued entries along the degenerate dimensions.", "If the new vectors of the nondegenerate subspace are normalized according to: then these normalized vectors must square to or .", "By Sylvester's law of inertia, the total number of s and the total number of s along the diagonal matrix is invariant.", "By extension, the total number of these vectors that square to and the total number that square to is invariant.", "(The total number of basis vectors that square to zero is also invariant, and may be nonzero if the degenerate case is allowed.)", "We denote this algebra .", "For example, models three-dimensional Euclidean space, relativistic spacetime and a conformal geometric algebra of a three-dimensional space.The set of all possible products of orthogonal basis vectors with indices in increasing order, including as the empty product, forms a basis for the entire geometric algebra (an analogue of the PBW theorem).", "For example, the following is a basis for the geometric algebra :: A basis formed this way is called a '''canonical basis''' for the geometric algebra, and any other orthogonal basis for will produce another canonical basis.", "Each canonical basis consists of elements.", "Every multivector of the geometric algebra can be expressed as a linear combination of the canonical basis elements.", "If the canonical basis elements are with being an index set, then the geometric product of any two multivectors is: The terminology \"-vector\" is often encountered to describe multivectors containing elements of only one grade.", "In higher dimensional space, some such multivectors are not blades (cannot be factored into the exterior product of vectors).", "By way of example, in cannot be factored; typically, however, such elements of the algebra do not yield to geometric interpretation as objects, although they may represent geometric quantities such as rotations.", "Only -, -, - and -vectors are always blades in -space.=== Versor ===A -versor is a multivector that can be expressed as the geometric product of invertible vectors.", "Unit quaternions (originally called versors by Hamilton) may be identified with rotors in 3D space in much the same way as real 2D rotors subsume complex numbers; for the details refer to Dorst.Some authors use the term \"versor product\" to refer to the frequently occurring case where an operand is \"sandwiched\" between operators.", "The descriptions for rotations and reflections, including their outermorphisms, are examples of such sandwiching.", "These outermorphisms have a particularly simple algebraic form.", "Specifically, a mapping of vectors of the form: extends to the outermorphism Since both operators and operand are versors there is potential for alternative examples such as rotating a rotor or reflecting a spinor always provided that some geometrical or physical significance can be attached to such operations.By the Cartan–Dieudonné theorem we have that every isometry can be given as reflections in hyperplanes and since composed reflections provide rotations then we have that orthogonal transformations are versors.In group terms, for a real, non-degenerate , having identified the group as the group of all invertible elements of , Lundholm gives a proof that the \"versor group\" (the set of invertible versors) is equal to the Lipschitz group ( Clifford group, although Lundholm deprecates this usage).=== Subgroups of the Lipschitz group ===Lundholm defines the , , and subgroups, generated by unit vectors, and in the case of and , only an even number of such vector factors can be present.", "Subgroup Definition GA term versors unit versors even unit versors rotorsSpinors are defined as elements of the even subalgebra of a real GA with spinor norm .", "Multiple analyses of spinors use GA as a representation.=== Grade projection ===Using an orthogonal basis, a graded vector space structure can be established.", "Elements of the geometric algebra that are scalar multiples of are grade- blades and are called ''scalars''.", "Multivectors that are in the span of are grade- blades and are the ordinary vectors.", "Multivectors in the span of are grade- blades and are the bivectors.", "This terminology continues through to the last grade of -vectors.", "Alternatively, grade- blades are called pseudoscalars, grade- blades pseudovectors, etc.", "Many of the elements of the algebra are not graded by this scheme since they are sums of elements of differing grade.", "Such elements are said to be of ''mixed grade''.", "The grading of multivectors is independent of the basis chosen originally.This is a grading as a vector space, but not as an algebra.", "Because the product of an -blade and an -blade is contained in the span of through -blades, the geometric algebra is a filtered algebra.A multivector may be decomposed with the '''grade-projection operator''' , which outputs the grade- portion of .", "As a result:: As an example, the geometric product of two vectors since and and , for other than and .The decomposition of a multivector may also be split into those components that are even and those that are odd:: : This is the result of forgetting structure from a -graded vector space to -graded vector space.", "The geometric product respects this coarser grading.", "Thus in addition to being a -graded vector space, the geometric algebra is a -graded algebra or superalgebra.Restricting to the even part, the product of two even elements is also even.", "This means that the even multivectors defines an ''even subalgebra''.", "The even subalgebra of an -dimensional geometric algebra is isomorphic (without preserving either filtration or grading) to a full geometric algebra of dimensions.", "Examples include and .=== Representation of subspaces ===Geometric algebra represents subspaces of as blades, and so they coexist in the same algebra with vectors from .", "A -dimensional subspace of is represented by taking an orthogonal basis and using the geometric product to form the blade .", "There are multiple blades representing ; all those representing are scalar multiples of .", "These blades can be separated into two sets: positive multiples of and negative multiples of .", "The positive multiples of are said to have ''the same orientation'' as , and the negative multiples the ''opposite orientation''.Blades are important since geometric operations such as projections, rotations and reflections depend on the factorability via the exterior product that (the restricted class of) -blades provide but that (the generalized class of) grade- multivectors do not when .=== Unit pseudoscalars ===Unit pseudoscalars are blades that play important roles in GA. A '''unit pseudoscalar''' for a non-degenerate subspace of is a blade that is the product of the members of an orthonormal basis for .", "It can be shown that if and are both unit pseudoscalars for , then and .", "If one doesn't choose an orthonormal basis for , then the Plücker embedding gives a vector in the exterior algebra but only up to scaling.", "Using the vector space isomorphism between the geometric algebra and exterior algebra, this gives the equivalence class of for all .", "Orthonormality gets rid of this ambiguity except for the signs above.Suppose the geometric algebra with the familiar positive definite inner product on is formed.", "Given a plane (two-dimensional subspace) of , one can find an orthonormal basis spanning the plane, and thus find a unit pseudoscalar representing this plane.", "The geometric product of any two vectors in the span of and lies in , that is, it is the sum of a -vector and a -vector.By the properties of the geometric product, .", "The resemblance to the imaginary unit is not incidental: the subspace is -algebra isomorphic to the complex numbers.", "In this way, a copy of the complex numbers is embedded in the geometric algebra for each two-dimensional subspace of on which the quadratic form is definite.It is sometimes possible to identify the presence of an imaginary unit in a physical equation.", "Such units arise from one of the many quantities in the real algebra that square to , and these have geometric significance because of the properties of the algebra and the interaction of its various subspaces.In , a further familiar case occurs.", "Given a canonical basis consisting of orthonormal vectors of , the set of ''all'' -vectors is spanned by: Labelling these , and (momentarily deviating from our uppercase convention), the subspace generated by -vectors and -vectors is exactly .", "This set is seen to be the even subalgebra of , and furthermore is isomorphic as an -algebra to the quaternions, another important algebraic system.=== Extensions of the inner and exterior products ===It is common practice to extend the exterior product on vectors to the entire algebra.", "This may be done through the use of the above mentioned grade projection operator::     (the ''exterior product'')This generalization is consistent with the above definition involving antisymmetrization.", "Another generalization related to the exterior product is the commutator product::     (the ''commutator product'')The regressive product (usually referred to as the \"meet\") is the dual of the exterior product (or \"join\" in this context).", "The dual specification of elements permits, for blades and , the intersection (or meet) where the duality is to be taken relative to the smallest grade blade containing both and (the join).", ": with the unit pseudoscalar of the algebra.", "The regressive product, like the exterior product, is associative.The inner product on vectors can also be generalized, but in more than one non-equivalent way.", "The paper gives a full treatment of several different inner products developed for geometric algebras and their interrelationships, and the notation is taken from there.", "Many authors use the same symbol as for the inner product of vectors for their chosen extension (e.g.", "Hestenes and Perwass).", "No consistent notation has emerged.Among these several different generalizations of the inner product on vectors are::   (the ''left contraction''):   (the ''right contraction''):   (the ''scalar product''):   (the \"(fat) dot\" product) makes an argument for the use of contractions in preference to Hestenes's inner product; they are algebraically more regular and have cleaner geometric interpretations.", "A number of identities incorporating the contractions are valid without restriction of their inputs.For example,: : : : : : Benefits of using the left contraction as an extension of the inner product on vectors include that the identity is extended to for any vector and multivector , and that the projection operation is extended to for any blade and any multivector (with a minor modification to accommodate null , given below).=== Dual basis ===Let be a basis of , i.e.", "a set of linearly independent vectors that span the -dimensional vector space .", "The basis that is dual to is the set of elements of the dual vector space that forms a biorthogonal system with this basis, thus being the elements denoted satisfying: where is the Kronecker delta.Given a nondegenerate quadratic form on , becomes naturally identified with , and the dual basis may be regarded as elements of , but are not in general the same set as the original basis.Given further a GA of , let : be the pseudoscalar (which does not necessarily square to ) formed from the basis .", "The dual basis vectors may be constructed as: where the denotes that the th basis vector is omitted from the product.A dual basis is also known as a reciprocal basis or reciprocal frame.A major usage of a dual basis is to separate vectors into components.", "Given a vector , scalar components can be defined as: in terms of which can be separated into vector components as: We can also define scalar components as: in terms of which can be separated into vector components in terms of the dual basis as: A dual basis as defined above for the vector subspace of a geometric algebra can be extended to cover the entire algebra.", "For compactness, we'll use a single capital letter to represent an ordered set of vector indices.", "I.e., writing: where we can write a basis blade as: The corresponding reciprocal blade has the indices in opposite order:: Similar to the case above with vectors, it can be shown that: where is the scalar product.With a multivector, we can define scalar components as: in terms of which can be separated into component blades as: We can alternatively define scalar components: in terms of which can be separated into component blades as: === Linear functions ===Although a versor is easier to work with because it can be directly represented in the algebra as a multivector, versors are a subgroup of linear functions on multivectors, which can still be used when necessary.", "The geometric algebra of an -dimensional vector space is spanned by a basis of elements.", "If a multivector is represented by a real column matrix of coefficients of a basis of the algebra, then all linear transformations of the multivector can be expressed as the matrix multiplication by a real matrix.", "However, such a general linear transformation allows arbitrary exchanges among grades, such as a \"rotation\" of a scalar into a vector, which has no evident geometric interpretation.A general linear transformation from vectors to vectors is of interest.", "With the natural restriction to preserving the induced exterior algebra, the ''outermorphism'' of the linear transformation is the unique extension of the versor.", "If is a linear function that maps vectors to vectors, then its outermorphism is the function that obeys the rule: for a blade, extended to the whole algebra through linearity." ], [ "Modeling geometries", "Although a lot of attention has been placed on CGA, it is to be noted that GA is not just one algebra, it is one of a family of algebras with the same essential structure.=== Vector space model ===The even subalgebra of is isomorphic to the complex numbers, as may be seen by writing a vector in terms of its components in an orthonormal basis and left multiplying by the basis vector , yielding: where we identify since: Similarly, the even subalgebra of with basis is isomorphic to the quaternions as may be seen by identifying , and .Every associative algebra has a matrix representation; replacing the three Cartesian basis vectors by the Pauli matrices gives a representation of :: Dotting the \"Pauli vector\" (a dyad):: with arbitrary vectors and and multiplying through gives:: (Equivalently, by inspection, )=== Spacetime model ===In physics, the main applications are the geometric algebra of Minkowski 3+1 spacetime, , called spacetime algebra (STA), or less commonly, , interpreted the algebra of physical space (APS).While in STA, points of spacetime are represented simply by vectors, in APS, points of -dimensional spacetime are instead represented by paravectors, a three-dimensional vector (space) plus a one-dimensional scalar (time).In spacetime algebra the electromagnetic field tensor has a bivector representation .", "Here, the is the unit pseudoscalar (or four-dimensional volume element), is the unit vector in time direction, and and are the classic electric and magnetic field vectors (with a zero time component).", "Using the four-current , Maxwell's equations then become: Formulation Homogeneous equations Non-homogeneous equationsFields Potentials (any gauge)Potentials (Lorenz gauge)In geometric calculus, juxtaposition of vectors such as in indicate the geometric product and can be decomposed into parts as .", "Here is the covector derivative in any spacetime and reduces to in flat spacetime.", "Where plays a role in Minkowski -spacetime which is synonymous to the role of in Euclidean -space and is related to the d'Alembertian by .", "Indeed, given an observer represented by a future pointing timelike vector we have: : Boosts in this Lorentzian metric space have the same expression as rotation in Euclidean space, where is the bivector generated by the time and the space directions involved, whereas in the Euclidean case it is the bivector generated by the two space directions, strengthening the \"analogy\" to almost identity.The Dirac matrices are a representation of , showing the equivalence with matrix representations used by physicists.=== Homogeneous models ===Homogeneous models generally refer to a projective representation in which the elements of the one-dimensional subspaces of a vector space represent points of a geometry.In a geometric algebra of a space of dimensions, the rotors represent a set of transformations with degrees of freedom, corresponding to rotations – for example, when and when .", "Geometric algebra is often used to model a projective space, i.e.", "as a ''homogeneous model'': a point, line, plane, etc.", "is represented by an equivalence class of elements of the algebra that differ by an invertible scalar factor.The rotors in a space of dimension have degrees of freedom, the same as the number of degrees of freedom in the rotations and translations combined for an -dimensional space.This is the case in ''Projective Geometric Algebra'' (PGA), which is used to represent Euclidean isometries in Euclidean geometry (thereby covering the large majority of engineering applications of geometry).", "In this model, a degenerate dimension is added to the three Euclidean dimensions to form the algebra .", "With a suitable identification of subspaces to represent points, lines and planes, the versors of this algebra represent all proper Euclidean isometries, which are always screw motions in 3-dimensional space, along with all improper Euclidean isometries, which includes reflections, rotoreflections, transflections, and point reflections.PGA combines  with a ''dual'' operator to obtain meet, join, distance, and angle formulae.", "Depending on the author, this could mean the Hodge star or the projective dual, though both result in identical equations being derived, albeit with different notation.", "In effect, the dual switches basis vectors that are present and absent in the expression of each term of the algebraic representation.", "For example, in the PGA or 3-dimensional space, the dual of the line is the line , because and are basis elements that are ''not'' contained in but ''are'' contained in .", "In the PGA of 2-dimensional space, the dual of is , since there is no element.PGA is a widely used system that combines geometric algebra with homogeneous representations in geometry, but there exist several other such systems.", "The conformal model discussed below is homogeneous, as is \"Conic Geometric Algebra\", and see ''Plane-based geometric algebra'' for discussion of homogeneous models of elliptic and hyperbolic geometry compared with the euclidean geometry derived from PGA.=== Conformal model ===300pxWorking within GA, Euclidean space (along with a conformal point at infinity) is embedded projectively in the CGA via the identification of Euclidean points with 1D subspaces in the 4D null cone of the 5D CGA vector subspace.", "This allows all conformal transformations to be performed as rotations and reflections and is covariant, extending incidence relations of projective geometry to circles and spheres.Specifically, we add orthogonal basis vectors and such that and to the basis of the vector space that generates and identify null vectors: as a conformal point at infinity (see ''Compactification'') and: as the point at the origin, giving: This procedure has some similarities to the procedure for working with homogeneous coordinates in projective geometry and in this case allows the modeling of Euclidean transformations of as orthogonal transformations of a subset of .A fast changing and fluid area of GA, CGA is also being investigated for applications to relativistic physics.=== Table of models ===Note in this list that and can be swapped and the same name applies; for example, with ''relatively'' little change occurring, see sign convention.", "For example, and are ''both'' referred to as Spacetime Algebra.+ Signature Names and acronyms Blades, eg oriented geometric objects that algebra can represent Rotors, eg orientation-preserving transformations that the algebra can represent Notes Vectorspace GA, VGAAlgebra of Physical Space, APS Planes and lines through the origin Rotations, eg First GA to be discovered Plane-based GA, Projective GA, PGA Planes, lines, and points anywhere in space Rotations and translations, eg rigid motions, aka Slight modifications to the signature allow for the modelling of hyperbolic and elliptic space, see main article.", "Cannot model the entire \"projective\" group.", "Spacetime Algebra, STA Volumes, planes and lines through the origin in spacetime Rotations and spacetime boosts, e.g.", ", the Lorentz group Basis for Gauge Theory Gravity.", "Spacetime Algebra Projectivized, STAP Volumes, planes, lines, and points (events) in spacetime Rotations, translations, and spacetime boosts (Poincare group) Conformal GA, CGA Spheres, circles, point pairs, lines, and planes anywhere in space Transformations of space that preserve angles (Conformal group ) Conformal Spacetime Algebra, CSTA Spheres, circles, planes, lines, light-cones, trajectories of objects with constant acceleration, all in spacetime Conformal transformations of spacetime, e.g.", "transformations that preserve rapidity along arclengths through spacetime Related to Twistor theory.", "Mother Algebra Unknown Projective group GA for Conics, GACQuadric Conformal 2D GA QC2GA Points, point pair/triple/quadruple, Conic, Pencil of up to 6 independent conics.", "Reflections, translations, rotations, dilations, others Conics can be created from control points and pencils of conics.", "Quadric Conformal GA, QCGA Points, tuples of up to 8 points, quadric surfaces, conics, conics on quadratic surfaces (such as Spherical conic), pencils of up to 9 quadric surfaces.", "Reflections, translations, rotations, dilations, others Quadric surfaces can be created from control points and their surface normals can be determined.", "Double Conformal Geometric Algebra (DCGA) Points, Darboux Cyclides, quadrics surfaces Reflections, translations, rotations, dilations, others Uses bivectors of two independent CGA basis to represents 5x5 symmetric \"matrices\" of 15 unique coefficients.", "This is at the cost of the ability to perform intersections and construction by points." ], [ "Geometric interpretation in the vector space model", "=== Projection and rejection === onto a plane and its rejection from this plane.For any vector and any invertible vector ,: where the '''projection''' of onto (or the parallel part) is: and the '''rejection''' of from (or the orthogonal part) is: Using the concept of a -blade as representing a subspace of and every multivector ultimately being expressed in terms of vectors, this generalizes to projection of a general multivector onto any invertible -blade as: with the rejection being defined as: The projection and rejection generalize to null blades by replacing the inverse with the pseudoinverse with respect to the contractive product.", "The outcome of the projection coincides in both cases for non-null blades.", "For null blades , the definition of the projection given here with the first contraction rather than the second being onto the pseudoinverse should be used, as only then is the result necessarily in the subspace represented by .The projection generalizes through linearity to general multivectors .", "The projection is not linear in and does not generalize to objects that are not blades.