Datasets:
howey
/
wiki_en

Dataset card Data Studio Files Community
1
text
sequencelengths
3
270
source
stringclasses
1 value
[ [ "Gregor Mendel" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Gregor Johann Mendel''' OSA (; ; 20 July 1822 – 6 January 1884) was a German-Czech biologist, meteorologist, mathematician, Augustinian friar and abbot of St. Thomas' Abbey in Brno (''Brünn''), Margraviate of Moravia.", "Mendel was born in a German-speaking family in the Silesian part of the Austrian Empire (today's Czech Republic) and gained posthumous recognition as the founder of the modern science of genetics.", "Though farmers had known for millennia that crossbreeding of animals and plants could favor certain desirable traits, Mendel's pea plant experiments conducted between 1856 and 1863 established many of the rules of heredity, now referred to as the laws of Mendelian inheritance.Mendel worked with seven characteristics of pea plants: plant height, pod shape and color, seed shape and color, and flower position and color.", "Taking seed color as an example, Mendel showed that when a true-breeding yellow pea and a true-breeding green pea were cross-bred their offspring always produced yellow seeds.", "However, in the next generation, the green peas reappeared at a ratio of 1 green to 3 yellow.", "To explain this phenomenon, Mendel coined the terms \"recessive\" and \"dominant\" in reference to certain traits.", "In the preceding example, the green trait, which seems to have vanished in the first filial generation, is recessive and the yellow is dominant.", "He published his work in 1866, demonstrating the actions of invisible \"factors\"—now called genes—in predictably determining the traits of an organism.The profound significance of Mendel's work was not recognized until the turn of the 20th century (more than three decades later) with the rediscovery of his laws.", "Erich von Tschermak, Hugo de Vries and Carl Correns independently verified several of Mendel's experimental findings in 1900, ushering in the modern age of genetics." ], [ "Early life and education", "Mendel was born into a German-speaking family in Heinzendorf bei Odrau, in Silesia, Austrian Empire (now Hynčice in the Czech Republic).", "He was the son of Anton and Rosine (Schwirtlich) Mendel and had one older sister, Veronika, and one younger, Theresia.", "They lived and worked on a farm which had been owned by the Mendel family for at least 130 years (the house where Mendel was born is now a museum devoted to Mendel).", "During his childhood, Mendel worked as a gardener and studied beekeeping.", "As a young man, he attended gymnasium in Troppau ().", "He had to take four months off during his gymnasium studies due to illness.", "From 1840 to 1843, he studied practical and theoretical philosophy and physics at the Philosophical Institute of the University of Olomouc (), taking another year off because of illness.", "He also struggled financially to pay for his studies, and Theresia gave him her dowry.", "Later he helped support her three sons, two of whom became doctors.He became a monk in part because it enabled him to obtain an education without having to pay for it himself.", "As the son of a struggling farmer, the monastic life, in his words, spared him the \"perpetual anxiety about a means of livelihood.\"", "Born Johann Mendel, he was given the name '''Gregor''' ( in Czech) when he joined the Order of Saint Augustine." ], [ "Academic career", "Alexander Zawadzki is labelled \"1\".", ")When Mendel entered the Faculty of Philosophy, the Department of Natural History and Agriculture was headed by Johann Karl Nestler who conducted extensive research of hereditary traits of plants and animals, especially sheep.", "Upon recommendation of his physics teacher Friedrich Franz, Mendel entered the Augustinian St Thomas's Abbey in Brno and began his training as a priest.", "Mendel worked as a substitute high school teacher.", "In 1850, he failed the oral part, the last of three parts, of his exams to become a certified high school teacher.", "In 1851, he was sent to the University of Vienna to study under the sponsorship of Abbot Cyril František Napp so that he could get more formal education.", "At Vienna, his professor of physics was Christian Doppler.", "Mendel returned to his abbey in 1853 as a teacher, principally of physics.", "In 1854 he met Aleksander Zawadzki who encouraged his research in Brno.", "In 1856, he took the exam to become a certified teacher and again failed the oral part.", "In 1867, he replaced Napp as abbot of the monastery.After he was elevated as abbot in 1868, his scientific work largely ended, as Mendel became overburdened with administrative responsibilities, especially a dispute with the civil government over its attempt to impose special taxes on religious institutions.", "Mendel died on 6 January 1884, at the age of 61, in Brno, from chronic nephritis.", "Czech composer Leoš Janáček played the organ at his funeral.", "After his death, the succeeding abbot burned all papers in Mendel's collection, to mark an end to the disputes over taxation.", "The exhumation of Mendel's corpse in 2021 delivered some physiognomic details like body height ().", "His genome was analysed, revealing that Mendel was predisposed to heart problems." ], [ "Contributions", "=== Experiments on plant hybridization ===Dominant and recessive phenotypes.", "(1) Parental generation.", "(2) F1 generation.", "(3) F2 generation.Mendel, known as the \"father of modern genetics\", chose to study variation in plants in his monastery's experimental garden.", "Mendel was assisted in his experimental design by Aleksander Zawadzki while his superior abbot Napp wrote to discourage him, saying that the Bishop giggled when informed of the detailed genealogies of peas.After initial experiments with pea plants, Mendel settled on studying seven traits that seemed to be inherited independently of other traits: seed shape, flower color, seed coat tint, pod shape, unripe pod color, flower location, and plant height.", "He first focused on seed shape, which was either angular or round.", "Between 1856 and 1863 Mendel cultivated and tested some 28,000 plants, the majority of which were pea plants (''Pisum sativum'').", "This study showed that, when true-breeding different varieties were crossed to each other (e.g., tall plants fertilized by short plants), in the second generation, one in four pea plants had purebred recessive traits, two out of four were hybrids, and one out of four were purebred dominant.", "His experiments led him to make two generalizations, the Law of Segregation and the Law of Independent Assortment, which later came to be known as Mendel's Laws of Inheritance.==== Initial reception of Mendel's work ====Mendel presented his paper, (\"Experiments on Plant Hybridization\"), at two meetings of the Natural History Society of Brno in Moravia on 8 February and 8 March 1865.It generated a few favorable reports in local newspapers, but was ignored by the scientific community.", "When Mendel's paper was published in 1866 in , it was seen as essentially about hybridization rather than inheritance, had little impact, and was cited only about three times over the next thirty-five years.", "His paper was criticized at the time, but is now considered a seminal work.", "Notably, Charles Darwin was not aware of Mendel's paper, and it is envisaged that if he had been aware of it, genetics as it exists now might have taken hold much earlier.", "Mendel's scientific biography thus provides an example of the failure of obscure, highly original innovators to receive the attention they deserve.==== Rediscovery of Mendel's work ====About forty scientists listened to Mendel's two groundbreaking lectures, but it would appear that they failed to understand the implications of his work.", "Later, he also carried on a correspondence with Carl Nägeli, one of the leading biologists of the time, but Nägeli too failed to appreciate Mendel's discoveries.", "At times, Mendel must have entertained doubts about his work, but not always: \"My time will come,\" he reportedly told a friend, Gustav von Niessl.During Mendel's lifetime, most biologists held the idea that all characteristics were passed to the next generation through blending inheritance (indeed, many effectively are), in which the traits from each parent are averaged.", "Instances of this phenomenon are now explained by the action of multiple genes with quantitative effects.", "Charles Darwin tried unsuccessfully to explain inheritance through a theory of pangenesis.", "It was not until the early 20th century that the importance of Mendel's ideas was realized.By 1900, research aimed at finding a successful theory of discontinuous inheritance rather than blending inheritance led to independent duplication of his work by Hugo de Vries and Carl Correns, and the rediscovery of Mendel's writings and laws.", "Both acknowledged Mendel's priority, and it is thought probable that de Vries did not understand the results he had found until after reading Mendel.", "Though Erich von Tschermak was originally also credited with rediscovery, this is no longer accepted because he did not understand Mendel's laws.", "Though de Vries later lost interest in Mendelism, other biologists started to establish modern genetics as a science.", "All three of these researchers, each from a different country, published their rediscovery of Mendel's work within a two-month span in the spring of 1900.Mendel's results were quickly replicated, and genetic linkage quickly worked out.", "Biologists flocked to the theory; even though it was not yet applicable to many phenomena, it sought to give a genotypic understanding of heredity which they felt was lacking in previous studies of heredity, which had focused on phenotypic approaches.", "Most prominent of these previous approaches was the biometric school of Karl Pearson and W. F. R. Weldon, which was based heavily on statistical studies of phenotype variation.", "The strongest opposition to this school came from William Bateson, who perhaps did the most in the early days of publicising the benefits of Mendel's theory (the word \"genetics\", and much of the discipline's other terminology, originated with Bateson).", "This debate between the biometricians and the Mendelians was extremely vigorous in the first two decades of the 20th century, with the biometricians claiming statistical and mathematical rigor, whereas the Mendelians claimed a better understanding of biology.", "Modern genetics shows that Mendelian heredity is in fact an inherently biological process, though not all genes of Mendel's experiments are yet understood.In the end, the two approaches were combined, especially by work conducted by R. A. Fisher as early as 1918.The combination, in the 1930s and 1940s, of Mendelian genetics with Darwin's theory of natural selection resulted in the modern synthesis of evolutionary biology.In the Soviet Union and China, Mendelian genetics was rejected in favor of Lamarckism, leading to imprisonment and even execution of Mendelian geneticists (see Lysenkoism).=== Other experiments ===Mendel began his studies on heredity using mice.", "He was at St. Thomas's Abbey but his bishop did not like one of his friars studying animal sex, so Mendel switched to plants.", "Mendel also bred bees in a bee house that was built for him, using bee hives that he designed.", "He also studied astronomy and meteorology, founding the 'Austrian Meteorological Society' in 1865.The majority of his published works were related to meteorology.Mendel also experimented with hawkweed (''Hieracium'') and honeybees.", "He published a report on his work with hawkweed, a group of plants of great interest to scientists at the time because of their diversity.", "However, the results of Mendel's inheritance study in hawkweeds was unlike his results for peas; the first generation was very variable and many of their offspring were identical to the maternal parent.", "In his correspondence with Carl Nägeli he discussed his results but was unable to explain them.", "It was not appreciated until the end of the nineteenth century that many hawkweed species were apomictic, producing most of their seeds through an asexual process.None of his results on bees survived, except for a passing mention in the reports of Moravian Apiculture Society.", "All that is known definitely is that he used Cyprian and Carniolan bees, which were particularly aggressive to the annoyance of other monks and visitors of the monastery such that he was asked to get rid of them.", "Mendel, on the other hand, was fond of his bees, and referred to them as \"my dearest little animals\".He also described novel plant species, and these are denoted with the botanical author abbreviation \"Mendel\"." ], [ "Mendelian paradox<!--'Mendelian paradox' redirects here-->", "In 1936, Ronald Fisher, a prominent statistician and population geneticist, reconstructed Mendel's experiments, analyzed results from the F2 (second filial) generation and found the ratio of dominant to recessive phenotypes (e.g.", "yellow versus green peas; round versus wrinkled peas) to be implausibly and consistently too close to the expected ratio of 3 to 1.Fisher asserted that \"the data of most, if not all, of the experiments have been falsified so as to agree closely with Mendel's expectations\".", "Mendel's alleged observations, according to Fisher, were \"abominable\", \"shocking\", and \"cooked\".Other scholars agree with Fisher that Mendel's various observations come uncomfortably close to Mendel's expectations.", "A. W. F. Edwards, for instance, remarks: \"One can applaud the lucky gambler; but when he is lucky again tomorrow, and the next day, and the following day, one is entitled to become a little suspicious\".", "Three other lines of evidence likewise lend support to the assertion that Mendel's results are indeed too good to be true.Fisher's analysis gave rise to the '''Mendelian paradox''': Mendel's reported data are, statistically speaking, too good to be true, yet \"everything we know about Mendel suggests that he was unlikely to engage in either deliberate fraud or in unconscious adjustment of his observations\".", "A number of writers have attempted to resolve this paradox.One attempted explanation invokes confirmation bias.", "Fisher accused Mendel's experiments as \"biased strongly in the direction of agreement with expectation... to give the theory the benefit of doubt\".", "In a 2004 article, J.W.", "Porteous concluded that Mendel's observations were indeed implausible.", "An explanation for Mendel's results based on tetrad pollen has been proposed, but reproduction of the experiments showed no evidence that the tetrad-pollen model explains any of the bias.Another attempt to resolve the Mendelian paradox notes that a conflict may sometimes arise between the moral imperative of a bias-free recounting of one's factual observations and the even more important imperative of advancing scientific knowledge.", "Mendel might have felt compelled \"to simplify his data in order to meet real, or feared, editorial objections\".", "Such an action could be justified on moral grounds (and hence provide a resolution to the Mendelian paradox), since the alternative—refusing to comply—might have retarded the growth of scientific knowledge.", "Similarly, like so many other obscure innovators of science, Mendel, a little known innovator of working-class background, had to \"break through the cognitive paradigms and social prejudices\" of his audience.", "If such a breakthrough \"could be best achieved by deliberately omitting some observations from his report and adjusting others to make them more palatable to his audience, such actions could be justified on moral grounds\".Daniel L. Hartl and Daniel J. Fairbanks reject outright Fisher's statistical argument, suggesting that Fisher incorrectly interpreted Mendel's experiments.", "They find it likely that Mendel scored more than 10 progeny, and that the results matched the expectation.", "They conclude: \"Fisher's allegation of deliberate falsification can finally be put to rest, because on closer analysis it has proved to be unsupported by convincing evidence\".", "In 2008 Hartl and Fairbanks (with Allan Franklin and AWF Edwards) wrote a comprehensive book in which they concluded that there were no reasons to assert Mendel fabricated his results, nor that Fisher deliberately tried to diminish Mendel's legacy.", "Reassessment of Fisher's statistical analysis, according to these authors, also disproves the notion of confirmation bias in Mendel's results." ], [ "Commemoration", "Mount Mendel in New Zealand's Paparoa Range was named after him in 1970 by the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research.", "In celebration of his 200th birthday, Mendel's body was exhumed and his DNA sequenced." ], [ "See also", "* List of Roman Catholic cleric–scientists* Mendel Museum of Genetics* Mendel Polar Station in Antarctica* Mendel University in Brno* Mendelian error* ''The Gardener of God'', an Italian docudrama about the life and works of Gregor Mendel" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* William Bateson On-line Facsimile Edition: Electronic Scholarly Publishing, Prepared by Robert Robbins* Hugo Iltis, ''Gregor Johann Mendel.", "Leben, Werk und Wirkung''.", "Berlin: J. Springer.", "426 pages.", "(1924)**Translated by Eden and Cedar Paul as ''Life of Mendel''.", "New York: W. W. Norton & Co, 1932.336 pages.", "New York: Hafner, 1966: London: George Allen & Unwin, 1966.Ann Arbor: University Microfilms International, 1976.", "**Translated by Zhenyao Tan as ''Mên-tê-êrh chuan''.", "Shanghai: Shang wu yin shu guan, 1924.2 vols.", "in 1, 661 pp.", "Shanghai: Shang wu yin shu guan, Minguo 25 1936.", "**Translated as ''Zasshu shokubutsu no kenkyū.", "Tsuketari Menderu shōden''.", "Tōkyō: Iwanami Shoten, Shōwa 3 1928.100 pp.", "Translated by Yuzuru Nagashima as ''Menderu no shōgai''.", "Tōkyō: Sōgensha, Shōwa 17 1942.", "''Menderu den''.", "Tōkyō: Tōkyō Sōgensha, 1960.", "* * Robert Lock, ''Recent Progress in the Study of Variation, Heredity and Evolution'', London, 1906* * (1st Pub.", "1905)* Curt Stern and Sherwood ER (1966) ''The Origin of Genetics''.", "* * * refutes allegations about \"data smoothing\"* James Walsh, ''Catholic Churchmen in Science'', Philadelphia: Dolphin Press, 1906* *" ], [ "External links", "* * * * 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia entry, \"Mendel, Mendelism\"* Augustinian Abbey of St. Thomas at Brno* Biography, bibliography and access to digital sources in the Virtual Laboratory of the Max Planck Institute for the History of Science* Biography of Gregor Mendel* GCSE student* Gregor Mendel (1822–1884)* Gregor Mendel Primary Sources* Johann Gregor Mendel: Why his discoveries were ignored for 35 (72) years * Masaryk University to rebuild Mendel’s greenhouse | Brno Now* Mendel Museum of Genetics* Mendel's Paper in English* Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man* A photographic tour of St. Thomas' Abbey, Brno, Czech Republic" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Grappling" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Grappling''' is a fighting technique based on throws, trips, sweeps, clinch fighting, ground fighting and submission holds.Grappling contests often involve takedowns and ground control, and may end when a contestant concedes defeat.", "Should there be no winner after the match time-limit has lapsed, competition judges will determine the winner based on who exerted more control.Grappling most commonly does not include striking or the use of weapons.", "However, some fighting styles or martial arts known especially for their grappling techniques teach tactics that include strikes and weapons either alongside grappling or combined with it.", "Since the mid-1990s of the 20th century, many mixed martial arts tournaments began to be held around the world.", "All types of martial arts began to be evaluated by the level of their practicality in MMA.", "The fight format with minimal restrictions required a more universal technical arsenal than that used by existing types of martial arts.", "This also affected all common wrestling disciplines.", "The world of martial arts has demanded unified wrestling, taking into account new requirements, especially elements of wrestling lying on the back.", "There are many federations around the world that hold such competitions.", "Different names for this struggle began to appear.", "The International Amateur Wrestling Federation FILA joined this process in 2006, launching its project called grappling (wrestling in a tight T-shirt and shorts) and grappling gi (wrestling in a kimano).", "The first championship was held in Turkey, Antalya in 2007.The first championship took place in 2010 in Croatia.", "In terms of the competitive process, the rules of the sport (basic principles), the training environment and the equipment used, grappling is closest to sambo, freestyle wrestling and Greco-Roman wrestling." ], [ "Types of technique", "leftAncient Egyptian wrestlingA Greek bronze statue from 2nd century BC depicting Pankration.", "The standing fighter is applying an armlock, a grappling technique.", "From the Staatliche Antikensammlungen in Munich.Bas-relief of grappling and locking techniques at Prambanan (9th century) in Indonesia Grappling techniques can be broadly subdivided into clinch fighting; takedowns and throws; submission holds and pinning or controlling techniques; and sweeps, reversals, turnovers, and escapes.", "* '''Clinching''': or clinch work, takes place with both competitors on their feet using various clinch holds applied to the upper body of the opponent.", "Clinch work is generally used to set up or defend against throws or takedowns.", "* '''Takedowns''' : A takedown is used by one grappler to manipulate their opponent from a standing position to a position on the ground.", "The grappler completing the takedown aims to end in a dominant position.", "* '''Throws''': A throw is a technique in which one grappler lifts or off-balances their opponent and maneuvers them forcefully through the air or to the ground.", "The purpose of throws varies among the different disciplines of grappling with some emphasizing throws with the potential to incapacitate the opponent, while leaving the thrower standing, or to gain a takedown or controlling position.", "* '''Sprawling''' : A sprawl is a defensive technique usually used when the opponent attempts a takedown.", "It is performed by shifting the legs backwards and spread out in one fast motion.", "If done correctly one will land on their opponent's back and gain control.", "* '''Submission holds''': There are generally two types of submission holds: those that would potentially strangle or suffocate an opponent (chokes), and those that would potentially cause injury to a joint or other body part (locks ).", "In sport grappling, a competitor is expected to submit, either verbally or by tapping the opponent, to admit defeat when they are caught in a submission hold they cannot escape.", "Competitors who refuse to \"tap out\" risk unconsciousness or serious injury.", "* '''Securing or controlling techniques''': A pin involves holding an opponent on their back in a position where they are unable to attack.", "In some styles of competitive grappling a pin is an instant victory, and in other styles it is considered a dominant position that is awarded with points.", "Other controlling techniques are used to hold an opponent face down on the ground or on all fours in order to prevent an escape or attack.", "Either of these types of technique may also be used as a prelude to a submission hold.", "* '''Escapes''': In a general sense, an escape is accomplished by maneuvering out of danger or from an inferior position; for example when a grappler who is underneath side control moves to guard or gets back to a neutral standing position, or when a grappler is able to maneuver out of a submission attempt and back to a position where they are no longer in immediate danger of being submitted.", "* '''Turnovers''': used to maneuver an opponent who is on all fours or flat on their stomach to their back, in order to score points, prepare for a pin or in order to gain a more dominant position.", "* '''Reversals or sweeps''': These occur when a grappler who was underneath their opponent on the ground is able to maneuver so that they gain a top position over their opponent." ], [ "Use", "The degree to which grappling is utilized in different fighting systems varies.", "Some systems, such as amateur wrestling, pehlwani, judo and Brazilian jiu-jitsu are exclusively grappling arts and do not allow striking.", "Some other grappling arts allow some limited forms of striking, for example in sumo and in combat jiu jitsu it is possible to strike with open hands (slapping).", "Many combat sports, such as shooto and mixed martial arts competitions, use both grappling and striking extensively as part of the sport.Grappling is not allowed in some martial arts and combat sports, usually for the sake of focusing on other aspects of combat such as punching, kicking or mêlée weapons.", "Opponents in these types of matches, however, still grapple with each other occasionally when fatigued or in pain; when either occurs, the referee will step in and restart the match, sometimes giving a warning to one or both of the fighters.", "Examples of these include boxing, kickboxing, taekwondo, karate, and fencing.", "While prolonged grappling in Muay Thai will result in a separation of the competitors, the art extensively uses the clinch hold known as a double collar tie.Grappling techniques and defenses to grappling techniques are also considered important in self-defense applications and in law enforcement.", "The most common grappling techniques taught for self-defense are escapes from holds and application of pain compliance techniques.Grappling can be trained for self-defense, sport, and mixed martial arts (MMA) competition." ], [ "Stand-up grappling", "Two wrestlers engaging.", "'''Stand-up grappling''' is arguably an integral part of all grappling and clinch fighting arts, considering that two combatants generally start fighting from a stand-up position.", "The aim of stand-up grappling varies according to the martial arts or combat sports in question.", "Defensive stand-up grappling concerns itself with pain-compliance holds and escapes from possible grappling holds applied by an opponent, while offensive grappling techniques include submission holds, trapping, takedowns and throws, all of which can be used to inflict serious damage, or to move the fight to the ground.", "Stand-up grappling can also be used both offensively and defensively simultaneously with striking, either to trap an opponent's arms while striking, prevent the opponent from obtaining sufficient distance to strike effectively, or to bring the opponent close to apply, for instance, knee strikes.In combat sports, stand-up grappling usually revolves around successful takedowns and throws.", "Grappling is a major part of combat glima and Løse-tak sport glima, and the fight continues on the ground if both combatants end up there.", "In other martial sports such as MMA, the fight may continue on the ground." ], [ "Ground grappling", "ne-waza'') is to obtain a chokehold, joint lock or to pin the opponent.", "'''Ground grappling''' refers to all the grappling techniques that are applied while the grapplers are no longer in a standing position.", "A large part of most martial arts and combat sports which feature ground grappling is positioning and obtaining a dominant position.", "A dominant position (usually on top) allows the dominant grappler a variety of options, including: attempting to escape by standing up, obtaining a pin or hold-down to control and exhaust the opponent, executing a submission hold, or striking the opponent.", "The bottom grappler is, on the other hand, concerned with escaping the situation and improving their position, typically by using a sweep or reversal.", "In some disciplines, especially those where the guard is used, the bottom grappler may also be able to finish the fight from the bottom by a submission hold.", "Some people feel more confident on the bottom because of the large number of submissions that can be accomplished from having the opponent in full-guard." ], [ "Applications", "When unskilled fighters get embroiled in combat, a common reaction is to grab the opponent in an attempt to slow the situation down by holding them still, resulting in an unsystematic struggle that relies on brute force.", "A skilled fighter, in contrast, can perform takedowns as a way of progressing to a superior position such as a Mount (grappling) or side control, or using clinch holds and ground positions to set up strikes, choke holds, and joint locks.", "A grappler who has been taken down to the ground can use defensive positions such as the Guard (grappling), which protects against being mounted or attacked.", "If a grappler is strong and can utilize leverage well, a takedown or throw itself can be a fight-ending maneuver; the impact can render an opponent unconscious.", "On the other hand, grappling also offers the possibility of controlling an opponent without injuring them.", "For their reason, most police staff receive some training in grappling.", "Likewise, grappling sports have been devised so that their participants can compete using full physical effort without injuring their opponents.Grappling is called ''dumog'' in Eskrima.", "The term ''chin na'' in Chinese martial arts deals with the use of grappling to achieve submission or incapacitation of the opponent (these may involve the use of acupressure points).", "Some Chinese martial arts, aikido, some eskrima systems, the Viking martial art of glima, as well as medieval and Renaissance European martial arts, practice grappling while one or both participants is armed.", "Their practice is significantly more dangerous than unarmed grappling and generally requires a great deal of training." ], [ "Types of grappling", "A Roman statue portraying grapplers.There are many different regional styles of grappling around the world that are practiced within a limited geographic area or country.", "Several grappling styles like judo, shoot wrestling, Cornish wrestling, catch wrestling, submission grappling, Brazilian jiu-jitsu, sambo, hapkido and several types of wrestling including freestyle and Greco-Roman have gained global popularity.", "Judo, Freestyle Wrestling, and Greco-Roman Wrestling are Olympic Sports while Grappling, Brazilian Jiu-jitsu and Sambo have their own World Championship Competitions.", "Other known grappling-oriented systems are sumo, shuai jiao, malla-yuddha and aikido.In these arts, the object is either to take down and pin the opponent, or to catch the adversary in a specialized chokehold or joint lock which forces them to submit and admit defeat or be rendered helpless (unconscious or broken limbs).", "There are two forms of dress for grappling that dictate pace and style of action: with a jacket, such as a ''gi'' or kurtka, and without (No-Gi).", "The jacket, or \"gi\", form most often utilizes grips on the cloth to control the opponent's body, while the \"no-''gi''\" form emphasizes body control of the torso and head using only the natural holds provided by the body.", "The use of a jacket is compulsory in judo competition, sambo competition, and most Brazilian jiu-jitsu competition, as well as a variety of folk wrestling styles around the world.", "Jackets are not used in many forms of wrestling, such as Olympic Freestyle, Greco-Roman wrestling and Grappling.Grappling techniques are also used in mixed martial arts along with striking techniques.", "Strikes can be used to set up grappling techniques and vice versa.===ADCC===The ADCC Submission Fighting World Championship is the most prestigious submission grappling tournament in the world and is held biannually.===Mundials===The World Jiu-Jitsu Championship, also commonly called the Mundials (Portuguese for \"Worlds\"), is the most prestigious jacketed full range (takedown, position, and submission inclusive) grappling tournament in the world.", "The event also hosts a non-jacketed division (no gi), but that sub-event is not as prestigious as ADCC in terms of pure non-jacketed competition.===United World Wrestling===United World Wrestling (UWW) is the international governing body for the sport of wrestling.", "It presides over international competitions for various forms of wrestling, including Grappling for men and women.", "The flagship Grappling's event of UWW is the Grappling World Championships.===NAGA==='''The North American Grappling Association (NAGA)''' is an organization started in 1995 that holds Submission Grappling and Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu tournaments throughout North America and Europe.", "NAGA is the largest submission grappling association in the world with over 175,000 participants worldwide, including some of the top submission grapplers and MMA fighters in the world.", "NAGA grappling tournaments consist of gi and no-gi divisions.", "No-Gi competitors compete under rules drafted by NAGA.", "Gi competitors compete under standardized Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu rules.", "Notable Champions Frank Mir, Joe Fiorentino, Jon Jones, Khabib Nurmagomedov, Anthony Porcelli and Antonio Bustorff.===GRiND==='''GRiND''' is the first Indian Pro Grappling tournament series started in May 2017 conducting grappling championships (position and submission included).", "There is a first time no \"Gi\" event series in India." ], [ "See also", "* Clinch fighting* Combatives* Grappling hold* Grappling position* Ground fighting* Submission wrestling* Judo* Brazilian Jiu Jitsu* Luta Livre* Wrestling" ], [ "References" ], [ "Other sources", "* Gracie; Renzo, Gracie, Royler; Peligro, Kid; Danaher, John (2001).", "''Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu: Theory and technique''.", "Invisible Cities Press.", ".", "* Ohlenkamp, Neil (2006) ''Judo Unleashed'' basic reference on judo.", "." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "George Mason University" ], [ "Introduction", "'''George Mason University''' ('''George Mason,''' '''Mason,''' or '''GMU''') is a public sea-grant research university in Fairfax County, Virginia near Washington, D.C.", "The university was originally founded as the '''Northern Virginia University Center of the University of Virginia''' in 1949 as an extension school and regional branch of the University of Virginia for mid-career working professionals and non-traditional students in Northern Virginia and the Washington, D.C. Metropolitan Area.", "The university has since expanded into a residential college for traditional students with an emphasis on combining modern practice-based professional education with a comprehensive traditional liberal arts curriculum while maintaining its historic commuter student-inclusive environment at both undergraduate and post-graduate levels.", "Named after Founding Father of the United States George Mason in 1959, it became an independent university in 1972.The school has since grown into the largest public university in the Commonwealth of Virginia.The university operates four campuses in Virginia, which are located in Fairfax, Arlington, Front Royal, and Prince William Counties.", "It also operates a retreat and conference center in Lorton and an international campus in Incheon, South Korea.", "The university's flagship campus is in Fairfax, Virginia.The university is classified among \"R1: Doctoral Universities – Very high research activity.\"", "Two professors, James M. Buchanan in 1986 and Vernon L. Smith in 2002, were awarded the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics during their time at George Mason University.EagleBank Arena, a 10,000-seat arena and concert venue operated by the university, is located on the Fairfax campus.", "The university recognizes 500 student groups and 41 fraternities and sororities." ], [ "History", "===20th century===George Mason in 1750 at age 25Decal of George Mason CollegeVirginia governor A. Linwood Holton signs H‑210 separating George Mason College from the University of Virginia on April 7, 1972In 1949, the University of Virginia created an extension center to serve mid-career working professionals and non-traditional students near urban centers in the Northern Virginia suburbs of Washington, D.C.", "The extension center offered both for credit and non-credit informal classes in the evenings at various pre-existing venues.", "The first for credit classes offered were: \"Government in the Far East, Introduction to International Politics, English Composition, Principles of Economics, Mathematical Analysis, Introduction to Mathematical Statistics, and Principles of Lip Reading.\"", "By the end of 1952, enrollment was 1,192 students.A resolution of the Virginia General Assembly in January 1956 changed the extension center into University College, the Northern Virginia branch of the University of Virginia.", "John Norville Gibson Finley served as director.", "Seventeen freshmen students attended classes at University College in a small renovated elementary school building in Bailey's Crossroads starting in September 1957.In 1958 University College became George Mason College.The City of Fairfax purchased and donated of land just south of the city limits to the University of Virginia for the college's new site, which is now referred to as the Fairfax Campus.", "In 1959, the Board of Visitors of the University of Virginia selected a permanent name for the college: George Mason College of the University of Virginia.", "The Fairfax campus construction planning that began in early 1960 showed visible results when the development of the first of Fairfax Campus began in 1962.In the Fall of 1964 the new campus welcomed 356 students.During the 1966 Session of the Virginia General Assembly, Alexandria delegate James M. Thomson, with the backing of the University of Virginia, introduced a bill in the General Assembly to make George Mason College a four-year institution under the University of Virginia's direction.", "The measure, known as H 33, passed the Assembly easily and was approved on March 1, 1966, making George Mason College a degree-granting institution.", "During that same year, the local jurisdictions of Fairfax County, Arlington County, and the cities of Alexandria and Falls Church agreed to appropriate $3 million to purchase land adjacent to Mason to provide for a Fairfax Campus with the intention that the institution would expand into a regional university of major proportions, including the granting of graduate degrees.In 1972, Virginia separated George Mason College from the University of Virginia in Charlottesville and renamed it George Mason University.In 1978, George W. Johnson was appointed to serve as the fourth president.", "Under his eighteen-year tenure, the university expanded both its physical size and program offerings at a tremendous rate.", "Shortly before Johnson's inauguration in April 1979, Mason acquired the School of Law and the new Arlington Campus.", "The university also became a doctoral institution.", "Toward the end of Johnson's term, Mason would be deep in planning for a third campus in Prince William County at Manassas.", "Major campus facilities, such as Student Union Building II, EagleBank Arena, Center for the Arts, and the Johnson Learning Center, were all constructed over the course of Johnson's eighteen years as University President.", "Enrollment once again more than doubled from 10,767 during the fall of 1978 to 24,368 in the spring of 1996.Alan G. Merten was appointed president in 1996.He believed that the university's location made it responsible for both contributing to and drawing from its surrounding communities—local, national, and global.", "George Mason was becoming recognized and acclaimed in all of these spheres.", "During Merten's tenure, the university hosted the World Congress of Information Technology in 1998, celebrated a second Nobel Memorial Prize-winning faculty member in 2002, and cheered the Men's Basketball team in their NCAA Final Four appearance in 2006.Enrollment increased from just over 24,000 students in 1996 to approximately 33,000 during the spring semester of 2012, making Mason Virginia's largest public university and gained prominence at the national level.Ángel Cabrera officially took office on July 1, 2012.Both Cabrera and the board were well aware that Mason was part of a rapidly changing academia, full of challenges to the viability of higher education.===21st century===In a resolution on August 17, 2012, the board asked Cabrera to create a new strategic vision that would help Mason remain relevant and competitive in the future.", "The drafting of the Vision for Mason, from conception to official outline, created a new mission statement that defines the university.On March 25, 2013, Cabrera held a press conference to announce the university's decision to leave the Colonial Athletic Association to join the Atlantic 10 Conference (A-10).", "The announcement came just days after the Board of Visitors' approval of the university's Vision document that Cabrera had overseen.", "Mason began competition in the A-10 during the 2013–2014 academic year, and Mason's association with the institutions that comprise the A-10 started a new chapter in Mason athletics, academics, and other aspects of university life.", "''The Chronicle of Higher Education'' listed Mason as one of the \"Great Colleges to Work For\" from 2010 to 2014.", "''The Washington Post'' listed Mason as one of the \"Top Workplaces\" in 2014.The WorldatWork Alliance for Work-Life Progress awarded Mason the Seal of Distinction in 2015.The AARP listed Mason as one of the Best Employers for Workers Over 50 in 2013.Phi Beta Kappa established a chapter at the university in 2013.In 2018, a Freedom of Information Act lawsuit revealed that conservative donors, including the Charles Koch Foundation and Federalist Society, were given direct influence over faculty hiring decisions at the university's law and economics schools.", "GMU President Ángel Cabrera acknowledged that the revelations raised questions about the university's academic integrity and pledged to prohibit donors from sitting on faculty selection committees in the future.Cabrera resigned his position on July 31, 2019, to become president of Georgia Tech.", "Following Cabrera's resignation, Anne B. Holton served as interim president until June 30, 2020.On February 24, 2020, the Board of Visitors appointed Gregory Washington as the university's eighth president, and he assumed that role on July 1, 2020.Washington is the university's first African-American president.On March 23, 2020, George Mason shifted to exclusively online instruction during the COVID-19 pandemic.", "Hybrid instruction occurred during the Fall 2020, Spring 2021, and Fall 2021 semesters during which the university offered a combination of online and in-person instruction." ], [ "Campuses", "George Mason University has four campuses in the United States, all within the Commonwealth of Virginia.", "Three are in the Northern Virginia suburbs of the Washington metropolitan area, and one is in Virginia's Blue Ridge Mountains.", "The university also has one campus in South Korea, in the Songdo International Business District of Incheon.", "Between 2005 and 2009 the university had a campus at Ras al-Khaimah, United Arab Emirates.", "The Blue Ridge campus, just outside Front Royal, is run in cooperation with the Smithsonian Institution.===Fairfax===The university's Fairfax Campus is situated on of landscaped land with a large pond in a suburban environment in George Mason, Virginia, just south of the City of Fairfax in central Fairfax County.", "The District of Columbia is approximately from campus.", "Notable buildings include the student union building, the Johnson Center; the Center for the Arts, a 2,000-seat concert hall; the Long and Kimmy Nguyen Engineering Building; Exploratory Hall for science, new in 2013; an astronomy observatory and telescope; the Art and Design Building; the newly expanded Fenwick Library, the Krasnow Institute; and three fully appointed gyms and an aquatic center for student use.", "The stadiums for indoor and outdoor track and field, baseball, softball, tennis, soccer and lacrosse are also on the Fairfax campus, as is Masonvale, a housing community for faculty, staff and graduate students.==== Transportation ====This campus is served by the Washington Metro Orange Line at the Vienna-GMU station and Metrobus routes.", "The CUE Bus Green One, Green Two, Gold One, and Gold Two lines all provide service to this campus at .", "This campus is served by the Virginia Railway Express Manassas Line at the Burke Center station.", "Fairfax Connector Route 306: GMU–Pentagon provides service to this campus.", "Mason provides shuttle service between this campus and Vienna, Fairfax, GMU Metro station, the Burke Center VRE station, the Science and Technology Campus, West Campus, and downtown City of Fairfax.====George Mason statue and Enslaved People of George Mason Memorial====A statue of George Mason on the campusWashington Metro's Virginia Square-GMU campus stopThe Johnson CenterThe bronze statue of George Mason on campus was created by Wendy M. Ross and dedicated on April 12, 1996.The 7 foot statue shows George Mason presenting his first draft of the Virginia Declaration of Rights which was later the basis for the U.S. Constitution's Bill of Rights.", "Beside Mason is a model of a writing table that is still in the study of Gunston Hall, Mason's Virginia estate.", "The books on the table—volumes of Hume, Locke and Rousseau—represent influences in his thought.In 2021, an Enslaved People of George Mason Monument designed by Perkins & Will was installed near the George Mason Statue.", "The memorial includes panels describing the lives of two of the enslaved at Gunston Hall: Penny, who was gifted by Mason to his daughter, and James, Mason’s personal attendant.===Arlington===The Arlington Campus (renamed Mason Square in 2022) is situated on in Virginia Square, a bustling urban environment on the edge of Arlington County, Virginia's Clarendon business district and from downtown Washington, D.C.", "The campus was founded in 1979 with the acquisition of a law school.", "In 1998, Hazel Hall opened to house the George Mason University School of Law (now Antonin Scalia Law School); subsequent development created Van Metre Hall (formerly Founders Hall), home of the Schar School of Policy and Government, the Center for Regional Analysis, and the graduate-level administrative offices for the School of Business.", "Vernon Smith Hall houses the Jimmy and Rosalynn Carter School for Peace and Conflict Resolution, the Mercatus Center, and the Institute for Humane Studies.", "The campus also houses the 300-seat Van Metre Hall Auditorium.", "A new building, Fuse at Mason Square, is scheduled to be completed in 2025.==== Transportation ====This campus is served by the Washington Metro Orange Line at the Virginia Square-GMU station, a campus shuttle service, and Metrobus route 38B.", "The rail station is located one block west of the campus.", "Arlington Rapid Transit or ART Bus routes 41, 42, and 75 also provide service at this location.", "The campus offers one electric vehicle charging station, five disabled permit automotive parking locations, three bicycle parking locations, and one Capital Bikeshare location.=== Science and Technology campus ===The Science and Technology campus opened on August 25, 1997, as the Prince William campus in Manassas, Virginia, on of land, some still currently undeveloped.", "More than 4,000 students are enrolled in classes in bioinformatics, biotechnology, information technology, and forensic biosciences educational and research programs.", "There are undergraduate programs in health, fitness and recreation.", "There are graduate programs in exercise, fitness, health, geographic information systems, and facility management.", "Much of the research takes place in the high-security Biomedical Research Laboratory.", "The 1,123-seat Merchant Hall and the 300-seat Verizon Auditorium in the Hylton Performing Arts Center opened in 2010.The 110,000-square-foot Freedom Aquatic and Fitness Center is operated by the Mason Enterprise Center.", "The Mason Center for Team and Organizational Learning stylized as EDGE is an experiential education facility open to the public.", "The Sports Medicine Assessment Research and Testing lab stylized as SMART Lab is located within the Freedom center.", "The SMART Lab is most known for its concussion research.", "On April 23, 2015, the campus was renamed to the Science and Technology Campus.In 2019, the university engaged in a feasibility study of creating a medical school at the Prince William Campus.=== Smithsonian-Mason School of Conservation ===Smithsonian-Mason School of ConservationThe campus in Front Royal, Virginia, is a collaboration between the Smithsonian Institution and the university.", "Open to students in August 2012 after breaking ground on the project on June 29, 2011, the primary focus of the campus is global conservation training.", "The Volgenau Academic Center includes three teaching laboratories, four classrooms, and 18 offices.", "Shenandoah National Park is visible from the dining facility's indoor and outdoor seating.", "Living quarters include 60 double occupancy rooms, an exercise facility, and study space.=== Mason Korea (Songdo, South Korea) ===Opened in March 2014, the Songdo campus is in South Korea's Incheon Free Economic Zone, a site designed for 850,000 people.", "It is located from Seoul and a two-hour flight from China and Japan, and is connected to the Seoul Metropolitan Subway.The Commonwealth of Virginia considers the Songdo campus legally no different from any other Mason campus: Mason Korea's first commencement class graduated in December 2017.Students from Mason Korea earn the same diploma as home campus students, with English as the language of instruction." ], [ "Academics", "===Rankings===Mason offers undergraduate, graduate master's, law, and doctoral degrees with an emphasis on combining modern practice-based professional education with a comprehensive traditional liberal arts curriculum.", "The student-faculty ratio is 17:1; 58 percent of undergraduate classes have fewer than 30 students and 30 percent of undergraduate classes have fewer than 20 students.=== Colleges, schools, and accreditation === Colleges and Schools of George Mason University Historical name Current nameAccreditation and Academic-Professional AssociationsUniversity-wide accreditations Southern Association of Colleges and Schools (SACS) College of Arts and Sciences 1957 College of Humanities and Social Sciences 2006* American Psychological Association (APA)* Human Factors and Ergonomics Society (HFES) College of Science 2006* American Chemical Society (ACS)* US Geospatial Intelligence Foundation (USGIF) School of Business Administration 1977 School of Management 1981School of Business 2014 Donald G. Costello College of Business 2023* Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business (AACSB) School of Law 1979 Antonin Scalia Law School 2016* American Bar Association (ABA) School of Information Technology and Engineering 1985 Volgenau School of Engineering 2005 College of Engineering and Computing 2021* Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET) School of Nursing 1985 College of Health and Human Services 1998 College of Public Health* Association of University Programs in Health Administration (AUPHA)* Commission on Accreditation for Health Informatics and Information Management Education (CAHIIM)* Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Management Education (CAHME)* Commission on Collegiate Nursing Education (CCNE)* Council on Education for Public Health (CEPH)* Council on Social Work Education (CSWE)* Accreditation Council for Education in Nutrition and Dietetics (ACEND)* Virginia Department of Health Professions - Virginia Board of Nursing (VA DHP-VBN)College of Visual and Performing Arts 1990* Council for the Accreditation of Educator Preparation (CAEP)* National Association of Schools of Music (NASM) School of Public Policy 1990 Schar School of Policy and Government 2016* Network of Schools of Public Policy, Affairs, and Administration (NASPAA)* Association of Professional Schools of International Affairs (APSIA) Department of Public and International Affairs 1990 Graduate School of Education 1991 College of Education and Human Development 1994* Commission on Accreditation of Allied Health Education Programs (CAAHEP)* Commission on Accreditation of Athletic Training Education (CAATE)* Council for the Accreditation of Educator Preparation (CAEP)* National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE)* Council on Accreditation of Parks, Recreation, Tourism and Related Professions (COAPRT)* International Baccalaureate (IB) School for Conflict Analysis and Resolution 1991Jimmy and Rosalynn Carter School for Peace and Conflict Resolution 2020 Krasnow Institute for Advanced Study 1993George Mason University is accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools (SACS) to award bachelor's, master's, and doctoral degrees.==== College of Public Health ====The college is located in the Peterson Family Health Sciences Hall on the Fairfax campus.", "Currently, the college is home to approximately 3,000 students.", "The college offers 5 undergraduate degrees, 12 graduate degrees, and 11 certificates.", "Academic programs in the college are accredited by the Association of University Programs in Health Administration (AUPHA), Commission on Accreditation for Health Informatics and Information Management Education (CAHIIM), and Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Management Education (CAHME), Council on Education for Public Health (CEPH), Commission on Collegiate Nursing Education (CCNE), and Council on Social Work Education (CSWE).", "The College took the name College of Public Health in November 2022.===Admissions===For 2023, George Mason had an undergraduate acceptance rate of 90%, did not consider high school class rank, and did not require standardized test scores, for admission.", "For those submitting scores the middle 50% had an SAT score between 1140 and 1350 or an ACT score between 25 and 31.Between 2009 and 2013, George Mason saw a 21% increase in the number of applications, has enrolled 4% more new degree-seeking students, and has seen the percentage of undergraduate and graduate applications accepted each decrease by 4%.", "Law applications accepted increased by 10%.", "Mason enrolled 33,917 students for Fall 2013, up 956 (+3%) from Fall 2012.Undergraduate students made up 65% (21,990) of the fall enrollment, graduate students 34% (11,399), and law students 2% (528).", "Undergraduate headcount was 1,337 higher than Fall 2012 (+7%); graduate headcount was 262 lower (−2%); and law student headcount was 119 lower (−18%).", "Matriculated students come from all 50 states and 122 foreign countries.", "As of fall 2014, the university had 33,791 students enrolled, including 21,672 undergraduates, 7,022 seeking master's degrees, 2,264 seeking doctoral degrees and 493 seeking law degrees.=== Enrollment ===As of 2017, the university enrolled 34,904 students, making it the largest university by head count in the Commonwealth of Virginia.=== Academic affiliations ===* Consortium of Universities of the Washington Metropolitan Area (CUWMA)* Washington Research Library Consortium (WRLC)* Oak Ridge Associated Universities (ORAU)* State Council of Higher Education for Virginia (SCHEV)* National Sea Grant College Program (Sea-grant)* Smithsonian Institution (SI) - Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute (SCBI)* Transatlantic Policy Consortium (TPC)" ], [ "Research", "George Mason University hosts $149 million in sponsored research projects annually, as of 2019.In 2016, Mason was classified among \"R1: Doctoral Universities – Very high research activity\".", "Mason moved into this classification based on a review of its 2013–2014 data that was performed by the Center for Postsecondary Research at Indiana University.The research is focused on health, sustainability and security.", "In health, researchers focus is on wellness, disease prevention, advanced diagnostics and biomedical analytics.", "Sustainability research examines climate change, natural disaster forecasting, and risk assessment.", "Mason's security experts study domestic and international security as well as cyber security.===Centers and institutes===The university is home to numerous research centers and institutes.", "* Center for Applied Proteomics and Molecular Medicine* Center for Clean Water and Sustainable Technologies (CCWST)* Center for Climate Change Communication (4C)* Center for Collision Safety and Analysis* Center for Excellence in Command, Control, Communications, Computing and Intelligence (C4I)* Center for Humanities Research* Center for Location Science* Center for Neural Informatics* Center for Peacemaking Practice* Center for Real Estate Entrepreneurship* Center for Regional Analysis* Center for Social Complexity* Center for Study of Public Choice* Center for Neural Informatics, Structures, and Plasticity (CN3)* Center for Well-Being* Institute for Advanced Biomedical Research* Interdisciplinary Center for Economic Science* Krasnow Institute for Advanced Study* Mercatus Center* National Center for Biodefense and Infectious Diseases* Roy Rosenzweig Center for History and New Media* SMART Lab (Sports Medicine Assessment, Research & Testing)* Stephen S. Fuller Institute * Michael V. Hayden Center for Intelligence, Policy, and International Security* Center for Security Policy Studies* Center for Transportation Public-Private Partnership Policy* Center on Nonprofits, Philanthropy, and Social Enterprise* Terrorism, Transnational Crime and Corruption Center (TraCCC)* Center for Energy Science and Policy* National Security Institute* Center for Government Contracting* Global Antitrust Institute* Center for World Religions, Diplomacy and Conflict Resolution* Center for the Study of Gender and Conflict Resolution* Peace and Conflict Studies Center Asia (PACSC Asia)* Center for the Study of Narrative and Conflict Resolution* Mary Hoch Center for Reconciliation" ], [ "Student life and community relations", "===Traditions===Benches painted by students outside the Fenwick LibraryStudents have often decorated the George Mason statue on the Fairfax campus for events.", "Some have rubbed the statue toe to bring good luck.", "Many pose with the statue for graduation photographs.", "Between 1988 and 1990 Anthony Maiello wrote the original ''George Mason Fight Song'', which was edited by Michael Nickens in 2009.Each spring, student organizations at Mason compete to paint one of the 38 benches located on the Quad in front of Fenwick Library.", "For years, student organizations have painted those benches that line the walkway to gain recognition for their group.", "With more than 300 student organizations, there is much competition to paint one of the benches.", "Painting takes place in the spring.===Housing===On the Fairfax campus, the northernmost housing is technically on campus, but about a mile (1600 m) from the center of campus, about a half mile (800 m) from the edge of the majority of the Fairfax campus in the housing area known as the Townhouses.", "On the eastern edge of the Fairfax campus lies Masonvale, houses intended for graduate students and visiting faculty.", "On the southern edge of the Fairfax campus are President's Park, Liberty Square, and Potomac Heights.", "On the western side of the Fairfax campus, near Ox Road/Rt 123, are the Mason Global Center, Whitetop, and Rogers.", "The Student Apartments off Aquia Creek Lane were torn down in 2019.Closer to the center of the Fairfax campus are the residence halls along Chesapeake Lane, named: Northern Neck, Commonwealth, Blue Ridge, Sandbridge, Piedmont, and Tidewater, as well as Hampton Roads, Dominion, Eastern Shore, and the Commons.", "At the Science and Technology (SciTech) campus near Manassas, Virginia, west of Fairfax, Beacon Hall was designed for graduate student housing.", "west of Fairfax, the G.T.", "Halpin Family Living & Learning Community is on the Smithsonian-Mason School of Conservation campus.", "west of Fairfax, Student's Hall and Guest House are on the Songdo campus.====On-campus robot food delivery====George Mason University's Fairfax Campus is the first U.S. campus to include robot food delivery in its meal plans.", "25 autonomous robots were provided by the Estonian robotics company Starship Technologies to carry out meal deliveries.===Student organizations===Student organizations can have an academic, social, athletic, religious/irreligious, career, or just about any other focus.", "The university recognizes 500 such groups.", "One notable example is the nationally-ranked GMU debate team led by Dr. Jacquelyn Poapst.===Student media===Mason sponsors several student-run media outlets through the Office of Student Media.", "* ''Fourth Estate'': Website and weekly student newspaper, available on Mondays* ''The George Mason Review'':A cross-disciplinary, undergraduate journal.", "* ''Hispanic Culture Review'': Publishes creative writing, book reviews, narratives, and essays in both Spanish and English.", "Published annually.", "* Mason Cable Network: A television outlet run by the students, for the students, that provides analytical, and entertaining programming.", "* ''Phoebe'': A journal that annually publishes original works of literature and art.", "* ''So to Speak: ''A feminist journal that publishes poetry, fiction, nonfiction, and visual art each semester.", "* ''Volition'': Formerly known as ''Apathy'', is George Mason University's undergraduate creative literature and art magazine.", "* WGMU Radio: Broadcasts a wide array of music, talk, sports, and news programming.", "WGMU is also the flagship station for George Mason's Men's and Women's Basketball team, part of the Go Mason Digital Network.=== Greek life ===Mason has 42 fraternities and sororities recognized by the university, with a total Greek population of about 1,800.Mason does not have a traditional \"Greek Row\" of housing specifically for fraternities, although recruitment, charitable events—including a spring Greek Week—and other chapter activities take place on the Fairfax Campus.=== Athletics =======Division I teams====Hofstra visits the Patriot Center, now known as EagleBank Arena, in January 2005The George Mason Patriots are the athletic teams of George Mason University located in Fairfax, Virginia.", "The Patriots compete in Division I of the National Collegiate Athletic Association as members of the Atlantic 10 Conference for most sports.", "About 485 student-athletes compete in 22 men's and women's Division I sports – baseball, basketball, cross-country, golf, lacrosse, rowing, soccer, softball, swimming and diving, tennis, indoor and outdoor track and field, volleyball, and wrestling.", "Intercollegiate men's and women's teams are members of the National Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I, the Atlantic 10, the Eastern College Athletic Conference (ECAC), the Eastern Intercollegiate Volleyball Association (EIVA), the Eastern Wrestling League (EWL), and the Intercollegiate Association of Amateur Athletes of America (IC4A).====Intramural club sports====In addition to its NCAA Division I teams, George Mason University has several club sports.====Performing arts====The Mason Players is a faculty lead student organization that produces six productions.", "This season includes two \"Main Stage\" productions, which are directed by faculty members or guest artists.", "As well as \"Studio\" productions, which are directed by students through an application process within Mason Players.", "There is also an annual production of \"Originals\", which consists of 10 minute original plays written by students.", "Full time students of George Mason University, both outside and a part of the School of Theater are allowed to audition for these productions.=== Cultural capital, political influence, and controversy ===According to U.S. News and World Report University Rankings, George Mason University is ranked #1 in Social Mobility among universities in the Commonwealth of Virginia and nationally ranked #72 in Top Performers on Social Mobility.", "The New York Times Top U.S.", "Colleges with the Greatest Economic Diversity ranking ranks the university at #19 for advancing social mobility for its students and alumni and having socioeconomic status diversity through cultural capital.", "The university is also ranked No.", "8 in the nation for Freedom of Speech and protecting rights enshrined in the First Amendment to the United States Constitution according to the Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression (FIRE), FIRE also posits that the majority viewpoint of the student body leans politically liberal in the sense of modern liberalism in the United States, although the political ideologies of libertarianism in the United States and conservatism in the United States are also visible on campus with the university stating that it strives for \"comprehensive ideological balance,\" evidence including but not limited to the university being \"home to both the Antonin Scalia Law School and the Jimmy and Rosalynn Carter School for Peace and Conflict Resolution,\" named after a conservative U.S. Supreme Court Justice (Antonin Scalia) politically appointed by Republican Party U.S. President and a liberal U.S. President (Jimmy Carter) and First Lady (Rosalynn Carter) who are members of the Democratic Party, respectively.==== Demographics ====According to the U.S. Department of Education College Scorecard, 44% of students have taken on Federal Student Loans, and in terms of socioeconomic diversity, 28% of students have received Pell grants reserved for low-income students.", "Among undergraduate students, 80% of students are enrolled full-time while 20% are enrolled part-timeIn terms of ethnic and racial demographics: American Indian/Alaska Native people make up 0% of the student body and 0% of the full-time staff; Asian people make up 22% of the student body and 14% of the full-time staff; Black people make up 11% of the student body and 5% of the full-time staff; Hispanic and Latino people make up 17% of the student population and 3% of the full-time staff; Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander people make up 0% of the student body and 0% of the full-time staff; Non-resident alien people make up 5% of the student body and 8% of the full-time staff; people of Two or more races/multiracial people make up 5% of the student body and 2% of the full-time staff; people of an Unknown ethno-racial demographic make up 3% of the student body and 3% of the full-time staff; and White people make up 36% of the student body and 65% of the full-time staff.", "==== Koch Foundation funding and Economics department ====George Mason University has been subject to controversy surrounding donations from the Charles Koch Foundation, in particular to the College of Humanities and Social Sciences' Department of Economics, which was seen as being allegedly influenced by libertarian political thought, evidenced by the political activities of the Koch brothers.", "University documents revealed that the Koch brothers were given the ability to pick candidates as a condition of monetary donations.", "George Mason University altered its donor rules following the controversy.", "==== Law school ====Antonin Scalia Law SchoolThe naming of the Antonin Scalia Law School after the late conservative United States Supreme Court Justice Antonin Scalia, the hiring of conservative United States Supreme Court Justices Bret Kavanaugh, Neil Gorsuch, and Clarence Thomas as professors, the allegedly “lavish treatments,” speaking gigs, and \"all-experiences-paid\" travel arrangements they received, its close ties with the Federalist Society for Law and Public Policy Studies, and the extensive provision of professional development and continuing education programs, as well as speaking engagements for sitting judges of lower and appellate divisions - in particular dealing with the topic of law and economics - has brought on controversy on the university itself, the Supreme Court of the United States, and the Federal Judiciary of the United States as a whole over the overt conservative political influence taking place at the law school and the university’s growing influence over the U.S. judicial system.", "The law school had also received some controversy due to its relationship with the overtly libertarian university-affiliated Mercatus Center think tank which is known to have received donations from a conservative political donor group known as The 85 Fund-Judicial Education Project headed by conservative legal activist Leonard Leo.", "==== Public policy school ====Headquarters of the Schar School of Policy and Government and the Michael V. Hayden Center for Intelligence, Policy, and International SecurityGeorge Mason University's public policy school and political science department, the Schar School of Policy and Government, was the subject of some controversy over its relationship with former intelligence agency personnel of the United States Intelligence Community.", "In particular, the 2009 hiring of General Michael Hayden, former director of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), National Security Agency (NSA), and principal deputy director of national intelligence—Office of the Director of National Intelligence (ODNI) and the hiring of Robert Deitz, former general counsel of the NSA, the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA), senior counsel to the director of the CIA, and the deputy general counsel for intelligence at the U.S. Department of Defense were controversial due to Hayden's and Deitz's alleged roles in mass surveillance including the NSA warrantless surveillance programs of 2001–2007 and other similar ethical criticisms.Former intelligence officers Michael Haden, Robert Deitz, and Larry Pfeiffer (who was chief of staff of the CIA), founded the university-affiliated Michael V. Hayden Center while working at George Mason University's Schar School of Policy and Government.", "The center has a secretive, undisclosed board of advisors composed of non-academic \"intelligence, national security, legal, corporate, and international security\" communities who guide strategy.==== Historical hoaxes ====The George Mason University's historical hoaxes were a group of internet hoaxes and a disinformation campaigns created by students as part of a class project for a course on \"Lying about the Past\" taught by history professor T. Mills Kelly, with the goal of creating an Internet deception that affected news media platforms.=== Sexual misconduct ===In 2016 a male student won an appeal overturning his suspension for sexual assault.The Title IX process (which investigates sex discrimination) at George Mason University has continued to be subject to controversy.", "Following the hiring of Brett Kavanaugh as a visiting professor in the law school in 2019, students circulated a petition demanding not only the removal of Kavanaugh, but to increase the number of Title IX Coordinators on campus.", "The petition received 10,000 signatures and resulted in approval for funding for two more Title IX Coordinator positions.In 2018, Peter Pober was alleged to have committed sexual misconduct during his tenure as a Competitive Speech Coach.", "He retired while being investigated for misconduct." ], [ "Notable faculty and alumni", "=== Faculty ===* Vasily Aksyonov, Russian novelist, poet, and anti-totalitarian dissident, author of ''Generations of Winter'', taught Russian literature at GMU during a period of exile in the 1980s–90s*Donald J. Boudreaux, economist, contributor of the ''Pittsburgh Tribune-Review'' and the ''Cafe Hayek'' blog, and author of the books ''Globalization'' and ''Hypocrites and Half-Wits''* James M. Buchanan, 1986 Nobel Memorial Prize winner for Economics* Bryan Caplan, economist, blogger at EconTalk, author of ''The Myth of the Rational Voter'' and ''The Case Against Education''.", "* Tyler Cowen, economist, director of the Mercatus Center at Mason and founder of the blog Marginal Revolution* Christopher d'Amboise, danseur, choreographer, Tony Award nominee.", "* Helen C. Frederick, artist and printmaker* Jack Goldstone, sociologist and political scientist specializing in revolutions; nonresident senior fellow at the Brookings Institution; 2014 winner of Guggenheim Award* Hugh Heclo, political scientist, Guggenheim Fellow, and Clarence J. Robinson Professor of Public Affairs* Jonathan Katz, cryptographer and co-author of Introduction to Modern Cryptography* Brett Kavanaugh, Supreme Court Justice* Steven Pearlstein, Pulitzer Prize winner for economics in ''The Washington Post''* Russ Roberts, economist and host of EconTalk* Roy Rosenzweig, Fulbright scholar, historian, founded Center for History and New Media* Louise Shelley, 2015 Andrew Carnegie Fellow from the Carnegie Corporation of New York.", "* Martin Sherwin, Pulitzer Prize winner for his biography of Robert Oppenheimer* Vernon L. Smith, 2002 Nobel Memorial Prize-winning economist.", "* Gordon Tullock, co-founder of public choice economics.", "* Roger Wilkins, Clarence J. Robinson Professor of History and American Culture, Pulitzer Prize winner, journalist, civil rights leader and former Assistant Attorney General of the United States* Walter E. Williams, John M. Olin Distinguished Professor of Economics* Joshua D. Wright, University Professor of Law, former Commissioner of the Federal Trade Commission=== Alumni ===* Abdiweli Mohamed Ali, President of Puntland and Prime Minister of Somalia*Bryon Allen (born 1992), basketball player for Hapoel Eilat of the Israeli Basketball Premier League* Anousheh Ansari, Iranian-American engineer, co-founder of Prodea Systems and the first Muslim woman in space* Justin Bour, former Major League Baseball player* Callie Brownson, American football coach* Anna E. Cabral, Treasurer of the United States under President George W. Bush* Shawn Camp, former Major League Baseball player, current GMU interim baseball coach Toronto Blue Jays* Kathleen L. Casey, Commissioner of the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission* Rabia Chaudry, Pakistani-American attorney, author of ''New York Times'' best-seller ''Adnan's Story: The Search for Truth and Justice After Serial'' and podcast host* Mike Colangelo, former Major League Baseball player* Ken Cuccinelli, Senior Official Performing the Duties of the Deputy Secretary of Homeland Security under President Donald Trump, former Attorney General of Virginia and 2013 Republican nominee for Governor* Carla Dove, ornithologist and leading expert of bird-aircraft strikes* Mike Draper, former Major League Baseball player* Chad Dukes, radio personality* Erden Eruç, president and CEO of the non-profit Around-n-Over and the first solo human-powered circumnavigation of the globe* Christine Fox, former Acting Deputy Secretary of Defense.", "With her appointment, Fox became the highest-ranking woman to serve in the United States Department of Defense.", "She also served as the inspiration for the character Charlotte \"Charlie\" Blackwood in the film ''Top Gun''* Hala Gorani, anchor and senior correspondent for CNN International* Jim Hagedorn, congressman from Minnesota's first congressional district* Nikki Hornsby, Grammy Voting Recording Artist, Singer, Songwriter, Musician, Founder of CJP-NHRecords.com, carrying on the Hornsby Family Music Tradition Internationally.", "* David Jolly, former member of the United States House of Representatives* Jake Kalish, baseball player* Archie Kao, actor best known for Power Rangers Lost Galaxy, Chicago P.D., and CSI: Crime Scene Investigation* Carolyn Kreiter-Foronda, former Poet Laureate of Virginia* Peter G. Levine, stroke recovery researcher, author of ''Stronger After Stroke''.", "* Cameron Long (born 1988), basketball player in the Israeli Premier League* Jennifer Loud, nurse practitioner, medical researcher and former assistant chief of the National Cancer Institute's clinical genetics branch* January Makamba, Tanzanian politician* Jason Miskiri, former NBA player* Darryl Monroe, professional basketball player, 2016 Israeli Basketball Premier League MVP* Dayton Moore, president of the Kansas City Royals* Sareh Nouri, Persian luxury bridal designer* Chris O'Grady, former Major League Baseball player* J. J. Picollo, general manager for the Kansas City Royals* Steve Ricchetti, former Deputy Chief of Staff to President Bill Clinton* Robert Rose, former NBA player* Denise Turner Roth, Administrator of the U.S. General Services Administration (GSA)* Karl Rove, former Deputy Chief of Staff to President George W. Bush* Rhea Seehorn, actress best known for playing Kim Wexler on ''Better Call Saul''* Shawn Stiffler, head baseball coach of the Notre Dame Fighting Irish* Martin Andrew Taylor, former senior executive Corporate VP of Windows Live and MSN, Chief of Staff to former Microsoft CEO Steve Ballmer*David Verburg, track and field athlete, 2016 Olympic gold medalist*Ian Weakley, Olympic hurdler* Chris Widger, former Major League Baseball player Seattle Mariners, Chicago White Sox* Ricky Wilson, former NBA player*Irad Young (born 1971), American-Israeli soccer player * Tyler Zombro, former Major League Baseball player" ], [ "See also", "* George Mason University's historical hoaxes* Northern Virginia Community College" ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Grammar" ], [ "Introduction", "In linguistics, the '''grammar''' of a natural language is its set of structural rules on speakers' or writers' usage and creation of clauses, phrases, and words.", "The term can also refer to the study of such rules, a subject that includes phonology, morphology, and syntax, together with phonetics, semantics, and pragmatics.", "There are, broadly speaking, two different ways to study grammar: traditional grammar and theoretical grammar.Fluent speakers of a language variety or ''lect'' have internalised these rules.", "the vast majority of which – at least in the case of one's native language(s) – are acquired not by intentional study or instruction but by hearing other speakers.", "Much of this internalisation occurs during early childhood; learning a language later in life usually involves more direct instruction.The term \"grammar\" can also describe the linguistic behaviour of groups of speakers and writers rather than individuals.", "Differences in scale are important to this meaning: for example, the term \"English grammar\" could refer to the whole of English grammar (that is, to the grammar of all the language's speakers) in which case it covers lots of variation.", "At a smaller scale, it may refer only to what is shared among the grammars of all or most English speakers (such as subject–verb–object word order in simple sentences).", "At the smallest scale, this sense of \"grammar\" can describe the conventions of just one form of English that is better defined than others (such as standard English for a region).A description, study, or analysis of such rules may also be known as ''a grammar'', or as a ''grammar book''.", "A reference book describing the grammar of a language is called a \"reference grammar\" or simply \"a grammar\" (see History of English grammars).", "A fully revealed grammar, which describes the grammatical constructions of a particular speech type in great detail is called descriptive grammar.", "This kind of linguistic description contrasts with linguistic prescription, a plan to actively ban, or lessen the use of, some constructions while popularising and starting others, either absolutely or about a standard variety.", "For example, some pedants insist that sentences in English should not end with prepositions, a ban that has been traced to John Dryden (1631–1700).", "His unjustified rejection of the practice may have led other English speakers to avoid it and discourage its use.", "Yet ending sentences with a preposition has a long history in Germanic languages like English, where it is so widespread as to be the norm.Outside linguistics, the word ''grammar'' often has a different meaning.", "It may be used more widely to include rules of spelling and punctuation, which linguists would not typically consider as part of grammar but rather of orthography, the conventions used for writing a language.", "It may also be used more narrowly to refer to a set of prescriptive norms only, excluding the aspects of a language's grammar which do not change or are clearly acceptable (or not) without the need for discussions.", "Jeremy Butterfield claimed that, for non-linguists, \"Grammar is often a generic way of referring to any aspect of English that people object to\"." ], [ "Etymology", "The word ''grammar'' is derived from Greek (''grammatikḕ téchnē''), which means \"art of letters\", from (''grámma''), \"letter\", itself from (''gráphein''), \"to draw, to write\".", "The same Greek root also appears in the words ''graphics'', ''grapheme'', and ''photograph''." ], [ "History<!--'History of grammar' redirects here-->", "The first systematic grammar of Sanskrit originated in Iron Age India, with Yaska (6th century BC), Pāṇini (6th–5th century BC) and his commentators Pingala (), Katyayana, and Patanjali (2nd century BC).", "Tolkāppiyam, the earliest Tamil grammar, is mostly dated to before the 5th century AD.", "The Babylonians also made some early attempts at language description.Grammar appeared as a discipline in Hellenism from the 3rd century BC forward with authors such as Rhyanus and Aristarchus of Samothrace.", "The oldest known grammar handbook is the ''Art of Grammar'' (), a succinct guide to speaking and writing clearly and effectively, written by the ancient Greek scholar Dionysius Thrax ( 170– 90 BC), a student of Aristarchus of Samothrace who founded a school on the Greek island of Rhodes.", "Dionysius Thrax's grammar book remained the primary grammar textbook for Greek schoolboys until as late as the twelfth century AD.", "The Romans based their grammatical writings on it and its basic format remains the basis for grammar guides in many languages even today.", "Latin grammar developed by following Greek models from the 1st century BC, due to the work of authors such as Orbilius Pupillus, Remmius Palaemon, Marcus Valerius Probus, Verrius Flaccus, and Aemilius Asper.The grammar of Irish originated in the 7th century with Auraicept na n-Éces.", "Arabic grammar emerged with Abu al-Aswad al-Du'ali in the 7th century.", "The first treatises on Hebrew grammar appeared in the High Middle Ages, in the context of Midrash (exegesis of the Hebrew Bible).", "The Karaite tradition originated in Abbasid Baghdad.", "The ''Diqduq'' (10th century) is one of the earliest grammatical commentaries on the Hebrew Bible.", "Ibn Barun in the 12th century, compares the Hebrew language with Arabic in the Islamic grammatical tradition.Belonging to the ''trivium'' of the seven liberal arts, grammar was taught as a core discipline throughout the Middle Ages, following the influence of authors from Late Antiquity, such as Priscian.", "Treatment of vernaculars began gradually during the High Middle Ages, with isolated works such as the First Grammatical Treatise, but became influential only in the Renaissance and Baroque periods.", "In 1486, Antonio de Nebrija published ''Las introduciones Latinas contrapuesto el romance al Latin'', and the first Spanish grammar, ''Gramática de la lengua castellana'', in 1492.During the 16th-century Italian Renaissance, the ''Questione della lingua'' was the discussion on the status and ideal form of the Italian language, initiated by Dante's ''de vulgari eloquentia'' (Pietro Bembo, ''Prose della volgar lingua'' Venice 1525).", "The first grammar of Slovene was written in 1583 by Adam Bohorič, and ''Grammatica Germanicae Linguae'', the first grammar of German, was published in 1578.Grammars of some languages began to be compiled for the purposes of evangelism and Bible translation from the 16th century onward, such as ''Grammatica o Arte de la Lengua General de Los Indios de Los Reynos del Perú'' (1560), a Quechua grammar by Fray Domingo de Santo Tomás.From the latter part of the 18th century, grammar came to be understood as a subfield of the emerging discipline of modern linguistics.", "The ''Deutsche Grammatik'' of Jacob Grimm was first published in the 1810s.", "The ''Comparative Grammar'' of Franz Bopp, the starting point of modern comparative linguistics, came out in 1833." ], [ "{{anchor|Frameworks}} Theoretical frameworks", "A generative parse tree: the sentence is divided into a noun phrase (subject), and a verb phrase which includes the object.", "This is in contrast to structural and functional grammar which consider the subject and object as equal constituents.Frameworks of grammar which seek to give a precise scientific theory of the syntactic rules of grammar and their function have been developed in theoretical linguistics.", "* Dependency grammar: dependency relation (Lucien Tesnière 1959)** Link grammar* Functional grammar (structural–functional analysis):** Danish Functionalism** Functional Discourse Grammar** Role and reference grammar** Systemic functional grammar* Montague grammarOther frameworks are based on an innate \"universal grammar\", an idea developed by Noam Chomsky.", "In such models, the object is placed into the verb phrase.", "The most prominent biologically-oriented theories are:* Cognitive grammar / Cognitive linguistics** Construction grammar*** Fluid Construction Grammar** Word grammar* Generative grammar:** Transformational grammar (1960s)** Generative semantics (1970s) and Semantic Syntax (1990s)** Phrase structure grammar (late 1970s)*** Generalised phrase structure grammar (late 1970s)**** Head-driven phrase structure grammar (1985)**** Principles and parameters grammar (Government and binding theory) (1980s)** Lexical functional grammar** Categorial grammar (lambda calculus)** Minimalist program-based grammar (1993)* Stochastic grammar: probabilistic** Operator grammarParse trees are commonly used by such frameworks to depict their rules.", "There are various alternative schemes for some grammar:* Affix grammar over a finite lattice* Backus–Naur form* Constraint grammar* Lambda calculus* Tree-adjoining grammar* X-bar theory" ], [ "Development of grammar", "Grammars evolve through usage.", "Historically, with the advent of written representations, formal rules about language usage tend to appear also, although such rules tend to describe writing conventions more accurately than conventions of speech.", "Formal grammars are codifications of usage which are developed by repeated documentation and observation over time.", "As rules are established and developed, the prescriptive concept of grammatical correctness can arise.", "This often produces a discrepancy between contemporary usage and that which has been accepted, over time, as being standard or \"correct\".", "Linguists tend to view prescriptive grammar as having little justification beyond their authors' aesthetic tastes, although style guides may give useful advice about ''standard language employment'' based on descriptions of usage in contemporary writings of the same language.", "Linguistic prescriptions also form part of the explanation for variation in speech, particularly variation in the speech of an individual speaker (for example, why some speakers say \"I didn't do nothing\", some say \"I didn't do anything\", and some say one or the other depending on social context).The formal study of grammar is an important part of children's schooling from a young age through advanced learning, though the rules taught in schools are not a \"grammar\" in the sense that most linguists use, particularly as they are prescriptive in intent rather than descriptive.Constructed languages (also called ''planned languages'' or ''conlangs'') are more common in the modern-day, although still extremely uncommon compared to natural languages.", "Many have been designed to aid human communication (for example, naturalistic Interlingua, schematic Esperanto, and the highly logical Lojban).", "Each of these languages has its own grammar.Syntax refers to the linguistic structure above the word level (for example, how sentences are formed)though without taking into account intonation, which is the domain of phonology.", "Morphology, by contrast, refers to the structure at and below the word level (for example, how compound words are formed), but above the level of individual sounds, which, like intonation, are in the domain of phonology.", "However, no clear line can be drawn between syntax and morphology.", "Analytic languages use syntax to convey information that is encoded by inflection in synthetic languages.", "In other words, word order is not significant, and morphology is highly significant in a purely synthetic language, whereas morphology is not significant and syntax is highly significant in an analytic language.", "For example, Chinese and Afrikaans are highly analytic, thus meaning is very context-dependent.", "(Both have some inflections, and both have had more in the past; thus, they are becoming even less synthetic and more \"purely\" analytic over time.)", "Latin, which is highly synthetic, uses affixes and inflections to convey the same information that Chinese does with syntax.", "Because Latin words are quite (though not totally) self-contained, an intelligible Latin sentence can be made from elements that are arranged almost arbitrarily.", "Latin has a complex affixation and simple syntax, whereas Chinese has the opposite." ], [ "Education", "Prescriptive grammar is taught in primary and secondary school.", "The term \"grammar school\" historically referred to a school (attached to a cathedral or monastery) that teaches Latin grammar to future priests and monks.", "It originally referred to a school that taught students how to read, scan, interpret, and declaim Greek and Latin poets (including Homer, Virgil, Euripides, and others).", "These should not be mistaken for the related, albeit distinct, modern British grammar schools.A standard language is a dialect that is promoted above other dialects in writing, education, and, broadly speaking, in the public sphere; it contrasts with vernacular dialects, which may be the objects of study in academic, descriptive linguistics but which are rarely taught prescriptively.", "The standardized \"first language\" taught in primary education may be subject to political controversy because it may sometimes establish a standard defining nationality or ethnicity.Recently, efforts have begun to update grammar instruction in primary and secondary education.", "The main focus has been to prevent the use of outdated prescriptive rules in favor of setting norms based on earlier descriptive research and to change perceptions about the relative \"correctness\" of prescribed standard forms in comparison to non-standard dialects.", "A series of metastudies have found that the explicit teaching of grammatical parts of speech and syntax has little or no effect on the improvement of student writing quality in elementary school, middle school of high school; other methods of writing instruction had far greater positive effect, including strategy instruction, collaborative writing, summary writing, process instruction, sentence combining and inquiry projects.The preeminence of Parisian French has reigned largely unchallenged throughout the history of modern French literature.", "Standard Italian is based on the speech of Florence rather than the capital because of its influence on early literature.", "Likewise, standard Spanish is not based on the speech of Madrid but on that of educated speakers from more northern areas such as Castile and León (see ''Gramática de la lengua castellana'').", "In Argentina and Uruguay the Spanish standard is based on the local dialects of Buenos Aires and Montevideo (Rioplatense Spanish).", "Portuguese has, for now, two official standards, respectively Brazilian Portuguese and European Portuguese.The Serbian variant of Serbo-Croatian is likewise divided; Serbia and the Republika Srpska of Bosnia and Herzegovina use their own distinct normative subvarieties, with differences in yat reflexes.", "The existence and codification of a distinct Montenegrin standard is a matter of controversy, some treat Montenegrin as a separate standard lect, and some think that it should be considered another form of Serbian.Norwegian has two standards, ''Bokmål'' and ''Nynorsk'', the choice between which is subject to controversy: Each Norwegian municipality can either declare one as its official language or it can remain \"language neutral\".", "Nynorsk is backed by 27 percent of municipalities.", "The main language used in primary schools, chosen by referendum within the local school district, normally follows the official language of its municipality.", "Standard German emerged from the standardized chancellery use of High German in the 16th and 17th centuries.", "Until about 1800, it was almost exclusively a written language, but now it is so widely spoken that most of the former German dialects are nearly extinct.Standard Chinese has official status as the standard spoken form of the Chinese language in the People's Republic of China (PRC), the Republic of China (ROC), and the Republic of Singapore.", "Pronunciation of Standard Chinese is based on the local accent of Mandarin Chinese from Luanping, Chengde in Hebei Province near Beijing, while grammar and syntax are based on modern vernacular written Chinese.Modern Standard Arabic is directly based on Classical Arabic, the language of the Qur'an.", "The Hindustani language has two standards, Hindi and Urdu.In the United States, the Society for the Promotion of Good Grammar designated 4 March as National Grammar Day in 2008." ], [ "See also", "* Ambiguous grammar* Constraint-based grammar* Grammeme* Harmonic Grammar* Higher order grammar (HOG)* Linguistic error* Linguistic typology* Paragrammatism* Speech error (slip of the tongue)* Usage (language)* Usus" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Rundle, Bede.", "''Grammar in Philosophy''.", "Oxford: Clarendon Press; New York: Oxford University Press, 1979.." ], [ "External links", "* Grammar from the ''Oxford English Dictionary'' (archived 18 January 2014)*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gigabyte" ], [ "Introduction", "hard drive has a capacity of 500 gigabytes (GB) of data (i.e., 500 billion bytes).The '''gigabyte''' () is a multiple of the unit byte for digital information.", "The prefix ''giga'' means 109 in the International System of Units (SI).", "Therefore, one gigabyte is one billion bytes.", "The unit symbol for the gigabyte is '''GB'''.This definition is used in all contexts of science (especially data science), engineering, business, and many areas of computing, including storage capacities of hard drives, solid state drives, and tapes, as well as data transmission speeds.", "The term is also used in some fields of computer science and information technology to denote (10243 or 230) bytes, however, particularly for sizes of RAM.", "Thus, some usage of ''gigabyte'' has been ambiguous.", "To resolve this difficulty, IEC 80000-13 clarifies that a ''gigabyte'' (GB) is 109 bytes and specifies the term ''gibibyte'' (GiB) to denote 230 bytes.", "These differences are still readily seen, for example, when a 400 GB drive's capacity is displayed by Microsoft Windows as 372 GB instead of 372 GiB.", "Analogously, a memory module that is labeled as having the size \"\" has one gibibyte () of storage capacity.In response to litigation over whether the makers of electronic storage devices must conform to Microsoft Windows' use of a binary definition of \"GB\" instead of the metric/decimal definition, the United States District Court for the Northern District of California rejected that argument, ruling that \"the U.S. Congress has deemed the decimal definition of gigabyte to be the 'preferred' one for the purposes of 'U.S.", "trade and commerce." ], [ "Definition", "The term ''gigabyte'' has a standard definition of 10003 bytes, as well as a discouraged meaning of 10243 bytes.", "The latter binary usage originated as compromise technical jargon for byte multiples that needed to be expressed in a power of 2, but lacked a convenient name.", "As 1024 (210) is approximately 1000 (103), roughly corresponding to SI multiples, it was used for binary multiples as well.In 1998 the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) published standards for binary prefixes, requiring that the gigabyte strictly denote 10003 bytes and gibibyte denote 10243 bytes.", "By the end of 2007, the IEC Standard had been adopted by the IEEE, EU, and NIST, and in 2009 it was incorporated in the International System of Quantities.", "Nevertheless, the term gigabyte continues to be widely used with the following two different meanings:===Base 10 (decimal)===* 1 GB = bytes (= 10003 B = 109 B)Based on powers of 10, this definition uses the prefix giga- as defined in the International System of Units (SI).", "This is the recommended definition by the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC).", "This definition is used in networking contexts and most storage media, particularly hard drives, flash-based storage, and DVDs, and is also consistent with the other uses of the SI prefix in computing, such as CPU clock speeds or measures of performance.", "The file manager of Mac OS X version 10.6 and later versions are a notable example of this usage in software, which report files sizes in decimal units.===Base 2 (binary)===* 1 GiB = bytes (= 10243 B = 230 B).The binary definition uses powers of the base 2, as does the architectural principle of binary computers.This usage is widely promulgated by some operating systems, such as Microsoft Windows in reference to computer memory (e.g., RAM).", "This definition is synonymous with the unambiguous unit gibibyte." ], [ "Consumer confusion", "Since the first disk drive, the IBM 350, disk drive manufacturers expressed hard drive capacities using decimal prefixes.", "With the advent of gigabyte-range drive capacities, manufacturers labelled many consumer hard drive, solid state drive and USB flash drive capacities in certain size classes expressed in decimal gigabytes, such as \"500 GB\".", "The exact capacity of a given drive model is usually slightly larger than the class designation.", "Practically all manufacturers of hard disk drives and flash-memory disk devices continue to define one gigabyte as , which is displayed on the packaging.", "Some operating systems such as Mac OS X and Ubuntu, and Debian express hard drive capacity or file size using decimal multipliers, while others such as Microsoft Windows report size using binary multipliers.", "This discrepancy causes confusion, as a disk with an advertised capacity of, for example, (meaning , equal to 372 GiB) might be reported by the operating system as \"\".For RAM, the JEDEC memory standards use '''IEEE 100''' nomenclature which quote the gigabyte as (230 bytes).The difference between units based on decimal and binary prefixes increases as a semi-logarithmic (linear-log) function—for example, the decimal kilobyte value is nearly 98% of the kibibyte, a megabyte is under 96% of a mebibyte, and a gigabyte is just over 93% of a gibibyte value.", "This means that a 300 GB (279 GiB) hard disk might be indicated variously as \"300 GB\", \"279 GB\" or \"279 GiB\", depending on the operating system.", "As storage sizes increase and larger units are used, these differences become more pronounced.===US lawsuits===A lawsuit decided in 2019 that arose from alleged breach of contract and other claims over the binary and decimal definitions used for \"gigabyte\" have ended in favor of the manufacturers, with courts holding that the legal definition of gigabyte or GB is 1 GB = 1,000,000,000 (109) bytes (the decimal definition).", "Specifically, the courts held that \"the U.S. Congress has deemed the decimal definition of gigabyte to be the 'preferred' one for the purposes of 'U.S.", "trade and commerce' ....", "The California Legislature has likewise adopted the decimal system for all 'transactions in this state'.", "\"Earlier lawsuits had ended in settlement with no court ruling on the question, such as a lawsuit against drive manufacturer Western Digital.", "Western Digital settled the challenge and added explicit disclaimers to products that the usable capacity may differ from the advertised capacity.Seagate was sued on similar grounds and also settled.