=== Reflection ===Simple reflections in a hyperplane are readily expressed in the algebra through conjugation with a single vector.", "These serve to generate the group of general rotoreflections and rotations.Reflection of vector along a vector .", "Only the component of parallel to is negated.The reflection of a vector along a vector , or equivalently in the hyperplane orthogonal to , is the same as negating the component of a vector parallel to .", "The result of the reflection will be : This is not the most general operation that may be regarded as a reflection when the dimension .", "A general reflection may be expressed as the composite of any odd number of single-axis reflections.", "Thus, a general reflection of a vector may be written: where: and If we define the reflection along a non-null vector of the product of vectors as the reflection of every vector in the product along the same vector, we get for any product of an odd number of vectors that, by way of example,: and for the product of an even number of vectors that: Using the concept of every multivector ultimately being expressed in terms of vectors, the reflection of a general multivector using any reflection versor may be written: where is the automorphism of reflection through the origin of the vector space () extended through linearity to the whole algebra.=== Rotations ===A rotor that rotates vectors in a plane rotates vectors through angle , that is is a rotation of through angle .", "The angle between and is .", "Similar interpretations are valid for a general multivector instead of the vector .If we have a product of vectors then we denote the reverse as: As an example, assume that we get: Scaling so that then: so leaves the length of unchanged.", "We can also show that: so the transformation preserves both length and angle.", "It therefore can be identified as a rotation or rotoreflection; is called a rotor if it is a proper rotation (as it is if it can be expressed as a product of an even number of vectors) and is an instance of what is known in GA as a ''versor''.There is a general method for rotating a vector involving the formation of a multivector of the form that produces a rotation in the plane and with the orientation defined by a -blade .Rotors are a generalization of quaternions to -dimensional spaces." ], [ "Examples and applications", "=== Hypervolume of a parallelotope spanned by vectors ===For vectors and spanning a parallelogram we have: with the result that is linear in the product of the \"altitude\" and the \"base\" of the parallelogram, that is, its area.Similar interpretations are true for any number of vectors spanning an -dimensional parallelotope; the exterior product of vectors , that is , has a magnitude equal to the volume of the -parallelotope.", "An -vector does not necessarily have a shape of a parallelotope – this is a convenient visualization.", "It could be any shape, although the volume equals that of the parallelotope.=== Intersection of a line and a plane ===A line L defined by points T and P (which we seek) and a plane defined by a bivector B containing points P and Q.We may define the line parametrically by where and are position vectors for points P and T and is the direction vector for the line.Then: and so: and: === Rotating systems ===A rotational quantity such as torque or angular momentum is described in geometric algebra as a bivector.", "Suppose a circular path in an arbitrary plane containing orthonormal vectors and is parameterized by angle.", ": By designating the unit bivector of this plane as the imaginary number: : this path vector can be conveniently written in complex exponential form: and the derivative with respect to angle is: The cross product in relation to the exterior product.", "In red are the unit normal vector, and the \"parallel\" unit bivector.For example, torque is generally defined as the magnitude of the perpendicular force component times distance, or work per unit angle.", "Thus the torque, the rate of change of work with respect to angle, due to a force , is: Rotational quantities are represented in vector calculus in three dimensions using the cross product.", "Together with a choice of an oriented volume form , these can be related to the exterior product with its more natural geometric interpretation of such quantities as a bivectors by using the dual relationship: Unlike the cross product description of torque, , the geometric algebra description does not introduce a vector in the normal direction; a vector that does not exist in two and that is not unique in greater than three dimensions.", "The unit bivector describes the plane and the orientation of the rotation, and the sense of the rotation is relative to the angle between the vectors and ." ], [ "Geometric calculus", "Geometric calculus extends the formalism to include differentiation and integration including differential geometry and differential forms.Essentially, the vector derivative is defined so that the GA version of Green's theorem is true,: and then one can write: as a geometric product, effectively generalizing Stokes' theorem (including the differential form version of it).In when is a curve with endpoints and , then: reduces to: or the fundamental theorem of integral calculus.Also developed are the concept of vector manifold and geometric integration theory (which generalizes differential forms)." ], [ "History", "=== Before the 20th century ===Although the connection of geometry with algebra dates as far back at least to Euclid's ''Elements'' in the third century B.C.", "(see Greek geometric algebra), GA in the sense used in this article was not developed until 1844, when it was used in a ''systematic way'' to describe the geometrical properties and ''transformations'' of a space.", "In that year, Hermann Grassmann introduced the idea of a geometrical algebra in full generality as a certain calculus (analogous to the propositional calculus) that encoded all of the geometrical information of a space.", "Grassmann's algebraic system could be applied to a number of different kinds of spaces, the chief among them being Euclidean space, affine space, and projective space.", "Following Grassmann, in 1878 William Kingdon Clifford examined Grassmann's algebraic system alongside the quaternions of William Rowan Hamilton in .", "From his point of view, the quaternions described certain ''transformations'' (which he called ''rotors''), whereas Grassmann's algebra described certain ''properties'' (or ''Strecken'' such as length, area, and volume).", "His contribution was to define a new product – the ''geometric product'' – on an existing Grassmann algebra, which realized the quaternions as living within that algebra.", "Subsequently, Rudolf Lipschitz in 1886 generalized Clifford's interpretation of the quaternions and applied them to the geometry of rotations in dimensions.", "Later these developments would lead other 20th-century mathematicians to formalize and explore the properties of the Clifford algebra.Nevertheless, another revolutionary development of the 19th-century would completely overshadow the geometric algebras: that of vector analysis, developed independently by Josiah Willard Gibbs and Oliver Heaviside.", "Vector analysis was motivated by James Clerk Maxwell's studies of electromagnetism, and specifically the need to express and manipulate conveniently certain differential equations.", "Vector analysis had a certain intuitive appeal compared to the rigors of the new algebras.", "Physicists and mathematicians alike readily adopted it as their geometrical toolkit of choice, particularly following the influential 1901 textbook ''Vector Analysis'' by Edwin Bidwell Wilson, following lectures of Gibbs.In more detail, there have been three approaches to geometric algebra: quaternionic analysis, initiated by Hamilton in 1843 and geometrized as rotors by Clifford in 1878; geometric algebra, initiated by Grassmann in 1844; and vector analysis, developed out of quaternionic analysis in the late 19th century by Gibbs and Heaviside.", "The legacy of quaternionic analysis in vector analysis can be seen in the use of , , to indicate the basis vectors of : it is being thought of as the purely imaginary quaternions.", "From the perspective of geometric algebra, the even subalgebra of the Space Time Algebra is isomorphic to the GA of 3D Euclidean space and quaternions are isomorphic to the even subalgebra of the GA of 3D Euclidean space, which unifies the three approaches.=== 20th century and present ===Progress on the study of Clifford algebras quietly advanced through the twentieth century, although largely due to the work of abstract algebraists such as Élie Cartan, Hermann Weyl and Claude Chevalley.", "The ''geometrical'' approach to geometric algebras has seen a number of 20th-century revivals.", "In mathematics, Emil Artin's ''Geometric Algebra'' discusses the algebra associated with each of a number of geometries, including affine geometry, projective geometry, symplectic geometry, and orthogonal geometry.", "In physics, geometric algebras have been revived as a \"new\" way to do classical mechanics and electromagnetism, together with more advanced topics such as quantum mechanics and gauge theory.", "David Hestenes reinterpreted the Pauli and Dirac matrices as vectors in ordinary space and spacetime, respectively, and has been a primary contemporary advocate for the use of geometric algebra.In computer graphics and robotics, geometric algebras have been revived in order to efficiently represent rotations and other transformations.", "For applications of GA in robotics (screw theory, kinematics and dynamics using versors), computer vision, control and neural computing (geometric learning) see Bayro (2010)." ], [ "See also", "* Comparison of vector algebra and geometric algebra* Clifford algebra* Grassmann–Cayley algebra* Spacetime algebra* Spinor* Quaternion* Algebra of physical space* Universal geometric algebra" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "References and further reading", ": ''Arranged chronologically''* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * .", "Chapter 1 as PDF* * * * * * Extract online at http://geocalc.clas.asu.edu/html/UAFCG.html #5 New Tools for Computational Geometry and rejuvenation of Screw Theory* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* A Survey of Geometric Algebra and Geometric Calculus Alan Macdonald, Luther College, Iowa.", "* Imaginary Numbers are not Real – the Geometric Algebra of Spacetime.", "Introduction (Cambridge GA group).", "* Geometric Algebra 2015, Masters Course in Scientific Computing, from Dr. Chris Doran (Cambridge).", "* Maths for (Games) Programmers: 5 – Multivector methods.", "Comprehensive introduction and reference for programmers, from Ian Bell.", "* IMPA Summer School 2010 Fernandes Oliveira Intro and Slides.", "* University of Fukui E.S.M.", "Hitzer and Japan GA publications.", "* Google Group for GA* Geometric Algebra Primer Introduction to GA, Jaap Suter.", "* Geometric Algebra Resources curated wiki, Pablo Bleyer.", "* Applied Geometric Algebras in Computer Science and Engineering 2018 Early Proceedings* GAME2020 Geometric Algebra Mini Event* AGACSE 2021 Videos'''English translations of early books and papers'''* G. Combebiac, \"calculus of tri-quaternions\" (Doctoral dissertation)* M. Markic, \"Transformants: A new mathematical vehicle.", "A synthesis of Combebiac's tri-quaternions and Grassmann's geometric system.", "The calculus of quadri-quaternions\"* C. Burali-Forti, \"The Grassmann method in projective geometry\" A compilation of three notes on the application of exterior algebra to projective geometry* C. Burali-Forti, \"Introduction to Differential Geometry, following the method of H. Grassmann\" Early book on the application of Grassmann algebra* H. Grassmann, \"Mechanics, according to the principles of the theory of extension\" One of his papers on the applications of exterior algebra.", "'''Research groups'''* Geometric Calculus International.", "Links to Research groups, Software, and Conferences, worldwide.", "* Cambridge Geometric Algebra group.", "Full-text online publications, and other material.", "* University of Amsterdam group* Geometric Calculus research & development (Arizona State University).", "* GA-Net blog and newsletter archive.", "Geometric Algebra/Clifford Algebra development news.", "* Geometric Algebra for Perception Action Systems.", "Geometric Cybernetics Group (CINVESTAV, Campus Guadalajara, Mexico)." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Genetic" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Genetic''' may refer to:*Genetics, in biology, the science of genes, heredity, and the variation of organisms**Genetic, used as an adjective, refers to genes***Genetic disorder, any disorder caused by a genetic mutation, whether inherited or de novo***Genetic mutation, a change in a gene****Heredity, genes and their mutations being passed from parents to offspring**Genetic recombination, refers to the recombining of alleles resulting in a new molecule of DNA*Genetic relationship (linguistics), in linguistics, a relationship between two languages with a common ancestor language*Genetic algorithm, in computer science, a kind of search technique modeled on evolutionary biology" ], [ "See also", "*Genetic memory (disambiguation)" ] ]
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[ [ "George Benson" ], [ "Introduction", "'''George Washington Benson''' (born March 22, 1943) is an American guitarist, singer, and songwriter.", "He began his professional career at the age of 19 as a jazz guitarist.A former child prodigy, Benson first came to prominence in the 1960s, playing soul jazz with Jack McDuff and others.", "He then launched a successful solo career, alternating between jazz, pop, R&B singing, and scat singing.", "His album ''Breezin''' was certified triple-platinum, hitting no.", "1 on the ''Billboard'' album chart in 1976.His concerts were well attended through the 1980s, and he still has a large following.", "Benson has won ten Grammy Awards and has been honored with a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame." ], [ "Biography", "=== Early career ===Benson was born and raised in the Hill District of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.", "At the age of seven, he first played the ukulele in a corner drug store, for which he was paid a few dollars.", "At age eight, he played guitar in an unlicensed nightclub on Friday and Saturday nights, but the police soon closed the club down.", "At age nine, he started to record.", "Out of the four sides he cut, two were released: \"She Makes Me Mad\" backed with \"It Should Have Been Me\", with RCA Victor in New York; although one source indicates this record was released under the name \"Little Georgie\", the 45rpm label is printed with the name George Benson.", "The single was produced by Leroy Kirkland for RCA's rhythm and blues label, Groove Records.Benson attended and graduated from Schenley High School.", "As a youth he learned how to play straight-ahead instrumental jazz during a relationship performing for several years with organist Jack McDuff.", "One of his many early guitar heroes was country-jazz guitarist Hank Garland.", "At the age of 21, he recorded his first album as leader, ''The New Boss Guitar'', featuring McDuff.", "Benson's next recording was ''It's Uptown with the George Benson Quartet'', including Lonnie Smith on organ and Ronnie Cuber on baritone saxophone.", "Benson followed it up with ''The George Benson Cookbook'', also with Lonnie Smith and Ronnie Cuber on baritone and drummer Marion Booker.", "Miles Davis employed Benson in the mid-1960s, featuring his guitar on \"Paraphernalia\" on his 1968 Columbia release, ''Miles in the Sky'' before Benson went to Verve Records.George Benson, New York 1977Benson then signed with Creed Taylor's jazz label CTI Records, where he recorded several albums, with jazz heavyweights guesting, to some success, mainly in the jazz field.", "His 1974 release, ''Bad Benson'', climbed to the top spot in the ''Billboard'' jazz chart, while the follow-ups, ''Good King Bad'' (#51 Pop album) and ''Benson & Farrell'' (with Joe Farrell), both reached the jazz top-three sellers.", "Benson also did a version of The Beatles's 1969 album ''Abbey Road'' called ''The Other Side of Abbey Road'', also released in 1969, and a version of \"White Rabbit\", originally written and recorded by San Francisco rock group Great Society, and made famous by Jefferson Airplane.", "Benson played on numerous sessions for other CTI artists during this time, including Freddie Hubbard and Stanley Turrentine, notably on the latter's acclaimed album ''Sugar''.=== 1970s and 1980s ===By the mid-to-late 1970s, as he recorded for Warner Bros. Records, a whole new audience began to discover Benson.", "On 1976's ''Breezin''', Benson sang a lead vocal on the track \"This Masquerade\", a song written by Leon Russell.", "Benson's version (notable also for the lush, romantic piano intro and solo by Jorge Dalto), became a huge pop hit and won a Grammy Award for Record of the Year.", "(He had sung vocals infrequently on albums earlier in his career, notably his rendition of \"Here Comes the Sun\" on ''The Other Side of Abbey Road'' album.)", "The rest of the album is instrumental, including his rendition of the 1975 José Feliciano composition \"Affirmation\".In 1976, Benson toured with soul singer Minnie Riperton, who had been diagnosed with terminal breast cancer earlier that year and, in addition, appeared as a guitarist and backup vocalist on Stevie Wonder's song \"Another Star\" from Wonder's album ''Songs in the Key of Life''.He also recorded the original version of \"The Greatest Love of All\" for the 1977 Muhammad Ali bio-pic, ''The Greatest'', which was later covered by Whitney Houston as \"Greatest Love of All.\"", "During this time Benson recorded with the German conductor Claus Ogerman.", "The live take of \"On Broadway,\" recorded a few months later from the 1978 release ''Weekend in L.A.'', also won a Grammy.", "He has worked with Freddie Hubbard on a number of his albums throughout the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s.Benson in Montreux 1986The Qwest record label (a subsidiary of Warner Bros., run by Quincy Jones) released Benson's breakthrough pop album ''Give Me The Night'', produced by Jones.", "Benson made it into the pop and R&B top ten with the song \"Give Me the Night\" (written by former Heatwave keyboardist Rod Temperton).", "He had many hit singles such as \"Love All the Hurt Away,\" \"Turn Your Love Around,\" \"Inside Love,\" \"Lady Love Me,\" \"20/20,\" \"Shiver,\" \"Kisses in the Moonlight.\"", "More importantly, Quincy Jones encouraged Benson to search his roots for further vocal inspiration, and he rediscovered his love for Nat King Cole, Ray Charles and Donny Hathaway in the process, influencing a string of further vocal albums into the 1990s.", "Despite returning to his jazz and guitar playing most recently, this theme was reflected again much later in Benson's 2000 release ''Absolute Benson'', featuring a cover of one of Hathaway's most notable songs, \"The Ghetto.\"", "Benson accumulated three other platinum LPs and two gold albums.=== 1990s to present ===In 1990, Benson was awarded an Honorary Doctorate of Music from the Berklee College of Music.To commemorate the long relationship between Benson and Ibanez and to celebrate 30 years of collaboration on the GB Signature Models, Ibanez created the GB30TH, a limited-edition model with a gold-foil finish inspired by the traditional Japanese Garahaku art form.Joni Mitchell with a 1978 Ibanez George Benson signature guitar (1983)In 2009, Benson was recognized by the National Endowment of the Arts as a Jazz Master, the United States highest honor in jazz.", "Benson performed at the 49th issue of the Ohrid Summer Festival in North Macedonia on July 25, 2009, and his tribute show to Nat King Cole ''An Unforgettable Tribute to Nat King Cole'' as part of the Istanbul International Jazz Festival in Turkey on July 27.In the fall of 2009, Benson finished recording an album entitled ''Songs and Stories'' with Marcus Miller, producer John Burk, and session musicians David Paich and Steve Lukather.", "As a part of the promotion for his album ''Songs and Stories'', Benson has appeared or performed on ''The Tavis Smiley Show'', ''Jimmy Kimmel Live!''", "and ''Late Night with Jimmy Fallon''.He performed at the Java Jazz Festival March 4–6, 2011.In 2011, Benson released the album ''Guitar Man'', revisiting his 1960s/early-1970s guitar-playing roots with a 12-song collection of covers of both jazz and pop standards produced by John Burk.In June 2013, Benson released his fourth album for Concord, ''Inspiration: A Tribute to Nat King Cole'', which included Wynton Marsalis, Idina Menzel, Till Brönner, and Judith Hill.", "In September, he returned to perform at Rock in Rio festival, in Rio de Janeiro, 35 years after his first performance at this festival, which was then the inaugural one.In July 2016, Benson participated as a mentor in the Sky Arts programme ''Guitar Star'' in the search for the UK and Republic of Ireland's most talented guitarist.In May 2018, Benson was featured on the Gorillaz single \"Humility\".On July 12, 2018, it was announced that Benson had signed to Mascot Label Group.Benson stopped touring internationally at the start of 2024 due to ill health - cancelling a series of UK concerts that summer." ], [ "Personal life", "Benson has been married to Johnnie Lee since 1965 and has seven children.", "Benson describes his music as focusing more on love and romance, due to his commitment to his family and religious practices, with Benson being a Jehovah's Witness.", "Benson has been a resident of Englewood, New Jersey." ], [ "Discography" ], [ "Awards", "=== Grammy Awards ===List of Grammy Awards received by George Benson Year Category Title Notes 1977 Best R&B Instrumental Performance \"Theme from Good King Bad\" 1977 Best Pop Instrumental Performance \"Breezin'\" 1977 Record of the Year \"This Masquerade\" Tommy LiPuma, producer 1979 Best Male R&B Vocal Performance \"On Broadway\" 1981 Best Jazz Vocal Performance, Male \"Moody's Mood\" 1981 Best R&B Instrumental Performance \"Off Broadway\" 1981 Best Male R&B Vocal Performance ''Give Me the Night'' 1984 Best Pop Instrumental Performance \"Being with You\" 2007 Best Traditional R&B Performance \"God Bless the Child\" with Al Jarreau & Jill Scott 2007 Best Pop Instrumental Performance \"Mornin'\"" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "**" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Grigory Barenblatt" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Grigory Isaakovich Barenblatt''' (; 10 July 1927 – 22 June 2018) was a Russian mathematician." ], [ "Education", "Barenblatt graduated in 1950 from Moscow State University, Department of Mechanics and Mathematics.", "He received his Ph.D. in 1953 from Moscow State University under the supervision of A. N. Kolmogorov." ], [ "Career and research", "Barenblatt also received a D.Sc.", "from Moscow State University in 1957.He was an emeritus Professor in Residence at the Department of Mathematics of the University of California, Berkeley and Mathematician at Department of Mathematics, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory.", "He was G. I. Taylor Professor of Fluid Mechanics at the University of Cambridge from 1992 to 1994 and he was Emeritus G. I. Taylor Professor of Fluid Mechanics.", "His areas of research were:# Fracture mechanics# The theory of fluid and gas flows in porous media# The mechanics of a non-classical deformable solids# Turbulence# Self-similarities, nonlinear waves and intermediate asymptotics." ], [ "Awards and honors", "* 1975 – Foreign Honorary Member, American Academy of Arts and Sciences* 1984 – Foreign Member, Danish Center of Applied Mathematics & Mechanics* 1988 – Foreign Member, Polish Society of Theoretical & Applied Mechanics* 1989 – Doctor of Technology Honoris Causa at the Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden* 1992 – Foreign Associate, U.S. National Academy of Engineering* 1993 – Fellow, Cambridge Philosophical Society* 1993 – Member, Academia Europaea* 1994 – Fellow, Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge; (since 1999, Honorary Fellow)* 1995 – Lagrange Medal, Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei* 1995 – Modesto Panetti Prize and Medal* 1996 - Visiting Miller Professorship - University of California Berkeley* 1997 – Foreign Associate, U.S. National Academy of Sciences* 1999 – G. I. Taylor Medal, U.S. Society of Engineering Science* 1999 – J. C. Maxwell Medal and Prize, International Congress for Industrial and Applied Mathematics* 2000 – Foreign Member, Royal Society of London* 2005 – Timoshenko Medal, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, \"for seminal contributions to nearly every area of solid and fluid mechanics, including fracture mechanics, turbulence, stratified flows, flames, flow in porous media, and the theory and application of intermediate asymptotics.\"" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * Applied mechanics: an age old science perpetually in rebirth (pdf).", "The Timoshenko Medal acceptance speech by Grigory Barenblatt (to be published by ASME in summer 2006)." ] ]
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[ [ "Grammatical tense" ], [ "Introduction", "In grammar, '''tense''' is a category that expresses time reference.", "Tenses are usually manifested by the use of specific forms of verbs, particularly in their conjugation patterns.The main tenses found in many languages include the past, present, and future.", "Some languages have only two distinct tenses, such as past and nonpast, or future and nonfuture.", "There are also tenseless languages, like most of the Chinese languages, though they can possess a future and nonfuture system typical of Sino-Tibetan languages.", "In recent work Maria Bittner and Judith Tonhauser have described the different ways in which tenseless languages nonetheless mark time.", "On the other hand, some languages make finer tense distinctions, such as remote vs recent past, or near vs remote future.Tenses generally express time relative to the moment of speaking.", "In some contexts, however, their meaning may be relativized to a point in the past or future which is established in the discourse (the moment being spoken about).", "This is called ''relative'' (as opposed to ''absolute'') tense.", "Some languages have different verb forms or constructions which manifest relative tense, such as pluperfect (\"past-in-the-past\") and \"future-in-the-past\".Expressions of tense are often closely connected with expressions of the category of aspect; sometimes what are traditionally called tenses (in languages such as Latin) may in modern analysis be regarded as combinations of tense with aspect.", "Verbs are also often conjugated for mood, and since in many cases the three categories are not manifested separately, some languages may be described in terms of a combined tense–aspect–mood (TAM) system." ], [ "Etymology", "The English noun ''tense'' comes from Old French \"time\" (spelled in modern French through deliberate archaization), from Latin , \"time\".", "It is not related to the adjective ''tense'', which comes from Latin , the perfect passive participle of , \"stretch\"." ], [ "Uses of the term", "In modern linguistic theory, tense is understood as a category that expresses (grammaticalizes) time reference; namely one which, using grammatical means, places a state or action in time.", "Nonetheless, in many descriptions of languages, particularly in traditional European grammar, the term \"tense\" is applied to verb forms or constructions that express not merely position in time, but also additional properties of the state or action – particularly aspectual or modal properties.The category of aspect expresses how a state or action relates to time – whether it is seen as a complete event, an ongoing or repeated situation, etc.", "Many languages make a distinction between perfective aspect (denoting complete events) and imperfective aspect (denoting ongoing or repeated situations); some also have other aspects, such as a perfect aspect, denoting a state following a prior event.", "Some of the traditional \"tenses\" express time reference together with aspectual information.", "In Latin and French, for example, the imperfect denotes past time in combination with imperfective aspect, while other verb forms (the Latin perfect, and the French or ) are used for past time reference with perfective aspect.The category of mood is used to express modality, which includes such properties as uncertainty, evidentiality, and obligation.", "Commonly encountered moods include the indicative, subjunctive, and conditional.", "Mood can be bound up with tense, aspect, or both, in particular verb forms.", "Hence, certain languages are sometimes analysed as having a single tense–aspect–mood (TAM) system, without separate manifestation of the three categories.", "The term ''tense'', then, particularly in less formal contexts, is sometimes used to denote any combination of tense proper, aspect, and mood.", "As regards English, there are many verb forms and constructions which combine time reference with continuous and/or perfect aspect, and with indicative, subjunctive or conditional mood.", "Particularly in some English language teaching materials, some or all of these forms can be referred to simply as tenses (see below).Particular tense forms need not always carry their basic time-referential meaning in every case.", "For instance, the historical present is a use of the present tense to refer to past events.", "The phenomenon of ''fake tense'' is common crosslinguistically as a means of marking counterfactuality in conditionals and wishes." ], [ "Possible tenses", "Not all languages have tense: tenseless languages include Chinese and Dyirbal.", "Some languages have all three basic tenses (the past, present, and future), while others have only two: some have past and nonpast tenses, the latter covering both present and future times (as in Arabic, Japanese, and, in some analyses, English), whereas others such as Greenlandic, Quechua, and Nivkh have future and nonfuture.", "Some languages have four or more tenses, making finer distinctions either in the past (e.g.", "remote vs. recent past) or in the future (e.g.", "near vs. remote future).", "The six-tense language Kalaw Lagaw Ya of Australia has the remote past, the recent past, the today past, the present, the today/near future and the remote future.", "Some languages, like the Amazonian Cubeo language, have a historical past tense, used for events perceived as historical.Tenses that refer specifically to \"today\" are called hodiernal tenses; these can be either past or future.", "Apart from Kalaw Lagaw Ya, another language which features such tenses is Mwera, a Bantu language of Tanzania.", "It is also suggested that in 17th-century French, the ''passé composé'' served as a hodiernal past.", "Tenses that contrast with hodiernals, by referring to the past before today or the future after today, are called pre-hodiernal and post-hodiernal respectively.", "Some languages also have a crastinal tense, a future tense referring specifically to tomorrow (found in some Bantu languages); or a hesternal tense, a past tense referring specifically to yesterday (although this name is also sometimes used to mean pre-hodiernal).", "A tense for after tomorrow is thus called post-crastinal, and one for before yesterday is called pre-hesternal.Another tense found in some languages, including Luganda, is the persistive tense, used to indicate that a state or ongoing action is still the case (or, in the negative, is no longer the case).", "Luganda also has tenses meaning \"so far\" and \"not yet\".Some languages have special tense forms that are used to express relative tense.", "Tenses that refer to the past relative to the time under consideration are called ''anterior''; these include the pluperfect (for the past relative to a past time) and the future perfect (for the past relative to a future time).", "Similarly, ''posterior'' tenses refer to the future relative to the time under consideration, as with the English \"future-in-the-past\": ''(he said that) he '''would go'''.''", "Relative tense forms are also sometimes analysed as combinations of tense with aspect: the perfect aspect in the anterior case, or the prospective aspect in the posterior case.Some languages have cyclic tense systems.", "This is a form of temporal marking where tense is given relative to a reference point or reference span.", "In Burarra, for example, events that occurred earlier on the day of speaking are marked with the same verb forms as events that happened in the far past, while events that happened yesterday (compared to the moment of speech) are marked with the same forms as events in the present.", "This can be thought of as a system where events are marked as prior or contemporaneous to points of reference on a time line." ], [ "Tense marking", "===Morphology of tense===Tense is normally indicated by the use of a particular verb form – either an inflected form of the main verb, or a multi-word construction, or both in combination.", "Inflection may involve the use of affixes, such as the ''-ed'' ending that marks the past tense of English regular verbs, but can also entail stem modifications, such as ablaut, as found as in the strong verbs in English and other Germanic languages, or reduplication.", "Multi-word tense constructions often involve auxiliary verbs or clitics.", "Examples which combine both types of tense marking include the French ''passé composé'', which has an auxiliary verb together with the inflected past participle form of the main verb; and the Irish past tense, where the proclitic ''do'' (in various surface forms) appears in conjunction with the affixed or ablaut-modified past tense form of the main verb.As has already been mentioned, indications of tense are often bound up with indications of other verbal categories, such as aspect and mood.", "The conjugation patterns of verbs often also reflect agreement with categories pertaining to the subject, such as person, number and gender.", "It is consequently not always possible to identify elements that mark any specific category, such as tense, separately from the others.A few languages have been shown to mark tense information (as well as aspect and mood) on nouns.", "This may be called nominal TAM.Languages that do not have grammatical tense, such as most Sinitic languages, express time reference chiefly by lexical means – through adverbials, time phrases, and so on.", "(The same is done in tensed languages, to supplement or reinforce the time information conveyed by the choice of tense.)", "Time information is also sometimes conveyed as a secondary feature by markers of other categories, as with the aspect markers ''le'' and ''guò'', which in most cases place an action in past time.", "However, much time information is conveyed implicitly by context – it is therefore not always necessary, when translating from a tensed to a tenseless language, say, to express explicitly in the target language all of the information conveyed by the tenses in the source.===Syntax of tense===The syntactic properties of tense have figured prominently in formal analyses of how tense-marking interacts with word order.", "Some languages (such as French) allow an adverb (Adv) to intervene between a tense-marked verb (V) and its direct object (O); in other words, they permit Verb-'''Adverb'''-Object ordering.", "In contrast, other languages (such as English) do not allow the adverb to intervene between the verb and its direct object, and require Adverb-'''Verb'''-Object ordering.Tense in syntax is represented by the category label T, which is the head of a TP (tense phrase)." ], [ "Tenseless language", "In linguistics, a '''tenseless language''' is a language that does not have a grammatical category of tense.", "Tenseless languages can and do refer to time, but they do so using lexical items such as adverbs or verbs, or by using combinations of aspect, mood, and words that establish time reference.", "Examples of tenseless languages are Burmese, Dyirbal, most varieties of Chinese, Malay (including Indonesian), Thai, Maya (linguistic nomenclature: \"Yukatek Maya\"), Vietnamese and in some analyses Greenlandic (Kalaallisut) and Guaraní." ], [ "In particular languages", "=== Latin ===Latin is traditionally described as having six verb paradigms for tense (the Latin for \"tense\" being ''tempus'', plural ''tempora''):* Present ''(praesēns)''* Imperfect ''(praeteritum imperfectum)''* Perfect ''(praesēns perfectum)''* Future ''(futūrum)''* Pluperfect ''(plūs quam perfectum, praeteritum perfectum)''* Future perfect ''(futūrum perfectum)''Imperfect verbs represent a past process combined with imperfective, that is, they stand for an ongoing past action or state at a past point in time (see secondary present).", "They can also represent habitual actions (see Latin tenses with modality).", "In contrast, perfect verbs represent completed actions.", "Like the imperfect, the pluperfect, the perfect and the future perfect can realise relative tenses, standing for events that are past at the time of another event (see secondary past).Latin verbs are inflected for tense and aspect together with mood (indicative, subjunctive, infinitive, and imperative) and voice (active or passive).", "Most verbs can be built by selecting a verb stem and adapting them to endings.", "Endings may vary according to the speech role, the number and the gender of the subject or an object.", "Sometimes, verb groups function as a unit and supplement inflection for tense (see Latin periphrases).", "For details on verb structure, see Latin tenses and Latin conjugation.=== Ancient Greek ===The paradigms for tenses in Ancient Greek are similar to the ones in Latin, but with a three-way aspect contrast in the past: the aorist, the perfect and the imperfect.", "Both aorist and imperfect verbs can represent a past event: through contrast, the imperfect verb implies a longer duration ('ate' vs 'ate for a long time').", "The aorist participle represents the first event of a two-event sequence and the present participle represents an ongoing event at the time of another event.", "Perfect verbs stood for past affecting actions if the result was still present (e.g.", "\"I have found it\") or for present states resulting from a past event (e.g.", "\"I remember\").", "For further details see Ancient Greek verbs.The study of modern languages has been greatly influenced by the grammar of the Classical languages, since early grammarians, often monks, had no other reference point to describe their language.", "Latin terminology is often used to describe modern languages, sometimes with a change of meaning, as with the application of \"perfect\" to forms in English that do not necessarily have perfective meaning, or the words ''Imperfekt'' and ''Perfekt'' to German past tense forms that mostly lack any relationship to the aspects implied by those terms.===English===English has only two morphological tenses: the present (or non-past), as in ''he '''goes''''', and the past (or preterite), as in ''he '''went'''''.", "The non-past usually references the present, but sometimes references the future (as in ''the bus '''leaves''' tomorrow'').", "In special uses such as the historical present it can talk about the past as well.", "These morphological tenses are marked either with a suffix (''walk(s)'' ~ ''walked'') or with ablaut (''sing(s)'' ~ ''sang'').In some contexts, particularly in English language teaching, various tense–aspect combinations are referred to loosely as tenses.", "Similarly, the term \"future tense\" is sometimes loosely applied to cases where modals such as ''will'' are used to talk about future points in time.===Other Indo-European languages===Proto-Indo-European verbs had present, perfect (stative), imperfect and aorist forms – these can be considered as representing two tenses (present and past) with different aspects.", "Most languages in the Indo-European family have developed systems either with two morphological tenses (present or \"non-past\", and past) or with three (present, past and future).", "The tenses often form part of entangled tense–aspect–mood conjugation systems.", "Additional tenses, tense–aspect combinations, etc.", "can be provided by compound constructions containing auxiliary verbs.The Germanic languages (which include English) have present (non-past) and past tenses formed morphologically, with future and other additional forms made using auxiliaries.", "In standard German, the compound past ''(Perfekt)'' has replaced the simple morphological past in most contexts.The Romance languages (descendants of Latin) have past, present and future morphological tenses, with additional aspectual distinction in the past.", "French is an example of a language where, as in German, the simple morphological perfective past ''(passé simple)'' has mostly given way to a compound form ''(passé composé)''.Irish, a Celtic language, has past, present and future tenses (see Irish conjugation).", "The past contrasts perfective and imperfective aspect, and some verbs retain such a contrast in the present.", "Classical Irish had a three-way aspectual contrast of simple–perfective–imperfective in the past and present tenses.", "Modern Scottish Gaelic on the other hand only has past, non-past and 'indefinite', and, in the case of the verb 'be' (including its use as an auxiliary), also present tense.Persian, an Indo-Iranian language, has past and non-past forms, with additional aspectual distinctions.", "Future can be expressed using an auxiliary, but almost never in non-formal context.", "Colloquially the perfect suffix ''-e'' can be added to past tenses to indicate that an action is speculative or reported (e.g.", "\"it seems that he was doing\", \"they say that he was doing\").", "A similar feature is found in Turkish.", "(For details, see Persian verbs.", ")Hindustani (Hindi and Urdu), an Indo-Aryan language, has indicative perfect past and indicative future forms, while the indicative present and indicative imperfect past conjugations exist only for the verb ''honā'' (to be).", "The indicative future is constructed using the future subjunctive conjugations (which used to be the indicative present conjugations in older forms of Hind-Urdu) by adding a future future suffix -''gā'' that declines for gender and the number of the noun that the pronoun refes to.", "The forms of ''gā'' are derived from the perfective participle forms of the verb \"to go,\" ''jāna''.", "The conjugations of the indicative perfect past and the indicative imperfect past are derived from participles (just like the past tense formation in Slavic languages) and hence they agree with the grammatical number and the gender of noun which the pronoun refers to and not the pronoun itself.", "The perfect past doubles as the perfective aspect participle and the imperfect past conjugations act as the copula to mark imperfect past when used with the aspectual participles.", "Hindi-Urdu has an overtly marked tense-aspect-mood system.", "Periphrastic Hindi-Urdu verb forms (aspectual verb forms) consist of two elements, the first of these two elements is the aspect marker and the second element (the copula) is the common tense-mood marker.", "Hindi-Urdu has 3 grammatical aspectsː ''Habitual'', ''Perfective'', and ''Progressive''; and 5 grammatical moodsː ''Indicative'', ''Presumptive'', ''Subjunctive'', ''Contrafactual'', and ''Imperative''.", "(Seeː ''Hindi verbs'')In the Slavic languages, verbs are intrinsically perfective or imperfective.", "In Russian and some other languages in the group, perfective verbs have past and \"future tenses\", while imperfective verbs have past, present and \"future\", the imperfective \"future\" being a compound tense in most cases.", "The \"future tense\" of perfective verbs is formed in the same way as the present tense of imperfective verbs.", "However, in South Slavic languages, there may be a greater variety of forms – Bulgarian, for example, has present, past (both \"imperfect\" and \"aorist\") and \"future tenses\", for both perfective and imperfective verbs, as well as perfect forms made with an auxiliary (see Bulgarian verbs).", "However it doesn't have real future tense, because the future tense is formed by the shortened version of the present of the verb hteti (ще) and it just adds present tense forms of person suffixes: -m (I), -š (you), -ø (he,she,it), -me (we), -te (you, plural), -t (they).===Other languages===Finnish and Hungarian, both members of the Uralic language family, have morphological present (non-past) and past tenses.", "The Hungarian verb ''van'' (\"to be\") also has a future form.Turkish verbs conjugate for past, present and future, with a variety of aspects and moods.Arabic verbs have past and non-past; future can be indicated by a prefix.Korean verbs have a variety of affixed forms which can be described as representing present, past and future tenses, although they can alternatively be considered to be aspectual.", "Similarly, Japanese verbs are described as having present and past tenses, although they may be analysed as aspects.", "Some Wu Chinese languages, such as Shanghainese, use grammatical particles to mark some tenses.", "Other Chinese languages and many other East Asian languages generally lack inflection and are considered to be tenseless languages, although they often have aspect markers which convey certain information about time reference.For examples of languages with a greater variety of tenses, see the section on possible tenses, above.", "Fuller information on tense formation and usage in particular languages can be found in the articles on those languages and their grammars.