===Other contexts===Because of their physical design, the capacity of modern computer random access memory devices, such as DIMM modules, is always a multiple of a power of 1024.It is thus convenient to use prefixes denoting powers of 1024, known as binary prefixes, in describing them.", "For example, a memory capacity of (10243 B) is conveniently expressed as 1 GiB rather than as 1.074 GB.", "The former specification is, however, often quoted as \"1 GB\" when applied to random access memory.Software allocates memory in varying degrees of granularity as needed to fulfill data structure requirements and binary multiples are usually not required.", "Other computer capacities and rates, like storage hardware size, data transfer rates, clock speeds, operations per second, etc., do not depend on an inherent base, and are usually presented in decimal units.", "For example, the manufacturer of a \"300 GB\" hard drive is claiming a capacity of , not 300 × 10243 (which would be ) bytes." ], [ "Examples of gigabyte-sized storage", "* One hour of SDTV video at 2.2 Mbit/s is approximately 1 GB.", "* Seven minutes of HDTV video at 19.39 Mbit/s is approximately 1 GB.", "* 114 minutes of uncompressed CD-quality audio at 1.4 Mbit/s is approximately 1 GB.", "* A single layer DVD+R disc can hold about 4.7 GB.", "* A dual-layered DVD+R disc can hold about 8.5 GB.", "* A single layer Blu-ray can hold about 25 GB.", "* The largest Nintendo Switch cartridge available on the market holds about 32 GB.", "* A dual-layered Blu-ray can hold about 50 GB.", "* A triple-layered Ultra HD Blu-ray can hold about 100 GB." ], [ "Unicode character", "The \"gigabyte\" symbol is encoded by Unicode at code point ." ], [ "See also", "* Orders of magnitude (data)* Binary prefix" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Units/binary.html* http://www.quinion.com/words/turnsofphrase/tp-kib1.htm * https://www.nist.gov/public_affairs/techbeat/tb9903.htm" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Galaxy groups and clusters" ], [ "Introduction", "MACS J0152.5-2852 is a massive galaxy cluster.", "Almost every pixel seen in the image is a galaxy, each containing billions of stars.", "'''Galaxy groups and clusters''' are the largest known gravitationally bound objects to have arisen thus far in the process of cosmic structure formation.", "They form the densest part of the large-scale structure of the Universe.", "In models for the gravitational formation of structure with cold dark matter, the smallest structures collapse first and eventually build the largest structures, clusters of galaxies.", "Clusters are then formed relatively recently between 10 billion years ago and now.", "Groups and clusters may contain ten to thousands of individual galaxies.", "The clusters themselves are often associated with larger, non-gravitationally bound, groups called superclusters." ], [ "Groups of galaxies", "Map of the positions of thousands of galaxies in the VIPERS surveyGroups of galaxies are the smallest aggregates of galaxies.", "They typically contain no more than 50 galaxies in a diameter of 1 to 2 megaparsecs (Mpc)(see 1022 m for distance comparisons).", "Their mass is approximately 1013 solar masses.", "The spread of velocities for the individual galaxies is about 150 km/s.", "However, this definition should be used as a guide only, as larger and more massive galaxy systems are sometimes classified as galaxy groups.", "Groups are the most common structures of galaxies in the universe, comprising at least 50% of the galaxies in the local universe.", "Groups have a mass range between those of the very large elliptical galaxies and clusters of galaxies.Our own galaxy, the Milky Way, is contained in the Local Group of more than 54 galaxies.In July 2017 S. Paul, R. S. John et al.", "defined clear distinguishing parameters for classifying galaxy aggregations as ‘galaxy groups’ and ‘clusters’ on the basis of scaling laws that they followed.", "According to this paper, galaxy aggregations less massive than 8 × 1013 solar masses are classified as galaxy groups." ], [ "Clusters of galaxies", "Rich scattering of galaxies was captured by the MPG/ESO telescope.Clusters are larger than groups, although there is no sharp dividing line between the two.", "When observed visually, clusters appear to be collections of galaxies held together by mutual gravitational attraction.", "However, their velocities are too large for them to remain gravitationally bound by their mutual attractions, implying the presence of either an additional invisible mass component, or an additional attractive force besides gravity.", "X-ray studies have revealed the presence of large amounts of intergalactic gas known as the intracluster medium.", "This gas is very hot, between 107K and 108K, and hence emits X-rays in the form of bremsstrahlung and atomic line emission.VLT's VIMOSThe total mass of the gas is greater than that of the galaxies by roughly a factor of two.", "However, this is still not enough mass to keep the galaxies in the cluster.", "Since this gas is in approximate hydrostatic equilibrium with the overall cluster gravitational field, the total mass distribution can be determined.", "It turns out the total mass deduced from this measurement is approximately six times larger than the mass of the galaxies or the hot gas.", "The missing component is known as dark matter and its nature is unknown.", "In a typical cluster perhaps only 5% of the total mass is in the form of galaxies, maybe 10% in the form of hot X-ray emitting gas and the remainder is dark matter.", "Brownstein and Moffat use a theory of modified gravity to explain X-ray cluster masses without dark matter.", "Observations of the Bullet Cluster are the strongest evidence for the existence of dark matter; however, Brownstein and Moffat have shown that their modified gravity theory can also account for the properties of the cluster." ], [ "Observational methods", "Galaxy Cluster LCDCS-0829 acting like a giant magnifying glass.", "This strange effect is called gravitational lensing.Clusters of galaxies have been found in surveys by a number of observational techniques and have been studied in detail using many methods:* Optical or infrared: The individual galaxies of clusters can be studied through optical or infrared imaging and spectroscopy.", "Galaxy clusters are found by optical or infrared telescopes by searching for overdensities, and then confirmed by finding several galaxies at a similar redshift.", "Infrared searches are more useful for finding more distant (higher redshift) clusters.", "* X-ray: The hot plasma emits X-rays that can be detected by X-ray telescopes.", "The cluster gas can be studied using both X-ray imaging and X-ray spectroscopy.", "Clusters are quite prominent in X-ray surveys and along with AGN are the brightest X-ray emitting extragalactic objects.", "* Radio: A number of diffuse structures emitting at radio frequencies have been found in clusters.", "Groups of radio sources (that may include diffuse structures or AGN) have been used as tracers of cluster location.", "At high redshift imaging around individual radio sources (in this case AGN) has been used to detect proto-clusters (clusters in the process of forming).", "* Sunyaev-Zel'dovich effect: The hot electrons in the intracluster medium scatter radiation from the cosmic microwave background through inverse Compton scattering.", "This produces a \"shadow\" in the observed cosmic microwave background at some radio frequencies.", "* Gravitational lensing: Clusters of galaxies contain enough matter to distort the observed orientations of galaxies behind them.", "The observed distortions can be used to model the distribution of dark matter in the cluster." ], [ "Temperature and density", "The Most Distant Mature Galaxy Cluster taken with ESO's Very Large Telescope in Chile and with NAOJ's Subaru Telescope in HawaiiClusters of galaxies are the most recent and most massive objects to have arisen in the hierarchical structure formation of the Universe and the study of clusters tells one about the way galaxies form and evolve.", "Clusters have two important properties: their masses are large enough to retain any energetic gas ejected from member galaxies and the thermal energy of the gas within the cluster is observable within the X-Ray bandpass.", "The observed state of gas within a cluster is determined by a combination of shock heating during accretion, radiative cooling, and thermal feedback triggered by that cooling.", "The density, temperature, and substructure of the intracluster X-Ray gas therefore represents the entire thermal history of cluster formation.", "To better understand this thermal history one needs to study the entropy of the gas because entropy is the quantity most directly changed by increasing or decreasing the thermal energy of intracluster gas." ], [ "List of groups and clusters", " Name / Designation Notes Local Group The group where the Milky Way, including the Earth is located Virgo Cluster This cluster of galaxies is the nearest one to us" ], [ "See also", "* Entropy* Fossil galaxy group* Galactic orientation* Galaxy filament* Illustris project* Intracluster medium* Large-scale structure of the Cosmos* List of galaxy groups and clusters* Supercluster* Timeline of knowledge about galaxies, clusters of galaxies, and large-scale structure" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Grus (constellation)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Grus''' (, or colloquially ) is a constellation in the southern sky.", "Its name is Latin for the crane, a type of bird.", "It is one of twelve constellations conceived by Petrus Plancius from the observations of Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser and Frederick de Houtman.", "Grus first appeared on a celestial globe published in 1598 in Amsterdam by Plancius and Jodocus Hondius and was depicted in Johann Bayer's star atlas ''Uranometria'' of 1603.French explorer and astronomer Nicolas-Louis de Lacaille gave Bayer designations to its stars in 1756, some of which had been previously considered part of the neighbouring constellation Piscis Austrinus.", "The constellations Grus, Pavo, Phoenix and Tucana are collectively known as the \"Southern Birds\".The constellation's brightest star, Alpha Gruis, is also known as Alnair and appears as a 1.7-magnitude blue-white star.", "Beta Gruis is a red giant variable star with a minimum magnitude of 2.3 and a maximum magnitude of 2.0.Six star systems have been found to have planets: the red dwarf Gliese 832 is one of the closest stars to Earth to have a planetary system.", "Another—WASP-95—has a planet that orbits every two days.", "Deep-sky objects found in Grus include the planetary nebula IC 5148, also known as the Spare Tyre Nebula, and a group of four interacting galaxies known as the Grus Quartet." ], [ "History", "The constellations Grus and Piscis Austrinus, which once formed a single constellation, as depicted in ''Atlas Coelestis'' by Johann Doppelmayr, ca.", "1742The \"southern birds\", as depicted in Johann Bayer's ''Uranometria''The stars that form Grus were originally considered part of the neighbouring constellation Piscis Austrinus (the southern fish), with Gamma Gruis seen as part of the fish's tail.", "The stars were first defined as a separate constellation by the Dutch astronomer Petrus Plancius, who created twelve new constellations based on the observations of the southern sky by the Dutch explorers Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser and Frederick de Houtman, who had sailed on the first Dutch trading expedition, known as the ''Eerste Schipvaart'', to the East Indies.", "Grus first appeared on a 35-centimetre-diameter celestial globe published in 1598 in Amsterdam by Plancius with Jodocus Hondius.", "Its first depiction in a celestial atlas was in the German cartographer Johann Bayer's ''Uranometria'' of 1603.De Houtman included it in his southern star catalogue the same year under the Dutch name ''Den Reygher'', \"The Heron\", but Bayer followed Plancius and Hondius in using Grus.An alternative name for the constellation, ''Phoenicopterus'' (Latin \"flamingo\"), was used briefly during the early 17th century, seen in the 1605 work ''Cosmographiae Generalis'' by Paul Merula of Leiden University and a c. 1625 globe by Dutch globe maker Pieter van den Keere.", "Astronomer Ian Ridpath has reported the symbolism likely came from Plancius originally, who had worked with both of these people.", "Grus and the nearby constellations Phoenix, Tucana and Pavo are collectively called the \"Southern Birds\".The stars that correspond to Grus were generally too far south to be seen from China.", "In Chinese astronomy, Gamma and Lambda Gruis may have been included in the tub-shaped asterism ''Bàijiù'', along with stars from Piscis Austrinus.", "In Central Australia, the Arrernte and Luritja people living on a mission in Hermannsburg viewed the sky as divided between them, east of the Milky Way representing Arrernte camps and west denoting Luritja camps.", "Alpha and Beta Gruis, along with Fomalhaut, Alpha Pavonis and the stars of Musca, were all claimed by the Arrernte." ], [ "Characteristics", "Grus is bordered by Piscis Austrinus to the north, Sculptor to the northeast, Phoenix to the east, Tucana to the south, Indus to the southwest, and Microscopium to the west.", "Bayer straightened the tail of Piscis Austrinus to make way for Grus in his ''Uranometria''.", "Covering 366 square degrees, it ranks 45th of the 88 modern constellations in size and covers 0.887% of the night sky.", "The three-letter abbreviation for the constellation, as adopted by the International Astronomical Union in 1922, is \"Gru\".", "The official constellation boundaries, as set by Belgian astronomer Eugène Delporte in 1930, are defined as a polygon of 6 segments.", "In the equatorial coordinate system, the right ascension coordinates of these borders lie between and , while the declination coordinates are between −36.31° and −56.39°.", "Grus is located too far south to be seen by observers in the British Isles and the northern United States, though it can easily be seen from Florida or San Diego; the whole constellation is visible to observers south of latitude 33°N." ], [ "Features", "===Stars===The constellation Grus as it can be seen by the naked eyeKeyser and de Houtman assigned twelve stars to the constellation.", "Bayer depicted Grus on his chart, but did not assign its stars Bayer designations.", "French explorer and astronomer Nicolas-Louis de Lacaille labelled them Alpha to Phi in 1756 with some omissions.", "In 1879, American astronomer Benjamin Gould added Kappa, Nu, Omicron and Xi, which had all been catalogued by Lacaille but not given Bayer designations.", "Lacaille considered them too faint, while Gould thought otherwise.", "Xi Gruis had originally been placed in Microscopium.", "Conversely, Gould dropped Lacaille's Sigma as he thought it was too dim.Grus has several bright stars.", "Marking the left wing is Alpha Gruis, a blue-white star of spectral type B6V and apparent magnitude 1.7, around 101 light-years from Earth.", "Its traditional name, Alnair, means \"the bright one\" and refers to its status as the brightest star in Grus (although the Arabians saw it as the brightest star in the Fish's tail, as Grus was then depicted).", "Alnair Alnair is around 380 times as luminous and has over 3 times the diameter of the Sun.", "Lying 5 degrees west of Alnair, denoting the Crane's heart is Beta Gruis (the proper name is Tiaki), a red giant of spectral type M5III.", "It has a diameter of 0.8 astronomical units (AU) (if placed in the Solar System it would extend to the orbit of Venus) located around 170 light-years from Earth.", "It is a variable star with a minimum magnitude of 2.3 and a maximum magnitude of 2.0.An imaginary line drawn from the Great Square of Pegasus through Fomalhaut will lead to Alnair and Beta Gruis.Lying in the northwest corner of the constellation and marking the crane's eye is Gamma Gruis, a blue-white subgiant of spectral type B8III and magnitude 3.0 lying around 211 light-years from Earth.", "Also known as Al Dhanab, it has finished fusing its core hydrogen and has begun cooling and expanding, which will see it transform into a red giant.There are several naked-eye double stars in Grus.", "Forming a triangle with Alnair and Beta, Delta Gruis is an optical double whose components—Delta1 and Delta2—are separated by 45 arcseconds.", "Delta1 is a yellow giant of spectral type G7III and magnitude 4.0, 309 light-years from Earth, and may have its own magnitude 12 orange dwarf companion.", "Delta2 is a red giant of spectral type M4.5III and semiregular variable that ranges between magnitudes 3.99 and 4.2, located 325 light-years from Earth.", "It has around 3 times the mass and 135 times the diameter of the Sun.", "Mu Gruis, composed of Mu1 and Mu2, is also an optical double—both stars are yellow giants of spectral type G8III around 2.5 times as massive as the Sun with surface temperatures of around 4900 K. Mu1 is the brighter of the two at magnitude 4.8 located around 275 light-years from Earth, while Mu2 the dimmer at magnitude 5.11 lies 265 light-years distant from Earth.", "Pi Gruis, an optical double with a variable component, is composed of Pi1 Gruis and Pi2.Pi1 is a semi-regular red giant of spectral type S5, ranging from magnitude 5.31 to 7.01 over a period of 191 days, and is around 532 light-years from Earth.", "One of the brightest S-class stars to Earth viewers, it has a companion star of apparent magnitude 10.9 with sunlike properties, being a yellow main sequence star of spectral type G0V.", "The pair make up a likely binary system.", "Pi2 is a giant star of spectral type F3III-IV located around 130 light-years from Earth, and is often brighter than its companion at magnitude 5.6.Marking the right wing is Theta Gruis, yet another double star, lying 5 degrees east of Delta1 and Delta2.RZ Gruis is a binary system of apparent magnitude 12.3 with occasional dimming to 13.4, whose components—a white dwarf and main sequence star—are thought to orbit each other roughly every 8.5 to 10 hours.", "It belongs to the UX Ursae Majoris subgroup of cataclysmic variable star systems, where material from the donor star is drawn to the white dwarf where it forms an accretion disc that remains bright and outshines the two component stars.", "The system is poorly understood, though the donor star has been calculated to be of spectral type F5V.", "These stars have spectra very similar to novae that have returned to quiescence after outbursts, yet they have not been observed to have erupted themselves.", "The American Association of Variable Star Observers recommends watching them for future events.", "CE Gruis (also known as Grus V-1) is a faint (magnitude 18–21) star system also composed of a white dwarf and donor star; in this case the two are so close they are tidally locked.", "Known as polars, material from the donor star does not form an accretion disc around the white dwarf, but rather streams directly onto it.Six star systems are thought to have planetary systems.", "Tau1 Gruis is a yellow star of magnitude 6.0 located around 106 light-years away.", "It may be a main sequence star or be just beginning to depart from the sequence as it expands and cools.", "In 2002 the star was found to have a planetary companion.", "HD 215456, HD 213240 and WASP-95 are yellow sunlike stars discovered to have two planets, a planet and a remote red dwarf, and a hot Jupiter, respectively; this last—WASP-95b—completes an orbit round its sun in a mere two days.", "Gliese 832 is a red dwarf of spectral type M1.5V and apparent magnitude 8.66 located only 16.1 light-years distant; hence it is one of the nearest stars to the Solar System.", "A Jupiter-like planet—Gliese 832 b—orbiting the red dwarf over a period of 9.4±0.4 years was discovered in 2008.WISE 2220−3628 is a brown dwarf of spectral type Y, and hence one of the coolest star-like objects known.", "It has been calculated as being around 26 light-years distant from Earth.In July 2019, astronomers reported finding a star, S5-HVS1, traveling , faster that any other star detected so far.", "The star is in the Grus constellation in the southern sky, and about 29,000 light-years from Earth, and may have been propelled out of the Milky Way galaxy after interacting with Sagittarius A*, the supermassive black hole at the center of the galaxy.===Deep-sky objects===IC 5148, the spare-tyre nebula as imaged by the ESO Faint Object Spectrograph and Camera (EFOSC2) on the New Technology Telescope at La SillaNicknamed the spare-tyre nebula, IC 5148 is a planetary nebula located around 1 degree west of Lambda Gruis.", "Around 3000 light-years distant, it is expanding at 50 kilometres a second, one of the fastest rates of expansion of all planetary nebulae.Northeast of Theta Gruis are four interacting galaxies known as the Grus Quartet.", "These galaxies are NGC 7552, NGC 7590, NGC 7599, and NGC 7582.The latter three galaxies occupy an area of sky only 10 arcminutes across and are sometimes referred to as the \"Grus Triplet,\" although all four are part of a larger loose group of galaxies called the IC 1459 Grus Group.", "NGC 7552 and 7582 are exhibiting high starburst activity; this is thought to have arisen because of the tidal forces from interacting.", "Located on the border of Grus with Piscis Austrinus, IC 1459 is a peculiar E3 giant elliptical galaxy.", "It has a fast counterrotating stellar core, and shells and ripples in its outer region.", "The galaxy has an apparent magnitude of 11.9 and is around 80 million light-years distant.NGC 7424 is a barred spiral galaxy with an apparent magnitude of 10.4.located around 4 degrees west of the Grus Triplet.", "Approximately 37.5 million light-years distant, it is about 100,000 light-years in diameter, has well defined spiral arms and is thought to resemble the Milky Way.", "Two ultraluminous X-ray sources and one supernova have been observed in NGC 7424.SN 2001ig was discovered in 2001 and classified as a Type IIb supernova, one that initially showed a weak hydrogen line in its spectrum, but this emission later became undetectable and was replaced by lines of oxygen, magnesium and calcium, as well as other features that resembled the spectrum of a Type Ib supernova.", "A massive star of spectral type F, A or B is thought to be the surviving binary companion to SN 2001ig, which was believed to have been a Wolf–Rayet star.Located near Alnair is NGC 7213, a face-on type 1 Seyfert galaxy located approximately 71.7 million light-years from Earth.", "It has an apparent magnitude of 12.1.Appearing undisturbed in visible light, it shows signs of having undergone a collision or merger when viewed at longer wavelengths, with disturbed patterns of ionized hydrogen including a filament of gas around 64,000 light-years long.", "It is part of a group of ten galaxies.NGC 7410 is a spiral galaxy discovered by British astronomer John Herschel during observations at the Cape of Good Hope in October 1834.The galaxy has a visual magnitude of 11.7 and is approximately 122 million light-years distant from Earth." ], [ "See also", "* Grus in Chinese astronomy* List of star names in Grus" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Cited text===*" ], [ "External links", "* The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Grus* The clickable Grus* Starry Night Photography – Grus Constellation" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gia (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Gia''''' is a 1998 film about Gia Marie Carangi.", "'''GIA''' or '''Gia''' may also refer to:" ], [ "People", "* Gia (name), a given name (including a list of people with the name)" ], [ "Places", "* Gia, Leh, a village in India* Gan International Airport, Maldives* Glasgow International Airport, Scotland, UK" ], [ "Groups, companies, organizations", "* GIA Publications, an American music publisher* Gemological Institute of America* Georgetown International Academy, in Guyana* Georgia Interscholastic Association, formed 1948, merged to Georgia High School Association in 1970===Airlines===* Garuda Indonesian Airways, former name of Garuda Indonesia, the national airline of Indonesia* Ghana International Airlines* Gambia International Airlines=== Government and political organizations ===* Armed Islamic Group of Algeria, (French: '''')* Gallup International Association, a polling organization* General Intelligence Agency of Mongolia* Gia people, an Aboriginal Australian people of the state of Queensland.", "* Government Information Awareness, an American open government project" ], [ "Entertainment", "* ''Gia'' (album), a 2001 album by Greek singer Despina Vandi* \"Gia\" (song), a 2001 single by Despina Vandi, taken from the album" ], [ "Other uses", "* Gia (protein), a protein in ''Drosophila''* Glacial isostatic adjustment* Gross internal area" ], [ "See also", "* * * Kea (island), in the Cyclades, Greece* Kia (Korean: 기아, romanized: Gia), a Korean automobile company" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Galba" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Galba''' (, ; born '''Servius Sulpicius Galba'''; 24 December 3 BC – 15 January AD 69) was Roman emperor, ruling from AD 68 to 69.He was the first emperor in the Year of the Four Emperors and assumed the throne following Emperor Nero's suicide.Born into a wealthy family, Galba held at various times the positions of praetor, consul, and governor to the provinces of Gallia Aquitania, Germania Superior, and Africa during the first half of the first century AD.", "He retired from his positions during the latter part of Claudius' reign (with the advent of Agrippina the Younger), but Nero later granted him the governorship of Hispania.", "Taking advantage of the defeat of Vindex's rebellion and Nero's suicide, he became emperor with the support of the Praetorian Guard.Galba's physical weakness and general apathy led to his being dominated by favorites.", "Unable to gain popularity with the people or maintain the support of the Praetorian Guard, Galba was murdered on the orders of Otho, who became emperor in his place." ], [ "Origins and family life", "Bust in the Nationalmuseum of Sweden labelled as Galba.", "Probably a late Republican portrait.Galba was not related to any of the emperors of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, but he was a member of a distinguished noble family.", "The origin of the cognomen Galba is uncertain.", "Suetonius offers a number of possible explanations; the first member of the gens Sulpicia to bear the name might have gotten the name from the term ''galba'', which the Romans used to describe the Gauls, or after an insect called ''galbae''.", "One of Galba's ancestors had been consul in 200 BC, and another of his ancestors was consul in 144 BC; the later emperor's father and brother, both named Gaius, would hold the office in 5 BC and AD 22 respectively.", "Galba's grandfather was a historian and his son was a barrister whose first marriage was to Mummia Achaica, granddaughter of Quintus Lutatius Catulus and great-granddaughter of Lucius Mummius Achaicus; Galba prided himself on his descent from his great-grandfather Catulus.", "According to Suetonius, he fabricated a genealogy of paternal descent from the god Jupiter and maternal descent from the legendary Pasiphaë, wife of Minos.", "Reportedly, Galba was distantly related to Livia to whom he had much respect and in turn by whom he was advanced in his career; in her will she left him fifty million sesterces; Emperor Tiberius however cheated Galba by reducing the amount to five hundred thousand sesterces and never even paid Galba the reduced amount.Servius Sulpicius Galba was born near Terracina on 24 December 3 BC.", "His elder brother Gaius fled from Rome and committed suicide because the emperor Tiberius would not allow him to control a Roman province.", "Livia Ocellina became the second wife of Galba's father, whom she may have married because of his wealth; he was short and hunchbacked.", "Ocellina adopted Galba, and he took the name \"Lucius Livius Ocella Sulpicius Galba\", although he probably kept his original name in unofficial context, as evidenced by the fact that he reverted back to it upon his accession as emperor.", "Galba preferred males over females in terms of sexual attraction; according to Suetonius, he \"preferred full-grown, strong men\".", "Nevertheless, he married a woman named Aemilia Lepida and had two sons.", "Aemilia and their sons died during the early years of the reign of Claudius (r. 41–54).", "Galba would remain a widower for the rest of his life." ], [ "Public service", "Galba became praetor in about 30, then governor of Aquitania for about a year, then consul in 33.In 39 the emperor Caligula learned of a plot against himself in which Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus Gaetulicus, the general of the legions of Germania Superior, was an important figure; Caligula installed Galba in the post held by Gaetulicus.", "According to one report Galba ran alongside Caligula's chariot for twenty miles.", "As commander of the legions of Germania Superior, Galba gained a reputation as a disciplinarian.", "Suetonius writes that Galba was advised to take the throne following the assassination of Caligula in 41, but loyally served Caligula's uncle and successor Claudius (r. 41–54); this story may simply be fictional.", "Galba was appointed as governor of Africa in 44 or 45.He retired at an uncertain time during the reign of Claudius, possibly in 49.He was recalled in 59 or 60 by the emperor Nero (r. 54–68) to govern Hispania.A rebellion against Nero was orchestrated by Gaius Julius Vindex in Gaul on the anniversary of the death of Nero's mother, Agrippina the Younger, in 68.Shortly afterwards Galba, in rebellion against Nero, rejected the title \"General of Caesar\" in favor of \"General of The Senate and People of Rome\".", "He was supported by the imperial official Tigellinus.", "At midnight on 8 June, another imperial official, Nymphidius Sabinus, falsely announced to the Praetorian Guard that Nero had fled to Egypt, and the Senate proclaimed Galba emperor.", "Nero then committed assisted suicide with help from his secretary." ], [ "Emperor (June 68)", "===Rule===Upon becoming emperor, Galba was faced by the rebellion of Nymphidius Sabinus, who had his own aspirations for the imperial throne.", "However, Sabinus was killed by the Praetorians before he could take the throne.", "While Galba was arriving to Rome with the Lusitanian governor Marcus Salvius Otho, his army was attacked by a legion that had been organized by Nero; a number of Galba's troops were killed in the fighting.", "Galba, who suffered from chronic gout by the time he came to the throne, was advised by a corrupt group which included the general Titus Vinius, commander of one of the legions in Hispania; the praetorian prefect Cornelius Laco, and Icelus, a freedman of Galba.", "Galba seized the property of Roman citizens, disbanded the Germanian legions, and did not pay the Praetorians and the soldiers who fought against Vindex.", "These actions caused him to become unpopular.Suetonius wrote the following descriptions of Galba's character and physical description:Particularly bad was his becoming under the influence of Vinius, Laco and Icelus: In regard to his appointment of Vitellius to Germania Inferior:Further on his physical appearance and end of reign:Tacitus comments on the character of Galba: \"He seemed too great to be a subject so long as he was subject, and all would have agreed that he was equal to the imperial office if he had never held it.", "\"Suetonius went on to say that Galba was visited by the Roman Goddess Fortuna in his dreams twice; on the latter occasion she \"withdrew her support\".", "This happened right before his later downfall.===Mutiny on the frontier and assassination===Damaged head of a crowned Galba in the J. Paul Getty Museum, one of the only two confirmed portraits of Galba.On 1 January 69, the day Galba and Vinius took the office of consul, the fourth and twenty-second legions of Germania Superior refused to swear loyalty to Galba.", "They toppled his statues, demanding that a new emperor be chosen.", "On the following day, the soldiers of Germania Inferior also refused to swear their loyalty and proclaimed the governor of the province, Aulus Vitellius, as emperor.", "Galba tried to ensure his authority as emperor was recognised by adopting the nobleman Lucius Calpurnius Piso Licinianus as his successor.", "Nevertheless, Galba was killed by the Praetorians on 15 January.", "Otho was angry that he had been passed over for adoption, and organised a conspiracy with a small number of Praetorian Guards to murder the aged emperor and elevate himself.", "The soldiery in the capital, composed not just of Praetorians but of Galba's legion from Hispania and several detachments of men from the Roman fleet, Illyria, Britannia, and Germania, were angered at not having received a donative.", "They also resented Galba's purges of their officers and fellow soldiers (this was especially true of the men from the fleet).", "Many in the Praetorian Guard were shaken by the recent murder of their Prefect Nymphidius Sabinus – some of the waverers were convinced to come over to Otho's side out of fear Galba might yet take revenge on them for their connection to Sabinus.According to Suetonius, Galba put on a linen corset although remarking it was little protection against so many swords; when a soldier claimed to have killed Otho, Galba snapped \"On what authority?\"", "He was lured out to the scene of his assassination in the Forum by a false report of the conspirators.", "Galba either tried to buy his life with a promise of the withheld bounty or asked that he be beheaded.", "The only help for him was a centurion in the Praetorian Guard named Sempronius Densus, who was killed trying to defend Galba with a pugio; one hundred and twenty persons later petitioned Otho that they had killed Galba; they would be executed by Vitellius.", "A company of Germanic soldiers to whom he had once done a kindness rushed to help him; however they took a wrong turn and arrived too late.", "He was killed near the Lacus Curtius.", "Vinius tried to run away, calling out that Otho had not ordered him killed, but was run through with a spear.", "Laco was banished to an island where he was later murdered by soldiers of Otho.", "Icelus was publicly executed.", "Piso was also killed; his head along with Galba's and Vinius' were placed on poles and Otho was then acclaimed as emperor.", "Galba's head was brought by a soldier to Otho's camp where camp boys mocked it on a lance – Galba had angered them previously by remarking his vigor was still unimpeded.", "Vinius' head was sold to his daughter for 2500 drachmas; Piso's head was given to his wife.", "Galba's head was bought for 100 gold pieces by a freeman who threw it at Sessorium where his master Patrobius Neronianus had been killed by Galba.", "The body of Galba was taken up by Priscus Helvidius with the permission of Otho; at night Galba's steward Argivus took both the head and body to a tomb in Galba's private gardens on the Aurelian Way." ], [ "References", "===Citations======Bibliography======= Ancient sources ====* Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'', fragments of Book 63 ( English translation by Earnest Cary on LacusCurtius).", "*Plutarch, ''Life of Galba'' (English translation by A.H. Clough on Wikisource).", "*Suetonius, ''The Twelve Caesars, Galba'' (English translation by John Carew Rolfe on Wikisource).==== Modern sources ====* * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Giga-" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Giga''' ( or ) is a unit prefix in the metric system denoting a factor of a short-scale billion or long-scale milliard (109 or 1,000,000,000).", "It has the symbol '''G'''.", "''Giga'' is derived from the Greek word (''gígas''), meaning \"giant\".", "The ''Oxford English Dictionary'' reports the earliest written use of ''giga'' in this sense to be in the Reports of the IUPAC 14th Conférence Internationale de Chimie in 1947: \"The following prefixes to abbreviations for the names of units should be used: G giga 109×.\"", "However, it was already used in 1932 by the German organization ''Verband deutscher Elektrotechniker''.When referring to information units in computing, such as gigabyte, giga may sometimes mean (230); this causes ambiguity.", "Standards organizations discourage this and use giga- to refer to 109 in this context too.", "''Gigabit'' is only rarely used with the binary interpretation of the prefix.", "The binary prefix gibi has been adopted for 230, while reserving ''giga'' exclusively for the metric definition." ], [ "Pronunciation", "In English, the prefix ''giga'' can be pronounced (a hard ''g'' as in ''giggle''), or (a soft ''g'' as in ''gigantic'', which shares ''giga'' Ancient Greek root).", "A prominent example of this latter pronunciation is found in the pronunciation of ''gigawatts'' in the 1985 film ''Back to the Future''.According to the American writer Kevin Self, a German committee member of the International Electrotechnical Commission proposed ''giga'' as a prefix for 109 in the 1920s, drawing on a verse (evidently \"Anto-logie\") by the German humorous poet Christian Morgenstern that appeared in the third (1908) edition of his (Gallows Songs).", "This suggests that a hard German was originally intended as the pronunciation.", "Self was unable to ascertain when the (soft ''g'') pronunciation came into occasional use, but claimed that as of 1995 it had returned to (hard ''g'').In 1998, a poll by the phonetician John C. Wells found that 84% of Britons preferred the pronunciation of ''gigabyte'' starting with (as in ''gig''), 9% with (as in ''jig''), 6% with (''guy''), and 1% with (as in ''giant'')." ], [ "Common usage", "* gigahertz—clock rate of a CPU, for instance, 3 GHz = * gigabit—bandwidth of a network link, for instance, 1 Gbit/s = .", "* gigabyte—for instance, for hard disk capacity, 120 GB = ;* gigayear or gigaannum—one billion (109) years, sometimes abbreviated Gyr, but the preferred usage is Ga or, for ''years ago'', GA." ], [ "Binary prefix", "The notation represents 1,000,000,000 bytes or, in deprecated usage, 1,073,741,824 (230) bytes.", "Per IEC 60027-2 A.2 and ISO/IEC 80000 standards, the correct notation of 230 is ''gibi'' (symbol Gi).", "One gibibyte () is 1,073,741,824 bytes or .", "Despite international standards, the use of = 230 B is widespread.", "A laptop advertised as having has 8,589,934,592 bytes of memory: , or ." ], [ "See also", "* Binary prefix* Gigabit Ethernet* SI prefix* List of commonly used taxonomic affixes* RKM code" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BIPM website" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "George Stephenson" ], [ "Introduction", " '''George Stephenson''' (9 June 1781 – 12 August 1848) was an English civil engineer and mechanical engineer during the Industrial Revolution.", "Renowned as the \"Father of Railways\", Stephenson was considered by the Victorians as a great example of diligent application and thirst for improvement.", "His chosen rail gauge, sometimes called \"Stephenson gauge\", was the basis for the standard gauge used by most of the world's railways.Pioneered by Stephenson, rail transport was one of the most important technological inventions of the 19th century and a key component of the Industrial Revolution.", "Built by George and his son Robert's company Robert Stephenson and Company, the ''Locomotion'' No.", "1 was the first steam locomotive to carry passengers on a public rail line, the Stockton and Darlington Railway in 1825.George also built the first public inter-city railway line in the world to use locomotives, the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, which opened in 1830." ], [ "Childhood", "George Stephenson was born on 9 June 1781 in Wylam, Northumberland, which is 9 miles (15 km) west of Newcastle upon Tyne.", "He was the second child of Robert and Mabel Stephenson, neither of whom could read or write.", "Robert was the fireman for Wylam Colliery pumping engine, earning a very low wage, so there was no money for schooling.", "At 17, Stephenson became an engineman at Water Row Pit in Newburn nearby.", "George realised the value of education and paid to study at night school to learn reading, writing and arithmetic – he was illiterate until the age of 18.In 1801 he began work at Black Callerton Colliery south of Ponteland as a 'brakesman', controlling the winding gear at the pit.", "In 1802 he married Frances Henderson and moved to Willington Quay, east of Newcastle.", "There he worked as a brakesman while they lived in one room of a cottage.", "George made shoes and mended clocks to supplement his income.West Moor, KillingworthTheir first child Robert was born in 1803, and in 1804 they moved to Dial Cottage at West Moor, near Killingworth where George worked as a brakesman at Killingworth Pit.", "Their second child, a daughter, was born in July 1805.She was named Frances after her mother.", "The child died after just three weeks and was buried in St Bartholomew's Church, Long Benton north of Newcastle.In 1806 George's wife Frances died of consumption (tuberculosis).", "She was buried in the same churchyard as their daughter on 16 May 1806, though the location of the grave is lost.George decided to find work in Scotland and left Robert with a local woman while he went to work in Montrose.", "After a few months he returned, probably because his father was blinded in a mining accident.", "He moved back into a cottage at West Moor and his unmarried sister Eleanor moved in to look after Robert.", "In 1811 the pumping engine at High Pit, Killingworth was not working properly and Stephenson offered to improve it.", "He did so with such success that he was promoted to enginewright for the collieries at Killingworth, responsible for maintaining and repairing all the colliery engines.", "He became an expert in steam-driven machinery." ], [ "Early projects", "===The Safety Lamp===Stephenson's safety lamp shown with Davy's lamp on the leftIn 1815, aware of the explosions often caused in mines by naked flames, Stephenson began to experiment with a safety lamp that would burn in a gaseous atmosphere without causing an explosion.", "At the same time, the eminent scientist and Cornishman Humphry Davy was also looking at the problem.", "Despite his lack of scientific knowledge, Stephenson, by trial and error, devised a lamp in which the air entered via tiny holes, through which the flames of the lamp could not pass.A month before Davy presented his design to the Royal Society, Stephenson demonstrated his own lamp to two witnesses by taking it down Killingworth Colliery and holding it in front of a fissure from which firedamp was issuing.", "The two designs differed; Davy's lamp was surrounded by a screen of gauze, whereas Stephenson's prototype lamp had a perforated plate contained in a glass cylinder.", "For his invention Davy was awarded £2000, whilst Stephenson was accused of stealing the idea from Davy, because he was not seen as an adequate scientist who could have produced the lamp by any approved scientific method.Stephenson, having come from the North-East, spoke with a broad Northumberland accent and not the 'Language of Parliament,' which made him seem lowly.", "Realizing this, he made a point of educating his son Robert in a private school, where he was taught to speak in Standard English with a Received Pronunciation accent.", "It was due to this, in their future dealings with Parliament, that it became clear that the authorities preferred Robert to his father.A local committee of enquiry gathered in support of Stephenson, exonerated him, proved he had been working separately to create the 'Geordie Lamp', and awarded him £1,000, but Davy and his supporters refused to accept their findings, and would not see how an uneducated man such as Stephenson could come up with the solution he had.", "In 1833 a House of Commons committee found that Stephenson had equal claim to having invented the safety lamp.", "Davy went to his grave believing that Stephenson had stolen his idea.", "The Stephenson lamp was used almost exclusively in North East England, whereas the Davy lamp was used everywhere else.", "The experience gave Stephenson a lifelong distrust of London-based, theoretical, scientific experts.In his book ''George and Robert Stephenson'', the author L.T.C.", "Rolt relates that opinion varied about the two lamps' efficiency: that the Davy Lamp gave more light, but the Geordie Lamp was thought to be safer in a more gaseous atmosphere.", "He made reference to an incident at Oaks Colliery in Barnsley where both lamps were in use.", "Following a sudden strong influx of gas the tops of all the Davy Lamps became red hot (which had in the past caused an explosion, and in so doing risked another), whilst all the Geordie Lamps simply went out.There is a theory that it was Stephenson who indirectly gave the name of Geordies to the people of the North East of England.", "By this theory, the name of the Geordie Lamp attached to the North East pit men themselves.", "By 1866 any native of Newcastle upon Tyne could be called a Geordie.===Locomotives===Cornishman Richard Trevithick is credited with the first realistic design for a steam locomotive in 1802.Later, he visited Tyneside and built an engine there for a mine-owner.", "Several local men were inspired by this, and designed their own engines.Early Stephenson locomotive in Samuel Smiles' ''Lives of the Engineers'' (1862).", "Called an 1816 Killingworth Colliery locomotive (often claimed to be ''Blücher''), it looks more like the slightly later Hetton colliery railway locomotives whose 1852 replica ''Lyons'' was still operating in Smiles' time.Stephenson designed his first locomotive in 1814, a travelling engine designed for hauling coal on the Killingworth wagonway named ''Blücher'' after the Prussian general Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher (It was suggested the name sprang from Blücher's rapid march of his army in support of Wellington at Waterloo).", "''Blücher'' was modelled on Matthew Murray's locomotive ''Willington'', which George studied at Kenton and Coxlodge colliery on Tyneside, and was constructed in the colliery workshop behind Stephenson's home, Dial Cottage, on Great Lime Road.", "The locomotive could haul 30 tons of coal up a hill at , and was the first successful flanged-wheel adhesion locomotive: its traction depended on contact between its flanged wheels and the rail.Altogether, Stephenson is said to have produced 16 locomotives at Killingworth, although it has not proved possible to produce a convincing list of all 16.Of those identified, most were built for use at Killingworth or for the Hetton colliery railway.", "A six-wheeled locomotive was built for the Kilmarnock and Troon Railway in 1817 but was withdrawn from service because of damage to the cast-iron rails.", "Another locomotive was supplied to Scott's Pit railroad at Llansamlet, near Swansea, in 1819 but it too was withdrawn, apparently because it was under-boilered and again caused damage to the track.Fishbelly rail with half-lap joint, patented by Stephenson 1816The new engines were too heavy to run on wooden rails or plate-way, and iron edge rails were in their infancy, with cast iron exhibiting excessive brittleness.", "Together with William Losh, Stephenson improved the design of cast-iron edge rails to reduce breakage; rails were briefly made by Losh, Wilson and Bell at their Walker ironworks.According to Rolt, Stephenson managed to solve the problem caused by the weight of the engine on the primitive rails.", "He experimented with a steam spring (to 'cushion' the weight using steam pressure acting on pistons to support the locomotive frame), but soon followed the practice of 'distributing' weight by using a number of wheels or bogies.", "For the Stockton and Darlington Railway Stephenson used wrought-iron malleable rails that he had found satisfactory, notwithstanding the financial loss he suffered by not using his own patented design.=== Hetton Railway ===Stephenson was hired to build the eight-mile (13-km) Hetton colliery railway in 1820.He used a combination of gravity on downward inclines and locomotives for level and upward stretches.", "This, the first railway using no animal power, opened in 1822.This line used a gauge of which Stephenson had used before at the Killingworth wagonway.Other locomotives include:* 1817–1824 ''The Duke'' for the Kilmarnock and Troon Railway" ], [ "The First Railways", "===Stockton and Darlington Railway===The No.", "1 engine, called ''Locomotion'', for the Stockton & Darlington RailwayIn 1821, a parliamentary bill was passed to allow the building of the Stockton and Darlington Railway (S&DR).", "The railway connected collieries near Bishop Auckland to the River Tees at Stockton, passing through Darlington on the way.", "The original plan was to use horses to draw coal carts on metal rails, but after company director Edward Pease met Stephenson, he agreed to change the plans.", "Stephenson surveyed the line in 1821, and assisted by his 18-year-old son Robert, construction began the same year.", "''Experiment'', the first railway carriageA manufacturer was needed to provide the locomotives for the line.", "Pease and Stephenson had jointly established a company in Newcastle to manufacture locomotives.", "It was set up as Robert Stephenson and Company, and George's son Robert was the managing director.", "A fourth partner was Michael Longridge of Bedlington Ironworks.", "On an early trade card, Robert Stephenson & Co was described as \"Engineers, Millwrights & Machinists, Brass & Iron Founders\".", "In September 1825, the works at Forth Street, Newcastle, completed the first locomotive for the railway: originally named ''Active'', it was renamed ''Locomotion'' and was followed by ''Hope'', ''Diligence'' and ''Black Diamond''.", "The Stockton and Darlington Railway opened on 27 September 1825.Driven by Stephenson, ''Locomotion'' hauled an 80-ton load of coal and flour in two hours, reaching a speed of on one stretch.", "The first purpose-built passenger car, ''Experiment'', was attached and carried dignitaries on the opening journey.", "It was the first time passenger traffic had been run on a steam locomotive railway.The rails used for the line were wrought-iron, produced by John Birkinshaw at the Bedlington Ironworks.", "Wrought-iron rails could be produced in longer lengths than cast-iron and were less liable to crack under the weight of heavy locomotives.", "William Losh of Walker Ironworks thought he had an agreement with Stephenson to supply cast-iron rails, and Stephenson's decision caused a permanent rift between them.", "The gauge Stephenson chose for the line was which subsequently was adopted as the standard gauge for railways, not only in Britain, but throughout the world.===Liverpool and Manchester Railway===Statue of George Stephenson at the National Railway Museum, YorkFirst passenger railway, L&MRStephenson had ascertained by experiments at Killingworth that half the power of the locomotive was consumed by a gradient as little as 1 in 260.He concluded that railways should be kept as level as possible.", "He used this knowledge while working on the Bolton and Leigh Railway, and the Liverpool and Manchester Railway (L&MR), executing a series of difficult cuttings, embankments and stone viaducts to level their routes.", "Defective surveying of the original route of the L&MR caused by hostility from some affected landowners meant Stephenson encountered difficulty during Parliamentary scrutiny of the original bill, especially under cross-examination by Edward Hall Alderson.", "The bill was rejected and a revised bill for a new alignment was submitted and passed in a subsequent session.", "The revised alignment presented the problem of crossing Chat Moss, an apparently bottomless peat bog, which Stephenson overcame by unusual means, effectively floating the line across it.", "The method he used was similar to that used by John Metcalf who constructed many miles of road across marshes in the Pennines, laying a foundation of heather and branches, which became bound together by the weight of the passing coaches, with a layer of stones on top.As the L&MR approached completion in 1829, its directors arranged a competition to decide who would build its locomotives, and the Rainhill Trials were run in October 1829.Entries could weigh no more than six tons and had to travel along the track for a total distance of .", "Stephenson's entry was ''Rocket'', and its performance in winning the contest made it famous.", "George's son Robert had been working in South America from 1824 to 1827 and returned to run the Forth Street Works while George was in Liverpool overseeing the construction of the line.", "Robert was responsible for the detailed design of ''Rocket'', although he was in constant postal communication with his father, who made many suggestions.", "One significant innovation, suggested by Henry Booth, treasurer of the L&MR, was the use of a fire-tube boiler, invented by French engineer Marc Seguin that gave improved heat exchange.The opening ceremony of the L&MR, on 15 September 1830, drew luminaries from the government and industry, including the Prime Minister, the Duke of Wellington.", "The day started with a procession of eight trains setting out from Liverpool.", "The parade was led by ''Northumbrian'' driven by George Stephenson, and included ''Phoenix'' driven by his son Robert, ''North Star'' driven by his brother Robert and ''Rocket'' driven by assistant engineer Joseph Locke.", "The day was marred by the death of William Huskisson, the Member of Parliament for Liverpool, who was struck by ''Rocket''.", "Stephenson evacuated the injured Huskisson to Eccles with a train, but he died from his injuries.", "Despite the tragedy, the railway was a resounding success.", "Stephenson became famous, and was offered the position of chief engineer for a wide variety of other railways.===Stephenson's skew arch bridge===Stephenson's bridgeA close-up of the technique1830 also saw the grand opening of the skew bridge in Rainhill over the Liverpool and Manchester Railway.", "The bridge was the first to cross any railway at an angle.", "It required the structure to be constructed as two flat planes (overlapping in this case by ) between which the stonework forms a parallelogram shape when viewed from above.", "It has the effect of flattening the arch and the solution is to lay the bricks forming the arch at an angle to the abutments (the piers on which the arches rest).", "The technique, which results in a spiral effect in the arch masonry, provides extra strength in the arch to compensate for the angled abutments.The bridge is still in use at Rainhill station, and carries traffic on the A57 (Warrington Road).", "The bridge is a listed structure." ], [ "Later life", "===Life at Alton Grange===Stephenson's House at Alton GrangeGeorge Stephenson moved to the parish of Alton Grange (now part of Ravenstone) in Leicestershire in 1830, originally to consult on the Leicester and Swannington Railway, a line primarily proposed to take coal from the western coal fields of the county to Leicester.", "The promoters of the line Mr William Stenson and Mr John Ellis, had difficulties in raising the necessary capital as the majority of local wealth had been invested in canals.", "Realising the potential and need for the rail link Stephenson himself invested £2,500 and raised the remaining capital through his network of connections in Liverpool.", "His son Robert was made chief engineer with the first part of the line opening in 1832.During this same period the Snibston estate in Leicestershire came up for auction, it lay adjoining the proposed Swannington to Leicester route and was believed to contain valuable coal reserves.", "Stephenson realising the financial potential of the site, given its proximity to the proposed rail link and the fact that the manufacturing town of Leicester was then being supplied coal by canal from Derbyshire, bought the estate.Employing a previously used method of mining in the midlands called tubbing to access the deep coal seams, his success could not have been greater.", "Stephenson's coal mine delivered the first rail cars of coal into Leicester dramatically reducing the price of coal and saving the city some £40,000 per annum.Stephenson remained at Alton Grange until 1838 before moving to Tapton House in Derbyshire.===Later career===The next ten years were the busiest of Stephenson's life as he was besieged with requests from railway promoters.", "Many of the first American railroad builders came to Newcastle to learn from Stephenson and the first dozen or so locomotives utilised there were purchased from the Stephenson shops.", "Stephenson's conservative views on the capabilities of locomotives meant he favoured circuitous routes and civil engineering that were more costly than his successors thought necessary.", "For example, rather than the West Coast Main Line taking the direct route favoured by Joseph Locke over Shap between Lancaster and Carlisle, Stephenson was in favour of a longer sea-level route via Ulverston and Whitehaven.", "Locke's route was built.Stephenson tended to be more casual in estimating costs and paperwork in general.", "He worked with Joseph Locke on the Grand Junction Railway with half of the line allocated to each man.", "Stephenson's estimates and organising ability proved inferior to those of Locke and the board's dissatisfaction led to Stephenson's resignation causing a rift between them which was never healed.Despite Stephenson's loss of some routes to competitors due to his caution, he was offered more work than he could cope with, and was unable to accept all that was offered.", "He worked on the North Midland line from Derby to Leeds, the York and North Midland line from Normanton to York, the Manchester and Leeds, the Birmingham and Derby, the Sheffield and Rotherham among many others.Stephenson became a reassuring name rather than a cutting-edge technical adviser.", "He was the first president of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers on its formation in 1847.By this time he had settled into semi-retirement, supervising his mining interests in Derbyshire – tunnelling for the North Midland Railway revealed coal seams, and Stephenson put money into their exploitation.===Personal life===George first courted Elizabeth (Betty) Hindmarsh, a farmer's daughter from Black Callerton, whom he met secretly in her orchard.", "Her father refused marriage because of Stephenson's lowly status as a miner.", "George next paid attention to Anne Henderson where he lodged with her family, but she rejected him and he transferred his attentions to her sister Frances (Fanny), who was nine years his senior.", "George and Fanny married at Newburn Church on 28 November 1802.They had two children Robert (1803) and Fanny (1805) but the latter died within months.", "George's wife died, probably of tuberculosis, the year after.", "While George was working in Scotland, Robert was brought up by a succession of neighbours and then by George's unmarried sister Eleanor (Nelly), who lived with them in Killingworth on George's return.On 29 March 1820, George (now considerably wealthier) married Betty Hindmarsh at Newburn.", "The marriage seems to have been happy, but there were no children and Betty died on 3 August 1845.On 11 January 1848, at St John's Church in Shrewsbury, Shropshire, George married for the third time, to Ellen Gregory, another farmer's daughter originally from Bakewell in Derbyshire, who had been his housekeeper.", "Seven months after his wedding, George contracted pleurisy and died, aged 67, at noon on 12 August 1848 at Tapton House in Chesterfield, Derbyshire.", "He was buried at Holy Trinity Church, Chesterfield, alongside his second wife.Described by Rolt as a generous man, Stephenson financially supported the wives and families of several who had died in his employment, due to accident or misadventure, some within his family, and some not.", "He was also a keen gardener throughout his life; during his last years at Tapton House, he built hothouses in the estate gardens, growing exotic fruits and vegetables in a 'not too friendly' rivalry with Joseph Paxton, head gardener at nearby Chatsworth House, twice beating the master of the craft.====Descendants====George Stephenson had two children.", "His son Robert was born on 16 October 1803.Robert married Frances Sanderson, daughter of a City of London professional John Sanderson, on 17 June 1829.Robert died in 1859 having no children.", "Robert Stephenson expanded on the work of his father and became a major railway engineer himself.", "Abroad, Robert was involved in the Alexandria–Cairo railway that later connected with the Suez Canal.", "George Stephenson's daughter was born in 1805 but died within weeks of her birth.", "Descendants of the wider Stephenson family continue to live in Wylam (Stephenson's birthplace) today.", "Also relatives connected by his marriage live in Derbyshire.", "Some descendants later emigrated to Perth, Australia, and Minnesota, with later generations remaining to this day.This Stephenson engineering family is not to be confused with the lighthouse-building engineering family of Robert Stevenson, which was active in the same era.", "Note the spelling difference." ], [ "Legacy", "=== Influence ===John LucasBritain led the world in the development of railways which acted as a stimulus for the Industrial Revolution by facilitating the transport of raw materials and manufactured goods.", "George Stephenson, with his work on the Stockton and Darlington Railway and the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, paved the way for the railway engineers who followed, such as his son Robert, his assistant Joseph Locke who carried out much work on his own account and Isambard Kingdom Brunel.", "Stephenson was farsighted in realising that the individual lines being built would eventually be joined, and would need to have the same gauge.", "The standard gauge used throughout much of the world is due to him.", "In 2002, Stephenson was named in the BBC's television show and list of the ''100 Greatest Britons'' following a UK-wide vote, placing at no.", "65.The Victorian self-help advocate Samuel Smiles had published his first biography of George Stephenson in 1857, and although attacked as biased in the favour of George at the expense his rivals as well as his son, it was popular and 250,000 copies were sold by 1904.The Band of Hope were selling biographies of George in 1859 at a penny a sheet, and at one point there was a suggestion to move George's body to Westminster Abbey.", "The centenary of George's birth was celebrated in 1881 at Crystal Palace by 15,000 people, and it was George who was featured on the reverse of the Series E five pound note issued by the Bank of England between 1990 and 2003.The Stephenson Railway Museum in North Shields is named after George and Robert Stephenson.===Memorials===Stephenson's statue in ChesterfieldGeorge Stephenson's Birthplace is an 18th-century historic house museum in the village of Wylam, and is operated by the National Trust.", "Dial Cottage at West Moor, his home from 1804, remains but the museum that once operated here is shut.Chesterfield Museum in Chesterfield, Derbyshire, has a gallery of Stephenson memorabilia, including straight thick glass tubes he invented for growing straight cucumbers.", "The museum is in the Stephenson Memorial Hall not far from both Stephenson's final home at Tapton House and Holy Trinity Church within which is his vault.", "In Liverpool, where he lived at 34 Upper Parliament Street, a City of Liverpool Heritage Plaque is situated next to the front door.Stephenson College, founded in 2001 on the Durham University's Queen's Campus in Stockton-on-Tees (relocated to Durham in 2018), is named after him.", "Also named after him and his son is George Stephenson High School in Killingworth, Stephenson Memorial Primary School in Howdon, the Stephenson Railway Museum in North Shields, the Stephenson Locomotive Society, the Stephenson Centre, an SEBD Unit of Beaumont Hill School in Darlington, and the Stephenson Building, home of the school of engineering at Newcastle University.", "His last home in Tapton, Chesterfield is now part of Chesterfield College and is called Tapton House Campus.As a tribute to his life and works, a bronze statue of Stephenson was unveiled at Chesterfield railway station (in the town where Stephenson spent the last ten years of his life) on 28 October 2005, marking the completion of improvements to the station.", "At the event a full-size working replica of the ''Rocket'' was on show, which then spent two days on public display at the Chesterfield Market Festival.", "A statue of him dressed in classical robes stands in Neville Street, Newcastle, facing the buildings that house the Literary and Philosophical Society of Newcastle upon Tyne and the North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers, near Newcastle railway station.", "The statue was sculpted in 1862 by John Graham Lough and is listed Grade II.From 1990 until 2003, Stephenson's portrait appeared on the reverse of Series E £5 notes issued by the Bank of England.", "Stephenson's face is shown alongside an engraving of the ''Rocket'' steam engine and the Skerne Bridge on the Stockton to Darlington Railway.Stephenson's profile is carved in the facade of Lisbon's victorian railway station.North-western Milan has the street Via Giorgio Stephenson in his honour.===In popular culture===Stephenson was portrayed by actor Gawn Grainger on television in the 1985 ''Doctor Who'' serial ''The Mark of the Rani''.Harry Turtledove's alternate history short story \"The Iron Elephant\" depicts a race between a newly invented steam engine and a mammoth-drawn train in 1782.A station master called George Stephenson features as a minor character alongside an American steam engineer called Richard Trevithick, likely indicating that they were analogous rather than historical characters." ], [ "See also", "* History of Science and Technology* Industrial Revolution* Train* Robert Stephenson* Robert Stephenson and Company" ], [ "References" ], [ "Biographical works", "* * * * * Ruth Maxwell M.A.", "George Stephenson George Harrap & Company LTD., London, 1920.Heroes of All Time series." ], [ "External links", "* Biography* Biography* Biography* Stephenson's birthplace* Reproduction of 1853 biographical chapter by J R Leifchild" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Grapheme" ], [ "Introduction", "Various glyphs representing the lower case letter \"a\"; they are allographs of the grapheme In linguistics, a '''grapheme''' is the smallest functional unit of a writing system.The word ''grapheme'' is derived and the suffix ''-eme'' by analogy with ''phoneme'' and other names of emic units.", "The study of graphemes is called ''graphemics''.", "The concept of graphemes is abstract and similar to the notion in computing of a character.", "By comparison, a specific shape that represents any particular grapheme in a given typeface is called a glyph." ], [ "Conceptualization", "There are two main opposing grapheme concepts.In the so-called ''referential conception'', graphemes are interpreted as the smallest units of writing that correspond with sounds (more accurately phonemes).", "In this concept, the ''sh'' in the written English word ''shake'' would be a grapheme because it represents the phoneme /ʃ/.", "This referential concept is linked to the ''dependency hypothesis'' that claims that writing merely depicts speech.By contrast, the ''analogical concept'' defines graphemes analogously to phonemes, i.e.", "via written minimal pairs such as ''shake'' vs. ''snake''.", "In this example, ''h'' and ''n'' are graphemes because they distinguish two words.", "This analogical concept is associated with the autonomy hypothesis which holds that writing is a system in its own right and should be studied independently from speech.", "Both concepts have weaknesses.Some models adhere to both concepts simultaneously by including two individual units, which are given names such as ''graphemic grapheme'' for the grapheme according to the analogical conception (''h'' in ''shake''), and ''phonological-fit grapheme'' for the grapheme according to the referential concept (''sh'' in ''shake'').In newer concepts, in which the grapheme is interpreted semiotically as a dyadic linguistic sign, it is defined as a minimal unit of writing that is both lexically distinctive and corresponds with a linguistic unit (phoneme, syllable, or morpheme)." ], [ "Notation", "Graphemes are often notated within angle brackets: , , etc.", "This is analogous to both the slash notation (, ) used for phonemes and to the square bracket notation used for phonetic transcriptions (, )." ], [ "Glyphs", "In the same way that the surface forms of phonemes are speech sounds or phones (and different phones representing the same phoneme are called allophones), the surface forms of graphemes are glyphs (sometimes ''graphs''), namely concrete written representations of symbols (and different glyphs representing the same grapheme are called allographs).Thus, a grapheme can be regarded as an abstraction of a collection of glyphs that are all functionally equivalent.For example, in written English (or other languages using the Latin alphabet), there are two different physical representations of the lowercase Latin letter \"a\": \"a\" and \"ɑ\".", "Since, however, the substitution of either of them for the other cannot change the meaning of a word, they are considered to be allographs of the same grapheme, which can be written .", "Similarly, the grapheme corresponding to \"Arabic numeral zero\" has a unique semantic identity and Unicode value but exhibits variation in the form of slashed zero.", "Italic and bold face forms are also allographic, as is the variation seen in serif (as in Times New Roman) versus sans-serif (as in Helvetica) forms.There is some disagreement as to whether capital and lower case letters are allographs or distinct graphemes.", "Capitals are generally found in certain triggering contexts that do not change the meaning of a word: a proper name, for example, or at the beginning of a sentence, or all caps in a newspaper headline.", "In other contexts, capitalization can determine meaning: compare, for example Polish and polish: the former is a language, the latter is for shining shoes.Some linguists consider digraphs like the in ''ship'' to be distinct graphemes, but these are generally analyzed as sequences of graphemes.", "Non-stylistic ligatures, however, such as , are distinct graphemes, as are various letters with distinctive diacritics, such as .Identical glyphs may not always represent the same grapheme.", "For example, the three letters , and appear identical but each has a different meaning: in order, they are the Latin letter A, the Cyrillic letter Azǔ/Азъ and the Greek letter Alpha.", "Each has its own code point in Unicode: , and ." ], [ "Types of grapheme", "The principal types of graphemes are logograms (more accurately termed morphograms), which represent words or morphemes (for example Chinese characters, the ampersand \"&\" representing the word ''and'', Arabic numerals); syllabic characters, representing syllables (as in Japanese kana); and alphabetic letters, corresponding roughly to phonemes (see next section).", "For a full discussion of the different types, see .There are additional graphemic components used in writing, such as punctuation marks, mathematical symbols, word dividers such as the space, and other typographic symbols.", "Ancient logographic scripts often used silent determinatives to disambiguate the meaning of a neighboring (non-silent) word." ], [ "Relationship with phonemes", "As mentioned in the previous section, in languages that use alphabetic writing systems, many of the graphemes stand in principle for the phonemes (significant sounds) of the language.", "In practice, however, the orthographies of such languages entail at least a certain amount of deviation from the ideal of exact grapheme–phoneme correspondence.", "A phoneme may be represented by a multigraph (sequence of more than one grapheme), as the digraph ''sh'' represents a single sound in English (and sometimes a single grapheme may represent more than one phoneme, as with the Russian letter я or the Spanish c).", "Some graphemes may not represent any sound at all (like the ''b'' in English ''debt'' or the ''h'' in all Spanish words containing the said letter), and often the rules of correspondence between graphemes and phonemes become complex or irregular, particularly as a result of historical sound changes that are not necessarily reflected in spelling.", "\"Shallow\" orthographies such as those of standard Spanish and Finnish have relatively regular (though not always one-to-one) correspondence between graphemes and phonemes, while those of French and English have much less regular correspondence, and are known as deep orthographies.Multigraphs representing a single phoneme are normally treated as combinations of separate letters, not as graphemes in their own right.", "However, in some languages a multigraph may be treated as a single unit for the purposes of collation; for example, in a Czech dictionary, the section for words that start with comes after that for .", "For more examples, see ." ], [ "See also", "* * *" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Glass" ], [ "Introduction", "alt=Refer to caption'''Glass''' is a non-crystalline solid that is often transparent, brittle and chemically inert.", "It has widespread practical, technological, and decorative use in, for example, window panes, tableware, and optics.Glass is most often formed by rapid cooling (quenching) of the molten form; some glasses such as volcanic glass are naturally occurring.", "The most familiar, and historically the oldest, types of manufactured glass are \"silicate glasses\" based on the chemical compound silica (silicon dioxide, or quartz), the primary constituent of sand.", "Soda–lime glass, containing around 70% silica, accounts for around 90% of manufactured glass.", "The term ''glass'', in popular usage, is often used to refer only to this type of material, although silica-free glasses often have desirable properties for applications in modern communications technology.", "Some objects, such as drinking glasses and eyeglasses, are so commonly made of silicate-based glass that they are simply called by the name of the material.Despite being brittle, buried silicate glass will survive for very long periods if not disturbed, and many examples of glass fragments exist from early glassmaking cultures.", "Archaeological evidence suggests glassmaking dates back to at least 3600 BC in Mesopotamia, Egypt, or Syria.", "The earliest known glass objects were beads, perhaps created accidentally during metalworking or the production of faience.", "Due to its ease of formability into any shape, glass has been traditionally used for vessels, such as bowls, vases, bottles, jars and drinking glasses.", "In its most solid forms, it has also been used for paperweights and marbles.", "Glass can be coloured by adding metal salts or painted and printed with vitreous enamels, leading to its use in stained glass windows and other glass art objects.", "The refractive, reflective and transmission properties of glass make glass suitable for manufacturing optical lenses, prisms, and optoelectronics materials.", "Extruded glass fibres have application as optical fibres in communications networks, thermal insulating material when matted as glass wool so as to trap air, or in glass-fibre reinforced plastic (fibreglass)." ], [ "Microscopic structure", "The amorphous structure of glassy silica (SiO2) in two dimensions.", "No long-range order is present, although there is local ordering with respect to the alt=A graphic showing the lack of periodic arrangement in the microscopic structure of glassMicroscopically, a single crystal has atoms in a near-perfect periodic arrangement; a polycrystal is composed of many microscopic crystals; and an amorphous solid such as glass has no periodic arrangement even microscopically.|alt=A graphic visually showing the difference between the microscopic arrangement of single crystals, polycrystals, and amorphous solids, as explained in the captionThe standard definition of a ''glass'' (or vitreous solid) is a non-crystalline solid formed by rapid melt quenching.", "However, the term \"glass\" is often defined in a broader sense, to describe any non-crystalline (amorphous) solid that exhibits a glass transition when heated towards the liquid state.Glass is an amorphous solid.", "Although the atomic-scale structure of glass shares characteristics of the structure of a supercooled liquid, glass exhibits all the mechanical properties of a solid.", "As in other amorphous solids, the atomic structure of a glass lacks the long-range periodicity observed in crystalline solids.", "Due to chemical bonding constraints, glasses do possess a high degree of short-range order with respect to local atomic polyhedra.", "The notion that glass flows to an appreciable extent over extended periods of time well below the glass transition temperature is not supported by empirical research or theoretical analysis (see viscosity in solids).", "Though atomic motion at glass surfaces can be observed, and a viscosity on the order of 1017–1018 Pa s can be measured in glass, such a high value reinforces the fact that glass would not change shape appreciably over even large periods of time.=== Formation from a supercooled liquid ===For melt quenching, if the cooling is sufficiently rapid (relative to the characteristic crystallization time) then crystallization is prevented and instead the disordered atomic configuration of the supercooled liquid is frozen into the solid state at Tg.", "The tendency for a material to form a glass while quenched is called glass-forming ability.", "This ability can be predicted by the rigidity theory.", "Generally, a glass exists in a structurally metastable state with respect to its crystalline form, although in certain circumstances, for example in atactic polymers, there is no crystalline analogue of the amorphous phase.Glass is sometimes considered to be a liquid due to its lack of a first-order phase transitionwhere certain thermodynamic variables such as volume, entropy and enthalpy are discontinuous through the glass transition range.", "The glass transition may be described as analogous to a second-order phase transition where the intensive thermodynamic variables such as the thermal expansivity and heat capacity are discontinuous.", "However, the equilibrium theory of phase transformations does not hold for glass, and hence the glass transition cannot be classed as one of the classical equilibrium phase transformations in solids." ], [ "Occurrence in nature", "Glass can form naturally from volcanic magma.", "Obsidian is a common volcanic glass with high silica (SiO2) content formed when felsic lava extruded from a volcano cools rapidly.", "Impactite is a form of glass formed by the impact of a meteorite, where Moldavite (found in central and eastern Europe), and Libyan desert glass (found in areas in the eastern Sahara, the deserts of eastern Libya and western Egypt) are notable examples.", "Vitrification of quartz can also occur when lightning strikes sand, forming hollow, branching rootlike structures called fulgurites.", "Trinitite is a glassy residue formed from the desert floor sand at the Trinity nuclear bomb test site.", "Edeowie glass, found in South Australia, is proposed to originate from Pleistocene grassland fires, lightning strikes, or hypervelocity impact by one or several asteroids or comets.File:Lipari-Obsidienne (5).jpg|A piece of volcanic obsidian glassFile:Moldavite Besednice.jpg|Moldavite, a natural glass formed by meteorite impact, from Besednice, BohemiaFile:Fulgurites-algeria.jpg|Tube fulguritesFile:Trinitite from Trinity Site.jpg|Trinitite, a glass made by the Trinity nuclear-weapon testFile:Libyan Desert Glass.jpg|Libyan desert glass" ], [ "History", "Roman alt=Refer to captionNaturally occurring obsidian glass was used by Stone Age societies as it fractures along very sharp edges, making it ideal for cutting tools and weapons.", "Glassmaking dates back at least 6000 years, long before humans had discovered how to smelt iron.", "Archaeological evidence suggests that the first true synthetic glass was made in Lebanon and the coastal north Syria, Mesopotamia or ancient Egypt.", "The earliest known glass objects, of the mid-third millennium BC, were beads, perhaps initially created as accidental by-products of metalworking (slags) or during the production of faience, a pre-glass vitreous material made by a process similar to glazing.Early glass was rarely transparent and often contained impurities and imperfections, and is technically faience rather than true glass, which did not appear until the 15th century BC.", "However, red-orange glass beads excavated from the Indus Valley Civilization dated before 1700 BC (possibly as early as 1900 BC) predate sustained glass production, which appeared around 1600 BC in Mesopotamia and 1500 BC in Egypt.", "During the Late Bronze Age there was a rapid growth in glassmaking technology in Egypt and Western Asia.", "Archaeological finds from this period include coloured glass ingots, vessels, and beads.", "Much early glass production relied on grinding techniques borrowed from stoneworking, such as grinding and carving glass in a cold state.The term ''glass'' developed in the late Roman Empire.", "It was in the Roman glassmaking centre at Trier (located in current-day Germany) that the late-Latin term ''glesum'' originated, probably from a Germanic word for a transparent, lustrous substance.", "Glass objects have been recovered across the Roman Empire in domestic, funerary, and industrial contexts, as well as trade items in marketplaces in distant provinces.", "Examples of Roman glass have been found outside of the former Roman Empire in China, the Baltics, the Middle East, and India.", "The Romans perfected cameo glass, produced by etching and carving through fused layers of different colours to produce a design in relief on the glass object.Windows in the choir of the alt=Elaborate stained glass windows in the choir of the Basilica of Saint DenisIn post-classical West Africa, Benin was a manufacturer of glass and glass beads.Glass was used extensively in Europe during the Middle Ages.", "Anglo-Saxon glass has been found across England during archaeological excavations of both settlement and cemetery sites.", "From the 10th century onwards, glass was employed in stained glass windows of churches and cathedrals, with famous examples at Chartres Cathedral and the Basilica of Saint-Denis.", "By the 14th century, architects were designing buildings with walls of stained glass such as Sainte-Chapelle, Paris, (1203–1248) and the East end of Gloucester Cathedral.", "With the change in architectural style during the Renaissance period in Europe, the use of large stained glass windows became much less prevalent, although stained glass had a major revival with Gothic Revival architecture in the 19th century.During the 13th century, the island of Murano, Venice, became a centre for glass making, building on medieval techniques to produce colourful ornamental pieces in large quantities.", "Murano glass makers developed the exceptionally clear colourless glass cristallo, so called for its resemblance to natural crystal, which was extensively used for windows, mirrors, ships' lanterns, and lenses.", "In the 13th, 14th, and 15th centuries, enamelling and gilding on glass vessels was perfected in Egypt and Syria.", "Towards the end of the 17th century, Bohemia became an important region for glass production, remaining so until the start of the 20th century.", "By the 17th century, glass in the Venetian tradition was also being produced in England.", "In about 1675, George Ravenscroft invented lead crystal glass, with cut glass becoming fashionable in the 18th century.", "Ornamental glass objects became an important art medium during the Art Nouveau period in the late 19th century.Throughout the 20th century, new mass production techniques led to widespread availability of glass in much larger amounts, making it practical as a building material and enabling new applications of glass.", "In the 1920s a mould-etch process was developed, in which art was etched directly into the mould, so that each cast piece emerged from the mould with the image already on the surface of the glass.", "This reduced manufacturing costs and, combined with a wider use of coloured glass, led to cheap glassware in the 1930s, which later became known as Depression glass.", "In the 1950s, Pilkington Bros., England, developed the float glass process, producing high-quality distortion-free flat sheets of glass by floating on molten tin.", "Modern multi-story buildings are frequently constructed with curtain walls made almost entirely of glass.", "Laminated glass has been widely applied to vehicles for windscreens.", "Optical glass for spectacles has been used since the Middle Ages.", "The production of lenses has become increasingly proficient, aiding astronomers as well as having other application in medicine and science.", "Glass is also employed as the aperture cover in many solar energy collectors.In the 21st century, glass manufacturers have developed different brands of chemically strengthened glass for widespread application in touchscreens for smartphones, tablet computers, and many other types of information appliances.", "These include Gorilla Glass, developed and manufactured by Corning, AGC Inc.'s Dragontrail and Schott AG's Xensation." ], [ "Physical properties", "=== Optical ===Glass is in widespread use in optical systems due to its ability to refract, reflect, and transmit light following geometrical optics.", "The most common and oldest applications of glass in optics are as lenses, windows, mirrors, and prisms.", "The key optical properties refractive index, dispersion, and transmission, of glass are strongly dependent on chemical composition and, to a lesser degree, its thermal history.", "Optical glass typically has a refractive index of 1.4 to 2.4, and an Abbe number (which characterises dispersion) of 15 to 100.Refractive index may be modified by high-density (refractive index increases) or low-density (refractive index decreases) additives.Glass transparency results from the absence of grain boundaries which diffusely scatter light in polycrystalline materials.", "Semi-opacity due to crystallization may be induced in many glasses by maintaining them for a long period at a temperature just insufficient to cause fusion.", "In this way, the crystalline, devitrified material, known as Réaumur's glass porcelain is produced.", "Although generally transparent to visible light, glasses may be opaque to other wavelengths of light.", "While silicate glasses are generally opaque to infrared wavelengths with a transmission cut-off at 4 μm, heavy-metal fluoride and chalcogenide glasses are transparent to infrared wavelengths of 7 to 18 μm.", "The addition of metallic oxides results in different coloured glasses as the metallic ions will absorb wavelengths of light corresponding to specific colours.=== Other ===Glass can be fairly easily melted and manipulated with a heat sourceIn the manufacturing process, glasses can be poured, formed, extruded and moulded into forms ranging from flat sheets to highly intricate shapes.", "The finished product is brittle but can be laminated or tempered to enhance durability.", "Glass is typically inert, resistant to chemical attack, and can mostly withstand the action of water, making it an ideal material for the manufacture of containers for foodstuffs and most chemicals.", "Nevertheless, although usually highly resistant to chemical attack, glass will corrode or dissolve under some conditions.", "The materials that make up a particular glass composition have an effect on how quickly the glass corrodes.", "Glasses containing a high proportion of alkali or alkaline earth elements are more susceptible to corrosion than other glass compositions.The density of glass varies with chemical composition with values ranging from for fused silica to for dense flint glass.", "Glass is stronger than most metals, with a theoretical tensile strength for pure, flawless glass estimated at due to its ability to undergo reversible compression without fracture.", "However, the presence of scratches, bubbles, and other microscopic flaws lead to a typical range of in most commercial glasses.", "Several processes such as toughening can increase the strength of glass.", "Carefully drawn flawless glass fibres can be produced with strength of up to .=== Reputed flow ===The observation that old windows are sometimes found to be thicker at the bottom than at the top is often offered as supporting evidence for the view that glass flows over a timescale of centuries, the assumption being that the glass has exhibited the liquid property of flowing from one shape to another.", "This assumption is incorrect, as once solidified, glass stops flowing.", "The sags and ripples observed in old glass were already there the day it was made; manufacturing processes used in the past produced sheets with imperfect surfaces and non-uniform thickness (the near-perfect float glass used today only became widespread in the 1960s).A 2017 study computed the rate of flow of the medieval glass used in Westminster Abbey from the year 1268.The study found that the room temperature viscosity of this glass was roughly 1024Pa·s which is about 1016 times less viscous than a previous estimate made in 1998, which focused on soda-lime silicate glass.", "Even with this lower viscosity, the study authors calculated that the maximum flow rate of medieval glass is 1nm per billion years, making it impossible to observe in a human timescale." ], [ "Types", "=== Silicate ===Quartz sand (silica) is the main raw material in commercial glass production|alt=Close-up photograph of sandSilicon dioxide (SiO2) is a common fundamental constituent of glass.", "Fused quartz is a glass made from chemically pure silica.", "It has very low thermal expansion and excellent resistance to thermal shock, being able to survive immersion in water while red hot, resists high temperatures (1000–1500 °C) and chemical weathering, and is very hard.", "It is also transparent to a wider spectral range than ordinary glass, extending from the visible further into both the UV and IR ranges, and is sometimes used where transparency to these wavelengths is necessary.", "Fused quartz is used for high-temperature applications such as furnace tubes, lighting tubes, melting crucibles, etc.", "However, its high melting temperature (1723 °C) and viscosity make it difficult to work with.", "Therefore, normally, other substances (fluxes) are added to lower the melting temperature and simplify glass processing.==== Soda–lime ====Sodium carbonate (Na2CO3, \"soda\") is a common additive and acts to lower the glass-transition temperature.", "However, sodium silicate is water-soluble, so lime (CaO, calcium oxide, generally obtained from limestone), along with magnesium oxide (MgO), and aluminium oxide (Al2O3), are commonly added to improve chemical durability.", "Soda–lime glasses (Na2O) + lime (CaO) + magnesia (MgO) + alumina (Al2O3) account for over 75% of manufactured glass, containing about 70 to 74% silica by weight.", "Soda–lime–silicate glass is transparent, easily formed, and most suitable for window glass and tableware.", "However, it has a high thermal expansion and poor resistance to heat.", "Soda–lime glass is typically used for windows, bottles, light bulbs, and jars.==== Borosilicate ====A Pyrex borosilicate glass measuring cup |alt=Refer to captionBorosilicate glasses (e.g.", "Pyrex, Duran) typically contain 5–13% boron trioxide (B2O3).", "Borosilicate glasses have fairly low coefficients of thermal expansion (7740 Pyrex CTE is 3.25/°C as compared to about 9/°C for a typical soda–lime glass).", "They are, therefore, less subject to stress caused by thermal expansion and thus less vulnerable to cracking from thermal shock.", "They are commonly used for e.g.", "labware, household cookware, and sealed beam car head lamps.==== Lead ====The addition of lead(II) oxide into silicate glass lowers melting point and viscosity of the melt.", "The high density of lead glass (silica + lead oxide (PbO) + potassium oxide (K2O) + soda (Na2O) + zinc oxide (ZnO) + alumina) results in a high electron density, and hence high refractive index, making the look of glassware more brilliant and causing noticeably more specular reflection and increased optical dispersion.", "Lead glass has a high elasticity, making the glassware more workable and giving rise to a clear \"ring\" sound when struck.", "However, lead glass cannot withstand high temperatures well.", "Lead oxide also facilitates solubility of other metal oxides and is used in coloured glass.", "The viscosity decrease of lead glass melt is very significant (roughly 100 times in comparison with soda glass); this allows easier removal of bubbles and working at lower temperatures, hence its frequent use as an additive in vitreous enamels and glass solders.", "The high ionic radius of the Pb2+ ion renders it highly immobile and hinders the movement of other ions; lead glasses therefore have high electrical resistance, about two orders of magnitude higher than soda–lime glass (108.5 vs 106.5 Ω⋅cm, DC at 250 °C).==== Aluminosilicate ====Aluminosilicate glass typically contains 5–10% alumina (Al2O3).", "Aluminosilicate glass tends to be more difficult to melt and shape compared to borosilicate compositions, but has excellent thermal resistance and durability.", "Aluminosilicate glass is extensively used for fiberglass, used for making glass-reinforced plastics (boats, fishing rods, etc.", "), top-of-stove cookware, and halogen bulb glass.==== Other oxide additives ====The addition of barium also increases the refractive index.", "Thorium oxide gives glass a high refractive index and low dispersion and was formerly used in producing high-quality lenses, but due to its radioactivity has been replaced by lanthanum oxide in modern eyeglasses.", "Iron can be incorporated into glass to absorb infrared radiation, for example in heat-absorbing filters for movie projectors, while cerium(IV) oxide can be used for glass that absorbs ultraviolet wavelengths.", "Fluorine lowers the dielectric constant of glass.", "Fluorine is highly electronegative and lowers the polarizability of the material.", "Fluoride silicate glasses are used in manufacture of integrated circuits as an insulator.==== Glass-ceramics ====A high-strength glass-ceramic cooktop with negligible thermal expansion |alt=A cooktop with two of its eyes turned onGlass-ceramic materials contain both non-crystalline glass and crystalline ceramic phases.", "They are formed by controlled nucleation and partial crystallisation of a base glass by heat treatment.", "Crystalline grains are often embedded within a non-crystalline intergranular phase of grain boundaries.", "Glass-ceramics exhibit advantageous thermal, chemical, biological, and dielectric properties as compared to metals or organic polymers.The most commercially important property of glass-ceramics is their imperviousness to thermal shock.", "Thus, glass-ceramics have become extremely useful for countertop cooking and industrial processes.", "The negative thermal expansion coefficient (CTE) of the crystalline ceramic phase can be balanced with the positive CTE of the glassy phase.", "At a certain point (~70% crystalline) the glass-ceramic has a net CTE near zero.", "This type of glass-ceramic exhibits excellent mechanical properties and can sustain repeated and quick temperature changes up to 1000 °C.==== Fibreglass ====Fibreglass (also called glass fibre reinforced plastic, GRP) is a composite material made by reinforcing a plastic resin with glass fibres.", "It is made by melting glass and stretching the glass into fibres.", "These fibres are woven together into a cloth and left to set in a plastic resin.Fibreglass has the properties of being lightweight and corrosion resistant, and is a good insulator enabling its use as building insulation material and for electronic housing for consumer products.", "Fibreglass was originally used in the United Kingdom and United States during World War II to manufacture radomes.", "Uses of fibreglass include building and construction materials, boat hulls, car body parts, and aerospace composite materials.Glass-fibre wool is an excellent thermal and sound insulation material, commonly used in buildings (e.g.", "attic and cavity wall insulation), and plumbing (e.g.", "pipe insulation), and soundproofing.", "It is produced by forcing molten glass through a fine mesh by centripetal force, and breaking the extruded glass fibres into short lengths using a stream of high-velocity air.", "The fibres are bonded with an adhesive spray and the resulting wool mat is cut and packed in rolls or panels.=== Non-silicate ===A CD-RW (CD).", "Chalcogenide glass form the basis of rewritable CD and DVD solid-state memory technology.|alt=A CDBesides common silica-based glasses many other inorganic and organic materials may also form glasses, including metals, aluminates, phosphates, borates, chalcogenides, fluorides, germanates (glasses based on GeO2), tellurites (glasses based on TeO2), antimonates (glasses based on Sb2O3), arsenates (glasses based on As2O3), titanates (glasses based on TiO2), tantalates (glasses based on Ta2O5), nitrates, carbonates, plastics, acrylic, and many other substances.", "Some of these glasses (e.g.", "Germanium dioxide (GeO2, Germania), in many respects a structural analogue of silica, fluoride, aluminate, phosphate, borate, and chalcogenide glasses) have physico-chemical properties useful for their application in fibre-optic waveguides in communication networks and other specialised technological applications.Silica-free glasses may often have poor glass forming tendencies.", "Novel techniques, including containerless processing by aerodynamic levitation (cooling the melt whilst it floats on a gas stream) or splat quenching (pressing the melt between two metal anvils or rollers), may be used to increase cooling rate, or to reduce crystal nucleation triggers.==== Amorphous metals ====alt=Refer to captionIn the past, small batches of amorphous metals with high surface area configurations (ribbons, wires, films, etc.)", "have been produced through the implementation of extremely rapid rates of cooling.", "Amorphous metal wires have been produced by sputtering molten metal onto a spinning metal disk.A number of alloys have been produced in layers with thickness exceeding 1 millimeter.", "These are known as bulk metallic glasses (BMG).", "Liquidmetal Technologies sell a number of zirconium-based BMGs.Batches of amorphous steel have also been produced that demonstrate mechanical properties far exceeding those found in conventional steel alloys.Experimental evidence indicates that the system Al-Fe-Si may undergo a ''first-order transition'' to an amorphous form (dubbed \"q-glass\") on rapid cooling from the melt.", "Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) images indicate that q-glass nucleates from the melt as discrete particles with a uniform spherical growth in all directions.", "While x-ray diffraction reveals the isotropic nature of q-glass, a nucleation barrier exists implying an interfacial discontinuity (or internal surface) between the glass and melt phases.==== Polymers ====Important polymer glasses include amorphous and glassy pharmaceutical compounds.", "These are useful because the solubility of the compound is greatly increased when it is amorphous compared to the same crystalline composition.", "Many emerging pharmaceuticals are practically insoluble in their crystalline forms.", "Many polymer thermoplastics familiar from everyday use are glasses.", "For many applications, like glass bottles or eyewear, polymer glasses (acrylic glass, polycarbonate or polyethylene terephthalate) are a lighter alternative to traditional glass.=== Molecular liquids and molten salts ===Molecular liquids, electrolytes, molten salts, and aqueous solutions are mixtures of different molecules or ions that do not form a covalent network but interact only through weak van der Waals forces or through transient hydrogen bonds.", "In a mixture of three or more ionic species of dissimilar size and shape, crystallization can be so difficult that the liquid can easily be supercooled into a glass.", "Examples include LiCl:''R''H2O (a solution of lithium chloride salt and water molecules) in the composition range 40.4K0.6(NO3)1.4.Glass electrolytes in the form of Ba-doped Li-glass and Ba-doped Na-glass have been proposed as solutions to problems identified with organic liquid electrolytes used in modern lithium-ion battery cells." ], [ "Production", "alt=A red hot piece of glass being blownalt=Industrial robots unloading float glassFollowing the glass batch preparation and mixing, the raw materials are transported to the furnace.", "Soda–lime glass for mass production is melted in glass melting furnaces.", "Smaller scale furnaces for specialty glasses include electric melters, pot furnaces, and day tanks.After melting, homogenization and refining (removal of bubbles), the glass is formed.", "This may be achieved manually by glassblowing, which involves gathering a mass of hot semi-molten glass, inflating it into a bubble using a hollow blowpipe, and forming it into required shape by blowing, swinging, rolling, or molding.", "While hot, the glass can be worked using hand tools, cut with shears, and additional parts such as handles or feet attached by welding.Flat glass for windows and similar applications is formed by the float glass process, developed between 1953 and 1957 by Sir Alastair Pilkington and Kenneth Bickerstaff of the UK's Pilkington Brothers, who created a continuous ribbon of glass using a molten tin bath on which the molten glass flows unhindered under the influence of gravity.", "The top surface of the glass is subjected to nitrogen under pressure to obtain a polished finish.", "Container glass for common bottles and jars is formed by blowing and pressing methods.", "This glass is often slightly modified chemically (with more alumina and calcium oxide) for greater water resistance.Once the desired form is obtained, glass is usually annealed for the removal of stresses and to increase the glass's hardness and durability.", "Surface treatments, coatings or lamination may follow to improve the chemical durability (glass container coatings, glass container internal treatment), strength (toughened glass, bulletproof glass, windshields), or optical properties (insulated glazing, anti-reflective coating).New chemical glass compositions or new treatment techniques can be initially investigated in small-scale laboratory experiments.", "The raw materials for laboratory-scale glass melts are often different from those used in mass production because the cost factor has a low priority.", "In the laboratory mostly pure chemicals are used.", "Care must be taken that the raw materials have not reacted with moisture or other chemicals in the environment (such as alkali or alkaline earth metal oxides and hydroxides, or boron oxide), or that the impurities are quantified (loss on ignition).", "Evaporation losses during glass melting should be considered during the selection of the raw materials, e.g., sodium selenite may be preferred over easily evaporating selenium dioxide (SeO2).", "Also, more readily reacting raw materials may be preferred over relatively inert ones, such as aluminum hydroxide (Al(OH)3) over alumina (Al2O3).", "Usually, the melts are carried out in platinum crucibles to reduce contamination from the crucible material.", "Glass homogeneity is achieved by homogenizing the raw materials mixture (glass batch), by stirring the melt, and by crushing and re-melting the first melt.", "The obtained glass is usually annealed to prevent breakage during processing.