=== Austronesian languages ======= Rapa ====Rapa is the French Polynesian language of the island of Rapa Iti.", "Verbs in the indigenous Old Rapa occur with a marker known as TAM which stands for tense, aspect, or mood which can be followed by directional particles or deictic particles.", "Of the markers there are three tense markers called: Imperfective, Progressive, and Perfective.", "Which simply mean, Before, Currently, and After.", "However, specific TAM markers and the type of deictic or directional particle that follows determine and denote different types of meanings in terms of tenses.", "'''Imperfective:''' denotes actions that have not occurred yet but will occur and expressed by TAM e.'''Progressive:''' Also expressed by TAM e and denotes actions that are currently happening when used with deictic '''na''', and denotes actions that was just witnessed but still currently happening when used with deictic '''ra'''.", "'''Perfective:''' denotes actions that have already occurred or have finished and is marked by TAM ka.In Old Rapa there are also other types of tense markers known as Past, Imperative, and Subjunctive.", "'''Past'''TAM i marks past action.", "It is rarely used as a matrix TAM and is more frequently observed in past embedded clauses'''Imperative'''The imperative is marked in Old Rapa by TAM a.", "A second person subject is implied by the direct command of the imperative.For a more polite form rather than a straightforward command imperative TAM a is used with adverbial kānei.", "Kānei is only shown to be used in imperative structures and was translated by the french as \"please\".It is also used in a more impersonal form.", "For example, how you would speak toward a pesky neighbor.", "'''Subjunctive'''The subjunctive in Old Rapa is marked by kia and can also be used in expressions of desire==== Tokelau ====The Tokelauan language is a tenseless language.", "The language uses the same words for all three tenses; the phrase E liliu mai au i te Aho Tōnai literally translates to Come back / me / on Saturday, but the translation becomes 'I am coming back on Saturday'.==== Wuvulu-Aua ====Wuvulu-Aua does not have an explicit tense, but rather tense is conveyed by mood, aspect markers, and time phrases.", "Wuvulu speakers use a realis mood to convey past tense as speakers can be certain about events that have occurred.", "In some cases, realis mood is used to convey present tense — often to indicate a state of being.", "Wuvulu speakers use an irrealis mood to convey future tense.Tense in Wuvulu-Aua may also be implied by using time adverbials and aspectual markings.", "Wuvulu contains three verbal markers to indicate sequence of events.", "The preverbal adverbial ''loʔo'' 'first' indicates the verb occurs before any other.", "The postverbal morpheme ''liai'' and ''linia'' are the respective intransitive and transitive suffixes indicating a repeated action.", "The postverbal morpheme ''li'' and ''liria'' are the respective intransitive and transitive suffixes indicating a completed action.=== Mortlockese ===Mortlockese uses tense markers such as ''mii'' and to denote the present tense state of a subject, ''aa'' to denote a present tense state that an object has changed to from a different, past state, ''kɞ'' to describe something that has already been completed, ''pɞ'' and ''lɛ'' to denote future tense, ''pʷapʷ'' to denote a possible action or state in future tense, and ''sæn/mwo'' for something that has not happened yet.", "Each of these markers is used in conjunction with the subject proclitics except for the markers ''aa'' and ''mii''.", "Additionally, the marker ''mii'' can be used with any type of intransitive verb." ], [ "See also", "*Sequence of tenses*Spatial tense" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Combinations of Tense, Aspect, and Mood in Greek* Grammatical Features InventoryDEIC:deicticDIR:directional" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Grammatical aspect" ], [ "Introduction", "In linguistics, '''aspect''' is a grammatical category that expresses how an action, event, or state, as denoted by a verb, extends over time.", "Perfective aspect is used in referring to an event conceived as bounded and unitary, without reference to any flow of time during the event (\"I helped him\").", "Imperfective aspect is used for situations conceived as existing continuously or repetitively as time flows (\"I was helping him\"; \"I used to help people\").Further distinctions can be made, for example, to distinguish states and ongoing actions (continuous and progressive aspects) from repetitive actions (habitual aspect).Certain aspectual distinctions express a relation between the time of the event and the time of reference.", "This is the case with the perfect aspect, which indicates that an event occurred prior to (but has continuing relevance at) the time of reference: \"I have eaten\"; \"I had eaten\"; \"I will have eaten\".Different languages make different grammatical aspectual distinctions; some (such as Standard German; see below) do not make any.", "The marking of aspect is often conflated with the marking of tense and mood (see tense–aspect–mood).", "Aspectual distinctions may be restricted to certain tenses: in Latin and the Romance languages, for example, the perfective–imperfective distinction is marked in the past tense, by the division between preterites and imperfects.", "Explicit consideration of aspect as a category first arose out of study of the Slavic languages; here verbs often occur in pairs, with two related verbs being used respectively for imperfective and perfective meanings.The concept of grammatical aspect (or '''verbal aspect''') should not be confused with perfect and imperfect ''verb forms''; the meanings of the latter terms are somewhat different, and in some languages, the common names used for verb forms may not follow the actual aspects precisely." ], [ "Basic concept", "===History===The Indian linguist Yaska () dealt with grammatical aspect, distinguishing actions that are processes (''bhāva''), from those where the action is considered as a completed whole (''mūrta'').", "This is the key distinction between the imperfective and perfective.", "Yaska also applied this distinction to a verb versus an action nominal.Grammarians of the Greek and Latin languages also showed an interest in aspect, but the idea did not enter into the modern Western grammatical tradition until the 19th century via the study of the grammar of the Slavic languages.", "The earliest use of the term recorded in the Oxford English Dictionary dates from 1853.===Modern usage===Aspect is often confused with the closely related concept of tense, because they both convey information about time.", "While tense relates the time of referent to some other time, commonly the speech event, aspect conveys other temporal information, such as duration, completion, or frequency, as it relates to the time of action.", "Thus tense refers to ''temporally when'' while aspect refers to ''temporally how''.", "Aspect can be said to describe the texture of the time in which a situation occurs, such as a single point of time, a continuous range of time, a sequence of discrete points in time, etc., whereas tense indicates its location in time.For example, consider the following sentences: \"I eat\", \"I am eating\", \"I have eaten\", and \"I have been eating\".", "All are in the present tense, indicated by the present-tense verb of each sentence (''eat'', ''am'', and ''have'').", "Yet since they differ in aspect each conveys different information or points of view as to how the action pertains to the present.Grammatical aspect is a ''formal'' property of a language, distinguished through overt inflection, derivational affixes, or independent words that serve as grammatically required markers of those aspects.", "For example, the Kʼicheʼ language spoken in Guatemala has the inflectional prefixes ''k''- and ''x''- to mark incompletive and completive aspect; Mandarin Chinese has the aspect markers -''le'' 了, -''zhe'' 着, ''zài''- 在, and -''guò'' 过 to mark the perfective, durative stative, durative progressive, and experiential aspects, and also marks aspect with adverbs; and English marks the continuous aspect with the verb ''to be'' coupled with present participle and the perfect with the verb ''to have'' coupled with past participle.", "Even languages that do not mark aspect morphologically or through auxiliary verbs, however, can convey such distinctions by the use of adverbs or other syntactic constructions.Grammatical aspect is distinguished from lexical aspect or ''Aktionsart'', which is an inherent feature of verbs or verb phrases and is determined by the nature of the situation that the verb describes." ], [ "Common aspectual distinctions", "The most fundamental aspectual distinction, represented in many languages, is between '''perfective''' aspect and '''imperfective''' aspect.", "This is the basic aspectual distinction in the Slavic languages.It semantically corresponds to the distinction between the morphological forms known respectively as the aorist and imperfect in Greek, the preterite and imperfect in Spanish, the simple past (''passé simple'') and imperfect in French, and the perfect and imperfect in Latin (from the Latin ''perfectus'', meaning \"completed\").", "Language Perfective Aspect Imperfective Aspect Latin Perfect Imperfect Spanish Preterite French Passé simple Greek Aorist Portuguese Preterite perfectEssentially, the perfective aspect looks at an event as a complete action, while the imperfective aspect views an event as the process of unfolding or a repeated or habitual event (thus corresponding to the progressive/continuous aspect for events of short-term duration and to habitual aspect for longer terms).For events of short durations in the past, the distinction often coincides with the distinction in the English language between the simple past \"X-ed,\" as compared to the progressive \"was X-ing\".", "Compare \"I wrote the letters this morning\" (i.e.", "finished writing the letters: an action completed) and \"I was writing the letters this morning\" (the letters may still be unfinished).In describing longer time periods, English needs context to maintain the distinction between the habitual (\"I called him often in the past\" – a habit that has no point of completion) and perfective (\"I called him once\" – an action completed), although the construct \"used to\" marks both habitual aspect and past tense and can be used if the aspectual distinction otherwise is not clear.Sometimes, English has a lexical distinction where other languages may use the distinction in grammatical aspect.", "For example, the English verbs \"to know\" (the state of knowing) and \"to find out\" (knowing viewed as a \"completed action\") correspond to the imperfect and perfect forms of the equivalent verbs in French and Spanish, ''savoir'' and ''saber''.", "This is also true when the sense of verb \"to know\" is \"to know somebody\", in this case opposed in aspect to the verb \"to meet\" (or even to the construction \"to get to know\").", "These correspond to imperfect and perfect forms of ''conocer'' in Spanish, and ''connaître'' in French.", "In German, on the other hand, the distinction is also lexical (as in English) through verbs ''kennen'' and ''kennenlernen'', although the semantic relation between both forms is much more straightforward since ''kennen'' means \"to know\" and ''lernen'' means \"to learn\"." ], [ "Aspect vs. tense", "The Germanic languages combine the concept of aspect with the concept of tense.", "Although English largely separates tense and aspect formally, its aspects (neutral, progressive, perfect, progressive perfect, and in the past tense habitual) do not correspond very closely to the distinction of perfective vs. imperfective that is found in most languages with aspect.", "Furthermore, the separation of tense and aspect in English is not maintained rigidly.", "One instance of this is the alternation, in some forms of English, between sentences such as \"Have you eaten?\"", "and \"Did you eat?", "\".In European languages, rather than locating an event time, the way tense does, aspect describes \"the internal temporal constituency of a situation\", or in other words, aspect is a way \"of conceiving the flow of the process itself\".", "English aspectual distinctions in the past tense include \"I went, I used to go, I was going, I had gone\"; in the present tense \"I lose, I am losing, I have lost, I have been losing, I am going to lose\"; and with the future modal \"I will see, I will be seeing, I will have seen, I am going to see\".", "What distinguishes these aspects within each tense is not (necessarily) when the event occurs, but how the time in which it occurs is viewed: as complete, ongoing, consequential, planned, etc.In most dialects of Ancient Greek, aspect is indicated uniquely by verbal morphology.", "For example, the very frequently used aorist, though a functional preterite in the indicative mood, conveys historic or 'immediate' aspect in the subjunctive and optative.", "The perfect in all moods is used as an aspectual marker, conveying the sense of a resultant state.", "E.g.", "– I see (present); – I saw (aorist); – I am in a state of having seen = I know (perfect).", "Turkish has a same/similar aspect, such as in Görmüş bulunuyorum/durumdayım, where görmüş means \"having seen\" and bulunuyorum/durumdayım means \"I am in the state\".", "In many Sino-Tibetan languages, such as Mandarin, verbs lack grammatical markers of tense, but are rich in aspect (Heine, Kuteva 2010, p. 10).", "Markers of aspect are attached to verbs to indicate aspect.", "Event time is inferred through use of these aspectual markers, along with optional inclusion of adverbs." ], [ "Lexical vs. grammatical aspect", "There is a distinction between grammatical aspect, as described here, and lexical aspect.", "Other terms for the contrast ''lexical vs. grammatical'' include: ''situation vs. viewpoint'' and ''inner vs. outer''.", "Lexical aspect, also known as '''Aktionsart''', is an inherent property of a verb or verb-complement phrase, and is not marked formally.", "The distinctions made as part of lexical aspect are different from those of grammatical aspect.", "Typical distinctions are between states (\"I owned\"), activities (\"I shopped\"), accomplishments (\"I painted a picture\"), achievements (\"I bought\"), and punctual, or semelfactive, events (\"I sneezed\").", "These distinctions are often relevant syntactically.", "For example, states and activities, but not usually achievements, can be used in English with a prepositional ''for''-phrase describing a time duration: \"I had a car for five hours\", \"I shopped for five hours\", but not \"*I bought a car for five hours\".", "Lexical aspect is sometimes called ''Aktionsart'', especially by German and Slavic linguists.", "Lexical or situation aspect is marked in Athabaskan languages.One of the factors in situation aspect is telicity.", "Telicity might be considered a kind of lexical aspect, except that it is typically not a property of a verb in isolation, but rather a property of an entire verb ''phrase''.", "Achievements, accomplishments and semelfactives have telic situation aspect, while states and activities have atelic situation aspect.The other factor in situation aspect is duration, which is also a property of a verb phrase.", "Accomplishments, states, and activities have duration, while achievements and semelfactives do not." ], [ "Indicating aspect", "In some languages, aspect and time are very clearly separated, making them much more distinct to their speakers.", "There are a number of languages that mark aspect much more saliently than time.", "Prominent in this category are Chinese and American Sign Language, which both differentiate many aspects but rely exclusively on optional time-indicating terms to pinpoint an action with respect to time.", "In other language groups, for example in most modern Indo-European languages (except Slavic languages and some Indo-Aryan languages like Hindi), aspect has become almost entirely conflated, in the verbal morphological system, with time.In Russian, aspect is more salient than tense in narrative.", "Russian, like other Slavic languages, uses different lexical entries for the different aspects, whereas other languages mark them morphologically, and still others with auxiliaries (e.g., English).In Hindi, the aspect marker is overtly separated from the tense/mood marker.", "Periphrastic Hindi verb forms consist of two elements.", "The first of these two elements is the aspect marker and the second element (the copula) is the common tense/mood marker.In literary Arabic ( ''al-fuṣḥā'') the verb has two aspect-tenses: perfective (past), and imperfective (non-past).", "There is some disagreement among grammarians whether to view the distinction as a distinction in aspect, or tense, or both.", "The past verb ( ''al-fiʿl al-māḍī'') denotes an event ( ''ḥadaṯ'') completed in the past, but it says nothing about the relation of this past event to present status.", "For example, ''waṣala'', \"arrived\", indicates that arrival occurred in the past without saying anything about the present status of the arriver – maybe they stuck around, maybe they turned around and left, etc.", "– nor about the aspect of the past event except insofar as completeness can be considered aspectual.", "This past verb is clearly similar if not identical to the Greek aorist, which is considered a tense but is more of an aspect marker.", "In the Arabic, aorist aspect is the logical consequence of past tense.", "By contrast, the \"Verb of Similarity\" ( ''al-fiʿl al-muḍāriʿ''), so called because of its resemblance to the active participial noun, is considered to denote an event in the present or future without committing to a specific aspectual sense beyond the incompleteness implied by the tense: (''yaḍribu'', he strikes/is striking/will strike/etc.).", "Those are the only two \"tenses\" in Arabic (not counting ''amr'', command or imperative, which is traditionally considered as denoting future events.)", "To explicitly mark aspect, Arabic uses a variety of lexical and syntactic devices.Contemporary Arabic dialects are another matter.", "One major change from al-fuṣḥā is the use of a prefix particle ( ''bi'' in Egyptian and Levantine dialects—though it may have a slightly different range of functions in each dialect) to explicitly mark progressive, continuous, or habitual aspect: , ''bi-yiktib'', he is now writing, writes all the time, etc.Aspect can mark the stage of an action.", "The prospective aspect is a combination of tense and aspect that indicates the action is in preparation to take place.", "The inceptive aspect identifies the beginning stage of an action (e.g.", "Esperanto uses ''ek-'', e.g.", "''Mi ekmanĝas'', \"I am beginning to eat\".)", "and inchoative and ingressive aspects identify a change of state (''The flowers started blooming'') or the start of an action (''He started running'').", "Aspects of stage continue through progressive, pausative, resumptive, cessive, and terminative.Important qualifications:*Although the perfective is often thought of as representing a \"momentary action\", this is not strictly correct.", "It can equally well be used for an action that took time, as long as it is ''conceived of'' as a unit, with a clearly defined start and end, such as \"Last summer I visited France\".", "*Grammatical aspect represents a formal distinction encoded in the grammar of a language.", "Although languages that are described as having imperfective and perfective aspects agree in most cases in their use of these aspects, they may not agree in every situation.", "For example:**Some languages have additional grammatical aspects.", "Spanish and Ancient Greek, for example, have a perfect (not the same as the perfective), which refers to a state resulting from a previous action (also described as a previous action with relevance to a particular time, or a previous action viewed from the perspective of a later time).", "This corresponds (roughly) to the \"have X-ed\" construction in English, as in \"I have recently eaten\".", "Languages that lack this aspect (such as Portuguese, which is closely related to Spanish) often use the past perfective to render the present perfect (compare the roughly synonymous English sentences \"Have you eaten yet?\"", "and \"Did you eat yet?