=== Colour ===Colour in glass may be obtained by addition of homogenously distributed electrically charged ions (or colour centres).", "While ordinary soda–lime glass appears colourless in thin section, iron(II) oxide (FeO) impurities produce a green tint in thick sections.", "Manganese dioxide (MnO2), which gives glass a purple colour, may be added to remove the green tint given by FeO.", "FeO and chromium(III) oxide (Cr2O3) additives are used in the production of green bottles.", "Iron (III) oxide, on the other-hand, produces yellow or yellow-brown glass.", "Low concentrations (0.025 to 0.1%) of cobalt oxide (CoO) produces rich, deep blue cobalt glass.", "Chromium is a very powerful colourising agent, yielding dark green.Sulphur combined with carbon and iron salts produces amber glass ranging from yellowish to almost black.", "A glass melt can also acquire an amber colour from a reducing combustion atmosphere.", "Cadmium sulfide produces imperial red, and combined with selenium can produce shades of yellow, orange, and red.", "The additive Copper(II) oxide (CuO) produces a turquoise colour in glass, in contrast to Copper(I) oxide (Cu2O) which gives a dull brown-red colour.File:Bottle, wine (AM 1997.80.28-1).jpg|alt=A green glass bottle|Iron(II) oxide and chromium(III) oxide additives are often used in the production of green bottles.File:Bristol.blue.glass.arp.750pix.jpg|alt=Several examples of deep blue glass|Cobalt oxide produces rich, deep blue glass, such as Bristol blue glass.File:Colour Eclipse, Danny Lane.jpg|alt=Three glass disks, with one coloured turquoise, another purple, and a third coloured red|Different oxide additives produce the different colours in glass: turquoise (Copper(II) oxide), purple (Manganese dioxide), and red (Cadmium sulfide).File:Chinese snuff bottle, Qing dynasty, glass bottle with amber stopper, Honolulu Museum of Art.JPG|Red glass bottle with yellow glass overlayFile:Glass ornaments.JPG|Amber-coloured glassFile:Glass garland bowl MET DP122006.jpg|Four-colour Roman glass bowl, manufactured" ], [ "Uses", "=== Architecture and windows ===Soda–lime sheet glass is typically used as transparent glazing material, typically as windows in external walls of buildings.", "Float or rolled sheet glass products is cut to size either by scoring and snapping the material, laser cutting, water jets, or diamond bladed saw.", "The glass may be thermally or chemically tempered (strengthened) for safety and bent or curved during heating.", "Surface coatings may be added for specific functions such as scratch resistance, blocking specific wavelengths of light (e.g.", "infrared or ultraviolet), dirt-repellence (e.g.", "self-cleaning glass), or switchable electrochromic coatings.Structural glazing systems represent one of the most significant architectural innovations of modern times, where glass buildings now often dominate skylines of many modern cities.", "These systems use stainless steel fittings countersunk into recesses in the corners of the glass panels allowing strengthened panes to appear unsupported creating a flush exterior.", "Structural glazing systems have their roots in iron and glass conservatories of the nineteenth century=== Tableware ===Glass is an essential component of tableware and is typically used for water, beer and wine drinking glasses.", "Wine glasses are typically stemware, i.e.", "goblets formed from a bowl, stem, and foot.", "Crystal or Lead crystal glass may be cut and polished to produce decorative drinking glasses with gleaming facets.", "Other uses of glass in tableware include decanters, jugs, plates, and bowls.File:Jubilee Campus MMB «62 Melton Hall Christmas Dinner.jpg|Wine glasses and other glass tablewareFile:British dimpled glass pint jug with ale.jpg|Dimpled glass beer pint jugFile:Crystal glass.jpg|lead crystal cut glassFile:Decanter and Stopper LACMA 56.35.29a-b.jpg|A glass decanter and stopper=== Packaging ===The inert and impermeable nature of glass makes it a stable and widely used material for food and drink packaging as glass bottles and jars.", "Most container glass is soda–lime glass, produced by blowing and pressing techniques.", "Container glass has a lower magnesium oxide and sodium oxide content than flat glass, and a higher silica, calcium oxide, and aluminum oxide content.", "Its higher content of water-insoluble oxides imparts slightly higher chemical durability against water, which is advantageous for storing beverages and food.", "Glass packaging is sustainable, readily recycled, reusable and refillable.For electronics applications, glass can be used as a substrate in the manufacture of integrated passive devices, thin-film bulk acoustic resonators, and as a hermetic sealing material in device packaging, including very thin solely glass based encapsulation of integrated circuits and other semiconductors in high manufacturing volumes.=== Laboratories ===Glass is an important material in scientific laboratories for the manufacture of experimental apparatus because it is relatively cheap, readily formed into required shapes for experiment, easy to keep clean, can withstand heat and cold treatment, is generally non-reactive with many reagents, and its transparency allows for the observation of chemical reactions and processes.", "Laboratory glassware applications include flasks, petri dishes, test tubes, pipettes, graduated cylinders, glass lined metallic containers for chemical processing, fractionation columns, glass pipes, Schlenk lines, gauges, and thermometers.", "Although most standard laboratory glassware has been mass-produced since the 1920s, scientists still employ skilled glassblowers to manufacture bespoke glass apparatus for their experimental requirements.File:Vigreux column lab.jpg|A Vigreux column in a laboratory setupFile:Double vac line front view.jpg|A Schlenk line with four portsFile:Different types of graduated cylinder- 10ml, 25ml, 50ml and 100 ml graduated cylinder.jpg|Graduated cylindersFile:250 mL Erlenmeyer flask.jpg|Erlenmeyer flask=== Optics ===Glass is a ubiquitous material in optics by virtue of its ability to refract, reflect, and transmit light.", "These and other optical properties can be controlled by varying chemical compositions, thermal treatment, and manufacturing techniques.", "The many applications of glass in optics includes glasses for eyesight correction, imaging optics (e.g.", "lenses and mirrors in telescopes, microscopes, and cameras), fibre optics in telecommunications technology, and integrated optics.", "Microlenses and gradient-index optics (where the refractive index is non-uniform) find application in e.g.", "reading optical discs, laser printers, photocopiers, and laser diodes.=== Art ===Glass as art dates to least 1300 BC shown as an example of natural glass found in Tutankhamun's pectoral, which also contained vitreous enamel, that is to say, melted coloured glass used on a metal backing.", "Enamelled glass, the decoration of glass vessels with coloured glass paints, has existed since 1300 BC, and was prominent in the early 20th century with Art Nouveau glass and that of the House of Fabergé in St. Petersburg, Russia.", "Both techniques were used in stained glass, which reached its height roughly from 1000 to 1550, before a revival in the 19th century.The 19th century saw a revival in ancient glassmaking techniques including cameo glass, achieved for the first time since the Roman Empire, initially mostly for pieces in a neo-classical style.", "The Art Nouveau movement made great use of glass, with René Lalique, Émile Gallé, and Daum of Nancy in the first French wave of the movement, producing coloured vases and similar pieces, often in cameo glass or in lustre glass techniques.Louis Comfort Tiffany in America specialised in stained glass, both secular and religious, in panels and his famous lamps.", "The early 20th century saw the large-scale factory production of glass art by firms such as Waterford and Lalique.", "Small studios may hand-produce glass artworks.", "Techniques for producing glass art include blowing, kiln-casting, fusing, slumping, pâte de verre, flame-working, hot-sculpting and cold-working.", "Cold work includes traditional stained glass work and other methods of shaping glass at room temperature.", "Objects made out of glass include vessels, paperweights, marbles, beads, sculptures and installation art.Image:Portland Vase BM Gem4036 n5.jpg|The Portland Vase, Roman cameo glass, about 5–25 ADFile:Medallion St Demetrios Louvre OA6457.jpg|Byzantine cloisonné enamel plaque of St Demetrios, c. 1100, using the ''senkschmelz'' or \"sunk\" techniqueFile:Gallé, nancy, vaso clematis, 1890-1900.JPG|Émile Gallé, Marquetry glass vase with clematis flowers (1890–1900)File:Vase (Perruches) by René Jules Lalique, 1922, blown four mold glass - Cincinnati Art Museum - DSC04355.JPG|Glass vase by art nouveau artist René LaliqueFile:Clara driscoll per tiffany studios, lampada laburnum, 1910 ca.", "02.jpg|Clara Driscoll Tiffany lamp, laburnum pattern, c. 1910 File:Glass.sculpture.kewgardens.london.arp.jpg|A glass sculpture by Dale Chihuly, \"The Sun\" at the \"Gardens of Glass\" exhibition in Kew Gardens, London" ], [ "See also", "* Aluminium oxynitride transparent ceramic* Fire glass* Flexible glass* Kimberley points* Prince Rupert's drop* Smart glass" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * The Story of Glass Making in Canada from The Canadian Museum of Civilization.", "* \"How Your Glass Ware Is Made\" by George W. Waltz, February 1951, ''Popular Science''.", "* All About Glass from the Corning Museum of Glass: a collection of articles, multimedia, and virtual books all about glass, including the Glass Dictionary." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gel electrophoresis" ], [ "Introduction", "The image above shows how small DNA fragments will migrate through agarose quickly but large size DNA fragments move more slowly during electrophoresis.", "The graph to the right shows the nonlinear relationship between the size of the DNA fragment and the distance migrated.Gel electrophoresis is a process where an electric current is applied to DNA samples creating fragments that can be used for comparison between DNA samples.", "DNA is extracted.", "Isolation and amplification of DNA.", "DNA added to the gel wells.", "Electric current applied to the gel.", "DNA bands are separated by size.", "DNA bands are stained.", "'''Gel electrophoresis''' is a method for separation and analysis of biomacromolecules (DNA, RNA, proteins, etc.)", "and their fragments, based on their size and charge.", "It is used in clinical chemistry to separate proteins by charge or size (IEF agarose, essentially size independent) and in biochemistry and molecular biology to separate a mixed population of DNA and RNA fragments by length, to estimate the size of DNA and RNA fragments or to separate proteins by charge.Nucleic acid molecules are separated by applying an electric field to move the negatively charged molecules through a matrix of agarose or other substances.", "Shorter molecules move faster and migrate farther than longer ones because shorter molecules migrate more easily through the pores of the gel.", "This phenomenon is called sieving.", "Proteins are separated by the charge in agarose because the pores of the gel are too large to sieve proteins.", "Gel electrophoresis can also be used for the separation of nanoparticles.Gel electrophoresis uses a gel as an anticonvective medium or sieving medium during electrophoresis, the movement of a charged particle in an electric current.", "Gels suppress the thermal convection caused by the application of the electric field, and can also act as a sieving medium, slowing the passage of molecules; gels can also simply serve to maintain the finished separation so that a post electrophoresis stain can be applied.", "DNA gel electrophoresis is usually performed for analytical purposes, often after amplification of DNA via polymerase chain reaction (PCR), but may be used as a preparative technique prior to use of other methods such as mass spectrometry, RFLP, PCR, cloning, DNA sequencing, or Southern blotting for further characterization." ], [ "Physical basis", "Overview of gel electrophoresis.Electrophoresis is a process that enables the sorting of molecules based on size.", "Using an electric field, molecules (such as DNA) can be made to move through a gel made of agarose or polyacrylamide.", "The electric field consists of a negative charge at one end which pushes the molecules through the gel, and a positive charge at the other end that pulls the molecules through the gel.", "The molecules being sorted are dispensed into a well in the gel material.", "The gel is placed in an electrophoresis chamber, which is then connected to a power source.", "When the electric field is applied, the larger molecules move more slowly through the gel while the smaller molecules move faster.", "The different sized molecules form distinct bands on the gel.The term \"gel\" in this instance refers to the matrix used to contain, then separate the target molecules.", "In most cases, the gel is a crosslinked polymer whose composition and porosity are chosen based on the specific weight and composition of the target to be analyzed.", "When separating proteins or small nucleic acids (DNA, RNA, or oligonucleotides) the gel is usually composed of different concentrations of acrylamide and a cross-linker, producing different sized mesh networks of polyacrylamide.", "When separating larger nucleic acids (greater than a few hundred bases), the preferred matrix is purified agarose.", "In both cases, the gel forms a solid, yet porous matrix.", "Acrylamide, in contrast to polyacrylamide, is a neurotoxin and must be handled using appropriate safety precautions to avoid poisoning.", "Agarose is composed of long unbranched chains of uncharged carbohydrates without cross-links resulting in a gel with large pores allowing for the separation of macromolecules and macromolecular complexes.Electrophoresis refers to the electromotive force (EMF) that is used to move the molecules through the gel matrix.", "By placing the molecules in wells in the gel and applying an electric field, the molecules will move through the matrix at different rates, determined largely by their mass when the charge-to-mass ratio (Z) of all species is uniform.", "However, when charges are not all uniform the electrical field generated by the electrophoresis procedure will cause the molecules to migrate differentially according to charge.", "Species that are net positively charged will migrate towards the cathode which is negatively charged (because this is an electrolytic rather than galvanic cell), whereas species that are net negatively charged will migrate towards the positively charged anode.", "Mass remains a factor in the speed with which these non-uniformly charged molecules migrate through the matrix toward their respective electrodes.If several samples have been loaded into adjacent wells in the gel, they will run parallel in individual lanes.", "Depending on the number of different molecules, each lane shows the separation of the components from the original mixture as one or more distinct bands, one band per component.", "Incomplete separation of the components can lead to overlapping bands, or indistinguishable smears representing multiple unresolved components.", "Bands in different lanes that end up at the same distance from the top contain molecules that passed through the gel at the same speed, which usually means they are approximately the same size.", "There are molecular weight size markers available that contain a mixture of molecules of known sizes.", "If such a marker was run on one lane in the gel parallel to the unknown samples, the bands observed can be compared to those of the unknown to determine their size.", "The distance a band travels is approximately inversely proportional to the logarithm of the size of the molecule (alternatively, this can be stated as the distance traveled is inversely proportional to the log of samples's molecular weight).There are limits to electrophoretic techniques.", "Since passing a current through a gel causes heating, gels may melt during electrophoresis.", "Electrophoresis is performed in buffer solutions to reduce pH changes due to the electric field, which is important because the charge of DNA and RNA depends on pH, but running for too long can exhaust the buffering capacity of the solution.", "There are also limitations in determining the molecular weight by SDS-PAGE, especially when trying to find the MW of an unknown protein.", "Certain biological variables are difficult or impossible to minimize and can affect electrophoretic migration.", "Such factors include protein structure, post-translational modifications, and amino acid composition.", "For example, tropomyosin is an acidic protein that migrates abnormally on SDS-PAGE gels.", "This is because the acidic residues are repelled by the negatively charged SDS, leading to an inaccurate mass-to-charge ratio and migration.", "Further, different preparations of genetic material may not migrate consistently with each other, for morphological or other reasons." ], [ "Types of gel", "The types of gel most typically used are agarose and polyacrylamide gels.", "Each type of gel is well-suited to different types and sizes of the analyte.", "Polyacrylamide gels are usually used for proteins and have very high resolving power for small fragments of DNA (5-500 bp).", "Agarose gels, on the other hand, have lower resolving power for DNA but have a greater range of separation, and are therefore used for DNA fragments of usually 50–20,000 bp in size, but the resolution of over 6 Mb is possible with pulsed field gel electrophoresis (PFGE).", "Polyacrylamide gels are run in a vertical configuration while agarose gels are typically run horizontally in a submarine mode.", "They also differ in their casting methodology, as agarose sets thermally, while polyacrylamide forms in a chemical polymerization reaction.===Agarose===Inserting the gel comb in an agarose gel electrophoresis chamberAgarose gels are made from the natural polysaccharide polymers extracted from seaweed.Agarose gels are easily cast and handled compared to other matrices because the gel setting is a physical rather than chemical change.", "Samples are also easily recovered.", "After the experiment is finished, the resulting gel can be stored in a plastic bag in a refrigerator.Agarose gels do not have a uniform pore size, but are optimal for electrophoresis of proteins that are larger than 200 kDa.", "Agarose gel electrophoresis can also be used for the separation of DNA fragments ranging from 50 base pair to several megabases (millions of bases), the largest of which require specialized apparatus.", "The distance between DNA bands of different lengths is influenced by the percent agarose in the gel, with higher percentages requiring longer run times, sometimes days.", "Instead high percentage agarose gels should be run with a pulsed field electrophoresis (PFE), or field inversion electrophoresis.", "\"Most agarose gels are made with between 0.7% (good separation or resolution of large 5–10kb DNA fragments) and 2% (good resolution for small 0.2–1kb fragments) agarose dissolved in electrophoresis buffer.", "Up to 3% can be used for separating very tiny fragments but a vertical polyacrylamide gel is more appropriate in this case.", "Low percentage gels are very weak and may break when you try to lift them.", "High percentage gels are often brittle and do not set evenly.", "1% gels are common for many applications.", "\"===Polyacrylamide===Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE) is used for separating proteins ranging in size from 5 to 2,000 kDa due to the uniform pore size provided by the polyacrylamide gel.", "Pore size is controlled by modulating the concentrations of acrylamide and bis-acrylamide powder used in creating a gel.", "Care must be used when creating this type of gel, as acrylamide is a potent neurotoxin in its liquid and powdered forms.Traditional DNA sequencing techniques such as Maxam-Gilbert or Sanger methods used polyacrylamide gels to separate DNA fragments differing by a single base-pair in length so the sequence could be read.", "Most modern DNA separation methods now use agarose gels, except for particularly small DNA fragments.", "It is currently most often used in the field of immunology and protein analysis, often used to separate different proteins or isoforms of the same protein into separate bands.", "These can be transferred onto a nitrocellulose or PVDF membrane to be probed with antibodies and corresponding markers, such as in a western blot.Typically resolving gels are made in 6%, 8%, 10%, 12% or 15%.", "Stacking gel (5%) is poured on top of the resolving gel and a gel comb (which forms the wells and defines the lanes where proteins, sample buffer, and ladders will be placed) is inserted.", "The percentage chosen depends on the size of the protein that one wishes to identify or probe in the sample.", "The smaller the known weight, the higher the percentage that should be used.", "Changes in the buffer system of the gel can help to further resolve proteins of very small sizes.===Starch===Partially hydrolysed potato starch makes for another non-toxic medium for protein electrophoresis.", "The gels are slightly more opaque than acrylamide or agarose.", "Non-denatured proteins can be separated according to charge and size.", "They are visualised using Napthal Black or Amido Black staining.", "Typical starch gel concentrations are 5% to 10%." ], [ "Gel conditions", "===Denaturing===TTGE profiles representing the bifidobacterial diversity of fecal samples from two healthy volunteers (A and B) before and after AMC (Oral Amoxicillin-Clavulanic Acid) treatmentDenaturing gels are run under conditions that disrupt the natural structure of the analyte, causing it to unfold into a linear chain.", "Thus, the mobility of each macromolecule depends only on its linear length and its mass-to-charge ratio.", "Thus, the secondary, tertiary, and quaternary levels of biomolecular structure are disrupted, leaving only the primary structure to be analyzed.Nucleic acids are often denatured by including urea in the buffer, while proteins are denatured using sodium dodecyl sulfate, usually as part of the SDS-PAGE process.", "For full denaturation of proteins, it is also necessary to reduce the covalent disulfide bonds that stabilize their tertiary and quaternary structure, a method called reducing PAGE.", "Reducing conditions are usually maintained by the addition of beta-mercaptoethanol or dithiothreitol.", "For a general analysis of protein samples, reducing PAGE is the most common form of protein electrophoresis.Denaturing conditions are necessary for proper estimation of molecular weight of RNA.", "RNA is able to form more intramolecular interactions than DNA which may result in change of its electrophoretic mobility.", "Urea, DMSO and glyoxal are the most often used denaturing agents to disrupt RNA structure.", "Originally, highly toxic methylmercury hydroxide was often used in denaturing RNA electrophoresis, but it may be method of choice for some samples.Denaturing gel electrophoresis is used in the DNA and RNA banding pattern-based methods temperature gradient gel electrophoresis (TGGE) and denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE).===Native===Glucose-6-Phosphate Dehydrogenase isoenzymes in ''Plasmodium falciparum'' infected Red blood cellsNative gels are run in non-denaturing conditions so that the analyte's natural structure is maintained.", "This allows the physical size of the folded or assembled complex to affect the mobility, allowing for analysis of all four levels of the biomolecular structure.", "For biological samples, detergents are used only to the extent that they are necessary to lyse lipid membranes in the cell.", "Complexes remain—for the most part—associated and folded as they would be in the cell.", "One downside, however, is that complexes may not separate cleanly or predictably, as it is difficult to predict how the molecule's shape and size will affect its mobility.", "Addressing and solving this problem is a major aim of preparative native PAGE.Unlike denaturing methods, native gel electrophoresis does not use a charged denaturing agent.", "The molecules being separated (usually proteins or nucleic acids) therefore differ not only in molecular mass and intrinsic charge, but also the cross-sectional area, and thus experience different electrophoretic forces dependent on the shape of the overall structure.", "For proteins, since they remain in the native state they may be visualized not only by general protein staining reagents but also by specific enzyme-linked staining.A specific experiment example of an application of native gel electrophoresis is to check for enzymatic activity to verify the presence of the enzyme in the sample during protein purification.", "For example, for the protein alkaline phosphatase, the staining solution is a mixture of 4-chloro-2-2methylbenzenediazonium salt with 3-phospho-2-naphthoic acid-2'-4'-dimethyl aniline in Tris buffer.", "This stain is commercially sold as a kit for staining gels.", "If the protein is present, the mechanism of the reaction takes place in the following order: it starts with the de-phosphorylation of 3-phospho-2-naphthoic acid-2'-4'-dimethyl aniline by alkaline phosphatase (water is needed for the reaction).", "The phosphate group is released and replaced by an alcohol group from water.", "The electrophile 4- chloro-2-2 methylbenzenediazonium (Fast Red TR Diazonium salt) displaces the alcohol group forming the final product Red Azo dye.", "As its name implies, this is the final visible-red product of the reaction.", "In undergraduate academic experimentation of protein purification, the gel is usually run next to commercial purified samples to visualize the results and conclude whether or not purification was successful.Native gel electrophoresis is typically used in proteomics and metallomics.", "However, native PAGE is also used to scan genes (DNA) for unknown mutations as in single-strand conformation polymorphism." ], [ "Buffers", "Buffers in gel electrophoresis are used to provide ions that carry a current and to maintain the pH at a relatively constant value.These buffers have plenty of ions in them, which is necessary for the passage of electricity through them.", "Something like distilled water or benzene contains few ions, which is not ideal for the use in electrophoresis.", "There are a number of buffers used for electrophoresis.", "The most common being, for nucleic acids Tris/Acetate/EDTA (TAE), Tris/Borate/EDTA (TBE).", "Many other buffers have been proposed, e.g.", "lithium borate, which is rarely used, based on Pubmed citations (LB), isoelectric histidine, pK matched goods buffers, etc.", "; in most cases the purported rationale is lower current (less heat) matched ion mobilities, which leads to longer buffer life.", "Borate is problematic; Borate can polymerize, or interact with cis diols such as those found in RNA.", "TAE has the lowest buffering capacity but provides the best resolution for larger DNA.", "This means a lower voltage and more time, but a better product.", "LB is relatively new and is ineffective in resolving fragments larger than 5 kbp; However, with its low conductivity, a much higher voltage could be used (up to 35 V/cm), which means a shorter analysis time for routine electrophoresis.", "As low as one base pair size difference could be resolved in 3% agarose gel with an extremely low conductivity medium (1 mM Lithium borate).Most SDS-PAGE protein separations are performed using a \"discontinuous\" (or DISC) buffer system that significantly enhances the sharpness of the bands within the gel.", "During electrophoresis in a discontinuous gel system, an ion gradient is formed in the early stage of electrophoresis that causes all of the proteins to focus on a single sharp band in a process called isotachophoresis.", "Separation of the proteins by size is achieved in the lower, \"resolving\" region of the gel.", "The resolving gel typically has a much smaller pore size, which leads to a sieving effect that now determines the electrophoretic mobility of the proteins." ], [ "Visualization", "After the electrophoresis is complete, the molecules in the gel can be stained to make them visible.", "DNA may be visualized using ethidium bromide which, when intercalated into DNA, fluoresce under ultraviolet light, while protein may be visualised using silver stain or Coomassie brilliant blue dye.", "Other methods may also be used to visualize the separation of the mixture's components on the gel.", "If the molecules to be separated contain radioactivity, for example in a DNA sequencing gel, an autoradiogram can be recorded of the gel.", "Photographs can be taken of gels, often using a Gel Doc system.", "Gels are then commonly labelled for presentation and scientific records on the popular figure-creation website, SciUGo." ], [ "Downstream processing", "After separation, an additional separation method may then be used, such as isoelectric focusing or SDS-PAGE.", "The gel will then be physically cut, and the protein complexes extracted from each portion separately.", "Each extract may then be analysed, such as by peptide mass fingerprinting or de novo peptide sequencing after in-gel digestion.", "This can provide a great deal of information about the identities of the proteins in a complex." ], [ "Applications", "*Estimation of the size of DNA molecules following restriction enzyme digestion, e.g.", "in restriction mapping of cloned DNA.", "*Analysis of PCR products, e.g.", "in molecular genetic diagnosis or genetic fingerprinting*Separation of restricted genomic DNA prior to Southern transfer, or of RNA prior to Northern transfer.Gel electrophoresis is used in forensics, molecular biology, genetics, microbiology and biochemistry.", "The results can be analyzed quantitatively by visualizing the gel with UV light and a gel imaging device.", "The image is recorded with a computer-operated camera, and the intensity of the band or spot of interest is measured and compared against standard or markers loaded on the same gel.", "The measurement and analysis are mostly done with specialized software.Depending on the type of analysis being performed, other techniques are often implemented in conjunction with the results of gel electrophoresis, providing a wide range of field-specific applications.===Nucleic acids===PCR product compared to a DNA ladder.In the case of nucleic acids, the direction of migration, from negative to positive electrodes, is due to the naturally occurring negative charge carried by their sugar-phosphate backbone.Double-stranded DNA fragments naturally behave as long rods, so their migration through the gel is relative to their size or, for cyclic fragments, their radius of gyration.", "Circular DNA such as plasmids, however, may show multiple bands, the speed of migration may depend on whether it is relaxed or supercoiled.", "Single-stranded DNA or RNA tends to fold up into molecules with complex shapes and migrate through the gel in a complicated manner based on their tertiary structure.", "Therefore, agents that disrupt the hydrogen bonds, such as sodium hydroxide or formamide, are used to denature the nucleic acids and cause them to behave as long rods again.Gel electrophoresis of large DNA or RNA is usually done by agarose gel electrophoresis.", "See the \"chain termination method\" page for an example of a polyacrylamide DNA sequencing gel.", "Characterization through ligand interaction of nucleic acids or fragments may be performed by mobility shift affinity electrophoresis.Electrophoresis of RNA samples can be used to check for genomic DNA contamination and also for RNA degradation.", "RNA from eukaryotic organisms shows distinct bands of 28s and 18s rRNA, the 28s band being approximately twice as intense as the 18s band.", "Degraded RNA has less sharply defined bands, has a smeared appearance, and the intensity ratio is less than 2:1.===Proteins==='''SDS-PAGE autoradiography''' – The indicated proteins are present in different concentrations in the two samples.Proteins, unlike nucleic acids, can have varying charges and complex shapes, therefore they may not migrate into the polyacrylamide gel at similar rates, or all when placing a negative to positive EMF on the sample.", "Proteins, therefore, are usually denatured in the presence of a detergent such as sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) that coats the proteins with a negative charge.", "Generally, the amount of SDS bound is relative to the size of the protein (usually 1.4g SDS per gram of protein), so that the resulting denatured proteins have an overall negative charge, and all the proteins have a similar charge-to-mass ratio.", "Since denatured proteins act like long rods instead of having a complex tertiary shape, the rate at which the resulting SDS coated proteins migrate in the gel is relative only to their size and not their charge or shape.Proteins are usually analyzed by sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE), by native gel electrophoresis, by preparative native gel electrophoresis (QPNC-PAGE), or by 2-D electrophoresis.Characterization through ligand interaction may be performed by electroblotting or by affinity electrophoresis in agarose or by capillary electrophoresis as for estimation of binding constants and determination of structural features like glycan content through lectin binding.===Nanoparticles===A novel application for gel electrophoresis is the separation or characterization of metal or metal oxide nanoparticles (e.g.", "Au, Ag, ZnO, SiO2) regarding the size, shape, or surface chemistry of the nanoparticles.", "The scope is to obtain a more homogeneous sample (e.g.", "narrower particle size distribution), which then can be used in further products/processes (e.g.", "self-assembly processes).", "For the separation of nanoparticles within a gel, the key parameter is the ratio of the particle size to the mesh size, whereby two migration mechanisms were identified: the unrestricted mechanism, where the particle size << mesh size, and the restricted mechanism, where particle size is similar to mesh size." ], [ "History", "*1930s – first reports of the use of sucrose for gel electrophoresis; moving-boundary electrophoresis (Tiselius)*1950 – introduction of \"zone electrophoresis\" (Tiselius); paper electrophoresis*1955 – introduction of starch gels, mediocre separation (Smithies)*1959 – introduction of acrylamide gels; discontinuous electrophoresis (Ornstein and Davis); accurate control of parameters such as pore size and stability; and (Raymond and Weintraub)*1965 – introduction of free-flow electrophoresis (Hannig) *1966 – first use of agar gels*1969 – introduction of denaturing agents especially SDS separation of protein subunit (Weber and Osborn)*1970 – Lämmli separated 28 components of T4 phage using a stacking gel and SDS*1972 – agarose gels with ethidium bromide stain*1975 – 2-dimensional gels (O’Farrell); isoelectric focusing, then SDS gel electrophoresis*1977 – sequencing gels (Sanger)*1981 – introduction of capillary electrophoresis (Jorgenson and Lukacs)*1983 – pulsed-field gel electrophoresis enables separation of large DNA molecules (Sweeley)*2004 – introduction of a standardized polymerization time for acrylamide gel solutions to optimize gel properties, in particular gel stability, during electrophoresis (Kastenholz)A 1959 book on electrophoresis by Milan Bier cites references from the 1800s.", "However, Oliver Smithies made significant contributions.", "Bier states: \"The method of Smithies ... is finding wide application because of its unique separatory power.\"", "Taken in context, Bier clearly implies that Smithies' method is an improvement." ], [ "See also", "* History of electrophoresis* Electrophoretic mobility shift assay* Gel extraction* Isoelectric focusing* Pulsed field gel electrophoresis* Nonlinear frictiophoresis* Two-dimensional gel electrophoresis* SDD-AGE* QPNC-PAGE* Zymography* Fast parallel proteolysis* Free-flow electrophoresis" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Biotechniques Laboratory electrophoresis demonstration, from the University of Utah's Genetic Science Learning Center* Discontinuous native protein gel electrophoresis* Drinking straw electrophoresis* How to run a DNA or RNA gel* Animation of gel analysis of DNA restriction* Step by step photos of running a gel and extracting DNA*A typical method from wikiversity" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gary Lineker" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Gary Winston Lineker''' (; born 30 November 1960) is an English sports broadcaster and former professional footballer.", "Lineker is the only player to have been the top goalscorer in England with three clubs: Leicester City, Everton and Tottenham Hotspur.", "He also played for Barcelona in Spain, and won 80 caps for England.", "His media career began with the BBC, where he has presented the flagship football programme ''Match of the Day'' since the late 1990s, the longest tenure of any MOTD presenter.", "Lineker is also the BBC's lead presenter for live football matches, including coverage of international tournaments such as the FIFA World Cup.", "He has also worked for Al Jazeera Sports, Eredivisie Live, NBC Sports Network, and BT Sport's coverage of the UEFA Champions League.Lineker began his football career at Leicester City in 1978, and finished as the First Division's joint top goalscorer in 1984–85.He then moved to league champions Everton, where he won both the PFA Players' Player of the Year and FWA Footballer of the Year awards in his debut season, before moving to Spanish club Barcelona.", "Lineker placed 2nd in the 1986 Ballon d’Or for his performances at Everton after transferring to Barcelona.", "With the Spanish side, he won the 1987–88 Copa del Rey and the 1989 European Cup Winners' Cup.", "He joined Tottenham Hotspur in 1989, and won his second FWA Footballer of the Year and won the FA Cup, his first and only major trophy in English football.", "Lineker's final club was Nagoya Grampus Eight; he retired in 1994 after two seasons at the Japanese side.Lineker made his England debut in 1984, earning 80 caps and scoring 48 goals over an eight-year international career, which made him England's second-highest international goalscorer on his retirement.", "He remains England's fourth-highest scorer, behind Harry Kane, Wayne Rooney and Bobby Charlton, and his international goals-to-games ratio remains one of the best for the country.", "His six goals in the 1986 FIFA World Cup made him the tournament's top scorer, receiving the Golden Boot.", "Lineker was again integral to England's progress to the semi-finals of the 1990 World Cup, scoring another four goals.", "He still holds England's record for goals in the FIFA World Cup.Lineker never received a yellow or red card during his career, and he also never won a top-flight league title.", "He was honoured in 1990 with the FIFA Fair Play Award.", "In a senior career which spanned 16 years and 654 competitive games, Lineker scored a total of 331 goals, including 283 goals at club level.", "After his retirement from football he was inducted into the English Football Hall of Fame.", "A keen supporter of Leicester City, he led a consortium in 2002 that invested in his old club, saving it from bankruptcy, and was appointed honorary vice-president." ], [ "Early life", "Gary Winston Lineker was born on 30 November 1960 in Leicester, the son of Margaret P. (Abbs) and Barry Lineker.", "He was given his middle name in honour of Winston Churchill, with whom he shares a birthday.", "He has one brother, Wayne, who is two years his junior.", "Lineker grew up with his family in the city, playing football with Wayne.", "Their father was a greengrocer, as were their grandfather William and great-grandfather George, in Leicester.", "Barry Lineker ran Lineker's fruit and veg stall in Leicester Market, and as a child and a young player Gary regularly helped out on the stall.", "Lineker, who is white, received racial abuse as a child for his dark features.Lineker first attended Caldecote Road School (Caldecote Juniors), Braunstone in Leicester (east of the Meridian Centre).", "He then went to the City of Leicester Boys' Grammar School (now City of Leicester College) on Downing Drive in Evington, owing to his preference for football rather than rugby, which was the main sport of most schools near his home.", "Lineker was equally talented at both football and cricket.", "From the ages of 11 to 16 he captained the Leicestershire Schools cricket team, and had felt that he had a higher chance of succeeding at it rather than football.", "He later stated on ''They Think It's All Over'' that as a teenager he idolised former England captain David Gower, who was playing for Leicestershire at the time.", "During his youth he played for Aylestone Park Youth, later becoming the club's president.Lineker left school with four O Levels.", "One of his teachers wrote on his report card that he \"concentrates too much on football\" and that he would \"never make a living at that\".", "He then joined the youth academy at Leicester City in 1976." ], [ "Club career", "===Leicester City===Lineker began his career at his hometown club Leicester City after leaving school in 1977, turning professional in the 1978–79 season and making his senior debut on New Year's Day 1979 in a 2–0 win at Filbert Street over Oldham Athletic in the Second Division.", "He earned a Second Division title medal a year later with 19 appearances, but played just nine league games in 1980–81 as Leicester went straight back down.However, he became a regular player in 1981–82, scoring 19 goals in all competitions that season.", "Although Leicester missed out on promotion, they reached the semi-finals of the FA Cup, and clinched promotion a year later as Lineker scored 26 times in the Second Division.", "In 1983–84, he enjoyed regular First Division action for the first time and was the division's second-highest scorer with 22 goals, although Leicester failed to finish anywhere near the top of the league.", "He was the First Division's joint top scorer in 1984–85 with 24 goals, and was enjoying a prolific partnership with Alan Smith.", "However, by this stage he was attracting the attention of bigger clubs, and a move from Filbert Street was looking certain.===Everton===In the 1985 close season, defending league champions Everton signed Lineker for £800,000; he scored 40 goals in 57 games for his new team in the 1985–86 season.", "Lineker's first game for Everton happened to be away to Leicester City; at half time, he walked into the Leicester dressing room by mistake.", "He was again the First Division's leading goal scorer, this time with 30 goals (including three hat-tricks), and helped Everton finish second in the league.", "While at Everton, they reached the FA Cup final for the third consecutive year but lost 3–1 to Liverpool, despite Lineker giving them an early lead when he outpaced Alan Hansen to score.", "Liverpool had also pipped Everton to the title by just two points.", "\"I was only on Merseyside a short time, nine or 10 months in total really, but it was still a happy time personally, while professionally it was one of the most successful periods of my career\", he says.", "\"I still have an affinity towards Everton.", "\"Lineker scored three hat-tricks for Everton; at home to Birmingham City in a 4–1 league win on 31 August 1985, at home to Manchester City in a 4–0 win on 11 February 1986, and then in the penultimate league game of the season on 3 May 1986, when they kept their title hopes alive with a 6–1 home win over Southampton.", "On his final league appearance, he scored twice in a 3–1 home win over West Ham United whose own title hopes had just disappeared.", "However, he and his colleagues were denied title glory as Liverpool also won their final league game of the season at Chelsea.Lineker has consistently stated since retiring from football that this Everton team was the best club side he ever played in.===Barcelona===After winning the Golden Boot at the 1986 World Cup in Mexico, Lineker was signed by Barcelona for £2.8 million.", "Barcelona were being managed by former Queens Park Rangers manager Terry Venables, who had also brought in Manchester United and Wales striker Mark Hughes.", "Barcelona gave Lineker his first chance of European football, as Leicester had never qualified for Europe while he played for them, and Everton were denied a place in the European Cup for 1985–86 due to the ban on English clubs in European competitions following the Heysel disaster.Lineker's Golden Boot-winning performance at the World Cup generated much anticipation of success at the Camp Nou, and he scored 21 goals in 41 games during his first season, including a hat-trick in a 3–2 win over archrivals Real Madrid.", "He made his Barcelona debut against Racing Santander, scoring twice.", "Barcelona went on to win the Copa del Rey in 1988 and the European Cup Winners' Cup in 1989.Lineker played in Barcelona's shock home and away defeats to Dundee United.", "Barcelona manager Johan Cruyff decided to play Lineker on the right of the midfield and he was eventually no longer an automatic choice in the team.With 42 goals in 103 La Liga appearances, Lineker became the highest scoring British player in the competition's history, but was later surpassed by Gareth Bale in March 2016.===Tottenham Hotspur===Manchester United manager Alex Ferguson attempted to sign Lineker to partner his ex-Barcelona teammate Mark Hughes in attack, but Lineker instead signed for Tottenham Hotspur in July 1989 for £1.1 million.", "Over three seasons, he scored 67 goals in 105 league games and won the FA Cup while playing for the club.", "He finished as top scorer in the First Division in the 1989–90 season, scoring 24 goals as Spurs finished third.He finally collected an English trophy when he won the 1991 FA Cup Final with Spurs, who beat Nottingham Forest 2–1.This was despite Lineker having a goal controversially disallowed for offside and also having a penalty saved by goalkeeper Mark Crossley.", "Lineker had contributed to Tottenham's run to the final.", "In the semi-final he scored twice in a 3–1 win over North London rivals Arsenal.He was the top division's second-highest goalscorer in 1991–92 with 28 goals from 35 games, behind Ian Wright, who scored 29 times in 42 games.", "Despite Lineker's personal performance, Tottenham finished this final pre-Premier League season in 15th place.", "His last goal in English football came on the last day of the season in a 3–1 defeat to Manchester United at Old Trafford.===Nagoya Grampus Eight===In November 1991, Lineker accepted an offer of a two-year contract from J1 League club Nagoya Grampus Eight.", "The transfer fee paid to Tottenham Hotspur was £2 million.", "He officially joined Nagoya Grampus Eight after playing his final game for Spurs on 2 May 1992, when he scored the consolation goal in a 3–1 defeat by Manchester United on the last day of the season.", "Shortly before accepting the offer from Nagoya Grampus Eight, Tottenham had rejected an offer from ambitious Second Division club Blackburn Rovers, who had recently been taken over by steel baron Jack Walker.Having scored 9 goals in 23 appearances over two injury impacted seasons for Nagoya Grampus Eight, he announced his retirement from playing in September 1994.The English national media had previously reported that he would be returning to England to complete his playing career at Middlesbrough or Southampton." ], [ "International career", "Lineker was capped once by the England B national team, playing in a 2–0 home win over New Zealand's B team on 13 November 1984.He first played for the full England team against Scotland in 1984.He played five games in the 1986 World Cup and was top scorer of the tournament with six goals, winning the Golden Boot, making him the first English player to have done so.", "He scored the second quickest hat-trick ever at a FIFA World Cup tournament against Poland, the second English player to score a hat-trick at a World Cup, and scored two goals against Paraguay in the second round.", "He played most of the tournament wearing a lightweight cast on his forearm.", "He scored for England in the World Cup quarter-final against Argentina, but the game ended in defeat as Diego Maradona scored twice for the opposition (the first goal being the \"Hand of God\" handball, and the second being the \"Goal of the Century\").", "In 1988, Lineker played in Euro 88, but failed to score as England lost all three Group games.", "It was later established that he had been suffering from hepatitis.In the 1990 World Cup, he scored four goals to help England reach the semi-finals.", "He was unwell during the tournament, and accidentally defecated in his shorts during the opening group game against the Republic of Ireland.", "After Andreas Brehme sent England 1–0 down in the semi-final, Lineker received a pass from Paul Parker and escaped two West German defenders on his way to scoring the equaliser, but the West Germans triumphed in the penalty shoot-out and went on to win the trophy.", "Later he said: \"Football is a simple game; 22 men chase a ball for 90 minutes and at the end, the Germans win.\"", "Lineker's equaliser appears in the popular England national team anthem, \"Three Lions\", with the lyric \"When Lineker scored\".He retired from international football with eighty caps and forty-eight goals, one fewer goal than Sir Bobby Charlton's England record (which Charlton accrued over 106 caps).", "In what proved to be his last England match, against Sweden at Euro 92, he was substituted by England coach Graham Taylor in favour of Arsenal striker Alan Smith, ultimately denying him the chance to equal—or even better—Charlton's record.", "He had earlier missed a penalty that would have brought him level, in a pre-tournament friendly against Brazil.", "He was visibly upset at the decision, not looking at Taylor as he took the bench.He scored four goals in an England match on two occasions and is one of very few players never to have been given a yellow card or a red card in any type of game." ], [ "Media career", "=== Sports presenting ===Following retirement from professional football, Lineker developed a career in the media, initially on the BBC for Radio 5 Live and as a football pundit.", "He appeared as a team captain on the sports game show ''They Think It's All Over'' from 1995 to 2003.He also presented ''Grandstand'' in the London studio while then-presenter Desmond Lynam was in Aintree when the Grand National was abandoned because of a bomb alert at the racecourse in 1997.In 1999, he replaced Lynam as the BBC's anchorman for football coverage, including its flagship football television programme ''Match of the Day'', becoming BBC Sport's highest paid presenter.", "Following the departure of Steve Rider from the BBC in 2005, Lineker, who is a keen recreational golfer with a handicap of four, became the new presenter for the corporation's golf coverage.", "Despite receiving some criticism from his peers, he continued to front the BBC's coverage of the Masters and The Open.In 2005, Lineker was sued for defamation by Australian footballer Harry Kewell over comments Lineker had made writing in his column in ''The Sunday Telegraph'' about Kewell's transfer from Leeds United to Liverpool.", "However, the jury was unable to reach a verdict.", "It became known during the case that the article had actually been ghost-written by a journalist at ''The Sunday Telegraph'' following a telephone interview with Lineker.In May 2010, Lineker resigned from his role as columnist for ''The Mail on Sunday'' in protest over the sting operation against Lord Triesman that reportedly jeopardised England's bid to host the 2018 World Cup.", "Triesman resigned as chairman of the bid and the FA on 16 May 2010 after the publication of a secret recording of a conversation between the peer and a former ministerial aide, during which he claimed that Spain and Russia were planning to bribe referees at the World Cup in South Africa.Lineker then began working as an anchor for the English language football coverage for Al Jazeera Sport, which is broadcast throughout most of the Middle East.", "He left the Qatar-based network in 2012.In 2013, Lineker began working for NBCSN as part of their Premier League coverage and contributing to the US version of ''Match of the Day''.", "On 9 June 2015, Lineker was unveiled as the lead presenter of BT Sport's Champions League coverage.", "On 13 August 2016, Lineker presented the first ''Match of the Day'' of the 2016–17 season wearing only boxer shorts.", "Believing it would simply not happen, he had promised in a tweet from December 2015 that if Leicester City won the Premier League, he would \"present Match of the Day in just my undies\".As of July 2022, Lineker is the highest-paid BBC presenter and has been for several years; receiving payments of £1.75–1.76 million each year between 2016 and 2020, and approximately £1.35 million in 2020-21.His pay has been criticised by Julian Knight, chair of the parliamentary Digital, Culture, Media and Sport Committee, and Dame Esther Rantzen.", "The BBC's Director General, Tim Davie, stated that Lineker's pay was justified \"because of the value of analysis to the viewing audience\".In March 2023, Lineker was required to step back from presenting on the BBC for three days due to a controversy over his criticism of the British government's immigration policy on Twitter.=== Walkers commercials ===Lineker has appeared in television commercials for the Leicester-based snack company Walkers.", "Originally signing a £200,000 deal in 1994, his first advert was 1995's \"Welcome Home\" (Lineker had recently returned to England having played in Japan).", "Walkers temporarily named their salt and vinegar crisps after Lineker, labelling them 'Salt & Lineker', in the late 1990s.", "In 2000, Lineker's Walkers commercials were ranked ninth in Channel 4's poll of \"The 100 Greatest TV Ads\".=== Other media appearances ===Lineker participated in Prince Edward's charity television special ''The Grand Knockout Tournament'' in 1987.He also appeared in the 1991 play ''An Evening with Gary Lineker'' by Arthur Smith and Chris England, which was adapted for television in 1994.He presented a six-part TV series for the BBC in 1998 (directed by Lloyd Stanton) called ''Golden Boots'', with other football celebrities.", "It was an extensive history of the World Cup focusing on the 'Golden Boots' (top scorers).In 2006, Lineker took on an acting role as the voice of ''Underground Ernie'' on the BBC's children's channel, CBeebies.", "In December 2008, Lineker appeared on the ITV1 television programme ''Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?''", "where he and English rugby union player Austin Healey won £50,000 for the Nicholls Spinal Injury Foundation.", "In 2009, Lineker and his wife Danielle hosted a series of the BBC's ''Northern Exposure'', following on from Laurence Llewelyn-Bowen from the previous year in visiting and showcasing locations throughout Northern Ireland.Lineker has made a number of cameo appearances in TV shows and movies, such as the 2002 film ''Bend It Like Beckham,'' the 2014 BBC TV film ''Marvellous'', and a number of appearances in the Apple TV+ football comedy TV series ''Ted Lasso''.", "In 2013, Lineker participated in the genealogical programme ''Who Do You Think You Are?''", "during which he discovered an ancestor who was a poacher, and another who was a legal clerk.", "In 2021, Lineker started hosting the ITV game show ''Sitting on a Fortune''.===Goalhanger Films and Podcasts===In May 2014, Lineker established his own production company Goalhanger Films Ltd. with former ITV Controller Tony Pastor.", "During the 2014 FIFA World Cup, Lineker presented several short videos produced by Goalhanger Films on YouTube with the title ''Blahzil''.", "In May 2015, the company produced a 60-minute-long documentary presented by Lineker titled ''Gary Lineker on the Road to FA Cup Glory'' for the BBC.He also operates Goalhanger Podcasts, which produces ''Leading'', ''The Rest is History'', ''The Rest is Politics'' and his own podcast, ''The Rest is Football'', which he hosts with Alan Shearer and Micah Richards." ], [ "Personal life", "Lineker in 2009Lineker married Michelle Cockayne in 1986.In May 2006, Cockayne filed for divorce on the grounds of her husband's alleged \"unreasonable behaviour\", with documents submitted to the court claiming that Lineker's actions in their marriage had caused her \"stress and anxiety\".", "Lineker and she have four sons: George, Harry, Tobias and Angus.", "The couple subsequently stated that the situation was amicable.In November 1991, George, Lineker's eldest son, survived a rare form of leukaemia whilst he was a baby, and was treated at Great Ormond Street Hospital in London.", "Lineker now supports children's cancer charity CLIC Sargent and has appeared in promotional clips encouraging people to give blood.", "Lineker has been actively involved with other cancer charities such as Leukaemia Busters, where between 1994 and 2005 Gary and Michelle were the charity's patrons.", "He has also been involved with the Fight for Life and Cancer Research UK charities.Lineker was made a freeman of the City of Leicester in 1995 and he has been referred to as \"Leicester's favourite son\".In October 2002, Lineker backed a £5 million bid to rescue his former club Leicester City, which had recently gone into administration, describing his involvement as \"charity\" rather than an \"ego trip\".", "He stated that he would invest a six-figure sum and that other members of his consortium would invest a similar amount.", "Lineker met with fans' groups to persuade them to try and raise money to rescue his former club.", "The club was eventually saved from liquidation.", "He is now honorary Vice President of Leicester City F.C.Gary and Danielle Lineker at The Asian Awards in 2015Lineker married Danielle Bux on 2 September 2009, in Ravello, Italy.", "On 13 January 2016, Lineker and Bux announced they were divorcing, after six years of marriage, the reason given being Gary not wanting more children.In 1985, Lineker was best man at snooker player Willie Thorne's wedding and their close friendship was the subject of the VHS production, ''Best of Friends – The Official Story of Gary Lineker & Willie Thorne''.In November 2017, Lineker was named in the Paradise Papers in connection with a tax avoidance scheme relating to property owned in Barbados and a company set up in the British Virgin Islands.Lineker speaks Spanish, which he learnt during his time playing for FC Barcelona, and is an advocate for the teaching of foreign languages in schools.In April 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic, Lineker announced that he was donating £140,000 to the British Red Cross towards research into the virus.On 28 March 2023 he won an appeal against HM Revenue and Customs over a bill that totalled £4.9 million.", "The authority had pursued him over taxes on income from BBC and BT Sport from 2013–14 to 2017–18 on the grounds he was an employee of both organisations at the time.", "A judge ruled he was a freelancer and had contracts with both broadcasters.===Political views===Lineker has been noted for political views which he shares on Twitter.", "In December 2016, he was described by Angus Harrison of Vice News as \"the British Left's Loudest Voice\" for being \"both staunchly liberal and resolutely unafraid of making his views known\".", "Using a football analogy, Lineker defined his ideological position as \"I make more runs to the left than the right, but never felt comfortable on the wing\".", "After the 2017 United Kingdom general election, in which Theresa May led the Conservatives and Jeremy Corbyn led Labour, Lineker wrote \"Anyone else feel politically homeless?", "Everything seems far right or way left.", "Something sensibly centrist might appeal?", "\"Lineker endorsed a Remain vote in the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum.", "In July 2018, he announced his support for People's Vote, a campaign group calling for a public vote on the final Brexit deal between the UK and the European Union.On 18 October 2016, Lineker tweeted a rebuttal to a statement made by MP David Davies where Davies suggested refugees entering the UK should undergo dental checks to verify their age: \"The treatment by some towards these young refugees is hideously racist and utterly heartless.", "What's happening to our country?\"", "This led ''The Sun'' to call for Lineker's sacking from ''Match of the Day'', accusing him of breaching BBC impartiality guidelines.In December 2018, Lineker was criticised by the BBC's cricket correspondent Jonathan Agnew for expressing his political views on Twitter.", "Agnew said, \"You are the face of BBC Sport.", "Please observe BBC editorial guidelines and keep your political views, whatever they are and whatever the subject, to yourself.", "I'd be sacked if I followed your example.\"", "A BBC spokesperson said, \"Gary is not involved in any news or political output for the BBC and as such, any expression of his personal political views does not affect the BBC's impartiality.", "\"In October 2022, a complaint about a tweet from Lineker that referred to donations to the Conservative Party was upheld by the BBC, on the grounds that it breached social media use guidelines and failed to meet editorial standards of impartiality.", "During the 2022 World Cup, Qatari lawyer Hassan Al-Thawadi criticised Lineker for covering human rights violations in Qatar by stating that he did not talk about such issues with other host countries.", "In response, Lineker countered on ''The News Agents'' podcast that he covered issues in other host countries, and characterised the United States, which is hosting the 2026 FIFA World Cup, as an \"extraordinarily racist country\".", "His statements on the United States were criticised by Culture Secretary Michelle Donelan in January 2023, who stated that \"I'm thinking their most recent one was when he Lineker was over in Qatar, and he did an interview… and he referenced America and there were some very derogatory questionable comments.", "\"==== 2023 controversy and suspension from ''Match of the Day'' ====In March 2023, Lineker criticised the British government's asylum policy via Twitter.", "Commenting on a video message by the Home Secretary, Suella Braverman, about stopping migrants crossing the English Channel in small boats, he said the message was \"beyond awful\" and called the government's policy \"an immeasurably cruel policy directed at the most vulnerable people in language that is not dissimilar to that used by Germany in the 30s\".", "The comments received condemnation from some Conservative politicians, including Braverman herself, and a spokesperson for Labour leader Keir Starmer said comparisons with 1930s Germany \"aren't always the best way\" to make an argument.", "Lineker received support from other political figures, including Baron Dubs, Alastair Campbell, and Angela Rayner.", "A BBC source said the corporation was taking the matter \"seriously\" and expected to have a \"frank conversation\" with Lineker.", "The BBC's culture and media editor Katie Razzall wrote, \"As the UK's most scrutinised media organisation in increasingly polarised times, to say Gary Lineker's recent tweets cause difficulty for the BBC is an understatement.\"", "Lineker said he stood by his comments and did not fear suspension from his BBC work.On 10 March, the BBC said Lineker would step back from his job on ''Match of the Day'' because it considered \"his recent social media activity to be a breach of our guidelines\".", "It added it had \"decided Lineker will not present ''Match of the Day'' until there's an agreed and clear position on his use of social media\".", "Lineker's BBC Sport colleagues Ian Wright, Alan Shearer, Steve Wilson, Conor McNamara, Robyn Cowen, Steven Wyeth, Alex Scott, Jason Mohammad, Mark Chapman, Jermaine Jenas, Dion Dublin and Jermain Defoe all pulled out of their respective roles in BBC programmes in the next hours in solidarity with him.", "As a result, the broadcaster was forced to reduce its sports-related schedules for 11 and 12 March, with ''Match of the Day'' going ahead without any hosts or studio presentation, thus featuring only match footage.", "It also affected the BBC World Service's English-language programme ''Sportsworld'', which was not aired on that day and was instead replaced with alternative programming.", "The BBC and Lineker issued coordinated statements on 13 March.", "Lineker's suspension was ended and the BBC announced it would initiate an independent review of its social media guidelines and how they apply to freelancers outside news.", "The BBC's director-general, Tim Davie, stated that Lineker had agreed to abide by the corporation's editorial guidelines until the review into them has been completed.Since the controversy, Lineker has continued to use Twitter to comment on political issues.", "On 21 November 2023, he tweeted: \"Worth 13 minutes of anyone's time.\"", "The tweet was accompanied by a link to an interview between Owen Jones and Raz Segal, in which Segal stated that Israel's actions in the Israel–Hamas war were \"a textbook case of genocide\".", "Lineker's tweet was interpreted by some to be an endorsement of Segal's views.", "Later, Lineker signed an open letter criticising the government's proposal to send asylum seekers back to Rwanda.", "Defence Secretary Grant Shapps, Conservative party deputy chairman Lee Anderson, and Jonathan Gullis accused him of violating impartiality and lodged a complaint with the BBC." ], [ "Career statistics", "===Club===+ Appearances and goals by club, season and competitionClubSeasonLeagueNational cupLeague cupContinentalOtherTotalDivisionAppsGoalsAppsGoalsAppsGoalsAppsGoalsAppsGoalsAppsGoalsLeicester CitySecond Division71————711979–80Second Division19310———2031980–81First Division9211———1031981–82Second Division39175230——47191982–83Second Division40261020——43261983–84First Division39221010——41221984–85First Division41244332——4829Total1949513692——216103Everton1985–86First Division41306553—525740Barcelona1986–87La Liga412011—80—50211987–88La Liga361652—82—49201988–89La Liga26641—84103811Total10342104—2461013852Tottenham Hotspur1989–90First Division38241062——45261990–91First Division32156351——43191991–92First Division3528204582105035Total1056793158821013880Nagoya Grampus Eight1993J League710054——1251994J League1130010——123Total1840064——248Total4612383818351732872573283===International===+ Appearances and goals by national team and yearNational teamYearAppsGoalsEngland1984101985961986108198779198810319899319901581991119199282Total8048Lineker earned his first cap for England in 1984 against Scotland during the 1983–84 British Home Championship.", "He played his last game for England in a 2–1 loss against Sweden in a Euro 1992 group stage match.", "He almost equalled the England goalscoring record, held at the time by Bobby Charlton, in a pre-tournament friendly against Brazil, but he missed a penalty kick, leaving him one goal short of Charlton's total, which was overtaken by Wayne Rooney in 2015.:''Scores and results list England's goal tally first, score column indicates score after each Lineker goal''.+ List of international goals scored by Gary LinekerNo.DateVenueCapOpponentScoreResultCompetition126 March 1985Wembley Stadium, London, England22–12–1Friendly216 June 1985Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum, Los Angeles, United States71–05–0Friendly33–05–0416 October 1985Wembley Stadium, London, England92–05–01986 FIFA World Cup qualification54–065–0711 June 1986Estadio Tecnológico, Monterrey, Mexico161–03–01986 FIFA World Cup82–093–01018 June 1986Estadio Azteca, Mexico City, Mexico171–03–01986 FIFA World Cup113–01222 June 1986Estadio Azteca, Mexico City, Mexico181–21–21986 FIFA World Cup1315 October 1986Wembley Stadium, London, England191–03–0UEFA Euro 1988 qualification143–01518 February 1987Santiago Bernabéu Stadium, Madrid, Spain211–14–2Friendly162–1173–1184–11919 May 1987Wembley Stadium, London, England241–11–11987 Rous Cup209 September 1987Rheinstadion, Düsseldorf, Germany251–21–3Friendly2114 October 1987Wembley Stadium, London, England262–08–0UEFA Euro 1988 qualification224–0237–02423 March 1988Wembley Stadium, London, England281–02–2Friendly2524 May 1988Wembley Stadium, London, England311–01–11988 Rous Cup267 September 1988Stade Olympique de la Pontaise, Lausanne, Switzerland321–01–0Friendly2726 April 1989Wembley Stadium, London, England402–05–01990 FIFA World Cup qualification283 June 1989Wembley Stadium, London, England411–03–01990 FIFA World Cup qualification297 July 1989Københavns Idrætspark, Copenhagen, Denmark421–01–1Friendly3028 March 1990Wembley Stadium, London, England471–01–0Friendly3115 May 1990491–01–0Friendly3211 June 1990Stadio Sant'Elia, Cagliari, Italy521–01–11990 FIFA World Cup331 July 1990Stadio San Paolo, Naples, Italy562–23–2 1990 FIFA World Cup343–2354 July 1990Stadio delle Alpi, Turin, Italy571–11–1 1990 FIFA World Cup3622 September 1990Wembley Stadium, London, England591–01–0Friendly3717 October 1990Wembley Stadium, London, England601–02–0UEFA Euro 1992 qualification386 February 1991Wembley Stadium, London, England621–02–0Friendly392–04025 May 1991Wembley Stadium, London, England651–02–21991 England Challenge Cup413 June 1991Mount Smart Stadium, Auckland, New Zealand671–01–0Friendly4212 June 1991Stadium Merdeka, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia681–04–2Friendly432–0443–0454–14613 November 1991Stadion Miejski, Poznań, Poland711–11–1UEFA Euro 1992 qualification4719 February 1992Wembley Stadium, London, England722–02–0Friendly4829 April 1992Luzhniki Stadium, Moscow, Russia741–02–2Friendly" ], [ "Honours", "'''Leicester City'''* Football League Second Division: 1979–80'''Everton'''* FA Charity Shield: 1985'''Barcelona'''* European Cup Winners' Cup: 1988–89* Copa del Rey: 1987–88'''Tottenham Hotspur'''* FA Cup: 1990–91* FA Charity Shield: 1991 (shared)'''Individual'''* English Football Hall of Fame: 2003* PFA Team of the Century (1977–1996): 2007* PFA Players' Player of the Year: 1985–86* FWA Footballer of the Year: 1985–86, 1991–92* PFA Team of the Year: 1989–90 First Division, 1991–92 First Division* English First Division top scorer: 1984–85, 1985–86, 1989–90* English Second Division top scorer: 1982–83* Ballon d'Or runner-up: 1986* FIFA 100* FIFA World Cup Golden Boot: 1986* FIFA World Cup All-Star Team: 1986* Onze de Bronze: 1986* FIFA World Player of the Year bronze award: 1991* FIFA Fair Play Award: 1990* FWA Tribute Award: 1997" ], [ "Fellowships", "Lineker is a Visiting Fellow of Lady Margaret Hall, University of Oxford, appointed 2020." ], [ "Honours and awards", "In 1992, he received an Honorary Master of Arts award from Loughborough University." ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "* * * * * Lineker's first goal in Jleague – J.League official" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Golgi apparatus" ], [ "Introduction", "Micrograph of Golgi apparatus, visible as a stack of semicircular black rings near the bottom.", "Numerous circular vesicles can be seen in proximity to the organelle.The '''Golgi apparatus''' (), also known as the '''Golgi complex''', '''Golgi body''', or simply the '''Golgi''', is an organelle found in most eukaryotic cells.", "Part of the endomembrane system in the cytoplasm, it packages proteins into membrane-bound vesicles inside the cell before the vesicles are sent to their destination.", "It resides at the intersection of the secretory, lysosomal, and endocytic pathways.", "It is of particular importance in processing proteins for secretion, containing a set of glycosylation enzymes that attach various sugar monomers to proteins as the proteins move through the apparatus.It was identified in 1897 by the Italian biologist and pathologist Camillo Golgi and was named after him in 1898." ], [ "Discovery", "Owing to its large size and distinctive structure, the Golgi apparatus was one of the first organelles to be discovered and observed in detail.", "It was discovered in 1898 by Italian physician Camillo Golgi during an investigation of the nervous system.", "After first observing it under his microscope, he termed the structure as ''apparato reticolare interno'' (\"internal reticular apparatus\").", "Some doubted the discovery at first, arguing that the appearance of the structure was merely an optical illusion created by the observation technique used by Golgi.", "With the development of modern microscopes in the twentieth century, the discovery was confirmed.", "Early references to the Golgi apparatus referred to it by various names including the \"Golgi–Holmgren apparatus\", \"Golgi–Holmgren ducts\", and \"Golgi–Kopsch apparatus\".", "The term \"Golgi apparatus\" was used in 1910 and first appeared in the scientific literature in 1913, while \"Golgi complex\" was introduced in 1956." ], [ "Subcellular localization", "The subcellular localization of the Golgi apparatus varies among eukaryotes.", "In mammals, a single Golgi apparatus is usually located near the cell nucleus, close to the centrosome.", "Tubular connections are responsible for linking the stacks together.", "Localization and tubular connections of the Golgi apparatus are dependent on microtubules.", "In experiments it is seen that as microtubules are depolymerized the Golgi apparatuses lose mutual connections and become individual stacks throughout the cytoplasm.", "In yeast, multiple Golgi apparatuses are scattered throughout the cytoplasm (as observed in ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'').", "In plants, Golgi stacks are not concentrated at the centrosomal region and do not form Golgi ribbons.", "Organization of the plant Golgi depends on actin cables and not microtubules.", "The common feature among Golgi is that they are adjacent to endoplasmic reticulum (ER) exit sites." ], [ "Structure", "3D rendering of Golgi apparatusDiagram of a single \"stack\" of GolgiIn most eukaryotes, the Golgi apparatus is made up of a series of compartments and is a collection of fused, flattened membrane-enclosed disks known as cisternae (singular: ''cisterna'', also called \"dictyosomes\"), originating from vesicular clusters that bud off the endoplasmic reticulum.", "A mammalian cell typically contains 40 to 100 stacks of cisternae.", "Between four and eight cisternae are usually present in a stack; however, in some protists as many as sixty cisternae have been observed.", "This collection of cisternae is broken down into ''cis'', medial, and ''trans'' compartments, making up two main networks: the '''cis Golgi network''' (CGN) and the '''trans Golgi network''' (TGN).", "The CGN is the first cisternal structure, and the TGN is the final, from which proteins are packaged into vesicles destined to lysosomes, secretory vesicles, or the cell surface.", "The TGN is usually positioned adjacent to the stack, but can also be separate from it.", "The TGN may act as an early endosome in yeast and plants.There are structural and organizational differences in the Golgi apparatus among eukaryotes.", "In some yeasts, Golgi stacking is not observed.", "''Pichia pastoris'' does have stacked Golgi, while ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'' does not.", "In plants, the individual stacks of the Golgi apparatus seem to operate independently.The Golgi apparatus tends to be larger and more numerous in cells that synthesize and secrete large amounts of substances; for example, the antibody-secreting plasma B cells of the immune system have prominent Golgi complexes.In all eukaryotes, each cisternal stack has a ''cis'' entry face and a ''trans'' exit face.", "These faces are characterized by unique morphology and biochemistry.", "Within individual stacks are assortments of enzymes responsible for selectively modifying protein cargo.", "These modifications influence the fate of the protein.", "The compartmentalization of the Golgi apparatus is advantageous for separating enzymes, thereby maintaining consecutive and selective processing steps: enzymes catalyzing early modifications are gathered in the ''cis'' face cisternae, and enzymes catalyzing later modifications are found in ''trans'' face cisternae of the Golgi stacks." ], [ "Function", "The Golgi apparatus (salmon pink) in context of the secretory pathwayThe Golgi apparatus is a major collection and dispatch station of protein products received from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER).", "Proteins synthesized in the ER are packaged into vesicles, which then fuse with the Golgi apparatus.", "These cargo proteins are modified and destined for secretion via exocytosis or for use in the cell.", "In this respect, the Golgi can be thought of as similar to a post office: it packages and labels items which it then sends to different parts of the cell or to the extracellular space.", "The Golgi apparatus is also involved in lipid transport and lysosome formation.The structure and function of the Golgi apparatus are intimately linked.", "Individual stacks have different assortments of enzymes, allowing for progressive processing of cargo proteins as they travel from the cisternae to the trans Golgi face.", "Enzymatic reactions within the Golgi stacks occur exclusively near its membrane surfaces, where enzymes are anchored.", "This feature is in contrast to the ER, which has soluble proteins and enzymes in its lumen.", "Much of the enzymatic processing is post-translational modification of proteins.", "For example, phosphorylation of oligosaccharides on lysosomal proteins occurs in the early CGN.", "''Cis'' cisterna are associated with the removal of mannose residues.", "Removal of mannose residues and addition of N-acetylglucosamine occur in medial cisternae.", "Addition of galactose and sialic acid occurs in the ''trans'' cisternae.", "Sulfation of tyrosines and carbohydrates occurs within the TGN.", "Other general post-translational modifications of proteins include the addition of carbohydrates (glycosylation) and phosphates (phosphorylation).", "Protein modifications may form a signal sequence that determines the final destination of the protein.", "For example, the Golgi apparatus adds a mannose-6-phosphate label to proteins destined for lysosomes.", "Another important function of the Golgi apparatus is in the formation of proteoglycans.", "Enzymes in the Golgi append proteins to glycosaminoglycans, thus creating proteoglycans.", "Glycosaminoglycans are long unbranched polysaccharide molecules present in the extracellular matrix of animals." ], [ "Vesicular transport", "Diagram of secretory process from endoplasmic reticulum (orange) to Golgi apparatus (magenta).", "1.Nuclear membrane; 2.Nuclear pore; 3.Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER); 4.Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER); 5.Ribosome attached to RER; 6.Macromolecules; 7.Transport vesicles; 8.Golgi apparatus; 9.", "''Cis'' face of Golgi apparatus; 10.", "''Trans'' face of Golgi apparatus; 11.Cisternae of the Golgi apparatus.The vesicles that leave the rough endoplasmic reticulum are transported to the ''cis'' face of the Golgi apparatus, where they fuse with the Golgi membrane and empty their contents into the lumen.", "Once inside the lumen, the molecules are modified, then sorted for transport to their next destinations.Those proteins destined for areas of the cell other than either the endoplasmic reticulum or the Golgi apparatus are moved through the Golgi cisternae towards the ''trans'' face, to a complex network of membranes and associated vesicles known as the ''trans-Golgi network'' (TGN).", "This area of the Golgi is the point at which proteins are sorted and shipped to their intended destinations by their placement into one of at least three different types of vesicles, depending upon the signal sequence they carry.", "Types Description Example Exocytotic vesicles ''(constitutive)'' Vesicle contains proteins destined for extracellular release.", "After packaging, the vesicles bud off and immediately move towards the plasma membrane, where they fuse and release the contents into the extracellular space in a process known as ''constitutive secretion''.", "Antibody release by activated plasma B cells Secretory vesicles ''(regulated)'' Vesicles contain proteins destined for extracellular release.", "After packaging, the vesicles bud off and are stored in the cell until a signal is given for their release.", "When the appropriate signal is received they move toward the membrane and fuse to release their contents.", "This process is known as ''regulated secretion''.", "Neurotransmitter release from neurons Lysosomal vesicles Vesicles contain proteins and ribosomes destined for the lysosome, a degradative organelle containing many acid hydrolases, or to lysosome-like storage organelles.", "These proteins include both digestive enzymes and membrane proteins.", "The vesicle first fuses with the late endosome, and the contents are then transferred to the lysosome via unknown mechanisms.", "Digestive proteases destined for the lysosome" ], [ "Current models of vesicular transport and trafficking", "===Model 1: Anterograde vesicular transport between stable compartments===* In this model, the Golgi is viewed as a set of stable compartments that work together.", "Each compartment has a unique collection of enzymes that work to modify protein cargo.", "Proteins are delivered from the ER to the ''cis'' face using COPII-coated vesicles.", "Cargo then progress toward the ''trans'' face in COPI-coated vesicles.", "This model proposes that COPI vesicles move in two directions: anterograde vesicles carry secretory proteins, while retrograde vesicles recycle Golgi-specific trafficking proteins.", "** '''Strengths:''' The model explains observations of compartments, polarized distribution of enzymes, and waves of moving vesicles.", "It also attempts to explain how Golgi-specific enzymes are recycled.", "** '''Weaknesses:''' Since the amount of COPI vesicles varies drastically among types of cells, this model cannot easily explain high trafficking activity within the Golgi for both small and large cargoes.", "Additionally, there is no convincing evidence that COPI vesicles move in both the anterograde and retrograde directions.", "* This model was widely accepted from the early 1980s until the late 1990s.===Model 2: Cisternal progression/maturation===* In this model, the fusion of COPII vesicles from the ER begins the formation of the first ''cis''-cisterna of the Golgi stack, which progresses later to become mature TGN cisternae.", "Once matured, the TGN cisternae dissolve to become secretory vesicles.", "While this progression occurs, COPI vesicles continually recycle Golgi-specific proteins by delivery from older to younger cisternae.", "Different recycling patterns may account for the differing biochemistry throughout the Golgi stack.", "Thus, the compartments within the Golgi are seen as discrete kinetic stages of the maturing Golgi apparatus.", "** '''Strengths:''' The model addresses the existence of Golgi compartments, as well as differing biochemistry within the cisternae, transport of large proteins, transient formation and disintegration of the cisternae, and retrograde mobility of native Golgi proteins, and it can account for the variability seen in the structures of the Golgi.", "** '''Weaknesses:''' This model cannot easily explain the observation of fused Golgi networks, tubular connections among cisternae, and differing kinetics of secretory cargo exit.===Model 3: Cisternal progression/maturation with heterotypic tubular transport===* This model is an extension of the cisternal progression/maturation model.", "It incorporates the existence of tubular connections among the cisternae that form the Golgi ribbon, in which cisternae within a stack are linked.", "This model posits that the tubules are important for bidirectional traffic in the ER-Golgi system: they allow for fast anterograde traffic of small cargo and/or the retrograde traffic of native Golgi proteins.", "** '''Strengths:''' This model encompasses the strengths of the cisternal progression/maturation model that also explains rapid trafficking of cargo, and how native Golgi proteins can recycle independently of COPI vesicles.", "** '''Weaknesses:''' This model cannot explain the transport kinetics of large protein cargo, such as collagen.", "Additionally, tubular connections are not prevalent in plant cells.", "The roles that these connections have can be attributed to a cell-specific specialization rather than a universal trait.", "If the membranes are continuous, that suggests the existence of mechanisms that preserve the unique biochemical gradients observed throughout the Golgi apparatus.===Model 4: Rapid partitioning in a mixed Golgi===* This rapid partitioning model is the most drastic alteration of the traditional vesicular trafficking point of view.", "Proponents of this model hypothesize that the Golgi works as a single unit, containing domains that function separately in the processing and export of protein cargo.", "Cargo from the ER move between these two domains, and randomly exit from any level of the Golgi to their final location.", "This model is supported by the observation that cargo exits the Golgi in a pattern best described by exponential kinetics.", "The existence of domains is supported by fluorescence microscopy data.", "** '''Strengths:''' Notably, this model explains the exponential kinetics of cargo exit of both large and small proteins, whereas other models cannot.", "** '''Weaknesses:''' This model cannot explain the transport kinetics of large protein cargo, such as collagen.", "This model falls short on explaining the observation of discrete compartments and polarized biochemistry of the Golgi cisternae.", "It also does not explain formation and disintegration of the Golgi network, nor the role of COPI vesicles.===Model 5: Stable compartments as cisternal model progenitors===* This is the most recent model.", "In this model, the Golgi is seen as a collection of stable compartments defined by Rab (G-protein) GTPases.", "** '''Strengths:''' This model is consistent with numerous observations and encompasses some of the strengths of the cisternal progression/maturation model.", "Additionally, what is known of the Rab GTPase roles in mammalian endosomes can help predict putative roles within the Golgi.", "This model is unique in that it can explain the observation of \"megavesicle\" transport intermediates.", "** '''Weaknesses:''' This model does not explain morphological variations in the Golgi apparatus, nor define a role for COPI vesicles.", "This model does not apply well for plants, algae, and fungi in which individual Golgi stacks are observed (transfer of domains between stacks is not likely).", "Additionally, megavesicles are not established to be intra-Golgi transporters.Though there are multiple models that attempt to explain vesicular traffic throughout the Golgi, no individual model can independently explain all observations of the Golgi apparatus.", "Currently, the cisternal progression/maturation model is the most accepted among scientists, accommodating many observations across eukaryotes.", "The other models are still important in framing questions and guiding future experimentation.", "Among the fundamental unanswered questions are the directionality of COPI vesicles and role of Rab GTPases in modulating protein cargo traffic." ], [ "Brefeldin A", "Brefeldin A (BFA) is a fungal metabolite used experimentally to disrupt the secretion pathway as a method of testing Golgi function.", "BFA blocks the activation of some ADP-ribosylation factors (ARFs).", "ARFs are small GTPases which regulate vesicular trafficking through the binding of COPs to endosomes and the Golgi.", "BFA inhibits the function of several guanine nucleotide exchange factors (GEFs) that mediate GTP-binding of ARFs.", "Treatment of cells with BFA thus disrupts the secretion pathway, promoting disassembly of the Golgi apparatus and distributing Golgi proteins to the endosomes and ER." ], [ "Gallery", "File:YeastGolgiMovieeLifec.ogg|Yeast Golgi dynamics.", "Green labels early Golgi, red labels late Golgi.File:GolgiRibbonc.jpg|Two Golgi stacks connected as a ribbon in a mouse cell.", "Taken from the movie.File:GolgiScyl1c.jpg|Three-dimensional projection of a mammalian Golgi stack imaged by confocal microscopy and volume surface rendered using Imaris software.", "Taken from the movie." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Grace Hopper" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Grace Brewster Hopper''' (; December 9, 1906 – January 1, 1992) was an American computer scientist, mathematician, and United States Navy rear admiral.", "One of the first programmers of the Harvard Mark I computer, she was a pioneer of computer programming.", "Hopper was the first to devise the theory of machine-independent programming languages, and the FLOW-MATIC programming language she created using this theory was later extended by others to create COBOL, an early high-level programming language still in use today.Prior to joining the Navy, Hopper earned a Ph.D. in both mathematics and mathematical physics from Yale University and was a professor of mathematics at Vassar College.", "Hopper attempted to enlist in the Navy during World War II but was rejected because she was 34 years old.", "She instead joined the Navy Reserves, leaving her position at Vassar.", "Hopper began her computing career in 1944 when she worked on the Harvard Mark I team led by Howard H. Aiken.", "In 1949, she joined the Eckert–Mauchly Computer Corporation and was part of the team that developed the UNIVAC I computer.", "At Eckert–Mauchly she managed the development of one of the first COBOL compilers.", "She believed that programming should be simplified with an English-based computer programming language.", "Her compiler converted English terms into machine code understood by computers.", "By 1952, Hopper had finished her program linker (originally called a compiler), which was written for the A-0 System.", "During her wartime service, she co-authored three papers based on her work on the Harvard Mark 1.She is accredited with writing the first computer manual, “A Manual of Operation for the Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator.”In 1954, Eckert–Mauchly chose Hopper to lead their department for automatic programming, and she led the release of some of the first compiled languages like FLOW-MATIC.", "In 1959, she participated in the CODASYL consortium, which consulted Hopper to guide them in creating a machine-independent programming language.", "This led to the COBOL language, which was inspired by her idea of a language being based on English words.", "Hopper promoted the use of the language throughout the 60s.", "In 1966, she retired from the Naval Reserve, but in 1967 the Navy recalled her to active duty.", "She retired from the Navy in 1986 and found work as a consultant for the Digital Equipment Corporation, sharing her computing experiences.The U.S. Navy guided-missile destroyer was named for her, as was the Cray XE6 \"Hopper\" supercomputer at NERSC, and Nvidia Superchip \"Grace Hopper\".", "During her lifetime, Hopper was awarded 40 honorary degrees from universities across the world.", "A college at Yale University was renamed in her honor.", "In 1991, she received the National Medal of Technology.", "On November 22, 2016, she was posthumously awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Barack Obama." ], [ "Early life and education", "Grace Brewster Murray was born in New York City.", "She was the eldest of three children.", "Her parents, Walter Fletcher Murray and Mary Campbell Van Horne, were of Scottish and Dutch descent, and attended West End Collegiate Church.", "Her great-grandfather, Alexander Wilson Russell, an admiral in the US Navy, fought in the Battle of Mobile Bay during the Civil War.Grace was very curious as a child; this was a lifelong trait.", "At the age of seven, she decided to determine how an alarm clock worked and dismantled seven alarm clocks before her mother realized what she was doing (she was then limited to one clock).", "Later in life, she was known for keeping a clock that ran backward, she explained, \"Humans are allergic to change.", "They love to say, 'We've always done it this way.'", "I try to fight that.", "That's why I have a clock on my wall that runs counterclockwise.\"", "For her preparatory school education, she attended the Hartridge School in Plainfield, New Jersey.", "Grace was initially rejected for early admission to Vassar College at age 16 (because her test scores in Latin were too low), but she was admitted the following year.", "She graduated Phi Beta Kappa from Vassar in 1928 with a bachelor's degree in mathematics and physics and earned her master's degree at Yale University in 1930.In 1930, Grace Murray married New York University professor Vincent Foster Hopper (1906–1976); they divorced in 1945.She did not marry again and retained his surname.In 1934, Hopper earned a Ph.D. in mathematics from Yale under the direction of Øystein Ore.", "Her dissertation, \"New Types of Irreducibility Criteria\", was published that same year.", "She began teaching mathematics at Vassar in 1931, and was promoted to associate professor in 1941." ], [ "Career", "=== World War II ===Mark IHopper tried to commission in the Navy early in World War II, however she was turned down.", "At age 34, she was too old to enlist and her weight-to-height ratio was too low.", "She was also denied on the basis that her job as a mathematician and mathematics professor at Vassar College was valuable to the war effort.", "During the war in 1943, Hopper obtained a leave of absence from Vassar and was sworn into the United States Navy Reserve; she was one of many women who volunteered to serve in the WAVES.She had to get an exemption to commission; she was below the Navy minimum weight of .", "She reported in December and trained at the Naval Reserve Midshipmen's School at Smith College in Northampton, Massachusetts.", "Hopper graduated first in her class in 1944, and was assigned to the Bureau of Ships Computation Project at Harvard University as a lieutenant, junior grade.", "She served on the Mark I computer programming staff headed by Howard H. Aiken.Hopper and Aiken co-authored three papers on the Mark I, also known as the Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator.", "Hopper's request to transfer to the regular Navy at the end of the war was declined due to her advanced age of 38.She continued to serve in the Navy Reserve.", "Hopper remained at the Harvard Computation Lab until 1949, turning down a full professorship at Vassar in favor of working as a research fellow under a Navy contract at Harvard.Hopper in a computer room in Washington, D.C., 1978, photographed by Lynn Gilbert=== UNIVAC ===In 1949, Hopper became an employee of the Eckert–Mauchly Computer Corporation as a senior mathematician and joined the team developing the UNIVAC I. Hopper also served as UNIVAC director of Automatic Programming Development for Remington Rand.", "The UNIVAC was the first known large-scale electronic computer to be on the market in 1950, and was more competitive at processing information than the Mark I.When Hopper recommended the development of a new programming language that would use entirely English words, she \"was told very quickly that she couldn't do this because computers didn't understand English.\"", "Still, she persisted.", "\"It's much easier for most people to write an English statement than it is to use symbols,\" she explained.", "\"So I decided data processors ought to be able to write their programs in English, and the computers would translate them into machine code.", "\"Her idea was not accepted for three years.", "In the meantime, she published her first paper on the subject, compilers, in 1952.In the early 1950s, the company was taken over by the Remington Rand corporation, and it was while she was working for them that her original compiler work was done.", "The program was known as the A compiler and its first version was A-0.In 1952, she had an operational link-loader, which at the time was referred to as a compiler.", "She later said that \"Nobody believed that,\" and that she \"had a running compiler and nobody would touch it.", "They told me computers could only do arithmetic.", "\"In 1954 Hopper was named the company's first director of automatic programming.", "Beginning in 1954, Hopper's work was influenced by the Laning and Zierler system, which was the first compiler to accept algebraic notation as input.", "Her department released some of the first compiler-based programming languages, including MATH-MATIC and FLOW-MATIC.Hopper said that her compiler A-0, \"translated mathematical notation into machine code.", "Manipulating symbols was fine for mathematicians but it was no good for data processors who were not symbol manipulators.", "Very few people are really symbol manipulators.", "If they are, they become professional mathematicians, not data processors.", "It's much easier for most people to write an English statement than it is to use symbols.", "So I decided data processors ought to be able to write their programs in English, and the computers would translate them into machine code.", "That was the beginning of COBOL, a computer language for data processors.", "I could say 'Subtract income tax from pay' instead of trying to write that in octal code or using all kinds of symbols.", "COBOL is the major language used today in data processing.", "\"=== COBOL ===Hopper at the UNIVAC I console, c. 1960In the spring of 1959, computer experts from industry and government were brought together in a two-day conference known as the Conference on Data Systems Languages (CODASYL).", "Hopper served as a technical consultant to the committee, and many of her former employees served on the short-term committee that defined the new language COBOL (an acronym for '''CO'''mmon '''B'''usiness-'''O'''riented '''L'''anguage).", "The new language extended Hopper's FLOW-MATIC language with some ideas from the IBM equivalent, COMTRAN.", "Hopper's belief that programs should be written in a language that was close to English (rather than in machine code or in languages close to machine code, such as assembly languages) was captured in the new business language, and COBOL went on to be the most ubiquitous business language to date.", "Among the members of the committee that worked on COBOL was Mount Holyoke College alumna Jean E. Sammet.From 1967 to 1977, Hopper served as the director of the Navy Programming Languages Group in the Navy's Office of Information Systems Planning and was promoted to the rank of captain in 1973.She developed validation software for COBOL and its compiler as part of a COBOL standardization program for the entire Navy.=== Standards ===In the 1970s, Hopper advocated for the Defense Department to replace large, centralized systems with networks of small, distributed computers.", "Any user on any computer node could access common databases located on the network.", "She developed the implementation of standards for testing computer systems and components, most significantly for early programming languages such as FORTRAN and COBOL.", "The Navy tests for conformance to these standards led to significant convergence among the programming language dialects of the major computer vendors.", "In the 1980s, these tests (and their official administration) were assumed by the National Bureau of Standards (NBS), known today as the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)." ], [ "Retirement", "Hopper being promoted to the rank of commodore in 1983In accordance with Navy attrition regulations, Hopper retired from the Naval Reserve with the rank of commander at age 60 at the end of 1966.She was recalled to active duty in August 1967 for a six-month period that turned into an indefinite assignment.", "She again retired in 1971 but was again asked to return to active duty in 1972.She was promoted to captain in 1973 by Admiral Elmo R. Zumwalt Jr.After Republican Representative Philip Crane saw her on a March 1983 segment of ''60 Minutes'', he championed , a joint resolution originating in the House of Representatives to promote Hopper to commodore on the retired list; the resolution was referred to, but not reported out of, the Senate Armed Services Committee.", "Hopper was instead promoted to commodore on December 15, 1983, via the Appointments Clause by President Ronald Reagan.", "She remained on active duty for several years beyond mandatory retirement by special approval of Congress.", "Effective November 8, 1985, the rank of commodore was renamed rear admiral (lower half) and Hopper became one of the Navy's few female admirals.Following a career that spanned more than 42 years, Rear Admiral Hopper took retirement from the Navy on August 14, 1986.At the time, she was the oldest serving member of the Navy.", "At a celebration held in Boston on the to commemorate her retirement, Hopper was awarded the Defense Distinguished Service Medal, the highest non-combat decoration awarded by the Department of Defense.At the time of her retirement, she was the oldest active-duty commissioned officer in the United States Navy (79 years, eight months and five days), and had her retirement ceremony aboard the oldest commissioned ship in the United States Navy (188 years, nine months and 23 days).Admirals William D. Leahy, Chester W. Nimitz, Hyman G. Rickover and Charles Stewart were the only other officers in the Navy's history to serve on active duty at a higher age.", "Leahy and Nimitz served on active duty for life due to their promotions to the rank of fleet admiral.Admiral Hopper was the first ever person to be profiled twice on ''60 Minutes'', first in March 1983, and the second on August 24, 1986." ], [ "Post-retirement", "Following her retirement from the Navy, she was hired as a senior consultant to Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC).", "Hopper was initially offered a position by Rita Yavinsky, but she insisted on going through the typical formal interview process.", "She then proposed in jest that she would be willing to accept a position which made her available on alternating Thursdays, exhibited at their museum of computing as a pioneer, in exchange for a generous salary and unlimited expense account.", "Instead, she was hired as a full-time Principal Corporate Consulting Engineer, a tech-track SVP-equivalent.", "In this position, Hopper represented the company at industry forums, serving on various industry committees, along with other obligations.", "She retained that position until her death at age 85 in 1992.At DEC Hopper served primarily as a goodwill ambassador.", "She lectured widely about the early days of computing, her career, and on efforts that computer vendors could take to make life easier for their users.", "She visited most of Digital's engineering facilities, where she generally received a standing ovation at the conclusion of her remarks.", "Although no longer a serving officer, she always wore her Navy full dress uniform to these lectures contrary to U.S. Department of Defense policy.", "In 2016 Hopper received the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the nation's highest civilian honor, in recognition of her remarkable contributions to the field of computer science.", "\"The most important thing I've accomplished, other than building the compiler,\" she said, \"is training young people.", "They come to me, you know, and say, 'Do you think we can do this?'", "I say, 'Try it.'", "And I back 'em up.", "They need that.", "I keep track of them as they get older and I stir 'em up at intervals so they don't forget to take chances.\"" ], [ "Anecdotes", "Log book showing the \"bug\" found caught in a Mark II relayThroughout much of her later career, Hopper was much in demand as a speaker at various computer-related events.", "She was well known for her lively and irreverent speaking style, as well as a rich treasury of early war stories.", "She also received the nickname \"Grandma COBOL\".While Hopper was working on a Mark II Computer at Harvard University in 1947, her associates discovered a moth that was stuck in a relay and impeding the operation of the computer.", "Upon extraction, the insect was affixed to a log sheet for that day with the notation, “First actual case of bug being found”.", "While neither she nor her crew members mentioned the exact phrase, \"debugging\", in their log entries, the case is held as a historical instance of \"debugging\" a computer and Hopper is credited with popularizing the term in computing.", "For many decades, the term \"bug\" for a malfunction had been in use in several fields before being applied to computers.", "The remains of the moth can be found taped into the group's log book at the Smithsonian Institution's National Museum of American History in Washington, D.C.Hopper became known for her ''nanoseconds'' visual aid.", "People (such as generals and admirals) used to ask her why satellite communication took so long.", "She started handing out pieces of wire that were just under one foot long——the distance that light travels in one nanosecond.", "She gave these pieces of wire the metonym \"nanoseconds.\"", "She was careful to tell her audience that the length of her nanoseconds was actually the maximum distance the signals would travel in a vacuum, and that signals would travel more slowly through the actual wires that were her teaching aids.", "Later she used the same pieces of wire to illustrate why computers had to be small to be fast.", "At many of her talks and visits, she handed out \"nanoseconds\" to everyone in the audience, contrasting them with a coil of wire long, representing a microsecond.", "Later, while giving these lectures while working for DEC, she passed out packets of pepper, calling the individual grains of ground pepper picoseconds.Jay Elliot described Grace Hopper as appearing to be \"'all Navy', but when you reach inside, you find a 'Pirate' dying to be released.\"" ], [ "Death", "On New Year's Day 1992, Hopper died in her sleep of natural causes at her home in Arlington County, Virginia; she was 85 years of age.", "She was interred with full military honors in Arlington National Cemetery." ], [ "Dates of rank", " Rank MidshipmanMIDN Lieutenant junior gradeO-2 LieutenantO-3 Lieutenant commanderO-4 CommanderO-5 CaptainO-6 Commodore/Rear admiral (lower half)O-7 Insignia N/A 60px 60px 60px 60px 60px 60px Date May 4, 1944 June 27, 1944 June 1, 1946 April 1, 1952 July 1, 1957 August 2, 1973 December 15, 1983/redesignated November 8, 1985" ], [ "Awards and honors", "===Military awards=== Defense Distinguished Service Medal(1986)Legion of Merit(1967)Meritorious Service Medal(1980)Presidential Medal of Freedom(2016, Posthumous)American Campaign Medal(1944)World War II Victory Medal(1945)National Defense Service Medal with bronze service star(1953, 1966) Armed Forces Reserve Medalwith two bronze hourglass devices(1963, 1973, 1983)Naval Reserve Medal(1953)===Other awards===* 1964: Hopper was awarded the Society of Women Engineers Achievement Award, the Society's highest honor, \"In recognition of her significant contributions to the burgeoning computer industry as an engineering manager and originator of automatic programming systems.\"", "In May 1955, Hopper was one of the founding members of the Society of Women Engineers.", "* 1969: Hopper was awarded the inaugural Data Processing Management Association Man of the Year award (now called the Distinguished Information Sciences Award).", "* 1971: The annual Grace Murray Hopper Award for Outstanding Young Computer Professionals was established in 1971 by the Association for Computing Machinery.", "*1973: Elected to the U.S. National Academy of Engineering.", "* 1973: First American and first woman of any nationality to be made a Distinguished Fellow of the British Computer Society.", "* 1981: Received an Honorary PhD from Clarkson University.", "* 1982: American Association of University Women Achievement Award and an Honorary Doctor of Science from Marquette University.", "* 1983: Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement.", "* 1985: Honorary Doctor of Science from Wright State University* 1985: Honorary Doctor of Letters from Western New England College (now Western New England University).", "* 1986: Received the Defense Distinguished Service Medal at her retirement.", "* 1986: Received an Honorary Doctor of Science from Syracuse University.", "* 1987: She became the first Computer History Museum Fellow Award Recipient \"for contributions to the development of programming languages, for standardization efforts, and for lifelong naval service.", "\"* 1988: Received the Golden Gavel Award, Toastmasters International.", "* 1991: National Medal of Technology.", "* 1991: Elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.", "* 1992: The Society of Women Engineers established three annual, renewable, \"Admiral Grace Murray Hopper Scholarships\"* 1994: Inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame.", "* 1996: was launched.", "Nicknamed ''Amazing Grace'', it is on a very short list of U.S. military vessels named after women.", "* 2001: Eavan Boland wrote a poem dedicated to Grace Hopper titled \"Code\" in her 2001 release ''Against Love Poetry''.", "* 2001: The Gracies, the Government Technology Leadership Award were named in her honor.", "* 2009: The Department of Energy's National Energy Research Scientific Computing Center named its flagship system \"Hopper\".", "* 2009: Office of Naval Intelligence creates the Grace Hopper Information Services Center.", "* 2013: Google made the Google Doodle for Hopper's 107th birthday an animation of her sitting at a computer, using COBOL to print out her age.", "At the end of the animation, a moth flies out of the computer.", "* 2016: On November 22, 2016, Hopper was posthumously awarded a Presidential Medal of Freedom for her accomplishments in the field of computer science.", "* 2017: Hopper College at Yale University was named in her honor.", "* 2021: The Admiral Grace Hopper Award was established by the chancellor of the College of Information and Cyberspace (CIC) of the National Defense University to recognize leaders in the fields of information and cybersecurity throughout the National Security community." ], [ "Legacy", "* Grace Hopper was awarded 40 honorary degrees from universities worldwide during her lifetime.", "* ''Born with Curiosity: The Grace Hopper Story'' is an upcoming documentary film.", "* Nvidia has named their current CPU generation Grace and GPU generation Hopper after Grace Hopper.", "* The Navy's Hopper Information Services Center is named for her.", "* The Navy named a guided-missile destroyer ''Hopper'' after her.", "* On 30 June 2021, a satellite named after her (ÑuSat 20 or \"Grace\", COSPAR 2021-059AU) was launched into space.===Places===* Grace Hopper Avenue in Monterey, California, is the location of the Navy's Fleet Numerical Meteorology and Oceanography Center as well as the National Weather Service's San Francisco Bay Area forecast office.", "*Grace M. Hopper Navy Regional Data Automation Center at Naval Air Station, North Island, California.", "*Grace Murray Hopper Park, located on South Joyce Street in Arlington County, Virginia, is a small memorial park in front of her former residence (River House Apartments) and is now owned by Arlington County, Virginia.", "* Brewster Academy, a school located in Wolfeboro, New Hampshire, United States, dedicated their computer lab to her in 1985, calling it the Grace Murray Hopper Center for Computer Learning.", "The academy bestows a Grace Murray Hopper Prize to a graduate who excelled in the field of computer systems.", "Hopper had spent her childhood summers at a family home in Wolfeboro.", "* Grace Hopper College, one of the residential colleges of Yale University.", "* An administration building on Naval Support Activity Annapolis (previously known as Naval Station Annapolis) in Annapolis, Maryland is named the Grace Hopper Building in her honor.", "* Hopper Hall is Naval Academy’s newest academic building that houses its cyber science department, among others.", "It is the first building at any service academy named after a woman.", "* The US Naval Academy also owns a Cray XC-30 supercomputer named \"Grace,\" hosted at the University of Maryland-College Park.", "* Building 1482 aboard Naval Air Station North Island, housing the Naval Computer and Telecommunication Station San Diego, is named the Grace Hopper Building, and also contains the History of Naval Communications Museum.", "* Building 6007, C2/CNT West in Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland, is named after her.", "* The street outside of the Nathan Deal Georgia Cyber Innovation and Training Center in Augusta, Georgia, is named Grace Hopper Lane.", "* Grace Hopper Academy is a for-profit immersive programming school in New York City named in Grace Hopper's honor.", "It opened in January 2016 with the goal of increasing the proportion of women in software engineering careers.", "* A bridge over Goose Creek, to join the north and south sides of the Naval Support Activity Charleston side of Joint Base Charleston, South Carolina, is named the Grace Hopper Memorial Bridge in her honor.", "* Minor planet 5773 Hopper discovered by Eleanor Helin is named in her honor.", "The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 8 November 2019 ().", "* Grace Hopper Hall, a community meeting hall in Orlando, Florida (located on the site of the former Orlando Naval Training Center) is named for her.", "* The United States Naval Academy dedicated Hopper Hall, their cyber, computer science, and computer engineering building, to RDML Hopper in 2020, and it opened to midshipmen in the spring of 2021.===Programs===* Women at Microsoft Corporation formed an employee group called Hoppers and established a scholarship in her honor.", "* Beginning in 2015, one of the nine competition fields at the FIRST Robotics Competition world championship is named for Hopper.", "* A named professorship in the Department of Computer Sciences was established at Yale University in her honor.", "Joan Feigenbaum was named to this chair in 2008.", "* In 2020, Google named its new undersea network cable 'Grace Hopper'.", "The cable will connect the US, UK and Spain and is estimated to be completed by 2022.=== In popular culture ===* In his comic book series, ''Secret Coders'' by Gene Luen Yang, the main character is named Hopper Gracie-Hu.", "* Since 2013, Hopper's official portrait has been included in the matplotlib python library as sample data to replace the controversial Lenna image.====Grace Hopper Celebration of Women in Computing====Her legacy was an inspiring factor in the creation of the Grace Hopper Celebration of Women in Computing.", "Held yearly, this conference is designed to bring the research and career interests of women in computing to the forefront." ], [ "See also", "* Bug (engineering)#History* ''Code: Debugging the Gender Gap''* List of pioneers in computer science* Futures techniques* Systems engineering* Women in computing* Hopper (microarchitecture)* Women in the United States Navy* List of female United States military generals and flag officers* Timeline of women in science" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Obituary notices", "* Betts, Mitch (''Computerworld'' 26: 14, 1992)* Bromberg, Howard (''IEEE Software'' 9: 103–104, 1992)* Danca, Richard A.", "(''Federal Computer Week'' 6: 26–27, 1992)* Hancock, Bill (''Digital Review'' 9: 40, 1992)* Power, Kevin (''Government Computer News'' 11: 70, 1992)* Sammet, J. E. (''Communications of the ACM'' 35 (4): 128–131, 1992)* Weiss, Eric A.", "(''IEEE Annals of the History of Computing'' 14: 56–58, 1992)" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * Williams' book focuses on the lives and contributions of four notable women scientists: Mary Sears (1905–1997); Florence van Straten (1913–1992); Grace Murray Hopper (1906–1992); Mina Spiegel Rees (1902–1997).", "* * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * Oral History of Captain Grace Hopper – Interviewed by: Angeline Pantages 1980, Naval Data Automation Command, Maryland.", "* from ''Chips'', the United States Navy information technology magazine.", "* ''Grace Hopper: Navy to the Core, a Pirate at Heart'' (2014), To learn more about Hopper's story and Navy legacy navy.mil.", "* ''The Queen of Code'' (2015), a documentary film about Grace Hopper produced by FiveThirtyEight.", "* Norwood, Arlisha.", "\"Grace Hopper\".", "National Women's History Museum.", "2017.", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "GNU Manifesto" ], [ "Introduction", "GNU logo __NOTOC__The '''''GNU Manifesto''''' is a call-to-action by Richard Stallman encouraging participation and support of the GNU Project's goal in developing the GNU free computer operating system.", "The GNU Manifesto was published in March 1985 in ''Dr.", "Dobb's Journal of Software Tools''.", "It is held in high regard within the free software movement as a fundamental philosophical source.The full text is included with GNU software such as Emacs, and is publicly available." ], [ "Background", "Some parts of the ''GNU Manifesto'' began as an announcement of the GNU Project posted by Richard Stallman on September 27, 1983, in form of an email on Usenet newsgroups.", "The project's aim was to give computer users freedom and control over their computers by collaboratively developing and providing software that is based on Stallman's idea of software freedom (although the written definition had not existed until February 1986).", "The manifesto was written as a way to familiarize more people with these concepts, and to find more support in form of work, money, programs and hardware.The ''GNU Manifesto'' possessed its name and full written form in 1985 but was updated in minor ways in 1987." ], [ "Summary", "The ''GNU Manifesto'' opens with an explanation of what the GNU Project is, and what is the current, at the time, progress in creation of the GNU operating system.", "The system, although based on, and compatible with Unix, is meant by the author to have many improvements over it, which are listed in detail in the manifesto.One of the major driving points behind the GNU project, according to Stallman, was the rapid (at the time) trend toward Unix and its various components becoming proprietary (i.e.", "closed-source and non-libre) software.The manifesto lays a philosophical basis for launching the project, and importance of bringing it to fruition — proprietary software is a way to divide users, who are no longer able to help each other.", "Stallman refuses to write proprietary software as a sign of solidarity with them.The author provides many reasons for why the project and software freedom is beneficial to users, although he agrees that its wide adoption will make the work of programmers less profitable.A large part of the ''GNU Manifesto'' is focused on rebutting possible objections to GNU Project's goals.", "They include the programmer's need to make a living, the issue of advertising and distributing free software, and the perceived need of a profit incentive." ], [ "Inspired by GNU Manifesto", "Throughout history, the ''GNU Manifesto'' has inspired various other UNIX-related manifestos.", "Based on it, 10 years later, a popular magazine Linux Focus released its manifesto.", "20 years later, a popular illustrations publisher has published their Linux developer manifesto." ], [ "See also", "*History of free and open-source software* Open Letter to Hobbyists" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* GNU Manifesto" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gross domestic product" ], [ "Introduction", "A 2014 World Bank map of world economies by the size of GDP (nominal) in U.S.", "Dollars'''Gross domestic product''' ('''GDP''') is a monetary measure of the market value of all the final goods and services produced in a specific time period by a country or countries.", "GDP is more often used by the government of a single country to measure its economic health.", "Due to its complex and subjective nature, this measure is often revised before being considered a reliable indicator.GDP definitions are maintained by several national and international economic organizations.", "The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) defines GDP as \"an aggregate measure of production equal to the sum of the gross values added of all resident and institutional units engaged in production and services (plus any taxes, and minus any subsidies, on products not included in the value of their outputs)\".", "An IMF publication states that, \"GDP measures the monetary value of final goods and services—that are bought by the final user—produced in a country in a given period (say a quarter or a year).", "\"GDP (nominal) per capita does not, however, reflect differences in the cost of living and the inflation rates of the countries; therefore, using a basis of GDP per capita at purchasing power parity (PPP) may be more useful when comparing living standards between nations, while nominal GDP is more useful comparing national economies on the international market.", "Total GDP can also be broken down into the contribution of each industry or sector of the economy.", "The ratio of GDP to the total population of the region is the per capita GDP (also called the Mean Standard of Living).GDP is often used as a metric for international comparisons as well as a broad measure of economic progress.", "It is often considered to be the world's most powerful statistical indicator of national development and progress.", "However, critics of the growth imperative often argue that GDP measures were never intended to measure progress, and leave out key other externalities, such as resource extraction, environmental impact and unpaid domestic work.", "Critics frequently propose alternative economic models such as doughnut economics which use other measures of success or alternative indicators such as the OECD's Better Life Index as better approaches to measuring the effect of the economy on human development and well being.For example, the GDP of Germany in 2022 was 3.9 trillion euros, which included 390 billion euros of taxes like the value-added tax." ], [ "History", "U.S. YoY Quarterly gross domestic product growth rateWilliam Petty came up with a concept of GDP, to calculate the tax burden, and argue landlords were unfairly taxed during warfare between the Dutch and the English between 1652-74.Charles Davenant developed the method further in 1695.The modern concept of GDP was first developed by Simon Kuznets for a 1934 U.S. Congress report, where he warned against its use as a measure of welfare (see below under ''limitations and criticisms'').", "After the Bretton Woods Conference in 1944, GDP became the main tool for measuring a country's economy.", "At that time gross national product (GNP) was the preferred estimate, which differed from GDP in that it measured production by a country's citizens at home and abroad rather than its 'resident institutional units' (see OECD definition above).", "The switch from GNP to GDP in the United States occurred in 1991.The role that measurements of GDP played in World War II was crucial to the subsequent political acceptance of GDP values as indicators of national development and progress.", "A crucial role was played here by the U.S. Department of Commerce under Milton Gilbert where ideas from Kuznets were embedded into institutions.The history of the concept of GDP should be distinguished from the history of changes in many ways of estimating it.", "The value added by firms is relatively easy to calculate from their accounts, but the value added by the public sector, by financial industries, and by intangible asset creation is more complex.", "These activities are increasingly important in developed economies, and the international conventions governing their estimation and their inclusion or exclusion in GDP regularly change in an attempt to keep up with industrial advances.", "In the words of one academic economist, \"The actual number for GDP is, therefore, the product of a vast patchwork of statistics and a complicated set of processes carried out on the raw data to fit them to the conceptual framework.", "\"China officially adopted GDP in 1993 as its indicator of economic performance.", "Previously, China had relied on a Marxist-inspired national accounting system." ], [ "Determining gross domestic product (GDP)", "An infographic explaining how GDP is calculated in the UKGDP can be determined in three ways, all of which should, theoretically, give the same result.", "They are the production (or output or value added) approach, the income approach, and the speculated expenditure approach.", "It is representative of the total output and income within an economy.The most direct of the three is the production approach, which sums up the outputs of every class of enterprise to arrive at the total.", "The expenditure approach works on the principle that all of the products must be bought by somebody, therefore the value of the total product must be equal to people's total expenditures in buying things.", "The income approach works on the principle that the incomes of the productive factors (\"producers\", colloquially) must be equal to the value of their product, and determines GDP by finding the sum of all producers' incomes.===Production approach===Also known as the Value Added Approach, it calculates how much value is contributed at each stage of production.This approach mirrors the OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development) definition given above.# Estimate the gross value of domestic output out of the many various economic activities;# Determine the intermediate consumption, i.e., the cost of material, supplies and services used to produce final goods or services.# Deduct intermediate consumption from gross value to obtain the gross value added.Gross value added = gross value of output – value of intermediate consumption.Value of output = value of the total sales of goods and services plus the value of changes in the inventory.The sum of the gross value added in the various economic activities is known as \"GDP at factor cost\".GDP at factor cost plus indirect taxes fewer subsidies on products = \"GDP at producer price\".For measuring the output of domestic product, economic activities (i.e.", "industries) are classified into various sectors.", "After classifying economic activities, the output of each sector is calculated by any of the following two methods:# By multiplying the output of each sector by their respective market price and adding them together# By collecting data on gross sales and inventories from the records of companies and adding them togetherThe value of output of all sectors is then added to get the gross value of output at factor cost.", "Subtracting each sector's intermediate consumption from gross output value gives the GVA (=GDP) at factor cost.", "Adding indirect tax minus subsidies to GVA (GDP) at factor cost gives the \"GVA (GDP) at producer prices\".===Income approach===The second way of estimating GDP is to use \"the sum of primary incomes distributed by resident producer units\".If GDP is calculated this way it is sometimes called gross domestic income (GDI), or GDP (I).", "GDI should provide the same amount as the expenditure method described later.", "By definition, GDI is equal to GDP.", "In practice, however, measurement errors will make the two figures slightly off when reported by national statistical agencies.This method measures GDP by adding incomes that firms pay households for factors of production they hire - wages for labour, interest for capital, rent for land and profits for entrepreneurship.The US \"National Income and Product Accounts\" divide incomes into five categories:# Wages, salaries, and supplementary labor income# Corporate profits# Interest and miscellaneous investment income# Income earned by sole proprietors and from the Housing subsector (net of expenses)# Net income from transfer payments from businessesThese five income components sum to net domestic income at factor cost.Two adjustments must be made to get GDP:# Taxes on production and imports minus subsidies are added to get from factor cost to market prices.# Depreciation (or capital consumption allowance) is added to get from net domestic product to gross domestic product.Total income can be subdivided according to various schemes, leading to various formulae for GDP measured by the income approach.", "A common one is:: '''GDP''' = + + + * '''Compensation of employees''' (COE) measures the total remuneration to employees for work done.", "It includes wages and salaries, as well as employer contributions to social security and other such programs.", "* '''Gross operating surplus''' (GOS) is the surplus due to owners of incorporated businesses.", "Often called profits, although only a subset of total costs are subtracted from gross output to calculate GOS.", "* '''Gross mixed income''' (GMI) is the same measure as GOS, but for unincorporated businesses.", "This often includes most small businesses.The sum of '''COE''', '''GOS''' and '''GMI''' is called total factor income; it is the income of all of the factors of production in society.", "It measures the value of GDP at factor (basic) prices.", "The difference between basic prices and final prices (those used in the expenditure calculation) is the total taxes and subsidies that the government has levied or paid on that production.", "So adding taxes less subsidies on production and imports converts GDP(I) at factor cost to GDP(I) at final prices.Total factor income is also sometimes expressed as::''Total factor income'' = ''employee compensation'' + ''corporate profits'' + ''proprietor's income'' + ''rental income'' + ''net interest''===Expenditure approach===The third way to estimate GDP is to calculate the sum of the final uses of goods and services (all uses except intermediate consumption) measured in purchasers' prices.Market goods that are produced are purchased by someone.", "In the case where a good is produced and unsold, the standard accounting convention is that the producer has bought the good from themselves.", "Therefore, measuring the total expenditure used to buy things is a way of measuring production.", "This is known as the expenditure method of calculating GDP.====Components of GDP by expenditure====U.S.", "GDP computed on the expenditure basis'''GDP (Y)''' is the sum of '''consumption (C)''', '''investment (I)''', '''government Expenditures (G)''' and '''net exports (X – M)'''.", ":'''Y''' = '''C''' + '''I''' + '''G''' + '''(X − M)'''Here is a description of each GDP component:* '''C (consumption)''' is normally the largest GDP component in the economy, consisting of private expenditures in the economy (household final consumption expenditure).", "These personal expenditures fall under one of the following categories: durable goods, nondurable goods, and services.", "Examples include food, rent, jewelry, gasoline, and medical expenses, but not the purchase of new housing.", "* '''I (investment)''' includes, for instance, business investment in equipment, but does not include exchanges of existing assets.", "Examples include the construction of a new mine, the purchase of software, or the purchase of machinery and equipment for a factory.", "Spending by households (not the government) on new houses is also included in investment.", "In contrast to its colloquial meaning, \"investment\" in GDP does not mean purchases of financial products.", "Buying financial products is classed as 'saving', as opposed to investment.", "This avoids double-counting: if one buys shares in a company, and the company uses the money received to buy plant, equipment, etc., the amount will be counted toward GDP when the company spends the money on those things; to also count it when one gives it to the company would be to count two times an amount that only corresponds to one group of products.", "Buying bonds or companies' equity shares is a swapping of deeds, a transfer of claims on future production, not directly an expenditure on products; buying an existing building will involve a positive investment by the buyer and a negative investment by the seller, netting to zero overall investment.", "* '''G (government spending)''' is the sum of government expenditures on final goods and services.", "It includes salaries of public servants, purchases of weapons for the military and any investment expenditure by a government.", "It does not include any transfer payments, such as social security or unemployment benefits.", "Analyses outside the US will often treat government investment as part of ''investment'' rather than ''government spending''.", "* '''X (exports)''' represents gross exports.", "GDP captures the amount a country produces, including goods and services produced for other nations' consumption, therefore exports are added.", "* '''M (imports)''' represents gross imports.", "Imports are subtracted since imported goods will be included in the terms '''G''', '''I''', or '''C''', and must be deducted to avoid counting foreign supply as domestic.", "'''C''', '''I''', and '''G''' are expenditures on final goods and services; expenditures on intermediate goods and services do not count.", "(Intermediate goods and services are those used by businesses to produce other goods and services within the accounting year.)", "So for example if a car manufacturer buys auto parts, assembles the car and sells it, only the final car sold is counted towards the GDP.", "Meanwhile, if a person buys replacement auto parts to install them on their car, those are counted towards the GDP.According to the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis, which is responsible for calculating the national accounts in the United States, \"In general, the source data for the expenditures components are considered more reliable than those for the income components see income method, above.", "\"Encyclopedia Britannica records an alternate way of measuring exports minus imports: notating it as the single variable NX." ], [ "GDP and GNI", "GDP can be contrasted with gross national product (GNP) or, as it is now known, gross national income (GNI).", "The difference is that GDP defines its scope according to location, while GNI defines its scope according to ownership.", "In a global context, world GDP and world GNI are, therefore, equivalent terms.GDP is a product produced within a country's borders; GNI is product produced by enterprises owned by a country's citizens.", "The two would be the same if all of the productive enterprises in a country were owned by its own citizens and those citizens did not own productive enterprises in any other countries.", "In practice, however, foreign ownership makes GDP and GNI non-identical.", "Production within a country's borders, but by an enterprise owned by somebody outside the country, counts as part of its GDP but not its GNI; on the other hand, production by an enterprise located outside the country, but owned by one of its citizens, counts as part of its GNI but not its GDP.For example, the GNI of the US is the value of output produced by American-owned firms, regardless of where the firms are located.", "Similarly, if a country becomes increasingly in debt, and spends large amounts of income servicing this debt this will be reflected in a decreased GNI but not a decreased GDP.", "Similarly, if a country sells off its resources to entities outside their country this will also be reflected over time in decreased GNI, but not decreased GDP.", "This would make the use of GDP more attractive for politicians in countries with increasing national debt and decreasing assets.Gross national income (GNI) equals GDP plus income receipts from the rest of the world minus income payments to the rest of the world.In 1991, the United States switched from using GNP to using GDP as its primary measure of production.The relationship between United States GDP and GNP is shown in table 1.7.5 of the ''National Income and Product Accounts''.Another example that amplifies the difference between GDP and GNI is the comparison of developed and developing country indicators.", "The GDP of Japan for 2020 is 5,040,107.75 USD (in a million).", "Predictably, as a developed country, Japan has a higher GNI (by 182,779.46, in millions of USD), which is indicative that the production level in the country is higher than that of national production.", "On the other hand, the case with Armenia is the opposite, with GDP being lower than GNI by 196.12 USD (in million).", "This demonstrates that countries receive investments and foreign aid from abroad.===International standards===The international standard for measuring GDP is contained in the book ''System of National Accounts'' (2008), which was prepared by representatives of the International Monetary Fund, European Union, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, United Nations and World Bank.", "The publication is normally referred to as SNA2008 to distinguish it from the previous edition published in 1993 (SNA93) or 1968 (called SNA68) SNA2008 provides a set of rules and procedures for the measurement of national accounts.", "The standards are designed to be flexible, to allow for differences in local statistical needs and conditions." ], [ "National measurement", "Countries or territories by GDP (PPP) }Countries or territories by GDP (nominal) }U.S 2015 GDP computed on the income basisWithin each country GDP is normally measured by a national government statistical agency, as private sector organizations normally do not have access to the information required (especially information on expenditure and production by governments)." ], [ "Nominal GDP and adjustments to GDP", "The raw GDP figure as given by the equations above is called the nominal, historical, or current, GDP.", "When one compares GDP figures from one year to another, it is desirable to compensate for changes in the value of money – for the effects of inflation or deflation.", "To make it more meaningful for year-to-year comparisons, it may be multiplied by the ratio between the value of money in the year the GDP was measured and the value of money in a base year.For example, suppose a country's GDP in 1990 was and its GDP in 2000 was .", "Suppose also that inflation had halved the value of its currency over that period.", "To meaningfully compare its GDP in 2000 to its GDP in 1990, we could multiply the GDP in 2000 by one-half, to make it relative to 1990 as a base year.", "The result would be that the GDP in 2000 equals × = , ''in 1990 monetary terms.''", "We would see that the country's GDP had realistically increased 50 percent over that period, not 200 percent, as it might appear from the raw GDP data.", "The GDP adjusted for changes in money value in this way is called the real, or constant, GDP.The factor used to convert GDP from current to constant values in this way is called the ''GDP deflator''.", "Unlike consumer price index, which measures inflation or deflation in the price of household consumer goods, the GDP deflator measures changes in the prices of all domestically produced goods and services in an economy including investment goods and government services, as well as household consumption goods.Some of the complications involved in comparing national accounts from different years are explained in this World Bank document .Constant-GDP figures allow us to calculate a GDP growth rate, which indicates how much a country's production has increased (or decreased, if the growth rate is negative) compared to the previous year.Another thing that it may be desirable to account for is population growth.", "If a country's GDP doubled over a certain period, but its population tripled, the increase in GDP may not mean that the standard of living increased for the country's residents; the average person in the country is producing less than they were before.", "''Per-capita GDP'' is a measure to account for population growth." ], [ "Standard of living and GDP: wealth distribution and externalities", "Gross domestic product per capita and level of urbanizationGDP per capita is often used as an indicator of living standards.The major advantage of GDP per capita as an indicator of the standard of living is that it is measured frequently, widely, and consistently.", "It is measured frequently in that most countries provide information on GDP every quarter, allowing trends to be seen quickly.", "It is measured widely in that some measure of GDP is available for almost every country in the world, allowing inter-country comparisons.", "It is measured consistently in that the technical definition of GDP is relatively consistent among countries.GDP does not include several factors that influence the standard of living.", "In particular, it fails to account for:* '''Externalities''' – Economic growth may entail an increase in negative externalities that are not directly measured in GDP.", "Increased industrial output might grow GDP, but any pollution is not counted.", "* '''Non-market transactions''' – GDP excludes activities that are not provided through the market, such as household production, bartering of goods and services, and volunteer or unpaid services.", "* '''Non-monetary economy''' – GDP omits economies where no money comes into play at all, resulting in inaccurate or abnormally low GDP figures.", "For example, in countries with major business transactions occurring informally, portions of local economy are not easily registered.", "Bartering may be more prominent than the use of money, even extending to services.", "* '''Quality improvements and inclusion of new products''' – by not fully adjusting for quality improvements and new products, GDP understates true economic growth.", "For instance, although computers today are less expensive and more powerful than computers from the past, GDP treats them as the same products by only accounting for their monetary value.", "The introduction of new products is also difficult to measure accurately and is not reflected in GDP although it may increase the standard of living.", "For example, even the richest person in 1900 could not purchase standard products, such as antibiotics and cell phones, that an average consumer can buy today, since such modern conveniences did not exist then.", "* '''Sustainability of growth''' – GDP is a measurement of economic historic activity and is not necessarily a projection.", "* '''Wealth distribution''' – GDP does not account for variances in incomes of various demographic groups.", "See income inequality metrics for discussion of a variety of inequality-based economic measures.It can be argued that GDP per capita as an indicator of standard of living is correlated with these factors, capturing them indirectly.", "As a result, GDP per capita as a standard of living is a continued usage because most people have a fairly accurate idea of what it is and know it is tough to come up with quantitative measures for such constructs as happiness, quality of life, and well-being." ], [ "Limitations and criticisms", "=== Limitations at introduction ===Simon Kuznets, the economist who developed the first comprehensive set of measures of national income, stated in his second report to the U.S. Congress in 1937, in a section titled \"Uses and Abuses of National Income Measurements\": The valuable capacity of the human mind to simplify a complex situation in a compact characterization becomes dangerous when not controlled in terms of definitely stated criteria.", "With quantitative measurements especially, the definiteness of the result suggests, often misleadingly, a precision and simplicity in the outlines of the object measured.", "Measurements of national income are subject to this type of illusion and resulting abuse, especially since they deal with matters that are the center of conflict of opposing social groups where the effectiveness of an argument is often contingent upon oversimplification.", "... All these qualifications upon estimates of national income as an index of productivity are just as important when income measurements are interpreted from the point of view of economic welfare.", "But in the latter case additional difficulties will be suggested to anyone who wants to penetrate below the surface of total figures and market values.", "Economic welfare cannot be adequately measured unless the personal distribution of income is known.", "And no income measurement undertakes to estimate the reverse side of income, that is, the intensity and unpleasantness of effort going into the earning of income.", "The welfare of a nation can, therefore, scarcely be inferred from a measurement of national income as defined above.", "In 1962, Kuznets stated:Distinctions must be kept in mind between quantity and quality of growth, between costs and returns, and between the short and long run.", "Goals for more growth should specify more growth of what and for what.=== Further criticisms ===Ever since the development of GDP, multiple observers have pointed out limitations of using GDP as the overarching measure of economic and social progress.", "For example, many environmentalists argue that GDP is a poor measure of social progress because it does not take into account harm to the environment.", "Furthermore, the GDP does not consider human health nor the educational aspect of a population.", "American politician Robert F. Kennedy criticized the GDP as a measure of ''\"everything except that which makes life worthwhile\"''.", "He said that it ''\"does not allow for the health of our children, the quality of their education or the joy of their play.", "\"''Although a high or rising level of GDP is often associated with increased economic and social progress, the opposite sometimes occurs.", "For example, Jean Drèze and Amartya Sen have pointed out that an increase in GDP or in GDP growth does not necessarily lead to a higher standard of living, particularly in areas such as healthcare and education.", "Another important area that does not necessarily improve along with GDP is political liberty, which is most notable in China, where GDP growth is strong yet political liberties are heavily restricted.", "GDP does not account for the distribution of income among the residents of a country, because GDP is merely an aggregate measure.", "An economy may be highly developed or growing rapidly, but also contain a wide gap between the rich and the poor in a society.", "These inequalities often occur on the lines of race, ethnicity, gender, religion, or other minority status within countries.", "This can lead to misleading characterizations of economic well-being if the income distribution is heavily skewed toward the high end, as the poorer residents will not directly benefit from the overall level of wealth and income generated in their country (their purchasing power can decline, even as the mean GDP per capita rises).", "GDP per capita measures (like aggregate GDP measures) do not account for income distribution (and tend to overstate the average income per capita).", "For example, South Africa during apartheid ranked high in terms of GDP per capita, but the benefits of this immense wealth and income were not shared equally among its citizens.", "An inequality which the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 10 amongst other global initiatives aims to address.GDP excludes the value of household and other unpaid work.", "Some, including Martha Nussbaum, argue that this value should be included in measuring GDP, as household labor is largely a substitute for goods and services that would otherwise be purchased with money.", "Even under conservative estimates, the value of unpaid labor in Australia has been calculated to be over 50% of the country's GDP.", "A later study analyzed this value in other countries, with results ranging from a low of about 15% in Canada (using conservative estimates) to high of nearly 70% in the United Kingdom (using more liberal estimates).", "For the United States, the value was estimated to be between about 20% on the low end to nearly 50% on the high end, depending on the methodology being used.", "Because many public policies are shaped by GDP calculations and by the related field of national accounts, public policy might differ if unpaid work were included in total GDP.", "Some economists have advocated for changes in the way public policies are formed and implemented.The UK's Natural Capital Committee highlighted the shortcomings of GDP in its advice to the UK Government in 2013, pointing out that GDP \"focuses on flows, not stocks.", "As a result, an economy can run down its assets yet, at the same time, record high levels of GDP growth, until a point is reached where the depleted assets act as a check on future growth\".", "They then went on to say that \"it is apparent that the recorded GDP growth rate overstates the sustainable growth rate.", "Broader measures of wellbeing and wealth are needed for this and there is a danger that short-term decisions based solely on what is currently measured by national accounts may prove to be costly in the long-term\".It has been suggested that countries that have authoritarian governments, such as the People's Republic of China, and Russia, inflate their GDP figures.==== Research and development about the relation between GDP and use of GDP and reality ====CO2 emissions from fossil-fuel combustion and industrial processes changed compared with global GDP.Instances of GDP measures have been considered numbers that are artificial constructs.", "In 2020 scientists, as part of a World Scientists' Warning to Humanity-associated series, warned that worldwide growth in affluence in terms of GDP-metrics has increased resource use and pollutant emissions with affluent citizens of the world – in terms of e.g.", "resource-intensive consumption – being responsible for most negative environmental impacts and central to a transition to safer, sustainable conditions.", "They summarised evidence, presented solution approaches and stated that far-reaching lifestyle changes need to complement technological advancements and that existing societies, economies and cultures incite consumption expansion and that the structural imperative for growth in competitive market economies inhibits societal change.", "Sarah Arnold, Senior Economist at the New Economics Foundation (NEF) stated that \"GDP includes activities that are detrimental to our economy and society in the long term, such as deforestation, strip mining, overfishing and so on\".", "The number of trees that are net lost annually is estimated to be approximately 10 billion.", "The global average annual deforested land in the 2015–2020 demi-decade was 10 million hectares and the average annual net forest area loss in the 2000–2010 decade 4.7 million hectares, according to the Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020.According to one study, depending on the level of wealth inequality, higher GDP-growth can be associated with more deforestation.", "In 2019 \"agriculture and agribusiness\" accounted for 24% of the GDP of Brazil, where a large share of annual net tropical forest loss occurred and is associated with sizable portions of this economic activity domain.", "The number of obese adults was approximately 600 million (12%) in 2015.In 2013 scientists reported that large improvements in health only lead to modest long-term increases in GDP per capita.", "After developing an abstract metric similar to GDP, the Center for Partnership Studies highlighted that GDP \"and other metrics that reflect and perpetuate them\" may not be useful for facilitating the production of products and provision of services that are useful – or comparatively more useful – to society, and instead may \"actually encourage, rather than discourage, destructive activities\".", "Steve Cohen of the Earth Institute elucidated that while GDP does not distinguish between different activities (or lifestyles), \"all consumption behaviors are not created equal and do not have the same impact on environmental sustainability\".", "Johan Rockström, director of the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research, noted that \"it's difficult to see if the current G.D.P.-based model of economic growth can go hand-in-hand with rapid cutting of emissions\", which nations have agreed to attempt under the Paris Agreement in order to mitigate real-world impacts of climate change.", "Some have pointed out that GDP did not adapt to sociotechnical changes to give a more accurate picture of the modern economy and does not encapsulate the value of new activities such as delivering price-free information and entertainment on social media.", "In 2017 Diane Coyle explained that GDP excludes much unpaid work, writing that \"many people contribute free digital work such as writing open-source software that can substitute for marketed equivalents, and it clearly has great economic value despite a price of zero\", which constitutes a common criticism \"of the reliance on GDP as the measure of economic success\" especially after the emergence of the digital economy.", "Similarly GDP does not value or distinguish for environmental protection.", "A 2020 study found that \"poor regions' GDP grows faster by attracting more polluting production after connection to China's expressway system.", "GDP may not be a tool capable of recognizing how much natural capital agents of the economy are building or protecting.=== Proposals to overcome GDP limitations ===In response to these and other limitations of using GDP, alternative approaches have emerged.", "* In the 1980s, Amartya Sen and Martha Nussbaum developed the capability approach, which focuses on the functional capabilities enjoyed by people within a country, rather than the aggregate wealth held within a country.", "These capabilities consist of the functions that a person is able to achieve.", "* In 1990, Mahbub ul Haq, a Pakistani economist at the United Nations, introduced the Human Development Index (HDI).", "The HDI is a composite index of life expectancy at birth, adult literacy rate and standard of living measured as a logarithmic function of GDP, adjusted to purchasing power parity.", "* In 1989, John B. Cobb and Herman Daly introduced Index of Sustainable Economic Welfare (ISEW) by taking into account other factors such as consumption of nonrenewable resources and degradation of the environment.", "ISEW is roughly defined as: personal consumption + public non-defensive expenditures - private defensive expenditures + capital formation + services from domestic labour - costs of environmental degradation - depreciation of natural capital* In 2005, Med Jones, an American Economist, at the International Institute of Management, introduced the first secular Gross National Happiness Index a.k.a.", "Gross National Well-being framework and Index to complement GDP economics with additional seven dimensions, including environment, education, and government, work, social and health (mental and physical) indicators.", "The proposal was inspired by the King of Bhutan's GNH philosophy.", "* In 2009 the European Union released a communication titled ''GDP and beyond: Measuring progress in a changing world'' that identified five actions to improve indicators of progress in ways that make them more responsive to the concerns of its citizens.", "* In 2009 Professors Joseph Stiglitz, Amartya Sen, and Jean-Paul Fitoussi at the Commission on the Measurement of Economic Performance and Social Progress (CMEPSP), formed by French President, Nicolas Sarkozy published a proposal to overcome the limitation of GDP economics to expand the focus to well-being economics with a well-being framework consisting of health, environment, work, physical safety, economic safety, and political freedom.", "This has been adopted in a number of countries as a wellbeing economy policy.", "* In 2008, the Centre for Bhutan Studies began publishing the Bhutan Gross National Happiness (GNH) Index, whose contributors to happiness include physical, mental, and spiritual health; time balance; social and community vitality; cultural vitality; education; living standards; good governance; and ecological vitality.", "* In 2013, the OECD Better Life Index was published by the OECD.", "The dimensions of the index included health, economic, workplace, income, jobs, housing, civic engagement, and life satisfaction.", "* Since 2012, John Helliwell, Richard Layard and Jeffrey Sachs have edited an annual World Happiness Report which reports a national measure of subjective well-being, derived from a single survey question on satisfaction with life.", "GDP explains some of the cross-national variation in life satisfaction, but more of it is explained by other, social variables (See 2013 World Happiness Report).", "* In 2019, Serge Pierre Besanger published a \"GDP 3.0\" proposal which combines an expanded GNI formula which he calls GNIX, with a Palma ratio and a set of environmental metrics based on the Daly Rule.", "* In 2019, Erik Brynjolfsson and Avinash Collis argued that GDP does not reflect the growing value of many digital goods because they have zero price.", "Along with several coauthors, they proposed an alternative approach, GDP-B, which is based on measuring the ''benefits'' of goods and services, rather than their price or cost.", "* At the beginning of the 21st century the World Economic Forum published a series of analyses and propositions to create economic measurement tools more effective than GDP." ], [ "Problems with GDP data", "A peer-reviewed study published in the ''Journal of Political Economy'' in October 2022 found signs of manipulation of economic growth statistics in the majority of countries.", "According to the study, this mainly applied to countries that were governed semi-authoritarian/authoritarian or did not have a functioning separation of powers.", "The study took the annual growth in the brightness of lights at night, as measured by satellites, and compared it to officially reported economic growth.", "Authoritarian states had consistently higher reported growth in GDP than their growth in night lights would suggest.", "An effect that also cannot be explained by different economic structures, sector composition or other factors.", "Incorrect growth statistics can also falsify indicators such as GDP or GDP per capita." ], [ "Lists of countries by their GDP", "* List of continents by GDP* Lists of countries by GDP* List of countries by GDP (nominal), (per capita)* List of countries by GDP (PPP), (per capita)* List of countries by GDP sector composition* List of countries by past and projected GDP (PPP), (per capita), (nominal), (per capita)* List of countries by real GDP growth rate, (per capita)" ], [ "See also", "* Chained volume series* Circular flow of income* Disposable household and per capita income* Economy monetization* GDP density* Gross regional domestic product* Gross regional product* Inventory investment* List of countries by average wage* List of economic reports by U.S. government agencies* Misery index (economics)* Modified gross national income* National average salary* Potential output* Productivism* Social Progress Index" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Australian Bureau for Statistics, ''Australian National Accounts: Concepts, Sources and Methods'' , 2000.Retrieved November 2009.In depth explanations of how GDP and other national account items are determined.", "* * Lepenies, Philipp.", "''The Power of a Single Number: A Political History of GDP''* Philipsen, Dirk.", "''The Little Big Number: How GDP Came to Rule the World and What to Do About It''* Joseph E. Stiglitz, \"Measuring What Matters: Obsession with one financial figure, GDP, has worsened people's health, happiness and the environment, and economists want to replace it\", ''Scientific American'', vol.", "323, no.", "2 (August 2020), pp. 24–31.", "* United States Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis, .", "Retrieved November 2009.In-depth explanations of how GDP and other national account items are determined." ], [ "External links", "'''Global'''* * Australian Bureau of Statistics Manual on GDP measurement* OECD GDP chart* UN Statistical Databases* World Development Indicators (WDI) at Worldbank.org* World GDP Chart (since 1960)'''Data'''* Bureau of Economic Analysis: Official United States GDP data* Historicalstatistics.org: Links to historical statistics on GDP for countries and regions, maintained by the Department of Economic History at Stockholm University* Historical U.S. GDP (yearly data), 1790–present, maintained by Samuel H. Williamson and Lawrence H. Officer, both professors of economics at the University of Illinois at Chicago* The Maddison Project of the Groningen Growth and Development Centre at the University of Groningen.", "This project extends the work of Angus Maddison in collating all the available, credible data estimating GDP for countries around the world.", "This includes data for some countries for over 2,000 years and for all countries since 1950.", "'''Articles and books'''* * * \"What's wrong with the GDP?", "\", The Genuine progress indicator: Summary of Data and Methodology, Redefining Progress C1995* Whether output and CPI inflation are mismeasured, by Nouriel Roubini and David Backus, in Lectures in Macroeconomics* Rodney Edvinsson, * Clifford Cobb, Ted Halstead and Jonathan Rowe.", "\"If the GDP is up, why is America down?\"", "The Atlantic Monthly, vol.", "276, no.", "4, October 1995, pages 59–78* Jerorn C.J.M.", "van den Bergh, \" Abolishing GDP\"* GDP and GNI in OECD Observer No246-247, Dec 2004-Jan 2005" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel''' (; ; 27 August 1770 – 14 November 1831) was a German philosopher and one of the most influential figures of German idealism and 19th-century philosophy.", "His influence extends across the entire range of contemporary philosophical topics, from metaphysical issues in epistemology and ontology, to political philosophy, the philosophy of history, philosophy of art, philosophy of religion, and the history of philosophy.Born in 1770 in Stuttgart, Holy Roman Empire, during the transitional period between the Enlightenment and the Romantic movement in the Germanic regions of Europe, Hegel lived through and was influenced by the French Revolution and the Napoleonic wars.", "His fame rests chiefly upon ''The Phenomenology of Spirit'', ''The Science of Logic'', his teleological account of history, and his lectures at the University of Berlin on topics from his ''Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences''.Throughout his work, Hegel strove to address and correct the problematic dualisms of modern philosophy, Kantian and otherwise, typically by drawing upon the resources of ancient philosophy, particularly Aristotle.", "Hegel everywhere insists that reason and freedom are historical achievements, not natural givens.", "His dialectical-speculative procedure is grounded in the principle of immanence, that is, in assessing claims always according to their own internal criteria.", "Taking skepticism seriously, he contends that people cannot presume any truths that have not passed the test of experience; even the ''a priori'' categories of the ''Logic'' must attain their \"verification\" in the natural world and the historical accomplishments of humankind.Guided by the Delphic imperative to \"know thyself\", Hegel presents free self-determination as the essence of humankind – a conclusion from his 1806–07 ''Phenomenology'' that he claims is further verified by the systematic account of the interdependence of logic, nature, and spirit in his later ''Encyclopedia''.", "He asserts that the ''Logic'' at once preserves and overcomes the dualisms of the material and the mental – that is, it accounts for both the continuity and difference marking the domains of nature and culture – as a metaphysically necessary and coherent \"identity of identity and non-identity\"." ], [ "Life", "===Formative years=======Stuttgart, Tübingen, Berne, Frankfurt (1770–1800)====The birthplace of Hegel in Stuttgart, which now houses the Hegel Museum Hegel was born on 27 August 1770 in Stuttgart, capital of the Duchy of Württemberg in the Holy Roman Empire (now southwestern Germany).", "Christened Georg Wilhelm Friedrich, he was known as Wilhelm to his close family.", "His father, Georg Ludwig, was secretary to the revenue office at the court of Karl Eugen, Duke of Württemberg.", "Hegel's mother, Maria Magdalena Louisa (née Fromm), was the daughter of a lawyer at the High Court of Justice at the Württemberg court.", "She died of bilious fever when Hegel was thirteen.", "Hegel and his father also caught the disease but narrowly survived.", "Hegel had a sister, Christiane Luise; and a brother, Georg Ludwig, who perished as an officer during Napoleon's 1812 Russian campaign.", "At the age of three, Hegel went to the German School.", "When he entered the Latin School two years later, he already knew the first declension, having been taught it by his mother.", "In 1776, he entered Stuttgart's Eberhard-Ludwigs-Gymnasium and during his adolescence read voraciously, copying lengthy extracts in his diary.", "Authors he read include the poet Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock and writers associated with the Enlightenment, such as Christian Garve and Gotthold Ephraim Lessing.", "In 1844, Hegel's first biographer, Karl Rosenkranz described the young Hegel's education there by saying that it \"belonged entirely to the Enlightenment with respect to principle, and entirely to classical antiquity with respect to curriculum.\"", "His studies at the ''Gymnasium'' concluded with his graduation speech, \"The abortive state of art and scholarship in Turkey.", "\"Hegel, Schelling, and Hölderlin are believed to have shared the room on the second floor above the entrance doorway while studying at this institute – (a Protestant seminary called \"the Tübinger Stift\").At the age of eighteen, Hegel entered the Tübinger Stift, a Protestant seminary attached to the University of Tübingen, where he had as roommates the poet and philosopher Friedrich Hölderlin and the future philosopher Friedrich Schelling.", "Sharing a dislike for what they regarded as the restrictive environment of the Seminary, the three became close friends and mutually influenced each other's ideas.", "(It is mostly likely that Hegel attended the ''Stift'' because it was state-funded, for he had \"a profound distaste for the study of orthodox theology\" and never wanted to become a minister.)", "All three greatly admired Hellenic civilization, and Hegel additionally steeped himself in Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Lessing during this time.", "They watched the unfolding of the French Revolution with shared enthusiasm.", "Although the violence of the 1793 Reign of Terror dampened Hegel's hopes, he continued to identify with the moderate Girondin faction and never lost his commitment to the principles of 1789, which he expressed by drinking a toast to the storming of the Bastille every fourteenth of July.", "Schelling and Hölderlin immersed themselves in theoretical debates on Kantian philosophy, from which Hegel remained aloof.", "Hegel, at this time, envisaged his future as that of a ''Popularphilosoph'', (a \"man of letters\") who serves to make the abstruse ideas of philosophers accessible to a wider public; his own felt need to engage critically with the central ideas of Kantianism would not come until 1800.The poet Friedrich Hölderlin (1770–1843) was one of Hegel's closest friends and roommates at Tübinger Stift.Having received his theological certificate from the Tübingen Seminary, Hegel became ''Hofmeister'' (house tutor) to an aristocratic family in Berne (1793–1796).", "During this period, he composed the text which has become known as the ''Life of Jesus'' and a book-length manuscript titled \"The Positivity of the Christian Religion.\"", "His relations with his employers becoming strained, Hegel accepted an offer mediated by Hölderlin to take up a similar position with a wine merchant's family in Frankfurt in 1797.There, Hölderlin exerted an important influence on Hegel's thought.", "In Berne, Hegel's writings had been sharply critical of orthodox Christianity, but in Frankfurt, under the influence of early Romanticism, he underwent a sort of reversal, exploring, in particular, the mystical experience of love as the true essence of religion.", "Also in 1797, the unpublished and unsigned manuscript of \"The Oldest Systematic Program of German Idealism\" was written.", "It was written in Hegel's hand, but may have been authored by Hegel, Schelling, or Hölderlin.", "While in Frankfurt, Hegel composed the essay \"Fragments on Religion and Love.\"", "In 1799, he wrote another essay entitled \"The Spirit of Christianity and Its Fate\", unpublished during his lifetime.===Career years=======Jena, Bamberg, Nuremberg (1801–1816)====While at Jena, Hegel helped found a philosophical journal with his friend from Seminary, the young philosophical prodigy Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling.In 1801, Hegel came to Jena at the encouragement of Schelling, who held the position of Extraordinary Professor at the University of Jena.", "Hegel secured a position at the University of Jena as a ''Privatdozent'' (unsalaried lecturer) after submitting the inaugural dissertation ''De Orbitis Planetarum'', in which he briefly criticized mathematical arguments that assert that there must exist a planet between Mars and Jupiter.", "Later in the year, Hegel's essay ''The Difference Between Fichte's and Schelling's System of Philosophy'' was completed.", "He lectured on \"Logic and Metaphysics\" and gave lectures with Schelling on an \"Introduction to the Idea and Limits of True Philosophy\" and facilitated a \"philosophical disputorium.\"", "In 1802, Schelling and Hegel founded the journal ''Kritische Journal der Philosophie'' (''Critical Journal of Philosophy'') to which they contributed until the collaboration ended when Schelling left for Würzburg in 1803.In 1805, the university promoted Hegel to the unsalaried position of extraordinary professor after he wrote a letter to the poet and minister of culture Johann Wolfgang von Goethe protesting the promotion of his philosophical adversary Jakob Friedrich Fries ahead of him.", "Hegel attempted to enlist the help of the poet and translator Johann Heinrich Voß to obtain a post at the renascent University of Heidelberg, but he failed.", "To his chagrin, Fries was, in the same year, made ordinary professor (salaried).", "The following February marked the birth of Hegel's illegitimate son, Georg Ludwig Friedrich Fischer (1807–1831), as the result of an affair with Hegel's landlady Christiana Burkhardt née Fischer.", "With his finances drying up quickly, Hegel was under great pressure to deliver his book, the long-promised introduction to his philosophical system.", "Hegel was putting the finishing touches to it, ''The Phenomenology of Spirit'', as Napoleon engaged Prussian troops on 14 October 1806 in the Battle of Jena on a plateau outside the city.", "On the day before the battle, Napoleon entered the city of Jena.", "Hegel recounted his impressions in a letter to his friend Friedrich Immanuel Niethammer:\"Hegel and Napoleon in Jena\" (illustration from ''Harper's Magazine'', 1895), an imaginary meeting that became proverbial due to Hegel's notable use of ''Weltseele'' (\"world-soul\") in reference to Napoleon (\"the world-soul on horseback\", '''')I saw the Emperor – this world-soul ''Weltseele'' – riding out of the city on reconnaissance.", "It is indeed a wonderful sensation to see such an individual, who, concentrated here at a single point, astride a horse, reaches out over the world and masters it.", "Hegel's biographer Terry Pinkard notes that Hegel's comment to Niethammer \"is all the more striking since he had already composed the crucial section of the ''Phenomenology'' in which he remarked that the Revolution had now officially passed to another land (Germany) that would complete 'in thought' what the Revolution had only partially accomplished in practice.\"", "Although Napoleon had spared the University of Jena from much of the destruction of the surrounding city, few students returned after the battle and enrollment suffered, making Hegel's financial prospects even worse.", "Hegel traveled in the winter to Bamberg and stayed with Niethammer to oversee the proofs of the ''Phenomenology'', which was being printed there.", "Although Hegel tried to obtain another professorship, even writing Goethe in an attempt to help secure a permanent position replacing a professor of botany, he was unable to find a permanent position.", "In 1807, he had to move to Bamberg since his savings and the payment from the ''Phenomenology'' were exhausted and he needed money to support his illegitimate son Ludwig.", "There, he became the editor of the local newspaper, '''', a position he obtained with the help of Niethammer.", "Ludwig Fischer and his mother stayed behind in Jena.Hegel's friend Friedrich Immanuel Niethammer (1766–1848) financially supported Hegel and used his political influence to help him obtain multiple positions.In Bamberg, as editor of the '''', which was a pro-French newspaper, Hegel extolled the virtues of Napoleon and often editorialized the Prussian accounts of the war.", "Being the editor of a local newspaper, Hegel also became an important person in Bamberg social life, often visiting with the local official , and becoming involved in local gossip and pursued his passions for cards, fine eating, and the local Bamberg beer.", "However, Hegel bore contempt for what he saw as \"old Bavaria\", frequently referring to it as \"Barbaria\" and dreaded that \"hometowns\" like Bamberg would lose their autonomy under new the Bavarian state.", "After being investigated in September 1808 by the Bavarian state for potentially violating security measures by publishing French troop movements, Hegel wrote to Niethammer, now a high official in Munich, pleading for Niethammer's help in securing a teaching position.", "With the help of Niethammer, Hegel was appointed headmaster of a ''gymnasium'' in Nuremberg in November 1808, a post he held until 1816.While in Nuremberg, Hegel adapted his recently published ''Phenomenology of Spirit'' for use in the classroom.", "Part of his remit was to teach a class called \"Introduction to Knowledge of the Universal Coherence of the Sciences.\"", "In 1811, Hegel married Marie Helena Susanna von Tucher (1791–1855), the eldest daughter of a Senator.", "This period saw the publication of his second major work, the ''Science of Logic'' (''Wissenschaft der Logik''; 3 vols., 1812, 1813 and 1816), and the birth of two sons, Karl Friedrich Wilhelm (1813–1901) and Immanuel Thomas Christian (1814–1891).====Heidelberg, Berlin (1816–1831)====Having received offers of a post from the Universities of Erlangen, Berlin and Heidelberg, Hegel chose Heidelberg, where he moved in 1816.Soon after, his illegitimate son Ludwig Fischer (now ten years old) joined the Hegel household in April 1817, having spent time in an orphanage after the death of his mother Christiana Burkhardt.", "In 1817, Hegel published ''The Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences in Outline'' as a summary of his philosophy for students attending his lectures at Heidelberg.", "It is also while in Heidelberg that Hegel first lectured on the philosophy of art.", "In 1818, Hegel accepted the renewed offer of the chair of philosophy at the University of Berlin, which had remained vacant since Johann Gottlieb Fichte's death in 1814.Here, Hegel published his ''Elements of the Philosophy of Right'' (1821).", "Hegel devoted himself primarily to delivering lectures; his lectures on the philosophy of fine art, the philosophy of religion, the philosophy of history, and the history of philosophy were published posthumously from students' notes.", "In spite of his notoriously terrible delivery, his fame spread and his lectures attracted students from all over Germany and beyond.", "Meanwhile, Hegel and his pupils, such as Leopold von Henning, Friedrich Wilhelm Carové, were harassed and put under the surveillance of Prince Sayn-Wittgenstein, the interior minister of Prussia and his reactionary circles in the Prussian court.", "In the remainder of his career, he made two trips to Weimar, where he met with Goethe for the last time, and to Brussels, the Northern Netherlands, Leipzig, Vienna, Prague, and Paris.Hegel's tombstone in BerlinDuring the last ten years of his life, Hegel did not publish another book but thoroughly revised the ''Encyclopedia'' (second edition, 1827; third, 1830).", "In his political philosophy, he criticized Karl Ludwig von Haller's reactionary work, which claimed that laws were not necessary.", "A number of other works on the philosophy of history, religion, aesthetics and the history of philosophy were compiled from the lecture notes of his students and published posthumously.Hegel was appointed University Rector of the university in October 1829, but his term ended in September 1830.Hegel was deeply disturbed by the riots for reform in Berlin in that year.", "In 1831 Frederick William III decorated him with the Order of the Red Eagle, 3rd Class for his service to the Prussian state.", "In August 1831, a cholera epidemic reached Berlin and Hegel left the city, taking up lodgings in Kreuzberg.", "Now in a weak state of health, Hegel seldom went out.", "As the new semester began in October, Hegel returned to Berlin in the mistaken belief that the epidemic had largely subsided.", "By 14 November, Hegel was dead.", "The physicians pronounced the cause of death as cholera, but it is likely he died from another gastrointestinal disease.", "His last words are said to have been, \"There was only one man who ever understood me, and even he didn't understand me.\"", "He was buried on 16 November.", "In accordance with his wishes, Hegel was buried in the Dorotheenstadt cemetery next to Fichte and Karl Wilhelm Ferdinand Solger.Hegel's illegitimate son, Ludwig Fischer, had died shortly before while serving with the Dutch army in Batavia and the news of his death never reached his father.", "Early the following year, Hegel's sister Christiane committed suicide by drowning.", "Hegel's two remaining sons – Karl, who became a historian; and , who followed a theological path – lived long and safeguarded their father's manuscripts and letters, and produced editions of his works." ], [ "Influences", "Aristotle (384–322 BCE) and the ancient Greeks were a major influence.As H. S. Harris recounts, when Hegel entered the Tübingen seminary in 1788, \"he was a typical product of the German Enlightenment – an enthusiastic reader of Rousseau and Lessing, acquainted with Kant (at least at second hand), but perhaps more deeply devoted to the classics than to any thing modern.\"", "During this early period of his life \"the Greeks – especially Plato – came first.\"", "Although he later elevated Aristotle above Plato, Hegel never abandoned his love of ancient philosophy, the imprint of which is everywhere in his thought.The Critical Philosophy of Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) was a major influence on Hegel.Hegel's concern with various forms of cultural unity (Judaic, Greek, medieval, and modern) during this early period would remain with him throughout his career.", "In this way, he was also a typical product of early German romanticism.", "\"Unity of life\" was the phrase used by Hegel and his generation to express their concept of the highest good.", "It encompasses unity \"with oneself, with others, and with nature.", "The main threat to such unity consists in division (''Entzweiung'') or alienation (''Entfremdung'').", "\"In this respect, Hegel was particularly taken with the phenomenon of ''love'' as a kind of \"unity-in-difference,\" this both in the ancient articulation provided by Plato and in the Christian religion's doctrine of ''agape'', which Hegel at this time viewed as \"already 'grounded on universal Reason.", "This interest, as well as his theological training, would continue to mark his thought, even as it developed in a more theoretical or metaphysical direction.According to Glenn Alexander Magee, Hegel's thought (in particular, the tripartite structure of his system) also owes much to the hermetic tradition, in particular, the work of Jakob Böhme.", "The conviction that philosophy must take the form of a system Hegel owed, most particularly, to his Tübingen roommates, Schelling and Hölderlin.Hegel also read widely and was much influenced by Adam Smith and other theorists of the political economy.It was Kant's Critical Philosophy that provided what Hegel took as the definitive modern articulation of the divisions that must be overcome.", "This led to his engagement with the philosophical programs of Fichte and Schelling, as well as his attention to Spinoza and the Pantheism controversy.", "The influence of Johann Gottfried von Herder, however, would lead Hegel to a qualified rejection of the universality claimed by the Kantian program in favor of a more culturally, linguistically, and historically informed account of reason." ], [ "''The Phenomenology of Spirit''", "''The Phenomenology of Spirit'' was published in 1807.This is the first time that, at the age of thirty-six, Hegel lays out \"his own distinctive approach\" and adopts an \"outlook that is recognizably 'Hegelian' to the philosophical problems of post-Kantian philosophy\".", "Yet, the book was poorly understood even by Hegel's contemporaries and received mostly negative reviews.", "To this day, the ''Phenomenology'' is infamous for, among other things, its conceptual and allusive density, idiosyncratic terminology, and confusing transitions.", "Its most comprehensive commentary, scholar H. S. Harris's two-volume ''Hegel's Ladder'' (''The Pilgrimage of Reason'' and ''The Odyssey of Spirit''), runs more than three times the length of the text itself.The fourth chapter of the ''Phenomenology'' includes Hegel's first presentation of the lord-bondsman dialectic, the section of the book that has been most influential in general culture.", "What is at stake in the conflict Hegel presents is the practical (not theoretical) recognition or acknowledgement ''Anerkennug'', ''anerkennen'' of the universality – i.e., personhood, humanity – of each of two opposed self-consciousnesses.", "What the readers learn, but what the self-consciousnesses described do not yet realize, is that recognition can only be successful and actual as reciprocal or mutual.", "This is the case for the simple reason that the recognition of someone you do not recognize as properly human cannot count as genuine recognition.", "Hegel can also be seen here as criticizing the individualist worldview of people and society as a collection of atomized individuals, instead taking a holistic view of human self-consciousness as requiring the recognition of others, and people's view of themselves as being shaped by the views of others.Title page of the original 1807 editionHegel describes ''The Phenomenology'' as both the \"introduction\" to his philosophical system and also as the \"first part\" of that system as the \"science of the experience of consciousness.\"", "Yet it has long been controversial in both respects; indeed, Hegel's own attitude changed throughout his life.Nevertheless, however complicated the details, the basic strategy by which it attempts to make good on its introductory claim is not difficult to state.", "Beginning with only the most basic \"certainties of consciousness itself,\" \"the most immediate of which is the certainty that ''I'' am conscious of ''this'' object, ''here'' and ''now'',\" Hegel aims to show that these \"certainties of natural consciousness\" have as their consequence the standpoint of speculative logic.This does not, however, make the ''Phenomenology'' a ''Bildungsroman''.", "It is not the consciousness under observation that learns from its experience.", "Only \"we,\" the phenomenological observers, are in a position to profit from Hegel's logical reconstruction of the science of experience.The ensuing dialectic is long and hard.", "It is described by Hegel himself as a \"path of despair,\" in which self-consciousness finds itself to be, over and again, in error.", "It is the self-concept of consciousness itself that is tested in the domain of experience, and where that concept is not adequate, self-consciousness \"suffers this violence at its own hands, and brings to ruin its own restricted satisfaction.\"", "For, as Hegel points out, one cannot learn how to swim without getting into the water.", "By progressively testing its concept of knowledge in this way, by \"making experience his standard of knowledge, Hegel is embarking upon nothing less than a ''transcendental deduction'' of metaphysics.", "\"In the course of its dialectic, the ''Phenomenology'' purports to demonstrate that – because consciousness always includes self-consciousness – there are no 'given' objects of direct awareness not already mediated by thought.", "Further analysis of the structure of self-consciousness reveals that both the social and conceptual stability of the experiential world depend upon networks of reciprocal recognition.", "Failures of recognition, then, demand reflection upon the past as a way \"to understand what is required of us at the present.\"", "For Hegel, this ultimately involves rethinking an interpretation of \"religion as the collective reflection of the modern community on what ultimately counts for it.\"", "He contends, finally, that this \"historically, socially construed philosophical account of that whole process\" elucidates the genesis of a distinctly \"modern\" standpoint.Another way of putting this is to say that the ''Phenomenology'' takes up Kant's philosophical project of investigating the capacities and limits of reason.", "Under the influence of Herder, however, Hegel proceeds historically, instead of altogether a priori.", "Yet, although proceeding historically, Hegel resists the relativistic consequences of Herder's own thought.", "In the words of one scholar, \"It is Hegel's insight that reason itself has a history, that what counts as reason is the result of a development.", "This is something that Kant never imagines and that Herder only glimpses.", "\"In praise of Hegel's accomplishment, Walter Kaufmann writes that the guiding conviction of the ''Phenomenology'' is that a philosopher should not \"confine him or herself to views that have been held but penetrate these to the human reality they reflect.\"", "In other words, it is not enough to consider propositions, or even the content of consciousness; \"it is worthwhile to ask in every instance what kind of spirit would entertain such propositions, hold such views, and have such a consciousness.", "Every outlook in other words, is to be studied not merely as an academic possibility but as an existential reality.", "\"''The Phenomenology of Spirit'' shows that the search for an externally objective criterion of truth is a fool's errand.", "The constraints on knowledge are necessarily internal to spirit itself.", "Yet, although theories and self-conceptions may always be reevaluated, renegotiated, and revised, this is not a merely imaginative exercise.", "Claims to knowledge must always prove their own adequacy in real historical experience.Although Hegel seemed during his Berlin years to have abandoned ''The Phenomenology of Spirit'', at the time of his unexpected death, he was in fact making plans to revise and republish it.", "As he was no longer in need of money or credentials, H. S. Harris argues that \"the only rational conclusion that can be drawn from his decision to republish the book… is that he still regarded the 'science of experience' as a valid project in itself\" and one for which later system has no equivalent.", "There is, however, no scholarly consensus about the ''Phenomenology'' with respect to either of the systematic roles asserted by Hegel at the time of its publication." ], [ "Philosophical system<!--'Hegelianism' reditects here-->", "Hegel's philosophical system is divided into three parts: the science of logic, the philosophy of nature, and the philosophy of spirit (the latter two of which together constitute the real philosophy).", "This structure is adopted from Proclus's Neoplatonic triad of remaining-procession-return' and from the Christian Trinity.\"", "Although evident in draft writings dating back as early as 1805, the system was not completed in published form until the 1817 ''Encyclopedia'' (1st ed.", ").Frederick C. Beiser argues that the position of the logic with respect to the real philosophy is best understood in terms of Hegel's appropriation of Aristotle's distinction between \"the order of explanation\" and \"the order of being.\"", "To Beiser, Hegel is neither a Platonist who believes in abstract logical entities, nor a nominalist according to whom the particular is first in the orders of explanation and being alike.", "Rather, Hegel is a holist.", "For Hegel, the universal is always first in the order of explanation even if what is naturally particular is first in the order of being.", "With respect to the system as a whole, that universal is supplied by the logic.Michael J. Inwood plainly states, \"The logical idea is non-temporal and therefore does not exist at any time apart from its manifestations.\"", "To ask \"when\" it divides into nature and spirit is analogous to asking \"when\" 12 divides into 5 and 7.The question does not have an answer because it is predicated upon a fundamental misunderstanding of its terms.", "The task of the logic (at this high systemic level) is to articulate what Hegel calls \"the identity of identity and non-identity\" of nature and spirit.", "Put another way, it aims to overcome subject-object dualism.", "This is to say that, among other things, Hegel's philosophical project endeavors to provide the metaphysical basis for an account of spirit that is continuous with, yet distinct from, the \"merely\" natural world – without thereby reducing either term to the other.Furthermore, the final sections of Hegel's ''Encyclopedia'' suggest that to give priority to any one of its three parts is to have an interpretation that is \"one-sided,\" incomplete or otherwise inaccurate.", "As Hegel famously declares, \"The true is the whole.", "\"=== ''Science of Logic'' ===Hegel's concept of logic differs greatly from that of the ordinary English sense of the term.", "This can be seen, for instance, in such metaphysical definitions of logic as \"the science of ''things'' grasped in the ''thoughts'' that used to be taken to express the ''essentialities'' of the ''things''.\"", "As Michael Wolff explains, Hegel's logic is a continuation of Kant's distinctive logical program.", "Its occasional engagement with the familiar Aristotelian conception of logic is only incidental to Hegel's project.", "Twentieth-century developments by such logicians as Frege and Russell likewise remain logics of formal validity and so are likewise irrelevant to Hegel's project, which aspires to provide a metaphysical logic of truth.There are two texts of Hegel's ''Logic''.", "The first, ''The Science of Logic'' (1812, 1813, 1816; bk.I revised 1831), is sometimes also called the \"Greater Logic.\"", "The second is the first volume of Hegel's ''Encyclopedia'' and is sometimes known as the \"Lesser Logic.\"", "The ''Encyclopedia'' Logic is an abbreviated or condensed presentation of the same dialectic.", "Hegel composed it for use with students in the lecture hall, not as a substitute for its proper, book-length exposition.Hegel presents logic as a presuppositionless science that investigates the most fundamental thought-determinations ''Denkbestimmungen'', or categories, and so constitutes the basis of philosophy.", "In putting something into question, one already presupposes logic; in this regard, it is the only field of inquiry that must constantly reflect upon its own mode of functioning.", "''The Science of Logic'' is Hegel's attempt to meet this foundational demand.", "As he puts it, \"''logic'' coincides with ''metaphysics''.\"", "In the words of scholar Glenn Alexander Magee, the logic provides \"an account of pure categories or ideas which are timelessly true\" and which make up \"the formal structure of reality itself\".It is important to see, however, that Hegel's metaphysical program is not a return to the Leibnizian-Wolffian rationalism critiqued by Kant, which is a criticism Hegel accepts.", "In particular, Hegel rejects any form of metaphysics as speculation about the transcendent.", "His procedure, an appropriation of Aristotle's concept of form, is fully immanent.", "More generally, Hegel agrees wholeheartedly with Kant's rejection of all forms of dogmatism and also agrees that any future metaphysics must pass the test of criticism.", "It is the assessment of scholar Stephen Houlgate that Hegel's method of immanent logical development and critique is historically unique.Philosopher Béatrice Longuenesse holds that this project may be understood, on analogy to Kant, as \"inseparably a metaphysical and a transcendental deduction of the categories of metaphysics.\"", "This approach insists, and claims to demonstrate, that the insights of logic cannot be judged by standards external to thought itself, that is, that \"thought... is not the mirror of nature.\"", "Yet, she argues, this does not imply that these standards are arbitrary or subjective.", "Hegel's translator and scholar of German idealism George di Giovanni likewise interprets the ''Logic'' as (drawing upon, yet also in opposition to, Kant) ''immanently'' transcendental; its categories, according to Hegel, are built into ''life itself'', and define what it is to be \"an object in general.", "\"Books one and two of the ''Logic'' are the doctrines of \"Being\" and \"Essence.\"", "Together they comprise the Objective Logic, which is largely occupied with overcoming the assumptions of traditional metaphysics.", "Book three is the final part of the ''Logic''.", "It discusses the doctrine of \"the Concept,\" which is concerned with reintegrating those categories of objectivity into a thoroughly idealistic account of reality.", "Simplifying greatly, Being describes its concepts just as they appear, Essence attempts to explain them with reference to other forces, and the Concept explains and unites them both in terms of an internal teleology.", "The categories of Being \"pass over\" from one to the next as denoting thought-determinations only extrinsically connected to one another.", "The categories of Essence reciprocally \"shine\" into one another.", "Finally, in the Concept, thought has shown itself to be fully self-referential, and so its categories organically \"develop\" from one to the next.It is clear then, that in Hegel's technical sense of the term, the concept (''Begriff'', sometimes also rendered \"notion,\" capitalized by some translators but not others) is not a psychological concept.", "When deployed with the definitive article (\"the\") and sometimes modified by the term \"logical,\" Hegel is referring to the intelligible structure of reality as articulated in the Subjective Logic.", "(When used in the plural, however, Hegel's sense is much closer to the ordinary dictionary sense of the term.", ")Hegel's inquiry into thought is concerned to systematize thought's own internal self-differentiation, that is, how pure concepts (logical categories) differ from one another in their various relations of implication and interdependence.", "For instance, in the opening dialectic of the ''Logic'', Hegel claims to display that the thought of \"''being, pure being'' – without further determination\" is indistinguishable from the concept of ''nothing'', and that, in this \"passing back and forth\" of being and nothing, \"''each'' immediately ''vanishes in its opposite.''\"", "This movement is neither one concept nor the other, but the category of ''becoming''.", "There is not a difference here to which one can \"refer,\" only a dialectic that one can observe and describe.The final category of the ''Logic'' is \"the idea.\"", "As with \"the concept\", the sense of this term for Hegel is not psychological.", "Rather, following Kant in ''The Critique of Pure Reason'', Hegel's usage harks back to the Greek ''eidos'', Plato's concept of form that is fully existent and universal: \"Hegel's ''Idee'' (like Plato's idea) is the product of an attempt to fuse ontology, epistemology, evaluation, etc., into a single set of concepts.", "\"The ''Logic'' accommodates within itself the necessity of the realm of natural-spiritual ''contingency'', that which cannot be determined in advance: \"To go further, it must abandon thinking altogether and let itself go, opening itself to that which is other than thought in pure receptivity.\"", "Simply put, logic realizes itself only in the domain of nature and spirit, in which it attains its \"verification.\"", "Hence the conclusion of the ''Science of Logic'' with \"the idea ''freely discharging'' entläßt itself\" into \"objectivity and external life\" – and, so too, the systematic transition to the ''Realphilosophie''.=== Philosophy of the real ===Hegel uses the Owl of Minerva as a metaphor for how philosophy can understand historical conditions only after they occur.In contrast to the first, logical part of Hegel's system, the second, real-philosophical part – the philosophy of nature and of spirit – is an ongoing project with respect to its historical content, which continues to change and develop.", "For instance, although Hegel regards \"the basic structure\" of the philosophy of nature as complete, he was \"aware that science is not 'finished' and will continue to make new discoveries\".", "Philosophy is, as Hegel puts it, \"''its own time comprehended in thoughts''.", "\"He expands upon this definition:A further word on the subject of ''issuing instructions'' on how the world ought to be: philosophy, at any rate, always comes too late to perform this function.", "As the ''thought'' of the world, it appears only at a time when actuality has gone through its formative process and attained its completed state ''sich fertig gemacht''.", "This lesson of the concept is necessarily also apparent from history, namely that it is only when actuality ''Wirklichkeit'' has reached maturity that the ideal appears opposite the real and reconstructs this real world, which it has grasped in its substance, in the shape of an intellectual realm.", "When philosophy paints its gray in gray, a shape of life has grown old, and it cannot be rejuvenated, but only recognized, by the gray in gray of philosophy; the owl of Minerva begins its flight only with the onset of dusk.This easily reads – and frequently has been read – as an expression of the impotence of philosophy, political or otherwise, and a rationalization of the status quo.", "Allegra de Laurentiis, however, points out that the German expression \"''sich fertig machen''\" does not only imply completion, but also preparedness.", "This additional meaning is important because it better reflects Hegel's Aristotelian concept of actuality.", "He characterizes actuality as being-at-work-staying-itself that can never be once-and-for-all completed or finished.Hegel describes the relationship between the logical and the real-philosophical parts of his system in this way: \"If philosophy does not stand above its time in content, it does so in form, because, as the thought and knowledge of that which is the substantial spirit of its time, it makes that spirit its object.", "\"This is to say that what makes the philosophy of the real ''scientific'' in Hegel's technical sense is the systematically coherent logical form it uncovers in its natural-historical material – and so also displays in its presentation.=== ''The Philosophy of Nature'' ===The philosophy of nature organizes the contingent material of the natural sciences systematically.", "As part of the philosophy of the real, in no way does it presume to \"tell nature what it must be like.\"", "Historically, various interpreters have questioned Hegel's understanding of the natural sciences of his time.", "However, this claim has been largely refuted by recent scholarship.One of the very few ways in which the philosophy of nature might correct claims made by the natural sciences themselves is to combat reductive explanations; that is to discredit accounts employing categories not adequate to the complexity of the phenomena they purport to explain, as for instance, attempting to explain life in strictly chemical terms.Although Hegel and other ''Naturphilosophen'' aim to revive a teleological understanding of nature, they argue that their strictly ''internal'' or ''immanent'' concept of teleology is \"limited to the ends observable within nature itself.\"", "Hence, they claim, it does not violate the Kantian critique.", "Even more strongly, Hegel and Schelling claim that Kant's restriction of teleology to regulative status effectively undermines his own critical project of explaining the possibility of knowledge.", "Their argument is that \"only under the assumption that ''there is'' an organism is it possible to explain the ''actual interaction'' between the subjective and the objective, the ideal and the real.\"", "Hence the organism must be acknowledged to have constitutive status.Introducing Hegel's philosophy of nature for a 21st-century audience, observes that \"contemporary philosophy of science\" has lost sight of \"the ontological issue at stake, namely, the question of an intrinsically lawful nature\": \"Consider, for example, the problem of what constitutes a law of nature.", "This problem is central to our understanding of nature.", "Yet philosophy of science has not provided a definitive response to it up to now.", "Nor can we expect to have such an answer from that quarter in future.\"", "It is back to Hegel that Wandschneider would direct philosophers of science for guidance in the philosophy of nature.Recent scholars have also argued that Hegel's approach to the philosophy of nature provides valuable resources for theorizing and confronting recent environmental challenges entirely unforeseen by Hegel.", "These philosophers point to such aspects of his philosophy as its distinctive metaphysical grounding and the continuity of its conception of the nature-spirit relationship.=== ''The Philosophy of Spirit'' ===John Collier.", "The Delphic imperative to \"know thyself\" governs Hegel's entire philosophy of spirit.The German ''Geist'' has a wide range of meanings.", "In its most general Hegelian sense, however, \"''Geist'' denotes the human mind and its products, in contrast to nature and also the logical idea.\"", "(Some older translations render it as \"mind,\" rather than \"spirit.", "\")As is especially evident in the Anthropology, Hegel's concept of spirit is an appropriation and transformation of the self-referential Aristotelian concept of ''energeia''.", "Spirit is not something above or otherwise external to nature.", "It is \"the highest organization and development\" of nature's powers.According to Hegel, \"the ''essence'' of spirit is ''freedom''.\"", "The ''Encyclopedia'' Philosophy of Spirit charts the progressively determinate stages of this freedom until spirit fulfills the Delphic imperative with which Hegel begins: \"''Know thyself''.", "\"As becomes clear, Hegel's concept of freedom is not (or not merely) the capacity for arbitrary choice, but has as its \"core notion\" that \"something, especially a person, is free if and only if, it is independent and self-determining, not determined by or dependent upon something other than itself.\"", "It is, in other words, (at least predominantly, dialectically) an account of what Isaiah Berlin would later term positive liberty.==== Subjective spirit ====Standing at the transition from nature to spirit, the role of the Philosophy of Subjective Spirit is to analyze \"the elements necessary for or presupposed by such relations of objective spirit, namely, the structures characteristic of and necessary to the individual rational agent.\"", "It does this by elaborating \"the fundamental nature of the biological/spiritual human individual along with the cognitive and the practical prerequisites of human social interaction.", "\"This section, particularly its first part, contains various comments that were commonplace in Hegel's day and can now be recognized as openly racist, such as unfounded claims about the \"naturally\" lower intellectual and emotional development of Black people.", "In his perspective, these racial differences are related to ''climate'': according to Hegel, it is not racial characteristics, but the climactic conditions in which a people lives that variously limit or enable its capacity for free self-determination.", "He believes that race is not destiny: any group could, in principle, improve and transform its condition by migrating to friendlier climes.Hegel divides his philosophy of the subjective spirit into three parts: anthropology, phenomenology, and psychology.", "Anthropology \"deals with 'soul', which is spirit still mired in nature: all that within us which precedes our self-conscious mind or intellect.\"", "In the section \"Phenomenology\", Hegel examines the relation between consciousness and its object and the emergence of intersubjective rationality.", "Psychology \"deals with a great deal that would be categorized as epistemology (or 'theory of knowledge') today.", "Hegel discusses, among other things, the nature of attention, memory, imagination and judgement.", "\"Throughout this section, but especially in the Anthropology, Hegel appropriates and develops Aristotle's hylomorphic approach to what is today theorized as the mind–body problem: \"The solution to the mind–body problem according to this theory hinges upon recognizing that mind does not act upon the body as cause of effects but rather acts upon itself as an embodied living subjectivity.", "As such, mind develops itself, progressively attaining more and more of a self-determined character.", "\"Its final section, Free Spirit, develops the concept of \"free will,\" which is foundational for Hegel's philosophy of right.==== Objective spirit ====King Frederick William III of Prussia (1797—1840) stifled the political reforms for which Hegel had hoped and advocated.In the broadest terms, Hegel's philosophy of objective spirit \"is his social philosophy, his philosophy of how the human spirit objectifies itself in its social and historical activities and productions.\"", "Or, put differently, it is an account of the institutionalization of freedom.", "Besier declares this a rare instance of unanimity in Hegel scholarship: \"all scholars agree there is no more important concept in Hegel's political theory than freedom.