\").", "**In some languages, the formal representation of aspect is optional, and can be omitted when the aspect is clear from context or does not need to be emphasized.", "This is the case, for example, in Mandarin Chinese, with the perfective suffix ''le'' and (especially) the imperfective ''zhe''.", "**For some verbs in some languages, the difference between perfective and imperfective conveys an additional meaning difference; in such cases, the two aspects are typically translated using separate verbs in English.", "In Greek, for example, the imperfective sometimes adds the notion of \"try to do something\" (the so-called ''conative imperfect''); hence, the same verb, in the imperfective (present or imperfect) and aorist, respectively, is used to convey ''look'' and ''see'', ''search'' and ''find'', ''listen'' and ''hear''.", "(For example, ἠκούομεν (''ēkouomen'', \"we listened\") vs. ἠκούσαμεν (''ēkousamen'', \"we heard\").)", "Spanish has similar pairs for certain verbs, such as (imperfect and preterite, respectively) ''sabía'' (\"I knew\") vs. ''supe'' (\"I found out\"), ''podía'' (\"I was able to\") vs. ''pude'' (\"I succeeded (in doing something)\"), ''quería'' (\"I wanted to\") vs. ''quise'' (\"I tried to\"), and ''no quería'' (\"I did not want to\") vs. ''no quise'' (\"I refused (to do something)\").", "Such differences are often highly language-specific." ], [ "By language", "===Germanic languages=======English====The English tense–aspect system has two morphologically distinct tenses, past and non-past, the latter of which is also known as the ''present-future'' or, more commonly and less formally, simply the ''present''.", "No marker of a distinct future tense exists on the verb in English; the futurity of an event may be expressed through the use of the auxiliary verbs \"will\" and \"shall\", by a non-past form plus an adverb, as in \"tomorrow we go to New York City\", or by some other means.", "Past is distinguished from non-past, in contrast, with internal modifications of the verb.", "These two tenses may be modified further for progressive aspect (also called ''continuous'' aspect), for the perfect, or for both.", "These two aspectual forms are also referred to as BE +ING and HAVE +EN, respectively, which avoids what may be unfamiliar terminology.Aspects of the present tense:* Present simple (not progressive, not perfect): \"I eat\"* Present progressive (progressive, not perfect): \"I am eating\"* Present perfect (not progressive, perfect): \"I have eaten\"* Present perfect progressive (progressive, perfect): \"I have been eating\"(While many elementary discussions of English grammar classify the present perfect as a past tense, it relates the action to the present time.", "One cannot say of someone now deceased that they \"have eaten\" or \"have been eating\".", "The present auxiliary implies that they are in some way ''present'' (alive), even when the action denoted is completed (perfect) or partially completed (progressive perfect).", ")Aspects of the past tense:* Past simple (not progressive, not perfect): \"I ate\"* Past progressive (progressive, not perfect): \"I was eating\"* Past perfect (not progressive, perfect): \"I had eaten\"* Past perfect progressive (progressive, perfect): \"I had been eating\"Aspects can also be marked on non-finite forms of the verb: \"(to) be eating\" (infinitive with progressive aspect), \"(to) have eaten\" (infinitive with perfect aspect), \"having eaten\" (present participle or gerund with perfect aspect), etc.", "The perfect infinitive can further be governed by modal verbs to express various meanings, mostly combining modality with past reference: \"I should have eaten\" etc.", "In particular, the modals ''will'' and ''shall'' and their subjunctive forms ''would'' and ''should'' are used to combine future or hypothetical reference with aspectual meaning: * Simple future, simple conditional: \"I will eat\", \"I would eat\"* Future progressive, conditional progressive: \"I will be eating\", \"I would be eating\"* Future perfect, conditional perfect: \"I will have eaten\", \"I would have eaten\"* Future perfect progressive, conditional perfect progressive: \"I will have been eating\", \"I would have been eating\"The uses of the progressive and perfect aspects are quite complex.", "They may refer to the viewpoint of the speaker::I was walking down the road when I met Michael Jackson's lawyer.", "(Speaker viewpoint in middle of action):I have traveled widely, but I have never been to Moscow.", "(Speaker viewpoint at end of action)But they can have other illocutionary forces or additional modal components::You are being stupid now.", "(You are doing it deliberately):You are not having chocolate with your sausages!", "(I forbid it):I am having lunch with Mike tomorrow.", "(It is decided)English expresses some other aspectual distinctions with other constructions.", "''Used to'' + VERB is a past habitual, as in \"I used to go to school,\" and ''going to / gonna'' + VERB is a prospective, a future situation highlighting current intention or expectation, as in \"I'm going to go to school next year.", "\"==== African American Vernacular English ====The aspectual systems of certain dialects of English, such as African-American Vernacular English (see for example habitual be), and of creoles based on English vocabulary, such as Hawaiian Creole English, are quite different from those of standard English, and often reflect a more elaborate paradigm of aspectual distinctions (often at the expense of tense).", "The following table, appearing originally in Green (2002) shows the possible aspectual distinctions in AAVE in their prototypical, negative and stressed/emphatic affirmative forms:+Aspectual Marking in AAVEAspect/TensePrototypicalStressed / Emphatic AffirmativeNegativeHabitual'be eating'(see Habitual be)'DO be eating''don('t) be eating'Remote Past'BIN eating'(see )'HAVE BIN eating''ain('t)/haven't BIN eating'Remote Past Completive'BIN ate''HAD BIN ate''ain('t)/haven't BIN ate'Remote Past Perfect'had BIN ate''HAD BIN ate''hadn't BIN ate'Resultant State'dən ate''HAVE dən ate''ain('t) dən ate'Past Perfect Resultant State'had dən ate''HAD dən ate''hadn't dən ate'Modal Resultant State'should'a dən ate' -- --Remote Past Resultant State'BIN dən ate''HAVE BIN dən ate''ain('t)/haven't BIN dən ate'Remote Past Perfect Resultant State'had BIN dən ate' -- --Future Resultant State/Conditional' 'a be dən ate''WILL be dən ate''won't be dən ate'Modal Resultant State'might/may be dən ate''MIGHT/MAY be dən ate''might/may not be dən ate'==== German vernacular and colloquial ====Although Standard German does not have aspects, many Upper German and all West Central German dialects, and some more vernacular forms of German do make an aspectual distinction which partly corresponds with the English continuous form: alongside the standard present tense ''Ich esse'' ('I eat') and past ''Ich aß'' ('I ate') there is the form ''Ich bin/war am essen/Essen'' ('I am/was at the eating'; capitalization varies).", "This is formed by the conjugated auxiliary verb ''sein'' (\"to be\") followed by the preposition and article ''am'' (=''an dem'') and the infinitive, which German uses in many constructions as a verbal noun.In the Tyrolean and other Bavarian regiolect the prefix *da can be found, which form perfective aspects.", "\"I hu's gleant\" (Ich habe es gelernt = I learnt it) vs. \"I hu's daleant\" (*Ich habe es DAlernt = I succeeded in learning).==== Dutch ====In Dutch (a West Germanic language), two types of continuous form are used.", "Both types are considered Standard Dutch.The first type is very similar to the non-standard German type.", "It is formed by the conjugated auxiliary verb ''zijn'' (\"to be\"), followed by ''aan het'' and the gerund (which in Dutch matches the infinitive).", "For example:* Present progressive: ''Ik ben aan het werken'' (\"I am working\")* Past progressive: ''Ik was aan het werken'' (\"I was working\")* Future progressive: ''Ik zal aan het werken zijn'' (\"I will be working\")The second type is formed by one of the conjugated auxiliary verbs ''liggen'' (\"to lie\"), ''zitten'' (\"to sit\"), ''hangen'' (\"to hang\"), ''staan'' (\"to stand\") or ''lopen'' (\"to walk\"), followed by the preposition ''te'' and the infinitive.", "The conjugated verbs indicate the stance of the subject performing or undergoing the action.", "* Present progressive: ''Ik zit te eten'' (\"I am eating while sitting\"), ''De was hangt te drogen'' (\"The laundry is drying while hanging\")* Past progressive: ''Ik lag te lezen'' (\"I was reading while lying\"), ''Ik stond te kijken'' (\"I was watching while standing\")* Future progressive: ''Ik zal zitten te werken'' (\"I will be working while sitting\")Sometimes the meaning of the auxiliary verb is diminished to 'being engaged in'.", "Take for instance these examples:* ''De leraar zit steeds te zeggen dat we moeten luisteren'' (\"The teacher keeps telling us to listen\")* ''Iedereen loopt te beweren dat het goed was'' (\"Everyone keeps on saying that it was good\")* ''Zit niet zo te zeuren'' (\"Stop whining\")In these cases, there is generally an undertone of irritation.===Slavic languages===The Slavic languages make a clear distinction between perfective and imperfective aspects; it was in relation to these languages that the modern concept of aspect originally developed.In Slavic languages, a given verb is, in itself, either perfective or imperfective.", "Consequently, each language contains many pairs of verbs, corresponding to each other in meaning, except that one expresses perfective aspect and the other imperfective.", "(This may be considered a form of lexical aspect.)", "Perfective verbs are commonly formed from imperfective ones by the addition of a prefix, or else the imperfective verb is formed from the perfective one by modification of the stem or ending.", "Suppletion also plays a small role.", "Perfective verbs cannot generally be used with the meaning of a present tense – their present-tense forms in fact have future reference.", "An example of such a pair of verbs, from Polish, is given below:*Infinitive (and dictionary form): ''pisać'' (\"to write\", imperfective); ''napisać'' (\"to write\", perfective)*Present/simple future tense: ''pisze'' (\"writes\"); ''napisze'' (\"will write\", perfective)*Compound future tense (imperfective only): ''będzie pisać'' (\"will write, will be writing\")*Past tense: ''pisał'' (\"was writing, used to write, wrote\", imperfective); ''napisał'' (\"wrote\", perfective)In at least the East Slavic and West Slavic languages, there is a three-way aspect differentiation for verbs of motion with the determinate imperfective, indeterminate imperfective, and perfective.", "The two forms of imperfective can be used in all three tenses (past, present, and future), but the perfective can only be used with past and future.", "The indeterminate imperfective expresses habitual aspect (or motion in no single direction), while the determinate imperfective expresses progressive aspect.", "The difference corresponds closely to that between the English \"I (regularly) go to school\" and \"I am going to school (now)\".", "The three-way difference is given below for the Russian basic (unprefixed) verbs of motion.When prefixes are attached to Russian verbs of motion they become more or less normal imperfective/perfective pairs, with the indeterminate imperfective becoming the prefixed imperfective and the determinate imperfective becoming the prefixed perfective.", "For example, prefix ''при-'' ''pri-'' + indeterminate ''ходи́ть'' ''khodít'' = ''приходи́ть'' ''prikhodít'' (to arrive (on foot), impf.", "); and prefix ''при-'' ''pri-'' + determinate ''идти́'' ''idtí'' = ''прийти'' ''prijtí'' (to arrive (on foot), pf.).", "Russian verbs of motion Imperfective Perfective Translation Indeterminate Determinate ходи́ть''khodít'' идти́''idtí'' пойти́''pojtí'' to go by foot (walk) е́здить''jézdit'' е́хать''jékhat'' пое́хать''pojékhat'' to go by transport (drive, train, bus, etc.)", "бе́гать''bégat'' бежа́ть''bezhát'' побежа́ть''pobezhát'' to run броди́ть''brodít'' брести́''brestí'' побрести́''pobrestí'' to stroll, to wander гоня́ть''gonját'' гнать''gnat'' погна́ть''pognát'' to chase, to drive (cattle, etc.)", "ла́зить''lázit'' лезть''lezt'' поле́зть''polézt'' to climb лета́ть''letát'' лете́ть''letét'' полете́ть''poletét'' to fly пла́вать''plávat'' плыть''plyt'' поплы́ть''poplýt'' to swim, to sail по́лзать''pólzat'' ползти́''polztí'' поползти́''popolztí'' to crawl вози́ть''vozít'' везти́''veztí'' повезти́''poveztí'' to carry (by vehicle) носи́ть''nosít'' нести́''nestí'' понести́''ponestí'' to carry, to wear води́ть''vodít'' вести́''vestí'' повести́''povestí'' to lead, to accompany, to drive (a car) таска́ть''taskát'' тащи́ть''tashchít'' потащи́ть''potashchít'' to drag, to pull ката́ть''katát'' кати́ть''katít'' покати́ть''pokatít'' to roll===Romance languages===Modern Romance languages merge the concepts of aspect and tense but consistently distinguish perfective and imperfective aspects in the past tense.", "This derives directly from the way the Latin language used to render both aspects and ''consecutio temporum''.==== Italian ====Italian language example using the verb ''mangiare'' (\"to eat\"):'''Mood: ''indicativo'' (indicative)''''''Tense''''''Italian''''''English''''''Explanation'''''Presente''''(Present)''io mangio \"I eat\", \"I'm eating\"merges habitual and continuous aspects, among others''Passato prossimo''''(Recent past)''io ho mangiato\"I ate\", \"I have eaten\"merges perfective and perfect''Imperfetto''''(Imperfect)''io mangiavo\"I was eating\", \"I usually ate\"merges habitual and progressive aspects''Trapassato prossimo''''(Recent pluperfect)''io avevo mangiato\"I had eaten\"tense, not ordinarily marked for aspect''Passato remoto''''(Far past)''io mangiai\"I ate\"perfective aspect''Trapassato remoto''''(Far pluperfect)''io ebbi mangiato \"I had eaten\"tense''Futuro semplice''''(Simple future)''io mangerò\"I shall eat\"tense''Futuro anteriore''''(Future perfect)''io avrò mangiato \"I shall have eaten\"future tense and perfect tense/aspectThe ''imperfetto''/''trapassato prossimo'' contrasts with the ''passato remoto''/''trapassato remoto'' in that ''imperfetto'' renders an imperfective (continuous) past while ''passato remoto'' expresses an aorist (punctual/historical) past.Other aspects in Italian are rendered with other periphrases, like prospective (''io sto per mangiare'' \"I'm about to eat\", ''io starò per mangiare'' \"I shall be about to eat\"), or continuous/progressive (''io sto mangiando'' \"I'm eating\", ''io starò mangiando'' \"I shall be eating\").=== Indo-Aryan languages ======= Hindi ====Hindi has three aspects, habitual aspect, perfective aspect and the progressive aspect.", "Each of these three aspects are formed from their participles.", "The aspects of Hindi when conjugated into their personal forms can be put into five grammatical moods: indicative, presumptive, subjunctive, contrafactual, and imperative.", "In Hindi, the aspect marker is overtly separated from the tense/mood marker.", "Periphrastic Hindi verb forms consist of two elements.", "The first of these two elements is the aspect marker.", "The second element (the copula) is the common tense/mood marker.There are a couple of verbs which can be used as the copula to the aspectual participles: होना (honā) to be, happen, रहना (rêhnā) to stay, remain, आना (ānā) to come, and जाना (jānā) to go.", "Each of these copulas provide a unique nuance to the aspect.", "The default (unmarked) copula is होना (honā) to be.", "These copulas can themselves be conjugated into an aspectual participle and used with another copula, hence forming subaspects.", "(Seeː Hindi verbs) ''Simple''''Aspect''''Perfective''''Aspect''''Habitual''''Aspect''''Progressive''''Aspect''''Translation''''होना'' ''honā''''हुआ होना''''huā honā''''हुआ रहना''''huā rêhnā''''हुआ जाना''''huā jānā''''होता होना''''hotā honā''''होता रहना''''hotā rêhnā''''होता आना''''hotā ānā''''होता जाना''''hotā jānā''''हो रहा होना''''ho rahā honā''''हो रहा रहना''''ho rahā rêhnā''''to happen''''करना''''karnā''''किया होना''''kiyā honā''''किया रहना''''kiyā rêhnā''''किया जाना''''kiyā jānā''''करता होना''''kartā honā''''करता रहना''''kartā rêhnā''''करता आना''''kartā ānā''''करता जाना''''kartā jānā''''कर रहा होना''''kar rahā honā''''कर रहा रहना''''kar rahā rêhnā''''to do''''मरना''''marnā''''मरा होना''''marā honā''''मरा रहना''''marā rêhnā''''मरा जाना''''marā jānā''''मरता होना''''martā honā''''मरता रहना''''martā rêhnā''''मरता आना''''martā ānā''''मरता जाना''''martā jānā''''मर रहा होना''''mar rahā honā''''मर रहा रहना''''mar rahā rêhnā''''to die''===Finnic languages===Finnish and Estonian, among others, have a grammatical aspect contrast of telicity between telic and atelic.", "Telic sentences signal that the intended goal of an action is achieved.", "Atelic sentences do not signal whether any such goal has been achieved.", "The aspect is indicated by the case of the object: accusative is telic and partitive is atelic.", "For example, the (implicit) purpose of shooting is to kill, such that:* ''Ammuin karhun'' -- \"I shot the bear (succeeded; it is done)\" i.e., \"I shot the bear dead\".", "* ''Ammuin karhua'' -- \"I shot at the bear\" i.e.", "the bear may have survived.In rare cases corresponding telic and atelic forms can be unrelated by meaning.Derivational suffixes exist for various aspects.", "Examples:*''-ahta-'' (\"once\"), as in ''huudahtaa'' (\"to yell once\") (used for emotive verbs like \"laugh\", \"smile\", \"growl\", \"bark\"; is not used for verbs like \"shoot\", \"say\", \"drink\")*''-ele-'' \"repeatedly\" as in ''ammuskella'' \"to go shooting around\"There are derivational suffixes for verbs, which carry frequentative, momentane, causative, and inchoative aspect meanings.", "Also, pairs of verbs differing only in transitivity exist.===Austronesian languages======= Reo Rapa ====The Rapa language (Reo Rapa) is a mixed language that grew out of Tahitian and Old Rapa among monolingual inhabitants of Rapa Iti.", "Old Rapa words are still used for grammar and sentence structure, but most common words were replaced by Tahitian words.", "Rapa is similar to English as they both have specific tense words such as ''did'' or ''do''.", "*'''Past negative''': ''ki’ere'' /kiʔere/ *'''Non-past negative''' (Regular negative) ''kāre'' /kaːre/ ====Hawaiian====The Hawaiian language conveys aspect as follows:*The unmarked verb, frequently used, can indicate habitual aspect or perfective aspect in the past.", "*''ke'' + verb + ''nei'' is frequently used and conveys the progressive aspect in the present.", "*''e'' + verb + ''ana'' conveys the progressive aspect in any tense.", "*''ua'' + verb conveys the perfective aspect but is frequently omitted.====Wuvulu====Wuvulu language is a minority language in Pacific.", "The Wuvulu verbal aspect is hard to organize because of its number of morpheme combinations and the interaction of semantics between morphemes.", "Perfective, imperfective negation, simultaneous and habitual are four aspects markers in Wuvulu language.", "* '''Perfective''': The perfective marker ''-li'' indicates the action is done before other action.", "* '''Imperfect negation''': The marker ''ta-'' indicates the action has not done and also doesn't show anything about the action will be done in the future.", "* '''Simultaneous''': The marker ''fi'' indicates the two actions are done at the same time or one action occurs while other action is in progress.", "* '''Habitual''': The marker fane- can indicate a habitual activity, which means \"keep doing something\" in English.", "Example: ====Tokelauan====There are three types of aspects one must consider when analyzing the Tokelauan language: inherent aspect, situation aspect, and viewpoint aspect.The inherent aspect describes the purpose of a verb and what separates verbs from one another.", "According to Vendler, inherent aspect can be categorized into four different types: activities, achievements, accomplishments, and states.", "Simple activities include verbs such as pull, jump, and punch.", "Some achievements are continue and win.", "Drive-a-car is an accomplishment while hate is an example of a state.", "Another way to recognize a state inherent aspect is to note whether or not it changes.", "For example, if someone were to hate vegetables because they are allergic, this state of hate is unchanging and thus, a state inherent aspect.", "On the other hand, an achievement, unlike a state, only lasts for a short amount of time.", "Achievement is the highpoint of an action.Another type of aspect is situation aspect.", "Situation aspect is described to be what one is experiencing in his or her life through that circumstance.", "Therefore, it is his or her understanding of the situation.", "Situation aspect are abstract terms that are not physically tangible.", "They are also used based upon one's point of view.", "For example, a professor may say that a student who comes a minute before each class starts is a punctual student.", "Based upon the professor's judgment of what punctuality is, he or she may make that assumption of the situation with the student.", "Situation aspect is firstly divided into states and occurrences, then later subdivided under occurrences into processes and events, and lastly, under events, there are accomplishments and achievements.The third type of aspect is viewpoint aspect.", "Viewpoint aspect can be likened to situation aspect such that they both take into consideration one's inferences.", "However, viewpoint aspect diverges from situation aspect because it is where one decides to view or see such event.", "A perfect example is the glass metaphor: Is the glass half full or is it half empty.", "The choice of being half full represents an optimistic viewpoint while the choice of being half empty represents a pessimistic viewpoint.", "Not only does viewpoint aspect separate into negative and positive, but rather different point of views.", "Having two people describe a painting can bring about two different viewpoints.", "One may describe a situation aspect as a perfect or imperfect.", "A perfect situation aspect entails an event with no reference to time, while an imperfect situation aspect makes a reference to time with the observation.==== Torau ====Aspect in Torau is marked with post-verbal particles or clitics.", "While the system for marking the imperfective aspect is complex and highly developed, it is unclear if Torau marks the perfective and neutral viewpoints.", "The imperfective clitics index one of the core arguments, usually the nominative subject, and follow the rightmost element in a syntactic structure larger than the word.", "The two distinct forms for marking the imperfective aspect are ''(i)sa-'' and ''e-''.", "While more work needs to be done on this language, the preliminary hypothesis is that ''(i)sa-'' encodes the stative imperfective and ''e-'' encodes the active imperfective.", "Reduplication always cooccurs with ''e-'', but it usually does not with ''(i)sa-.''", "This example below shows these two imperfective aspect markers giving different meanings to similar sentences.In Torau, the suffix -''to'', which must attach to a preverbal particle, may indicate similar meaning to the perfective aspect.", "In realis clauses, this suffix conveys an event that is entirely in the past and no longer occurring.", "When ''-to'' is used in irrealis clauses, the speaker conveys that the event will definitely occur (Palmer, 2007).", "Although this suffix is not explicitly stated as a perfective viewpoint marker, the meaning that it contributes is very similar to the perfective viewpoint.====Malay/Indonesian====Like many Austronesian languages, the verbs of the Malay language follow a system of affixes to express changes in meaning.", "To express the aspects, Malay uses a number of auxiliary verbs::*''sudah'': perfective, 'saya sudah makan' = 'I have already eaten':*''baru'': near perfective, 'saya baru makan' = 'I have just eaten':*''belum'': imperfective, 'saya belum makan' = 'I have not eaten':*''sedang'': progressive not implicating an end:*''masih'': progressive implicating an end:*''pernah'': semelfactive====Philippine languages====Like many Austronesian languages, the verbs of the Philippine languages follow a complex system of affixes to express subtle changes in meaning.", "However, the verbs in this family of languages are conjugated to express the aspects and not the tenses.", "Though many of the Philippine languages do not have a fully codified grammar, most of them follow the verb aspects that are demonstrated by Filipino or Tagalog.===Creole languages===Creole languages typically use the unmarked verb for timeless habitual aspect, or for stative aspect, or for perfective aspect in the past.", "Invariant pre-verbal markers are often used.", "Non-stative verbs typically can optionally be marked for the progressive, habitual, completive, or irrealis aspect.", "The progressive in English-based Atlantic Creoles often uses ''de'' (from English \"be\").", "Jamaican Creole uses ''a'' (from English \"are\") or ''de'' for the present progressive and a combination of the past time marker (''did'', ''behn'', ''ehn'' or ''wehn'') and the progressive marker (''a'' or ''de'') for the past progressive (e.g.", "''did a'' or ''wehn de'').", "Haitian Creole uses the progressive marker ''ap''.", "Some Atlantic Creoles use one marker for both the habitual and progressive aspects.", "In Tok Pisin, the optional progressive marker follows the verb.", "Completive markers tend to come from superstrate words like \"done\" or \"finish\", and some creoles model the future/irrealis marker on the superstrate word for \"go\".