\"", "This is because it is the foundation of right, the essence of spirit, and the ''telos'' of history.This part of Hegel's philosophy is presented first in his 1817 ''Encyclopedia'' (revised 1827 and 1830) and then at greater length in the 1821 ''Elements of the Philosophy of Right, or Natural Law and Political Science in Outline'' (like the ''Encyclopedia'', intended as a textbook), upon which he also frequently lectured.", "Its final part, the philosophy of world history, was additionally elaborated in Hegel's lectures on the subject.Hegel's ''Elements of the Philosophy of Right'' has been controversial from the date of its original publication.", "It is not, however, a straightforward defense of the autocratic Prussian state, as some have alleged, but is rather a defense of \"Prussia as it was to have become under proposed reform administrations.", "\"The German ''Recht'' in Hegel's title does not have a direct English equivalent (though it does correspond to the Latin ''ius'' and the French ''droit'').", "As a first approximation, Michael Inwood distinguishes three senses:*a right, claim or title*justice (as in, e.g., 'to administer justice'...but not justice as a virtue...)*'the law' as a principle, or 'the laws' collectively.Beiser observes that Hegel's theory is \"his attempt to rehabilitate the natural law tradition while taking into account the criticisms of the historical school.\"", "He adds that \"without a sound interpretation of Hegel's theory of natural law, we have very little understanding of the very foundation of his social and political thought.\"", "Consistent with Beiser's position, Adriaan T. Peperzak documents Hegel's arguments against social contract theory and stresses the metaphysical foundations of Hegel's philosophy of right.Observing that \"analyzing the structure of Hegel's argument in the ''Philosophy of Right'' shows that achieving political autonomy is fundamental to Hegel's analysis of the state and government,\" Kenneth R. Westphal provides this brief outline:*Abstract Right,' treats principles governing property, its transfer, and wrongs against property.", "\"*Morality,' treats the rights of moral subjects, responsibility for one's actions, and a priori theories of right.", "\"*Ethical Life' (''Sittlichkeit''), analyzes the principles and institutions governing central aspects of rational social life, including the family, civil society, and the state as a whole, including the government.", "\"Hegel describes the state of his time, a constitutional monarchy, as rationally embodying three cooperative and mutually inclusive elements.", "These elements are \"democracy (rule of the many, who are involved in legislation), aristocracy (rule of the few, who apply, concretize, and execute the laws), and monarchy (rule of the one, who heads and encompasses all power).\"", "It is what Aristotle called a \"mixed\" form of government, which is designed to include what is best of each of the three classical forms.", "The division of powers \"prevents an single power from dominating others.\"", "Hegel is particularly concerned to bind the monarch to the constitution, limiting his authority so that he can do little more than to declare of what his ministers have already decided that it is to be so.The relation of Hegel's philosophy of right to modern liberalism is complex.", "He sees liberalism as a valuable and characteristic expression of the modern world.", "However, it carries the danger within itself to undermine its own values.", "This self-destructive tendency may be avoided by measuring \"the subjective goals of individuals by a larger objective and collective good.\"", "Moral values, then, have only a \"limited place in the total scheme of things.\"", "Yet, although it is not without reason that Hegel is widely regarded as a major proponent of what Isaiah Berlin would later term positive liberty, he was just as \"unwavering and unequivocal\" in his defense of negative liberty.If Hegel's ideal sovereign is much weaker than was typical in monarchies his time, so too is his democratic element much weaker than is typical in democracies of modern times.", "Although he insists upon the importance of public participation, Hegel severely limits suffrage and follows the English bicameral model, in which only members of the lower house, that of commoners and bourgeoisie, are elected officials.", "Nobles in the upper house, like the monarch, inherit their positions.The final part of the Philosophy of Objective Spirit is entitled \"World History.\"", "In this section, Hegel argues that \"this immanent principle the Stoic ''logos'' produces with logical inevitability an expansion of the species' capacities for self determination ('freedom') and a deepening of its self understanding ('self-knowing').\"", "In Hegel's own words: \"World history is progress in the consciousness of freedom – a progress that we must comprehend conceptually.", "\"''(See also: Legacy, below, for further discussion of the complex legacy of Hegel's social and political philosophy.", ")''==== Absolute spirit ====F.", "T. Kugler)Hegel's use of the term \"absolute\" is easily misunderstood.", "Inwood, however, clarifies: derived from the Latin ''absolutus'', it means \"not dependent on, conditional on, relative to or restricted by anything else; self-contained, perfect, complete.\"", "For Hegel, this means that absolute knowing can only denote \"an 'absolute relation' in which the ground of experience and the experiencing agent are one and the same: the object known is explicitly the subject who knows.\"", "That is, the only \"thing\" (which is really an activity) that is truly absolute is that which is entirely self-conditioned, and according to Hegel, this only occurs when spirit takes itself up as its own object.", "The final section of his Philosophy of Spirit presents the three modes of such absolute knowing: art, religion, and philosophy.It is with reference to different modalities of consciousness – intuition, representation, and comprehending thinking – that Hegel distinguishes the three modes of absolute knowing.", "Frederick Beiser summarizes: \"art, religion and philosophy all have the same object, the absolute or truth itself; but they consist in different forms of knowledge of it.", "Art presents the absolute in the form of immediate intuition (''Anschauung''); religion presents it in the form of representation (''Vorstellung''); and philosophy presents it in the form of concepts (''Begriffe'').", "\"Rüdiger Bubner additionally clarifies that the increase in conceptual transparency according to which these spheres are systematically ordered is not hierarchical in any evaluative sense.Although Hegel's discussion of absolute spirit in the ''Encyclopedia'' is quite brief, he develops his account at length in lectures on the philosophy of fine art, the philosophy of religion, and the history of philosophy." ], [ "Philosophy of art", "The ancient Athenian, according to Hegel, apprehends the meaning of Athena Parthenos directly as his own rational essence.", "(The Varvakeion Athena, National Archaeological Museum of Athens)In the ''Phenomenology'', and even in the 1817 edition of the ''Encyclopedia'', Hegel discusses art only as it figures in what he terms the \"Art-Religion\" of the ancient Greeks.", "In 1818, however, Hegel begins lecturing on the philosophy of art as an explicitly autonomous domain.Although H. G. Hotho titled his edition of the Lectures ''Vorlesungen über die Ästhetik'' ''Lectures on Aesthetics'', Hegel directly states that his topic is not \"the spacious realm of the beautiful,\" but \"art, or, rather, fine art.\"", "He doubles down on this in the next paragraph by explicitly distinguishing his project from the broader philosophical projects pursued under the heading of \"aesthetics\" by Christian Wolff and Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten.Some critics – most canonically, Benedetto Croce, in 1907 – have attributed to Hegel some form of the thesis that art is \"dead.\"", "Hegel, however, never said any such thing, nor can such a view be plausibly attributed to him.", "Indeed, one commentator places that debate in perspective with the observation that Hegel's claim that \"art no longer serves our highest aims\" is \"radical not for the suggestion that art now fails to do so but for the suggestion that it ever did.", "\"Hegel's detailed and systematic treatment of the various arts over such a great span has even led Ernst Gombrich to present Hegel as \"the father of art history.\"", "Indeed, until recently, Hegel's ''Lectures'' were largely ignored by philosophers and received most of their attention from literary critics and art historians.The more narrowly conceptual project of the philosophy of art, however, is to articulate and defend \"the ''autonomy'' of art, making possible an account of the ''special individuality'' distinguishing works of aesthetic worth.", "\"According to Hegel, artistic beauty reveals absolute truth through perception.'", "He holds that the best art conveys metaphysical knowledge by revealing, through sense perception, what is unconditionally true,\" that is, \"what his metaphysical theory affirms to be unconditional or absolute.\"", "So, while Hegel \"ennobles art insofar as it conveys metaphysical knowledge,\" \"he tempers his assessment in view of his belief that art's sensory media can never adequately convey what completely transcends the contingency of sensation.\"", "This is why, according to Hegel, art can only be one of three mutually complementary modes of absolute spirit." ], [ "Christianity", "Although his understanding of Christianity evolved over time, Hegel identified as a Lutheran his entire life.", "One constant was his profound appreciation for the Christian insight into the intrinsic worth and freedom of every individual.=== Early Romantic writings ===Hegel's earliest writings on Christianity date between 1783 and 1800.He was still working out his ideas at this time, and everything from this period was abandoned as fragments or unfinished drafts.", "Hegel was very much dissatisfied with the dogmatism and positivity of the Christian religion, to which he opposed the spontaneous religion of the Greeks.", "In ''The Spirit of Christianity'', he proposes a sort of resolution by aligning the universality of Kantian moral philosophy with the universality of the teachings of Jesus; in paraphrase: \"The moral principle of the Gospel is charity, or love, and love is the beauty of the heart, a spiritual beauty which combines the Greek Soul and Kant's Moral Reason.\"", "Although he did not return to this Romantic formulation, the unification of Greek and Christian thought would remain a preoccupation throughout his life.=== ''The Phenomenology of Spirit'' ===Religion is a major theme throughout the 1807 ''Phenomenology of Spirit'' well before it emerges as the explicit topic of the penultimate Religion chapter.", "This is seen most directly in the metaphysical \"unhappiness\" of the Augustinian consciousness in chapter IV and in Hegel's depiction of the struggle of the Church of the Faithful with Enlightenment philosophes in chapter VI.Hegel's proper account of Christianity, however, is to be found in the final section of the ''Phenomenology'' just prior to the closing chapter, Absolute Knowing.", "It is presented under the heading The Revelatory Religion ''die offenbare Religion''.", "By means of philosophical exposition of Christian doctrines such as Incarnation and Resurrection, Hegel claims to demonstrate or to make \"manifest\" the conceptual truth of Christianity, and so to overcome what has only been positively revealed ''geöffenbarte'' by explication of its underlying, revelatory truth.The heart of Hegel's interpretation of Christianity can be seen in his interpretation of the Trinity.", "God the Father must give Himself existence as finitely human Son, the death of whom discloses His essential being as Spirit – and, crucially, according to Hegel, his Hegel's own philosophical ''concept'' of spirit makes transparent what is only obscurely ''represented'' in the Christian concept of the Trinity.", "And so it makes manifest the philosophical ''truth'' of religion, which now is ''known''.In an essay on the ''Phenomenology'', George di Giovanni contrasts Kant's rational faith with Hegel's rational religion.", "On his view, the modern role of religion consists in \"expressing and nurturing spirit in its most individual forms\" rather than in explaining reality.", "There is no longer any place for faith in opposition to knowledge.", "Instead, faith assumes such forms as the trust placed \"in individuals close to us, or in the time and place in which we happen to live.", "\"In other words, according to Hegel's philosophical interpretation, Christianity does not require faith in any doctrine that is not fully justified by reason.", "What is left, then, is the religious community, free to minister to individual needs and to celebrate the absolute freedom of spirit.=== The Berlin lectures ===Hegel's ''Encyclopedia'' includes a section on the Revealed Religion, but it is quite short.", "It is his Berlin Lectures that contain his next presentation of Christianity, which he variously refers to as the \"consummate,\" \"absolute,\" or \"revelatory\" religion (all equivalent terms in this context).", "Transcripts of three of Hegel's four courses have been preserved, and they show him to be continually adjusting his emphases and exposition.", "The interpretation of Christianity that he advances, however, is still very much that which he presented in the ''Phenomenology'' – only now he is able to expound at greater length and with greater clarity upon what he had covered earlier in such a condensed fashion.=== Issues of interpretation ===Martin Luther (1483–1546), who would not likely have recognized Hegel's claim to share his religionWalter Jaeschke questions whether Luther would have recognized Hegel's claim to Protestantism.", "Hegel embraces the doctrine of the priesthood of all believers with his concept of spirit, but rejects the core Lutheran doctrines of ''sola gratia'' and ''sola scriptura''.", "Instead, he affirms as the \"fundamental principle\" of Protestantism \"the obstinacy that does honor to mankind, to refuse to recognize in conviction anything not ratified by thought.\"", "On similar grounds, Frederick Beiser, while acknowledging Hegel's apparently sincere profession of Lutheranism, describes Hegel's theology as effectively \"the very opposite of Luther's.", "\"Discussing the \"Hegel Renaissance\" in late 20th-century Anglo-American philosophy, Beiser expresses surprise – given today's highly secular academic culture – at such a surge of interest in Hegel.", "For, according to Hegel, the divine is the centerpoint of philosophy.", "Hegel's concept of God differs from theistic conceptions found in orthodox Christianity and from deistic conceptions suggested by eighteenth-century philosophers.", "Nonetheless, Hegel conceptualizes God as the infinite or absolute, in agreement with the classical definition given by St. Anselm as \"that of which nothing greater can be conceived.", "\"Just how to most properly characterize Hegel's distinctive articulation of Christianity was a matter of intense debate even in his own life and, among his students, after his death.", "So it is likely to remain.", "Neither theistic, nor deistic, Hegel's god can only be articulated in the philosophical terms of the concept of spirit or his own distinctive logical vocabulary.", "Nevertheless, Hegel everywhere insists that his is the Christian God." ], [ "Philosophy of history", "\"History,\" Frederick Beiser writes, \"is central to Hegel's conception of philosophy.\"", "Philosophy is only possible \"if it is historical, only if the philosopher is aware of the origins, context, and development of his doctrines.\"", "In this 1993 essay, titled \"Hegel's Historicism,\" Beiser declares this to be \"nothing less than a revolution in the history of philosophy.\"", "In a 2011 monograph, however, Beiser excludes Hegel from his treatment of the German historicist tradition for the reason that Hegel is more interested in the philosophy of history than in the epistemological project of justifying its status as a science.", "Moreover, against the relativistic implications of historicism narrowly construed, Hegel's metaphysics of spirit supplies a ''telos'', internal to history itself, in terms of which progress can be measured and assessed.", "This is the self-consciousness of freedom.", "The more that awareness of this essential freedom of spirit permeates a culture, the more advanced Hegel claims it to be.Because freedom, according to Hegel, is the essence of spirit, the developing self-awareness of this is just as much a development in truth as it is in political life.", "Thinking presupposes an \"instinctive belief\" in truth, and the history of philosophy, as recounted by Hegel, is a progressive sequence of \"system-identifying\" concepts of truth.Whether or not Hegel is a historicist simply depends upon how one defines the term.", "The importance of history in Hegel's philosophy, however, cannot be denied.German has two words for \"history,\" ''Historie'' and ''Geschichte''.", "The first refers to \"the narrative organization of empirical material.\"", "The second \"includes an account of the underlying developmental logic (the 'intrinsic ground') of deeds and events.\"", "Only the latter procedure can supply a properly universal or philosophical history, and this is the procedure Hegel adopts in all of his historical writings.", "According to Hegel, humans are distinctly historical creatures because, not only do they exist in time, they also internalize temporal events so that they become, in a profound sense, part of what and who people are, \"integral to humanity's self-understanding and self-knowledge.\"", "This is why the history of philosophy, for instance, is integral to philosophy itself, it being literally impossible for early philosophers to think what later philosophers, afforded all the riches of their predecessors, could think – and perhaps, with this distance, work through more thoroughly or consistently.", "From a later perspective, for instance, it becomes apparent that the concept of personhood includes the implication of universality such as renders contradictory any interpretation or implementation that extends it to some people, but not to others.In the Introduction to his ''Lectures on the Philosophy of World History'', simplifying his own account, Hegel divides human history into three epochs.", "In what he calls the \"Oriental\" world, ''one'' person (the pharaoh or emperor) was free.", "In the Greco-Roman world, ''some'' people (moneyed citizens) were free.", "In the \"Germanic\" world (that is, European Christendom) ''all'' persons are free.In his discussion of the ancient world, Hegel provides a heavily qualified defense of slavery.", "As he puts it elsewhere, \"slavery occurs in a transitional phase between the natural human existence and the truly ethical condition; it occurs in a world where a wrong is still right.", "Here, the wrong ''is valid'', so that the position it occupies is a necessary one.\"", "Hegel is clear, however, that there is an unconditional moral demand to reject the institution of slavery, and that slavery is incompatible with the rational state and the essential freedom of every individual.Some commentators – most notably, Alexandre Kojève and Francis Fukuyama – have understood Hegel to claim that, having achieved a fully universal concept of freedom, history is complete, that it has reached its conclusion.", "Against this, however, it can be objected that freedom may yet be expanded in terms both of its ''scope'' and its ''content''.", "Since Hegel's day, the scope of the concept of freedom has been expanded to acknowledge the rightful inclusion of women, formerly enslaved or colonized peoples, the mentally ill, and those who do not conform to conservative norms with respect to sexual preference or gender identity, among others.", "As to the content of freedom, the United Nations' International Bill of Human Rights, just for instance, expands the concept of freedom beyond what Hegel himself articulates.", "Additionally, although Hegel consistently presents his philosophical histories as East-to-West narratives, scholars such as J. M. Fritzman argue that, not only is this prejudice quite incidental to the substance of Hegel's philosophical position, but that – with India now the world's largest democracy, for instance, or with South Africa's mighty efforts to transcend apartheid – the movement of freedom back to the East may already have begun." ], [ "Dialectics, speculation, idealism", "Hegel is often credited with proceeding according to a \"dialectical method\"; in point of fact, however, Hegel characterizes his philosophy as \"speculative\" (''spekulativ''), rather than dialectical, and uses the term \"dialectical\" only \"quite rarely.\"", "This is because, although \"''Dialektik'' sometimes stands for the entire movement of the self-articulation of meaning or thought, this term refers more specifically to the self-negation of the determinations of the understanding (''Verstand''), when they are thought through in their fixedness and opposition.", "\"By contrast, \"Hegel describes correct thinking as the methodical interplay of three moments: :(a) abstract and intellectual (''verständig''), :(b) dialectical or negatively rational (''negativvernünftig''), and :(c) speculative or positively rational (''positivvernünftig'').", "\"For example, self-consciousness is \"the concept that consciousness has of itself.", "Thus in this case concept and referent coincide:... 'self-consciousness' refers to mind's taking on the self-contradictory (and thus also self-negating) role of being subject and object of one and the same act of cognition – simultaneously and in the same respect.\"", "Hence it is a speculative concept.According to Beiser, \"if Hegel has any methodology at all, it appears to be an anti-methodology, a method to suspend all methods.\"", "Hegel's term \"dialectic\" must be understood with reference to the ''concept'' of the object of investigation.", "What must be grasped is \"the 'self-organization' of the subject matter, its 'inner necessity' and 'inherent movement.", "Hegel renounces all external methods such as could be \"applied\" to some subject matter.The dialectical character of Hegel's speculative procedure often makes his position on any given issue quite difficult to characterize.", "Instead of seeking to answer a question or solve a problem directly, he frequently recasts it by showing, for instance, \"how the dichotomy underlying the dispute is false, and that it is therefore possible to integrate elements from both positions.\"", "Speculative thought preserves what is true from apparently opposing theories in a process that Hegel terms \"sublation.", "\"To \"sublate\" (''aufheben'') has three main senses:*'to raise, to hold, life up';*'to annul, abolish, destroy, cancel, suspend'; and,*'to keep, save, preserve.", "'Hegel generally uses the term in all three senses, with particular emphasis on the second and third, in which apparent contradictions are speculatively overcome.", "His word for what is sublated is \"moment\" (''das Moment'', in the neuter), which denotes \"an essential feature or aspect of a whole conceived as a static system, and an essential phase in a whole conceived as a dialectical movement or process.\"", "(When Hegel describes something as \"contradictory,\" what he means is that it is not independently self-sustaining on its own terms, and so it can only be comprehended ''begreifen'' as a moment of a larger whole.", ")According to Hegel, to think the finite as a moment of the whole, rather than an independently self-determined existent, is what it means to grasp it as idealized (''das Ideelle'').", "Idealism, then, \"is the doctrine that finite entities are ideal (''ideell''): they depend not on themselves for their existence but on some larger self-sustaining entity i.e., the whole that underlies or embraces them.", "\"The pronoun-expressions – moment, sublate, and idealize – are characteristic of Hegel's account of idealism.", "They can be understood as stages of thought in which the \"object is conceptually present first in mere adumbration, then according to circumstances both internal and external to it, and finally standing completely on its own.\"", "This phenomenological and conceptual analysis distinguishes Hegel's idealism from Kant's transcendental idealism and Berkeley's mentalistic idealism.", "In contrast to those positions, Hegel's idealism is entirely compatible with realism and non-mechanistic naturalism.", "This position rejects empiricism as an a priori account of knowledge, but it is in no way opposed to the philosophical legitimacy of empirical knowledge.", "Hegel's idealistic contention, which he claims to demonstrate, is that ''being itself'' is rational.Although it is not incorrect to refer to Hegel's philosophy as \"absolute idealism,\" this moniker was at the time more associated with Schelling, and Hegel himself is documented as employing it with reference to his own philosophy only three times.According to Hegel, \"every philosophy is essentially idealism.\"", "This claim is based on the assumption, which Hegel claims to demonstrate, that conceptualization is present at all cognitive levels.", "For to completely deny this would undermine trust in the conceptual capacities necessary for objective knowledge – and so would lead to total skepticism.", "Hence, according to Robert Stern, Hegel's idealism, \"amounts to a form of ''conceptual realism'', understood as 'the belief that concepts are part of the structure of reality." ], [ "Criticism and legacy", "Hegel's influence on subsequent philosophical developments has been enormous.", "In late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century England, a school known as British idealism propounded a version of absolute idealism in direct engagement with Hegel's texts.", "Prominent members included J. M. E. McTaggart, R. G. Collingwood, and G. R. G. Mure.", "Separately, some philosophers such as Marx, Dewey, Derrida, Adorno, and Gadamer have selectively developed Hegelian ideas into their own philosophical programs.", "Others have developed their positions in opposition to Hegel's system.", "These include, for instance, such diverse philosophers as Schopenhauer, Kierkegaard, Russell, G. E. Moore, and Foucault.", "In theology, Hegel's influence marks the work of Karl Barth and Dietrich Bonhoeffer.", "These names, however, constitute only a small sample of some of the more important figures who have developed their thought in engagement with the philosophy of Hegel.=== \"Right\" vs. \"Left\" Hegelianism ===Some historians present Hegel's influence as divided into two opposing camps, right and left.", "The Right Hegelians, the allegedly direct disciples of Hegel at the Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität, advocated a Protestant orthodoxy and the political conservatism of the post-Napoleon Restoration period.", "The Left Hegelians, also known as the Young Hegelians, interpreted Hegel in a revolutionary sense, leading to an advocation of atheism in religion and liberal democracy in politics.", "Recent studies, however, have questioned this paradigm.The Right Hegelians \"were quickly forgotten\" and \"today mainly known only to specialists\"; the Left Hegelians, by contrast, \"included some of the most important thinkers of the period,\" and \"through their emphasis on practice, some of these thinkers have remained exceedingly influential,\" primarily through the Marxist tradition.=== Marxism ===Karl Marx (1818–1883)Among the first to take a critical view of Hegel's system was the 19th-century German group known as the Young Hegelians, which included Feuerbach, Marx, Engels, and their followers.", "The primary thrust of their criticism is concisely expressed in the eleventh of Marx's \"Theses on Feuerbach\" from his 1845 ''German Ideology'': \"The philosophers have only ''interpreted'' the world, in various ways; the point, however, is to ''change'' it.", "\"Although the influence of Hegel is sometimes depicted as mostly limited to the youthful Marx of the Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844, the evidence of Hegel's influence on the structure of ''Capital'' is clearly displayed in draft notebooks from 1857 to 1858 published as the ''Grundrisse''.In the twentieth century, this interpretation was further developed in the work of critical theorists of the Frankfurt School.", "This was due to (a) the rediscovery and re-evaluation of Hegel as a possible philosophical progenitor of Marxism by philosophically oriented Marxists; (b) a resurgence of Hegel's historical perspective; and (c) an increasing recognition of the importance of his dialectical method.", "György Lukács' ''History and Class Consciousness'' (1923), in particular, helped to reintroduce Hegel into the Marxist canon.=== Reception in France ===It has become commonplace to identify \"French Hegel\" with the lectures of Alexandre Kojève, who emphasized the master-servant ''Herrschaft und Knechtschaft'' dialectic (which he mistranslated as master-slave ''maître et l'esclave'') and Hegel's philosophy of history.", "This perspective, however, overlooks over sixty years of French writing on Hegel, according to which Hegelianism was identified with the \"system\" presented in the ''Encyclopedia''.", "The later reading, drawing instead upon the ''Phenomenology of Spirit'', was in many ways a reaction against the earlier.", "After 1945, \"this 'dramatic' Hegelianism, which centered on the theme of historical becoming through conflict, came to be seen as compatible with existentialism and Marxism.", "\"By confining the dialectic to history, the dominant French readings of Jean Wahl, Alexandre Kojève, and Jean Hyppolite effectively presented Hegel as providing \"a philosophical anthropology instead of a general metaphysics.\"", "This reading took the topic of ''desire'' as its focal point of intervention.", "A major theme was that \"a reason that seeks to be all-inclusive falsifies reality by suppressing or repressing its 'other.", "Although it cannot be attributed entirely to Kojève, this reading of Hegel shaped the thought and interpretations of thinkers such as Jean-Paul Sartre, Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Claude Levi-Strauss, Jacques Lacan, and Georges Bataille.Kojève's interpretation of the \"master-slave dialectic\" as the basic model of historical development also influenced the feminism of Simone de Beauvoir and the anti-racist and anti-colonial work of Frantz Fanon.===Racism===Between the late 20th and early 21st centuries, postcolonial critique revisited many of Hegel's statements on slavery and the origins of the human spirit, noting how he supported several overtly racist theories in line with those of various other philosophers of the time, which for a long time had not been subjected to any particular analysis.Nevertheless, Hegel showed great sympathy for the slave uprisings of the Haitian Revolution, in which he recognized the master-servant dialectic.", "Haiti was the first ex-slave state to introduce universal human rights, before France or the United States.", "This, for Hegel, was an advance in the actualization of freedom in world history.The President of the International Hegel Association, Dina Emundts, stated in 2020: \"Being a racist and at the same time demanding human rights for all people is not a contradiction in terms.", "Both Kant and Hegel did that.\"", "Scholar Nick Nesbitt clarifies that Hegel's philosophy of history contains a counterpoint to the classic accusation of Eurocentrism, which makes it possible to think of a different Enlightenment, which would have as its starting point the idea of universal world history, that is, history as progress in the consciousness of freedom.Scholar D. Moellendorf underlines a difference between the racist positions supported by Hegel and his philosophical system.", "He states that Hegel's theories on the \"philosophy of subjective spirit\" do not necessarily lead to racism, but rather leave that possibility open.", "Hegel's racism, in his analysis, is explained not so much on a philosophical level as with the general climate of racism prevalent in the 19th century.=== Allegations of authoritarianism ===Karl Popper made the claim in the second volume of ''The Open Society and Its Enemies'' (1945) that Hegel's system formed a thinly veiled justification for the absolute rule of Frederick William III and that Hegel's idea of the ultimate goal of history was to reach a state approximating that of 1830s Prussia.", "Popper further proposed that Hegel's philosophy served as an inspiration for communist and fascist totalitarian governments of the 20th century, whose dialectics allow for any belief to be construed as rational simply if it could be said to exist.", "Kaufmann and Shlomo Avineri have criticized Popper's theories about Hegel.According to Benedetto Croce, Giovanni Gentile, noted Italian Fascist, \"holds the honor of having been the most rigorous neo-Hegelian in the entire history of Western philosophy and the dishonor of having been the official philosopher of Fascism in Italy.", "\"Isaiah Berlin listed Hegel as one of the six architects of modern authoritarianism who undermined liberal democracy, along with Rousseau, Claude Adrien Helvétius, Fichte, Henri de Saint-Simon, and Joseph de Maistre.=== Thesis–antithesis–synthesis ===This terminology, largely developed earlier by Fichte, was spread by Heinrich Moritz Chalybäus in accounts of Hegel's philosophy that have since been broadly discredited.", "Walter Kaufmann, for instance, reports:Fichte introduced into German philosophy the three-step of thesis, antithesis, and synthesis, using these three terms.", "Schelling took up this terminology.", "''Hegel did not.''", "He never once used these three terms together to designate three stages in an argument or account in any of his books.", "And they do not help us understand his ''Phenomenology'', his ''Logic'', or his philosophy of history; they impede any open-minded comprehension of what he does by forcing it into a scheme which was available to him and which he deliberately spurned.Beiser's stance is even stronger.", "He denies that it corresponds to any procedure in Fichte or Schelling, much less Hegel.More modestly, it has been said that this account is \"only a partial comprehension that requires correction.\"", "What it gets right is that, according to Hegel, \"truth emerges from error\" in the course of historical development in a way that implies a \"holism in which partial truths are progressively corrected so that their one-sidedness is overcome.\"", "What it distorts is that such a description is possible only after the process has unfolded.", "The \"thesis\" and \"antithesis\" are not \"alien\" to one another.", "Inasmuch as there can be said to be such a \"dialectical method,\" it is not an external one such as could be \"applied\" to some subject matter.Similarly, Stephen Houlgate argues that, in whatever limited sense Hegel might be said to have a \"method,\" it is a strictly ''immanent'' method; that is, it emerges from thoughtful immersion in the subject-matter itself.", "If this leads to dialectics, that is only because there is a contradiction in the object itself, not because of any external methodological procedure.=== American pragmatism ===Richard J. Bernstein (1932–2022), known for his work on Hegel and American PragmatismAs documented by Richard J. Bernstein, the influence of Hegel on American Pragmatism can be divided into three moments: the late nineteenth century, the mid-twentieth, and the present.", "The first is to be found in early issues of ''The Journal of Speculative Philosophy'' (founded 1867).", "The second is evident in the acknowledged influence upon major figures including John Dewey, Charles Peirce, and William James.As Dewey himself describes the attraction, \"There were, however, also 'subjective' reasons for the appeal that Hegel's thought made to me; it supplied a demand for unification that was doubtless an intense emotional craving, and yet was a hunger that only an intellectualized subject-matter could satisfy.\"", "Dewey accepted much of Hegel's account of history and society, but rejected his (probably incorrect) conception of Hegel's account of absolute knowing.Two philosophers, John McDowell and Robert Brandom (sometimes referred to as the \"Pittsburgh Hegelians\"), constitute, per Bernstein, the third moment of Hegel's influence on pragmatism.", "However, while openly acknowledging the influence, neither claims to explicate Hegel's views according to his own self-understanding.", "In addition, each is avowedly influenced by Wilfrid Sellars.", "McDowell is particularly interested in dispelling the \"myth of the given,\" the dichotomy between concept and intuition, whereas Brandom is concerned mostly to develop Hegel's social account of reason-giving and normative implication.", "These appropriations of Hegel's thought are two among several \"non-metaphysical\" readings.=== Non-metaphysical interpretations ===Bust of G. W. F. Hegel by Gustav Bläser (1872) at Hegelplatz (Dorotheenstraße) in Berlin-Mitte, BerlinWriting in 2005 for an Anglophone audience, Frederick Beiser states that the status of Hegel's metaphysics is \"probably the most disputed question in Hegel scholarship.\"", "Some scholars favor a religious interpretation of Hegel's metaphysics as an attempt to justify Christian beliefs through reason.Other scholars have advanced a non-metaphysical approach to Hegel that interprets his philosophy as \"a theory of categories, a neo-Kantian epistemology, hermeneutics, or even as anti-Christian humanism.", "\"If Hegel's philosophy is metaphysics, Beiser states that these philosophers believe it is \"doomed to obsolescence\" as a \"bankrupt enterprise\" now that Kant has shown the impossibility of determining unconditioned knowledge through pure reason in his ''Critique''.Yet, since then, \"perhaps the most significant recent nonmetaphysical\" interpreter, Robert B. Pippin, has recanted his earlier position, most notably in .", "Even before this, introducing a collection of essays from the 2014 conference of the Hegel Society of America, Allegra de Laurentiis reports that everyone presenting on the topic of \"Hegel Without Metaphysics?\"", "affirmed the metaphysical dimension of Hegel's thought.What remains in dispute, however, is how to properly characterize Hegel's (avowedly post-Kantian) metaphysical commitments.", "As Hegel himself remarks in passing, \"humans are thinking beings, and born metaphysicians.", "All that matters here is whether the metaphysics that is employed is of the right kind.\"" ], [ "Publications and other writings", "Published articles are in quotes; book titles are italicized.", "'''Bern, 1793–96'''* 1793–94: 'Fragments on Folk Religion and Christianity'* 1795–96: 'The Positivity of the Christian Religion'* 1796–97: 'The Oldest Systematic Program of German Idealism' (authorship disputed)'''Frankfurt am Main, 1797–1800'''* 1797–98: 'Drafts on Religion and Love'* 1798: ''Confidential Letters on the prior constitutional relations of the Wadtlandes (Pays de Vaud) to the City of Bern.", "A complete Disclosure of the previous Oligarchy of the Bern Estates.", "Translated from the French of a deceased Swiss Jean Jacques Cart, with Commentary.", "Frankfurt am Main, Jäger.''", "(Hegel's translation is published anonymously)* 1798–1800: 'The Spirit of Christianity and its Fate'* 1800–02: 'The Constitution of Germany' (draft)'''Jena, 1801–07'''* 1801: ''De orbitis planetarum''; 'The Difference between Fichte's and Schelling's System of Philosophy'* 1802: 'On the Essence of Philosophical Critique in general and its relation to the present state of Philosophy in particular' (Introduction to the ''Critical Journal of Philosophy'', edited by Schelling and Hegel)* 1802: 'How Commonsense takes Philosophy, Illustrated by the Works of Mr. Krug' * 1802 'The Relation of Scepticism to Philosophy.", "Presentation of its various Modifications and Comparison of the latest with the ancient'* 1802: 'Faith and Knowledge, or the Reflective Philosophy of Subjectivity in the Completeness of its forms as Kantian, Jacobian and Fichtean Philosophy'* 1802–03: 'System of Ethical Life'* 1803: 'On the Scientific Approaches to Natural Law, its Role within Practical Philosophy and its Relation to the Positive Sciences of Law'* 1803–04: 'First Philosophy of Spirit (Part III of the System of Speculative Philosophy 1803/4)'* 1807: ''The Phenomenology of Spirit'''''Bamberg, 1807–08'''* 1807: 'Preface: On Scientific Cognition' – Preface to his Philosophical System, published with the ''Phenomenology'''''Nuremberg, 1808–16'''* 1808–16: 'Philosophical Propaedeutic''''Heidelberg, 1816–18'''* 1812–13: ''Science of Logic'', Part 1 (Books 1, 2)* 1816: ''Science of Logic'', Part 2 (Book 3)* 1817: 'Review of Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi's Works, Volume Three'* 1817: 'Assessment of the Proceedings of Estates Assembly of the Duchy of Württemberg in 1815 and 1816'* 1817: ''Encyclopaedia of Philosophical Sciences'', 1st edition'''Berlin, 1818–31'''* 1820: ''The Philosophy of Right, or Natural Law and Political Science in Outline'' * 1827: ''Encyclopaedia of Philosophical Sciences'', 2nd rev.", "edn.", "* 1831: ''Science of Logic'', 2nd edn, with extensive revisions to Book 1 (published in 1832)* 1831: ''Encyclopaedia of Philosophical Sciences'', 3rd rev.", "edn===Berlin lecture series===* Logic 1818–31: annually* Philosophy of Nature: 1819–20, 1821–22, 1823–24, 1825–26, 1828, 1830* Philosophy of Subjective Spirit: 1820, 1822, 1825, 1827–28, 1829–30* Philosophy of Right: 1818–19, 1819–20, 1821–22, 1822–23, 1824–25, 1831 * Philosophy of World History: 1822–23, 1824–25, 1826–27, 1828–29, 1830–31* Philosophy of Art: 1820–21, 1823, 1826, 1828–29* Philosophy of Religion: 1821, 1824, 1827, 1831* History of Philosophy: 1819, 1820–21, 1823–24, 1825–26, 1827–28, 1829–30, 1831" ], [ "Notes", "=== Explanatory notes ====== Citations ===" ], [ "Sources", "=== Primary ===\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t* * * * * * * * * * * * * * authorship disputed* * * * * === Secondary ===\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t* * * * \t* * * * * * \t\t\t* * * * * * * * \t\t* * * * * \t* * * * * * * * * * \t\t* \t\t* \t* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * \t* * * * * * * * * * * * * \t\t\t* * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "=== Societies ===* Hegel-Archiv * The Hegel Society of America* The Hegel Society of Great Britain=== Audio and video ===* Presentation by Terry Pinkard on ''Hegel: A Biography'', 10 May 2000* === Hegel texts online ===* Hegel by HyperText, reference archive on Marxists.org* * === Other resources ===* Andrew Chitty's (University of Sussex) Hegel Bibliography* ''German Idealism'' at the IEP* ''Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel'' at the SEP* ''Hegel's Aesthetics'' at the SEP* ''Hegel: Social and Political Thought'' at the IEP* ''Hegel’s Social and Political Philosophy'' at the SEP" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Grid network" ], [ "Introduction", "Layout of a grid low-voltage networkA '''grid network''' is a computer network consisting of a number of computer systems connected in a grid topology.In a regular grid topology, each node in the network is connected with two neighbors along one or more dimensions.", "If the network is one-dimensional, and the chain of nodes is connected to form a circular loop, the resulting topology is known as a ring.", "Network systems such as FDDI use two counter-rotating token-passing rings to achieve high reliability and performance.", "In general, when an ''n''-dimensional grid network is connected circularly in more than one dimension, the resulting network topology is a torus, and the network is called \"toroidal\".", "When the number of nodes along each dimension of a toroidal network is 2, the resulting network is calleda hypercube.A parallel computing cluster or multi-core processor is often connected in regular interconnection network such as ade Bruijn graph,a hypercube graph,a hypertree network,a fat tree network,a torus, or cube-connected cycles.A grid network is not the same as a grid computer or a computational grid, although the nodes in a grid network are usually computers, and grid computing requires some kind of computer network or \"universal coding\" to interconnect the computers." ], [ "See also", "* Grid plan - street network* Network topology" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Governor-General of Australia" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''governor-general of Australia''' is the representative of the monarch of Australia, currently King Charles III, and performs many constitutional, ceremonial and community roles in the Australian political system.", "When performing these roles, the governor-general acts independently and is not the King's delegate or agent.", "The current governor-general is David Hurley, having been appointed on 1 July 2019.Significant functions of the governor-general include giving royal assent to bills passed by the houses of parliament, issuing writs for elections, exercising executive power on the advice of the Federal Executive Council, formally appointing the prime minister and other ministers, judges and ambassadors, acting as commander-in-chief of the Australian Defence Force, and bestowing Australian honours.", "However, in almost all instances the governor-general only exercises ''de jure'' power in accordance with the principles of the Westminster system and responsible government.", "This requires them to remain politically neutral and to only act in accordance with Parliament (such as when selecting the prime minister and providing royal assent) or on the advice of ministers (when performing executive actions).", "However, in certain limited circumstances, the governor-general can act independently without or against formal advice by exercising reserve powers, most notably during the 1975 Australian constitutional crisis.", "These situations are often controversial and the use of and continued existence of these powers remains highly debated.In their ceremonial and community roles, the governor-general represents the nation as a whole.", "Domestically, this role entails attending services and commemorations, sponsoring community organisations and hosting events at one of the two official residences (Government House in Canberra and Admiralty House in Sydney).", "Internationally, the governor-general represents Australia by travelling to significant events and by performing and receiving state visits.", "The governor-general is supported by a staff (of 80 in 2018) headed by the official secretary to the governor-general of Australia.The governor-general is selected by the prime minister, but formally appointed by the monarch of Australia on the prime minister's advice.", "Their term is not fixed, but they generally serve for five years by convention.", "From Federation in 1901 until 1965, 11 out of the 15 governors-general were British aristocrats; they included six barons, two viscounts, two earls, and one prince.", "Since then, all but one of the governors-general have been Australian-born; the exception, Sir Ninian Stephen, arrived in Australia as a teenager.", "Only one governor-general, Dame Quentin Bryce (2008–2014), has been a woman." ], [ "Appointment", "David Hurley (centre) at his swearing-in as governor-general in 2019The governor-general is formally appointed by the monarch of Australia with a commission made under the authority of section 2 of the Constitution and regulated by letters patent issued by the monarch.", "When a new governor-general is to be appointed, the current prime minister recommends a name to the monarch, who by convention accepts that recommendation.", "Prior to the 1940s, the recommendation was made and decided by the Cabinet as a whole.", "The monarch then permits the recommendation to be publicly announced, usually several months before the end of the existing governor-general's term.", "During these months, the person recommended is referred to as the ''governor-general-designate''.", "After receiving their commission, the new governor-general takes an oath or affirmation of allegiance to the monarch and an oath or affirmation of office.", "These oaths are administered by the chief justice of Australia or another justice of the High Court.", "Traditionally, the ceremony takes place in the Senate chamber.=== Tenure ===The Constitution does not set a term of office, so a governor-general may continue to hold office for any agreed length of time.", "In recent decades the typical term of office has been five years.", "Some early governors-general were appointed to terms of just one year (Lord Tennyson) or two years (Lord Forster; later extended).", "At the end of this initial term, a commission may be extended for a short time, usually to avoid conflict with an election or during political difficulties.Three governors-general have resigned their commission.", "The first governor-general, Lord Hopetoun, asked to be recalled to Britain in 1903 over a dispute about funding for the post.", "Sir John Kerr resigned in 1977, with his official reason being his decision to accept the position of Australian Ambassador to UNESCO in Paris, a post which ultimately he did not take up, but the resignation also being motivated by the 1975 constitutional controversy.", "In 2003, ex-Archbishop Peter Hollingworth voluntarily stood aside while controversial allegations against him were managed, and the letters patent of the office were amended to take account of this circumstance.", "He later stepped down over the church's handling of allegations of sexual abuse of boys, for which he apologised before the Royal Commission into Institutional Responses to Child Sexual Abuse in 2016.In 1961, Lord Dunrossil became the first and, to date, only governor-general to die while holding office.A vacancy occurs on the resignation, death, or incapacity of the governor-general.", "A temporary vacancy occurs when the governor-general is overseas on official business representing Australia.", "A temporary vacancy also occurred in 2003 when Peter Hollingworth stood aside.Section 4 of the Constitution allows the monarch to appoint an administrator to carry out the role of governor-general when there is a vacancy.", "By convention, the longest-serving state governor holds a dormant commission, allowing an assumption of office to commence whenever a vacancy occurs.", "In 1975, Labor Prime Minister Gough Whitlam advised the Queen that Sir Colin Hannah, then Governor of Queensland, should have his dormant commission revoked for having made public and partisan anti-Whitlam government political statements, in violation of the convention that state governors and federal governors-general remain neutral and above politics.=== Dismissal ===A governor-general may be recalled or dismissed by the monarch before their term is complete.", "By convention, this may only be upon advice from the prime minister, who retains responsibility for selecting an immediate replacement or letting the vacancy provisions take effect.", "The constitutional crisis of 1975 raised the possibility of the prime minister and the governor-general attempting to dismiss each other at the same time.", "According to William McMahon, Harold Holt considered having Lord Casey dismissed from the governor-generalship, and went as far as to have the necessary documents drawn up.", "Casey had twice called McMahon into Yarralumla to give him a \"dressing down\" over his poor relationship with Deputy Prime Minister John McEwen, which he believed was affecting the government.", "Holt believed that this was an improper use of his authority, but no further action was taken." ], [ "Constitutional role", "The governor-general has a key role in performing constitutional duties in all branches of government.===Role in the Australian Parliament===The Constitution defines the Parliament of the Commonwealth as consisting of the monarch, the Senate and the House of Representatives.", "However, the monarch's role is no more than titular, with the governor-general responsible under the Constitution for the most of the functions undertaken by the monarch in regard to the UK parliament.", "These include the power to summon, dissolve and prorogue the Parliament, to issue writs for lower house elections, to convene a joint sitting, as well as the power to give royal assent to bills in the monarch's name.", "The governor-general also has a ceremonial role in swearing in and accepting the resignations of members of Parliament.", "All members must make an oath or affirmation of allegiance to the King in the presence of the governor-general or someone appointed by them before they take their seats.", "On the day parliament opens, the governor-general makes a speech in the Senate (similar to the King's Speech in the UK), entirely written by the government, explaining the government's proposed legislative program.One of the most significant powers of the governor-general is the power to grant royal assent in the King's name.", "This assent gives bills that have been passed by the houses of parliament the force of law, with effect either 28 days after being signed, on a date to be fixed later by proclamation or otherwise as provided in the act.", "The government does not formally advise the governor-general to grant assent, but it is expected that they will act in accordance with the democratically elected houses of Parliament and assent has never been refused.Apart from assenting to a bill, the governor-general can also reserve a bill for the King's pleasure, that is allow the monarch to give royal assent personally to a proposed bill.", "When the governor-general acted as a representative of the British government, this provision allowed for the governor-general to refer a bill back to the British government for review, which would then advise the monarch whether or not to grant assent.", "The British government could also advise the monarch to disallow a law passed within the last two years, which would annul the law on the governor-general's proclamation or message to the houses.", "However, since the assumption of full sovereignty and the emergence of an independent Crown of Australia, the British government no longer has these powers and the reservation power has only occasionally been used for bills that affect the monarch personally, such as the ''Royal Styles and Titles Act'' (1953 and 1973) and other bills of national significance such as the ''Flags Act 1953'' and the ''Australia Act 1986''.Finally, the governor-general can refer a bill back to the houses with suggested changes.", "This has only happened when once passed, the government has realised a bill requires further amendment and requests the governor-general return the bill to the house.===Role in executive government===Governor-General Peter Cosgrove with ministers and parliamentary secretaries of the Second Turnbull Ministry, 2016Under the Constitution, the executive power of the Commonwealth is vested in the monarch, but is exercisable by the governor-general.", "However, such power is only exercised on the advice of ministers in accordance with the principles of responsible government.", "This occurs formally through the Federal Executive Council, a body of all current (and technically former) ministers that advises the governor-general.", "Such advice is generally the result of decisions already made in Cabinet, the ''de facto'' highest executive body in Australia.", "While some provisions in the Constitution refer the \"Governor-General\" and others to the \"Governor-General in Council\", this does not mean that there is in element of discretion in the former; this distinction merely indicates that that the former powers were those that were historically classified as belonging to the prerogative of the monarch alone.Many executive powers are also bestowed on the governor-general by statute.", "This allows the government of the day (acting through the governor-general) to perform certain acts that would otherwise require legislation.", "Such provision are often made where legislating may be too slow, as for the declaration of emergencies.", "An example this was the declaration on the advice of the health minister of a human biosecurity emergency under the ''Biosecurity Act 2015'' in March 2020, due to the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic.===Reserve powers===Prime Minister Malcolm Turnbull meeting with Governor-General Sir Peter Cosgrove on 8 May 2016 to request a double dissolutionThe reserve powers are those powers that the governor-general may exercise independently, that is in the absence of or against ministerial advice.", "While most of these powers are listed in the Constitution, the circumstances in which they can be used with discretion is not prescribed and is a matter of convention.The reserve powers that are generally accepted are:* the discretion to select a prime minister if an election results in a parliament in which no party or coalition has a clear majority* the power to dismiss a prime minister that has lost the support of the House of Representatives* the power to refuse to dissolve the House of RepresentativesThe reserve powers that are the subject of greater debate are:* the power to refuse a double-dissolution* the discretion to select a prime minister following the dismissal of a prime minister that has lost the support of the House of Representatives* the power to dismiss a prime minister who is unable to obtain supply and refuses to resign or advise a dissolution* the power to dismiss a prime minister that has broken the law* the power to refuse royal assentThe first significant use of the reserve powers occurred in the 1932 New South Wales constitutional crisis, when the state's governor dismissed the premier Jack Lang on the grounds of alleged illegal conduct.", "The second, and far more prominent use of the powers occurred in the course of the 1975 Australian constitutional crisis, in which governor-general Sir John Kerr dismissed the government of Gough Whitlam and appointed opposition leader Malcolm Fraser as a caretaker prime minister while an election was held.", "Kerr acted following the blocking of supply by the opposition controlled Senate, arguing that this gave him both the right and duty to dismiss the government when they did not resign or advise an election.", "The event remains one of the most highly debated and controversial in Australian political history." ], [ "Ceremonial role", "In addition to the formal constitutional role, the governor-general has a representative and ceremonial role, though the extent and nature of that role has depended on the expectations of the time, the individual in office at the time, the wishes of the incumbent government, and the individual's reputation in the wider community.", "Governors-general generally become patrons of various charitable institutions, present honours and awards, host functions for various groups of people including ambassadors to and from other countries, and travel widely throughout Australia.", "Sir William Deane (governor-general 1996–2001) described one of his functions as being \"Chief Mourner\" at prominent funerals.", "In ''Commentaries on the Constitution of the Commonwealth of Australia'', Garran noted that, since the Australian executive is national in nature (being dependent on the nationally elected House of Representatives, rather than the Senate), \"the Governor-General, as the official head of the Executive, does not in the smallest degree represent any federal element; if he represents anything he is the image and embodiment of national unity and the outward and visible representation of the Imperial relationship of the Commonwealth\".That role can become controversial, however, if the governor-general becomes unpopular with sections of the community.", "The public role adopted by Sir John Kerr was curtailed considerably after the constitutional crisis of 1975; Sir William Deane's public statements on political issues produced some hostility towards him; and some charities disassociated themselves from Peter Hollingworth after the issue of his management of sex abuse cases during his time as Anglican Archbishop of Brisbane became a matter of controversy.===Diplomatic role===New Zealand Governor-General Dame Patsy Reddy and Sir David Gascoigne in 2021The governor-general makes state visits overseas on behalf of Australia, during which an administrator of the government is appointed.", "The right of governors-general to make state visits was confirmed at the 1926 Imperial Conference, as it was deemed not feasible for the sovereign to pay state visits on behalf of countries other than the United Kingdom.", "However, an Australian governor-general did not exercise that right until 1971, when Paul Hasluck visited New Zealand.", "Hasluck's successor John Kerr made state visits to eight countries, but Kerr's successor Zelman Cowen made only a single state visit – to Papua New Guinea – as he wished to concentrate on travelling within Australia.", "All subsequent governors-general have travelled widely while in office and made multiple state visits.", "Occasionally governors-general have made extended tours visiting multiple countries, notably in 2009 when Quentin Bryce visited nine African countries in 19 days.The governor-general accredits (i.e.", "formally validates) Australia's ambassadors through sending a formal Letter of Credence (and a Letter of Recall at the end of a tenure) to heads of state and government and similarly formally receives foreign letters during credentials ceremonies for heads of mission on their arrival in Canberra.", "Before 1987, ambassador and high commisioner appointments were formally made by the monarch instead.===Military role===Governor-general Quentin Bryce awarding Victoria Cross to Corporal Ben Roberts-Smith, 2011Governor-General's rank insignia Under section 68 of the Constitution, the command in chief of Australia's military forces is \"vested in the Governor‑General as the Queen's representative\".", "Views on the effect of this section vary, from merely making the governor-general \"in effect no more than a glorified Patron of the Defence Forces\" to alternatively making the governor-general the ultimate head of military chain of command who may influence or deny the use of the military if it is to be used for domestic political ends.", "Ex-governor-general Sir Ninian Stephen stated that his view of the section was that it vests command of the military in the governor-general personally, but only to the extent that the power to give orders or call out the military does not require formal advice from the Federal Executive Council but instead the direct advice of the relevant minister.", "Other powers exist in the ''Defence Force Act 1903'', such as the power to appoint the chief of the Defence Force, to call out the Defence Force, and declare a time of war, exercised as ordinary executive powers on advice.", "Additionally, all officers are appointed by the governor-general on behalf of the monarch with a personally signed commission.In World War II, there was some ambiguity about whether the governor-general had the power to declare war, with it initially assumed by Robert Menzies that the declaration of war by the United Kingdom automatically applied to Australia as well as a part of the British Empire.", "However, in 1941 opinion had shifted and the Curtin government advised the governor-general to declare war on several Axis powers.", "However, it was still unclear whether the governor-general had the constitutional power to declare war, so in addition to requesting the assignment of powers by the monarch to the governor-general, the government also requested King George V make similar proclamations of war on Australia's behalf.", "No formal declarations of war have been made since World War II, although other declarations on the start and end of time of \"active service\" have been made in other conflicts.The powers of command-in-chief are vested in the governor-general rather than the \"Governor-General in Council\", however this does not denote an element of personal discretion in their exercise.", "However, in 1970 Governor-General Paul Hasluck refused Prime Minister John Gorton's request to authorise a Pacific Islands Regiment peacekeeping mission in the Territory of Papua and New Guinea, on the grounds that cabinet had not been consulted.", "Gorton agreed to put the matter to his ministers, and a cabinet meeting agreed that troops should only be called out if requested by the territory's administrator; this did not occur.", "Defence Minister Malcolm Fraser, who opposed the call out, was responsible for informing Hasluck of the prime minister's lack of consultation.", "The incident contributed to Fraser's resignation from cabinet in 1971 and Gorton's subsequent loss of the prime ministership." ], [ "Community role", "The governor-general is generally invited to become patron of various charitable and service organisations.", "Historically the governor-general has also served as Chief Scout of Australia.", "The chief scout is nominated by the Scouting Association's National Executive Committee and is invited by the president of the Scout Association to accept the appointment.", "Bill Hayden declined the office on the grounds of his atheism, which was incompatible with the Scout Promise.", "He did however serve as the association's patron during his term of office." ], [ "Relationship with the monarch", "Governor-General Quentin Bryce with Queen Elizabeth II, 2011While the governor-general is the monarch's representative, as provided by section 2 of the Constitution, the powers they exercise are solely granted by the Constitution.", "This was not always seen to be the case however, with section 2 also providing that the governor-general may exercise other powers, subject to the Constitution, that the monarch may assign them.", "Additionally, the initial letters patent of Queen Victoria purported to create and empower the office of governor-general, despite their assignment already in the Constitution.", "This was raised as early as 1901, by Quick and Garran in their authoritative commentary of the Constitution, noting that the governor-general of Australia was distinguished from other imperial governors-general by the fact that \"the principal and most important of his powers and functions, legislative as well as executive, are expressly conferred on him by the terms of the Constitution itself ... not by Royal authority, but by statutory authority\".", "This view was also held by Andrew Inglis Clark, senior judge of the Supreme Court of Tasmania, who with W. Harrison Moore (a contributor to the first draft of the constitution put before the 1897 Adelaide Convention and professor of law at the University of Melbourne), postulating that the letters patent and the royal instructions issued by Queen Victoria were unnecessary \"or even of doubtful legality\".Additionally, it was also previously believed that the monarch retained certain powers, such as the power to declare war, appoint diplomatic officers and to grant charters of incorporation and as such these powers were assigned separately to the governor-general under section 2.However, the current interpretation of the Constitution is that all royal prerogatives are exercisable by the governor-general under section 61 and in recognition of this, the vesting of additional powers ended in 1987.While separate letters-patent still exist for the governor-general, these merely provide for the appointment of administrator in the case of the governor-general's absence or incapacity and requires the governor-general to make an oath or affirmation of allegiance and one of office.Certain provisions in the Constitution provide that the governor-general, specifically as the monarch's representative, is vested with the command in chief of the military and is able to exercise the executive power of the federal government.Australian Solicitor-General Maurice Byers stated in 1974: \"The constitutional prescription is that executive power is exercisable by the governor-general although vested in the Queen.", "What is exercisable is original executive power: that is, the very thing vested in the Queen by section 61.And it is exercisable by the Queen's representative, not her delegate or agent.", "\"The 1988 Constitutional Commission report explained: \"the governor-general is in no sense a delegate of the Queen.", "The independence of the office is highlighted by changes which have been made in recent years to the Royal Instruments relating to it\".", "The changes occurred in 1984 when Queen Victoria's letters patent and instructions were revoked and replaced with new letters patent, on Prime Minister Bob Hawke's advice, who stated that this would clarify the governor-general's position under the constitution.This remains the case even when the sovereign is in the country: Solicitor-General Kenneth Bailey, prior to the first tour of Australia by its reigning monarch in 1954, explained the position by saying: the Constitution expressly vests in the Governor-General the power or duty to perform a number of the Crown's functions in the Legislature and the Executive Government of the Commonwealth...", "The executive power of the Commonwealth, by section 61 of the Constitution, is declared to be vested in the Queen.", "It is also, in the same section, declared to be \"exercisable\" by the Governor-General as the Queen's representative.", "In the face of this provision, I feel it is difficult to contend that the Queen, even though present in Australia, may exercise in person functions of executive government which are specifically assigned by the constitution to the Governor-General.The monarch did not overturn the actions of governor-general Sir John Kerr in his dismissal of the prime ministership and government of Gough Whitlam during the 1975 Australian constitutional crisis, with the Queen's private secretary arguing that the power to commission the prime minister was \"clearly placed within the jurisdiction of the Governor-General, and The Queen has no part in the decisions which the Governor-General must take in accordance with the Constitution\".", "In an address to the Sydney Institute, January 2007, in connection with that event, Sir David Smith, a retired official secretary to the governor-general of Australia who had been Kerr's official secretary in 1975, described the constitution as conferring the powers and functions of Australia's head of state on the governor-general in \"his own right\".", "He stated that the governor-general was more than a representative of the sovereign, explaining: \"under section 2 of the Constitution the Governor-General is the Queen's representative and exercises certain royal prerogative powers and functions; under section 61 of the Constitution the Governor-General is the holder of a quite separate and independent office created, not by the Crown, but by the Constitution, and empowered to exercise, in his own right as Governor-General... all the powers and functions of Australia's head of state\"." ], [ "Privileges", "Government House, CanberraGovernors-general are entitled to various privileges by virtue of holding the office.", "These include the right to live in Government House, Canberra (also known as Yarralumla), or Admiralty House, Sydney the two official residences of the office-holder.", "For transportation, the governor-general has access to a Rolls-Royce Phantom VI limousine for ceremonial occasions or an armoured BMW 7 Series for ordinary official business.", "These cars fly the flag of the governor-general of Australia and display St. Edward's Crown instead of number plates.", "Originally, two Phantoms were available after being purchased in the 1970s to be used for royal tours.", "One of these cars was sold in 1995 to a Sydney doctor, having previously carried the Queen during a royal tour and later being pelted with eggs when it carried Sir John Kerr following the Dismissal in 1975.The car was then entered into the almost 15,000 km long Peking to Paris rally, where it became known as \"Lizzie’s Taxi\" and secured fourth place.", "The car is now owned by Lindsay Fox and is often on display as a part of the Fox Classic Car Collection at Queens Warehouse, Melbourne.", "===Salary===The salary of the governor-general was initially set by the constitution, which fixed an annual amount of A£10,000 until the parliament decided otherwise.", "The Constitution also provides that the salary of the governor-general cannot be changed during his or her term of office.", "Under the ''Governor-General Act 1974'', each new commission has resulted in a pay increase.", "Today, the law ensures the salary is higher than that for the chief justice of the High Court, over a five-year period.", "The annual salary during Michael Jeffery's term was $365,000.Quentin Bryce's salary was $394,000.The current salary is $495,000 and there is a generous pension.", "Until 2001, governors-general did not pay income tax on their salary; this was changed after Elizabeth II agreed to pay tax.===Official dress===Viscount De L'Isle, 15th governor-general of Australia (1961–65), in his court uniformGovernors-general before the 1970s wore traditional court uniforms, consisting of a dark navy wool double-breasted coatee with silver oak leaf and fern embroidery on the collar and cuffs trimmed with silver buttons embossed with the Royal Arms and with bullion edged epaulettes on the shoulders, dark navy trousers with a wide band of silver oak-leaf braid down the outside seam, silver sword belt with ceremonial sword, bicorne cocked hat with plume of ostrich feathers, black patent leather Wellington boots with spurs, etc., that is worn on ceremonial occasions.", "There is also a tropical version made of white tropical wool cut in a typical military fashion worn with a plumed helmet.", "However, that custom fell into disuse during the tenure of Sir Paul Hasluck with governors-general now observing informal wear day-to-day.", "Tasmanain governor Sir Stanley Burbury extensively lobbied his government in an attempt to regain the right to wear a uniform, going as far to contact Sir John Kerr is desparation, hoping he could contact the Palace directly.", "However, it does not appear that he was successful.===Titles and honours===Governors-general have during their tenure the style ''His/Her Excellency the Honourable'' and their spouses have the style ''His/Her Excellency''.", "Since May 2013, the style used by a former governor-general is ''the Honourable''; it was at the same time retrospectively granted for life to all previous holders of the office.From the creation of the Order of Australia in 1975, the governor-general was, ''ex officio'', Chancellor and Principal Companion of the order, and therefore became entitled to the post-nominal AC.", "In 1976, the letters patent for the order were amended to introduce the rank of Knight and Dame to the order, and from that time the governor-general became, ex officio, the Chancellor and Principal Knight of the order.", "In 1986 the letters patent were amended again, and governors-general appointed from that time were again, ex officio, entitled to the post-nominal AC (although if they already held a knighthood in the order that superior rank was retained).Until 1989, all governors-general were members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom and thus held the additional style ''The Right Honourable'' for life.", "The same individuals were also usually either peers, knights, or both (the only Australian peer to be appointed as governor-general was the Lord Casey; and Sir William McKell was knighted only in 1951, some years into his term, but he was entitled to the style \"The Honourable\" during his tenure as premier of New South Wales, an office he held until almost immediately before his appointment).", "In 1989, Bill Hayden, a republican, declined appointment to the British Privy Council and any imperial honours.", "From that time until 2014, governors-general did not receive automatic titles or honours, other than the post-nominal AC by virtue of being Chancellor and Principal Companion of the Order of Australia.", "Dame Quentin Bryce was the first governor-general to have had no prior title or pre-nominal style.", "She was in office when, on 19 March 2014, Elizabeth II, acting on the advice of Prime Minister Tony Abbott, amended the letters patent of the Order of Australia to provide, inter alia, that the governor-general would be, ex officio, Principal Knight or Principal Dame of the order.", "Until 2015, the honour continued after the retirement from office of the governor-general.", "Formerly, all governors-general automatically became a knight upon being sworn in.Spouses of governors-general have no official duties but carry out the role of a vice-regal consort.", "They are entitled to the courtesy style ''Her Excellency'' or ''His Excellency'' during the office-holder's term of office.", "Most spouses of governors-general have been content to be quietly supportive.", "Some, however, have been notable in their own right, such as Dame Alexandra Hasluck, Lady Casey and Michael Bryce." ], [ "History", "The letters patent issued by Queen Victoria in 1900 regulating the office of governor-generalOther offices named ''governor-general'' were previously used in Australia in the mid-19th century.", "Sir Charles FitzRoy (Governor of New South Wales from 1846 to 1855) and Sir William Denison (Governor of New South Wales from 1855 to 1861) also carried the additional title of Governor-General because their jurisdiction extended to other colonies in Australia.The office of governor-general for the Commonwealth of Australia was conceived during the debates and conventions leading up to federation.", "The first Governor-General, the Earl of Hopetoun, was a previous governor of Victoria.", "He was appointed in July 1900, returning to Australia shortly before the inauguration of the Commonwealth of Australia on 1 January 1901.After the initial confusion of the Hopetoun Blunder, he appointed the first prime minister of Australia, Edmund Barton, to a caretaker government, with the inaugural 1901 federal election not occurring until March.Early governors-general were British and were appointed by the queen or king on the recommendation of the Colonial Office.", "The Australian Government was merely asked, as a matter of courtesy, whether they approved of the choice or not.", "Governors-general were expected to exercise a supervisory role over the Australian Government in the manner of a colonial governor.", "In a very real sense, they represented the British Government.", "They had the right to reserve legislation passed by the Parliament of Australia: in effect, to ask the Colonial Office in London for an opinion before giving the royal assent.", "They exercised this power several times.", "The monarch, acting upon advice of the British Government, could also disallow any Australian legislation up to a year after the governor-general had given it the assent; although this power has never been used.", "These powers remain in section 59 of the Constitution of Australia, but today are regarded as dead letters.The early governors-general frequently sought advice on the exercise of their powers from judges of the High Court of Australia, Sir Samuel Griffith and Sir Edmund Barton.In 1919, Prime Minister Billy Hughes sent a memorandum to the Colonial Office in which he requested \"a real and effective voice in the selection of the King's representative\".", "He further proposed that the Dominions be able to nominate their own candidates and that \"the field of selection should not exclude citizens of the Dominion itself\".", "The memorandum met with strong opposition within the Colonial Office and was dismissed by Lord Milner, the Colonial Secretary; no response was given.", "The following year, as Ronald Munro Ferguson's term was about to expire, Hughes cabled the Colonial Office and asked that the appointment be made in accordance with the memorandum.", "To mollify Hughes, Milner offered him a choice between three candidates.", "After consulting his cabinet he chose Henry Forster, 1st Baron Forster.", "In 1925, under Prime Minister Stanley Bruce, the same practice was followed for the appointment of Forster's successor Lord Stonehaven, with the Australian government publicly stating that his name \"had been submitted, with others, to the Commonwealth ministry, who had selected him\".During the 1920s, the importance of the position declined.", "As a result of decisions made at the 1926 Imperial Conference, the governor-general ceased to represent the British Government diplomatically, and the British right of supervision over Australian affairs was abolished.", "As the Balfour Declaration of 1926, later implemented as the ''Statute of Westminster 1931'', put it:It is desirable formally to place on record a definition of the position held by the Governor-General as His Majesty's representative in the Dominions.", "That position, though now generally well recognised, undoubtedly represents a development from an earlier stage when the Governor-General was appointed solely on the advice of His Majesty's Ministers in London and acted also as their representative.", "In our opinion it is an essential consequence of the equality of status existing among the members of the British Commonwealth of Nations that the Governor-General of a Dominion is the representative of the Crown, holding in all essential respects the same position in relation to the administration of public affairs in the Dominion as is held by His Majesty the King in Great Britain, and that he is not the representative or agent of His Majesty's Government in Great Britain or of any Department of that Government.", "However, it remained unclear just whose prerogative it now became to decide who new governors-general would be.", "In 1930, King George V and the Australian Prime Minister James Scullin discussed the appointment of a new Governor-General to replace Lord Stonehaven, whose term was coming to an end.", "The King maintained that it was now his sole prerogative to choose a governor-general, and he wanted Field-Marshal Sir William Birdwood for the Australian post.", "Scullin recommended the Australian jurist Sir Isaac Isaacs, and he insisted that George V act on the advice of his Australian prime minister in this matter.", "Scullin was partially influenced by the precedent set by the Government of the Irish Free State, which always insisted upon having an Irishman as the governor-general of the Irish Free State.Scullin's proposed appointment of Sir Isaac Isaacs was fiercely opposed by the British government.", "This was not because of any lack of regard for Isaacs personally, but because the British government considered that the choice of Governors-General was, since the 1926 Imperial Conference, a matter for the monarch's decision alone.", "(However, it became very clear in a conversation between Scullin and King George V's private secretary, Lord Stamfordham, on 11 November 1930, that this was merely the official reason for the objection, with the real reason being that an Australian, no matter how highly regarded personally, was not considered appropriate to be a governor-general.)", "Scullin was equally insistent that the monarch must act on the relevant prime minister's direct advice (the practice until 1926 was that Dominion prime ministers advised the monarch indirectly, through the British government, which effectively had a veto over any proposal it did not agree with).", "Scullin cited the precedents of the prime minister of South Africa, J.", "B. M. Hertzog, who had recently insisted on his choice of the Earl of Clarendon as governor-general of that country, and the selection of an Irishman as governor-general of the Irish Free State.", "Both of these appointments had been agreed to despite British government objections.Despite these precedents, George V remained reluctant to accept Scullin's recommendation of Isaacs and asked him to consider Field Marshal Sir William Birdwood.", "However, Scullin stood firm, saying he would be prepared to fight a general election on the issue of whether an Australian should be prevented from becoming governor-general because he was Australian.", "On 29 November, the King agreed to Isaacs's appointment, but made it clear that he did so only because he felt he had no option.", "(Lord Stamfordham had complained that Scullin had \"put a gun to the King's head\".", ")The usual wording of official announcements of this nature read \"The King has been pleased to appoint ...\", but on this occasion the announcement said merely \"The King has appointed ...\", and his private secretary (Lord Stamfordham) asked the Australian solicitor-general, Sir Robert Garran, to make sure that Scullin was aware of the exact wording.", "The opposition Nationalist Party of Australia denounced the appointment as \"practically republican\", but Scullin had set a precedent.", "The convention gradually became established throughout the Commonwealth that the Governor-General is a citizen of the country concerned, and is appointed on the advice of the government of that country.At the same time as the appointment of Isaacs as the first Australian-born governor-general, a separate role of British Representative in Australia (as the representative of the British government) was established, with Ernest Crutchley the first appointee.", "1935 saw the appointment of the first British high commissioner to Australia, Geoffrey Whiskard (in office 1936–1941).This right not only to advise the monarch directly, but also to expect that advice to be accepted, was soon taken up by all the other Dominion prime ministers.", "This, among other things, led to the ''Statute of Westminster 1931'' and to the formal separation of the Crowns of the Dominions.After Scullin's defeat in 1931, non-Labor governments continued to recommend British people for appointment as governor-general, but such appointments remained solely a matter between the Australian government and the monarch.", "In 1947, Labor appointed a second Australian Governor-General, William McKell, who was in office as the Labor premier of New South Wales.", "The then leader of the Opposition, Robert Menzies, called McKell's appointment \"shocking and humiliating\".In 1965 the Menzies conservative government appointed an Australian, Lord Casey, and thereafter only Australians have held the position.", "However, when the Palace Papers were released in 2020, it was revealed that the Fraser government in 1976 considered it \"highly desirable\" that Prince Charles become governor-general, however the Queen strongly indicated her disapproval of her son taking up the role until \"such time as he has a settled married life\".", "Additionally, in 2007 media outlets reported that Prince William might become governor-general of Australia.", "However, both the prime minister, John Howard, and Clarence House repudiated the suggestion.===Backgrounds of governors-general===All the governors-general until 1965 were British-born, except for Australian-born Sir Isaac Isaacs (1931–1936) and Sir William McKell (1947–1953).", "There have been only Australian occupants since then, although Sir Ninian Stephen (1982–1989) had been born in Britain.", "Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester, was a senior member of the royal family.", "Dame Quentin Bryce (2008–2014) was the first woman to be appointed to the office.", "Sir Isaac Isaacs and Sir Zelman Cowen were Jewish; Bill Hayden was an avowed atheist during his term and he made an affirmation rather than swear an oath at the beginning of his commission; the remaining Governors-General have been at least nominally Christian.Various governors-general had previously served as governors of an Australian state or colony: Lord Hopetoun (Victoria 1889–1895); Lord Tennyson (South Australia 1899–1902); Lord Gowrie (South Australia 1928–34; and New South Wales 1935–1936); Major General Michael Jeffery (Western Australia 1993–2000); Dame Quentin Bryce (Queensland 2003–2008); General David Hurley (New South Wales 2014–2019).", "Sir Ronald Munro Ferguson had been offered the governorship of South Australia in 1895 and of Victoria in 1910, but refused both appointments.", "Lord Northcote was Governor of Bombay.", "Lord Casey was Governor of Bengal in between his periods of service to the Australian Parliament.Former leading politicians and members of the judiciary have figured prominently.", "Lord Dudley was Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (1902–1905).", "Lord Stonehaven (as John Baird) was Minister for Transport in the Cabinets of Bonar Law and Stanley Baldwin; and after his return to Britain he became Chairman of the UK Conservative Party.", "Sir Isaac Isaacs was successively Commonwealth Attorney-General, a High Court judge, and Chief Justice.", "Sir William McKell was Premier of New South Wales.", "Lord Dunrossil (as William Morrison) was Speaker of the UK House of Commons.", "Lord De L'Isle was Secretary of State for Air in Winston Churchill's cabinet from 1951 to 1955.More recent governors-general in this category include Lord Casey, Sir Paul Hasluck, Sir John Kerr, Sir Ninian Stephen, Bill Hayden and Sir William Deane.Of the eleven Australians appointed governor-general since 1965, Lord Casey, Sir Paul Hasluck and Bill Hayden were former federal parliamentarians; Sir John Kerr was the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of New South Wales; Sir Ninian Stephen and Sir William Deane were appointed from the bench of the High Court; Sir Zelman Cowen was a vice-chancellor of the University of Queensland and constitutional lawyer; Peter Hollingworth was the Anglican Archbishop of Brisbane; and Major-General Michael Jeffery was a retired military officer and former Governor of Western Australia.", "Quentin Bryce's appointment was announced during her term as Governor of Queensland; she had previously been the Federal Sex Discrimination Commissioner.", "General David Hurley was a retired Chief of Defence Force and former Governor of New South Wales.Significant post-retirement activities of earlier Governors-General have included: Lord Tennyson was appointed Deputy Governor of the Isle of Wight; Sir Ronald Munro Ferguson (by now Lord Novar) became Secretary of State for Scotland; and Lord Gowrie became Chairman of the Marylebone Cricket Club (Lord Forster had also held this post, before his appointment as governor-general)." ], [ "Timeline of governors-general" ], [ "See also", "* History of Australia* Constitutional history of Australia* Chapter II of the Constitution of Australia* Governors of the Australian states* Viceregal consort of Australia* Armorial of the governors-general of Australia* British Empire* Royal Australian Air Force VIP aircraft* Governor-general (links to other countries which have Governors-General)* Australian VIP transport* Musical composition Earl's March written by Australian author Walter J. Turner in 1889 dedicated to Adrian Hope, while in office." ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * (pp 515, 519, 548)* * *" ], [ "External links", "* Governor-General of the Commonwealth of Australia – Official website" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Glasnost" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Glasnost''''' (; , ) is a concept relating to openness and transparency.", "It has several general and specific meanings, including a policy of maximum openness in the activities of state institutions and freedom of information and the inadmissibility of hushing up problems.", "In Russian the word 'гласность' has long been used to mean \"openness\" and \"transparency\".", "In the mid-1980s, it was popularised by Mikhail Gorbachev as a political slogan for increased government transparency in the Soviet Union within the framework of ''perestroika'', and the calque of the word entered into English in the latter meaning." ], [ "Historical usage", "In the Russian Empire of the late-19th century, the term was used in its direct meanings of \"openness\" and \"publicity\" and applied to politics and the judicial system.", "Some reforms were introduced towards reforms permitting attendance of the press and the public at trials.", "After some liberalization under Alexander II of Russia, the openness of trials started to be restricted again.", "Human rights activist Lyudmila Alexeyeva writes that the word ''glasnost'' has been in the Russian language for several hundred years as a common term: \"It was in the dictionaries and lawbooks as long as there had been dictionaries and lawbooks.", "It was an ordinary, hardworking, non-descript word that was used to refer to a process, any process of justice or governance, being conducted in the open.\"", "In the mid-1960s it acquired a revived topical importance in discourse about the necessity of changing the cold-war era internal policy of the Soviet Union." ], [ "In the USSR", "The first public rally near the KGB building in Moscow on Lubyanka Square in a memory of Stalin's victims on the Day of Political Prisoners, 30 October 1989===The dissidents===On 5 December 1965 the Glasnost rally took place in Moscow, considered to be a key event in the emergence of the Soviet civil rights movement.", "Protesters on Pushkin Square led by Alexander Yesenin-Volpin demanded access to the closed trial of Yuly Daniel and Andrei Sinyavsky.", "The protestors made specific requests for \"glasnost\", herein referring to the specific admission of the public, independent observers and foreign journalists, to the trial that had been legislated in the then newly issued Code of Criminal Procedure.", "With a few specified exceptions, Article 111 of the Code stated that judicial hearings in the USSR should be held in public.Such protests against closed trials continued throughout the post-Stalin era.", "Andrei Sakharov, for example, did not travel to Oslo to receive his Nobel Peace Prize due to his public protest outside a Vilnius court building demanding access to the 1976 trial of Sergei Kovalev, an editor of the ''Chronicle of Current Events'' and prominent rights activist.===Gorbachev===In 1986, Soviet General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev and his advisers adopted ''glasnost'' as a political slogan, together with the term ''perestroika''.", "Alexander Yakovlev, Head of the Propaganda Department of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, is considered to be the intellectual force behind Gorbachev's reform program.Glasnost was taken to mean increased openness and transparency in government institutions and activities in the Soviet Union (USSR).", "''Glasnost'' reflected a commitment of the Gorbachev administration to allowing Soviet citizens to discuss publicly the problems of their system and potential solutions.", "Gorbachev encouraged popular scrutiny and criticism of leaders, as well as a certain level of exposure by the mass media.", "Some critics, especially among legal reformers and dissidents, regarded the Soviet authorities' new slogans as vague and limited alternatives to more basic liberties.", "Alexei Simonov, president of the Glasnost Defence Foundation, makes a critical definition of the term in suggesting it was \"a tortoise crawling towards Freedom of Speech\".====Various meanings====Between 1986 and 1991, during an era of reforms in the USSR, glasnost was frequently linked with other generalised concepts such as perestroika (literally: restructuring or regrouping) and demokratizatsiya (democratisation).", "Gorbachev often appealed to glasnost when promoting policies aimed at reducing corruption at the top of the Communist Party and the Soviet government, and moderating the abuse of administrative power in the Central Committee.", "The ambiguity of \"glasnost\" defines the distinctive five-year period (1986–1991) at the end of the USSR's existence.", "There was decreasing pre-publication and pre-broadcast censorship and greater freedom of information.The \"Era of Glasnost\" saw greater contact between Soviet citizens and the Western world, particularly the United States: restrictions on travel were loosened for many Soviet citizens which further eased pressures on international exchange between the Soviet Union and the West.====International relations====Gorbachev's interpretation of \"glasnost\" can best be summarised in English as \"openness\".", "While associated with freedom of speech, the main goal of this policy was to make the country's management transparent, and circumvent the holding of near-complete control of the economy and bureaucracy of the Soviet Union by a concentrated body of officials and bureaucratic personnel.", "During Glasnost, Soviet history under Stalin was re-examined; censored literature in the libraries was made more widely available; and there was a greater freedom of speech for citizens and openness in the media.", "It was in the late 1980s when most people in the Soviet Union began to learn about the atrocities of Stalin, and learned about previously suppressed events.", "Information about the supposedly higher quality of consumer goods and quality of life in the United States and Western Europe began to be transmitted to the Soviet population, along with western popular culture." ], [ "Outside the Soviet Union", "Glasnost received mixed reception in communist states, especially outside the Eastern Bloc.===Support===Glasnost had a trickle-down effect on Eastern Europe and lead to democratic reforms, namely in Poland and Czech Republic.", "Glasnost and similar reforms were applied in the following communist states:* Bulgaria* Czechoslovakia* East Germany* Hungary* Mongolia* Poland* Vietnam (see đổi mới)Furthermore, in the socialist state of Yugoslavia, similar reforms also existed, with the first major reforms beginning in Slovenia.===Opposition===Glasnost or similar reforms were not applied in the following communist states:* China (had its own non-Soviet-inspired reforms)* Cuba* Laos* North Korea* Romania (opposed by Nicolae Ceaușescu)" ], [ "In Russia since 1991", "The outright prohibition of censorship was enshrined in Article 29 of the new 1993 Constitution of the Russian Federation.", "This however has been the subject of ongoing controversy in contemporary Russia owing to heightened governmental interventions restricting access to information for Russian citizens, including internet censorship.", "There has also been pressure on government-operated media outlets to not publicize or discuss certain events or subjects in recent years.", "Monitoring of the infringement of media rights in the years from 2004 to 2013 found that instances of censorship were the most commonly reported type of violation." ], [ "See also", "* 1965 Glasnost rally* Demokratizatsiya (Gorbachev's \"Democratization\")* Glasnost Bowl* Perestroika (Gorbachev's \"Restructuring\")* Uskoreniye (Gorbachev's \"Acceleration\")* Common knowledge (logic)* Mutual knowledge* Pluralistic ignorance* Stag hunt" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "***" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Geodesy" ], [ "Introduction", "A modern instrument for geodetic measurements using satellites'''Geodesy''' is the science of measuring and representing the geometry, gravity, and spatial orientation of the Earth in temporally varying 3D.", "It is called planetary geodesy when studying other astronomical bodies, such as planets or circumplanetary systems.Geodynamical phenomena, including crustal motion, tides, and polar motion, can be studied by designing global and national control networks, applying space geodesy and terrestrial geodetic techniques, and relying on datums and coordinate systems.", "The job titles are '''''geodesist''''' and '''''geodetic surveyor'''''." ], [ "History", "Geodesy began in pre-scientific antiquity, so the very word geodesy comes from the Ancient Greek word or ''geodaisia'' (literally, \"division of Earth\").Early ideas about the figure of the Earth held the Earth to be flat and the heavens a physical dome spanning over it.", "Two early arguments for a spherical Earth were that lunar eclipses appear to an observer as circular shadows and that Polaris appears lower and lower in the sky to a traveler headed South." ], [ "Definition", "In English, geodesy refers to the science of measuring and representing geospatial information, while geomatics encompasses practical applications of geodesy on local and regional scales, including surveying.In German, geodesy can refer to either ''higher geodesy'' ( or , literally \"geomensuration\") — concerned with measuring Earth on the global scale, or ''engineering geodesy'' () that includes surveying — measuring parts or regions of Earth.For the longest time, geodesy was the science of measuring and understanding Earth's geometric shape, orientation in space, and gravitational field; however, geodetic science and operations are applied to other astronomical bodies in our Solar System also.To a large extent, Earth's shape is the result of rotation, which causes its equatorial bulge, and the competition of geological processes such as the collision of plates, as well as of volcanism, resisted by Earth's gravitational field.", "This applies to the solid surface, the liquid surface (dynamic sea surface topography), and Earth's atmosphere.", "For this reason, the study of Earth's gravitational field is called physical geodesy." ], [ "Geoid and reference ellipsoid", "Geoid, an approximation for the shape of the Earth; shown here with vertical exaggeration (10000 vertical scaling factor).Ellipsoid - a mathematical representation of the Earth.", "When mapping in geodetic coordinates, a latitude circle forms a truncated cone.Equatorial (), polar () and mean Earth radii as defined in the 1984 World Geodetic SystemThe geoid essentially is the figure of Earth abstracted from its topographical features.", "It is an idealized equilibrium surface of seawater, the mean sea level surface in the absence of currents and air pressure variations, and continued under the continental masses.", "Unlike a reference ellipsoid, the geoid is irregular and too complicated to serve as the computational surface for solving geometrical problems like point positioning.", "The geometrical separation between the geoid and a reference ellipsoid is called ''geoidal undulation'', and it varies globally between ±110 m based on the GRS 80 ellipsoid.A reference ellipsoid, customarily chosen to be the same size (volume) as the geoid, is described by its semi-major axis (equatorial radius) ''a'' and flattening ''f''.", "The quantity ''f'' = , where ''b'' is the semi-minor axis (polar radius), is purely geometrical.", "The mechanical ellipticity of Earth (dynamical flattening, symbol ''J''2) can be determined to high precision by observation of satellite orbit perturbations.", "Its relationship with geometrical flattening is indirect and depends on the internal density distribution or, in simplest terms, the degree of central concentration of mass.The 1980 Geodetic Reference System (GRS 80), adopted at the XVII General Assembly of the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics (IUGG), posited a 6,378,137 m semi-major axis and a 1:298.257 flattening.", "GRS 80 essentially constitutes the basis for geodetic positioning by the Global Positioning System (GPS) and is thus also in widespread use outside the geodetic community.", "Numerous systems used for mapping and charting are becoming obsolete as countries increasingly move to global, geocentric reference systems utilizing the GRS 80 reference ellipsoid.The geoid is a \"realizable\" surface, meaning it can be consistently located on Earth by suitable simple measurements from physical objects like a tide gauge.", "The geoid can, therefore, be considered a physical (\"real\") surface.", "The reference ellipsoid, however, has many possible instantiations and is not readily realizable, so it is an abstract surface.", "The third primary surface of geodetic interest — the topographic surface of Earth — is also realizable." ], [ "Coordinate systems in space", "Datum shift between NAD27 and NAD83, in metresThe locations of points in 3D space most conveniently are described by three cartesian or rectangular coordinates, ''X'', ''Y'', and ''Z''.", "Since the advent of satellite positioning, such coordinate systems are typically geocentric, with the Z-axis aligned to Earth's (conventional or instantaneous) rotation axis.Before the era of satellite geodesy, the coordinate systems associated with a geodetic datum attempted to be geocentric, but with the origin differing from the geocenter by hundreds of meters due to regional deviations in the direction of the plumbline (vertical).", "These regional geodetic datums, such as ED 50 (European Datum 1950) or NAD 27 (North American Datum 1927), have ellipsoids associated with them that are regional \"best fits\" to the geoids within their areas of validity, minimizing the deflections of the vertical over these areas.It is only because GPS satellites orbit about the geocenter that this point becomes naturally the origin of a coordinate system defined by satellite geodetic means, as the satellite positions in space themselves get computed within such a system.Geocentric coordinate systems used in geodesy can be divided naturally into two classes:# The inertial reference systems, where the coordinate axes retain their orientation relative to the fixed stars or, equivalently, to the rotation axes of ideal gyroscopes; the ''X''-axis points to the vernal equinox# The co-rotating reference systems (also ECEF or \"Earth Centred, Earth Fixed\"), in which the axes are \"attached\" to the solid body of Earth.", "The ''X''-axis lies within the Greenwich observatory's meridian plane.The coordinate transformation between these two systems to good approximation is described by (apparent) sidereal time, which accounts for variations in Earth's axial rotation (length-of-day variations).", "A more accurate description also accounts for polar motion as a phenomenon closely monitored by geodesists.