===American Sign Language===American Sign Language (ASL) is similar to many other sign languages in that it has no grammatical tense but many verbal aspects produced by modifying the base verb sign.An example is illustrated with the verb TELL.", "The basic form of this sign is produced with the initial posture of the index finger on the chin, followed by a movement of the hand and finger tip toward the indirect object (the recipient of the telling).", "Inflected into the unrealized inceptive aspect (\"to be just about to tell\"), the sign begins with the hand moving from in front of the trunk in an arc to the initial posture of the base sign (i.e., index finger touching the chin) while inhaling through the mouth, dropping the jaw, and directing eye gaze toward the verb's object.", "The posture is then held rather than moved toward the indirect object.", "During the hold, the signer also stops the breath by closing the glottis.", "Other verbs (such as \"look at\", \"wash the dishes\", \"yell\", \"flirt\") are inflected into the unrealized inceptive aspect similarly: The hands used in the base sign move in an arc from in front of the trunk to the initial posture of the underlying verb sign while inhaling, dropping the jaw, and directing eye gaze toward the verb's object (if any), but subsequent movements and postures are dropped as the posture and breath are held.Other aspects in ASL include the following: stative, inchoative (\"to begin to...\"), predispositional (\"to tend to...\"), susceptative (\"to... easily\"), frequentative (\"to... often\"), protractive (\"to... continuously\"), incessant (\"to... incessantly\"), durative (\"to... for a long time\"), iterative (\"to... over and over again\"), intensive (\"to... very much\"), resultative (\"to... completely\"), approximative (\"to... somewhat\"), semblitive (\"to appear to...\"), increasing (\"to... more and more\").", "Some aspects combine with others to create yet finer distinctions.Aspect is unusual in ASL in that transitive verbs derived for aspect lose their grammatical transitivity.", "They remain semantically transitive, typically assuming an object made prominent using a topic marker or mentioned in a previous sentence.", "See Syntax in ASL for details." ], [ "Terms for various aspects", "The following aspectual terms are found in the literature.", "Approximate English equivalents are given.", "* Perfective: 'I struck the bell' (an event viewed in its entirety, without reference to its temporal structure during its occurrence)* Momentane: 'The mouse squeaked once' (contrasted to 'The mouse squeaked / was squeaking')* Perfect (a common conflation of aspect and tense): 'I have arrived' (brings attention to the consequences of a situation in the past)** Recent perfect, also known as ''after perfect'': 'I just ate' or 'I am after eating' (Hiberno-English)* Discontinuous past: In English a sentence such as \"I put it on the table\" is neutral in implication (the object could still be on the table or not), but in some languages such as Chichewa the equivalent tense carries an implication that the object is no longer there.", "It is thus the opposite of the perfect aspect.", "* Prospective (a conflation of aspect and tense): 'He is about to fall', 'I am going to cry\" (brings attention to the anticipation of a future situation)* Imperfective (an activity with ongoing nature: combines the meanings of both the continuous and the habitual aspects): 'I was walking to work' (continuous) or 'I walked (used to walk, would walk) to work every day' (habitual).", "** Habitual: 'I used to walk home from work', 'I would walk home from work every day', 'I walk home from work every day' (a subtype of imperfective)** Continuous: 'I am eating' or 'I know' (situation is described as ongoing and either evolving or unevolving; a subtype of imperfective)*** Progressive: 'I am eating' (action is described as ongoing and evolving; a subtype of continuous)*** Stative: 'I know French' (situation is described as ongoing but not evolving; a subtype of continuous)* Gnomic/generic: 'Fish swim and birds fly' (general truths)* Episodic: 'The bird flew' (non-gnomic)* Continuative aspect: 'I am still eating'* Inceptive/ingressive: 'I started to run' (beginning of a new action: dynamic)* Inchoative: 'The flowers started to bloom' (beginning of a new state: static)* Terminative/cessative: 'I finished eating/reading'* Defective: 'I almost fell'* Pausative: 'I stopped working for a while'* Resumptive: 'I resumed sleeping'* Punctual: 'I slept'* Durative/Delimitative: 'I slept for a while'* Protractive: 'The argument went on and on'* Iterative: 'I read the same books again and again'* Frequentative: 'It sparkled', contrasted with 'It sparked'.", "Or, 'I run around', vs. 'I run'* Experiential: 'I have gone to school many times' (see for example Chinese aspects)* Intentional: 'I listened carefully'* Accidental: 'I accidentally knocked over the chair'* Intensive: 'It glared'* Moderative: 'It shone'* Attenuative: 'It glimmered'* Segmentative: 'It is coming out in successive multitudes'" ], [ "See also", "* Aktionsart* Ancient Greek grammar: Dependence of moods and tenses* Aspect in Standard Chinese* Grammatical conjugation* Grammatical tense* Grammatical mood* Nominal TAM (tense–aspect–mood)* Tense–aspect–mood" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Other references", "*''Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics'' (), by Hadumod Bussmann, edited by Gregory P. Trauth and Kerstin Kazzazi, Routledge, London 1996.Translation of German ''Lexikon der Sprachwissenschaft'' Kröner Verlag, Stuttgart 1990.", "* Morfofonologian harjoituksia , Lauri Carlson**Berdinetto, P. M., & Delfitto, D. (2000).", "\"Aspect vs. Actionality: Some reasons for keeping them apart\".", "In O. Dahl (Ed.", "), ''Tense and Aspect in the Languages of Europe'' (pp. 189–226).", "Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.", "*Binnick, R. I.", "(1991).", "''Time and the verb: A guide to tense and aspect''.", "New York: Oxford University Press.", "*Binnick, R. I.", "(2006).", "\"Aspect and Aspectuality\".", "In B. Aarts & A. M. S. McMahon (Eds.", "), ''The Handbook of English Linguistics'' (pp. 244–268).", "Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.", "**Comrie, B.", "(1976).", "''Aspect: An introduction to the study of verbal aspect and related problems''.", "Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press.", "*Frawley, W. (1992).", "''Linguistic semantics''.", "Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.", "*Kabakciev, K. (2000).", "''Aspect in English: a \"common-sense\" view of the interplay between verbal and nominal referents'' (Studies in Linguistics and Philosophy).", "Springer.", "Retrieved 2016-05-18.", "**MacDonald, J. E. (2008).", "''The syntactic nature of inner aspect: A minimalist perspective''.", "Amsterdam; Philadelphia: John Benjamins Pub.", "Co.*Maslov, I. S. (1998).", "\"Vid glagol'nyj\" \"Aspect of the verb\".", "In V. N. Yartseva (Ed.", "), ''Jazykoznanie: Bol'shoj entsyklopedicheskij slovar'' (pp. 83–84).", "Moscow: Bol'shaja Rossijskaja Entsyklopedija.", "*Richardson, K. (2007).", "''Case and aspect in Slavic''.", "Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press.", "**Sasse, H.-J.", "(2006).", "\"Aspect and Aktionsart\".", "In E. K. Brown (Ed.", "), ''Encyclopedia of language and linguistics'' (Vol.", "1, pp. 535–538).", "Boston: Elsevier.", "*Smith, Carlota S. (1991).", "''The parameter of aspect''.", "Dordrecht; Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers.", "**Travis, Lisa deMena (2010).", "\"Inner aspect\", Dordrecht, Springer..*Verkuyl, H. (1972).", "''On the Compositional Nature of the Aspects'', Reidel, Dordrecht.", "*Verkuyl, H. (1993).", "''A Theory of Aspectuality: the interaction between temporal and atemporal structure''.", "Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.", "*Verkuyl, H. (2005).", "\"How (in-)sensitive is tense to aspectual information?\"", "In B. Hollebrandse, A. van Hout & C. Vet (Eds.", "), ''Crosslinguistic views on tense, aspect and modality'' (pp. 145–169).", "Amsterdam: Rodopi.", "*Zalizniak, A.", "A., & Shmelev, A. D. (2000).", "''Vvedenie v russkuiu aspektologiiu'' ''Introduction to Russian aspectology''.", "Moskva: IAzyki russkoi kul’tury." ], [ "External links", "* Robert Binnick, Annotated tense/aspect bibliography (around 9000 entries)* TAMPA: Aspect Explained* Anna Kibort, Aspekt * Anna Katarzyna Młynarczyk: Aspectual Pairing in Polish, a pdf version of the book* Grammar Tutorials - a column overview of the English tenses* Greek tenses* Verb Aspect" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Glucose" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Glucose''' is a sugar with the molecular formula .", "Glucose is overall the most abundant monosaccharide, a subcategory of carbohydrates.", "Glucose is mainly made by plants and most algae during photosynthesis from water and carbon dioxide, using energy from sunlight, where it is used to make cellulose in cell walls, the most abundant carbohydrate in the world.In energy metabolism, glucose is the most important source of energy in all organisms.", "Glucose for metabolism is stored as a polymer, in plants mainly as starch and amylopectin, and in animals as glycogen.", "Glucose circulates in the blood of animals as blood sugar.", "The naturally occurring form of glucose is -glucose, while its stereoisomer -glucose is produced synthetically in comparatively small amounts and is less biologically active.", "Glucose is a monosaccharide containing six carbon atoms and an aldehyde group, and is therefore an aldohexose.", "The glucose molecule can exist in an open-chain (acyclic) as well as ring (cyclic) form.", "Glucose is naturally occurring and is found in its free state in fruits and other parts of plants.", "In animals, glucose is released from the breakdown of glycogen in a process known as glycogenolysis.Glucose, as intravenous sugar solution, is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines.", "It is also on the list in combination with sodium chloride.The name glucose is derived from Ancient Greek (, \"wine, must\"), from (, \"sweet\").", "The suffix \"-ose\" is a chemical classifier, denoting a sugar." ], [ "History", "Glucose was first isolated from raisins in 1747 by the German chemist Andreas Marggraf.", "Glucose was discovered in grapes by another German chemistJohann Tobias Lowitzin 1792, and distinguished as being different from cane sugar (sucrose).", "Glucose is the term coined by Jean Baptiste Dumas in 1838, which has prevailed in the chemical literature.", "Friedrich August Kekulé proposed the term dextrose (from the Latin , meaning \"right\"), because in aqueous solution of glucose, the plane of linearly polarized light is turned to the right.", "In contrast, l-fructose (usually referred to as -fructose) (a ketohexose) and l-glucose (-glucose) turn linearly polarized light to the left.", "The earlier notation according to the rotation of the plane of linearly polarized light (''d'' and ''l''-nomenclature) was later abandoned in favor of the - and -notation, which refers to the absolute configuration of the asymmetric center farthest from the carbonyl group, and in concordance with the configuration of - or -glyceraldehyde.Since glucose is a basic necessity of many organisms, a correct understanding of its chemical makeup and structure contributed greatly to a general advancement in organic chemistry.", "This understanding occurred largely as a result of the investigations of Emil Fischer, a German chemist who received the 1902 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his findings.", "The synthesis of glucose established the structure of organic material and consequently formed the first definitive validation of Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff's theories of chemical kinetics and the arrangements of chemical bonds in carbon-bearing molecules.", "Between 1891 and 1894, Fischer established the stereochemical configuration of all the known sugars and correctly predicted the possible isomers, applying Van 't Hoff's theory of asymmetrical carbon atoms.", "The names initially referred to the natural substances.", "Their enantiomers were given the same name with the introduction of systematic nomenclatures, taking into account absolute stereochemistry (e.g.", "Fischer nomenclature, / nomenclature).For the discovery of the metabolism of glucose Otto Meyerhof received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1922.Hans von Euler-Chelpin was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry along with Arthur Harden in 1929 for their \"research on the fermentation of sugar and their share of enzymes in this process\".", "In 1947, Bernardo Houssay (for his discovery of the role of the pituitary gland in the metabolism of glucose and the derived carbohydrates) as well as Carl and Gerty Cori (for their discovery of the conversion of glycogen from glucose) received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.", "In 1970, Luis Leloir was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the discovery of glucose-derived sugar nucleotides in the biosynthesis of carbohydrates." ], [ "Chemical and physical properties", "Glucose forms white or colorless solids that are highly soluble in water and acetic acid but poorly soluble in methanol and ethanol.", "They melt at (''α'') and (''β''), and decompose starting at with release of various volatile products, ultimately leaving a residue of carbon.", "Glucose has a pK value of 12.16 at in water.With six carbon atoms, it is classed as a hexose, a subcategory of the monosaccharides.", "-Glucose is one of the sixteen aldohexose stereoisomers.", "The -isomer, -glucose, also known as ''dextrose'', occurs widely in nature, but the -isomer, -glucose, does not.", "Glucose can be obtained by hydrolysis of carbohydrates such as milk sugar (lactose), cane sugar (sucrose), maltose, cellulose, glycogen, etc.", "Dextrose is commonly commercially manufactured from cornstarch in the US and Japan, from potato and wheat starch in Europe, and from tapioca starch in tropical areas.", "The manufacturing process uses hydrolysis via pressurized steaming at controlled pH in a jet followed by further enzymatic depolymerization.", "Unbonded glucose is one of the main ingredients of honey.===Structure and nomenclature===Mutarotation of glucoseGlucose is usually present in solid form as a monohydrate with a closed pyran ring (α-glucopyranose monohydrate, sometimes known less precisely by dextrose hydrate).", "In aqueous solution, on the other hand, it is an open-chain to a small extent and is present predominantly as α- or β-pyranose, which interconvert.", "From aqueous solutions, the three known forms can be crystallized: α-glucopyranose, β-glucopyranose and α-glucopyranose monohydrate.", "Glucose is a building block of the disaccharides lactose and sucrose (cane or beet sugar), of oligosaccharides such as raffinose and of polysaccharides such as starch, amylopectin, glycogen, and cellulose.", "The glass transition temperature of glucose is and the Gordon–Taylor constant (an experimentally determined constant for the prediction of the glass transition temperature for different mass fractions of a mixture of two substances) is 4.5.Forms and projections of -glucose in comparison Natta projection Haworth projection 100px 120pxα--glucofuranose 120pxβ--glucofuranose 100pxα--glucopyranose 100pxβ--glucopyranose α--Glucopyranose in (1) Tollens/Fischer (2) Haworth projection (3) chair conformation (4) Mills projection 500px===Open-chain form===Glucose can exist in both a straight-chain and ring form.The open-chain form of glucose makes up less than 0.02% of the glucose molecules in an aqueous solution at equilibrium.", "The rest is one of two cyclic hemiacetal forms.", "In its open-chain form, the glucose molecule has an open (as opposed to cyclic) unbranched backbone of six carbon atoms, where C-1 is part of an aldehyde group .", "Therefore, glucose is also classified as an aldose, or an aldohexose.", "The aldehyde group makes glucose a reducing sugar giving a positive reaction with the Fehling test.===Cyclic forms===In solutions, the open-chain form of glucose (either \"-\" or \"-\") exists in equilibrium with several cyclic isomers, each containing a ring of carbons closed by one oxygen atom.", "In aqueous solution, however, more than 99% of glucose molecules exist as pyranose forms.", "The open-chain form is limited to about 0.25%, and furanose forms exist in negligible amounts.", "The terms \"glucose\" and \"-glucose\" are generally used for these cyclic forms as well.", "The ring arises from the open-chain form by an intramolecular nucleophilic addition reaction between the aldehyde group (at C-1) and either the C-4 or C-5 hydroxyl group, forming a hemiacetal linkage, .The reaction between C-1 and C-5 yields a six-membered heterocyclic system called a pyranose, which is a monosaccharide sugar (hence \"-ose\") containing a derivatised pyran skeleton.", "The (much rarer) reaction between C-1 and C-4 yields a five-membered furanose ring, named after the cyclic ether furan.", "In either case, each carbon in the ring has one hydrogen and one hydroxyl attached, except for the last carbon (C-4 or C-5) where the hydroxyl is replaced by the remainder of the open molecule (which is or respectively).The ring-closing reaction can give two products, denoted \"α-\" and \"β-\".", "When a glucopyranose molecule is drawn in the Haworth projection, the designation \"α-\" means that the hydroxyl group attached to C-1 and the group at C-5 lies on opposite sides of the ring's plane (a'' trans'' arrangement), while \"β-\" means that they are on the same side of the plane (a'' cis'' arrangement).", "Therefore, the open-chain isomer -glucose gives rise to four distinct cyclic isomers: α--glucopyranose, β--glucopyranose, α--glucofuranose, and β--glucofuranose.", "These five structures exist in equilibrium and interconvert, and the interconversion is much more rapid with acid catalysis.Widely proposed arrow-pushing mechanism for acid-catalyzed dynamic equilibrium between the α- and β- anomers of D-glucopyranoseThe other open-chain isomer -glucose similarly gives rise to four distinct cyclic forms of -glucose, each the mirror image of the corresponding -glucose.The glucopyranose ring (α or β) can assume several non-planar shapes, analogous to the \"chair\" and \"boat\" conformations of cyclohexane.", "Similarly, the glucofuranose ring may assume several shapes, analogous to the \"envelope\" conformations of cyclopentane.In the solid state, only the glucopyranose forms are observed.Some derivatives of glucofuranose, such as 1,2-''O''-isopropylidene--glucofuranose are stable and can be obtained pure as crystalline solids.", "For example, reaction of α-D-glucose with ''para''-tolylboronic acid reforms the normal pyranose ring to yield the 4-fold ester α-D-glucofuranose-1,2:3,5-bis(''p''-tolylboronate).===Mutarotation===Mutarotation: -glucose molecules exist as cyclic hemiacetals that are epimeric (= diastereomeric) to each other.", "The epimeric ratio α:β is 36:64.In the α-D-glucopyranose (left), the blue-labelled hydroxy group is in the axial position at the anomeric centre, whereas in the β-D-glucopyranose (right) the blue-labelled hydroxy group is in equatorial position at the anomeric centre.Mutarotation consists of a temporary reversal of the ring-forming reaction, resulting in the open-chain form, followed by a reforming of the ring.", "The ring closure step may use a different group than the one recreated by the opening step (thus switching between pyranose and furanose forms), or the new hemiacetal group created on C-1 may have the same or opposite handedness as the original one (thus switching between the α and β forms).", "Thus, though the open-chain form is barely detectable in solution, it is an essential component of the equilibrium.The open-chain form is thermodynamically unstable, and it spontaneously isomerizes to the cyclic forms.", "(Although the ring closure reaction could in theory create four- or three-atom rings, these would be highly strained, and are not observed in practice.)", "In solutions at room temperature, the four cyclic isomers interconvert over a time scale of hours, in a process called mutarotation.", "Starting from any proportions, the mixture converges to a stable ratio of α:β 36:64.The ratio would be α:β 11:89 if it were not for the influence of the anomeric effect.", "Mutarotation is considerably slower at temperatures close to .===Optical activity===Whether in water or the solid form, -(+)-glucose is dextrorotatory, meaning it will rotate the direction of polarized light clockwise as seen looking toward the light source.", "The effect is due to the chirality of the molecules, and indeed the mirror-image isomer, -(−)-glucose, is levorotatory (rotates polarized light counterclockwise) by the same amount.", "The strength of the effect is different for each of the five tautomers.Note that the - prefix does not refer directly to the optical properties of the compound.", "It indicates that the C-5 chiral centre has the same handedness as that of -glyceraldehyde (which was so labelled because it is dextrorotatory).", "The fact that -glucose is dextrorotatory is a combined effect of its four chiral centres, not just of C-5; and indeed some of the other -aldohexoses are levorotatory.The conversion between the two anomers can be observed in a polarimeter since pure α--glucose has a specific rotation angle of +112.2° mL/(dm·g), pure β--glucose of +17.5° mL/(dm·g).", "When equilibrium has been reached after a certain time due to mutarotation, the angle of rotation is +52.7° mL/(dm·g).", "By adding acid or base, this transformation is much accelerated.", "The equilibration takes place via the open-chain aldehyde form.===Isomerisation===In dilute sodium hydroxide or other dilute bases, the monosaccharides mannose, glucose and fructose interconvert (via a Lobry de Bruyn–Alberda–Van Ekenstein transformation), so that a balance between these isomers is formed.", "This reaction proceeds via an enediol:Glucose-Fructose-Mannose-isomerisation" ], [ "Biochemical properties", " Metabolism of common monosaccharides and some biochemical reactions of glucose1000pxGlucose is the most abundant monosaccharide.", "Glucose is also the most widely used aldohexose in most living organisms.", "One possible explanation for this is that glucose has a lower tendency than other aldohexoses to react nonspecifically with the amine groups of proteins.", "This reaction—glycation—impairs or destroys the function of many proteins, e.g.", "in glycated hemoglobin.", "Glucose's low rate of glycation can be attributed to its having a more stable cyclic form compared to other aldohexoses, which means it spends less time than they do in its reactive open-chain form.", "The reason for glucose having the most stable cyclic form of all the aldohexoses is that its hydroxy groups (with the exception of the hydroxy group on the anomeric carbon of -glucose) are in the equatorial position.", "Presumably, glucose is the most abundant natural monosaccharide because it is less glycated with proteins than other monosaccharides.", "Another hypothesis is that glucose, being the only -aldohexose that has all five hydroxy substituents in the equatorial position in the form of β--glucose, is more readily accessible to chemical reactions, for example, for esterification or acetal formation.", "For this reason, -glucose is also a highly preferred building block in natural polysaccharides (glycans).", "Polysaccharides that are composed solely of glucose are termed glucans.Glucose is produced by plants through photosynthesis using sunlight, water and carbon dioxide and can be used by all living organisms as an energy and carbon source.", "However, most glucose does not occur in its free form, but in the form of its polymers, i.e.", "lactose, sucrose, starch and others which are energy reserve substances, and cellulose and chitin, which are components of the cell wall in plants or fungi and arthropods, respectively.", "These polymers, when consumed by animals, fungi and bacteria, are degraded to glucose using enzymes.", "All animals are also able to produce glucose themselves from certain precursors as the need arises.", "Neurons, cells of the renal medulla and erythrocytes depend on glucose for their energy production.", "In adult humans, there is about of glucose, of which about is present in the blood.", "Approximately of glucose is produced in the liver of an adult in 24 hours.Many of the long-term complications of diabetes (e.g., blindness, kidney failure, and peripheral neuropathy) are probably due to the glycation of proteins or lipids.", "In contrast, enzyme-regulated addition of sugars to protein is called glycosylation and is essential for the function of many proteins.