=== Coordinate systems in the plane ===2D grid for elliptical coordinatesA Munich archive with lithography plates of maps of BavariaIn geodetic applications like surveying and mapping, two general types of coordinate systems in the plane are in use:# '''Plano-polar''', with points in the plane defined by their distance, ''s'', from a specified point along a ray having a direction ''α'' from a baseline or axis;# '''Rectangular''', with points defined by distances from two mutually perpendicular axes, ''x'' and ''y''.", "Contrary to the mathematical convention, in geodetic practice, the ''x''-axis points North and the ''y''-axis East.One can intuitively use rectangular coordinates in the plane for one's current location, in which case the ''x''-axis will point to the local north.", "More formally, such coordinates can be obtained from 3D coordinates using the artifice of a map projection.", "It is impossible to map the curved surface of Earth onto a flat map surface without deformation.", "The compromise most often chosen — called a conformal projection — preserves angles and length ratios so that small circles get mapped as small circles and small squares as squares.An example of such a projection is UTM (Universal Transverse Mercator).", "Within the map plane, we have rectangular coordinates ''x'' and ''y''.", "In this case, the north direction used for reference is the ''map'' north, not the ''local'' north.", "The difference between the two is called meridian convergence.It is easy enough to \"translate\" between polar and rectangular coordinates in the plane: let, as above, direction and distance be ''α'' and ''s'' respectively, then we have:The reverse transformation is given by::" ], [ "Heights", "Height measurement using satellite altimetryIn geodesy, point or terrain ''heights'' are \"above sea level\" as an irregular, physically defined surface.Height systems in use are:# Orthometric heights# Dynamic heights# Geopotential heights# Normal heightsEach system has its advantages and disadvantages.", "Both orthometric and normal heights are expressed in metres above sea level, whereas geopotential numbers are measures of potential energy (unit: m2 s−2) and not metric.", "The reference surface is the geoid, an equigeopotential surface approximating the mean sea level as described above.", "For normal heights, the reference surface is the so-called ''quasi-geoid'', which has a few-metre separation from the geoid due to the density assumption in its continuation under the continental masses.One can relate these heights through the geoid undulation concept to ''ellipsoidal heights'' (also known as ''geodetic heights''), representing the height of a point above the reference ellipsoid.", "Satellite positioning receivers typically provide ellipsoidal heights unless fitted with special conversion software based on a model of the geoid." ], [ "Geodetic datums", "Because coordinates and heights of geodetic points always get obtained within a system that itself was constructed based on real-world observations, geodesists introduced the concept of a \"geodetic datum\" (plural ''datums''): a physical (real-world) realization of a coordinate system used for describing point locations.", "This realization follows from ''choosing'' (therefore conventional) coordinate values for one or more datum points.", "In the case of height data, it suffices to choose ''one'' datum point — the reference benchmark, typically a tide gauge at the shore.", "Thus we have vertical datums, such as the NAVD 88 (North American Vertical Datum 1988), NAP (Normaal Amsterdams Peil), the Kronstadt datum, the Trieste datum, and numerous others.In both mathematics and geodesy, a coordinate system is a \"coordinate system\" per ISO terminology, whereas the International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS) uses the term \"reference system\" for the same.", "When coordinates are realized by choosing datum points and fixing a geodetic datum, ISO speaks of a \"coordinate reference system\", whereas IERS uses a \"reference frame\" for the same.", "The ISO term for a datum transformation again is a \"coordinate transformation\"." ], [ "Positioning", "GPS Block IIA satellite orbits over the Earth.Initial acquisition of GPS signal in 2DGeopositioning, or simply positioning, is the determination of the location, as defined by a set of geodetic coordinates, of a point on land, at sea, or in space within a coordinate system (point positioning) or relative to another point (relative positioning).", "One computes the position of a point in space from measurements linking terrestrial or extraterrestrial points of known location (\"known points\") with terrestrial ones of unknown location (\"unknown points\").", "The computation may involve transformations between or among astronomical and terrestrial coordinate systems.", "Known points used in point positioning can be GNSS satellites or triangulation points of a higher-order network.Traditionally, geodesists built a hierarchy of networks to allow point positioning within a country.", "The highest in this hierarchy were triangulation networks, densified into the networks of traverses (polygons) into which local mapping and surveying measurements, usually collected using a measuring tape, a corner prism, and the red-and-white poles, are tied.Commonly used nowadays is GPS, except for specialized measurements (e.g., in underground or high-precision engineering).", "The higher-order networks are measured with static GPS, using differential measurement to determine vectors between terrestrial points.", "These vectors then get adjusted in a traditional network fashion.", "A global polyhedron of permanently operating GPS stations under the auspices of the IERS is the basis for defining a single global, geocentric reference frame that serves as the \"zero-order\" (global) reference to which national measurements are attached.Real-time kinematic positioning (RTK GPS) is employed frequently in survey mapping.", "In that measurement technique, unknown points can get quickly tied into nearby terrestrial known points.One purpose of point positioning is the provision of known points for mapping measurements, also known as (horizontal and vertical) control.", "There can be thousands of those geodetically determined points in a country, usually documented by national mapping agencies.", "Surveyors involved in real estate and insurance will use these to tie their local measurements." ], [ "Geodetic problems", "Geodetic control markNavigation device, Apollo programIn geometrical geodesy, there are two main problems:;First (''direct'' or ''forward'') geodetic problem: ''Given the coordinates of a point and the directional (azimuth) and distance to a second point, determine the coordinates of that second point.", "'';Second (''inverse'' or ''reverse'') geodetic problem: ''Given the coordinates of two points, determine the azimuth and length of the (straight, curved, or geodesic) line connecting those points.", "''The solutions to both problems in plane geometry reduce to simple trigonometry and are valid for small areas on Earth's surface; on a sphere, solutions become significantly more complex as, for example, in the inverse problem, the azimuths differ going between the two end points along the arc of the connecting great circle.The general solution is called the geodesic for the surface considered, and the differential equations for the geodesic are solvable numerically.", "On the ellipsoid of revolution, geodesics are expressible in terms of elliptic integrals, which are usually evaluated in terms of a series expansion — see, for example, Vincenty's formulae." ], [ "Observational concepts", "Axial tilt (or Obliquity), rotation axis, plane of orbit, celestial equator and ecliptic.", "Earth is shown as viewed from the Sun; the orbit direction is counter-clockwise (to the left).Global gravity anomaly animation over oceans from the NASA's GRACE (Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment)As defined in geodesy (and also astronomy), some basic observational concepts like angles and coordinates include (most commonly from the viewpoint of a local observer):* '''Plumbline''' or '''vertical''': (the line along) the direction of local gravity.", "* '''Zenith''': the (direction to the) intersection of the upwards-extending gravity vector at a point and the celestial sphere.", "* '''Nadir''': the (direction to the) antipodal point where the downward-extending gravity vector intersects the (obscured) celestial sphere.", "* '''Celestial horizon''': a plane perpendicular to the gravity vector at a point.", "* '''Azimuth''': the direction angle within the plane of the horizon, typically counted clockwise from the north (in geodesy and astronomy) or the south (in France).", "* '''Elevation''': the angular height of an object above the horizon; alternatively: zenith distance equal to 90 degrees minus elevation.", "* '''Local topocentric coordinates''': azimuth (direction angle within the plane of the horizon), elevation angle (or zenith angle), distance.", "* '''North celestial pole''': the extension of Earth's (precessing and nutating) instantaneous spin axis extended northward to intersect the celestial sphere.", "(Similarly for the south celestial pole.", ")* '''Celestial equator''': the (instantaneous) intersection of Earth's equatorial plane with the celestial sphere.", "* '''Meridian plane''': any plane perpendicular to the celestial equator and containing the celestial poles.", "* '''Local meridian''': the plane which contains the direction to the zenith and the celestial pole." ], [ "Measurements", "Variations in the gravity field of the Moon, from NASAGravity measurement devices, pendulum (left) and absolute gravimeter (right)A relative gravimeterThe reference surface (level) used to determine height differences and height reference systems is known as mean sea level.", "The traditional spirit level directly produces such (for practical purposes most useful) heights above sea level; the more economical use of GPS instruments for height determination requires precise knowledge of the figure of the geoid, as GPS only gives heights above the GRS80 reference ellipsoid.", "As geoid determination improves, one may expect that the use of GPS in height determination shall increase, too.The theodolite is an instrument used to measure horizontal and vertical (relative to the local vertical) angles to target points.", "In addition, the tachymeter determines, electronically or electro-optically, the distance to a target and is highly automated or even robotic in operations.", "Widely used for the same purpose is the method of free station position.Commonly for local detail surveys, tachymeters are employed, although the old-fashioned rectangular technique using an angle prism and steel tape is still an inexpensive alternative.", "As mentioned, also there are quick and relatively accurate real-time kinematic (RTK) GPS techniques.", "Data collected are tagged and recorded digitally for entry into Geographic Information System (GIS) databases.Geodetic GNSS (most commonly GPS) receivers directly produce 3D coordinates in a geocentric coordinate frame.", "One such frame is WGS84, as well as frames by the International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS).", "GNSS receivers have almost completely replaced terrestrial instruments for large-scale base network surveys.To monitor the Earth's rotation irregularities and plate tectonic motions and for planet-wide geodetic surveys, methods of very-long-baseline interferometry (VLBI) measuring distances to quasars, lunar laser ranging (LLR) measuring distances to prisms on the Moon, and satellite laser ranging (SLR) measuring distances to prisms on artificial satellites, are employed.Gravity is measured using gravimeters, of which there are two kinds.", "First are '''absolute gravimeters''', based on measuring the acceleration of free fall (e.g., of a reflecting prism in a vacuum tube).", "They are used to establish vertical geospatial control or in the field.", "Second, '''relative gravimeters''' are spring-based and more common.", "They are used in gravity surveys over large areas — to establish the figure of the geoid over these areas.", "The most accurate relative gravimeters are called ''superconducting\" gravimeters'', which are sensitive to one-thousandth of one-billionth of Earth-surface gravity.", "Twenty-some superconducting gravimeters are used worldwide in studying Earth's tides, rotation, interior, oceanic and atmospheric loading, as well as in verifying the Newtonian constant of gravitation.In the future, gravity and altitude might become measurable using the special-relativistic concept of time dilation as gauged by optical clocks." ], [ "Units and measures on the ellipsoid", "The definition of latitude (φ) and longitude (λ) on an ellipsoid of revolution (or spheroid).", "The graticule spacing is 10 degrees.", "The latitude is defined as the angle between the normal to the ellipsoid and the equatorial plane.Geographical latitude and longitude are stated in the units degree, minute of arc, and second of arc.", "They are ''angles'', not metricmeasures, and describe the ''direction'' of the local normal to the reference ellipsoid of revolution.", "This direction is ''approximately'' the same as the direction of the plumbline, i.e., local gravity, which is also the normal to the geoid surface.", "For this reason, astronomical position determination – measuring the direction of the plumbline by astronomical means – works reasonably well when one also uses an ellipsoidal model of the figure of the Earth.One geographical mile, defined as one minute of arc on the equator, equals 1,855.32571922 m. One nautical mile is one minute of astronomical latitude.", "The radius of curvature of the ellipsoid varies with latitude, being the longest at the pole and the shortest at the equator same as with the nautical mile.A metre was originally defined as the 10-millionth part of the length from the equator to the North Pole along the meridian through Paris (the target was not quite reached in actual implementation, as it is off by 200 ppm in the current definitions).", "This situation means that one kilometre roughly equals (1/40,000) * 360 * 60 meridional minutes of arc, or 0.54 nautical miles.", "(This is not exactly so as the two units had been defined on different bases, so the international nautical mile is 1,852 m exactly, which corresponds to the rounding of 1,000/0.54 m to four digits)." ], [ "Temporal changes", "Global plate tectonic movement using GPSHow very-long-baseline interferometry (VLBI) worksVarious techniques are used in geodesy to study temporally changing surfaces, bodies of mass, physical fields, and dynamical systems.", "Points on Earth's surface change their location due to a variety of mechanisms:* Continental plate motion, plate tectonics* The episodic motion of tectonic origin, especially close to fault lines* Periodic effects due to tides and tidal loading* Postglacial land uplift due to isostatic adjustment* Mass variations due to hydrological changes, including the atmosphere, cryosphere, land hydrology, and oceans* Sub-daily polar motion* Length-of-day variability* Earth's center-of-mass (geocenter) variations* Anthropogenic movements such as reservoir construction or petroleum or water extractionSpace Geodesy Project, including an overview of its four fundamental techniques: GPS, VLBI, LLR/SLR, and DORIS.Geodynamics is the discipline that studies deformations and motions of Earth's crust and its solidity as a whole.", "Often the study of Earth's irregular rotation is included in the above definition.", "Geodynamical studies require terrestrial reference frames realized by the stations belonging to the Global Geodetic Observing System (GGOS).Techniques for studying geodynamic phenomena on global scales include:* Satellite positioning by GPS, GLONASS, Galileo, and BeiDou* Very-long-baseline interferometry (VLBI)* Satellite laser ranging (SLR) and lunar laser ranging (LLR)* DORIS* Regionally and locally precise leveling* Precise tachymeters* Monitoring of gravity change using land, airborne, shipborne, and spaceborne gravimetry* Satellite altimetry based on microwave and laser observations for studying the ocean surface, sea level rise, and ice cover monitoring* Interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR) using satellite images." ], [ "Notable geodesists" ], [ "See also", "*** ***;Fundamentals* ''Geodesy'' (book)* ''Concepts and Techniques in Modern Geography''*Geodesics on an ellipsoid*History of geodesy*Physical geodesy*Earth's circumference* Physics* Geosciences;Governmental agencies*National mapping agency*U.S. National Geodetic Survey*National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency*Ordnance Survey*United States Coast and Geodetic Survey*United States Geological Survey;International organizations*International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics (IUGG)*International Association of Geodesy (IAG)*International Federation of Surveyors (IFS)*International Geodetic Student Organisation (IGSO);Other*EPSG Geodetic Parameter Dataset*Meridian arc*Surveying" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* F. R. Helmert, ''Mathematical and Physical Theories of Higher Geodesy'', Part 1, ACIC (St. Louis, 1964).", "This is an English translation of ''Die mathematischen und physikalischen Theorieen der höheren Geodäsie'', Vol 1 (Teubner, Leipzig, 1880).", "* F. R. Helmert, ''Mathematical and Physical Theories of Higher Geodesy'', Part 2, ACIC (St. Louis, 1964).", "This is an English translation of ''Die mathematischen und physikalischen Theorieen der höheren Geodäsie'', Vol 2 (Teubner, Leipzig, 1884).", "* B. Hofmann-Wellenhof and H. Moritz, ''Physical Geodesy'', Springer-Verlag Wien, 2005.", "(This text is an updated edition of the 1967 classic by W.A.", "Heiskanen and H.", "Moritz).", "* W. Kaula, ''Theory of Satellite Geodesy : Applications of Satellites to Geodesy'', Dover Publications, 2000.", "(This text is a reprint of the 1966 classic).", "* Vaníček P. and E.J.", "Krakiwsky, ''Geodesy: the Concepts'', pp.", "714, Elsevier, 1986.", "* Torge, W (2001), ''Geodesy'' (3rd edition), published by de Gruyter, .", "* Thomas H. Meyer, Daniel R. Roman, and David B. Zilkoski.", "\"What does ''height'' really mean?\"", "(This is a series of four articles published in ''Surveying and Land Information Science, SaLIS''.", ")** \"Part I: Introduction\" ''SaLIS'' Vol.", "64, No.", "4, pages 223–233, December 2004.", "** \"Part II: Physics and gravity\" ''SaLIS'' Vol.", "65, No.", "1, pages 5–15, March 2005.", "** \"Part III: Height systems\" ''SaLIS'' Vol.", "66, No.", "2, pages 149–160, June 2006.", "** \"Part IV: GPS heighting\" ''SaLIS'' Vol.", "66, No.", "3, pages 165–183, September 2006." ], [ "External links", "* Geodetic awareness guidance note, Geodesy Subcommittee, Geomatics Committee, International Association of Oil & Gas Producers*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Eurogame" ], [ "Introduction", "Detailed view of the board during Terra Mystica gameplayA '''Eurogame''', also called a '''German-style board game''', '''German game''', or '''Euro-style game''', (generally just referred to as board games in Europe) is a class of tabletop games that generally has indirect player interaction and multiple ways to score points.", "Eurogames are sometimes contrasted with American-style board games, which generally involve more luck, conflict, and drama.", "They are usually less abstract than chess or Go, but more abstract than wargames.", "Likewise, they generally require more thought and planning than party games such as ''Pictionary'' or ''Trivial Pursuit''." ], [ "History", "The 1999 Hasbro version of ''Acquire''Due in part to postwar aversion to products which glorified conflict, the 3M series of strategy and economic games, including Acquire, became popular in Germany and provided a template for a new form of gameplay without direct conflict or warfare.", "=== German family board games ===The genre developed as a more concentrated design movement in the late 1970s and early 1980s in Germany.", "The genre has spread to other European countries such as France, the Netherlands, and Sweden.", "''The Settlers of Catan'', first published in 1995, paved the way for the genre outside Europe.Though neither the first Eurogame nor the first such game to find an audience outside Germany, it became much more popular than any of its predecessors.", "It quickly sold millions of copies in Germany, and in the process brought money and attention to the genre as a whole.=== 21st century ===Germany purchased more board games ''per capita'' than any other country .", "While many Eurogames are published and played in Anglophone markets such as the United States and the United Kingdom, they occupy a niche status there.", "Other games in the genre to achieve widespread popularity include ''Carcassonne'', ''Puerto Rico'', ''Ticket to Ride'', and ''Alhambra''." ], [ "Characteristics", "Agricola being set up Eurogames tend to be focused on challenge for players.", "They feature economics and the acquisition of resources rather than direct conflict, and have a limited amount of luck.", "They also differ from abstract strategy games like chess by using themes tied to specific locales, and emphasize individual development and comparative achievement rather than direct conflict.", "Eurogames also emphasize the mechanical challenges of their systems over having the systems match the theme of the game.", "They are generally simpler than the wargames that flourished in the 1970s and 1980s from publishers such as SPI and Avalon Hill, but nonetheless often have a considerable depth of play.One consequence of the increasing popularity of this genre has been an expansion upwards in complexity.", "Games such as Puerto Rico that were considered quite complex when Eurogames proliferated in the U.S. after the turn of the millennium are now the norm, with newer high-end titles like Terra Mystica and Tzolkin being significantly more difficult to master.=== Incentive for social play ===Ticket to Ride near the end of the gameWhile many titles (especially the strategically heavier ones) are enthusiastically played by gamers as a hobby, Eurogames are, for the most part, well-suited to social play.", "In keeping with this social function, various characteristics of the games tend to support that aspect well, and these have become quite common across the genre.", "In contrast to games such as Risk or Monopoly, in which a close game can extend indefinitely, Eurogames usually have a mechanism to stop the game within its stated playing time.", "Common mechanisms include a pre-determined winning score, a set number of game turns, or depletion of limited game resources.", "Playing time varies from a half-hour to a few hours, with one to two hours being typical.", "Generally Eurogames do not have a fixed number of players like chess or bridge; although there is a sizeable body of German-style games that are designed for exactly two players, most games can accommodate anywhere from two to six players (with varying degrees of suitability).", "Six-player games are somewhat rare, with Power Grid and Caverna (the latter supporting seven player games) being two examples, or require expansions, as with The Settlers of Catan or Carcassonne.", "Players usually play for themselves individually, rather than in a partnership or team.A growing number of Eurogames support solo play with modified rulesets.", "To win, the player either has to achieve specific single-player campaign goals or beat the score of a simulated opponent that takes actions according to special rules outlined in the scenario.", "Recent Eurogames suitable for solo play include Wingspan, Terraforming Mars, and Spirit Island.=== No player elimination ===Another prominent characteristic of these games is the lack of player elimination.", "Eliminating players before the end of the game is seen as contrary to the social aspect of such games.", "Most of these games are designed to keep all players in the game as long as possible, so it is rare to be certain of victory or defeat until relatively late in the game.", "Related to no-player-elimination, Eurogame scoring systems are often designed so that hidden scoring or end-of-game bonuses can catapult a player who appears to be in a lagging position at end of play into the lead.", "A second-order consequence is that Eurogames tend to have multiple paths to victory (dependent on aiming at different end-of-game bonuses) and it is often not obvious to other players which strategic path a player is pursuing.", "Balancing mechanisms are often integrated into the rules, giving slight advantages to lagging players and slight hindrances to the leaders.", "This helps to keep the game competitive to the very end, an example of which is Power Grid, where the turn order is determined by number of cities (and biggest power plant as the tie-breaker), such that players further ahead are handicapped in their option of plays.=== Game mechanics ===A wide variety of often innovative mechanisms or mechanics are used, and familiar mechanics such as rolling dice and moving, capture, or trick taking are avoided.", "If a game has a board, the board is usually irregular rather than uniform or symmetric (such as Risk rather than chess or Scrabble).", "The board is often random (as in The Settlers of Catan) or has random elements (such as Tikal).", "Some boards are merely mnemonic or organizational and contribute only to ease of play, such as a cribbage board; examples of this include Puerto Rico and Princes of Florence.", "Random elements are often present but do not usually dominate the game.", "While rules are light to moderate, they allow depth of play, usually requiring thought, planning, and a shift of tactics through the game and featuring a chess- or backgammon-like opening game, middle game, and end game.Stewart Woods' ''Eurogames'' cites six examples of mechanics common to eurogames:*''Tile Placement'' – spatial placement of game components on the playing board.", "*''Auctions'' – includes open and hidden auctions of both resources and actions from other players and the game system itself.", "*''Trading/Negotiation'' – not simply trading resources of equivalent values, but allowing players to set markets.", "*''Set Collection'' – collecting resources in specific groups that are then cashed in for points or other currency.", "*''Area Control'' – also known as area majority or influence, this involves controlling a game element or board space through allocation of resources.", "*''Worker Placement or Role Selection'' – players choose specific game actions in sequential order, with players disallowed from choosing a previously selected action.=== Low randomness ===Samurai'' is a game of tile placement, set collection, and area control.Eurogame designs tend to de-emphasize luck and random elements.", "Often, the only random element of the game will be resource or terrain distribution in the initial setup, or (less frequently) the random order of a set of event or objective cards.", "The role played by deliberately random mechanics in other styles of game is instead fulfilled by the unpredictability of the behavior of other players.=== Themes ===Examples of themes are:* Carcassonne – build a medieval landscape complete with walled cities, monasteries, roads, and fields.", "* Puerto Rico – develop plantations on the island of Puerto Rico, set in the 18th century.", "* Power Grid – expand a power company's network and buy better plants.", "* Imperial – as an international investor, influence the politics of pre-World War I European empires.", "* Bruxelles 1893 – take the role of an Art Nouveau architect during the late 19th century and try to become the most famous architect in Belgium.=== Game designer as author ===Although not relevant to actual play, the name of the game's designer is often prominently mentioned on the box, or at least in the rule book.", "Top designers enjoy considerable following among enthusiasts of Eurogames.", "For this reason, the name \"designer games\" is often offered as a description of the genre.", "Recently, there has also been a wave of games designed as spin-offs of popular novels, such as the games taking their style from the German bestsellers ''Der Schwarm'' and ''Tintenherz''." ], [ "Industry", "=== Designers ===Deutscher Spielepreis awards at Spiel 2003 in Essen, GermanyDesigners of Eurogames include:* Antoine Bauza, a prolific French designer, creator of 7 Wonders, Tokaido, and Takenoko.", "*Bruno Cathala, a French-born game designer, creator of Kingdomino and Five Tribes.", "* Vlaada Chvátil, a Czech designer of board games and video games, whose games include Through the Ages: A Story of Civilization, Galaxy Trucker, Space Alert, and Codenames.", "His rule books are often divided into several \"learning scenarios\" that gradually introduce players to the rules as they progress through the scenarios.", "* Leo Colovini, designer of Cartagena and Carcassonne: The Discovery.", "* Rüdiger Dorn, a German designer who created Istanbul, Karuba, Las Vegas, Luxor, and others.", "*Bruno Faidutti, French designer of Citadels.", "* Stefan Feld, designer particularly of games that make use of dice, and that allow players to score points in a variety of ways.", "He has designed games such as Castles of Burgundy and Trajan, and three of his games (Strasbourg, Bruges, and Carpe Diem) have been nominated for the Kennerspiel des Jahres.", "* Friedemann Friese, a German designer, creator of Power Grid, as well as many others.", "* Mac Gerdts, a German designer of games such as Antike, Imperial, Navegador, and Concordia.", "* Reiner Knizia, one of the most prolific German game designers, having designed over 600 published games.", "Recurring mechanisms in his games include auctions (Ra and Modern Art), tile placement (Tigris and Euphrates and Ingenious), and intricate scoring rules (Samurai).", "He has also designed many card games such as Lost Cities, Schotten-Totten, and Blue Moon, and the cooperative board game The Lord of the Rings.", "* Wolfgang Kramer, who often works with other game designers.", "His titles include El Grande, Tikal, Princes of Florence, and Torres.", "His games often have some sort of action point system, and include some geometric element.", "* Alan R. Moon, a British-born designer with numerous games to his credit, often with a railway theme, including the Spiel des Jahres-winning Ticket to Ride and Elfenland.", "* Alex Randolph, who created over 125 games and is responsible for the placement of the author's name on the rules and box.", "* Uwe Rosenberg, designer of games such as Agricola, Le Havre, Patchwork, and several others.", "* Sid Sackson was a prolific American game designer whose games, particularly Acquire, prefigured and strongly influenced the Eurogame genre.", "* Michael Schacht, German designer of Coloretto, Zooloretto, Aquaretto, Valdora, Africana, Web of power, China, Han, Hansa, Mondo, Mondo Sapiens, Spirits of the Forest, Coney Island.", "* Andreas Seyfarth, who has designed the games Puerto Rico, Manhattan, and, with Karen Seyfarth, Thurn and Taxis.", "* Klaus Teuber, designer of Catan, which has sold more than 22 million copies.", "* Klaus-Jürgen Wrede, the German game designer of the ''Carcassonne'' board game series.", ", ''Carcassonne'' has 11 expansions and 6 variant standalone games available as well as numerous mini-expansions.=== Events ===Alhambra.The Internationale Spieltage, also known as Essen Spiel, or the Essen Games Fair, is the largest non-digital game convention in the world, and the place where the largest number of Eurogames are released each year.", "Founded in 1983 and held annually in Essen, Germany, the fair was founded with the objective of providing a venue for people to meet and play board games, and show gaming as an integral part of German culture.A \"World Boardgaming Championships\" is held annually in July in Pennsylvania, USA.", "The event is nine days long and includes tournament tracks of over a hundred games; while traditional wargames are played there, all of the most popular tournaments are Eurogames and it is generally perceived as a Eurogame-centered event.", "Attendance is international, though players from the U.S. and Canada predominate.=== Awards ===The most prestigious German board game award is the Spiel des Jahres (\"game of the year\").", "The award is very family-oriented.", "Shorter, more approachable, games such as Ticket to Ride and Elfenland are usually preferred by the committee that gives out the award.In 2011, the jury responsible for the Spiel des Jahres created the Kennerspiel des Jahres, or connoisseur's game of the year, for more complex games.The Deutscher Spiele Preis (\"German game prize\") is also awarded to games that are more complex and strategic, such as Puerto Rico.", "However, there are a few games with broad enough appeal to win both awards: The Settlers of Catan (1995), Carcassonne (2001), Dominion (2009)." ], [ "Influence", "Xbox Live Arcade has included popular games from the genre, with ''Catan'' being released to strong sales on May 13, 2007, ''Carcassonne'' being released on June 27, 2007.", "''Lost Cities'' and ''Ticket to Ride'' soon followed.", "''Alhambra'' was due to follow later in 2007 until being cancelled.The iPhone received versions of The Settlers of Catan and ''Zooloretto'' in 2009.Carcassonne was added to the iPhone App Store in June 2010.Later, Ticket to Ride was developed for both the iPhone and the iPad, significantly boosting sales of the board game." ], [ "See also", "* BoardGameGeek – online forum for board gaming hobbyists* BrettspielWelt – free German online gaming site* Cooperative board game – board games in which players work together to achieve a common goal* ''Going Cardboard'' – documentary about German-style board games and their community* List of game designers" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Brett and Board with information on German-style games (has not been updated in some time)* Luding.org – board game database with over 15,000 English and German reviewed games* BoardGameGeek – internet database of over 100,000 tabletop games, with online fan community.", "* Gamerate.net – internet database of board, card and electronic games." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Grand Unified Theory" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Grand Unified Theory''' ('''GUT''') is any model in particle physics that merges the electromagnetic, weak, and strong forces (the three gauge interactions of the Standard Model) into a single force at high energies.", "Although this unified force has not been directly observed, many GUT models theorize its existence.", "If the unification of these three interactions is possible, it raises the possibility that there was a grand unification epoch in the very early universe in which these three fundamental interactions were not yet distinct.Experiments have confirmed that at high energy, the electromagnetic interaction and weak interaction unify into a single combined electroweak interaction.", "GUT models predict that at even higher energy, the strong and electroweak interactions will unify into one electronuclear interaction.", "This interaction is characterized by one larger gauge symmetry and thus several force carriers, but one unified coupling constant.", "Unifying gravity with the electronuclear interaction would provide a more comprehensive theory of everything (TOE) rather than a Grand Unified Theory.", "Thus, GUTs are often seen as an intermediate step towards a TOE.The novel particles predicted by GUT models are expected to have extremely high masses—around the GUT scale of GeV (just three orders of magnitude below the Planck scale of GeV)—and so are well beyond the reach of any foreseen particle hadron collider experiments.", "Therefore, the particles predicted by GUT models will be unable to be observed directly, and instead the effects of grand unification might be detected through indirect observations of the following:* proton decay, * electric dipole moments of elementary particles, * or the properties of neutrinos.Some GUTs, such as the Pati–Salam model, predict the existence of magnetic monopoles.While GUTs might be expected to offer simplicity over the complications present in the Standard Model, realistic models remain complicated because they need to introduce additional fields and interactions, or even additional dimensions of space, in order to reproduce observed fermion masses and mixing angles.", "This difficulty, in turn, may be related to the existence of family symmetries beyond the conventional GUT models.", "Due to this and the lack of any observed effect of grand unification so far, there is no generally accepted GUT model.Models that do not unify the three interactions using one simple group as the gauge symmetry but do so using semisimple groups can exhibit similar properties and are sometimes referred to as Grand Unified Theories as well." ], [ "History", "Historically, the first true GUT, which was based on the simple Lie group , was proposed by Howard Georgi and Sheldon Glashow in 1974.The Georgi–Glashow model was preceded by the semisimple Lie algebra Pati–Salam model by Abdus Salam and Jogesh Pati also in 1974, who pioneered the idea to unify gauge interactions.The acronym GUT was first coined in 1978 by CERN researchers John Ellis, Andrzej Buras, Mary K. Gaillard, and Dimitri Nanopoulos, however in the final version of their paper they opted for the less anatomical GUM (Grand Unification Mass).", "Nanopoulos later that year was the first to use the acronym in a paper." ], [ "Motivation", "The fact that the electric charges of electrons and protons seem to cancel each other exactly to extreme precision is essential for the existence of the macroscopic world as we know it, but this important property of elementary particles is not explained in the Standard Model of particle physics.", "While the description of strong and weak interactions within the Standard Model is based on gauge symmetries governed by the simple symmetry groups and which allow only discrete charges, the remaining component, the weak hypercharge interaction is described by an abelian symmetry which in principle allows for arbitrary charge assignments.", "The observed charge quantization, namely the postulation that all known elementary particles carry electric charges which are exact multiples of one-third of the \"elementary\" charge, has led to the idea that hypercharge interactions and possibly the strong and weak interactions might be embedded in one Grand Unified interaction described by a single, larger simple symmetry group containing the Standard Model.", "This would automatically predict the quantized nature and values of all elementary particle charges.", "Since this also results in a prediction for the relative strengths of the fundamental interactions which we observe, in particular, the weak mixing angle, grand unification ideally reduces the number of independent input parameters but is also constrained by observations.Grand unification is reminiscent of the unification of electric and magnetic forces by Maxwell's field theory of electromagnetism in the 19th century, but its physical implications and mathematical structure are qualitatively different." ], [ "Unification of matter particles", "Schematic representation of fermions and bosons in GUT showing split in the multiplets.", "Neutral bosons (photon, Z-boson, and neutral gluons) are not shown but occupy the diagonal entries of the matrix in complex superpositions.===SU(5)===The pattern of weak isospins, weak hypercharges, and strong charges for particles in the SU(5) model, rotated by the predicted weak mixing angle, showing electric charge roughly along the vertical.", "In addition to Standard Model particles, the theory includes twelve colored X bosons, responsible for proton decay.", "is the simplest GUT.", "The smallest simple Lie group which contains the standard model, and upon which the first Grand Unified Theory was based, is:.Such group symmetries allow the reinterpretation of several known particles, including the photon, W and Z bosons, and gluon, as different states of a single particle field.", "However, it is not obvious that the simplest possible choices for the extended \"Grand Unified\" symmetry should yield the correct inventory of elementary particles.", "The fact that all currently known matter particles fit perfectly into three copies of the smallest group representations of and immediately carry the correct observed charges, is one of the first and most important reasons why people believe that a Grand Unified Theory might actually be realized in nature.The two smallest irreducible representations of are (the defining representation) and .", "(These bold numbers indicate the dimension of the representation.)", "In the standard assignment, the contains the charge conjugates of the right-handed down-type quark color triplet and a left-handed lepton isospin doublet, while the contains the six up-type quark components, the left-handed down-type quark color triplet, and the right-handed electron.", "This scheme has to be replicated for each of the three known generations of matter.", "It is notable that the theory is anomaly free with this matter content.The hypothetical right-handed neutrinos are a singlet of , which means its mass is not forbidden by any symmetry; it doesn't need a spontaneous electroweak symmetry breaking which explains why its mass would be heavy.", "(see seesaw mechanism).===SO(10)===The pattern of weak isospin, W, weaker isospin, W', strong g3 and g8, and baryon minus lepton, B, charges for particles in the SO(10) Grand Unified Theory, rotated to show the embedding in E6.The next simple Lie group which contains the standard model is:.Here, the unification of matter is even more complete, since the irreducible spinor representation contains both the and of and a right-handed neutrino, and thus the complete particle content of one generation of the extended standard model with neutrino masses.", "This is already the largest simple group that achieves the unification of matter in a scheme involving only the already known matter particles (apart from the Higgs sector).Since different standard model fermions are grouped together in larger representations, GUTs specifically predict relations among the fermion masses, such as between the electron and the down quark, the muon and the strange quark, and the tau lepton and the bottom quark for and .", "Some of these mass relations hold approximately, but most don't (see Georgi-Jarlskog mass relation).The boson matrix for is found by taking the matrix from the representation of and adding an extra row and column for the right-handed neutrino.", "The bosons are found by adding a partner to each of the 20 charged bosons (2 right-handed W bosons, 6 massive charged gluons and 12 X/Y type bosons) and adding an extra heavy neutral Z-boson to make 5 neutral bosons in total.", "The boson matrix will have a boson or its new partner in each row and column.", "These pairs combine to create the familiar 16D Dirac spinor matrices of .===E6===In some forms of string theory, including E8 × E8 heterotic string theory, the resultant four-dimensional theory after spontaneous compactification on a six-dimensional Calabi–Yau manifold resembles a GUT based on the group E6.Notably E6 is the only exceptional simple Lie group to have any complex representations, a requirement for a theory to contain chiral fermions (namely all weakly-interacting fermions).", "Hence the other four (G2, F4, E7, and E8) can't be the gauge group of a GUT.===Extended Grand Unified Theories===Non-chiral extensions of the Standard Model with vectorlike split-multiplet particle spectra which naturally appear in the higher SU(N) GUTs considerably modify the desert physics and lead to the realistic (string-scale) grand unification for conventional three quark-lepton families even without using supersymmetry (see below).", "On the other hand, due to a new missing VEV mechanism emerging in the supersymmetric SU(8) GUT the simultaneous solution to the gauge hierarchy (doublet-triplet splitting) problem and problem of unification of flavor can be argued.", "'''GUTs with four families / generations, SU(8)''': Assuming 4 generations of fermions instead of 3 makes a total of types of particles.", "These can be put into representations of .", "This can be divided into which is the theory together with some heavy bosons which act on the generation number.", "'''GUTs with four families / generations, O(16)''': Again assuming 4 generations of fermions, the '''128''' particles and anti-particles can be put into a single spinor representation of .===Symplectic groups and quaternion representations===Symplectic gauge groups could also be considered.", "For example, (which is called in the article symplectic group) has a representation in terms of quaternion unitary matrices which has a dimensional real representation and so might be considered as a candidate for a gauge group.", "has 32 charged bosons and 4 neutral bosons.", "Its subgroups include so can at least contain the gluons and photon of .", "Although it's probably not possible to have weak bosons acting on chiral fermions in this representation.", "A quaternion representation of the fermions might be::A further complication with quaternion representations of fermions is that there are two types of multiplication: left multiplication and right multiplication which must be taken into account.", "It turns out that including left and right-handed quaternion matrices is equivalent to including a single right-multiplication by a unit quaternion which adds an extra SU(2) and so has an extra neutral boson and two more charged bosons.", "Thus the group of left- and right-handed quaternion matrices is which does include the standard model bosons::If is a quaternion valued spinor, is quaternion hermitian matrix coming from and is a pure vector quaternion (both of which are 4-vector bosons) then the interaction term is:::===Octonion representations===It can be noted that a generation of 16 fermions can be put into the form of an octonion with each element of the octonion being an 8-vector.", "If the 3 generations are then put in a 3x3 hermitian matrix with certain additions for the diagonal elements then these matrices form an exceptional (Grassmann) Jordan algebra, which has the symmetry group of one of the exceptional Lie groups (, , , or ) depending on the details.", "::Because they are fermions the anti-commutators of the Jordan algebra become commutators.", "It is known that has subgroup and so is big enough to include the Standard Model.", "An gauge group, for example, would have 8 neutral bosons, 120 charged bosons and 120 charged anti-bosons.", "To account for the 248 fermions in the lowest multiplet of , these would either have to include anti-particles (and so have baryogenesis), have new undiscovered particles, or have gravity-like (spin connection) bosons affecting elements of the particles spin direction.", "Each of these possesses theoretical problems.===Beyond Lie groups===Other structures have been suggested including Lie 3-algebras and Lie superalgebras.", "Neither of these fit with Yang–Mills theory.", "In particular Lie superalgebras would introduce bosons with incorrect statistics.", "Supersymmetry, however, does fit with Yang–Mills." ], [ "Unification of forces and the role of supersymmetry", "The unification of forces is possible due to the energy scale dependence of force coupling parameters in quantum field theory called renormalization group \"running\", which allows parameters with vastly different values at usual energies to converge to a single value at a much higher energy scale.The renormalization group running of the three gauge couplings in the Standard Model has been found to nearly, but not quite, meet at the same point if the hypercharge is normalized so that it is consistent with or GUTs, which are precisely the GUT groups which lead to a simple fermion unification.", "This is a significant result, as other Lie groups lead to different normalizations.", "However, if the supersymmetric extension MSSM is used instead of the Standard Model, the match becomes much more accurate.", "In this case, the coupling constants of the strong and electroweak interactions meet at the grand unification energy, also known as the GUT scale::.It is commonly believed that this matching is unlikely to be a coincidence, and is often quoted as one of the main motivations to further investigate supersymmetric theories despite the fact that no supersymmetric partner particles have been experimentally observed.", "Also, most model builders simply assume supersymmetry because it solves the hierarchy problem—i.e., it stabilizes the electroweak Higgs mass against radiative corrections." ], [ "Neutrino masses", "Since Majorana masses of the right-handed neutrino are forbidden by symmetry, GUTs predict the Majorana masses of right-handed neutrinos to be close to the GUT scale where the symmetry is spontaneously broken in those models.", "In supersymmetric GUTs, this scale tends to be larger than would be desirable to obtain realistic masses of the light, mostly left-handed neutrinos (see neutrino oscillation) via the seesaw mechanism.", "These predictions are independent of the Georgi–Jarlskog mass relations, wherein some GUTs predict other fermion mass ratios." ], [ "Proposed theories", "Several theories have been proposed, but none is currently universally accepted.", "An even more ambitious theory that includes ''all'' fundamental forces, including gravitation, is termed a theory of everything.", "Some common mainstream GUT models are:* Pati–Salam model — * Georgi–Glashow model — ; and Flipped — * model; and Flipped — * model; and Trinification — * minimal left-right model — * 331 model — * chiral colorNot quite GUTs:* Technicolor models* Little Higgs* String theory* Causal fermion systems* M-theory* Preons* Loop quantum gravity* Causal dynamical triangulation theory''Note'': These models refer to Lie algebras not to Lie groups.", "The Lie group could be just to take a random example.The most promising candidate is .", "(Minimal) does not contain any exotic fermions (i.e.", "additional fermions besides the Standard Model fermions and the right-handed neutrino), and it unifies each generation into a single irreducible representation.", "A number of other GUT models are based upon subgroups of .", "They are the minimal left-right model, , flipped and the Pati–Salam model.", "The GUT group contains , but models based upon it are significantly more complicated.", "The primary reason for studying models comes from heterotic string theory.GUT models generically predict the existence of topological defects such as monopoles, cosmic strings, domain walls, and others.", "But none have been observed.", "Their absence is known as the monopole problem in cosmology.", "Many GUT models also predict proton decay, although not the Pati–Salam model.", "As of now, proton decay has never been experimentally observed.", "The minimal experimental limit on the proton's lifetime pretty much rules out minimal and heavily constrains the other models.", "The lack of detected supersymmetry to date also constrains many models.File:Proton_decay2.svg|Dimension 6 proton decay mediated by the  boson in GUTFile:proton decay3.svg|Dimension 6 proton decay mediated by the  boson in flipped GUTFile:proton decay4.svg|Dimension 6 proton decay mediated by the triplet Higgs and the anti-triplet Higgs in GUT\\ Some GUT theories like and suffer from what is called the doublet-triplet problem.", "These theories predict that for each electroweak Higgs doublet, there is a corresponding colored Higgs triplet field with a very small mass (many orders of magnitude smaller than the GUT scale here).", "In theory, unifying quarks with leptons, the Higgs doublet would also be unified with a Higgs triplet.", "Such triplets have not been observed.", "They would also cause extremely rapid proton decay (far below current experimental limits) and prevent the gauge coupling strengths from running together in the renormalization group.Most GUT models require a threefold replication of the matter fields.", "As such, they do not explain why there are three generations of fermions.", "Most GUT models also fail to explain the little hierarchy between the fermion masses for different generations." ], [ "Ingredients", "A GUT model consists of a gauge group which is a compact Lie group, a connection form for that Lie group, a Yang–Mills action for that connection given by an invariant symmetric bilinear form over its Lie algebra (which is specified by a coupling constant for each factor), a Higgs sector consisting of a number of scalar fields taking on values within real/complex representations of the Lie group and chiral Weyl fermions taking on values within a complex rep of the Lie group.", "The Lie group contains the Standard Model group and the Higgs fields acquire VEVs leading to a spontaneous symmetry breaking to the Standard Model.", "The Weyl fermions represent matter." ], [ "Current evidence", "The discovery of neutrino oscillations indicates that the Standard Model is incomplete, but there is currently no clear evidence that nature is described by any Grand Unified Theory.", "Neutrino oscillations have led to renewed interest toward certain GUT such as .One of the few possible experimental tests of certain GUT is proton decay and also fermion masses.", "There are a few more special tests for supersymmetric GUT.", "However, minimum proton lifetimes from research (at or exceeding the ~ year range) have ruled out simpler GUTs and most non-SUSY models.", "The maximum upper limit on proton lifetime (if unstable), is calculated at 6× years for SUSY models and 1.4× years for minimal non-SUSY GUTs.The gauge coupling strengths of QCD, the weak interaction and hypercharge seem to meet at a common length scale called the GUT scale and equal approximately to  GeV (slightly less than the Planck energy of  GeV), which is somewhat suggestive.", "This interesting numerical observation is called the ''gauge coupling unification'', and it works particularly well if one assumes the existence of superpartners of the Standard Model particles.", "Still, it is possible to achieve the same by postulating, for instance, that ordinary (non supersymmetric) models break with an intermediate gauge scale, such as the one of Pati–Salam group." ], [ "Ultra unification", "In 2020, physicist Juven Wang introduced a concept known as \"ultra unification\".", "It combines the Standard Model and grand unification, particularly for the models with 15 Weyl fermions per generation, without the necessity of right-handed sterile neutrinos, by adding new gapped topological phase sectors or new gapless interacting conformal sectors consistent with the nonperturbative global anomaly cancellation and cobordism constraints (especially from the mixed gauge-gravitational anomaly, such as a '''Z'''/''16'''''Z''' class anomaly, associated with the baryon minus lepton number '''B'''−'''L''' and the electroweak hypercharge Y).", "Gapped topological phase sectors are constructed via the symmetry extension (in contrast to the symmetry breaking in the Standard Model's Anderson-Higgs mechanism), whose low energy contains unitary Lorentz invariant topological quantum field theories (TQFTs), such as 4-dimensional noninvertible, 5-dimensional noninvertible, or 5-dimensional invertible entangled gapped phase TQFTs.", "Alternatively, Wang's theory suggests there could also be right-handed sterile neutrinos, gapless unparticle physics, or some combination of more general interacting conformal field theories (CFTs), to together cancel the mixed gauge-gravitational anomaly.", "This proposal can also be understood as coupling the Standard Model (as quantum field theory) to the Beyond the Standard Model sector (as TQFTs or CFTs being dark matter) via the discrete gauged '''B'''−'''L''' topological force.", "In either TQFT or CFT scenarios, the implication is that a new high-energy physics frontier beyond the conventional 0-dimensional particle physics relies on new types of topological forces and matter.", "This includes gapped extended objects such as 1-dimensional line and 2-dimensional surface operators or conformal defects, whose open ends carry deconfined fractionalized particle or anyonic string excitations.", "Understanding and characterizing these gapped extended objects requires mathematical concepts such as cohomology, cobordism, or category into particle physics.", "The topological phase sectors proposed by Wang signify a departure from the conventional particle physics paradigm, indicating a frontier in beyond-the-Standard-Model physics." ], [ "See also", "*B − L quantum number*Classical unified field theories*Paradigm shift*Physics beyond the Standard Model*Theory of everything*X and Y bosons" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*Stephen Hawking, A Brief History of Time, includes a brief popular overview.", "*" ], [ "External links", "* The Algebra of Grand Unified Theories" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "GTE" ], [ "Introduction", "'''GTE Corporation''', formerly '''General Telephone & Electronics Corporation''' (1955–1982), was the largest independent telephone company in the United States during the days of the Bell System.", "The company operated from 1926, with roots tracing further back than that, until 2000, when it was acquired by Bell Atlantic; the combined company took the name Verizon.The Wisconsin-based Associated Telephone Utilities Company was founded in 1926; it went bankrupt in 1933 during the Great Depression, and was reorganized as General Telephone in 1934.In 1991, it acquired the third largest independent, Continental Telephone (ConTel).", "It owned Automatic Electric, a telephone equipment supplier similar in many ways to Western Electric, and Sylvania Lighting, the only non-communications-oriented company under GTE ownership.", "GTE provided local telephone service to many areas of the U.S. through operating companies, much as American Telephone & Telegraph provided local telephone service through its 22 Bell Operating Companies.The company acquired BBN Planet, one of the earliest Internet service providers, in 1997.That division became known as GTE Internetworking, and was later spun off into the independent company Genuity (a name recycled from another Internet company GTE acquired in 1997) to satisfy Federal Communications Commission (FCC) requirements regarding the GTE–Bell Atlantic merger that created Verizon.GTE operated in Canada via large interests in subsidiary companies such as BC Tel and Quebec-Téléphone.", "When foreign ownership restrictions on telecommunications companies were introduced, GTE's ownership was grandfathered.", "When BC Tel merged with Telus (the name given to the privatized Alberta Government Telephones (AGT)) to create BCT.Telus, GTE's Canadian subsidiaries were merged into the new parent, making it the second-largest telecommunications carrier in Canada.", "As such, GTE's successor, Verizon Communications, was the only foreign telecommunications company with a greater than 20% interest in a Canadian carrier, until Verizon completely divested itself of its shares in 2004.In the Caribbean, CONTEL purchased several major stakes in the newly independent countries of the British West Indies (namely in Barbados, Jamaica, and Trinidad and Tobago).Prior to GTE's merger with Bell Atlantic, GTE also maintained an interactive television service joint-venture called GTE mainStreet (sometimes also called mainStreet USA) as well as an interactive entertainment and video game publishing operation, GTE Interactive Media." ], [ "History", "===General Telephone===In 1934, General Telephone Corporation was established with John Winn as president.", "The following year, the company created General Telephone Directory Company as a division.", "During World War II, General Telephone helped install phone service for military facilities.", "From 1946 to 1950, General Telephone obtained over 100,000 telephone lines and bought out Leich Electric Company.General Telephone's holdings included 15 telephone companies across 20 states by 1951, when Donald C. Power was named president of the company under chairman and long-time GT executive Morris F. LaCroix, replacing the retiring Harold Bozell (president 1940 – 1951).", "Power proceeded to expand the company through the 1950s principally through two acquisitions.In 1955, Theodore Gary & Company became a part of General Telephone and allowed the company to hold over 2 million telephone lines after the company merge.", "It also had a subsidiary, named the General Telephone and Electric Corporation, formed in 1930 with the Transamerica Corporation and British investors to compete against ITT.In 1959, Sylvania Electric Products merged into General Telephone and was renamed to General Telephone & Electronics Corporation (GT&E).", "Power also obtained the purchases of multiple companies.", "such as Lenkurt Electric Company, Inc and Peninsular Telephone Company.", "In 1960, GT&E International Incorporated was created as a branch company.", "Power was named C.E.O.", "and chairman in 1961, making way for Leslie H. Warner, formerly of Theodore Gary, to become president.", "Simultaneously, GT&E went on to buy Community Antenna Television providers.In 1964, Western Utilities Corporation became part of GT&E.", "Additional purchases during the 1960s included Hawaiian Telephone Company and Northern Ohio Telephone Company.", "At the end of the decade, ten million GT&E phones were active.KarTrak Automated Car Identification system on a caboose in FloridaIn the late 1960s, GT&E joined in the search for a railroad car Automatic Car Identification system.", "It designed the KarTrak optical system, which won over other manufacturer's systems in field trials, but ultimately proved to need too much maintenance.", "In the late 1970s the system was abandoned.After a 1970 bomb attack to the company's headquarters in New York City, the company relocated to Stamford, Connecticut for their new headquarters.", "In 1971 GT&E undertook an identity change and became simply GTE, while Sylvania Electric Products became GTE Sylvania.", "The same year, Donald C. Power retired and Leslie H. Warner became chairman of the board.", "Theodore F. Brophy was brought in as president.In 1974, GTE worked with American Telephone & Telegraph in a project to create satellite stations.", "A few years later, the company's international branch was replaced by a GTE products company in 1976.Their products company remained until 1979.In 1979, GTE purchased Telenet to establish a presence in the growing packet switching data communications business.", "GTE Telenet was later included in the US Telecom joint venture.===1980s===In December 1983 Vanderslice stepped down as the company's president and chief operating officer.A manhole cover featuring the company logo in Hillsboro, OregonIn April 1988, after the retirement of Theodore F. Brophy, James L. \"Rocky\" Johnson was promoted from his position as president and chief operating officer to CEO of GTE; he was appointed chairman in 1991.Under Johnson’s leadership, GTE divested its 50% ownership of U.S. Sprint, the nation’s third largest long distance company.", "He also orchestrated the sale of Sylvania and the merger with Contel, creating the 2nd largest telephone company in the United States.", "In 1989, GTE reorganized into six operating groups, focusing on its core businesses of telephone operations, information services, and publishing of telephone directories.", "With previous job cuts and announced future job cuts, Johnson was able to return GTE to profitability.", "Other new services provided under his leadership were GTE Mobilenet cellular telephone operations, Airfone air-to-ground telephone services, and the first voice, video, and data services community in Cerritos, California to test home banking, at-home shopping, home security, and pay-per-view television in 16,000 homes and 2,000 businesses.===1990s===In April 1992, James L. \"Rocky\" Johnson retired after 43 years at GTE, remaining on the GTE board of directors as chairman Emeritus.", "Charles \"Chuck\" Lee was named to succeed Johnson.", "In 1994, Lee sold the company's satellite provider, Spacenet, to General Electric and Contel of Maine to Oxford Networks, which placed the company into a newly created subsidiary, Oxford West Telephone." ], [ "Merger with Bell Atlantic", "Original Verizon logo introduced at the time of the acquisitionBell Atlantic merged with GTE on June 30, 2000, and named the new entity Verizon Communications.", "The GTE operating companies retained by Verizon are now collectively known as '''Verizon West''' division of Verizon (including east coast service territories).", "The remaining smaller operating companies were sold off or transferred into the remaining ones.", "Additional properties were sold off within a few years after the merger to CenturyTel, Alltel, and Hawaiian Telcom.", "On July 1, 2010, Verizon sold many former GTE properties to Frontier Communications.", "Other GTE territories in California, Florida, and Texas were sold to Frontier in 2015 and transferred in 2016, thus ending Verizon's landline operations outside of the historic Bell Atlantic footprint.", "Verizon still operates phone service in non-Bell System areas in Pennsylvania under Verizon North, and in non-Bell System areas in Virginia and Knotts Island, North Carolina under Verizon South." ], [ "Operating companies", "Prior to the merger with Bell Atlantic, GTE owned the following operating companies in the US:*Contel of Minnesota, Inc.*Contel of the South, Inc. (Alabama, Indiana, Michigan)*GTE Alaska Incorporated*GTE Arkansas Incorporated*GTE California Incorporated (Arizona, California, Nevada)*GTE Florida Incorporated*GTE Hawaiian Telephone Company, Inc.*GTE Midwest Incorporated (Iowa, Missouri, Nebraska)*GTE North Incorporated (Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Wisconsin)*GTE Northwest Incorporated (Idaho, Oregon, Washington)*GTE South Incorporated (Illinois, Kentucky, North Carolina, South Carolina, Wisconsin)*GTE Southwest Incorporated (Arkansas, New Mexico, Oklahoma, Texas)*GTE West Coast Incorporated (California)Following the merger of GTE and Bell Atlantic, some of these companies and/or access lines have been sold off to other companies, such as Alltel, ATEAC, The Carlyle Group, CenturyTel, Citizens/Frontier Communications, and Valor Telecom." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* GTE.com (Archive)* ‘Birthplace of GTE’ historical marker in Richland Center, Wisconsin" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "General aviation" ], [ "Introduction", "General aviation aircraft at Cheb Airport in Czech Republic'''General aviation''' ('''GA''') is defined by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) as all civil aviation aircraft operations except for commercial air transport or aerial work, which is defined as specialized aviation services for other purposes.", "However, for statistical purposes, ICAO uses a definition of general aviation which includes aerial work.General aviation thus represents the \"private transport\" and recreational components of aviation." ], [ "Definition", "Cessna CitationJet/M2, part of the Citation family of business jetsSailplane, a Rolladen-Schneider LS4Robinson R22, a light piston-engine helicopterThe International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) defines civil aviation aircraft operations in three categories: General Aviation (GA), Aerial Work (AW) and Commercial Air Transport (CAT).", "Aerial work operations are separated from general aviation by ICAO by this definition.", "Aerial work is when an aircraft is used for specialized services such as agriculture, construction, photography, surveying, observation and patrol, search and rescue, and aerial advertisement.", "However, for statistical purposes ICAO includes aerial work within general aviation, and has proposed officially extending the definition of general aviation to include aerial work, to reflect common usage.", "The proposed ICAO classification includes instructional flying as part of general aviation (non-aerial-work).The International Council of Aircraft Owner and Pilot Associations (IAOPA) refers to the category as general aviation/aerial work (GA/AW) to avoid ambiguity.", "Their definition of general aviation includes:*Corporate aviation: company own-use flight operations*Fractional ownership operations: aircraft operated by a specialized company on behalf of two or more co-owners*Business aviation (or travel): self-flown for business purposes*Personal/private travel: travel for personal reasons/personal transport*Air tourism: self-flown incoming/outgoing tourism*Recreational flying: powered/powerless leisure flying activities*Air sports: aerobatics, air races, competitions, rallies, etc.General aviation thus includes both commercial and non-commercial activities.IAOPA's definition of aerial work includes, but is not limited to: *Agricultural flights, including crop dusting*Banner towing*Aerial firefighting*Medical evacuation*Pilot training*Search and rescue*Sight seeing flights*Skydiving flights*Organ transplant transport flightsCommercial air transport includes:*Scheduled air services*Non-scheduled air transport*Air cargo services*Air taxi operationsHowever, in some countries, air taxi is regarded as being part of GA/AW.Private flights are made in a wide variety of aircraft: light and ultra-light aircraft, sport aircraft, homebuilt aircraft, business aircraft (like private jets), gliders and helicopters.", "Flights can be carried out under both visual flight and instrument flight rules, and can use controlled airspace with permission.The majority of the world's air traffic falls into the category of general aviation, and most of the world's airports serve GA exclusively.", "Flying clubs are considered a part of general aviation." ], [ "Geography", "===Europe===In 2003, the European Aviation Safety Agency was established as the central EU regulator, taking over responsibility for legislating airworthiness and environmental regulation from the national authorities.====United Kingdom====Of the 21,000 civil aircraft registered in the United Kingdom, 96 percent are engaged in GA operations, and annually the GA fleet accounts for between 1.25 and 1.35 million hours flown.", "There are 28,000 private pilot licence holders, and 10,000 certified glider pilots.", "Some of the 19,000 pilots who hold professional licences are also engaged in GA activities.", "GA operates from more than 1,800 airports and landing sites or aerodromes, ranging in size from large regional airports to farm strips.GA is regulated by the Civil Aviation Authority.", "The main focus is on standards of airworthiness and pilot licensing, and the objective is to promote high standards of safety.===North America===General aviation is particularly popular in North America, with over 6,300 airports available for public use by pilots of general aviation aircraft (around 5,200 airports in the U.S. and over 1,000 in Canada).", "In comparison, scheduled flights operate from around 560 airports in the U.S.", "According to the U.S. Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association, general aviation provides more than one percent of the United States' GDP, accounting for 1.3 million jobs in professional services and manufacturing." ], [ "Regulation", "Most countries have a civil aviation authority that oversees all civil aviation, including general aviation, adhering to the standardized codes of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)." ], [ "Safety", "Aviation accident rate statistics are necessarily estimates.", "According to the U.S. National Transportation Safety Board, general aviation in the United States (excluding charter) suffered 1.31 fatal accidents for every 100,000 hours of flying in 2005, compared to 0.016 for scheduled airline flights.", "In Canada, recreational flying accounted for 0.7 fatal accidents for every 1000 aircraft, while air taxi accounted for 1.1 fatal accidents for every 100,000 hours.", "More experienced GA pilots appear generally safer, although the relationship between flight hours, accident frequency, and accident rates are complex and often difficult to assess.A small number of commercial aviation accidents in the United States have involved collisions with general aviation flights, notably TWA Flight 553, Piedmont Airlines Flight 22, Allegheny Airlines Flight 853, PSA Flight 182 and Aeroméxico Flight 498." ], [ "See also", "* Commercial aviation* Environmental impact of aviation* General Aviation Revitalization Act of 1994* List of current production certified light aircraft* List of very light jets* OpenAirplane (defunct web-based service)* ''One Six Right'' (2005 documentary)* Private aviation* Small Airplane Revitalization Act of 2013;Associations* Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association* Canadian Owners and Pilots Association* Experimental Aircraft Association* General Aviation Manufacturers Association* National Business Aviation Association" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* International Aircraft Owners and Pilots Associations* European General Aviation Safety Team (EGAST)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Grue" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Grue''' may refer to:" ], [ "People", "* A pen name used by cartoonist Johnny Gruelle* Grue (surname), notable people with the surname Grue" ], [ "Places", "* Grue, Norway, a municipality in Innlandet county* Isle-aux-Grues, an island in Quebec, Canada* Grues, Vendée, a commune in France* Grue (river), a river in north-west Italy" ], [ "In fiction", "* Grue (monster), a fictional predatory creature invented by American author Jack Vance and featured in the ''Zork'' series of interactive fiction computer games* Grue (Freedom City), an alien race in the role-playing game ''Mutants and Masterminds''* Grue/Brian Laborn, a supervillain in the web novel ''Worm''" ], [ "Other", "* ''Grue'' and ''bleen'', portmanteau words formed from ''green'' and ''blue'', coined by Nelson Goodman to illustrate his new riddle of induction* ''Grue'', a linguistic and translation concept (see Blue–green distinction in language)* Crane (bird), a bird from the Grue family* ''Grue'', an influential science fiction fanzine published by Dean Grennell* An early form of Nutraloaf, a food served in prison, known as \"grue\" to prisoners in the Arkansas penal system as described in the 1978 ''Hutto v. Finney'' decision" ], [ "See also", "* GRU (disambiguation)* Groo (disambiguation)* Grew* Grewe" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gracchi brothers" ], [ "Introduction", "Depiction of the two brothers made during the 19th century by Eugene Guillaume, today located at the Musée d'Orsay in Paris.", "The brothers lay their hands on a document titled \"property\", consistent with then-current interpretations of their lives.", "The '''Gracchi brothers''' were two brothers who lived during the beginning of the late Roman Republic: Tiberius Gracchus and Gaius Gracchus.", "They served in the plebeian tribunates of 133 BC and 122–121 BC, respectively.", "They have been received as well-born and eloquent advocates for social reform who were both killed by a reactionary political system; their terms in the tribunate precipitated a series of domestic crises which are viewed as unsettling the Roman Republic and contributing to its collapse.Tiberius Gracchus passed legislation which established a commission to survey Roman public land, reassert state claims to it, and redistribute it to poor rural farmers.", "These reforms were a reaction to a perceived decline in Italy's rural population.", "A decade later, Gaius Gracchus' reforms, among other things, attempted to buttress Tiberius' land commission and start Roman colonisation outside of Italy.", "They also were far more broad, touching on many topics such as assignment of provincial commands, composition of juries for the permanent courts, and letting of state tax farming contracts.", "Both brothers were killed during or shortly after the conclusion of their respective tribunician terms.More recent scholarship on the Roman economy has viewed the Gracchi agrarian reforms as less impactful than claimed in the ancient sources.", "It is also clear that the vast majority of their reformist legislation was left intact rather than repealed.", "Some modern scholars also connect the agrarian reforms to degrading Rome's relations with its Italian allies and the Social War, as the reforms were a reassertion of Roman claims on public land that had been for decades largely occupied without title by Rome's Italian allies.", "Gracchan claims of Italian rural depopulation also are contradicted by archaeological evidence.", "The impact of the violent reaction to the two brothers, however, is of substantial import: it set a dangerous precedent that violence was an acceptable tool against political enemies.The Gracchi exerted a substantial influence on later politics.", "They were viewed alternately as popular martyrs or dangerous demagogues through the late republic.", "They were also portrayed as social revolutionaries and proto-socialists during the French Revolution and afterwards; in that vein, they motivated social revolutionaries such as François-Noël \"Gracchus\" Babeuf and opposition to enclosure in Britain.", "Scholars today view these socialist comparisons as unapt." ], [ "Background", "It used to be standard view that through the second century BC, the number of free farmers in rural Italy suffered a precipitous decline.", "This traditional view, transmitted from the ancient sources, \"has been much overstated\"; the narrative connecting military service to the decline of the yeomanry, moreover, \"has to be rejected\".", "The main driver for this reevaluation is archaeological evidence of Italian settlement patterns from the 1980s onwards: \"impressive methodological advances that have been achieved in survey archaeology have ... done much to undermine the credibility of earlier claims concerning the spread of slave-staffed estates and the survival or otherwise of subsistence-oriented smallholders\".=== Rural conditions, 159–33 BC ===Through the second century, there is documented some difficulty in raising men and some resistance against levies.", "This starts in the Third Macedonian War and continues through Roman campaigns in Spain from 151 BC.", "Roman censuses – which were conducted largely to tally men for conscription – starting in 159 BC also began to note a reduction in the free population of Italy, falling from 328,316 in 159–58 BC down to a low of 317,933 in the census of 136–35 BC.", "Politicians reacted to these constraints by securing volunteers for service; the reforms of the Gracchi were related to solving this problem and also minimising the impacts of conscription.However, state difficulties in raising men for war did not mean that there were actual quantitative reductions in the populations of rural Italy.", "While the census ''reported'' a reduction in the republic's citizen population through the 130s BC, these population reductions were not at the time connected to unwillingness to serve in Rome's unpopular campaigns in Spain.", "Because the easiest way to dodge the draft was to avoid registration by the censors, no ''actual'' decline in population is necessary to explain censorial reports thereto.", "The later results of the censuses of 125–24 BC and 115–14 BC, indicate large increases which are incompatible with any actual decline in Italian rural populations.Archaeological evidence of small farms attested all over Italy in the second century and the general need for free labour during harvest time has led scholars to conclude that \"there are no good grounds for inferring a general decline of the small independent farmer in the second century\".", "The Gracchan narrative of rural population decline through 133 BC – \"long since... shown to be false\" – likely emerged not from a general and actual decline in rural free-holding, but rather, generalisation from a local decline in coastal Etruria where commercial slave plantations were dominant.", "And while Gracchan observations of rural poverty were likely true; this, however, was not a result of slave-dominated plantations crowding out poor farmers, but overpopulation under Malthusian conditions.In rural areas closer to Rome, expanding population and partible inheritance led to the splitting of previously modest farms into plots too small to support families.", "Many of these small farms were not economically viable.", "Coupled with the high price of land near Rome, many of these farmers sold their lands to rich men and engaged instead in wage labour.", "\"There is ample evidence to show that the temporary labour of free men was very important to large estates\" especially around harvest-time.", "In the years before 133 BC, a pause in construction of large public monuments also reduced demand for urban labour, triggering a prolonged period of poor labour market conditions.", "This general economic downturn was likely compounded by years of high food prices due to the ongoing slave revolt in Sicily, an island from which substantial amounts of grain were shipped to Rome.=== Public land ===Social War, some thirty years after the death of Gaius Gracchus.", "The anachronism notwithstanding, the was largely intermingled with allied lands and required substantial surveying work to disentangle.", "Through the conquests of Italy in the fourth and third centuries BC, the Roman state had acquired legal rights to large amounts of land ceded by the subjugated Italian allies.", "Their former lands, the ''ager publicus'', were not heavily exploited by the Roman state.", "Rather, the land \"had been regarded as a sort of to the allies, who had been allowed to continue to work the land which had been confiscated from them\".", "Through Roman conquests, the Italians who were allied to Rome were ''de facto'' confirmed in their lands and also gained substantially from the influx of booty and wealth from Roman conquest.The traditional narratives in the ancient sources which described the emergence of commercial (enormous slave-staffed plantations owned by the elite) on the public land itself is also largely unattested to by the archaeological evidence in this period.", "Moreover, evidence indicates that the was largely located outside of the traditional farmlands close to Rome and instead located in non-Roman Italy closer to the Italian allies.", "Public land redistribution was therefore necessarily at the expense of the allies, who would be evicted from ancestral lands still occupied.=== Early life of the Gracchi ===Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus was born 163 BC.", "His younger brother Gaius was born 154 BC.", "They were the sons of the Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus who had been consul 177 and 163 BC as well as censor in 169 BC.", "He had triumphed twice in 178 and 175 BC.", "Their mother was Cornelia, the daughter of the renowned general Scipio Africanus, the hero of the Second Punic War.", "Their sister Sempronia also was the wife of Scipio Aemilianus, another important general and politician.", "Later Roman historians painted Cornelia as an \"archetypical Roman matron\", \"heavily idealised and inevitably quite distance from the historical Cornelia\", which may be a product of her son Gaius' own political presentation.Tiberius' military career started in 147 BC, serving as a legate or military tribune under his brother-in-law, Scipio Aemilianus during his campaign to take Carthage during the Third Punic War.", "Tiberius, along with Gaius Fannius, was among the first to scale Carthage's walls, serving through to the next year.", "A decade later, in 137 BC, he was quaestor under the consul Gaius Hostilius Mancinus in Hispania Citerior.", "The campaign was part of the Numantine War and was unsuccessful; Mancinus and his army lost several skirmishes outside the city before a confused night-time retreat that led them to the site of a camp from a former consular campaign in 153 BC where they were surrounded.", "Tiberius negotiated a treaty of surrender, aided in part by his father's positive reputation built during a praetorship in 179–78 BC; Tiberius' treaty, however, was later humiliatingly rejected by the senate after his return to Rome." ], [ "Reforms", "Various reforms had been attempted in the years prior to 133 BC.", "One of the ones that was successful was the establishment of a secret ballot in 139 BC by the tribune Aulus Gabinius.", "The circumstances of the reform are no longer known: it was probably presented as an expansion of public liberty and a check against corruption (no longer would those who bribed be able to ensure that recipients voted as instructed).", "Legislation extending the secret ballot was passed in 137, the , extending the secret ballot to capital cases after Scipio Aemilianus convinced an opposing tribune to heed the people and withdraw his veto.The introduction of secret ballot was probably one of the necessary conditions for the later Gracchan programme since it insulated the popular assemblies from elite control.", "For this reason, the historian Harriet Flower, in the 2010 book ''Roman republics'', demarcates a political watershed and new phase of the Roman republic at 139 BC.", "Shortly before Gabinius' law, in 140 BC, agrarian reforms were proposed by the consul Gaius Laelius Sapiens; but he withdrew his proposals after an invasion (he was assigned as consul to lead the response) and the opposition of the senate, earning him the cognomen .The ancient historians, especially Plutarch, viewed the Gracchan reforms and brothers as a single unit.", "Modern scholars have started to view them separately and in their own political contexts.=== Tiberius ===Views on Gracchus' motives differ.", "Favourable ancient sources attribute his reforms to spirited advocacy for the poor.", "Less favourable ancient sources, such as Cicero, instead attribute his actions to an attempt to win back and standing after the embarrassing treaty he was forced to negotiate after defeat in Spain.", "It cannot be doubted that, even if he was a true believer in the need for reform, Tiberius hoped to further his fame and political standing among the elite.==== Agrarian reforms ====Map of Gracchan land distributions.", "In red, distributions are attested to by archaeological finds of the boundary stones ().", "In yellow, are very likely.Lucius Minucius Augurinus.", "It shows that grain distribution was already a hot topic several years before Tiberius' tribunate.", "He or his brother Tiberius probably replaced Octavius as tribune in 133.The main goal of Tiberius' agrarian proposal was three-fold:* establish a commission to investigate, survey, and catalogue the land owned by the state,* limit the amount of public land any one possessor could hold to about 500 , possibly up to 1,000 for those with two children, and* privatise all remaining land by distributing it to poor Roman citizens (Italians were excluded).The purpose of the reform was to stimulate population growth and expand the number of people who would meet the property qualifications for service in the Roman army.", "The inclusion of the limit of 500 was for the purpose of painting the law as a return to and the Sextian-Licinian rogations so to avoid any charges of novelty.", "Whether the Sextian-Licinian rogations in fact had such a clause is unclear; what mattered to Tiberius and his allies was that they believed it did.Land distributed was likely done so with a prohibition on alienation and a (rent).", "Alienation was prohibited to prevent recipients from simply reselling the land.", "The served to allow the land to revert to the state if a citizen walked away from the allotment; reversion would then allow the state to settle someone else on the land.", "The (old possessors) also would receive security of tenure over their lands, up to the 500 or 1,000 limit.Tiberius was supported in his endeavour by likeminded aristocrats who also viewed the perceived problem of rural depopulation seriously – among those in support of the proposal were the consul of 133 BC, Publius Mucius Scaevola, and Scaevola's brother, Publius Licinius Crassus Dives Mucianus, – he may have been put up to pass the proposals by those allied statesmen.", "He was also successful in rallying large numbers of rural plebs to Rome to vote in favour of the plan.", "The proposals were likely not appealing to the urban plebs, who would not have had the agricultural skills necessary to capitalise on the programme.He was opposed in the assembly by one of the other tribunes, Marcus Octavius.", "There were largely three grounds for opposition: first, the dispossession would harm the ruling classes of both Rome and the Italian allies; second, the law unfairly dispossessed people who had put money into the improvement of the land; third, that dispossession also would unsettle dowries pledged against the land and inheritances made under the assumption tenure was secure.", "When the vote arrived and Octavius interposed his tribunician veto, the matter was brought before the senate, but no settlement was reached.", "Unwilling to back down, Tiberius – unprecedentedly – had the assembly depose Octavius from office and vote the legislation through.==== Death ====Violent opposition to Tiberius' agrarian policy did not come to a head until he moved legislation to use the inheritance of Attalus III of Pergamon for the land commission.", "The ancient sources differ on the question of what Attalus' bequest was to be dedicated: Plutarch claims it was to be used to help land recipients purchase farm equipment; Livy, via epitome, claims that it was to be used to purchase more land for distribution after there turned out to be little land available.This second proposal infringed on senatorial prerogatives over foreign policy and public finances.", "Senators also feared that these financial handouts would give Tiberius substantial personal political power.", "Tiberius then announced his intention to stand for re-election; according to Livy, this was illegal, due to a law which forbade holding the same magistracy within ten years.", "The sources allege that Tiberius also announced plans for a significantly more broad set of reforms, but these may be retrojections of his brother Gaius' later-consummated proposals.", "On the day of the election, Tiberius seized the Capitoline hill, possibly to intimidate the voters; Tiberius' opponents accused him of having kingly aspirations and attempted to induce the consul in the senate to use force to stop his re-election.", "The consul refused to act extralegally, but one of the other senators, Publius Cornelius Scipio Nasica Serapio, found this reply unacceptable and led an impromptu military levy of senators, which included one of Tiberius' colleagues in the plebeian tribunate; with Nasica, who was ''pontifex maximus'', reenacting an archaic sacrificial ritual, they then stormed the Capitoline and bludgeoned Tiberius and a number of his supporters to death.It was largely constitutional issues which impelled the violent reaction, not the agrarian laws.", "The reaction was motivated in part by Greek constitutional thought which created a narrative of popular mobilisation leading inexorably to popular tyranny.", "Such beliefs were compounded by the recent example of tyranny in Sparta, led by Nabis, which had come to power with a reform programme of cancelling debts and redistributing lands.==== Effects ====Tiberius' and the commission survived his death.", "Opposition was to Tiberius' methods rather than his policies; it is likely that most senators agreed with the reform programme in principle.", "Archaeologists have recovered the commission's boundary stones (), which largely name the three commissioners from 133–30 BC.", "The boundary locations and descriptions imply the distribution over just a few years of some 3,268 square kilometres of land to Roman citizens, concentrated in southern Italy and benefitting some 15,000 households.The largely name Tiberius' younger brother Gaius, Appius Claudius Pulcher, and Publius Licinius Crassus.", "Tiberius appointed himself to the commission, but after his death, Crassus was elected in his place.", "After the natural deaths of Appius Claudius and Crassus by 130 BC, Marcus Fulvius Flaccus and Gaius Papirius Carbo were elected in their place.Because one of the commission's goals was in reasserting Roman claims to land which by that time had long been occupied by the Italian allies, the allies started to complain of unfairness and inaccurate rushed surveying.", "In 129, those complaints were heard by the senate, who also took the opportunity to limit the agrarian commission's powers.", "Scipio Aemilianus proposed and received from the senate a decree which assigned the power to determine contested ownership to the consuls.", "By 129 BC, the commission had over some three years already distributed all the available uncontested land.", "Archaeological finds of Gracchan largely stop after 129 BC.=== Gaius ===Discontent among the Italian allies had grown between Tiberius' land commission and the later 120s BC.", "One of the land commissioners elected in the early 120s BC, Marcus Fulvius Flaccus had served as consul in 125 BC and – according to Appian – proposed a compromise giving the allies Roman citizenship in exchange for acquiescence to Roman reassertion of claims to the .", "This proposal, however, fell through when Flaccus was dispatched to war in Transalpine Gaul; relations with the allies were also not helped by the revolt and destruction of the Latin colony of Fregellae when Flaccus' proposals were withdrawn.Gaius positioned himself politically as the inheritor of Tiberius' popularity and political programme.", "After a quaestorship, he was elected fourth in the tribunician elections of 124 BC; after his election, he cast his brother's death as \"a failure by the plebeians to maintain their tradition of defending their tribunes\".", "Unlike his brother, Gaius' proposals largely did not relate to land.", "Over two years, he proposed broad legislation touching all parts of Roman government, from tax collection to senatorial provincial assignments.==== Reforms ====modius on the obverse and the corn-ears on the reverse refer to his ancestor Manius Marcius, plebeian aedile , who made a distribution of grain at a cheap price of 1 as per modius.", "During his first tribunate, he proposed a number of laws.", "First, he proposed legislation to bar anyone who the people had deposed from office from further office.", "This was, however, dropped at the instigation of his mother Cornelia.", "The proposal was likely meant to intimidate the other tribunes so they would not exercise their vetoes.", "He then passed legislation reaffirming ''provocatio'' rights and retroactively extending them to the sentences of exile which the consular commission in 132 BC had passed against Tiberius' supporters.", "Publius Popillius Laenas, the consul who had led the commission and was thereby opened to prosecution for violating those rights, immediately left the city for exile in Campania.Gaius also moved legislation which would benefit the rich equestrians, especially those who served as Rome's public contractors (the ''publicani''):* Gaius changed the bidding location of public tax farming contracts from the provinces to Rome, which increased oversight and favoured high-ranking equites in the capital rather than provincial elites.", "* He also passed legislation to build roads, which he would oversee, with contracts let out to the equestrians.", "* He also made the dominant body for juries for the permanent court on corruption.", "After, however, the acquittal of a corrupt consul that year, Gaius, with the support of an allied tribune, made the the sole class staffing the juries.Gaius also recognised the weakness of Tiberius' coalition, which relied only on the rural plebs, and therefore sought to expand it.", "To do so, he courted the urban plebs with legislation establishing Roman colonies both in Italy and abroad at Carthage.", "He also carried legislation to stop deduction of soldier pay for equipment and to establish a minimum age for conscription at 17.In this package, Gaius also introduced the grain subsidy which allowed all citizens to purchase grain at a subsidised price of six and two-thirds sesterces per .Further legislation also regulated the magistrates and the senate.", "Even though the ancient sources generally cast these reforms as part of \"an elaborate plot against the authority of the senate... he showed no sign of wanting to replace the senate in its normal functions\".", "Nor were his reforms meant to undermine the senate indirectly or establish a democracy.", "Rather, Gaius was seeking to have the senators act more in the public interest rather than in their own private interests.", "To that end, with an ally in the tribunate, Manlius Acilius Glabrio, he also moved legislation reforming the provincial corruption laws.", "Also importantly, he passed the , which required the senate to assign consular provinces prior to the elections of the consuls and insulated this decision from tribunician veto.Some ancient sources claim that Gaius wanted to change voting procedures in the timocratic to make it more democratic.", "However, this claim is dubious and largely rejected.Gaius made an extremely controversial proposal to improve the state of the Latins and the other Italian allies: the Latins would receive full Roman citizenship with the Italians upgraded to Latin rights.", "Doing so further extended to Italians, via Latin rights, the right to vote if present in Rome during elections.", "This proposal died: the specifics are not entirely clear, it may have been vetoed or otherwise simply withdrawn; recent scholarship now trends towards a veto from Livius Drusus.", "Gaius, after taking some leave to set up a colony near Carthage, attempted to stand for a third tribunate, but was unsuccessful.", "It is said that he had sufficient popular support to have been elected, but was not returned because the ten tribunician offices had already been filled.