===Uptake===Ingested glucose initially binds to the receptor for sweet taste on the tongue in humans.", "This complex of the proteins T1R2 and T1R3 makes it possible to identify glucose-containing food sources.", "Glucose mainly comes from food—about per day is produced by conversion of food, but it is also synthesized from other metabolites in the body's cells.", "In humans, the breakdown of glucose-containing polysaccharides happens in part already during chewing by means of amylase, which is contained in saliva, as well as by maltase, lactase, and sucrase on the brush border of the small intestine.", "Glucose is a building block of many carbohydrates and can be split off from them using certain enzymes.", "Glucosidases, a subgroup of the glycosidases, first catalyze the hydrolysis of long-chain glucose-containing polysaccharides, removing terminal glucose.", "In turn, disaccharides are mostly degraded by specific glycosidases to glucose.", "The names of the degrading enzymes are often derived from the particular poly- and disaccharide; inter alia, for the degradation of polysaccharide chains there are amylases (named after amylose, a component of starch), cellulases (named after cellulose), chitinases (named after chitin), and more.", "Furthermore, for the cleavage of disaccharides, there are maltase, lactase, sucrase, trehalase, and others.", "In humans, about 70 genes are known that code for glycosidases.", "They have functions in the digestion and degradation of glycogen, sphingolipids, mucopolysaccharides, and poly(ADP-ribose).", "Humans do not produce cellulases, chitinases, or trehalases, but the bacteria in the gut microbiota do.In order to get into or out of cell membranes of cells and membranes of cell compartments, glucose requires special transport proteins from the major facilitator superfamily.", "In the small intestine (more precisely, in the jejunum), glucose is taken up into the intestinal epithelium with the help of glucose transporters via a secondary active transport mechanism called sodium ion-glucose symport via sodium/glucose cotransporter 1 (SGLT1).", "Further transfer occurs on the basolateral side of the intestinal epithelial cells via the glucose transporter GLUT2, as well uptake into liver cells, kidney cells, cells of the islets of Langerhans, neurons, astrocytes, and tanycytes.", "Glucose enters the liver via the portal vein and is stored there as a cellular glycogen.", "In the liver cell, it is phosphorylated by glucokinase at position 6 to form glucose 6-phosphate, which cannot leave the cell.", "Glucose 6-phosphatase can convert glucose 6-phosphate back into glucose exclusively in the liver, so the body can maintain a sufficient blood glucose concentration.", "In other cells, uptake happens by passive transport through one of the 14 GLUT proteins.", "In the other cell types, phosphorylation occurs through a hexokinase, whereupon glucose can no longer diffuse out of the cell.The glucose transporter GLUT1 is produced by most cell types and is of particular importance for nerve cells and pancreatic β-cells.", "GLUT3 is highly expressed in nerve cells.", "Glucose from the bloodstream is taken up by GLUT4 from muscle cells (of the skeletal muscle and heart muscle) and fat cells.", "GLUT14 is expressed exclusively in testicles.", "Excess glucose is broken down and converted into fatty acids, which are stored as triglycerides.", "In the kidneys, glucose in the urine is absorbed via SGLT1 and SGLT2 in the apical cell membranes and transmitted via GLUT2 in the basolateral cell membranes.", "About 90% of kidney glucose reabsorption is via SGLT2 and about 3% via SGLT1.===Biosynthesis===In plants and some prokaryotes, glucose is a product of photosynthesis.", "Glucose is also formed by the breakdown of polymeric forms of glucose like glycogen (in animals and mushrooms) or starch (in plants).", "The cleavage of glycogen is termed glycogenolysis, the cleavage of starch is called starch degradation.The metabolic pathway that begins with molecules containing two to four carbon atoms (C) and ends in the glucose molecule containing six carbon atoms is called gluconeogenesis and occurs in all living organisms.", "The smaller starting materials are the result of other metabolic pathways.", "Ultimately almost all biomolecules come from the assimilation of carbon dioxide in plants and microbes during photosynthesis.", "The free energy of formation of α--glucose is 917.2 kilojoules per mole.", "In humans, gluconeogenesis occurs in the liver and kidney, but also in other cell types.", "In the liver about of glycogen are stored, in skeletal muscle about .", "However, the glucose released in muscle cells upon cleavage of the glycogen can not be delivered to the circulation because glucose is phosphorylated by the hexokinase, and a glucose-6-phosphatase is not expressed to remove the phosphate group.", "Unlike for glucose, there is no transport protein for glucose-6-phosphate.", "Gluconeogenesis allows the organism to build up glucose from other metabolites, including lactate or certain amino acids, while consuming energy.", "The renal tubular cells can also produce glucose.Glucose also can be found outside of living organisms in the ambient environment.", "Glucose concentrations in the atmosphere are detected via collection of samples by aircraft and are known to vary from location to location.", "For example, glucose concentrations in atmospheric air from inland China range from 0.8 to 20.1 pg/L, whereas east coastal China glucose concentrations range from 10.3 to 142 pg/L.===Glucose degradation===Glucose metabolism and various forms of it in the process.Glucose-containing compounds and isomeric forms are digested and taken up by the body in the intestines, including starch, glycogen, disaccharides and monosaccharides.Glucose is stored in mainly the liver and muscles as glycogen.", "It is distributed and used in tissues as free glucose.In humans, glucose is metabolized by glycolysis and the pentose phosphate pathway.", "Glycolysis is used by all living organisms, with small variations, and all organisms generate energy from the breakdown of monosaccharides.", "In the further course of the metabolism, it can be completely degraded via oxidative decarboxylation, the citric acid cycle (synonym ''Krebs cycle'') and the respiratory chain to water and carbon dioxide.", "If there is not enough oxygen available for this, the glucose degradation in animals occurs anaerobic to lactate via lactic acid fermentation and releases much less energy.", "Muscular lactate enters the liver through the bloodstream in mammals, where gluconeogenesis occurs (Cori cycle).", "With a high supply of glucose, the metabolite acetyl-CoA from the Krebs cycle can also be used for fatty acid synthesis.", "Glucose is also used to replenish the body's glycogen stores, which are mainly found in liver and skeletal muscle.", "These processes are hormonally regulated.In other living organisms, other forms of fermentation can occur.", "The bacterium ''Escherichia coli'' can grow on nutrient media containing glucose as the sole carbon source.", "In some bacteria and, in modified form, also in archaea, glucose is degraded via the Entner-Doudoroff pathway.Use of glucose as an energy source in cells is by either aerobic respiration, anaerobic respiration, or fermentation.", "The first step of glycolysis is the phosphorylation of glucose by a hexokinase to form glucose 6-phosphate.", "The main reason for the immediate phosphorylation of glucose is to prevent its diffusion out of the cell as the charged phosphate group prevents glucose 6-phosphate from easily crossing the cell membrane.", "Furthermore, addition of the high-energy phosphate group activates glucose for subsequent breakdown in later steps of glycolysis.", "At physiological conditions, this initial reaction is irreversible.In anaerobic respiration, one glucose molecule produces a net gain of two ATP molecules (four ATP molecules are produced during glycolysis through substrate-level phosphorylation, but two are required by enzymes used during the process).", "In aerobic respiration, a molecule of glucose is much more profitable in that a maximum net production of 30 or 32 ATP molecules (depending on the organism) is generated.Tumor cells often grow comparatively quickly and consume an above-average amount of glucose by glycolysis, which leads to the formation of lactate, the end product of fermentation in mammals, even in the presence of oxygen.", "This is called the Warburg effect.", "For the increased uptake of glucose in tumors various SGLT and GLUT are overly produced.In yeast, ethanol is fermented at high glucose concentrations, even in the presence of oxygen (which normally leads to respiration rather than fermentation).", "This is called the Crabtree effect.Glucose can also degrade to form carbon dioxide through abiotic means.", "This has been demonstrated to occur experimentally via oxidation and hydrolysis at 22 °C and a pH of 2.5.===Energy source===Diagram showing the possible intermediates in glucose degradation; Metabolic pathways orange: glycolysis, green: Entner-Doudoroff pathway, phosphorylating, yellow: Entner-Doudoroff pathway, non-phosphorylatingGlucose is a ubiquitous fuel in biology.", "It is used as an energy source in organisms, from bacteria to humans, through either aerobic respiration, anaerobic respiration (in bacteria), or fermentation.", "Glucose is the human body's key source of energy, through aerobic respiration, providing about 3.75 kilocalories (16 kilojoules) of food energy per gram.", "Breakdown of carbohydrates (e.g., starch) yields mono- and disaccharides, most of which is glucose.", "Through glycolysis and later in the reactions of the citric acid cycle and oxidative phosphorylation, glucose is oxidized to eventually form carbon dioxide and water, yielding energy mostly in the form of ATP.", "The insulin reaction, and other mechanisms, regulate the concentration of glucose in the blood.", "The physiological caloric value of glucose, depending on the source, is 16.2 kilojoules per gram or 15.7 kJ/g (3.74 kcal/g).", "The high availability of carbohydrates from plant biomass has led to a variety of methods during evolution, especially in microorganisms, to utilize glucose for energy and carbon storage.", "Differences exist in which end product can no longer be used for energy production.", "The presence of individual genes, and their gene products, the enzymes, determine which reactions are possible.", "The metabolic pathway of glycolysis is used by almost all living beings.", "An essential difference in the use of glycolysis is the recovery of NADPH as a reductant for anabolism that would otherwise have to be generated indirectly.Glucose and oxygen supply almost all the energy for the brain, so its availability influences psychological processes.", "When glucose is low, psychological processes requiring mental effort (e.g., self-control, effortful decision-making) are impaired.", "In the brain, which is dependent on glucose and oxygen as the major source of energy, the glucose concentration is usually 4 to 6 mM (5 mM equals 90 mg/dL), but decreases to 2 to 3 mM when fasting.", "Confusion occurs below 1 mM and coma at lower levels.The glucose in the blood is called blood sugar.", "Blood sugar levels are regulated by glucose-binding nerve cells in the hypothalamus.", "In addition, glucose in the brain binds to glucose receptors of the reward system in the nucleus accumbens.", "The binding of glucose to the sweet receptor on the tongue induces a release of various hormones of energy metabolism, either through glucose or through other sugars, leading to an increased cellular uptake and lower blood sugar levels.", "Artificial sweeteners do not lower blood sugar levels.The blood sugar content of a healthy person in the short-time fasting state, e.g.", "after overnight fasting, is about 70 to 100 mg/dL of blood (4 to 5.5 mM).", "In blood plasma, the measured values are about 10–15% higher.", "In addition, the values in the arterial blood are higher than the concentrations in the venous blood since glucose is absorbed into the tissue during the passage of the capillary bed.", "Also in the capillary blood, which is often used for blood sugar determination, the values are sometimes higher than in the venous blood.", "The glucose content of the blood is regulated by the hormones insulin, incretin and glucagon.", "Insulin lowers the glucose level, glucagon increases it.", "Furthermore, the hormones adrenaline, thyroxine, glucocorticoids, somatotropin and adrenocorticotropin lead to an increase in the glucose level.", "There is also a hormone-independent regulation, which is referred to as glucose autoregulation.", "After food intake the blood sugar concentration increases.", "Values over 180 mg/dL in venous whole blood are pathological and are termed hyperglycemia, values below 40 mg/dL are termed hypoglycaemia.", "When needed, glucose is released into the bloodstream by glucose-6-phosphatase from glucose-6-phosphate originating from liver and kidney glycogen, thereby regulating the homeostasis of blood glucose concentration.", "In ruminants, the blood glucose concentration is lower (60 mg/dL in cattle and 40 mg/dL in sheep), because the carbohydrates are converted more by their gut microbiota into short-chain fatty acids.Some glucose is converted to lactic acid by astrocytes, which is then utilized as an energy source by brain cells; some glucose is used by intestinal cells and red blood cells, while the rest reaches the liver, adipose tissue and muscle cells, where it is absorbed and stored as glycogen (under the influence of insulin).", "Liver cell glycogen can be converted to glucose and returned to the blood when insulin is low or absent; muscle cell glycogen is not returned to the blood because of a lack of enzymes.", "In fat cells, glucose is used to power reactions that synthesize some fat types and have other purposes.", "Glycogen is the body's \"glucose energy storage\" mechanism, because it is much more \"space efficient\" and less reactive than glucose itself.As a result of its importance in human health, glucose is an analyte in glucose tests that are common medical blood tests.", "Eating or fasting prior to taking a blood sample has an effect on analyses for glucose in the blood; a high fasting glucose blood sugar level may be a sign of prediabetes or diabetes mellitus.The glycemic index is an indicator of the speed of resorption and conversion to blood glucose levels from ingested carbohydrates, measured as the area under the curve of blood glucose levels after consumption in comparison to glucose (glucose is defined as 100).", "The clinical importance of the glycemic index is controversial, as foods with high fat contents slow the resorption of carbohydrates and lower the glycemic index, e.g.", "ice cream.", "An alternative indicator is the insulin index, measured as the impact of carbohydrate consumption on the blood insulin levels.", "The glycemic load is an indicator for the amount of glucose added to blood glucose levels after consumption, based on the glycemic index and the amount of consumed food.===Precursor===Organisms use glucose as a precursor for the synthesis of several important substances.", "Starch, cellulose, and glycogen (\"animal starch\") are common glucose polymers (polysaccharides).", "Some of these polymers (starch or glycogen) serve as energy stores, while others (cellulose and chitin, which is made from a derivative of glucose) have structural roles.", "Oligosaccharides of glucose combined with other sugars serve as important energy stores.", "These include lactose, the predominant sugar in milk, which is a glucose-galactose disaccharide, and sucrose, another disaccharide which is composed of glucose and fructose.", "Glucose is also added onto certain proteins and lipids in a process called glycosylation.", "This is often critical for their functioning.", "The enzymes that join glucose to other molecules usually use phosphorylated glucose to power the formation of the new bond by coupling it with the breaking of the glucose-phosphate bond.Other than its direct use as a monomer, glucose can be broken down to synthesize a wide variety of other biomolecules.", "This is important, as glucose serves both as a primary store of energy and as a source of organic carbon.", "Glucose can be broken down and converted into lipids.", "It is also a precursor for the synthesis of other important molecules such as vitamin C (ascorbic acid).", "In living organisms, glucose is converted to several other chemical compounds that are the starting material for various metabolic pathways.", "Among them, all other monosaccharides such as fructose (via the polyol pathway), mannose (the epimer of glucose at position 2), galactose (the epimer at position 4), fucose, various uronic acids and the amino sugars are produced from glucose.", "In addition to the phosphorylation to glucose-6-phosphate, which is part of the glycolysis, glucose can be oxidized during its degradation to glucono-1,5-lactone.", "Glucose is used in some bacteria as a building block in the trehalose or the dextran biosynthesis and in animals as a building block of glycogen.", "Glucose can also be converted from bacterial xylose isomerase to fructose.", "In addition, glucose metabolites produce all nonessential amino acids, sugar alcohols such as mannitol and sorbitol, fatty acids, cholesterol and nucleic acids.", "Finally, glucose is used as a building block in the glycosylation of proteins to glycoproteins, glycolipids, peptidoglycans, glycosides and other substances (catalyzed by glycosyltransferases) and can be cleaved from them by glycosidases." ], [ "Pathology", "===Diabetes===Diabetes is a metabolic disorder where the body is unable to regulate levels of glucose in the blood either because of a lack of insulin in the body or the failure, by cells in the body, to respond properly to insulin.", "Each of these situations can be caused by persistently high elevations of blood glucose levels, through pancreatic burnout and insulin resistance.", "The pancreas is the organ responsible for the secretion of the hormones insulin and glucagon.", "Insulin is a hormone that regulates glucose levels, allowing the body's cells to absorb and use glucose.", "Without it, glucose cannot enter the cell and therefore cannot be used as fuel for the body's functions.", "If the pancreas is exposed to persistently high elevations of blood glucose levels, the insulin-producing cells in the pancreas could be damaged, causing a lack of insulin in the body.", "Insulin resistance occurs when the pancreas tries to produce more and more insulin in response to persistently elevated blood glucose levels.", "Eventually, the rest of the body becomes resistant to the insulin that the pancreas is producing, thereby requiring more insulin to achieve the same blood glucose-lowering effect, and forcing the pancreas to produce even more insulin to compete with the resistance.", "This negative spiral contributes to pancreatic burnout, and the disease progression of diabetes.To monitor the body's response to blood glucose-lowering therapy, glucose levels can be measured.", "Blood glucose monitoring can be performed by multiple methods, such as the fasting glucose test which measures the level of glucose in the blood after 8 hours of fasting.", "Another test is the 2-hour glucose tolerance test (GTT)for this test, the person has a fasting glucose test done, then drinks a 75-gram glucose drink and is retested.", "This test measures the ability of the person's body to process glucose.", "Over time the blood glucose levels should decrease as insulin allows it to be taken up by cells and exit the blood stream.===Hypoglycemia management===Glucose, 5% solution for infusionsIndividuals with diabetes or other conditions that result in low blood sugar often carry small amounts of sugar in various forms.", "One sugar commonly used is glucose, often in the form of glucose tablets (glucose pressed into a tablet shape sometimes with one or more other ingredients as a binder), hard candy, or sugar packet." ], [ "Sources", "Glucose tabletsMost dietary carbohydrates contain glucose, either as their only building block (as in the polysaccharides starch and glycogen), or together with another monosaccharide (as in the hetero-polysaccharides sucrose and lactose).", "Unbound glucose is one of the main ingredients of honey.", "Glucose is extremely abundant and has been isolated from a variety of natural sources across the world, including male cones of the coniferous tree ''Wollemia nobilis'' in Rome, the roots of ''Ilex asprella'' plants in China, and straws from rice in California.+ Sugar content of selected common plant foods (in grams per 100 g) Food item Carbohydrate, total, including dietary fiber Total sugars Free fructose Free glucose Sucrose Ratio of fructose/glucose Sucrose as proportion of total sugars (%) Fruits Apple 13.8 10.4 5.9 2.4 2.1 2.0 19.9 Apricot 11.1 9.2 0.9 2.4 5.9 0.7 63.5 Banana 22.8 12.2 4.9 5.0 2.4 1.0 20.0 Fig, dried 63.9 47.9 22.9 24.8 0.9 0.93 0.15 Grapes 18.1 15.5 8.1 7.2 0.2 1.1 1 Navel orange 12.5 8.5 2.25 2.0 4.3 1.1 50.4 Peach 9.5 8.4 1.5 2.0 4.8 0.9 56.7 Pear 15.5 9.8 6.2 2.8 0.8 2.1 8.0 Pineapple 13.1 9.9 2.1 1.7 6.0 1.1 60.8 Plum 11.4 9.9 3.1 5.1 1.6 0.66 16.2 Vegetables Beet, red 9.6 6.8 0.1 0.1 6.51.0 96.2 Carrot 9.6 4.7 0.6 0.6 3.6 1.0 77 Red pepper, sweet 6.0 4.2 2.3 1.9 0.0 1.2 0.0 Onion, sweet 7.6 5.0 2.0 2.3 0.7 0.9 14.3 Sweet potato20.1 4.2 0.7 1.0 2.5 0.9 60.3 Yam 27.9 0.5 Sugar cane 13–18 0.2–1.0 0.2–1.0 11–16 1.0 high Sugar beet 17–18 0.1–0.5 0.1–0.5 16–17 1.0 high Grains Corn, sweet 19.0 6.2 1.9 3.4 0.9 0.61 15.0" ], [ "Commercial production", "Glucose is produced industrially from starch by enzymatic hydrolysis using glucose amylase or by the use of acids.", "Enzymatic hydrolysis has largely displaced acid-catalyzed hydrolysis reactions.", "The result is glucose syrup (enzymatically with more than 90% glucose in the dry matter) with an annual worldwide production volume of 20 million tonnes (as of 2011).", "This is the reason for the former common name \"starch sugar\".", "The amylases most often come from ''Bacillus licheniformis'' or ''Bacillus subtilis'' (strain MN-385), which are more thermostable than the originally used enzymes.", "Starting in 1982, pullulanases from ''Aspergillus niger'' were used in the production of glucose syrup to convert amylopectin to starch (amylose), thereby increasing the yield of glucose.", "The reaction is carried out at a pH = 4.6–5.2 and a temperature of 55–60 °C.", "Corn syrup has between 20% and 95% glucose in the dry matter.", "The Japanese form of the glucose syrup, Mizuame, is made from sweet potato or rice starch.", "Maltodextrin contains about 20% glucose.Many crops can be used as the source of starch.", "Maize, rice, wheat, cassava, potato, barley, sweet potato, corn husk and sago are all used in various parts of the world.", "In the United States, corn starch (from maize) is used almost exclusively.", "Some commercial glucose occurs as a component of invert sugar, a roughly 1:1 mixture of glucose and fructose that is produced from sucrose.", "In principle, cellulose could be hydrolyzed to glucose, but this process is not yet commercially practical.===Conversion to fructose===In the US, almost exclusively corn (more precisely, corn syrup) is used as glucose source for the production of isoglucose, which is a mixture of glucose and fructose, since fructose has a higher sweetening powerwith same physiological calorific value of 374 kilocalories per 100 g. The annual world production of isoglucose is 8 million tonnes (as of 2011).", "When made from corn syrup, the final product is high-fructose corn syrup (HFCS)." ], [ "Commercial usage", "Relative sweetness of various sugars in comparison with sucroseGlucose is mainly used for the production of fructose and of glucose-containing foods.", "In foods, it is used as a sweetener, humectant, to increase the volume and to create a softer mouthfeel.Various sources of glucose, such as grape juice (for wine) or malt (for beer), are used for fermentation to ethanol during the production of alcoholic beverages.", "Most soft drinks in the US use HFCS-55 (with a fructose content of 55% in the dry mass), while most other HFCS-sweetened foods in the US use HFCS-42 (with a fructose content of 42% in the dry mass).", "In Mexico, on the other hand, soft drinks are sweetened by cane sugar, which has a higher sweetening power.", "In addition, glucose syrup is used, inter alia, in the production of confectionery such as candies, toffee and fondant.", "Typical chemical reactions of glucose when heated under water-free conditions are caramelization and, in presence of amino acids, the Maillard reaction.In addition, various organic acids can be biotechnologically produced from glucose, for example by fermentation with ''Clostridium thermoaceticum'' to produce acetic acid, with ''Penicillium notatum'' for the production of araboascorbic acid, with ''Rhizopus delemar'' for the production of fumaric acid, with ''Aspergillus niger'' for the production of gluconic acid, with ''Candida brumptii'' to produce isocitric acid, with ''Aspergillus terreus'' for the production of itaconic acid, with ''Pseudomonas fluorescens'' for the production of 2-ketogluconic acid, with ''Gluconobacter suboxydans'' for the production of 5-ketogluconic acid, with ''Aspergillus oryzae'' for the production of kojic acid, with ''Lactobacillus delbrueckii'' for the production of lactic acid, with ''Lactobacillus brevis'' for the production of malic acid, with ''Propionibacter shermanii'' for the production of propionic acid, with ''Pseudomonas aeruginosa'' for the production of pyruvic acid and with ''Gluconobacter suboxydans'' for the production of tartaric acid.", "Potent, bioactive natural products like triptolide that inhibit mammalian transcription via inhibition of the XPB subunit of the general transcription factor TFIIH has been recently reported as a glucose conjugate for targeting hypoxic cancer cells with increased glucose transporter expression.", "Recently, glucose has been gaining commercial use as a key component of \"kits\" containing lactic acid and insulin intended to induce hypoglycemia and hyperlactatemia to combat different cancers and infections." ], [ "Analysis", "When a glucose molecule is to be detected at a certain position in a larger molecule, nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, X-ray crystallography analysis or lectin immunostaining is performed with concanavalin A reporter enzyme conjugate, which binds only glucose or mannose.===Classical qualitative detection reactions===These reactions have only historical significance:====Fehling test====The Fehling test is a classic method for the detection of aldoses.", "Due to mutarotation, glucose is always present to a small extent as an open-chain aldehyde.", "By adding the Fehling reagents (Fehling (I) solution and Fehling (II) solution), the aldehyde group is oxidized to a carboxylic acid, while the Cu2+ tartrate complex is reduced to Cu+ and forms a brick red precipitate (Cu2O).====Tollens test====In the Tollens test, after addition of ammoniacal AgNO3 to the sample solution, glucose reduces Ag+ to elemental silver.====Barfoed test====In Barfoed's test, a solution of dissolved copper acetate, sodium acetate and acetic acid is added to the solution of the sugar to be tested and subsequently heated in a water bath for a few minutes.", "Glucose and other monosaccharides rapidly produce a reddish color and reddish brown copper(I) oxide (Cu2O).====Nylander's test====As a reducing sugar, glucose reacts in the Nylander's test.====Other tests====Upon heating a dilute potassium hydroxide solution with glucose to 100 °C, a strong reddish browning and a caramel-like odor develops.", "Concentrated sulfuric acid dissolves dry glucose without blackening at room temperature forming sugar sulfuric acid.", "In a yeast solution, alcoholic fermentation produces carbon dioxide in the ratio of 2.0454 molecules of glucose to one molecule of CO2.Glucose forms a black mass with stannous chloride.", "In an ammoniacal silver solution, glucose (as well as lactose and dextrin) leads to the deposition of silver.", "In an ammoniacal lead acetate solution, white lead glycoside is formed in the presence of glucose, which becomes less soluble on cooking and turns brown.", "In an ammoniacal copper solution, yellow copper oxide hydrate is formed with glucose at room temperature, while red copper oxide is formed during boiling (same with dextrin, except for with an ammoniacal copper acetate solution).", "With Hager's reagent, glucose forms mercury oxide during boiling.", "An alkaline bismuth solution is used to precipitate elemental, black-brown bismuth with glucose.", "Glucose boiled in an ammonium molybdate solution turns the solution blue.", "A solution with indigo carmine and sodium carbonate destains when boiled with glucose.===Instrumental quantification=======Refractometry and polarimetry====In concentrated solutions of glucose with a low proportion of other carbohydrates, its concentration can be determined with a polarimeter.", "For sugar mixtures, the concentration can be determined with a refractometer, for example in the Oechsle determination in the course of the production of wine.====Photometric enzymatic methods in solution====The enzyme glucose oxidase (GOx) converts glucose into gluconic acid and hydrogen peroxide while consuming oxygen.", "Another enzyme, peroxidase, catalyzes a chromogenic reaction (Trinder reaction) of phenol with 4-aminoantipyrine to a purple dye.====Photometric test-strip method====The test-strip method employs the above-mentioned enzymatic conversion of glucose to gluconic acid to form hydrogen peroxide.", "The reagents are immobilised on a polymer matrix, the so-called test strip, which assumes a more or less intense color.", "This can be measured reflectometrically at 510 nm with the aid of an LED-based handheld photometer.", "This allows routine blood sugar determination by nonscientists.", "In addition to the reaction of phenol with 4-aminoantipyrine, new chromogenic reactions have been developed that allow photometry at higher wavelengths (550 nm, 750 nm).====Amperometric glucose sensor====The electroanalysis of glucose is also based on the enzymatic reaction mentioned above.", "The produced hydrogen peroxide can be amperometrically quantified by anodic oxidation at a potential of 600 mV.", "The GOx is immobilized on the electrode surface or in a membrane placed close to the electrode.", "Precious metals such as platinum or gold are used in electrodes, as well as carbon nanotube electrodes, which e.g.", "are doped with boron.", "Cu–CuO nanowires are also used as enzyme-free amperometric electrodes, reaching a detection limit of 50 μmol/L.", "A particularly promising method is the so-called \"enzyme wiring\", where the electron flowing during the oxidation is transferred via a molecular wire directly from the enzyme to the electrode.====Other sensory methods====There are a variety of other chemical sensors for measuring glucose.", "Given the importance of glucose analysis in the life sciences, numerous optical probes have also been developed for saccharides based on the use of boronic acids, which are particularly useful for intracellular sensory applications where other (optical) methods are not or only conditionally usable.", "In addition to the organic boronic acid derivatives, which often bind highly specifically to the 1,2-diol groups of sugars, there are also other probe concepts classified by functional mechanisms which use selective glucose-binding proteins (e.g.", "concanavalin A) as a receptor.", "Furthermore, methods were developed which indirectly detect the glucose concentration via the concentration of metabolized products, e.g.", "by the consumption of oxygen using fluorescence-optical sensors.", "Finally, there are enzyme-based concepts that use the intrinsic absorbance or fluorescence of (fluorescence-labeled) enzymes as reporters.====Copper iodometry====Glucose can be quantified by copper iodometry.===Chromatographic methods===In particular, for the analysis of complex mixtures containing glucose, e.g.", "in honey, chromatographic methods such as high performance liquid chromatography and gas chromatography are often used in combination with mass spectrometry.", "Taking into account the isotope ratios, it is also possible to reliably detect honey adulteration by added sugars with these methods.", "Derivatization using silylation reagents is commonly used.", "Also, the proportions of di- and trisaccharides can be quantified.====In vivo analysis====Glucose uptake in cells of organisms is measured with 2-deoxy-D-glucose or fluorodeoxyglucose.", "(18F)fluorodeoxyglucose is used as a tracer in positron emission tomography in oncology and neurology, where it is by far the most commonly used diagnostic agent." ], [ "References" ] ]
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[ [ "George Pólya" ], [ "Introduction", "'''George Pólya''' (; , ; December 13, 1887 – September 7, 1985) was a Hungarian American mathematician.", "He was a professor of mathematics from 1914 to 1940 at ETH Zürich and from 1940 to 1953 at Stanford University.", "He made fundamental contributions to combinatorics, number theory, numerical analysis and probability theory.", "He is also noted for his work in heuristics and mathematics education.", "He has been described as one of The Martians, an informal category which included one of his most famous students at ETH Zurich, John von Neumann." ], [ "Life and works", "Pólya was born in Budapest, Austria-Hungary, to Anna Deutsch and Jakab Pólya, Hungarian Jews who had converted to Christianity in 1886.Although his parents were religious and he was baptized into the Catholic Church upon birth, George eventually grew up to be an agnostic.", "He received a PhD under Lipót Fejér in 1912, at Eötvös Loránd University.", "He was a professor of mathematics from 1914 to 1940 at ETH Zürich in Switzerland and from 1940 to 1953 at Stanford University.", "He remained a Professor Emeritus at Stanford for the rest of his career, working on a range of mathematical topics, including series, number theory, mathematical analysis, geometry, algebra, combinatorics, and probability.", "He was invited to speak at the ICM at Bologna in 1928, at Oslo in 1936 and at Cambridge, Massachusetts, in 1950.On September 7, 1985, Pólya died in Palo Alto, California, United States.", "He passed due to complications of a stroke he suffered in the past summer." ], [ "Heuristics", "Early in his career, Pólya wrote with Gábor Szegő two influential problem books, ''Problems and Theorems in Analysis'' (''I: Series, Integral Calculus, Theory of Functions'' and ''II: Theory of Functions.", "Zeros.", "Polynomials.", "Determinants.", "Number Theory.", "Geometry'').", "Later in his career, he spent considerable effort to identify systematic methods of problem-solving to further discovery and invention in mathematics for students, teachers, and researchers.", "He wrote five books on the subject: ''How to Solve It'', ''Mathematics and Plausible Reasoning'' (''Volume I: Induction and Analogy in Mathematics'', and ''Volume II: Patterns of Plausible Inference''), and ''Mathematical Discovery: On Understanding, Learning, and Teaching Problem Solving'' (volumes 1 and 2).In ''How to Solve It'', Pólya provides general heuristics for solving a gamut of problems, including both mathematical and non-mathematical problems.", "The book includes advice for teaching students of mathematics and a mini-encyclopedia of heuristic terms.", "It was translated into several languages and has sold over a million copies.", "The book is still used in mathematical education.", "Douglas Lenat's Automated Mathematician and Eurisko artificial intelligence programs were inspired by Pólya's work.In addition to his works directly addressing problem solving, Pólya wrote another short book called ''Mathematical Methods in Science'', based on a 1963 work supported by the National Science Foundation edited by Leon Bowden and published by the Mathematical Association of America (MAA) in 1977.As Pólya notes in the preface, Bowden carefully followed a tape recording of a course Pólya gave several times at Stanford in order to put the book together.", "Pólya notes in the preface \"that the following pages will be useful, yet they should not be regarded as a finished expression.\"" ], [ "Legacy", "There are three prizes named after Pólya, causing occasional confusion of one for another.", "In 1969 the Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics (SIAM) established the George Pólya Prize, given alternately in two categories for \"a notable application of combinatorial theory\" and for \"a notable contribution in another area of interest to George Pólya.", "\"In 1976 the Mathematical Association of America (MAA) established the George Pólya Award \"for articles of expository excellence\" published in the ''College Mathematics Journal''.", "In 1987 the London Mathematical Society (LMS) established the Pólya Prize for \"outstanding creativity in, imaginative exposition of, or distinguished contribution to, mathematics within the United Kingdom.\"", "In 1991, the MAA established the George Pólya Lectureship series.Stanford University has a Polya Hall named in his honor." ], [ "Selected publications", "=== Books ===* ''Aufgaben und Lehrsätze aus der Analysis'', 1st edn.", "1925.", "(\"Problems and theorems in analysis“).", "Springer, Berlin 1975 (with Gábor Szegő).# ''Reihen''.", "1975, 4th edn., .# ''Funktionentheorie, Nullstellen, Polynome, Determinanten, Zahlentheorie''.", "1975, 4th edn., .", "* ''Mathematik und plausibles Schliessen''.", "Birkhäuser, Basel 1988,# ''Induktion und Analogie in der Mathematik'', 3rd edn., (Wissenschaft und Kultur; 14).# ''Typen und Strukturen plausibler Folgerung'', 2nd edn., (Wissenschaft und Kultur; 15).", "* – English translation: ''Mathematics and Plausible Reasoning'', Princeton University Press 1954, 2 volumes (Vol.", "1: Induction and Analogy in Mathematics'', Vol.", "2: Patterns of Plausible Inference)* ''Schule des Denkens.", "Vom Lösen mathematischer Probleme'' (\"How to solve it“).", "4th edn.", "Francke Verlag, Tübingen 1995, (Sammlung Dalp).", "* – English translation: ''How to Solve It'', Princeton University Press 2004 (with foreword by John Horton Conway and added exercises)* ''Vom Lösen mathematischer Aufgaben''.", "2nd edn.", "Birkhäuser, Basel 1983, (Wissenschaft und Kultur; 21).", "* – English translation: ''Mathematical Discovery: On Understanding, Learning and Teaching Problem Solving'', 2 volumes, Wiley 1962 (published in one vol.", "1981)* ''Collected Papers'', 4 volumes, MIT Press 1974 (ed.", "Ralph P. Boas).", "Vol.", "1: Singularities of Analytic Functions, Vol.", "2: Location of Zeros, Vol.", "3: Analysis, Vol.", "4: Probability, Combinatorics* with R. C. Read: ''Combinatorial enumeration of groups, graphs, and chemical compounds'', Springer Verlag 1987 (English translation of ''Kombinatorische Anzahlbestimmungen für Gruppen, Graphen und chemische Verbindungen'', Acta Mathematica, vol.", "68, 1937, pp.", "145–254)* with Godfrey Harold Hardy: John Edensor Littlewood ''Inequalities'', Cambridge University Press 1934* ''Mathematical Methods in Science'', MAA, Washington D. C. 1977 (ed.", "Leon Bowden)* with Gordon Latta: ''Complex Variables'', Wiley 1974* with Robert E. Tarjan, Donald R. Woods: ''Notes on introductory combinatorics'', Birkhäuser 1983* with Jeremy Kilpatrick: ''The Stanford mathematics problem book: with hints and solutions'', New York: Teachers College Press 1974* with several co-authors: ''Applied combinatorial mathematics'', Wiley 1964 (ed.", "Edwin F. Beckenbach)* with Gábor Szegő: ''Isoperimetric inequalities in mathematical physics'', Princeton, Annals of Mathematical Studies 27, 1951=== Articles ===****with Ralph P. Boas, Jr.: **with Norbert Wiener: ***" ], [ "See also", "* Integer-valued polynomial* Laguerre–Pólya class* Landau–Kolmogorov inequality* Multivariate Pólya distribution* Pólya's characterization theorem* Pólya class* Pólya conjecture* Polya distribution* Pólya enumeration theorem* Pólya–Vinogradov inequality* Pólya inequality* Pólya urn model* Pólya's theorem* Pólya's proof that there is no \"horse of a different color\"* Wallpaper group*The Martians (scientists)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* The George Pólya Award* * * George Pólya, Gábor Szegö, '''''Problems and theorems in analysis''''' (1998)* * George Pólya on UIUC's WikEd* Memorial Resolution* *" ] ]
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[ [ "OpenGL Utility Toolkit" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''OpenGL Utility Toolkit''' ('''GLUT''') is a library of utilities for OpenGL programs, which primarily perform system-level I/O with the host operating system.", "Functions performed include window definition, window control, and monitoring of keyboard and mouse input.", "Routines for drawing a number of geometric primitives (both in solid and wireframe mode) are also provided, including cubes, spheres and the Utah teapot.", "GLUT also has some limited support for creating pop-up menus.GLUT was written by Mark J. Kilgard, author of ''OpenGL Programming for the X Window System'' and ''The Cg Tutorial: The Definitive Guide to Programmable Real-Time Graphics'', while he was working for Silicon Graphics Inc.The two aims of GLUT are to allow the creation of rather portable code between operating systems (GLUT is cross-platform) and to make learning OpenGL easier.", "Getting started with OpenGL programming while using GLUT often takes only a few lines of code and does not require knowledge of operating system–specific windowing APIs.All GLUT functions start with the glut prefix (for example, glutPostRedisplay marks the current window as needing to be redrawn)." ], [ "Implementations", "The original GLUT library by Mark Kilgard supports the X Window System (GLX) and was ported to Microsoft Windows (WGL) by Nate Robins.", "Additionally, macOS ships with a GLUT framework that supports its own NSGL/CGL.Kilgard's GLUT library is no longer maintained, and its license did not permit the redistribution of modified versions of the library.", "This spurred the need for free software or open source reimplementations of the API from scratch.", "The first such library was FreeGLUT, which aims to be a reasonably close reproduction, though introducing a small number of new functions to deal with GLUT's limitations.", "OpenGLUT, a fork of FreeGLUT, adds a number of new features to the original API, but work on it ceased in May 2005.Mark Kilgard has a GitHub repository for GLUT.", "The glut.h header file contains the following license: /* Copyright (c) Mark J. Kilgard, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1998, 2000, 2006, 2010.", "*/ /* This program is freely distributable without licensing fees and is provided without guarantee or warrantee expressed or implied.", "This program is -not- in the public domain.", "*/" ], [ "Limitations", "Some of GLUT's original design decisions made it hard for programmers to perform desired tasks.", "This led many to create non-canon patches and extensions to GLUT.", "Some free software or open source reimplementations also include fixes.Some of the more notable limitations of the original GLUT library include:* The library requires programmers to call glutMainLoop(), a function which never returns.", "This makes it hard for programmers to integrate GLUT into a program or library which wishes to have control of its own event loop.", "A common patch to fix this is to introduce a new function, called glutCheckLoop() (macOS) or glutMainLoopEvent() (FreeGLUT/OpenGLUT), which runs only a single iteration of the GLUT event loop.", "Another common workaround is to run GLUT's event loop in a separate thread, although this may vary by operating system, and also may introduce synchronization issues or other problems: for example, the macOS GLUT implementation requires that glutMainLoop() be run in the main thread.", "* The fact that glutMainLoop() never returns also means that a GLUT program cannot exit the event loop.", "FreeGLUT fixes this by introducing a new function, glutLeaveMainLoop().", "* The library terminates the process when the window is closed; for some applications this may not be desired.", "Thus, many implementations include an extra callback, such as glutWMCloseFunc().Since it is no longer maintained (essentially replaced by the open source FreeGLUT) the above design issues are still not resolved in the original GLUT." ], [ "See also", "* EGL is an interface between OpenGL ES or OpenVG and a windowing system.", "* FreeGLUT is intended to be a full replacement for GLUT, and has only a few differences.", "* GLFW* Simple DirectMedia Layer (SDL)* OpenGL User Interface Library (GLUI)* OpenGL Utility Library (GLU)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* GLUT - The OpenGL Utility Toolkit * The OpenGL Utility Toolkit (GLUT) Programming Interface API Version 3 (official documentation)* The OpenGL Utility Toolkit (GLUT) downloads (source and pre-compiled libraries)" ] ]
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