==== Death ====Early in the year 121 BC, attempts were made to repeal portions of Gaius' legislation.", "The main point of repeal, however, was not agrarian legislation or his subsidised grain bill, but the comparatively minor question of the proposed colony at Carthage.", "After an attendant was killed in the streets by Gaius' supporters, Gaius and his ally Flaccus were summoned to defend themselves before the senate; they refused and barricaded themselves with armed followers on the Aventine hill.", "Their refusal was tantamount to rebellion.", "A ''senatus consultum ultimum'' was then moved, instructing the consul Lucius Opimius to ensure the state came to no harm and urging him to suppress Gaius and Flaccus on the Aventine.", "With a force of militia and Cretan archers, Opimius stormed the Aventine, killing Flaccus and his sons; Gaius was either killed or forced to commit suicide.", "Opimius then presided over drumhead courts investigating and executing many of Gaius and Flaccus' supporters.In the end, most of Gaius' reforms were preserved; archaeology has discovered evidence of Gracchan land colonial activities in Africa and the land commission remained in operation until 111 BC.", "By that point, almost all land available to distribute had already been distributed.", "In the whole, \"the aristocracy's reaction resembled that of a general dealing with a mutiny, who accedes to most of the demands but executes the ringleaders to preserve discipline\"." ], [ "Aftermath", "=== Gracchan ===Tiberius' reforms were focused on the rural peasantry.", "They were not, however, \"so much oppressed as eager (quite justifiably) to share in the increased economic prosperity brought by Roman imperialism\".", "In general, more recent scholarship has stressed that the ancient sources have exaggerated the extent to which the Roman yeoman farmers were in fact in decline.", "Tiberius' reform law was not revolutionary, but his tactics in pursuit of it were, especially when they mobilised the assemblies which gave some genuine expression of the popular will.", "Those tactics threatened \"to break the oligarchic stranglehold on Rome's political system, thus leading to his demise\".", "This was exacerbated by Tiberius' use of social justice rhetoric, which further set him aside from his aristocratic brethren.While substantial acreage was distributed as a whole, more than 3,268 square kilometres in the first few years of operation, there is some debate to the extent to which the Gracchan land allotments were actually economically viable for the families placed atop them.", "However, there are some indications that the lands distributed were used for pasture rather than intensive agriculture, even if they were suitable for farming.Gaius' role in land reform is more obscure; the sources are largely unclear on it except in mentioning offhandedly that he brought legislation on the matter.", "By the time of his tribunate, the census results of 125–24 BC had been published and belief in a depopulation crisis had disappeared.", "His agrarian reforms likely did little more than grant the agrarian commission – of which he was still a member – the necessary jurisdiction stripped in 129 BC.", "He was, however, sufficiently visionary to see that further land exactions from Rome's allies would seriously damage their interests (and be politically infeasible).", "This led him, \"one of the first to realise that the amount of land in Italy was insufficient to provide for all inhabitants of the peninsula\", to pursue extra-Italian colonisation.", "This change in scope proved long-lasting and by the time of Caesar, it would be standard policy to establish citizen colonies outside the Italian peninsula, which \"would in time prove the only adequate method of finding enough land\" for Italy's growing populations.The Gracchan continued in operation through their deaths until 111 BC, which again overhauled Roman policy with public lands.", "Much of this law survives to the present.", "Building upon those laws, it abolished the rents that Tiberius' law passed, making the lands fully private and alienable.", "By 111 BC, most of the lands that could be distributed already had been; what was left over was \"mostly pasture or land which had been assigned to specific people\" through long-term leases or set aside for the purpose of providing money for road maintenance.", "The continuing increase of the Italian population, however, would trigger later proposals for land redistribution; especially notable is Caesar's during his consulship in 59 BC, which gave away the to some 20,000 settlers, albeit on less generous terms.", "After this, it became increasingly clear that there was simply insufficient land in Italy to accommodate demand.Reassessments of the causes of the Social War have also trended toward viewing the as a major contributing factor.", "Land holdings in Roman-dominated Italy gave the Roman state a latent title to large swaths of land which had never been formally surveyed.", "While the Gracchan land commission quickly parcelled and redistributed lands in southern Italy that had been confiscated from the allies that had defected to Hannibal during the Second Punic War, the older lands had been occupied for centuries.", "Attempts, through to the start of the Social War, to press Roman claims on those lands – which \"the allies assumed that they would be able to keep... as long as they did not rebel\" – may have greatly undermined allied support for Roman hegemony.=== Gaius' urban and administrative reforms ===Gaius' reforms were broad and covered large portions of the republic's administration.", "Their main purpose was to advance the quality of Roman government, reducing extortion and corruption among the senatorial governors while acting within the bounds of what his contemporaries would have considered due process.One of the elements best attested to is Gaius' , which reformed the on provincial corruption with an equestrian jury to check senatorial governors.", "The law is preserved on a bronze tablet once owned by Cardinal Pietro Bembo.", "While, in the long run, the equestrian jury would prove a political issue for the next half century, these reforms were not meant to set the senate and equites into conflict.", "Nor were they some kind of programme at true popular oversight, as moving the jury from the senators to the equites \"merely reallocated influence from one section of the elite to another\".", "Ernst Badian, writing in the ''Oxford Classical Dictionary'', gave the assessment:His , which created a subsidised grain supply at around what he considered to be a \"normal\" price, set up an influential model for welfare in Rome.", "It was a reaction to corn disruptions in recent times that likely developed from army service, but his idea to have the Roman state smooth much of the variability of agriculture put the population less at the mercy of speculators and less dependent on magisterial largesse.", "The lowered incentives for magistrates giving food away for popularity at home had the added effect of reducing their proclivity to extort corn from provincials.", "These provisions continued in force after the death of Gaius, suggesting an emerging consensus at Rome that there was a \"right of the people to enjoy the rewards of the empire and that were useful to divert the interest and support of the urban plebs from the prospect of agrarian reform\".", "After a period of abrogation by Sulla, the dole in the future would expand, however, both in cost and generosity, as later generations of politicians acted with or without senatorial support to do so.Gaius' was a similar policy to reduce senatorial corruption and was \"far from being revolutionary\": his purpose with the law \"was to prevent sitting consuls from using their position to influence provincial assignments improperly (and perhaps to Rome’s detriment)\" by requiring provinces to be assigned before the consuls took office.", "To further insulate such decisions from political meddling, he even made senatorial decisions on consular provinces immune from tribunician veto.=== Political violence ===The impact of Tiberius' murder started a cycle of increased political violence: \"the oligarchy had introduced violence into the political system with the murder of Tiberius Gracchus and over the years the use of violence became increasingly acceptable as various political disputes in Rome led to more and more bloody discord\".", "The use of force to suppress reform also suggested that the republic itself was temperamentally unsuited for producing the types of economic reforms wanted or needed, as in the Gracchi's framing, by the people.In terms of periodisation, the death of Tiberius Gracchus in 133 BC is widely viewed as the start of the \"late republic\" and the beginning of the republic's eventual collapse.", "For example, in ''The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic'', Jürgen von Ungern-Sternberg writes:Even in ancient times, Cicero remarked as much in saying \"the death of Tiberius Gracchus, and even before that the whole rationale behind his tribunate, divided a united people into two distinct groups\".", "However, scholars such as Mary Beard also warn that Cicero is exaggerating for rhetorical effect and that \"the idea there had been a calm consensus at Rome between rich and poor until 133 BC is at best a nostalgic fiction\".The death of Gaius as well inaugurated a new tool for the senate in upholding the current order by force: the so-called .", "Opimius was prosecuted in 120 BC for violating Gaius' law against extralegal punishment.", "The ex-consul, however, was able to successfully defend himself by appealing to the senate's decree and by arguing that Gaius and Flaccus deserved to be treated as seditious enemies rather than citizens.", "Opimius' acquittal set the precedent that the – which was merely advice from the senate: \"the senate could pass any decree it liked, it was the magistrate who was responsible for any illegal actions\" – was an acceptable ground to vitiate citizen rights extralegally." ], [ "Reception and historiography", "A 1794 engraving of the French agitator and revolutionary, François-Noël \"Gracchus\" Babeuf.", "Babeuf also wrote a newspaper called (''Tribune of the People'').", "Babeuf was executed in 1797 for attempting to overthrow the French Directory.", "Views of the Gracchi have changed over time.", "In the ancient world, the two brothers were largely viewed as an organised force acting in concert.", "During the early modern period, the Gracchan land programme was widely misconstrued as a socialistic restructuring of Roman society where public and private land ownership would be capped.", "Modern historians, however, largely view the two brothers' political activities as separate and dismiss their identification as social revolutionaries.=== Ancient reception ===There was a positive and a negative tradition related to the Gracchi brothers.", "Many of the ancient sources are late – there is a lack of contemporary sources – and are coloured by the positive tradition: many scholars believe that Plutarch's biographies of the two men, along with Appian's ''Civil wars'', are largely based on Gaius Gracchus and his supporters' narratives; in this, most of what is known of Tiberius is filtered through his brother's self-presentation.", "Plutarch's narrative, guided by his literary agenda, \"drastically simplifies the complex history of this period\".", "On the whole, Appian's narrative is more reliable, but is still marred with significant anachronisms, clear inaccuracies, and schematic features – that the agrarian reform eventually fails and that Tiberius and Gaius pursued the same objectives – which emerge from Appian's historiographical agenda.Some modern scholars speculate that these Gracchan narratives were transmitted through the centuries to the imperial authors by plays which dramatised the tragedy of their deaths.", "Two major themes stand out.", "First, the specifics of Gaius' death are \"a dog's breakfast\" of varying details and involve a Lucius Vitellius, which was a common name during the republic for traitors (according to legend, the Vitellii were the first to betray the republic to the Tarquins shortly after the expulsion of the kings).", "Second, the stress on friendship and betrayal in these last hours is seen as replacing a more anodyne political drama for heightened pathos.", "Other scholars, however, disagree, arguing that the hypothesis of lost tragedies is too speculative and instead credit Plutarch or his sources with the dramatisation of the narrative.", "Regardless, in later generations, the death of the Gracchi became a common rhetorical ''topos'' in Roman oratorical schools.The negative tradition, however, is transmitted through other sources, such as Cicero and Valerius Maximus.", "In these narratives, the Gracchi are painted as seditious tribunes who inaugurated the use of force and intimidation which then required the Roman state to use violence to re-establish order.", "The confluence of these traditions was common in late republican politics.", "For example, Cicero modulated his opinions on the Gracchi brothers to meet his audience.", "Before the senate, he spoke of them negatively and focused on their alleged attempts to take over the republic; before the people, he instead praised their good faith, moral virtues, and quality as orators (especially in comparison to the tribunes of his day).=== Modern reception ===By the 17th and 18th centuries, many books on ancient history repeated a false notion that Rome had limited all men to only 500 of land.", "The incorrect understanding emerged in 1734 with the publication of Montesquieu's ''Considerations on the causes of the greatness of the Romans and their decline'', which furthered this mistaken notion of large scale land reform rather than redistribution of state-owned lots.", "This led to the characterisation of the Gracchi as \"socialists\".", "Through the later 18th century, the waters became further muddied, until the matter was largely re-cleared by Barthold Georg Niebuhr in his ''History of Rome''.During the French Revolution, the revolutionary François-Noël Babeuf named himself \"Gracchus\" after the Gracchi brothers, in an attempt to connect his desire for large scale land redistribution with the Gracchan programme for agrarian reform.", "Babeuf's plans, however, differed substantially from the Gracchan programme in ways that exemplify how the reception of the Gracchi had deviated from their actual historical policies.", "First, Babeuf envisioned the nationalisation and communal ownership of lands, which was incompatible with the Gracchan programme of privatising already state-owned lands.", "Second, Babeuf's choice of name was made under the prevailing assumption at the time that the Gracchi acted to place a limit on ''private'' land holdings.", "Finally, Babeuf's name demonstrated his belief that a comparison was apt, consistent with contemporary beliefs that the Gracchi were revolutionaries.", "However, \"the truth of the matter was otherwise: the Gracchi sought to strengthen and uphold the Roman republic; Babeuf wished to overthrow and radicalise the French republic\".During the 19th century, the use of the Gracchi in then-current politics continued.", "The process of enclosure in England, for example, led to the formation of a large body of poor urban workers; many of their leaders were likened to the Gracchi and proposed reforms were compared with reference to the Roman land crisis as described in the ancient sources.Some 19th and early 20th century scholarship argued that the Gracchi were to some extent influenced by Greek political philosophy, especially in the extent to which Greek democratic principles could be applied at Rome.", "These influences are largely attributed to Tiberius' interactions with Stoic egalitarian philosophy through Blossius of Cumae.", "This is no longer believed, however, as there is little evidence for Tiberius being a Stoic or for Stoicism justfying democratic policies." ], [ "See also", "* Land reform in the Roman republic" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Sources ======= Books ====* * * * * ** ** ** * * ** ** ** * * * * * ** ** * * ** Positively reviewed in * ** ** * ==== Articles ====* * * * * * * Pages not consistently numbered.", "* *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * ** ** ." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gossip" ], [ "Introduction", "''One winds on the distaff what the other spins'' (Both spread gossip) by Pieter Bruegel the Elder'''Gossip''' is idle talk or rumor, especially about the personal or private affairs of others; the act is also known as '''dishing''' or '''tattling'''." ], [ "Etymology", "The word is from Old English ''godsibb'', from ''god'' and ''sibb'', the term for the godparents of one's child or the parents of one's godchild, generally very close friends.", "In the 16th century, the word assumed the meaning of a person, mostly a woman, one who delights in idle talk, a newsmonger, a tattler.", "In the early 19th century, the term was extended from the talker to the conversation of such persons.", "The verb ''to gossip'', meaning \"to be a gossip\", first appears in Shakespeare.The term originates from the bedroom at the time of childbirth.", "Giving birth used to be a social event exclusively attended by women.", "The pregnant woman's female relatives and neighbours would congregate and idly converse.", "Over time, gossip came to mean talk of others." ], [ "Functions", "war poster conveys the message: \"Don't chatter!", "Gossiping borders on treason\" (1941).Gossip can:* reinforceor punish the lack ofmorality and accountability* reveal passive aggression, isolating and harming others* build and maintain a sense of community with shared interests, information, and values* begin a courtship that helps one find their desired mate, by counseling others* provide a peer-to-peer mechanism for disseminating information" ], [ "Workplace gossip", "Mary Gormandy White, a human resource expert, gives the following \"signs\" for identifying workplace gossip:* Animated people become silent (\"Conversations stop when you enter the room\")* People begin staring at someone* Workers indulge in inappropriate topics of conversation.", "White suggests \"five tips ... to handle the situation with aplomb:# Rise above the gossip# Understand what causes or fuels the gossip# Do not participate in workplace gossip.# Allow for the gossip to go away on its own# If it persists, \"gather facts and seek help.", "\"Peter Vajda identifies gossip as a form of workplace violence, noting that it is \"essentially a form of attack.\"", "Gossip is thought by many to \"empower one person while disempowering another\" (Hafen).", "Accordingly, many companies have formal policies in their employee handbooks against gossip.", "Sometimes there is room for disagreement on exactly what constitutes unacceptable gossip, since workplace gossip may take the form of offhand remarks about someone's tendencies such as \"He always takes a long lunch,\" or \"Don't worry, that's just how she is.", "\"TLK Healthcare cites as examples of gossip, \"tattletaling to the boss without intention of furthering a solution or speaking to co-workers about something someone else has done to upset us.\"", "Corporate email can be a particularly dangerous method of gossip delivery, as the medium is semi-permanent and messages are easily forwarded to unintended recipients; accordingly, a Mass High Tech article advised employers to instruct employees against using company email networks for gossip.", "Low self-esteem and a desire to \"fit in\" are frequently cited as motivations for workplace gossip.There are five essential functions that gossip has in the workplace (according to DiFonzo & Bordia):* Helps individuals learn social information about other individuals in the organization (often without even having to meet the other individual)* Builds social networks of individuals by bonding co-workers together and affiliating people with each other.", "* Breaks existing bonds by ostracizing individuals within an organization.", "* enhances one's social status/power/prestige within the organization.", "* Inform individuals as to what is considered socially acceptable behavior within the organization.According to Kurkland and Pelled, workplace gossip can be very serious depending upon the amount of power that the gossiper has over the recipient, which will in turn affect how the gossip is interpreted.", "There are four types of power that are influenced by gossip:* '''Coercive:''' when a gossiper tells negative information about a person, their recipient might believe that the gossiper will also spread negative information about them.", "This causes the gossiper's coercive power to increase.", "* '''Reward:''' when a gossiper tells positive information about a person, their recipient might believe that the gossiper will also spread positive information about them.", "This causes the gossiper's reward power to increase.", "* '''Expert:''' when a gossiper seems to have very detailed knowledge of either the organization's values or about others in the work environment, their expert power becomes enhanced.", "* '''Referent:''' this power can either be reduced OR enhanced to a point.", "When people view gossiping as a petty activity done to waste time, a gossiper's referent power can decrease along with their reputation.", "When a recipient is thought of as being invited into a social circle by being a recipient, the gossiper's referent power can increase, but only to a high point where then the recipient begins to resent the gossiper (Kurland & Pelled).=== Negative consequences of the gossip ===Some serious negative consequences of gossip may include:* Lost productivity and time wasting* Erosion of trust and morale between members of the working community* Increased anxiety among employees as rumors circulate without any clear information as to what is fact and what is not* Growing divisiveness among employees as people \"take sides\", risks of \"infighting\" that may further deteriorate unity* Hurt feelings and reputations* Jeopardized chances for the gossipers' advancement as they are perceived as unprofessional, and* Attrition: good employees tend leave the company due to the unhealthy work atmosphere and lack of trustTurner and Weed theorize that among the three main types of responders to workplace conflict are attackers who cannot keep their feelings to themselves and express their feelings by attacking whatever they can.", "Attackers are further divided into up-front attackers and behind-the-back attackers.", "Turner and Weed note that the latter \"are difficult to handle because the target person is not sure of the source of any criticism, nor even always sure that there is criticism.", "\"It is possible however, that there may be illegal, unethical, or disobedient behavior happening at the workplace and this may be a case where reporting the behavior may be viewed as gossip.", "It is then left up to the authority in charge to fully investigate the matter and not simply look past the report and assume it to be workplace gossip.Informal networks through which communication occurs in an organization are sometimes called the ''grapevine''.", "In a study done by Harcourt, Richerson, and Wattier, it was found that middle managers in several different organizations believed that gathering information from the grapevine was a much better way of learning information than through formal communication with their subordinates (Harcourt, Richerson & Wattier)." ], [ "Various views", "Some see gossip as trivial, hurtful and socially and/or intellectually unproductive.", "Some people view gossip as a lighthearted way of spreading information.", "A feminist definition of gossip presents it as \"a way of talking between women, intimate in style, personal and domestic in scope and setting, a female cultural event which springs from and perpetuates the restrictions of the female role, but also gives the comfort of validation.\"", "(Jones, 1990:243)===In early modern England===In early modern England, the word \"gossip\" referred to companions in childbirth, not limited to the midwife.", "It also became a term for women-friends generally, with no necessary derogatory connotations.", "(OED n. definition 2.a.", "\"A familiar acquaintance, friend, chum\", supported by references from 1361 to 1873).", "It commonly referred to an informal local sorority or social group, who could enforce socially acceptable behaviour through private censure or through public rituals, such as \"rough music\", the cucking stool and the skimmington ride.In Thomas Harman's ''Caveat for Common Cursitors'' 1566 a 'walking mort' relates how she was forced to agree to meet a man in his barn, but informed his wife.", "The wife arrived with her \"five furious, sturdy, muffled gossips\" who catch the errant husband with \"his hosen trousers about his legs\" and give him a sound beating.", "The story clearly functions as a morality tale in which the gossips uphold the social order.In Sir Herbert Maxwell Bart's The Chevalier of the Splendid Crest 1900 at the end of chapter three the king is noted as referring to his loyal knight \"Sir Thomas de Roos\" in kindly terms as \"my old gossip\".", "Whilst a historical novel of that time the reference implies a continued use of the term \"Gossip\" as a childhood friend as late as 1900.===In Judaism===Judaism considers gossip spoken without a constructive purpose (known in Hebrew as \"evil tongue\", ''lashon hara'') to be a sin.", "Speaking negatively about people, even if retelling true facts, counts as sinful, as it demeans the dignity of man — both the speaker and the subject of the gossip.According to ''Proverbs'' 18:8: \"The words of a gossip are like choice morsels: they go down to a man's innermost parts.", "\"===In Christianity===The Christian perspective on gossip is typically based on modern cultural assumptions of the phenomenon, especially the assumption that generally speaking, gossip is negative speech.", "However, due to the complexity of the phenomenon, biblical scholars have more precisely identified the form and function of gossip, even identifying a socially positive role for the social process as it is described in the New Testament.", "Of course, this does not mean that there are ''not'' numerous texts in the New Testament that see gossip as dangerous negative speech.Thus, for example, the Epistle to the Romans associates gossips (\"backbiters\") with a list of sins including sexual immorality and with murder::28: And even as they did not like to retain God in their knowledge, God gave them over to a reprobate mind, to do those things which are not convenient;:29: Being filled with all unrighteousness, fornication, wickedness, covetousness, maliciousness; full of envy, murder, debate, deceit, malignity; whisperers,:30: Backbiters, haters of God, despiteful, proud, boasters, inventors of evil things, disobedient to parents,:31: Without understanding, covenantbreakers, without natural affection, implacable, unmerciful::32: Who knowing the judgment of God, that they which commit such things are worthy of death, not only do the same, but have pleasure in them that do them.", "(Romans 1:28-32)According to Matthew 18, Jesus also taught that conflict resolution among church members ought to begin with the aggrieved party attempting to resolve their dispute with the offending party alone.", "Only if this did not work would the process escalate to the next step, in which another church member would become involved.", "After that if the person at fault still would not \"hear\", the matter was to be fully investigated by the church elders, and if not resolved to be then exposed publicly.Based on texts like these portraying gossip negatively, many Christian authors generalize on the phenomenon.", "So, in order to gossip, writes Phil Fox Rose, we \"must harden our heart towards the 'out' person.", "We draw a line between ourselves and them; define them as being outside the rules of Christian charity... We create a gap between ourselves and God's Love.\"", "As we harden our heart towards more people and groups, he continues, \"this negativity and feeling of separateness will grow and permeate our world, and we'll find it more difficult to access God's love in any aspect of our lives.", "\"The New Testament is also in favor of group accountability (Ephesians 5:11; 1st Tim 5:20; James 5:16; Gal 6:1-2; 1 Cor 12:26), which may be associated with gossip.===In Islam===Islam considers backbiting the equivalent of eating the flesh of one's dead brother.", "According to Muslims, backbiting harms its victims without offering them any chance of defense, just as dead people cannot defend against their flesh being eaten.", "Muslims are expected to treat others like brothers (regardless of their beliefs, skin color, gender, or ethnic origin), deriving from Islam's concept of brotherhood amongst its believers.===In the Bahá’í Faith===The Bahá’í Faith aims to promote the unity of humankind and considers backbiting to be the \"worst human quality and the most great sin...\" Therefore, even murder would be considered less reprobate than backbiting.", "Bahá’u’lláh, the Prophet-Founder of the Bahá’í Faith stated that, \"Backbiting quencheth the light of the heart, and extinguisheth the life of the soul.\"", "More than affecting one's physical condition, Bahá’ís understands that when someone gossips and finds faults in others it hampers the spiritual development of those involved while also creating disunity among individuals, communities, and society at large." ], [ "In psychology", "===Evolutionary view===''The Friendly Gossips'' (1901) by Eugene de BlaasFrom Robin Dunbar's evolutionary theories, gossip originated to help bond the groups that were constantly growing in size.", "To survive, individuals need alliances; but as these alliances grew larger, it was difficult if not impossible to physically connect with everyone.", "Conversation and language were able to bridge this gap.", "Gossip became a social interaction that helped the group gain information about other individuals without personally speaking to them.", "It enabled people to keep up with what was going on in their social network.", "It also creates a bond between the teller and the hearer, as they share information of mutual interest and spend time together.", "It also helps the hearer learn about another individual's behavior and helps them have a more effective approach to their relationship.", "Dunbar (2004) found that 65% of conversations consist of social topics.Dunbar (1994) argues that gossip is the equivalent of social grooming often observed in other primate species.", "Anthropological investigations indicate that gossip is a cross-cultural phenomenon, providing evidence for evolutionary accounts of gossip.There is very little evidence to suggest meaningful sex differences in the proportion of conversational time spent gossiping, and when there is a difference, women are only very slightly more likely to gossip compared with men.", "Further support for the evolutionary significance of gossip comes from a recent study published in the peer-reviewed journal, Science Anderson and colleagues (2011) found that faces paired with negative social information dominate visual consciousness to a greater extent than positive and neutral social information during a binocular rivalry task.Binocular rivalry occurs when two different stimuli are presented to each eye simultaneously and the two percepts compete for dominance in visual consciousness.", "While this occurs, an individual will consciously perceive one of the percepts while the other is suppressed.", "After a time, the other percept will become dominant and an individual will become aware of the second percept.", "Finally, the two percepts will alternate back and forth in terms of visual awareness.The study by Anderson and colleagues (2011) indicates that higher order cognitive processes, like evaluative information processing, can influence early visual processing.", "That only negative social information differentially affected the dominance of the faces during the task alludes to the unique importance of knowing information about an individual that should be avoided.", "Since the positive social information did not produce greater perceptual dominance of the matched face indicates that negative information about an individual may be more salient to our behavior than positive.Gossip also gives information about social norms and guidelines for behavior, usually commenting on how appropriate a behavior was, and the mere act of repeating it signifies its importance.", "In this sense, gossip is effective regardless of whether it is positive or negative Some theorists have proposed that gossip is actually a pro-social behavior intended to allow an individual to correct their socially prohibitive behavior without direct confrontation of the individual.", "By gossiping about an individual's acts, other individuals can subtly indicate that said acts are inappropriate and allow the individual to correct their behavior (Schoeman 1994).===Perception of those who gossip===Individuals who are perceived to engage in gossiping regularly are seen as having less social power and being less liked than those who gossip less frequently.", "The type of gossip being exchanged also affects likeability, whereby those who engage in negative gossip are less liked than those who engage in positive gossip.", "In a study done by Turner and colleagues (2003), having a prior relationship with a gossiper was not found to protect the gossiper from less favorable personality-ratings after gossip was exchanged.", "In the study, pairs of individuals were brought into a research lab to participate.", "Either the two individuals were friends prior to the study or they were strangers scheduled to participate at the same time.", "One of the individuals was a confederate of the study, and they engaged in gossiping about the research assistant after she left the room.", "The gossip exchanged was either positive or negative.", "Regardless of gossip type (positive versus negative) or relationship type (friend versus stranger) the gossipers were rated as less trustworthy after sharing the gossip.Walter Block has suggested that while gossip and blackmail both involve the disclosure of unflattering information, the blackmailer is arguably ethically superior to the gossip.", "Block writes: \"In a sense, the gossip is much ''worse'' than the blackmailer, for the blackmailer has given the blackmailed a chance to silence him.", "The gossip exposes the secret without warning.\"", "The victim of a blackmailer is thus offered choices denied to the subject of gossip, such as deciding if the exposure of his or her secret is worth the cost the blackmailer demands.", "Moreover, in refusing a blackmailer's offer one is in no worse a position than with the gossip.", "Adds Block, \"It is indeed difficult, then, to account for the vilification suffered by the blackmailer, at least compared to the gossip, who is usually dismissed with slight contempt and smugness.", "\"Contemporary critiques of gossip may concentrate on or become subsumed in the discussion of social media such as Facebook." ], [ "See also", "* Altruism* Backbiting* Blind item* Bullying* Circle of friends* Communication in small groups* Curiosity* False dilemma* Gossip magazines* Impression management* Interpersonal relationship* Lashon hara* Libel* Misinformation* Personal network* Popularity* Respectability* Rumor* Scandal* Sexual selection in human evolution* Social perception* Social status* Word of mouth* Yenta" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Niko Besnier, 2009: ''Gossip and the Everyday Production of Politics''.", "Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press.", "* Niko Besnier, 1996: Gossip.", "In ''Encyclopedia of Cultural Anthropology''.", "David Levinson and Melvin Ember, eds.", "Vol.", "2, pp.", "544–547.New York: Henry Holt.", "* * * Preview.", "* DiFonzo, Nicholas & Prashant Bordia.", "\"Rumor, Gossip, & Urban Legend.\"", "''Diogenes'' Vol.", "54 (Feb 2007) pg 19-35.", "* * Feeley, Kathleen A. and Frost, Jennifer (eds.)", "''When Private Talk Goes Public: Gossip in American History.''", "New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014.", "* Robert F. Goodman and Aaron Ben-Zeev, editors: ''Good Gossip''.", "Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas, 1993.", "* Hafen, Susan.", "\"Organizational Gossip: A Revolving Door of Regulation & Resistance.\"", "''The Southern Communication Journal'' Vol.", "69, No.", "3 (Spring 2004) pg 223* Harcourt, Jules, Virginia Richerson, and Mark J Wattier.", "\"A National Study of Middle Managers' Assessment of Organizational Communication Quality.\"", "''Journal of Business Communication'' Vol.", "28, No.", "4 (Fall 1991) pg 348-365* Jones, Deborah, 1990: 'Gossip: notes on women's oral culture'.", "In: Cameron, Deborah.", "(editor) ''The Feminist Critique of Language: A Reader''.", "London/New York: Routledge, 1990, pp. 242–250..", "Cited online in Rash, 1996.", "* Kenny, Robert Wade, 2014: Gossip.", "In ''Encyclopedia of Lying and Deception''.", "Timothy R. Levine, ed.", "Vol.", "1, pp.", "410–414.Los Angeles: Sage Press.", "* Kurland, Nancy B.", "& Lisa Hope Pelled.", "\"Passing the Word: Toward a Model of Gossip & Power in the Workplace.\"", "''The Academy of Management Review'' Vol.", "25, No.", "2 (April 2000) pg 428-438* * *" ], [ "External links", "** Ronald de Sousa (U Toronto) on Gossip * \"Go Ahead.", "Gossip May Be Virtuous\" ''New York Times'' article by Patricia Cohen 2002-08-10 (requires registration)* The Ethics of Gossiping, Emrys Westacott*Robin Dunbar, Coevolution of neocortical size, group size and language in humans ''(pre-publication version)'' \"Analysis of a sample of human conversations shows that about 60% of time is spent gossiping about relationships and personal experiences.", "\"*Benjamin Brown, From Principles to Rules and from Musar to Halakhah - The Hafetz Hayim's Rulings on Libel and Gossip." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "G4" ], [ "Introduction", "'''G4''' or '''G.IV''' may refer to:" ], [ "Places", "* County Route G4 (California), a county highway in Santa Clara County, California, USA* G4 Beijing–Hong Kong and Macau Expressway, an expressway in China* G4 (Taichung Metro), also known as Songzhu Station or Jiushe Station, a station under construction in the Taichung Metro" ], [ "Arts, Entertainment, Games, Media", "* G4 (American TV network), an American television channel* G4 (Canadian TV channel), a former Canadian television channel * G4 (band), a British vocal troupe* Grob's attack, an opening move in chess" ], [ "Groups, Organisations, Companies", "* G4 nations, four nations that support each other's bids to become permanent members of the United Nations Security Council: Brazil, Germany, India, and Japan* Big Four (Western Europe), sometimes called 'G4', a group of powerful countries in Europe* VIP Protection Unit, a unit of the Hong Kong Police Force (originally Section G, Division 4)* Allegiant Air, by IATA airline designator" ], [ "Electrics, electronics, and computing", "* G4, a type of bi-pin lamp base (socket), a lamp fitting where the pin spacing is 4mm* LG G4 smartphone* Moto G4, a line of smartphones* Group 4 compression, a type of image compression used in fax machines and some image file formats===Apple Computer===* PowerPC G4, a type of microprocessor by Freescale used by Apple** Power Mac G4, a series of personal computers made by Apple Inc in July 1999** PowerBook G4, a series of Professional notebooks made by Apple Inc in 2001** iMac G4, a series of personal computer made by Apple Inc in January 2002** Xserve G4, an Xserve server made by Apple Inc in May 2002** iBook G4, an iBook series of consumer notebooks in October 2003** Mac Mini G4, a Mac Mini series of ultracompact computer in January 2005" ], [ "Vehicles", "* AEG G.IV, a German World War I heavy bomber* Caudron G.4, a 1915 French biplane* Friedrichshafen G.IV, a 1918 German medium bomber* Gotha G.IV, a 1916 German heavy bomber* Gulfstream IV, a family of private jet aircraft* Mitsubishi G4M \"Betty\", a World War II Japanese fast bomber* Soko G-4 Super Galeb, a jet trainer/light attack jet of Yugoslav origin* USS ''G4'' (SS-26), a 1914 G-class submarine of the United States Navy* G4-class freighter, a cargo ship design* LNER Class G4, a class of British steam locomotives" ], [ "Other uses", "* G4 EA H1N1, a strain of influenza* G-quadruplex, a DNA secondary structure* Group 4 element, a class of elements on the Periodic Table* ATC code G04 ''Urologicals'', a subgroup of the Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System* Galactic 04 (G04), a Virgin Galactic suborbital tourist spaceflight in October 2023, the first spaceflight of a Pakistani" ], [ "See also", "* Group 4 (disambiguation)** G4S, formerly Group 4 Securicor* 4G (disambiguation)* Gang of Four (disambiguation)* ''Kamen Rider Agito: Project G4'', the ''Kamen Rider Agito'' film** Kamen Rider G4, the movie exclusive character* Giv (disambiguation) * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Guitarist" ], [ "Introduction", "Guitar players in the city centre of Buenos Aires.A '''guitarist''' (or a '''guitar player''') is a person who plays the guitar.", "Guitarists may play a variety of guitar family instruments such as classical guitars, acoustic guitars, electric guitars, and bass guitars.", "Some guitarists accompany themselves on the guitar by singing or playing the harmonica, or both." ], [ "Techniques", "The guitarist may employ any of several methods for sounding the guitar, including finger-picking, depending on the type of strings used (either nylon or steel), and including strumming with the fingers, or a guitar pick made of bone, horn, plastic, metal, felt, leather, or paper, and melodic flatpicking and finger-picking.The guitarist may also employ various methods for selecting notes and chords, including fingering, thumbing, the barre (a finger lying across many or all strings at a particular fret), and guitar slides, usually made of glass or metal.", "These left- and right-hand techniques may be intermixed in performance." ], [ "Notable guitarists", "===Rock, metal, jazz, country and blues===Several magazines and websites have compiled what they intend as lists of the greatest guitarists—for example ''The 100 Greatest Guitarists of All Time'' by ''Rolling Stone'' magazine, or ''100 Greatest Guitarists of All Time'' by ''Guitar World'' magazine.==== Rolling Stone ====The first in this list is the American guitarist Jimi Hendrix, introduced by Pete Townshend, guitarist for the Who, who was, in his turn, ranked at #10 in the list.In describing the list to readers, Paul MacInnes from British newspaper ''The Guardian'' wrote, \"Surprisingly enough for an American magazine, the top 10 is fair jam-packed with Yanks\", though he also noted three exceptions in the top 10.The online magazine ''Blogcritics'' criticized the list for introducing some allegedly undeserving guitarists while forgetting some artists the writer considered perhaps more worthy, such as Johnny Marr, Al Di Meola, Phil Keaggy or John Petrucci.In 2011, ''Rolling Stone'' updated the list, which this time was chosen by a panel of guitarists and other experts with the top 100 consisting of Eric Clapton, Eddie Van Halen, Keith Richards and Tony Iommi.", "Artists who had not been included in the previous list were added.", "Rory Gallagher, for example, was ranked in 57th place.", "''The 100 Greatest Guitarists of All Time'' is mentioned in many biographies about artists who appear in the list.====''Guitar World''====''Guitar World'', a monthly music magazine devoted to the guitar, also published their list of 100 greatest guitarists in the book ''Guitar World Presents the 100 Greatest Guitarists of All Time from the Pages of Guitar World Magazine''.", "Different from the ''Rolling Stone'' list, which listed guitarists in descending order, ''Guitar World'' divided guitarists by music genre—such as \"Lords of Hard Rock\" for hard rock artists or \"Jazzmen\" for jazz players.", "Despite the appearance in other magazines like ''Billboard'', this publication by ''Guitar World'' was criticized for including no female musicians within its selection.", "However, ''Guitar World'' recently published a list of \"Eight Amazing Female Acoustic Players\", including Kaki King, Muriel Anderson and Sharon Isbin.====''Time'' and others====Following the death of Les Paul, ''Time'' website presented their list of 10 greatest artists in electric guitar.", "As in ''Rolling Stone'' magazine's list, Jimi Hendrix was chosen as the greatest guitarist followed by Slash from Guns N' Roses, B.B.", "King, Keith Richards, Jimmy Page, and Eric Clapton.", "''Gigwise.com'', an online music magazine, also ranks Jimi Hendrix as the greatest guitarist ever, followed by Jimmy Page, B.B.", "King, Keith Richards and Kirk Hammett.===Other genres===The classical guitar is strung with gut or nylon strings on top and wound basses for the lower strings.", "It was often ornately decorated with mother of pearl.", "Many early classical guitarists played with their finger tips only but later guitarists play with a combination of finger nail and flesh to project a clear sound and allowing for many different changes in sound quality (or timbre).", "This guitar tradition dates back at least to the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, when a four course instrument was popular among aristocrats.", "In the early nineteenth century there the guitar enjoyed a surge of popularity when composer/performers such as Fernando Sor, Napoléon Coste, Mauro Giuliani, and many others published thousands of pieces for the concert hall and home gatherings.", "The classical guitar enjoyed another period of popularity in the twentieth century when recordings amplified the relatively quiet instrument.", "There are many classical guitarists listed as \"notable\" in their respective epochs.One of the most renowned flamenco guitarists in recent decades was Paco de Lucía.", "Flamenco music is a popular traditional music associated with the Andalucia region of southern Spain.", "It is characterized by intricate syncopated rhythms intimately informed by a gypsy dance style.", "Flamenco guitarists also often accompany flamenco singers performing \"cante jondo\" (deep song).", "De Lucía was also one of the first to have successfully crossed over into other genres of music such as classical and jazz.The '''cuatro''' guitar is a family of Latin American string instruments played in Puerto Rico, Venezuela and other Latin American countries.", "It is derived from the Spanish guitar.", "Although some have viola-like shapes, most cuatros resemble a small to mid-sized classical guitar.", "In Puerto Rico and Venezuela, the cuatro is an ensemble instrument for secular and religious music, and is played at parties and traditional gatherings.", "Christian Nieves is a Puerto Rican cuatro player and is recognized by the Institute of Puerto Rican culture as the most talented young of their national instrument, the Puerto Rican cuatro." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gothic fiction" ], [ "Introduction", "''The Castle of Otranto'' (1764) is regarded as the first Gothic novel.", "The aesthetics of the book have shaped modern-day gothic books, films, art, music and the goth subculture.", "'''Gothic fiction''', sometimes called '''Gothic horror''' (primarily in the 20th century), is a loose literary aesthetic of fear and haunting.", "The name refers to Gothic architecture of the European Middle Ages, which was characteristic of the settings of early Gothic novels.The first work to call itself Gothic was Horace Walpole's 1764 novel ''The Castle of Otranto'', later subtitled \"A Gothic Story\".", "Subsequent 18th-century contributors included Clara Reeve, Ann Radcliffe, William Thomas Beckford, and Matthew Lewis.", "The Gothic influence continued into the early 19th century; works by the Romantic poets, and novelists such as Mary Shelley, Charles Maturin, Walter Scott and E. T. A. Hoffmann frequently drew upon gothic motifs in their works.The early Victorian period continued the use of gothic aesthetic in novels by Charles Dickens and the Brontë sisters, as well as works by the American writers Edgar Allan Poe and Nathaniel Hawthorne.", "Later well-known works were ''Dracula'' by Bram Stoker, Richard Marsh's ''The Beetle'' and Robert Louis Stevenson's ''Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde''.", "Twentieth-century contributors include Daphne du Maurier, Stephen King, Shirley Jackson, Anne Rice, and Toni Morrison." ], [ "Characteristics", "The ruins of Wolf's Crag castle in Walter Scott's ''The Bride of Lammermoor'' (1819)Gothic fiction is characterized by an environment of fear, the threat of supernatural events, and the intrusion of the past upon the present.", "The setting typically includes physical reminders of the past, especially through ruined buildings which stand as proof of a previously thriving world which is decaying in the present.", "Characteristic settings in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries include castles, religious buildings like monasteries and convents, and crypts.", "The atmosphere is typically claustrophobic, and common plot elements include vengeful persecution, imprisonment, and murder.", "The depiction of horrible events in Gothic fiction often serves as a metaphorical expression of psychological or social conflicts.", "The form of a Gothic story is usually discontinuous and convoluted, often incorporating tales within tales, changing narrators, and framing devices such as discovered manuscripts or interpolated histories.", "Other characteristics, regardless of relevance to the main plot, can include sleeplike and deathlike states, live burials, doubles, unnatural echoes or silences, the discovery of obscured family ties, unintelligible writings, nocturnal landscapes, remote locations, and dreams.", "Especially in the late 19th century, Gothic fiction often involved demons and demonic possession, ghosts, and other kinds of evil spirits.Gothic fiction often moves between \"high culture\" and \"low\" or \"popular culture\".===Role of architecture===Strawberry Hill, an English villa in the \"Gothic Revival\" style, built by Gothic writer Horace WalpoleGothic Temple folly in the gardens at Stowe, Buckinghamshire, UK, built as a ruin in 1741, designed by James GibbsGothic literature is strongly associated with the Gothic Revival architecture of the same era.", "English Gothic writers often associated medieval buildings with what they saw as a dark and terrifying period, marked by harsh laws enforced by torture and with mysterious, fantastic, and superstitious rituals.", "Similar to the Gothic Revivalists' rejection of the clarity and rationalism of the Neoclassical style of the Enlightened Establishment, the literary Gothic embodies an appreciation of the joys of extreme emotion, the thrills of fearfulness and awe inherent in the sublime, and a quest for atmosphere.", "Gothic ruins invoke multiple linked emotions by representing inevitable decay and the collapse of human creations – hence the urge to add fake ruins as eyecatchers in English landscape parks.Placing a story in a Gothic building serves several purposes.", "It inspires feelings of awe, implies that the story is set in the past, gives an impression of isolation or dissociation from the rest of the world, and conveys religious associations.", "Setting the novel in a Gothic castle was meant to imply a story set in the past and shrouded in darkness.", "The architecture often served as a mirror for the characters and events of the story.", "The buildings in ''The Castle of Otranto'', for example, are riddled with tunnels that characters use to move back and forth in secret.", "This movement mirrors the secrets surrounding Manfred's possession of the castle and how it came into his family.===The Female Gothic===From the castles, dungeons, forests, and hidden passages of the Gothic novel genre emerged female Gothic.", "Guided by the works of authors such as Ann Radcliffe, Mary Shelley, and Charlotte Brontë, the female Gothic allowed women's societal and sexual desires to be introduced.", "In many respects, the novel's intended reader of the time was the woman who, even as she enjoyed such novels, felt she had to \"lay down her book with affected indifference, or momentary shame,\" according to Jane Austen.", "The Gothic novel shaped its form for woman readers to \"turn to Gothic romances to find support for their own mixed feelings.", "\"Female Gothic narratives focus on such topics as a persecuted heroine fleeing from a villainous father and searching for an absent mother.", "At the same time, male writers tend towards the masculine transgression of social taboos.", "The emergence of the ghost story gave women writers something to write about besides the common marriage plot, allowing them to present a more radical critique of male power, violence, and predatory sexuality.When the female Gothic coincides with the explained supernatural the natural cause of terror is not the supernatural, but female disability and societal horrors: rape, incest, and the threatening control of a male antagonist.", "Female Gothic novels also address women's discontent with patriarchal society, their difficult and unsatisfying maternal position, and their role within that society.", "Women's fears of entrapment in the domestic, their bodies, marriage, childbirth, or domestic abuse commonly appear in the genre.After the characteristic Gothic ''Bildungsroman''-like plot sequence, female Gothic allowed readers to grow from \"adolescence to maturity\" in the face of the realized impossibilities of the supernatural.", "As protagonists like Adeline in ''The Romance of the Forest'' learn that their superstitious fantasies and terrors are replaced by natural cause and reasonable doubt, the reader may grasp the heroine's true position: \"The heroine possesses the romantic temperament that perceives strangeness where others see none.", "Her sensibility, therefore, prevents her from knowing that her true plight is her condition, the disability of being female.\"" ], [ "History", "===Precursors===The components that would eventually combine into Gothic literature had a rich history by the time Walpole presented a fictitious medieval manuscript in ''The Castle of Otranto'' in 1764.The plays of William Shakespeare, in particular, were a crucial reference point for early Gothic writers, in both an effort to bring credibility to their works, and to legitimize the emerging genre as serious literature to the public.", "Tragedies such as ''Hamlet'', ''Macbeth'', ''King Lear'', ''Romeo and Juliet,'' and ''Richard III'', with plots revolving around the supernatural, revenge, murder, ghosts, witchcraft, and omens, written in dramatic pathos, and set in medieval castles, were a huge influence upon early Gothic authors, who frequently quote, and make allusions to Shakespeare's works.John Milton's ''Paradise Lost'' (1667) was also very influential among Gothic writers, who were especially drawn to the tragic anti-hero character Satan, who became a model for many charismatic Gothic villains and Byronic heroes.", "Milton's \"version of the myth of the fall and redemption, creation and decreation, is, as ''Frankenstein'' again reveals, an important model for Gothic plots.", "\"Alexander Pope, who had a considerable influence on Walpole, was the first significant poet of the 18th century to write a poem in an authentic Gothic manner.", "''Eloisa to Abelard'' (1717), a tale of star-crossed lovers, one doomed to a life of seclusion in a convent, and the other in a monastery, abounds in gloomy imagery, religious terror, and suppressed passion.", "The influence of Pope's poem is found throughout 18th-century Gothic literature, including the novels of Walpole, Radcliffe, and Lewis.Gothic literature is often described with words such as \"wonder\" and \"terror.\"", "This sense of wonder and terror that provides the suspension of disbelief so important to the Gothic—which, except for when it is parodied, even for all its occasional melodrama, is typically played straight, in a self-serious manner—requires the imagination of the reader to be willing to accept the idea that there might be something \"beyond that which is immediately in front of us.\"", "The mysterious imagination necessary for Gothic literature to have gained any traction had been growing for some time before the advent of the Gothic.", "The need for this came as the known world was becoming more explored, reducing the geographical mysteries of the world.", "The edges of the map were filling in, and no dragons were to be found.", "The human mind required a replacement.", "Clive Bloom theorizes that this void in the collective imagination was critical in developing the cultural possibility for the rise of the Gothic tradition.The setting of most early Gothic works was medieval, but this was a common theme long before Walpole.", "In Britain especially, there was a desire to reclaim a shared past.", "This obsession frequently led to extravagant architectural displays, such as Fonthill Abbey, and sometimes mock tournaments were held.", "It was not merely in literature that a medieval revival made itself felt, and this, too, contributed to a culture ready to accept a perceived medieval work in 1764.The Gothic often uses scenery of decay, death, and morbidity to achieve its effects (especially in the Italian Horror school of Gothic).", "However, Gothic literature was not the origin of this tradition; it was far older.", "The corpses, skeletons, and churchyards so commonly associated with early Gothic works were popularized by the Graveyard poets.", "They were also present in novels such as Daniel Defoe's ''A Journal of the Plague Year'', which contains comical scenes of plague carts and piles of corpses.", "Even earlier, poets like Edmund Spenser evoked a dreary and sorrowful mood in such poems as Epithalamion.All aspects of pre-Gothic literature occur to some degree in the Gothic, but even taken together, they still fall short of true Gothic.", "What needed to be added was an aesthetic to tie the elements together.", "Bloom notes that this aesthetic must take the form of a theoretical or philosophical core, which is necessary to \"save the best tales from becoming mere anecdote or incoherent sensationalism.\"", "In this case, the aesthetic needed to be emotional, and was finally provided by Edmund Burke's 1757 work, ''A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful'', which \"finally codified the gothic emotional experience.\"", "Specifically, Burke's thoughts on the Sublime, Terror, and Obscurity were most applicable.", "These sections can be summarized thus: the Sublime is that which is or produces the \"strongest emotion which the mind is capable of feeling\"; Terror most often evoked the Sublime; and to cause Terror, we need some amount of Obscurity – we can't know everything about that which is inducing Terror – or else \"a great deal of the apprehension vanishes\"; Obscurity is necessary to experience the Terror of the unknown.", "Bloom asserts that Burke's descriptive vocabulary was essential to the Romantic works that eventually informed the Gothic.The birth of Gothic literature was thought to have been influenced by political upheaval.", "Researchers linked its birth with the English Civil War, culminating in a Jacobite rebellion (1745) more recent to the first Gothic novel (1764).", "The collective political memory and any deep cultural fears associated with it likely contributed to early Gothic villains as literary representatives of defeated Tory barons or Royalists \"rising\" from their political graves in the pages of early Gothic novels to terrorize the bourgeois reader of late eighteenth-century England.===Eighteenth-century Gothic novels===Ann Radcliffe's ''The Mysteries of Udolpho'' (1794), a bestselling Gothic novel.", "Frontispiece to 4th edition shown.The first work to call itself \"Gothic\" was Horace Walpole's ''The Castle of Otranto'' (1764).", "The first edition presented the story as a translation of a sixteenth- century manuscript and was widely popular.", "Walpole, in the second edition, revealed himself as the author which adding the subtitle \"A Gothic Story.\"", "The revelation prompted a backlash from readers, who considered it inappropriate for a modern author to write a supernatural story in a rational age.", "Walpole did not initially prompt many imitators.", "Beginning with Clara Reeve's ''The Old English Baron'' (1778), the 1780s saw more writers attempting his combination of supernatural plots with emotionally realistic characters.", "Examples include Sophia Lee's ''The Recess'' (1783–5) and William Beckford's ''Vathek'' (1786).At the height of the Gothic novel's popularity in the 1790s, the genre was almost synonymous with Ann Radcliffe, whose works were highly anticipated and widely imitated.", "''The Romance of the Forest'' (1791) and ''The Mysteries of Udolpho'' (1794) were particularly popular.", "In an essay on Radcliffe, Walter Scott, writes of the popularity of ''Udolpho'' at the time, \"The very name was fascinating, and the public, who rushed upon it with all the eagerness of curiosity, rose from it with unsated appetite.", "When a family was numerous, the volumes flew, and were sometimes torn from hand to hand.\"", "Radcliffe's novels were often seen as the feminine and rational opposite of a more violently horrifying male Gothic associated with Matthew Lewis.", "Radcliffe's final novel, ''The Italian'' (1797), responded to Lewis's ''The Monk'' (1796).Other notable Gothic novels of the 1790s include William Godwin's ''Caleb Williams'' (1794), Regina Maria Roche's ''Clermont'' (1798), and Charles Brockden Brown's ''Wieland'' (1798), as well as large numbers of anonymous works published by the Minerva Press.", "In continental Europe, Romantic literary movements led to related Gothic genres such as the German ''Schauerroman'' and the French R''oman noir''.", "Eighteenth-century Gothic novels were typically set in a distant past and (for English novels) a distant European country, but without specific dates or historical figures that characterized the later development of historical fiction.Catherine Morland, the naive protagonist of ''Northanger Abbey'' (1818), Jane Austen's Gothic parodyThe saturation of Gothic-inspired literature during the 1790s was referred to in a letter by Samuel Taylor Coleridge, writing on 16 March 1797, \"indeed I am almost weary of the Terrible, having been a hireling in the Critical Review for the last six or eight months – I have been reviewing ''the Monk'', ''the Italian'', ''Hubert de Sevrac'' &c &c &c – in all of which dungeons, and old castles, & solitary Houses by the Sea Side & Caverns & Woods & extraordinary characters & all the tribe of Horror & Mystery, have crowded on me – even to surfeiting.\"", "The excesses, stereotypes, and frequent absurdities of the Gothic genre made it rich territory for satire.", "After 1800 there was a period in which Gothic parodies outnumbered forthcoming Gothic novels.", "In ''The Heroine'' by Eaton Stannard Barrett (1813), Gothic tropes are exaggerated for comic effect.", "In Jane Austen's novel ''Northanger Abbey'' (1818), the naive protagonist, a female named Catherine, conceives herself as a heroine of a Radcliffean romance and imagines murder and villainy on every side.", "However, the truth turns out to be much more prosaic.", "This novel is also noted for including a list of early Gothic works known as the Northanger Horrid Novels.===Second generation or ''Jüngere Romantik''===The poetry, romantic adventures, and character of Lord Byron—characterized by his spurned lover Lady Caroline Lamb as \"mad, bad and dangerous to know\"—were another inspiration for the Gothic novel, providing the archetype of the Byronic hero.", "For example, Byron is the title character in Lady Caroline's Gothic novel ''Glenarvon'' (1816).Mary Shelley's ''Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus'' (1818) has come to define Gothic fiction in the Romantic period.", "Frontispiece to 1831 edition shown.Byron was also the host of the celebrated ghost-story competition involving himself, Percy Bysshe Shelley, Mary Shelley, and John William Polidori at the Villa Diodati on the banks of Lake Geneva in the summer of 1816.This occasion was productive of both Mary Shelley's ''Frankenstein, or, The Modern Prometheus'' (1818), and Polidori's ''The Vampyre'' (1819), featuring the Byronic Lord Ruthven.", "''The Vampyre'' has been accounted by cultural critic Christopher Frayling as one of the most influential works of fiction ever written and spawned a craze for vampire fiction and theatre (and, latterly, film) that has not ceased to this day.", "Though clearly influenced by the Gothic tradition, Mary Shelley's novel is often considered the first science fiction novel, despite the novel's lack of any scientific explanation for the monster's animation and the focus instead on the moral dilemmas and consequences of such a creation.John Keats' ''La Belle Dame sans Merci'' (1819) and ''Isabella, or the Pot of Basil'' (1820) feature mysteriously fey ladies.", "In the latter poem, the names of the characters, the dream visions, and the macabre physical details are influenced by the novels of premiere Gothicist Ann Radcliffe.Although ushering in the historical novel, and turning popularity away from Gothic fiction, Walter Scott frequently employs Gothic elements in his novels and poetry.", "Scott drew upon oral folklore, fireside tails, and ancient superstitions, often juxtaposing rationality and the supernatural.", "Novels such as ''The Bride of Lammermoor'' (1819), in which the character's fates are decided by superstition and prophecy, or the poem ''Marmion'' (1808), in which a Nun is walled alive inside a convent, illustrate Scott's influence and use of Gothic themes.A late example of a traditional Gothic novel is ''Melmoth the Wanderer'' (1820) by Charles Maturin, which combines themes of anti-Catholicism with an outcast Byronic hero.", "Jane C. Loudon's ''The Mummy!''", "(1827) features standard Gothic motifs, characters, and plot, but with one significant twist: it is set in the twenty-second century and speculates on fantastic scientific developments that might have occurred four hundred years in the future, making it and ''Frankenstein'' among the earliest examples of the science fiction genre developing from Gothic traditions.During two decades, the most famous author of Gothic literature in Germany was the polymath E. T. A. Hoffmann.", "Lewis's ''The Monk'' influenced and even mentioned it in his novel ''The Devil's Elixirs'' (1815).", "The novel explores the motive of Doppelgänger, a term coined by another German author and supporter of Hoffmann, Jean-Paul, in his humorous novel ''Siebenkäs'' (1796–1797).", "He also wrote an opera based on Friedrich de la Motte Fouqué's Gothic story ''Undine'' (1816), for which de la Motte Fouqué wrote the libretto.", "Aside from Hoffmann and de la Motte Fouqué, three other important authors from the era were Joseph Freiherr von Eichendorff (''The Marble Statue'', 1818), Ludwig Achim von Arnim (''Die Majoratsherren'', 1819), and Adelbert von Chamisso (''Peter Schlemihls wundersame Geschichte'', 1814).", "After them, Wilhelm Meinhold wrote ''The Amber Witch'' (1838) and ''Sidonia von Bork'' (1847).In Spain, the priest Pascual Pérez Rodríguez was the most diligent novelist in the Gothic way, closely aligned to the supernatural explained by Ann Radcliffe.", "At the same time, the poet José de Espronceda published ''The Student of Salamanca'' (1837-1840), a narrative poem that presents a horrid variation on the Don Juan legend.story of the same name by GogolIn Russia, authors of the Romantic era include Antony Pogorelsky (penname of Alexey Alexeyevich Perovsky), Orest Somov, Oleksa Storozhenko, Alexandr Pushkin, Nikolai Alekseevich Polevoy, Mikhail Lermontov (for his work ''Stuss''), and Alexander Bestuzhev-Marlinsky.", "Pushkin is particularly important, as his 1833 short story ''The Queen of Spades'' was so popular that it was adapted into operas and later films by Russian and foreign artists.", "Some parts of Mikhail Yuryevich Lermontov's \"A Hero of Our Time\" (1840) are also considered to belong to the Gothic genre, but they lack the supernatural elements of other Russian Gothic stories.The following poems are also now considered to belong to the Gothic genre: Meshchevskiy's \"Lila\", Katenin's \"Olga\", Pushkin's \"The Bridegroom\", Pletnev's \"The Gravedigger\" and Lermontov's \"Demon\" (1829–1839).The key author of the transition from Romanticism to Realism, Nikolai Vasilievich Gogol, who was also one of the most important authors of Romanticism, produced a number of works that qualify as Gothic fiction.", "Each of his three short story collections features a number of stories that fall within the Gothic genre or contain Gothic elements.", "They include \"Saint John's Eve\" and \"A Terrible Vengeance\" from ''Evenings on a Farm Near Dikanka'' (1831–1832), \"The Portrait\" from ''Arabesques'' (1835), and \"Viy\" from ''Mirgorod'' (1835).", "While all are well known, the latter is probably the most famous, having inspired at least eight film adaptations (two now considered lost), one animated film, two documentaries, and a video game.", "Gogol's work differs from Western European Gothic fiction, as his cultural influences drew on Ukrainian folklore, the Cossack lifestyle, and, as a religious man, Orthodox Christianity.Other relevant authors of this era include Vladimir Fyodorovich Odoevsky (''The Living Corpse'', written 1838, published 1844, ''The Ghost'', ''The Sylphide'', as well as short stories), Count Aleksey Konstantinovich Tolstoy (''The Family of the Vourdalak'', 1839, and ''The Vampire'', 1841), Mikhail Zagoskin (''Unexpected Guests''), Józef Sękowski/Osip Senkovsky (''Antar''), and Yevgeny Baratynsky (''The Ring'').===Nineteenth-century Gothic fiction===Cover of a ''Varney the Vampire'' publication, 1845By the Victorian era, Gothic had ceased to be the dominant genre for novels in England, partly replaced by more sedate historical fiction.", "However, Gothic short stories continued to be popular, published in magazines or as small chapbooks called penny dreadfuls.", "The most influential Gothic writer from this period was the American Edgar Allan Poe, who wrote numerous short stories and poems reinterpreting Gothic tropes.", "His story \"The Fall of the House of Usher\" (1839) revisits classic Gothic tropes of aristocratic decay, death, and madness.", "Poe is now considered the master of the American Gothic.", "In England, one of the most influential penny dreadfuls is the anonymously authored ''Varney the Vampire'' (1847), which introduced the trope of vampires having sharpened teeth.", "Another notable English author of penny dreadfuls is George W. M. Reynolds, known for ''The Mysteries of London'' (1844), ''Faust'' (1846), ''Wagner the Wehr-wolf'' (1847), and ''The Necromancer'' (1857).", "Elizabeth Gaskell's tales \"The Doom of the Griffiths\" (1858), \"Lois the Witch\", and \"The Grey Woman\" all employ one of the most common themes of Gothic fiction: the power of ancestral sins to curse future generations, or the fear that they will.", "M. R. James, an English medievalist whose stories are still popular today, is known as the originator of the \"antiquarian ghost story.\"", "In Spain, Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer stood out with his romantic poems and short tales, some depicting supernatural events.", "Today some consider him the most-read Spanish writer after Miguel de Cervantes.Jane Eyre's trial through the moors in Charlotte Brontë's ''Jane Eyre'' (1847)In addition to these short Gothic fictions, some novels drew on the Gothic.", "Emily Brontë's ''Wuthering Heights'' (1847) transports the Gothic to the forbidding Yorkshire Moors and features ghostly apparitions and a Byronic hero in the person of the demonic Heathcliff.", "The Brontës' fictions were cited by feminist critic Ellen Moers as prime examples of Female Gothic, exploring woman's entrapment within domestic space and subjection to patriarchal authority and the transgressive and dangerous attempts to subvert and escape such restriction.", "Emily Brontë's ''Cathy'' and Charlotte Brontë's ''Jane Eyre'' are examples of female protagonists in such roles.", "Louisa May Alcott's Gothic potboiler, ''A Long Fatal Love Chase'' (written in 1866 but published in 1995), is also an interesting specimen of this subgenre.", "Charlotte Brontë's ''Villette'' also shows the Gothic influence, with its supernatural subplot featuring a ghostly nun, and its view of Roman Catholicism as exotic and heathenistic.", "Nathaniel Hawthorne's novel ''The House of the Seven Gables'', about a family's ancestral home, is colored with suggestions of the supernatural and witchcraft; and in true Gothic fashion, it features the house itself as one of the main characters, Miss Havisham from Dickens’ ''Great Expectations''The genre also heavily influenced writers such as Charles Dickens, who read Gothic novels as a teenager and incorporated their gloomy atmosphere and melodrama into his works, shifting them to a more modern period and an urban setting; for example, in ''Oliver Twist'' (1837–1838), ''Bleak House'' (1854) and ''Great Expectations'' (1860–1861).", "These works juxtapose wealthy, ordered, and affluent civilization with the disorder and barbarity of the poor in the same metropolis.", "''Bleak House,'' in particular, is credited with introducing urban fog to the novel, which would become a frequent characteristic of urban Gothic literature and film (Mighall 2007).", "Miss Havisham from ''Great Expectations'', is one of Dickens’ most Gothic characters.", "The bitter recluse who shuts herself away in her gloomy mansion ever since being jilted at the altar on her wedding day.", "His most explicitly Gothic work is his last novel, ''The Mystery of Edwin Drood,'' which he did not live to complete and was published unfinished upon his death in 1870.The mood and themes of the Gothic novel held a particular fascination for the Victorians, with their obsession with mourning rituals, mementos, and mortality in general.Irish Catholics also wrote Gothic fiction in the 19th century.", "Although some Anglo-Irish dominated and defined the subgenre decades later, they did not own it.", "Irish Catholic Gothic writers included Gerald Griffin, James Clarence Mangan, and John and Michael Banim.", "William Carleton was a notable Gothic writer, and converted from Catholicism to Anglicanism.In Germany, Jeremias Gotthelf wrote ''The Black Spider'' (1842), an allegorical work that uses Gothic themes.", "The last work from the German writer Theodor Storm, ''The Rider on the White Horse'' (1888), also uses Gothic motives and themes.After Gogol, Russian literature saw the rise of Realism, but many authors continued to write stories within Gothic fiction territory.", "Ivan Sergeyevich Turgenev, one of the most celebrated Realists, wrote ''Faust'' (1856), ''Phantoms'' (1864), ''Song of the Triumphant Love'' (1881), and ''Clara Milich'' (1883).", "Another classic Russian Realist, Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoyevsky, incorporated Gothic elements into many of his works, although none can be seen as purely Gothic.", "Grigory Petrovich Danilevsky, who wrote historical and early science fiction novels and stories, wrote ''Mertvec-ubiytsa'' (''Dead Murderer'') in 1879.Also, Grigori Alexandrovich Machtet wrote \"Zaklyatiy kazak\", which may now also be considered Gothic.Robert Louis Stevenson's ''Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde'' (1886) was a classic Gothic work of the 1880s, seeing many stage adaptations.The 1880s saw the revival of the Gothic as a powerful literary form allied to fin de siecle, which fictionalized contemporary fears like ethical degeneration and questioned the social structures of the time.", "Classic works of this Urban Gothic include Robert Louis Stevenson's ''Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde'' (1886), Oscar Wilde's ''The Picture of Dorian Gray'' (1891), George du Maurier's ''Trilby'' (1894), Richard Marsh's ''The Beetle'' (1897), Henry James' ''The Turn of the Screw'' (1898), and the stories of Arthur Machen.In Ireland, Gothic fiction tended to be purveyed by the Anglo-Irish Protestant Ascendancy.", "According to literary critic Terry Eagleton, Charles Maturin, Sheridan Le Fanu, and Bram Stoker form the core of the Irish Gothic subgenre with stories featuring castles set in a barren landscape and a cast of remote aristocrats dominating an atavistic peasantry, which represent an allegorical form the political plight of Catholic Ireland subjected to the Protestant Ascendancy.", "Le Fanu's use of the gloomy villain, forbidding mansion, and persecuted heroine in ''Uncle Silas'' (1864) shows direct influence from Walpole's ''Otranto'' and Radcliffe's ''Udolpho''.", "Le Fanu's short story collection ''In a Glass Darkly'' (1872) includes the superlative vampire tale ''Carmilla'', which provided fresh blood for that particular strand of the Gothic and influenced Bram Stoker's vampire novel ''Dracula'' (1897).", "Stoker's book created the most famous Gothic villain ever, Count Dracula, and established Transylvania and Eastern Europe as the ''locus classicus'' of the Gothic.", "Published in the same year as ''Dracula'', Florence Marryat's ''The Blood of the Vampire'' is another piece of vampire fiction.", "''The Blood of the Vampire'', which, like ''Carmilla,'' features a female vampire, is notable for its treatment of vampirism as both racial and medicalized.", "The vampire, Harriet Brandt, is also a psychic vampire, killing unintentionally.In the United States, notable late 19th-century writers in the Gothic tradition were Ambrose Bierce, Robert W. Chambers, and Edith Wharton.", "Bierce's short stories were in the horrific and pessimistic tradition of Poe.", "Chambers indulged in the decadent style of Wilde and Machen, even including a character named Wilde in his ''The King in Yellow'' (1895).", "Wharton published some notable Gothic ghost stories.", "Some works of the Canadian writer Gilbert Parker also fall into the genre, including the stories in ''The Lane that had No Turning'' (1900).Le Horla'' (1887) by Guy de Maupassant The serialized novel ''The Phantom of the Opera'' (1909–1910) by the French writer Gaston Leroux is another well-known example of Gothic fiction from the early 20th century, when many German authors were writing works influenced by ''Schauerroman'', including Hanns Heinz Ewers.====Russian Gothic====Until the 1990s, Russian Gothic critics did not view Russian Gothic as a genre or label.", "If used, the word \"gothic\" was used to describe (mostly early) works of Fyodor Dostoyevsky from the 1880s.", "Most critics used tags such as \"Romanticism\" and \"fantastique\", such as in the 1984 story collection translated into English as ''Russian 19th-Century Gothic Tales'' but originally titled ''Фантастический мир русской романтической повести'', literally, \"The Fantastic World of Russian Romanticism Short Story/Novella.\"", "However, since the mid-1980s, Russian gothic fiction as a genre began to be discussed in books such as ''The Gothic-Fantastic in Nineteenth-Century Russian Literature'', ''European Gothic: A Spirited Exchange 1760–1960'', ''The Russian Gothic Novel and its British Antecedents'' and ''Goticheskiy roman v Rossii (The Gothic Novel in Russia)''.The first Russian author whose work has been described as gothic fiction is considered to be Nikolay Mikhailovich Karamzin.", "While many of his works feature gothic elements, the first to belong purely under the gothic fiction label is ''Ostrov Borngolm'' (''Island of Bornholm'') from 1793.Nearly ten years later, Nikolay Ivanovich Gnedich followed suit with his 1803 novel ''Don Corrado de Gerrera'', set in Spain during the reign of Philip II.", "The term \"Gothic\" is sometimes also used to describe the ballads of Russian authors such as Vasily Andreyevich Zhukovsky, particularly \"Ludmila\" (1808) and \"Svetlana\" (1813), both translations based on Gottfreid August Burger's Gothic German ballad, \"Lenore.", "\"During the last years of Imperial Russia in the early 20th century, many authors continued to write in the Gothic fiction genre.", "They include the historian and historical fiction writer Alexander Valentinovich Amfiteatrov and Leonid Nikolaievich Andreyev, who developed psychological characterization; the symbolist Valery Yakovlevich Bryusov, Alexander Grin, Anton Pavlovich Chekhov; and Aleksandr Ivanovich Kuprin.", "Nobel Prize winner Ivan Alekseyevich Bunin wrote ''Dry Valley'' (1912), which is seen as influenced by Gothic literature.", "In a monograph on the subject, Muireann Maguire writes, \"The centrality of the Gothic-fantastic to Russian fiction is almost impossible to exaggerate, and certainly exceptional in the context of world literature.", "\"===Twentienth-century Gothic fiction===Mrs.", "Danvers in the 1940 film adaptation of Daphne du Maurier's ''Rebecca''.Gothic fiction and Modernism influenced each other.", "This is often evident in detective fiction, horror fiction, and science fiction, but the influence of the Gothic can also be seen in the high literary Modernism of the 20th century.", "Oscar Wilde's ''The Picture of Dorian Gray'' (1890) initiated a re-working of older literary forms and myths that became common in the work of Yeats, Eliot, Joyce, Virginia Woolfe, Shirley Jackson, and Angela Carter, among others.", "In Joyce's ''Ulysses'' (1922), the living are transformed into ghosts, which points to an Ireland in stasis at the time and a history of cyclical trauma from the Great Famine in the 1840s through to the current moment in the text.", "The way ''Ulysses'' uses Gothic tropes such as ghosts and hauntings while removing the supernatural elements of 19th-century Gothic fiction indicates a general form of modernist Gothic writing in the first half of the 20th century.Pulp magazines such as ''Weird Tales'' reprinted and popularized Gothic horror from the previous century.In America, pulp magazines such as ''Weird Tales'' reprinted classic Gothic horror tales from the previous century by authors like Poe, Arthur Conan Doyle, and Edward Bulwer-Lytton, and printed new stories by modern authors featuring both traditional and new horrors.", "The most significant of these was H. P. Lovecraft, who also wrote a conspectus of the Gothic and supernatural horror tradition in his ''Supernatural Horror in Literature'' (1936), and developed a Mythos that would influence Gothic and contemporary horror well into the 21st century.", "Lovecraft's protégé, Robert Bloch, contributed to ''Weird Tales'' and penned ''Psycho'' (1959), which drew on the classic interests of the genre.", "From these, the Gothic genre ''per se'' gave way to modern horror fiction, regarded by some literary critics as a branch of the Gothic, although others use the term to cover the entire genre.The Romantic strand of Gothic was taken up in Daphne du Maurier's ''Rebecca'' (1938), which is seen by some to have been influenced by Charlotte Brontë's ''Jane Eyre''.", "Other books by du Maurier, such as ''Jamaica Inn'' (1936), also display Gothic tendencies.", "Du Maurier's work inspired a substantial body of \"female Gothics,\" concerning heroines alternately swooning over or terrified by scowling Byronic men in possession of acres of prime real estate and the appertaining ''droit du seigneur''.===Southern Gothic===The genre also influenced American writing, creating a Southern Gothic genre that combines some Gothic sensibilities, such as the grotesque, with the setting and style of the Southern United States.", "Examples include Erskine Caldwell, William Faulkner, Carson McCullers, John Kennedy Toole, Manly Wade Wellman, Eudora Welty, V. C. Andrews, Tennessee Williams, Truman Capote, Flannery O'Connor, Davis Grubb, Anne Rice, Harper Lee, and Cormac McCarthy.===New Gothic romances===Mass-produced Gothic romances became popular in the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s with authors such as Phyllis A. Whitney, Joan Aiken, Dorothy Eden, Victoria Holt, Barbara Michaels, Mary Stewart, Alicen White, and Jill Tattersall.", "Many featured covers show a terror-stricken woman in diaphanous attire in front of a gloomy castle, often with a single-lit window.", "Many were published under the Paperback Library Gothic imprint and marketed to female readers.", "While the authors were mostly women, some men wrote Gothic romances under female pseudonyms: the prolific Clarissa Ross and Marilyn Ross were pseudonyms of the male Dan Ross; Frank Belknap Long published Gothics under his wife's name, Lyda Belknap Long; the British writer Peter O'Donnell wrote under the pseudonym Madeleine Brent.", "After the gothic romance boom faded away in the early 1990s, very few publishers embraced the term for mass market romance paperbacks apart from imprints like Love Spell, which was discontinued in 2010.However, in recent years the term \"Gothic Romance\" is being used to describe both old and new works of Gothic fiction.", "=== Contemporary Gothic ===Gothic fiction continues to be extensively practised by contemporary authors.Many modern writers of horror or other types of fiction exhibit considerable Gothic sensibilities – examples include Anne Rice, Susan Hill, Billy Martin, Silvia Moreno-Garcia, Carmen Maria Machado, Neil Gaiman, and Stephen King.", "Thomas M. Disch's novel ''The Priest'' (1994) was subtitled ''A Gothic Romance'' and partly modeled on Matthew Lewis' ''The Monk''.", "Many writers such as Billy Martin, Stephen King, Brett Easton Ellis, and Clive Barker have focused on the body's surface and blood's visuality.", "England's Rhiannon Ward is among the recent writers of Gothic fiction.", "Catriona Ward won a British Fantasy Award for Best Horror Novel for her gothic novel ''Rawblood'' in 2016.Contemporary American writers in the tradition include Joyce Carol Oates with such novels as ''Bellefleur'' and ''A Bloodsmoor Romance'', Toni Morrison with her radical novel ''Beloved'', about a slave-woman whose murdered baby haunts her, Raymond Kennedy with his novel ''Lulu Incognito'', Donna Tartt with her postmodern gothic horror novel ''The Secret History'', Ursula Vernon with her Edgar Allan Poe-inspired novel ''What Moves the Dead'', Danielle Trussoni with her \"gothic extravaganza\" ''The Ancestor'', and filmmaker Anna Biller with ''Bluebeard's Castle'', a throwback to 18th-century Gothic novels and 1960s dime-store romances.", "British writers who have continued in the Gothic tradition include Sarah Waters with her haunted house novel ''The Little Stranger'', Diane Setterfield with her quintessentially Gothic novels ''The Thirteenth Tale'' and ''Once Upon a River'', Helen Oyeyemi with her experimental novel ''White is for Witching'', Sarah Perry with her novels ''Melmoth'' and ''The Essex Serpent'', and Laura Purcell with her historical novels ''The Silent Companions'' and ''The Shape of Darkness.", "''Several Gothic traditions have also developed in New Zealand (with the subgenre referred to as New Zealand Gothic or Maori Gothic) and Australia (known as Australian Gothic).", "These explore everything from the multicultural natures of the two countries to their natural geography.", "Novels in the Australian Gothic tradition include Kate Grenville's ''The Secret River'' and the works of Kim Scott.", "An even smaller genre is Tasmanian Gothic, set exclusively on the island, with prominent examples including ''Gould's Book of Fish'' by Richard Flanagan and ''The Roving Party'' by Rohan Wilson.", "Another Australian author, Kate Morton, has penned several homages to classic gothic fiction, among them ''The Distant Hours'' and ''The House at Riverton''.", "Southern Ontario Gothic applies a similar sensibility to a Canadian cultural context.", "Robertson Davies, Alice Munro, Barbara Gowdy, Timothy Findley, and Margaret Atwood have all produced notable exemplars of this form.", "Another writer in the tradition was Henry Farrell, best known for his 1960 Hollywood horror novel ''What Ever Happened To Baby Jane?''", "Farrell's novels spawned a subgenre of \"Grande Dame Guignol\" in the cinema, represented by such films as the 1962 film based on Farrell's novel, which starred Bette Davis versus Joan Crawford; this subgenre of films was dubbed the \"psycho-biddy\" genre.The many Gothic subgenres include a new \"environmental Gothic\" or \"ecoGothic\".It is an ecologically aware Gothic engaged in \"dark nature\" and \"ecophobia.", "\"Writers and critics of the ecoGothic suggest that the Gothic genre is uniquely positioned to speak to anxieties about climate change and the planet's ecological future.Among the bestselling books of the 21st century, the YA novel ''Twilight'' by Stephenie Meyer is now increasingly identified as a Gothic novel, as is Carlos Ruiz Zafón's 2001 novel ''The Shadow of the Wind''." ], [ "Other media", "Literary Gothic themes have been translated into other media.There was a notable revival in 20th-century Gothic horror cinema, such as the classic Universal monsters films of the 1930s, Hammer Horror films, and Roger Corman's Poe cycle.In Hindi cinema, the Gothic tradition was combined with aspects of Indian culture, particularly reincarnation, for an \"Indian Gothic\" genre, beginning with ''Mahal'' (1949) and ''Madhumati'' (1958).The 1960s Gothic television series ''Dark Shadows'' borrowed liberally from Gothic traditions, with elements like haunted mansions, vampires, witches, doomed romances, werewolves, obsession, and madness.The early 1970s saw a Gothic Romance comic book mini-trend with such titles as DC Comics' ''The Dark Mansion of Forbidden Love'' and ''The Sinister House of Secret Love'', Charlton Comics' ''Haunted Love'', Curtis Magazines' ''Gothic Tales of Love'', and Atlas/Seaboard Comics' one-shot magazine ''Gothic Romances''.Twentieth-century rock music also had its Gothic side.", "Black Sabbath's 1970 debut album created a dark sound different from other bands at the time and has been called the first-ever \"goth-rock\" record.However, the first recorded use of \"gothic\" to describe a style of music was for The Doors.", "Critic John Stickney used the term \"gothic rock\" to describe the music of The Doors in October 1967 in a review published in ''The Williams Record''.", "The album recognized as initiating the goth music genre is ''Unknown Pleasures'' by the band Joy Division.", "However, earlier bands such as The Velvet Underground also contributed to the genre's distinctive style.", "Themes from Gothic writers such as H. P. Lovecraft were used among Gothic rock and heavy metal bands, especially in black metal, thrash metal (Metallica's ''The Call of Ktulu''), death metal, and gothic metal.", "For example, in his compositions, heavy metal musician King Diamond delights in telling stories full of horror, theatricality, Satanism, and anti-Catholicism.In role-playing games (RPG), the pioneering 1983 ''Dungeons & Dragons'' adventure ''Ravenloft'' instructs the players to defeat the vampire Strahd von Zarovich, who pines for his dead lover.", "It has been acclaimed as one of the best role-playing adventures ever and even inspired an entire fictional world of the same name.", "The ''World of Darkness'' is a gothic-punk RPG line set in the real world, with the added element of supernatural creatures such as werewolves and vampires.", "In addition to its flagship title ''Vampire: The Masquerade'', the game line features a number of spin-off RPGs such as ''Werewolf: The Apocalypse'', ''Mage: The Ascension'', Wraith: The Oblivion, ''Hunter: The Reckoning'', and ''Changeling: The Dreaming'', allowing for a wide range of characters in the gothic-punk setting.", "''My Life with Master'' uses Gothic horror conventions as a metaphor for abusive relationships, placing the players in the shoes of minions of a tyrannical, larger-than-life Master.Various video games feature Gothic horror themes and plots.", "The ''Castlevania'' series typically involves a hero of the Belmont lineage exploring a dark, old castle, fighting vampires, werewolves, Frankenstein's Creature, and other Gothic monster staples, culminating in a battle against Dracula himself.", "Others, such as ''Ghosts 'n Goblins'', feature a camper parody of Gothic fiction.", "2017's ''Resident Evil 7: Biohazard'', a Southern Gothic reboot to the survival horror video game involves an everyman and his wife trapped in a derelict plantation and mansion owned by a family with sinister and hideous secrets and must face terrifying visions of a ghostly mutant in the shape of a little girl.", "This was followed by 2021's ''Resident Evil Village'', a Gothic horror sequel focusing on an action hero searching for his kidnapped daughter in a mysterious Eastern European village under the control of a bizarre religious cult inhabited by werewolves, vampires, ghosts, shapeshifters, and other monsters.", "The ''Devil May Cry'' series stands as an equally parodic and self-serious franchise, following the escapades, stunts and mishaps of series protagonist Dante as he explores dingy demonic castles, ancient occult monuments and ruined urban landscapes on his quest to avenge his mother and brother.", "Gothic literary themes appear all throughout the story, such as how the past physically creeps into the ambiguously modern setting, recurrent imagery of doubles (notably regarding Dante and his twin brother), and the persisting melodramas associated with Dante's father's fame, absence, and demonic heritage.", "Beginning with ''Devil May Cry 3: Dante's Awakening'', Female Gothic elements enter the series as deuteragonist Lady works through her own revenge plot against her murderous father, with the oppressive and consistent emotional and physical abuse instigated by a patriarchal figure serving as a heavy, understated counterweight to the extravagance of the rest of the story.", "Finally, ''Bloodborne'' takes place in the decaying Gothic city of Yharnam, where the player must face werewolves, shambling mutants, vampires, witches, and numerous other Gothic staple creatures.", "However, the game takes a marked turn midway shifting from gothic to Lovecraftian horror.Popular tabletop card game ''Magic: The Gathering'', known for its parallel universe consisting of \"planes,\" features the plane known as Innistrad.", "Its general aesthetic is based on northeast European Gothic horror.", "Innistard's common residents include cultists, ghosts, vampires, werewolves, and zombies.Modern Gothic horror films include ''Sleepy Hollow'', ''Interview with the Vampire'', ''Underworld'', ''The Wolfman'', ''From Hell'', ''Dorian Gray'', ''Let the Right One In'', ''The Woman in Black'', ''Crimson Peak'', ''The Little Stranger'', and ''The Love Witch''.The TV series ''Penny Dreadful'' (2014–2016) brings many classic Gothic characters together in a psychological thriller set in the dark corners of Victorian London.The Oscar-winning Korean film ''Parasite'' has also been called Gothic – specifically, Revolutionary Gothic.Recently, the Netflix original ''The Haunting of Hill House'' and its successor ''The Haunting of Bly Manor'' have integrated classic Gothic conventions into modern psychological horror." ], [ "Scholarship", "Educators in literary, cultural, and architectural studies appreciate the Gothic as an area that facilitates investigation of the beginnings of scientific certainty.", "As Carol Senf has stated, \"the Gothic was... a counterbalance produced by writers and thinkers who felt limited by such a confident worldview and recognized that the power of the past, the irrational, and the violent continue to sway in the world.\"", "As such, the Gothic helps students better understand their doubts about the self-assurance of today's scientists.", "Scotland is the location of what was probably the world's first postgraduate program to consider the genre exclusively: the MLitt in the Gothic Imagination at the University of Stirling, first recruited in 1996." ], [ "See also", "*Aestheticism*American Gothic fiction*Decadent Movement*Dark fantasy*Eighteenth-century Gothic novel*French Revolution and the English Gothic Novel*Gaslamp fantasy*Gothic film*Gothic romance film*Gothic Western*Irish Gothic literature*List of gothic fiction works*List of Minerva Press authors*Minerva Press*Southern Gothic*Southern Ontario Gothic*Suburban Gothic*Symbolism (arts)*Tasmanian Gothic*Urban Gothic*Weird fiction*Goth music*Goth subculture" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "***Baldick, Chris (1993), ''Introduction,'' in ''The Oxford Book of Gothic Tales'', Oxford: Oxford University Press*Birkhead, Edith (1921), ''The Tale of Terror''*Bloom, Clive (2007), ''Gothic Horror: A Guide for Students and Readers'', Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan*Botting, Fred (1996), ''Gothic'', London: Routledge*Brown, Marshall (2005), ''The Gothic Text'', Stanford, CA: Stanford UP*Butuzov, A.E.", "(2008), ''Russkaya goticheskaya povest XIX Veka''*Charnes, Linda (2010), ''Shakespeare and the Gothic Strain'', Vol.", "38, pp.", "185*Clery, E.J.", "(1995), ''The Rise of Supernatural Fiction'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.", "*Cornwell, Neil (1999), ''The Gothic-Fantastic in Nineteenth-Century Russian Literature'', Amsterdam: Atlanta, GA: Rodopi, Studies in Slavic Literature and Poetics, volume 33*Cook, Judith (1980), ''Women in Shakespeare'', London: Harrap & Co. Ltd*Cusack A., Barry M. (2012), ''Popular Revenants: The German Gothic and Its International Reception, 1800–2000'', Camden House*Davenport-Hines, Richard (1998), ''Gothic: 400 Years of Excess, Horror, Evil and Ruin'', London: Fourth Estate*Davison, Carol Margaret (2009), ''Gothic Literature 1764–1824'', Cardiff: University of Wales Press*Drakakis, John & Dale Townshend (2008), ''Gothic Shakespeares'', New York: Routledge*Eagleton, Terry (1995), ''Heathcliff and the Great Hunger'', New York: Verso*Fuchs, Barbara (2004), ''Romance'', London: Routledge*Gamer, Michael (2006), ''Romanticism and the Gothic.", "Genre, Reception and Canon Formation'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press*Gibbons, Luke (2004), ''Gaelic Gothic'', Galway: Arlen House*Gilbert, Sandra and Susan Gubar (1979), ''The Madwoman in the Attic''.", "*Goulart, Ron (1986), \"The Pulps\" in Jack Sullivan and Pedro Chamo, ed., ''The Penguin Encyclopedia of Horror and the Supernatural: 337-40''*Grigorescu, George (2007), ''Long Journey Inside The Flesh'', Bucharest, Romania *Hadji, Robert (1986), \"Jean Ray\" in Jack Sullivan, ed., ''The Penguin Encyclopedia of Horror and the Supernatural''*Haggerty, George (2006), ''Queer Gothic'', Urbana, IL: Illinois UP*Halberstam, Jack (1995), ''Skin Shows'', Durham, NC: Duke UP*Hogle, J.E.", "(2002), ''The Cambridge Companion to Gothic Fiction'', Cambridge University Press*Horner, Avril & Sue Zlosnik (2005), ''Gothic and the Comic Turn'', Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan*Horner, Avril (2002), ''European Gothic: A Spirited Exchange 1760–1960'', Manchester & New York: Manchester University Press*Hughes, William, ''Historical Dictionary of Gothic Literature'', Scarecrow Press, 2012*Jackson, Rosemary (1981), ''Fantasy: The Literature of Subversion''*Kilgour, Maggie (1995), ''The Rise of the Gothic Novel'', London: Routledge*Jürgen Klein (1975), ''Der Gotische Roman und die Ästhetik des Bösen'', Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft*Jürgen Klein, Gunda Kuttler (2011), ''Mathematik des Begehrens'', Hamburg: Shoebox House Verlag*Korovin, Valentin I.", "(1988), ''Fantasticheskii mir russkoi romanticheskoi povesti''*Medina, Antoinette (2007), ''A Vampires Vedas''*Mighall, Robert (2003), ''A Geography of Victorian Gothic Fiction: Mapping History's Nightmares'', Oxford: Oxford University Press*Mighall, Robert (2007), \"Gothic Cities\", in C. Spooner and E. McEvoy, eds, ''The Routledge Companion to Gothic'', London: Routledge, pp.", "54–72*O'Connell, Lisa (2010), ''The Theo-political Origins of the English Marriage Plot,'' Novel: A Forum on Fiction, Vol.", "43, Issue 1, pp.", "31–37*Peterson, Dale (1987), The Slavic and East European Journal, Vol.", "31, No.", "1 (Spring, 1987), pp.", "36–49*Punter, David (1996), ''The Literature of Terror'', London: Longman (2 volumes)*Punter, David (2004), ''The Gothic'', London: Wiley-Blackwell*Sabor, Peter & Paul Yachnin (2008), ''Shakespeare and the Eighteenth Century'', Ashgate Publishing Ltd*Salter, David (2009), ''This demon in the garb of a monk: Shakespeare, the Gothic and the discourse of anti-Catholicism'', Vol.", "5, Issue 1, pp.", "52–67*Sedgwick, Eve Kosofsky (1986), ''The Coherence of Gothic Conventions'', NY: Methuen*Shakespeare, William (1997), ''The Riverside Shakespeare: Second Edition'', Boston, NY: Houghton Mifflin Co.*Simpson, Mark S. (1986), ''The Russian Gothic Novel and its British Antecedents'', Slavica Publishers*Skarda, Patricia L., and Jaffe, Norma Crow (1981), ''Evil Image: Two Centuries of Gothic Short Fiction and Poetry''.", "New York: Meridian*Skarda, Patricia (1986), \"Gothic Parodies\" in Jack Sullivan ed.", "(1986), ''The Penguin Encyclopedia of Horror and the Supernatural: 178-9''*Skarda, Patricia (1986b), \"Oates, Joyce Carol\" in Jack Sullivan ed.", "(1986), ''The Penguin Encyclopedia of Horror and the Supernatural: 303-4''*Stevens, David (2000), ''The Gothic Tradition'', *Sullivan, Jack, ed.", "(1986), ''The Penguin Encyclopedia of Horror and the Supernatural''*Summers, Montague (1938), ''The Gothic Quest''*Townshend, Dale (2007), ''The Orders of Gothic''*Varma, Devendra (1957), ''The Gothic Flame''*Varma, Devendra (1986), \"Maturin, Charles Robert\" in Jack Sullivan, ed., ''The Penguin Encyclopedia of Horror and the Supernatural: 285-286''*Wisker, Gina (2005), ''Horror Fiction: An Introduction'', Continuum: New York*Wright, Angela (2007), ''Gothic Fiction'', Basingstoke: Palgrave" ], [ "External links", "** Gothic Fiction at the British Library* Key motifs in Gothic Fiction – a British Library film* Gothic Fiction Bookshelf at Project Gutenberg* ''Irish Journal of Gothic and Horror Studies''* Gothic author biographies* The Gothic Imagination * \"Gothic\", ''In Our Time'', BBC Radio 4 discussion with Chris Baldick, A.N.", "Wilson and Emma Clery (Jan. 4, 2001)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gospel" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Gospel''' (; ) originally meant the Christian message (\"the gospel\"), but in the 2nd century it came to be used also for the books in which the message was reported.", "In this sense a gospel can be defined as a loose-knit, episodic narrative of the words and deeds of Jesus, culminating in his trial and death and concluding with various reports of his post-resurrection appearances.", "Modern biblical scholars are cautious of relying on the gospels uncritically, but nevertheless, they provide a good idea of the public career of Jesus, and critical study can attempt to distinguish the original ideas of Jesus from those of the later Christian authors.The canonical gospels are the four which appear in the New Testament of the Bible.", "They were probably written between AD 66 and 110.All four were anonymous (with the modern names of the \"Four Evangelists\" added in the 2nd century), almost certainly none were by eyewitnesses, and all are the end-products of long oral and written transmission.", "According to the majority of scholars, Mark was the first to be written, using a variety of sources, followed by Matthew and Luke, which both independently used Mark for their narrative of Jesus's career, supplementing it with a collection of sayings called \"the Q source\", and additional material unique to each.", "There is near-consensus that John had its origins as the hypothetical Signs Gospel thought to have been circulated within a Johannine community.Many non-canonical gospels were also written, all later than the four canonical gospels, and like them advocating the particular theological views of their various authors.", "Important examples include the gospels of Thomas, Peter, Judas, and Mary; infancy gospels such as that of James (the first to introduce the perpetual virginity of Mary); and gospel harmonies such as the Diatessaron." ], [ "Etymology", "''Gospel'' is the Old English translation of the Hellenistic Greek term , meaning \"good news\"; this may be seen from analysis of ( \"good\" + \"messenger\" + diminutive suffix).", "The Greek term was Latinized as in the Vulgate, and translated into Latin as .", "In Old English, it was translated as ( \"good\" + \"news\").", "The Old English term was retained as in Middle English Bible translations and hence remains in use also in Modern English." ], [ "Canonical gospels: Matthew, Mark, Luke and John", "===Contents===Armenian, by Sargis Pitsak, 14th centuryThe four canonical gospels share the same basic outline of the life of Jesus: he begins his public ministry in conjunction with that of John the Baptist, calls disciples, teaches and heals and confronts the Pharisees, dies on the cross and is raised from the dead.", "Each has its own distinctive understanding of him and his divine role and scholars recognize that the differences of detail between the gospels are irreconcilable, and any attempt to harmonize them would only disrupt their distinct theological messages.", "Matthew, Mark and Luke are termed the synoptic gospels because they present very similar accounts of the life of Jesus.", "Mark begins with the baptism of the adult Jesus and the heavenly declaration that he is the son of God; he gathers followers and begins his ministry, and tells his disciples that he must die in Jerusalem but that he will rise; in Jerusalem, he is at first acclaimed but then rejected, betrayed, and crucified, and when the women who have followed him come to his tomb they find it empty.", "Mark never calls Jesus \"God\" or claims that he existed prior to his earthly life, apparently believes that he had a normal human parentage and birth, and makes no attempt to trace his ancestry back to King David or Adam; it originally ended at Mark 16:8 and had no post-resurrection appearances, although Mark 16:7, in which the young man discovered in the tomb instructs the women to tell \"the disciples and Peter\" that Jesus will see them again in Galilee, hints that the author knew of the tradition.The authors of Matthew and Luke added infancy and resurrection narratives to the story they found in Mark, although the two differ markedly.", "Each also makes subtle theological changes to Mark: the Markan miracle stories, for example, confirm Jesus' status as an emissary of God (which was Mark's understanding of the Messiah), but in Matthew they demonstrate his divinity, and the \"young man\" who appears at Jesus' tomb in Mark becomes a radiant angel in Matthew.", "Luke, while following Mark's plot more faithfully than Matthew, has expanded on the source, corrected Mark's grammar and syntax, and eliminated some passages entirely, notably most of chapters 6 and 7.John, the most overtly theological, is the first to make Christological judgements outside the context of the narrative of Jesus's life.", "He presents a significantly different picture of Jesus's career, omitting any mention of his ancestry, birth and childhood, his baptism, temptation and transfiguration; his chronology and arrangement of incidents is also distinctly different, clearly describing the passage of three years in Jesus's ministry in contrast to the single year of the synoptics, placing the cleansing of the Temple at the beginning rather than at the end, and the Last Supper on the day before Passover instead of being a Passover meal.", "The Gospel of John is the only gospel to call Jesus God, and in contrast to Mark, where Jesus hides his identity as messiah, in John he openly proclaims it.===Composition===Q (the double tradition), and material unique to Matthew (the M source), Luke (the L source), and MarkLike the rest of the New Testament, the four gospels were written in Greek.", "The Gospel of Mark probably dates from c. AD 66–70, Matthew and Luke around AD 85–90, and John AD 90–110.Despite the traditional ascriptions, all four are anonymous and most scholars agree that none were written by eyewitnesses.", "A few conservative scholars defend the traditional ascriptions or attributions, but for a variety of reasons the majority of scholars have abandoned this view or hold it only tenuously.", "In the immediate aftermath of Jesus' death his followers expected him to return at any moment, certainly within their own lifetimes, and in consequence there was little motivation to write anything down for future generations, but as eyewitnesses began to die, and as the missionary needs of the church grew, there was an increasing demand and need for written versions of the founder's life and teachings.", "The stages of this process can be summarised as follows:* Oral traditions – stories and sayings passed on largely as separate self-contained units, not in any order;* Written collections of miracle stories, parables, sayings, etc., with oral tradition continuing alongside these;* Written proto-gospels preceding and serving as sources for the gospels – the dedicatory preface of Luke, for example, testifies to the existence of previous accounts of the life of Jesus.", "* Gospels formed by combining proto-gospels, written collections and still-current oral tradition.Mark is generally agreed to be the first gospel; it uses a variety of sources, including conflict stories (Mark 2:1–3:6), apocalyptic discourse (4:1–35), and collections of sayings, although not the sayings gospel known as the Gospel of Thomas and probably not the hypothesized Q source used by Matthew and Luke.", "The authors of Matthew and Luke, acting independently, used Mark for their narrative of Jesus's career, supplementing it with the hypothesized collection of sayings called the Q source and additional material unique to each called the M source (Matthew) and the L source (Luke).", "Mark, Matthew and Luke are called the synoptic gospels because of the close similarities between them in terms of content, arrangement, and language.", "The authors and editors of John may have known the synoptics, but did not use them in the way that Matthew and Luke used Mark.", "There is a near-consensus that this gospel had its origins as a \"signs\" source (or gospel) that circulated within the Johannine community (which produced John and the three epistles associated with the name) and later expanded with a Passion narrative as well as a series of discourses.All four also use the Jewish scriptures, by quoting or referencing passages, interpreting texts, or alluding to or echoing biblical themes.", "Such use can be extensive: Mark's description of the Parousia (second coming) is made up almost entirely of quotations from scripture.", "Matthew is full of quotations and allusions, and although John uses scripture in a far less explicit manner, its influence is still pervasive.", "Their source was the Greek version of the scriptures, called the Septuagint; they do not seem familiar with the original Hebrew.===Genre and historical reliability===The consensus among modern scholars is that the gospels are a subset of the ancient genre of ''bios'', or ancient biography.", "Ancient biographies were concerned with providing examples for readers to emulate while preserving and promoting the subject's reputation and memory; the gospels were never simply biographical, they were propaganda and ''kerygma'' (preaching).", "As such, they present the Christian message of the second half of the first century AD, and as Luke's attempt to link the birth of Jesus to the census of Quirinius demonstrates, there is no guarantee that the gospels are historically accurate.", "The majority view among critical scholars is that the authors of Matthew and Luke have based their narratives on Mark's gospel, editing him to suit their own ends, and the contradictions and discrepancies between these three and John make it impossible to accept both traditions as equally reliable with regard to the historical Jesus.", "In addition, the gospels we read today have been edited and corrupted over time, leading Origen to complain in the 3rd century that \"the differences among manuscripts have become great, ... because copyists either neglect to check over what they have transcribed, or, in the process of checking, they make additions or deletions as they please\".", "Most of these are insignificant, but many are significant, an example being Matthew 1:18, altered to imply the pre-existence of Jesus.", "For these reasons modern scholars are cautious of relying on the gospels uncritically, but nevertheless, they do provide a good idea of the public career of Jesus, and critical study can attempt to distinguish the original ideas of Jesus from those of the later authors.Scholars usually agree that John is not without historical value: certain of its sayings are as old or older than their synoptic counterparts, and its representation of the topography around Jerusalem is often superior to that of the synoptics.", "Its testimony that Jesus was executed before, rather than on, Passover, might well be more accurate, and its presentation of Jesus in the garden and the prior meeting held by the Jewish authorities are possibly more historically plausible than their synoptic parallels.", "Nevertheless, it is highly unlikely that the author had direct knowledge of events, or that his mentions of the Beloved Disciple as his source should be taken as a guarantee of his reliability.===Textual history and canonisation===The oldest gospel text known is , a fragment of John dating from the first half of the 2nd century.", "The creation of a Christian canon was probably a response to the career of the heretic Marcion (c. 85–160), who established a canon of his own with just one gospel, the Gospel of Marcion, similar to the Gospel of Luke.", "The Muratorian canon, the earliest surviving list of books considered (by its own author at least) to form Christian scripture, included Matthew, Mark, Luke and John.", "Irenaeus of Lyons went further, stating that there must be four gospels and only four because there were four corners of the Earth and thus the Church should have four pillars.", "He referred to the four collectively as the \"fourfold gospel\" (''euangelion tetramorphon'')." ], [ "Non-canonical (apocryphal) gospels", "The Gospel of ThomasThe many apocryphal gospels arose from the 1st century onward, frequently under assumed names to enhance their credibility and authority, and often from within branches of Christianity that were eventually branded heretical.", "They can be broadly organised into the following categories:* Infancy gospels: arose in the 2nd century, including the Gospel of James, also called the Protoevangelium, which was the first to introduce the concept of the Perpetual Virginity of Mary, and the Infancy Gospel of Thomas (not to be confused with the unrelated Coptic Gospel of Thomas), both of which related many miraculous incidents from the life of Mary and the childhood of Jesus that are not included in the canonical gospels.", "* Ministry gospels* Sayings gospels and agrapha* Passion, resurrection and post-resurrection gospels* Gospel harmonies: in which the four canonical gospels are combined into a single narrative, either to present a consistent text or to produce a more accessible account of Jesus' life.", "The apocryphal gospels can also be seen in terms of the communities which produced them: * The Jewish-Christian gospels are the products of Christians of Jewish origin who had not given up their Jewish identity: they regarded Jesus as the messiah of the Jewish scripture but did not agree that he was God, an idea which, although central to Christianity as it eventually developed, is contrary to Jewish beliefs.", "* Gnostic gospels uphold the idea that the universe is the product of a hierarchy of gods, of whom the Jewish god is a rather low-ranking member.", "Gnosticism holds that Jesus was entirely \"spirit\", and that his earthly life and death were therefore only an appearance, not a reality.", "Many Gnostic texts deal not in concepts of sin and repentance, but with illusion and enlightenment.+ The major apocryphal gospels (after Bart Ehrman, \"Lost Christianities\" – comments on content are by Ehrman unless otherwise noted) Title Probable date Content Epistle of the Apostles Mid 2nd c. Anti-gnostic dialogue between Jesus and the disciples after the resurrection, emphasising the reality of the flesh and of Jesus' fleshly resurrection Gospel According to the Hebrews Early 2nd c. Events in the life of Jesus; Jewish-Christian, with possible gnostic overtones Gospel of the Ebionites Early 2nd c. Jewish-Christian, embodying anti-sacrificial concerns Gospel of the Egyptians Early 2nd c. \"Salome\" figures prominently; Jewish-Christian stressing asceticism Gospel of Mary 2nd c. Dialogue of Mary Magdalene with the apostles, and her vision of Jesus' secret teachings.", "It was originally written in Greek and is often interpreted as a Gnostic text.", "It is typically not considered a gospel by scholars since it does not focus on the life of Jesus.", "Gospel of the Nazareans Early 2nd c. Aramaic version of Matthew, possibly lacking the first two chapters; Jewish-Christian Gospel of Nicodemus 5th c. Jesus' trial, crucifixion and descent into Hell Gospel of Peter Early 2nd c. Fragmentary narrative of Jesus' trial, death and emergence from the tomb.", "It seems to be hostile toward Jews and includes docetic elements.", "It is a narrative gospel and is notable for asserting that Herod, not Pontius Pilate, ordered the crucifixion of Jesus.", "It had been lost but was rediscovered in the 19th century.", "Gospel of Philip 3rd c. Mystical reflections of the disciple Philip Gospel of the Saviour Late 2nd c. Fragmentary account of Jesus' last hours Coptic Gospel of Thomas Early 2nd c. The ''Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church'' says that the original may date from c. 150.Some scholars believe that it may represent a tradition independent from the canonical gospels, but that developed over a long time and was influenced by Matthew and Luke; other scholars believe it is a later text, dependent from the canonical gospels.", "While it can be understood in Gnostic terms, it lacks the characteristic features of Gnostic doctrine.", "It includes two unique parables, the parable of the empty jar and the parable of the assassin.", "It had been lost but was discovered, in a Coptic version dating from c. 350, at Nag Hammadi in 1945–46, and three papyri, dated to c. 200, which contain fragments of a Greek text similar to but not identical with that in the Coptic language, have also been found.", "Infancy Gospel of Thomas Early 2nd c. Miraculous deeds of Jesus between the ages of five and twelve Gospel of Truth Mid 2nd c. Joys of Salvation Papyrus Egerton 2 Early 2nd c. Fragmentary, four episodes from the life of Jesus Diatessaron Late 2nd c. Gospel harmony (and the first such gospel harmony) composed by Tatian; may have been intended to replace the separate gospels as an authoritative text.", "It was accepted for liturgical purposes for as much as two centuries in Syria, but was eventually suppressed.", "Protoevangelium of James Mid 2nd c. Birth and early life of Mary, and birth of Jesus Gospel of Marcion Mid 2nd c. Marcion of Sinope, c. 150, had a much shorter version of the gospel of Luke, differing substantially from what has now become the standard text of the gospel and far less oriented towards the Jewish scriptures.", "Marcion's critics said that he had edited out the portions of Luke he did not like, though Marcion argued that his was the more genuinely original text.", "He is said to have rejected all other gospels, including those of Matthew, Mark and especially John, which he alleged had been forged by Irenaeus.", "Secret Gospel of Mark Uncertain Allegedly a longer version of Mark written for an elect audience Gospel of Judas Late 2nd c. Purports to tell the story of the gospel from the perspective of Judas, the disciple who is usually said to have betrayed Jesus.", "It paints an unusual picture of the relationship between Jesus and Judas, in that it appears to interpret Judas's act not as betrayal, but rather as an act of obedience to the instructions of Jesus.", "The text was recovered from a cave in Egypt by a thief and thereafter sold on the black market until it was finally discovered by a collector who, with the help of academics from Yale and Princeton, was able to verify its authenticity.", "The document itself does not claim to have been authored by Judas (it is, rather, a gospel about Judas), and is known to date to at least 180 AD.", "Gospel of Barnabas 14th–16th c. Contradicts the ministry of Jesus in canonical New Testament and strongly denies Pauline doctrine, but has clear parallels with Islam, mentioning Muhammad as Messenger of God.", "Jesus identifies himself as a prophet, not the son of God." ], [ "See also", "* Agrapha * Apocalyptic literature* ''The Aquarian Gospel of Jesus the Christ''* Authorship of the Bible* Bodmer Papyri* Dating the Bible* Fifth gospel (genre)* The gospel* Gospel (liturgy)* Gospel harmony* Gospel in Islam* Gospel of Marcion* Jesusism* Jewish-Christian gospels" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Citations======Bibliography===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *** * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ** *" ], [ "External links", "* * A detailed discussion of the textual variants in the gospels – covering about 1200 variants on 2000 pages (archived 8 June 2008)* Greek New Testament – the Greek text of the New Testament: specifically the Westcott-Hort text from 1881, combined with the NA26/27 variants (archived 19 June 2008)." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "GIMP" ], [ "Introduction", "'''GNU Image Manipulation Program''', commonly known by its acronym '''GIMP''' ( ), is a free and open-source raster graphics editor used for image manipulation (retouching) and image editing, free-form drawing, transcoding between different image file formats, and more specialized tasks.", "It is extensible by means of plugins, and scriptable.", "It is not designed to be used for drawing, though some artists and creators have used it in this way.GIMP is released under the GPL-3.0-or-later license and is available for Linux, macOS, and Microsoft Windows." ], [ "History", "In 1995, Spencer Kimball and Peter Mattis began developing GIMP—originally named ''General Image Manipulation Program''—as a semester-long project at the University of California, Berkeley for the eXperimental Computing Facility''.''", "The acronym was coined first, with the letter ''G'' being added to ''-IMP'' as a reference to \"the gimp\" in the scene from the 1994 film ''Pulp Fiction''.1996 was the initial public release of GIMP (0.54).", "The editor was quickly adopted and a community of contributors formed.", "The community began developing tutorials and artwork and sharing better work-flows and techniques.In the following year, Kimball and Mattis met with Richard Stallman of the GNU Project while he visited UC Berkeley and asked if they could change ''General'' in the application's name to ''GNU'' (the name of the operating system created by Stallman), and Stallman approved.", "The application subsequently formed part of the GNU software collection.The first release supported Unix systems, such as Linux, SGI IRIX and HP-UX.", "Since then, GIMP has been ported to other operating systems, including Microsoft Windows (1997, GIMP 1.1) and macOS.A GUI toolkit called GTK (at the time known as the GIMP ToolKit) was developed to facilitate the development of GIMP.", "The development of the GIMP ToolKit has been attributed to Peter Mattis becoming disenchanted with the Motif toolkit GIMP originally used.", "Motif was used up until GIMP 0.60.In recent versions (since the GIMP 2.9 build), the removal of the Lanczos image scaling algorithm, which had been used by GIMP and other image editing programs for many years, in favor of pushing forward the new NoHalo and LoHalo algorithms developed by Nicolas Robidoux, caused some controversy among GIMP users, with some users standing by the change but others expressing their dissatisfaction about it, due to mixed quality results in some image scaling scenarios, leading some users to keep using the older 2.8 version of GIMP simply because it's the last build with Lanczos support, and a few users giving up on using the application altogether as a result.", "To this day, several users hope to see a future version of GIMP with the Lanczos algorithm added back as an option for image resampling.=== Mascot ===300pxGIMP's mascot is called Wilber and was created in GIMP by Tuomas Kuosmanen, known as ''tigert'', on 25 September 1997.Wilber received additional accessories from other GIMP developers, which can be found in the ''Wilber Construction Kit'', included in the GIMP source code as /docs/Wilber_Construction_Kit.xcf.gz." ], [ "Development", "GIMP is primarily developed by volunteers as a free and open source software project associated with both the GNU and GNOME projects.", "Development takes place in a public git source code repository, on public mailing lists and in public chat channels on the GIMPNET IRC network.New features are held in public separate source code branches and merged into the main (or development) branch when the GIMP team is sure they won't damage existing functions.", "Sometimes this means that features that appear complete do not get merged or take months or years before they become available in GIMP.GIMP itself is released as source code.", "After a source code release, installers and packages are made for different operating systems by parties who might not be in contact with the maintainers of GIMP.The version number used in GIMP is expressed in a ''major-minor-micro'' format, with each number carrying a specific meaning: the first (major) number is incremented only for major developments (and is currently 2).", "The second (minor) number is incremented with each release of new features, with odd numbers reserved for in-progress development versions and even numbers assigned to stable releases; the third (micro) number is incremented before and after each release (resulting in even numbers for releases, and odd numbers for development snapshots) with any bug fixes subsequently applied and released for a stable version.Previously, GIMP applied for several positions in the Google Summer of Code (GSoC).", "From 2006 to 2009 there have been nine GSoC projects that have been listed as successful, although not all successful projects have been merged into GIMP immediately.", "The healing brush and perspective clone tools and Ruby bindings were created as part of the 2006 GSoC and can be used in version 2.8.0 of GIMP, although there were three other projects that were completed and are later available in a stable version of GIMP; those projects being Vector Layers (end 2008 in 2.8 and master), and a JPEG 2000 plug-in (mid 2009 in 2.8 and master).", "Several of the GSoC projects were completed in 2008, but have been merged into a stable GIMP release later in 2009 to 2014 for Version 2.8.xx and 2.10.x.", "Some of them needed some more code work for the master tree.Second public Development 2.9-Version was 2.9.4 with many deep improvements after initial Public Version 2.9.2.Third Public 2.9-Development version is Version 2.9.6.One of the new features is removing the 4 GB size limit of XCF file.", "Increase of possible threads to 64 is also an important point for modern parallel execution in actual AMD Ryzen and Intel Xeon processors.", "Version 2.9.8 included many bug fixes and improvements in gradients and clips.", "Improvements in performance and optimization beyond bug hunting were the development targets for 2.10.0.MacOS Beta is available with Version 2.10.4.The next stable version in the roadmap is 3.0 with a GTK3 port.", "2.99-Series is the development Series to 3.0.Jehan Pages, the lead developer and maintainer of GIMP, stated that GIMP 3.0's release is tentative for May 2024 and plans to announce the release at the next Libre Graphics Meeting conference.GIMP developers meet during the annual Libre Graphics Meeting.", "Interaction designers from OpenUsability have also contributed to GIMP." ], [ "Versions", "===GIMP 0.x=== Major version Latest minor version Initial release Significant changes and notes ?", "1995-11-21 First release 0.54.1 1996-01-31 0.54 features some improvements over earlier versions and many bug fixes.", "Also made a slight modification to the way the file overwrite dialog works.", "?", "1996-07-??", "Creation of GIMP Tool Kit 0.99.31 1997-02-26 Porting plug-ins ===GIMP 1.x=== Major version Latest minor version Initial release Significant changes and notes 1.0.3 1998-06-05 Switch from Motif to GTK+ 1.x.", "Support for image layers.", "Introduction of the XCF file format.", "New memory manager with disk caching of tiles to support large images.", "New plug-in/extension API and introduction of the Procedural Database (PDB).", "Introduction of Script-Fu.", "1.2.5 2000-12-25 Improvements to the user interface ===GIMP 2.x=== Major version Minor version Initial release Significant changes and notes 2.0 2004-03-23 Switch to GTK+ 2.x graphical toolkit.", "Introduction of tabs and docks system, improvements to Script-Fu scripting, text re-editing, CMYK color support.", "?", "?", "?", "?", "?", "?", "2.2 2004-12-19 Plugin support, keyboard shortcut editor, previews for transform tools.", "New GIMP hardware controllers support.", "Improvements to drag and drop and copy and paste to other applications.", "The last major version to support Windows 98/Me.", "?", "?", "?", "?", "?", "?", "?", "?", "?", "?", "?", "?", "?", "?", "?", "?", "?", "2.4 2007-10-24 Color management support, scalable brushes, new and rewritten selection tools and crop tools.", "Many user interface changes including full screen editing and a new icon theme.", "Increased file format support.", "Improved printing quality.", "Improved interface for external device input.", "?", "?", "?", "?", "?", "?", "?", "2.6 2008-10-01 Partial implementation of GEGL, and first iteration of UI re-design.", "2008-10-09 2008-10-30 2008-11-22 2.6.4 Unreleased version.", "2009-02-15 2009-03-17 2009-08-14 2009-12-10 2010-06-23 2010-07-08 2010-10-04 2012-02-01 2.8 2010-07-03 Single-window mode.", "Multi-column dock windows.", "Other UI improvements.", "Save/Export separation.", "Layer groups.", "Tools drawn with Cairo.", "On canvas text editing.", "Simple math in size entries.", "Various improvements.", "2011-04-15 Various bugfixes.", "2011-08-22 Various bugfixes.", "UI improvements.", "OS X improvements.", "2011-12-13 Various bugfixes.", "2012-03-14 Various bugfixes.", "2012-04-08 Updated code from 2.7.5.2012-05-03 Layer groups, on-canvas text editing, optional single window mode.", "UI improvements.", "Various bugfixes.", "2012-08-24 Various bugfixes.", "2013-02-05 Various bugfixes.", "OS X version released on 10 February.", "2013-06-21 Various bugfixes.", "2.8.8 Unreleased version.", "2013-11-28 Improved OS X support.", "2.8.12 Unreleased version.", "Re-released as 2.8.14 with a critical bugfix.", "2014-08-26 Fixed libtool versioning.", "2015-11-22 Layer groups support in OpenRaster files.", "Layer groups support fixed for PSD files.", "UI improvements.", "Various bugfixes.", "Windows installer received an important bugfix on 5 June 2016.2016-07-14 Vulnerability (CVE-2016-4994) fixed in XCF loading code.", "Various bugfixes.", "2017-02-01 Various bugfixes.", "Windows and macOS versions released on 7 February.", "2017-05-11 Various bugfixes.", "2.10 2015-11-27 First dev release in the 2.9.x series.", "GEGL port.", "New and improved tools.", "File format support improvements.", "Better color management.", "Layers blending improvements.", "Metadata improvements.", "2016-07-13 Second dev release in this series.", "New UI, usability improvements, new themes.", "Better color management.", "GEGL improvements.", "Various other improvements and bugfixes.", "2017-08-24 Third dev release.", "Various performance improvements and bugfixes.", "2017-12-12 Fourth and final dev release.", "On-canvas gradient editing.", "Wayland support (Linux).", "GUI and usability improvements.", "File format support improvements.", "2018-04-27 Nearly fully ported to GEGL, including for filters.", "New color management.", "Various improved tools.", "New image formats (OpenEXR, RGBE, WebP, HGT).", "Basic HiDPI support.", "New themes.", "Various bug fixes.", "2018-05-20 Various bugfixes.", "2018-07-04 Simple horizon straightening.", "Asynchronous fonts loading.", "Various bugfixes.", "2018-08-19 Vertical text layer.", "New filters.", "Various bugfixes.", "2018-11-08 Various bugfixes.", "2019-04-07 Line art detection.", "GEGL improvements.", "Various bugfixes.", "2019-06-12 Various bugfixes.", "2019-10-31 File format improvements (HEIF, TIFF, PSD).", "MacOS compatibility improvements.", "Various bugfixes.", "2.10.16 Unreleased version.", "Re-released as 2.10.18 with a critical bugfix.", "2020-02-24 New 3D transform tool.", "Various bugfixes.", "No macOS port.", "2020-06-11 Various bugfixes.", "No macOS port.", "2020-10-07 Improved HEIC support.", "AVIF support improvements.", "Various bugfixes.", "MacOS version released on 25 December.", "2021-03-29 File format improvements (HEIF, PSP, TIFF, JPEG, PNG, PDF, DDS, BMP, PSD).", "\"Negative Darkroom\" for negatives.", "Many bugfixes.", "2.10.26 Unreleased version.", "Re-released as 2.10.28 with a critical bugfix.", "2021-09-18 Various bugfixes.", "2021-12-21 File format improvements (PSD and AVIF).", "MacOS improvements backported from 2.99.8.Other improvements.", "2022-06-14 Features backported from 2.99.8, like TIFF support improvements and JPEG XL support.", "Various bug fixes and improvements.", "2023-02-27 Features backported from 2.99.14.File format improvements.", "Template selector in Canvas Size dialog backported from 2.99.6.Improved color-picking.", "Various macOS improvements.", "GEGL and babl improvements.", "Experimental ARM builds for Windows.", "2023-11-05 Support for ASE and ACB palettes.", "FG to transparent transition.", "Better image ratio support for GIFs.", "Various bugfixes and other enhancements.", "===GIMP 3.x=== Major version Minor version Initial release Significant changes and notes 3.0 2020-11-06 2020-12-25 2021-05-08 2021-10-20 2022-02-25 2022-08-27 2022-11-18 2023-07-09 2024-02-20 Complete port from unmaintained old GTK+ 2.x to maintained GTK+ 3.24 or GTK 4.0, better hiDPi and Wacom support, Wayland support on Linux, multiple layer selection support, extensions in Python 3, JavaScript, Lua and Vala.", "2.99.8 is available as the 4th public prerelease.", "(after 2.99.2, 2.99.4, and 2.99.6) 2.99.10 is fifth prerelease with many improvements in core.", "2.99.12 is 6th release and a huge milestone to 3.0 with many new features and new formats.", "XCF saving of native GIMP data is in 2.99.14 much improved with multi threading.", "many improvements and bug fixing in 2.99.16 on road to 3.0 2.99.18 with 35 issues possibly last preview to 3.0 Some blocker bugs: 6 () on road to 3.0.3.2 Non-destructive editing, non-destructive filters, animation and multi page support, macros with script recording, extensions, space invasion, canvas and tools are main points." ], [ "Distribution", "The current version of GIMP works with numerous operating systems, including Linux, macOS and Windows.", "Many Linux distributions, such as Fedora Linux and Debian., include GIMP as a part of their desktop operating systems.GIMP began to host its own downloads after discontinuing use of SourceForge in 2013.The website later repossessed GIMP's dormant account and hosted advertising-laden versions of GIMP for Windows." ], [ "Professional reviews", "Lifewire reviewed GIMP favorably in March 2019, writing that \"for those who have never experienced Photoshop, GIMP is simply a very powerful image manipulation program,\" and \"if you're willing to invest some time learning it, it can be a very good graphics tool.", "\"GIMP's fitness for use in professional environments is regularly reviewed; it is often compared to and suggested as a possible replacement for Adobe Photoshop.GIMP 2.6 was used to create nearly all of the art in ''Lucas the Game'', an independent video game by developer Timothy Courtney.", "Courtney started development of ''Lucas the Game'' in early 2014, and the video game was published in July 2015 for PC and Mac.", "Courtney explains GIMP is a powerful tool, fully capable of large professional projects, such as video games.The single-window mode introduced in GIMP 2.8 was reviewed in 2012 by Ryan Paul of ''Ars Technica'', who noted that it made the user experience feel \"more streamlined and less cluttered\".", "Michael Burns, writing for ''Macworld'' in 2014, described the single-window interface of GIMP 2.8.10 as a \"big improvement\".In his review of GIMP for ''ExtremeTech'' in October 2013, David Cardinal noted that GIMP's reputation of being hard to use and lacking features has \"changed dramatically over the last couple years\", and that it was \"no longer a crippled alternative to Photoshop\".", "He described GIMP's scripting as one of its strengths, but also remarked that some of Photoshop's features such as Text, 3D commands, Adjustment Layers and History are either less powerful or missing in GIMP.", "Cardinal favorably described the UFRaw converter for raw images used with GIMP, noting that it still \"requires some patience to figure out how to use those more advanced capabilities\".", "Cardinal stated that GIMP is \"easy enough to try\" despite not having as well developed documentation and help system as those for Photoshop, concluding that it \"has become a worthy alternative to Photoshop for anyone on a budget who doesn't need all of Photoshop's vast feature set\".The user interface has been criticized for being \"hard to use\"." ], [ "Features", "Animation Showing Brushes, Patterns, Gradients Created in GIMPTools used to perform image editing can be accessed via the toolbox, through menus and dialogue windows.", "They include filters and brushes, as well as transformation, selection, layer and masking tools.", "GIMP's developers have asserted that it has, or at least aspire to it having, similar functionality to Photoshop, but has a different user interface.", "Also, as of 2024 and version 2.10, a fundamental and essential difference between GIMP, on one hand, and major commercial software like Photoshop and Serif Affinity Photo, on the other, is that very few of GIMP's editing operations occur as non-destructive edits, unlike the main commercial software.=== Color ===There are several ways of selecting colors, including palettes, color choosers and using an eyedropper tool to select a color on the canvas.", "The built-in color choosers include RGB/HSV/LAB/LCH selector or scales, water-color selector, CMYK selector and a color-wheel selector.", "Colors can also be selected using hexadecimal color codes, as used in HTML color selection.", "GIMP has native support for indexed color and RGB color spaces; other color spaces are supported using decomposition, where each channel of the new color space becomes a black-and-white image.", "CMYK, LAB and HSV (hue, saturation, value) are supported this way.", "Color blending can be achieved using the Blend tool, by applying a gradient to the surface of an image and using GIMP's color modes.", "Gradients are also integrated into tools such as the brush tool, when the user paints this way the output color slowly changes.", "There are a number of default gradients included with GIMP; a user can also create custom gradients with tools provided.", "Gradient plug-ins are also available.=== Selections and paths ===GIMP selection tools include a rectangular and circular selection tool, free select tool, and fuzzy select tool (also known as magic wand).", "More advanced selection tools include the select by color tool for selecting contiguous regions of color—and the scissors select tool, which creates selections semi-automatically between areas of highly contrasting colors.", "GIMP also supports a quick mask mode where a user can use a brush to paint the area of a selection.", "Visibly this looks like a red colored overlay being added or removed.", "The foreground select tool is an implementation of Simple interactive object extraction (SIOX), a method used to perform the extraction of foreground elements, such as a person or a tree in focus.", "The Paths Tool allows a user to create vectors (also known as Bézier curves).", "Users can use paths to create complex selections, including around natural curves.", "They can paint (or \"stroke\") the paths with brushes, patterns, or various line styles.", "Users can name and save paths for reuse.=== Image editing ===There are many tools that can be used for editing images in GIMP.", "The more common tools include a paint brush, pencil, airbrush, eraser and ink tools used to create new or blended pixels.", "The Bucket Fill tool can be used to fill a selection with a color or pattern.", "The Blend tool can be used to fill a selection with a color gradient.", "These color transitions can be applied to large regions or smaller custom path selections.GIMP also provides \"smart\" tools that use a more complex algorithm to do things that otherwise would be time-consuming or impossible.", "These include:* Clone tool, which copies pixels using a brush* Healing brush, which copies pixels from an area and corrects tone and color* Perspective clone tool, which works like the clone tool but corrects for distance changes* Blur and sharpen tools* The Smudge tool can be used to subtly smear a selection where it stands* Dodge and burn tool is a brush that makes target pixels lighter (dodges) or darker (burns)Animation showing three docked and tabbed dialogs: layers, channels, and paths=== Layers, layer masks and channels ===An image being edited in GIMP can consist of many layers in a stack.", "The user manual suggests that \"A good way to visualize a GIMP image is as a stack of transparencies,\" where in GIMP terminology, each level (analogous to a transparency) is called a layer.", "Each layer in an image is made up of several channels.", "In an RGB image, there are normally 3 or 4 channels, each consisting of a red, green and blue channel.", "Color sublayers look like slightly different gray images, but when put together they make a complete image.", "The fourth channel that may be part of a layer is the alpha channel (or layer mask).", "This channel measures opacity where a whole or part of an image can be completely visible, partially visible or invisible.", "Each layer has a layer mode that can be set to change the colors in the image.Text layers can be created using the text tool, allowing a user to write on an image.", "Text layers can be transformed in several ways, such as converting them to a path or selection.Droste effect using Mathmap plug-in=== Automation, scripts and plug-ins ===GIMP has approximately 150 standard effects and filters, including Drop Shadow, Blur, Motion Blur and Noise.GIMP operations can be automated with scripting languages.", "The Script-Fu is a Scheme-based language implemented using a TinyScheme interpreter built into GIMP.", "GIMP can also be scripted in Perl, Python (Python-Fu), or Tcl, using interpreters external to GIMP.", "New features can be added to GIMP not only by changing program code (GIMP core), but also by creating plug-ins.", "These are external programs that are executed and controlled by the main GIMP program.", "MathMap is an example of a plug-in written in C.There is support for several methods of sharpening and blurring images, including the blur and sharpen tool.", "The unsharp mask tool is used to sharpen an image selectively – it sharpens only those areas of an image that are sufficiently detailed.", "The Unsharp Mask tool is considered to give more targeted results for photographs than a normal sharpening filter.", "The Selective Gaussian Blur tool works in a similar way, except it blurs areas of an image with little detail.GIMP-ML is an extension for machine learning with 15 filters.=== GEGL ===The ''Generic Graphics Library'' (''GEGL'') was first introduced as part of GIMP on the 2.6 release of GIMP.", "This initial introduction does not yet exploit all of the capabilities of GEGL; as of the 2.6 release, GIMP can use GEGL to perform high bit-depth color operations; because of this, less information is lost when performing color operations.", "When GEGL is fully integrated, GIMP will have a higher color bit depth and better non-destructive work-flow.", "GIMP 2.8.xx supports only 8-bit color, which is much lower than digital cameras, e.g., produce (12-bit or higher).", "Full support for high bit depth is included with GIMP 2.10.OpenCL enables hardware acceleration for some operations.=== CTX ===CTX is a new rasterizer for vector graphics in GIMP 3.0.Some simple objects, like lines and circles, can be reduced to vector objects.=== File formats ===GIMP supports importing and exporting with a large number of different file formats.", "GIMP's native format XCF is designed to store all information GIMP can contain about an image; XCF is named after the e''X''perimental ''C''omputing ''F''acility where GIMP was authored.", "Import and export capability can be extended to additional file formats by means of plug-ins.", "XCF file size is extended to more than 4 GB since 2.9.6 and new stable tree 2.10.x.", "File formats Import and export GIMP has import and export support for image formats such as BMP, JPEG, PNG, GIF, TIFF and HEIF, along with the file formats of several other applications such as Autodesk flic animations, Corel PaintShop Pro images, and Adobe Photoshop documents.", "Other formats with read/write support include PostScript documents, X bitmap image, xwd, and Zsoft PCX.", "GIMP can also read and write path information from SVG files and read/write ICO Windows icon files.", "Import only GIMP can import Adobe PDF documents and the raw image formats used by many digital cameras, but cannot save to these formats.", "An open source plug-in, UFRaw (or community supported fork nUFRAW), adds full raw compatibility, and has been noted several times for being updated for new camera models more quickly than Adobe's UFRaw support.", "Export only GIMP can export to MNG layered image files (Linux version only) and HTML (as a table with colored cells), C source code files (as an array) and ASCII art (using a plug-in to represent images with characters and punctuation making up images), though it cannot read these formats." ], [ "Forks and derivatives", "Because of the free and open-source nature of GIMP, several forks, variants and derivatives of the computer program have been created to fit the needs of their creators.", "While GIMP is cross-platform, variants of GIMP may not be.", "These variants are neither hosted nor linked on the GIMP site.", "The GIMP site does not host GIMP builds for Windows or Unix-like operating systems either, although it does include a link to a Windows build.=== Forks ===* CinePaint: Formerly Film Gimp, it is a fork of GIMP version 1.0.4, used for frame-by-frame retouching of feature film.", "CinePaint supports up to 32-bit IEEE-floating point color depth per channel, as well as color management and HDR.", "CinePaint is used primarily within the film industry due mainly to its support of high-fidelity image formats.", "It is available for BSD, Linux, and macOS.", "* GIMP classic: A patch against GIMP v2.6.8 source code created to undo changes made to the user interface in GIMP v2.4 through v2.6.A build of GIMP classic for Ubuntu is available.", "As of March 2011, a new patch could be downloaded that patches against the experimental GIMP v2.7.", "* GIMP Portable: A portable version of GIMP for Microsoft Windows XP or later that preserves brushes and presets between computers.", "* GIMPshop: Derivative that aimed to replicate the Adobe Photoshop in some form.", "Development of GIMPshop was halted in 2006 and the project disavowed by the developer, Scott Moschella, after an unrelated party registered \"GIMPshop\" as part of an Internet domain name and passed off the website as belonging to Moschella while accepting donations and making revenue from advertising but passing on none of the income to Moschella.", "* GimPhoto: GimPhoto follows the Photoshop-UI tradition of GIMPshop.", "More modifications are possible with the ''GimPad'' tool.", "GimPhoto stands at version 24.1 for Linux and Windows (based on GIMP v2.4.3) and version 26.1 on macOS (based on GIMP v2.6.8).", "Installers are included for Windows 7, 8.1, and 10; macOS 10.6+; Ubuntu 14 and Fedora; as well as source code.", "Only one developer is at work in this project, so fast updates and new versions based on Gimp 2.8.x or 2.9.x are not planned.", "* McGimp: An independent port for macOS that is aim to run GIMP directly on this platform, and integrated multiple plug-ins intended to optimize photos.", "* Seashore: easier to use image editing application for macOS." ], [ "Extensions", "animated GIF generated by GAP pluginGIMP's functionality can be extended with plugins.", "Notable ones include:* GIMP-ML, which provides machine learning-based image enhancement.", "GIMP-ML with python 3 is next target in development.", "* GIMP Animation Package (GAP), official plugin for creating animations.", "GAP can save animations in several formats, including GIF and AVI.", "* Resynthesizer, which provides content-aware fill.", "Original part of Paul Harrison's PhD thesis, now maintained by Lloyd Konneker.", "* G'MIC, which adds image filters and effects." ], [ "See also", "=== About GIMP ===* Libre Graphics Meeting* List of computing mascots* :Category:Computing mascots=== Other ===* Comparison of raster graphics editors* List of raster graphics editors* List of free and open-source software packages" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Global illumination" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Global illumination''' ('''GI'''), or '''indirect illumination''', is a group of algorithms used in 3D computer graphics that are meant to add more realistic lighting to 3D scenes.", "Such algorithms take into account not only the light that comes directly from a light source (''direct illumination''), but also subsequent cases in which light rays from the same source are reflected by other surfaces in the scene, whether reflective or not (''indirect illumination'').Theoretically, reflections, refractions, and shadows are all examples of global illumination, because when simulating them, one object affects the rendering of another (as opposed to an object being affected only by a direct source of light).", "In practice, however, only the simulation of diffuse inter-reflection or caustics is called global illumination." ], [ "Algorithms", "Images rendered using global illumination algorithms often appear more photorealistic than those using only direct illumination algorithms.", "However, such images are computationally more expensive and consequently much slower to generate.", "One common approach is to compute the global illumination of a scene and store that information with the geometry (e.g., radiosity).", "The stored data can then be used to generate images from different viewpoints for generating walkthroughs of a scene without having to go through expensive lighting calculations repeatedly.Radiosity, ray tracing, beam tracing, cone tracing, path tracing, volumetric path tracing, Metropolis light transport, ambient occlusion, photon mapping, signed distance field and image-based lighting are all examples of algorithms used in global illumination, some of which may be used together to yield results that are not fast, but accurate.These algorithms model diffuse inter-reflection which is a very important part of global illumination; however most of these (excluding radiosity) also model specular reflection, which makes them more accurate algorithms to solve the lighting equation and provide a more realistically illuminated scene.", "The algorithms used to calculate the distribution of light energy between surfaces of a scene are closely related to heat transfer simulations performed using finite-element methods in engineering design." ], [ "Photorealism", "Exterior view of an architectural modelExample of an ambient occlusion layerAchieving accurate computation of global illumination in real-time remains difficult.", "In real-time 3D graphics, the diffuse inter-reflection component of global illumination is sometimes approximated by an \"ambient\" term in the lighting equation, which is also called \"ambient lighting\" or \"ambient color\" in 3D software packages.", "Though this method of approximation (also known as a \"cheat\" because it's not really a global illumination method) is easy to perform computationally, when used alone it does not provide an adequately realistic effect.", "Ambient lighting is known to \"flatten\" shadows in 3D scenes, making the overall visual effect more bland.", "However, used properly, ambient lighting can be an efficient way to make up for a lack of processing power." ], [ "Procedure", "More and more specialized algorithms are used in 3D programs that can effectively simulate the global illumination.", "These algorithms are numerical approximations to the rendering equation.", "Well known algorithms for computing global illumination include path tracing, photon mapping and radiosity.The following approaches can be distinguished here:* Inversion: ** is not applied in practice* Expansion: ** bi-directional approach: Photon mapping + Distributed ray tracing, Bi-directional path tracing, Metropolis light transport* Iteration: ** RadiosityIn Light-path notation global lighting the paths of the type L (D | S) corresponds * E.A full treatment can be found in" ], [ "Image-based lighting", "Another way to simulate real global illumination is the use of high-dynamic-range images (HDRIs), also known as environment maps, which encircle and illuminate the scene.", "This process is known as image-based lighting." ], [ "List of methods", " Method Description/Notes Ray tracing Several enhanced variants exist for solving problems related to sampling, aliasing, and soft shadows: Distributed ray tracing, cone tracing, and beam tracing.", "Path tracing Unbiased, variant: Bi-directional path tracing and energy redistribution path tracing Photon mapping Consistent, biased; enhanced variants: Progressive photon mapping, stochastic progressive photon mapping () Lightcuts Enhanced variants: Multidimensional lightcuts and bidirectional lightcuts Point based global illumination Extensively used in movie animations Radiosity Finite element method, very good for precomputations.", "Improved versions are instant radiosity and bidirectional instant radiosity Metropolis light transport Builds upon bi-directional path tracing, unbiased, and multiplexed Spherical harmonic lighting Encodes global illumination results for real-time rendering of static scenes Ambient occlusion - Voxel-based global illumination Several variants exist, including voxel cone tracing global illumination, sparse voxel octree global illumination, and voxel global illumination (VXGI) Light propagation volumes global illumination Light propagation volumes is a technique to approximately achieve global illumination (GI) in real-time.It uses lattices and spherical harmonics (SH) to represent the spatial and angular distribution of light in the scene.", "Variant cascaded light propagation volumes.", "Deferred radiance transfer global illumination Deep G-buffer based global illumination Signed Distance Fields Dynamic Diffuse Global Illumination Global Illumination Based on Surfels" ], [ "See also", "*:Category:Global illumination software*Bias of an estimator*Bidirectional scattering distribution function*Consistent estimator*Unbiased rendering" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Video demonstrating global illumination and the ambient color effect* Real-time GI demos – survey of practical real-time GI techniques as a list of executable demos* kuleuven - This page contains the Global Illumination Compendium, an effort to bring together most of the useful formulas and equations for global illumination algorithms in computer graphics.", "* Theory and practical implementation of Global Illumination using Monte Carlo Path Tracing." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Geometric series" ], [ "Introduction", "The geometric series 1/4 + 1/16 + 1/64 + 1/256 + ... shown as areas of purple squares.", "Each of the purple squares has 1/4 of the area of the next larger square (1/2× = 1/4, 1/4×1/4 = 1/16, etc.).", "The sum of the areas of the purple squares is one third of the area of the large square.Another geometric series (coefficient ''a'' = 4/9 and common ratio ''r'' = 1/9) shown as areas of purple squares.", "The total purple area is S = ''a'' / (1 - ''r'') = (4/9) / (1 - (1/9)) = 1/2, which can be confirmed by observing that the unit square is partitioned into an infinite number of L-shaped areas each with four purple squares and four yellow squares, which is half purple.In mathematics, a '''geometric series''' is the sum of an infinite number of terms that have a constant ratio between successive terms.", "For example, the series:is geometric, because each successive term can be obtained by multiplying the previous term by .", "In general, a geometric series is written as , where is the coefficient of each term and is the common ratio between adjacent terms.", "The geometric series had an important role in the early development of calculus, is used throughout mathematics, and can serve as an introduction to frequently used mathematical tools such as the Taylor series, the Fourier series, and the matrix exponential.The name geometric series indicates each term is the geometric mean of its two neighboring terms, similar to how the name arithmetic series indicates each term is the arithmetic mean of its two neighboring terms." ], [ "Components", "===Coefficient ''a''===The first nine terms of geometric series 1 + ''r'' + ''r''2 + ''r''3 ... drawn as functions (colored in the order red, green, blue, red, green, blue, ...) within the range ''r'' 2 + ''ar''3 + ... is written in expanded form.", "Every coefficient in the geometric series is the same.", "In contrast, the power series written as ''a''0 + ''a''1''r'' + ''a''2''r''2 + ''a''3''r''3 + ... in expanded form has coefficients ''a''i that can vary from term to term.", "In other words, the geometric series is a special case of the power series.", "The first term of a geometric series in expanded form is the coefficient ''a'' of that geometric series.In addition to the expanded form of the geometric series, there is a generator form of the geometric series written as:and a closed form of the geometric series written as:The derivation of the closed form from the expanded form is shown in this article's section.", "However even without that derivation, the result can be confirmed with long division: ''a'' divided by (1 - ''r'') results in ''a'' + ''ar'' + ''ar''2 + ''ar''3 + ... , which is the expanded form of the geometric series.It is often a convenience in notation to set the series equal to the sum ''s'' and work with the geometric series:''s'' = ''a'' + ''ar'' + ''ar''2 + ''ar''3 + ''ar''4 + ... in its normalized form:''s'' / ''a'' = 1 + ''r'' + ''r''2 + ''r''3 + ''r''4 + ... or in its normalized vector form:''s'' / ''a'' = 1 1 1 1 1 ...1 ''r'' ''r''2 ''r''3 ''r''4 ...T or in its normalized partial series form:''s''n / ''a'' = 1 + ''r'' + ''r''2 + ''r''3 + ''r''4 + ... + ''r''n, where n is the power (or degree) of the last term included in the partial sum ''s''n.Changing even one of the coefficients to something other than coefficient ''a'' would change the resulting sum of functions to some function other than ''a'' / (1 − ''r'') within the range |''r''| 2 + ''r''3 + ... are added.", "The geometric series 1 / (1 - ''r'') is the red dashed line.Complex geometric series (coefficient ''a'' = 1 and common ratio ''r'' = 0.5 eiω0t) converging to a circle.", "In the animation, each term of the geometric series is drawn as a vector twice''':''' once at the origin and again within the head-to-tail vector summation that converges to the circle.", "The circle intersects the real axis at 2 (= 1/(1-1/2) when ''θ'' = 0) and at 2/3 (= 1/(1-(-1/2)) when ''θ'' = 180 degrees).The geometric series ''a'' + ''ar'' + ''ar''2 + ''ar''3 + ... is an infinite series defined by just two parameters: coefficient ''a'' and common ratio ''r''.", "Common ratio ''r'' is the ratio of any term with the previous term in the series.", "Or equivalently, common ratio ''r'' is the term multiplier used to calculate the next term in the series.", "The following table shows several geometric series: ''a'' ''r'' Example series 4 10 4 + 40 + 400 + 4000 + 40,000 + ··· 3 1 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 + ··· 1 2/3 1 + 2/3 + 4/9 + 8/27 + 16/81 + ··· 1/2 1/2 1/2 + 1/4 + 1/8 + 1/16 + 1/32 + ··· 9 1/3 9 + 3 + 1 + 1/3 + 1/9 + ··· 7 1/10 7 + 0.7 + 0.07 + 0.007 + 0.0007 + ··· 1 −1/2 1 − 1/2 + 1/4 − 1/8 + 1/16 − 1/32 + ··· 3 −1 3 − 3 + 3 − 3 + 3 − ···The convergence of the geometric series depends on the value of the common ratio ''r''::* If |''r''| 1, the terms of the series become larger and larger in magnitude.", "The sum of the terms also gets larger and larger, and the series does not converge to a sum.", "(The series diverges.", ")The rate of convergence also depends on the value of the common ratio ''r''.", "Specifically, the rate of convergence gets slower as ''r'' approaches 1 or −1.For example, the geometric series with ''a'' = 1 is 1 + ''r'' + ''r''2 + ''r''3 + ... and converges to 1 / (1 - ''r'') when |''r''| 2 + ''ar''3 + ... has the geometric progression (also called the geometric sequence) ''a'', ''ar'', ''ar''2, ''ar''3, ...", "The geometric progression - as simple as it is - models a surprising number of natural phenomena, :* from some of the largest observations such as the expansion of the universe where the common ratio ''r'' is defined by Hubble's constant,:* to some of the smallest observations such as the decay of radioactive carbon-14 atoms where the common ratio ''r'' is defined by the half-life of carbon-14.As an aside, the common ratio ''r'' can be a complex number such as |''r''|ei''θ'' where |''r''| is the vector's magnitude (or length), ''θ'' is the vector's angle (or orientation) in the complex plane and i2 = -1.With a common ratio |''r''|ei''θ'', the expanded form of the geometric series is ''a'' + ''a''|''r''|ei''θ'' + ''a''|''r''|2ei2''θ'' + ''a''|''r''|3ei3''θ'' + ...", "Modeling the angle ''θ'' as linearly increasing over time at the rate of some angular frequency ''ω''0 (in other words, making the substitution ''θ'' = ''ω''0''t''), the expanded form of the geometric series becomes ''a'' + ''a''|''r''|ei''ω''0''t'' + ''a''|''r''|2ei2''ω''0''t'' + ''a''|''r''|3ei3''ω''0''t'' + ... , where the first term is a vector of length ''a'' not rotating at all, and all the other terms are vectors of different lengths rotating at harmonics of the fundamental angular frequency ''ω''0.The constraint |''r''|<1 is enough to coordinate this infinite number of vectors of different lengths all rotating at different speeds into tracing a circle, as shown in the adjacent video.", "Similar to how the Taylor series describes how to change the coefficients so the series converges to a user selected sufficiently smooth function within a range, the Fourier series describes how to change the coefficients (which can also be complex numbers in order to specify the initial angles of vectors) so the series converges to a user selected periodic function." ], [ "Sum", "As an alternative to the algebraic derivation of the geometric series closed form formula, there is also the following geometric derivation.", "(TOP) Represent the first n+1 terms of ''s''/''a'' as areas of overlapped similar triangles.", "For example, the area of the biggest overlapped (red) triangle is ''bh''/2 = (2)(1)/2 = 1, which is the value of the first term of the geometric series.", "The area of the second biggest overlapped (green) triangle is ''bh''/2 = (2''r''1/2)(''r''1/2)/2 = ''r'', which is the value of the second term of the geometric series.", "Each progressively smaller triangle has its base and height scaled down by another factor of ''r''1/2, resulting in a sequence of triangle areas 1, ''r'', ''r''2, ''r''3, ... which is equal to the sequence of terms in the normalized geometric series.", "(MIDDLE) In the order from largest to smallest, remove each triangle's overlapped area, which is always a fraction ''r'' of its area, and scale the remaining 1−''r'' of the triangle's non-overlapped area by 1/(1−''r'') so the area of the formerly overlapped triangle, now the area of a non-overlapped trapezoid, remains the same.", "(BOTTOM) Aggregate the resulting n+1 non-overlapped trapezoids into a single non-overlapped trapezoid and calculate its area.", "The area of that aggregated trapezoid represents the value of the partial series.", "That area is equal to the outermost triangle minus the empty triangle tip: ''s''n/''a'' = (1−''r''n+1) / (1−''r''), which simplifies to ''s''/''a'' = 1/(1−''r'') when n approaches infinity and ''r'' n-1 term, is given by the closed-form formula:where is the common ratio.", "One can derive that closed-form formula for the partial sum, ''s''n, by subtracting out the many self-similar terms as follows:As approaches infinity, the absolute value of must be less than one for the series to converge.", "The sum then becomesThe formula also holds for complex , with the corresponding restriction that the modulus of is strictly less than one.As an aside, the question of whether an infinite series converges is fundamentally a question about the distance between two values: given enough terms, does the value of the partial sum get arbitrarily close to the finite value it is approaching?", "In the above derivation of the closed form of the geometric series, the interpretation of the distance between two values is the distance between their locations on the number line.", "That is the most common interpretation of the distance between two values.", "However, the p-adic metric, which has become a critical notion in modern number theory, offers a definition of distance such that the geometric series 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + ... with ''a'' = 1 and ''r'' = 2 actually does converge to ''a'' / (1 - ''r'') = 1 / (1 - 2) = -1 even though ''r'' is outside the typical convergence range |''r''| n = ''ar''''n''+1 / (1 − ''r'').", "Each additional term in the partial series reduces the area of that white triangle remainder by the area of the trapezoid representing the added term.", "The trapezoid areas (i.e., the values of the terms) get progressively thinner and shorter and closer to the origin.", "In the limit, as the number of trapezoids approaches infinity, the white triangle remainder vanishes as it is filled by trapezoids and therefore ''s''n converges to ''s'', provided |''r''|1, the trapezoid areas representing the terms of the series instead get progressively wider and taller and farther from the origin, not converging to the origin and not converging as a series.===Rate of convergence===Converging alternating geometric series with common ratio ''r'' = -1/2 and coefficient ''a'' = 1.", "(TOP) Alternating positive and negative areas.", "(MIDDLE) Gaps caused by addition of adjacent areas.", "(BOTTOM) Gaps filled by broadening and decreasing the heights of the separated trapezoids.After knowing that a series converges, there are some applications in which it is also important to know how quickly the series converges.", "For the geometric series, one convenient measure of the convergence rate is how much the previous series remainder decreases due to the last term of the partial series.", "Given that the last term is ''ar''n and the previous series remainder is ''s'' - ''s''n-1 = ''ar''n / (1 - ''r'')), this measure of the convergence rate of the geometric series is ''ar''n / (''ar''n / (1 - ''r'')) = 1 - ''r'', if 0 ≤ ''r'' 2 of the original triangle area instead of just the rightmost 1 - |''r''|.", "However, to maintain the same trapezoid areas during this broadening transformation, scaling is needed: scale*(1 - ''r''2) = (1 - |''r''|), or scale = (1 - |''r''|) / (1 - ''r''2) = (1 + ''r'') / (1 - ''r''2) = (1 + ''r'') / ((1 + ''r'')(1 - ''r'')) = 1 / (1 - ''r'') where -1 0 the same scale 1 / (1 - ''r'') increases the amplitude of the non-overlapped trapezoids in order to account for the loss of the overlapped areas.With the gaps removed, pairs of terms in a converging alternating geometric series become a converging (non-alternating) geometric series with common ratio ''r''2 to account for the pairing of terms, coefficient ''a'' = 1 / (1 - ''r'') to account for the gap filling, and the degree (i.e., highest powered term) of the partial series called m instead of n to emphasize that terms have been paired.", "Similar to the ''r'' > 0 case, the ''r'' 2m / (''s'' - sm-1) = 1 - ''r''2, which is the same as the convergence rate of a non-alternating geometric series if its terms were similarly paired.", "Therefore, the convergence rate does not depend upon n or m and, perhaps more surprising, does not depend upon the sign of the common ratio.", "One perspective that helps explain the variable rate of convergence that is symmetric about ''r'' = 0 is that each added term of the partial series makes a finite contribution to the infinite sum at ''r'' = 1 and each added term of the partial series makes a finite contribution to the infinite slope at ''r'' = -1.===Derivation=======Finite series====To derive this formula, first write a general geometric series as:We can find a simpler formula for this sum by multiplying both sides of the above equation by 1 − ''r'', and we'll see thatsince all the other terms cancel.", "If ''r'' ≠ 1, we can rearrange the above to get the convenient formula for a geometric series that computes the sum of ''n'' terms:; Related formulasIf one were to begin the sum not from k=1 or 0 but from a different value, say , thenDifferentiating this formula with respect to allows us to arrive at formulae for sums of the formFor example:For a geometric series containing only even powers of multiply by :Equivalently, take as the common ratio and use the standard formulation.For a series with only odd powers of ,An exact formula for the generalized sum when is expanded by the Stirling numbers of the second kind as ====Infinite series====An '''infinite geometric series''' is an infinite series whose successive terms have a common ratio.", "Such a series converges if and only if the absolute value of the common ratio is less than one ( .Diagram showing the geometric series 1 + 1/2 + 1/4 + 1/8 + ⋯ which converges to 2.Since:Then:For a series containing only even powers of ,and for odd powers only,In cases where the sum does not start at ''k'' = 0,The formulae given above are valid only for  ''p'' < 1.As in the case for a finite sum, we can differentiate to calculate formulae for related sums.For example,This formula only works for  < 1 as well.", "From this, it follows that, for  < 1,Also, the infinite series 1/2 + 1/4 + 1/8 + 1/16 + ⋯ is an elementary example of a series that converges absolutely.It is a geometric series whose first term is 1/2 and whose common ratio is 1/2, so its sum isThe inverse of the above series is 1/2 − 1/4 + 1/8 − 1/16 + ⋯ is a simple example of an alternating series that converges absolutely.It is a geometric series whose first term is 1/2 and whose common ratio is −1/2, so its sum is====Complex series====The summation formula for geometric series remains valid even when the common ratio is a complex number.", "In this case the condition that the absolute value of ''r'' be less than 1 becomes that the modulus of ''r'' be less than 1.It is possible to calculate the sums of some non-obvious geometric series.", "For example, consider the propositionThe proof of this comes from the fact thatwhich is a consequence of Euler's formula.", "Substituting this into the original series givesThis is the difference of two geometric series, and so it is a straightforward application of the formula for infinite geometric series that completes the proof." ], [ "History", "===Zeno of Elea (c.495 – c.430 BC)===2,500 years ago, Greek mathematicians had a problem when walking from one place to another: they thought that an infinitely long list of numbers greater than zero summed to infinity.", "Therefore, it was a paradox when Zeno of Elea pointed out that in order to walk from one place to another, you first have to walk half the distance, and then you have to walk half the remaining distance, and then you have to walk half of that remaining distance, and you continue halving the remaining distances an infinite number of times because no matter how small the remaining distance is you still have to walk the first half of it.", "Thus, Zeno of Elea transformed a short distance into an infinitely long list of halved remaining distances, all of which are greater than zero.", "And that was the problem: how can a distance be short when measured directly and also infinite when summed over its infinite list of halved remainders?", "The paradox revealed something was wrong with the assumption that an infinitely long list of numbers greater than zero summed to infinity.===Euclid of Alexandria (c.300 BC)===Elements of Geometry, Book IX, Proposition 35.", "\"If there is any multitude whatsoever of continually proportional numbers, and equal to the first is subtracted from the second and the last, then as the excess of the second to the first, so the excess of the last will be to all those before it.", "\"A geometric interpretation for the same case of common ratio ''r''>1.", "(TOP) Represent the terms of a geometric series as the areas of overlapped similar triangles.", "(MIDDLE) From the largest to the smallest triangle, remove the overlapped left area portion (1/''r'') from the non-overlapped right area portion (1-1/''r'' = (''r''-1)/''r'') and scale that non-overlapped trapezoid by ''r''/(''r''-1) so its area is the same as the area of the original overlapped triangle.", "(BOTTOM) Calculate the area of the aggregate trapezoid as the area of the large triangle less the area of the empty small triangle at the large triangle's left tip.", "The large triangle is the largest overlapped triangle scaled by ''r''/(''r''-1).", "The empty small triangle started as ''a'' but that area was transformed into a non-overlapped scaled trapezoid leaving an empty left area portion (1/''r'').", "However, that empty triangle of area ''a''/''r'' must also be scaled by ''r''/(''r''-1) so its slope matches the slope of all the non-overlapped scaled trapezoids.", "Therefore, Sn = area of large triangle - area of empty small triangle = ''ar''n+1/(''r''-1) - ''a''/(''r''-1) = ''a''(''r''n+1-1)/(''r''-1).", "''Euclid's Elements of Geometry'' Book IX, Proposition 35, proof (of the proposition in adjacent diagram's caption):The terseness of Euclid's propositions and proofs may have been a necessity.", "As is, the ''Elements of Geometry'' is over 500 pages of propositions and proofs.", "Making copies of this popular textbook was labor intensive given that the printing press was not invented until 1440.And the book's popularity lasted a long time: as stated in the cited introduction to an English translation, ''Elements of Geometry'' \"has the distinction of being the world's oldest continuously used mathematical textbook.\"", "So being very terse was being very practical.", "The proof of Proposition 35 in Book IX could have been even more compact if Euclid could have somehow avoided explicitly equating lengths of specific line segments from different terms in the series.", "For example, the contemporary notation for geometric series (i.e., ''a'' + ''ar'' + ''ar''2 + ''ar''3 + ... + ''ar''n) does not label specific portions of terms that are equal to each other.Also in the cited introduction the editor comments,Most of the theorems appearing in the Elements were not discovered by Euclid himself, but were the work of earlier Greek mathematicians such as Pythagoras (and his school), Hippocrates of Chios, Theaetetus of Athens, and Eudoxus of Cnidos.", "However, Euclid is generally credited with arranging these theorems in a logical manner, so as to demonstrate (admittedly, not always with the rigour demanded by modern mathematics) that they necessarily follow from five simple axioms.", "Euclid is also credited with devising a number of particularly ingenious proofs of previously discovered theorems (e.g., Theorem 48 in Book 1).To help translate the proposition and proof into a form that uses current notation, a couple modifications are in the diagram.", "First, the four horizontal line lengths representing the values of the first four terms of a geometric series are now labeled a, ar, ar2, ar3 in the diagram's left margin.", "Second, new labels A' and D' are now on the first and third lines so that all the diagram's line segment names consistently specify the segment's starting point and ending point.Here is a phrase by phrase interpretation of the proposition: Proposition in contemporary notation\"If there is any multitude whatsoever of continually proportional numbers\"Taking the first n+1 terms of a geometric series Sn = ''a'' + ''ar'' + ''ar''2 + ''ar''3 + ... + ''ar''n\"and equal to the first is subtracted from the second and the last\"and subtracting ''a'' from ''ar'' and ''ar''n\"then as the excess of the second to the first, so the excess of the last will be to all those before it.", "\"then (''ar''-''a'') / ''a'' = (''ar''n-''a'') / (''a'' + ''ar'' + ''ar''2 + ''ar''3 + ... + ''ar''n-1) = (''ar''n-''a'') / Sn-1, which can be rearranged to the more familiar form Sn-1 = ''a''(''r''n-1) / (''r''-1).Similarly, here is a sentence by sentence interpretation of the proof: Proof in contemporary notation\"Let AA', BC, DD', EF be any multitude whatsoever of continuously proportional numbers, beginning from the least AA'.", "\"Consider the first n+1 terms of a geometric series Sn = ''a'' + ''ar'' + ''ar''2 + ''ar''3 + ... + ''ar''n for the case ''r''>1 and n=3.", "\"And let BG and FH, each equal to AA', have been subtracted from BC and EF.", "\"Subtract ''a'' from ''ar'' and ''ar''3.", "\"I say that as GC is to AA', so EH is to AA', BC, DD'.", "\"I say that (''ar''-''a'') / ''a'' = (''ar''3-''a'') / (''a'' + ''ar'' + ''ar''2).", "\"For let FK be made equal to BC, and FL to DD'.", "\"\"And since FK is equal to BC, of which FH is equal to BG, the remainder HK is thus equal to the remainder GC.", "\"\"And since as EF is to DD', so DD' to BC, and BC to AA' Prop.", "7.13, and DD' equal to FL, and BC to FK, and AA' to FH, thus as EF is to FL, so LF to FK, and FK to FH.", "\"\"By separation, as EL to LF, so LK to FK, and KH to FH Props.", "7.11, 7.13.", "\"By separation, (''ar''3-''ar''2) / ''ar''2 = (''ar''2-''ar'') / ''ar'' = (''ar''-''a'') / ''a'' = ''r''-1.", "\"And thus as one of the leading is to one of the following, so (the sum of) all of the leading to (the sum of) all of the following Prop.", "7.12.", "\"The sum of those numerators and the sum of those denominators form the same proportion: ((''ar''3-''ar''2) + (''ar''2-''ar'') + (''ar''-''a'')) / (''ar''2 + ''ar'' + ''a'') = ''r''-1.", "\"And thus as one of the leading is to one of the following, so (the sum of) all of the leading to (the sum of) all of the following Prop.", "7.12.", "\"And this sum of equal proportions can be extended beyond (''ar''3-''ar''2) / ''ar''2 to include all the proportions up to (''ar''n-''ar''n-1) / ''ar''n-1.", "\"Thus, as KH is to FH, so EL, LK, KH to LF, FK, HF.", "\"\"And KH equal to CG, and FH to AA', and LF, FK, HF to DD', BC, AA'.", "\"\"Thus, as CG is to AA', so EH to DD', BC, AA'.", "\"\"Thus, as the excess of the second is to the first, so is the excess of the last is to all those before it.", "\"Thus, (''ar''-''a'') / ''a'' = (''ar''3-''a'') / S2.Or more generally, (''ar''-''a'') / ''a'' = (''ar''n-''a'') / Sn-1, which can be rearranged in the more common form Sn-1 = ''a''(''r''n-1) / (''r''-1).", "\"The very thing it was required to show.", "\"Q.E.D.===Archimedes of Syracuse (c.287 – c.212 BC)===Archimedes' dissection of a parabolic segment into infinitely many trianglesArchimedes used the sum of a geometric series to compute the area enclosed by a parabola and a straight line.", "His method was to dissect the area into an infinite number of triangles.Archimedes' Theorem states that the total area under the parabola is 4/3 of the area of the blue triangle.Archimedes determined that each green triangle has 1/8 the area of the blue triangle, each yellow triangle has 1/8 the area of a green triangle, and so forth.Assuming that the blue triangle has area 1, the total area is an infinite sum::The first term represents the area of the blue triangle, the second term the areas of the two green triangles, the third term the areas of the four yellow triangles, and so on.", "Simplifying the fractions gives:This is a geometric series with common ratio and the fractional part is equal to:The sum is:This computation uses the method of exhaustion, an early version of integration.", "Using calculus, the same area could be found by a definite integral.===Nicole Oresme (c.1323 – 1382)===A two dimensional geometric series diagram Nicole Oresme used to determine that the infinite series 1/2 + 2/4 + 3/8 + 4/16 + 5/32 + 6/64 + 7/128 + ... converges to 2.Among his insights into infinite series, in addition to his elegantly simple proof of the divergence of the harmonic series, Nicole Oresme proved that the series 1/2 + 2/4 + 3/8 + 4/16 + 5/32 + 6/64 + 7/128 + ... converges to 2.His diagram for his geometric proof, similar to the adjacent diagram, shows a two dimensional geometric series.", "The first dimension is horizontal, in the bottom row showing the geometric series ''S'' = 1/2 + 1/4 + 1/8 + 1/16 + ... , which is the geometric series with coefficient ''a'' = 1/2 and common ratio ''r'' = 1/2 that converges to ''S'' = ''a'' / (1-''r'') = (1/2) / (1-1/2) = 1.The second dimension is vertical, where the bottom row is a new coefficient ''a''''T'' equal to ''S'' and each subsequent row above it is scaled by the same common ratio ''r'' = 1/2, making another geometric series ''T'' = 1 + 1/2 + 1/4 + 1/8 + ..., which is the geometric series with coefficient ''a''''T'' = ''S'' = 1 and common ratio ''r'' = 1/2 that converges to ''T'' = ''a''''T'' / (1-''r'') = ''S'' / (1-''r'') = ''a'' / (1-''r'') / (1-''r'') = (1/2) / (1-1/2) / (1-1/2) = 2.Although difficult to visualize beyond three dimensions, Oresme's insight generalizes to any dimension ''d''.", "Using the sum of the ''d''−1 dimension of the geometric series as the coefficient ''a'' in the ''d'' dimension of the geometric series results in a ''d''-dimensional geometric series converging to ''S''''d'' / ''a'' = 1 / (1-''r'')''d'' within the range |''r''|<1.Pascal's triangle and long division reveals the coefficients of these multi-dimensional geometric series, where the closed form is valid only within the range |''r''|<1.", ": (expanded form) As an aside, instead of using long division, it is also possible to calculate the coefficients of the ''d''-dimensional geometric series by integrating the coefficients of dimension ''d''−1.This mapping from division by 1-''r'' in the power series sum domain to integration in the power series coefficient domain is a discrete form of the mapping performed by the Laplace transform.", "MIT Professor Arthur Mattuck shows how to derive the Laplace transform from the power series in this lecture video, where the power series is a mapping between discrete coefficients and a sum and the Laplace transform is a mapping between continuous weights and an integral." ], [ "Applications", "===Economics===In economics, geometric series are used to represent the present value of an annuity (a sum of money to be paid in regular intervals).For example, suppose that a payment of $100 will be made to the owner of the annuity once per year (at the end of the year) in perpetuity.", "Receiving $100 a year from now is worth less than an immediate $100, because one cannot invest the money until one receives it.", "In particular, the present value of $100 one year in the future is $100 / (1 +  ), where is the yearly interest rate.Similarly, a payment of $100 two years in the future has a present value of $100 / (1 + )2 (squared because two years' worth of interest is lost by not receiving the money right now).", "Therefore, the present value of receiving $100 per year in perpetuity is:which is the infinite series::This is a geometric series with common ratio 1 / (1 +  ).", "The sum is the first term divided by (one minus the common ratio)::For example, if the yearly interest rate is 10% ( = 0.10), then the entire annuity has a present value of $100 / 0.10 = $1000.This sort of calculation is used to compute the APR of a loan (such as a mortgage loan).", "It can also be used to estimate the present value of expected stock dividends, or the terminal value of a financial asset assuming a stable growth rate.===Fractal geometry===The area inside the Koch snowflake can be described as the union of infinitely many equilateral triangles (see figure).", "Each side of the green triangle is exactly 1/3 the size of a side of the large blue triangle, and therefore has exactly 1/9 the area.", "Similarly, each yellow triangle has 1/9 the area of a green triangle, and so forth.", "Taking the blue triangle as a unit of area, the total area of the snowflake is:The first term of this series represents the area of the blue triangle, the second term the total area of the three green triangles, the third term the total area of the twelve yellow triangles, and so forth.", "Excluding the initial 1, this series is geometric with constant ratio ''r'' = 4/9.The first term of the geometric series is ''a'' = 3(1/9) = 1/3, so the sum is:Thus the Koch snowflake has 8/5 of the area of the base triangle.=== Integration ===The derivative of because, letting :Therefore, letting is the integral:which is called Gregory's series and is commonly attributed to Madhava of Sangamagrama (c. 1340 – c. 1425)." ], [ "Instances", "* : 1 − 1 + 1 − 1 + ⋯* * * * * * A geometric series is a unit series (the series sum converges to one) if and only if |''r''| n = Fn-1 + Fn-2 but without requiring F0 = 0 and F1 = 1) when a geometric series common ratio ''r'' satisfies the constraint 1 + ''r'' = ''r''2, which according to the quadratic formula is when the common ratio ''r'' equals the golden ratio (i.e., common ratio ''r'' = (1 ± √5)/2).", "* The only geometric series that is a unit series and also has terms of a generalized Fibonacci sequence has the golden ratio as its coefficient ''a'' and the conjugate golden ratio as its common ratio ''r'' (i.e., ''a'' = (1 + √5)/2 and ''r'' = (1 - √5)/2).", "It is a unit series because ''a'' + ''r'' = 1 and |''r''| 2, and it is an alternating series because ''r'' julia> bitstring(Float32(0.77777777777777777777))\"00111111010001110001110001110010\"reveals the binary fraction 0.110001110001110001... where the binary pattern 0b110001 repeats indefinitely and can be written in mostly (except for the powers) binary numbers as:where coefficient ''a'' = 0b110001 / 0b1000000 = 49 / 64 and common ratio ''r'' = 1 / 0b1000000 = 1 / 64.Using the geometric series closed form as before:You may have noticed that the floating point encoding does not capture the 0b110001 repeat pattern in the last couple (least significant) bits.", "This is because floating point encoding rounds the remainder instead of truncating it.", "Therefore, if the most significant bit of the remainder is 1, the least significant bit of the encoded fraction gets incremented and that will cause a carry if the least significant bit of the fraction is already 1, which can cause another carry if that bit of the fraction is already a 1, which can cause another carry, etc.", "This floating point rounding and the subsequent carry propagation explains why the floating point encoding for 0.99999... is exactly the same as the floating point encoding for 1.julia> bitstring(Float32(0.99999999999999999999))\"00111111100000000000000000000000\"julia> bitstring(Float32(1.0))\"00111111100000000000000000000000\"As an example that has four digits in the repeated pattern, 0.123412341234... can be written as the geometric series:where coefficient ''a'' = 1234/10000 and common ratio ''r'' = 1/10000.The geometric series closed form reveals the two integers that specify the repeated pattern::=== Power series ===Like the geometric series, the power series has one degree of freedom for its common ratio ''r'' (along the x-axis) but has ''n''+1 degrees of freedom for its coefficients (along the y-axis), where ''n'' represents the power of the last term in the partial series.", "In the map of polynomials, the big blue circle represents the set of all power series.==== Taylor series ========= Binary encoded numbers =====Zeno of Elea's geometric series with coefficient ''a''=1/2 and common ratio ''r''=1/2 is the foundation of binary encoded approximations of fractions in digital computers.", "Concretely, the geometric series written in its normalized vector form is ''s''/''a'' = 1 1 1 1 1 …1 ''r'' ''r''2 ''r''3 ''r''4 …T.", "Keeping the column vector of basis functions 1 ''r'' ''r''2 ''r''3 ''r''4 …T the same but generalizing the row vector 1 1 1 1 1 … so that each entry can be either a 0 or a 1 allows for an approximate encoding of any fraction.", "For example, the value ''v'' = 0.34375 is encoded as ''v''/''a'' = 0 1 0 1 1 0 …1 ''r'' ''r''2 ''r''3 ''r''4 …T where coefficient ''a'' = 1/2 and common ratio ''r'' = 1/2.Typically, the row vector is written in the more compact binary form ''v'' = 0.010110 which is 0.34375 in decimal.Similarly, the geometric series with coefficient ''a''=1 and common ratio ''r''=2 is the foundation for binary encoded integers in digital computers.", "Again, the geometric series written in its normalized vector form is ''s''/''a'' = 1 1 1 1 1 …1 ''r'' ''r''2 ''r''3 ''r''4 …T.", "Keeping the column vector of basis functions 1 ''r'' ''r''2 ''r''3 ''r''4 …T the same but generalizing the row vector 1 1 1 1 1 … so that each entry can be either a 0 or a 1 allows for an encoding of any integer.", "For example, the value ''v'' = 151 is encoded as ''v''/''a'' = 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 …1 ''r'' ''r''2 ''r''3 ''r''4 ''r''5 ''r''6 ''r''7 ''r''8 …T where coefficient ''a'' = 1 and common ratio ''r'' = 2.Typically, the row vector is written in reverse order (so that the most significant bit is first) in the more compact binary form ''v'' = …010010111 = 10010111 which is 151 in decimal.Bit fields for encoding a 32-bit floating point number according to IEEE 754 standard.As shown in the adjacent figure, the standard binary encoding of a 32-bit floating point number is a combination of a binary encoded integer and a binary encoded fraction, beginning at the most significant bit with:* the sign bit, followed by:* an 8-bit integer exponent field with an assumed offset of 127 (so a value of 127 represents an exponent value of 0) and with a base of 2 meaning that the exponent value specifies a bit shift of the fraction field, followed by:* a 23-bit fraction field with an assumed but not encoded 1 serving as the fraction's most significant nonzero bit which would be in bit position 23 if it were encoded.Building upon the previous example of 0.34375 having binary encoding of 0.010110, a floating point encoding (according to the IEEE 754 standard) of 0.34375 is:* the sign bit which is 0 because the number is not negative,:* an 8-bit integer exponent field which must specify a shift that counters the 2 bit left shift to get the original binary encoding from 0.010110 to 1.0110, and that counter shift to recover the original binary encoding is a right shift of 2 bits which is specified by an exponent value of 125 (because 125 − 127 = -2 which is a right shift of 2 bits) which in binary is 0111 1101,:* a 23-bit fraction field: .0110 0000 0000 0000 0000 000.Although encoding floating point numbers by hand like this is possible, letting a computer do it is easier and less error prone.", "The following Julia code confirms the hand calculated floating point encoding of the number 0.34375:julia> bitstring(Float32(0.34375))\"00111110101100000000000000000000\"=== Laurent series ======= Complex Fourier series ====The front and back planes show the sum of the first +/-n terms of the complex Fourier series that has coefficients set to converge to a tracing of the letter 'e' for exponential.", "(The Julia source code that generates the frames and audio of this animation is here in Appendix B.", ")As an example of the ability of the complex Fourier series to trace any 2D closed figure, in the adjacent animation a complex Fourier series traces the letter 'e' (for exponential).", "Given the intricate coordination of motions shown in the animation, a definition of the complex Fourier series can be surprisingly compact in just two equations::where parameterized function ''s''(''t'') traces some 2D closed figure in the complex plane as the parameter ''t'' progresses through the period from 0 to 1.To help make sense of these compact equations defining the complex Fourier series, note that the complex Fourier series summation looks similar to the complex geometric series except that the complex Fourier series is basically two complex geometric series (one set of terms rotating in the positive direction and another set of terms rotating in the negative direction), and the coefficients of the complex Fourier series are complex constants that can vary from term to term.", "By allowing terms to rotate in either direction, the series becomes capable of tracing any 2D closed figure.", "In contrast, the complex geometric series has all the terms rotating in the same direction and it can trace only circles.", "Allowing the coefficients of the complex geometric series to vary from term to term would expand upon the shapes it can trace but all the possible shapes would still be limited to being puffy and cloud-like, not able to trace the shape of a simple line segment, for example going back and forth between 1 + i0 and -1 + i0.However, Euler's formula shows that the addition of just two terms rotating in opposite directions can trace that line segment between 1 + i0 and -1 + i0::Concerning the complex Fourier series second equation defining how to calculate the coefficients, the coefficient of the non-rotating term ''c''0 can be calculated by integrating the complex Fourier series first equation over the range of one period from 0 to 1.Over that range, all the rotating terms integrate to zero, leaving just ''c''0.Similarly, any of the terms in the complex Fourier series first equation can be made to be a non-rotating term by multiplying both sides of the equation by before integrating to calculate ''c''n, and that is the complex Fourier series second equation.=== Matrix polynomial ======= Matrix exponential ====" ], [ "Analogous case for squared index in the exponent", "=== Definitions of theta functions ===In the '''Geometric series''' the summands take the ''exponential course'' in relation to the sum index.", "The exponent in the summands, which is dependent on the sum index, has a ''linear'' course with respect to the index.", "However, if the exponent in the elements of the sequence instead assumes a ''square'' course with respect to the sum index, then the sequence members themselves follow course of a Gaussian bell curve, and then the values are of the affected infinite series can not be displayed in an elementary way.", "Sums with a ''square'' course of the exponent in the sequence members with respect to the sum index assume ''elliptic theta function values'' for the representation.", "And these values can be represented with both the Jacobian theta functions and with the Neville theta functions as well.The theta functions mentioned are according to Edmund Taylor Whittaker and George Neville WatsonTheta functions defined as follows:::The function is called the Elliptic Nome and the function stands for the complete Elliptic Integral of first kind:: : : The Greek letter designation represents the so called ''Theta Nullwert Function'' whereas the designation stands for the Hermite elliptic Psi Function:: : === Identities for the sum series ===This interconnection is given:: Continuation of the identity by using the Neville Theta Function:Continuation of the identity by using the Poisson Summation Formula:The Neville theta functions themselves were researched by the mathematician Eric Harold Neville from England.", "In general, by hiking integer numbered steps of the result must always be the same value over and over again.", "This very phenomenon is called periodicity of functions.", "And this criterion is fulfilled by the theta formulas mentioned above.", "If R is set to zero, then the primary standardized theta function value must be the result, the base value must be used as the Nome entry of the Theta Nullwert function.", "And if the value does not result in a whole number but rather a fractional number, then the resulting value of the sum series must be related to the value of the sum series with equal to zero by the factor which is given by the associated incomplete theta function of the ''Complementary Nome'', i.e.", "by the value exactly.", "The formula in the bottom line of the formula table shown follows directly from the laws described in the last two sentences mentioned.", "And the formula with Neville's theta function results directly from this.", "The Pythagorean complementary module must be entered as the module.", "And this is created accurately by the fourth power of the ''Hermite Elliptic Psi Function'' .", "By using the Poisson's empirical formula, simplifications can be made in the formula in the bottom line of the table.=== Calculation examples with the Jacobi theta ===This formula about the Jacobi theta function is valid:: Hierfür soll gelten: For the now mentioned sum series following two calculation examples shall be executed in detail:: :" ], [ "See also", "* * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * * Arfken, G. Mathematical Methods for Physicists, 3rd ed.", "Orlando, FL: Academic Press, pp.", "278–279, 1985.", "* Beyer, W. H. CRC Standard Mathematical Tables, 28th ed.", "Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, p. 8, 1987.", "* Courant, R. and Robbins, H. \"The Geometric Progression.\"", "§1.2.3 in What Is Mathematics?", ": An Elementary Approach to Ideas and Methods, 2nd ed.", "Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, pp.", "13–14, 1996.", "* * .", "* James Stewart (2002).", "''Calculus'', 5th ed., Brooks Cole.", "* Larson, Hostetler, and Edwards (2005).", "''Calculus with Analytic Geometry'', 8th ed., Houghton Mifflin Company.", "* * Pappas, T. \"Perimeter, Area & the Infinite Series.\"", "The Joy of Mathematics.", "San Carlos, CA: Wide World Publ./Tetra, pp.", "134–135, 1989.", "* * Roger B. Nelsen (1997).", "''Proofs without Words: Exercises in Visual Thinking'', The Mathematical Association of America.", "===History and philosophy===* C. H. Edwards Jr. (1994).", "''The Historical Development of the Calculus'', 3rd ed., Springer.", ".", "* * Eli Maor (1991).", "''To Infinity and Beyond: A Cultural History of the Infinite'', Princeton University Press.", "* Morr Lazerowitz (2000).", "''The Structure of Metaphysics (International Library of Philosophy)'', Routledge.", "===Economics===* Carl P. Simon and Lawrence Blume (1994).", "''Mathematics for Economists'', W. W. Norton & Company.", "* Mike Rosser (2003).", "''Basic Mathematics for Economists'', 2nd ed., Routledge.", "===Biology===* Edward Batschelet (1992).", "''Introduction to Mathematics for Life Scientists'', 3rd ed., Springer.", "* Richard F. Burton (1998).", "''Biology by Numbers: An Encouragement to Quantitative Thinking'', Cambridge University Press.", "===Computer science===* John Rast Hubbard (2000).", "''Schaum's Outline of Theory and Problems of Data Structures With Java'', McGraw-Hill." ], [ "External links", "* * * * * * \"Geometric Series\" by Michael Schreiber, Wolfram Demonstrations Project, 2007." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "List of islands of Greece" ], [ "Introduction", "Regions for Greek islandsGreece has many islands, with estimates ranging from somewhere around 1,200 to 6,000, depending on the minimum size to take into account.", "The number of inhabited islands is variously cited as between 166 and 227.The largest Greek island by both area and population is Crete, located at the southern edge of the Aegean Sea.", "The second largest island in area is Euboea or Evvia, which is separated from the mainland by the 60m-wide Euripus Strait, and is administered as part of the Central Greece region.", "After the third and fourth largest Greek islands, Lesbos and Rhodes, the rest of the islands are two-thirds of the area of Rhodes, or smaller.The Greek islands are traditionally grouped into the following clusters: the Argo-Saronic Islands in the Saronic Gulf near Athens; the Cyclades, a large but dense collection occupying the central part of the Aegean Sea; the North Aegean islands, a loose grouping off the west coast of Turkey; the Dodecanese, another loose collection in the southeast between Crete and Turkey; the Sporades, a small tight group off the coast of Euboea; and the Ionian Islands, chiefly located to the west of the mainland in the Ionian Sea.", "Crete with its surrounding islets and Euboea are traditionally excluded from this grouping.This article excludes the Peloponnese, which has technically been an island since the construction of the Corinth Canal in 1893, but is rarely considered to be an island due to its artificial origins." ], [ "Islands of Greece by size", "NASA image of CreteNASA image of RhodesIthaca is to the upper right of the larger Kefalonia island in this picture.", "The small island in the top-right corner is the uninhabited Atokos island (NASA World Wind satellite picture).The following are the 40 largest Greek islands listed by surface area.", "Island Greek name Area(miles2) Area(km2) Cluster 1 Crete Κρήτη 3,219 8,336 Cretan 2 Evia Εύβοια 1,417 3,670 Euboean 3 Lesbos Λέσβος 630 1,633 North Aegean Islands 4 Rhodes Ρόδος 541 1,401 Dodecanese 5 Chíos Χίος 325 842.3 North Aegean Islands 6 Kefalonia Κεφαλονιά 302 781 Ionian Islands 7 Corfu Κέρκυρα 229 592.9 Ionian Islands 8 Lemnos Λήμνος 184 477.6 North Aegean Islands 9 Samos Σάμος 184 477.4 North Aegean Islands 10 Naxos Νάξος 166 429.8 Cyclades 11 Zakynthos Ζάκυνθος 157 406 Ionian Islands 12 Thassos Θάσος 147 380.1 North Aegean Islands 13 Andros Άνδρος 147 380.0 Cyclades 14 Lefkada Λευκάδα 117 303 Ionian Islands 15 Karpathos Κάρπαθος 116 300 Dodecanese 16 Kos Κως 112 290.3 Dodecanese 17 Kythira Κύθηρα 108 279.6 Ionian Islands 18 Icaria Ικαρία 99 255 North Aegean Islands 19 Skyros Σκύρος 81 209 Sporades 20 Paros Πάρος 75 195 Cyclades 21 Tinos Τήνος 75 194 Cyclades 22 Samothrace Σαμοθράκη 69 178 North Aegean Islands 23 Milos Μήλος 58 151 Cyclades 24 Kea Κέα 51 132 Cyclades 25 Amorgos Αμοργός 47 121 Cyclades 26 Kalymnos Κάλυμνος 42.5 110 Dodecanese 27 Ios Ίος 41.7 108 Cyclades 28 Kythnos Κύθνος 38.4 99.4 Cyclades 29 Astypalaia Αστυπάλαια 37.2 96.4 Dodecanese 30 Ithaca Ιθάκη 37.1 96.2 Ionian Islands 31 Salamis Σαλαμίνα 37.1 96.2 Argo-Saronic 32 Skopelos Σκόπελος 37.1 96.2 Sporades 33 Mykonos Μύκονος 33.0 85.5 Cyclades 34 Syros Σύρος 32.0 83.6 Cyclades 35 Aegina Αίγινα 31.9 82.6 Argo-Saronic 36 Santorini Σαντορίνη 29.4 76.2 Cyclades 37 Serifos Σέριφος 29.0 75.2 Cyclades 38 Sifnos Σίφνος 28.6 73.9 Cyclades 39 Kasos Κάσος 26.8 69.5 Dodecanese 40 Alonnisos Αλόννησος 24.7 64.1 Sporades" ], [ "Islands of Greece by population", " Island Population Crete 636,504 Evia 191,206 Rhodes 125,113 Lesbos 83,755 Corfu 102,071 Chios 50,361 Zakynthos 41,180 Salamis 37,220 Kefalonia 36,064 Kos 37,089 Samos 32,642 Lefkada 21,900 Syros 21,507 Naxos 20,578 Lemnos 16,411 Kalymnos 17,752 Santorini 15,480 Thasos 13,104 Paros 14,520 Aegina 12,911 Mykonos 10,704 Tinos 8,934 Andros 8,826 Icaria 8,843 Leros 7,992 Skiathos 5,802 Aitoliko 4,935 Karpathos 6,567 Milos 5,302 Skopelos 4,518 Kythira 3,644 Ithaca 2,862 Patmos 3,283 Skyros 3,052 Samothrace 2,596 Sifnos 2,777 Alonnisos 3,138 Symi 2,603 Kea 2,335 Paxos 2,466 Poros 3,261 Spetses 3,748" ], [ "Islands of the Aegean Sea", "===Argo-Saronic Islands===Aerial view of the port city of Hydra on Hydra IslandThis list includes Argo-Saronic islands, which are located in the Saronic Gulf.", "The largest Argo-Saronic island is Salamis.", "The main islands are in bold.", "Uninhabited islands are indicated, including those that may have been inhabited in the past: * '''Aegina''' (), * Agios Georgios (uninhabited), * Agios Georgios Salaminos (St. George's Island, uninhabited), * Agios Ioannis Diaporion (uninhabited)* Agios Thomas Diaporion (uninhabited), * '''Agistri''' (), * Alexandros Hydras, * Atalanti Island, * Dia (uninhabited)* '''Dokos''' (), * Falkonera (uninhabited), * Fleves (uninhabited), * '''Hydra''' (), * Katramoniso (Nisís Idhroúsa, uninhabited), * Kyra Aiginis (Nisída Kyrá) (uninhabited), * Laousses Islets (Nísoi Laoúses, uninhabited), * Leros Salaminos (uninhabited), * Modi Porou (uninhabited), * Moni Aiginas (uninhabited), * Patroklos (uninhabited), * Pera Island (Arta), * Platia (uninhabited), * Platia Aeginis (uninhabited), * '''Poros''' (), * Psili (uninhabited)* Psyttaleia (uninhabited), * Revythousa (uninhabited), * Romvi (Nisida Romvi) (uninhabited), * '''Salamis''' (), * '''Spetses''' (), * Spetsopoula (uninhabited), * Stavronisi Hydras (uninhabited), * Trikeri Hydras (uninhabited), * Velopoula (Nisída Velopoúla) (uninhabited), * Ypsili Diaporion (uninhabited)* Ypsili Argolidos (uninhabited)===Cretan island===The two lists below show the islands, islets, and rocks that surround the island of Crete that are in the Aegean Sea or Libyan Sea.====Cretan islands of the Aegean Sea====The islet of Leon, on the left, next to the larger islet of Souda, within Souda baySpinalonga (Kalydon)The islet of Pontikonisi (mouse island) which has the shape of a mouse.", "* Afendis Christos, * Agia Varvara, * Agioi Apostoloi, * Agioi Pandes, * Agioi Theodoroi, * Agios Nikolaos, * Agriomandra, * Anavatis, * Arnaouti, * Avgo (uninhabited islet), * Crete, * Daskaleia (uninhabited islet), * Dia (Zeus, uninhabited), * Diapori, * Dionysades (group of islands), ** Gianysada, ** Dragonada, ** Paximada, ** Paximadaki, * Elasa, * Ftena Trachylia, * Glaronisi, * Gramvoussa, ** Agria Gramvousa, ** Imeri Gramvousa, * Grandes (group of islands), * Kalydon (Spinalonga), * Karavi (uninhabited), * Karga (uninhabited), * Katergo (uninhabited), * Kavaloi (three uninhabited islands), ** Anavatis, ** Kavallos, ** Kefali, * Kolokytha, * Koursaroi, * Kyriamadi (Peninsula), * Lazaretta, * Leon (Islet), * Mavros (Uninhabited islet), * Megatzedes (Uninhabited islet), * Mochlos, * Nikolos, * Palaiosouda (Islet), * Peristeri (Islet), * Peristerovrachoi (Uninhabited rocks), * Petalida (Islet), * Petalouda (Uninhabited islet), * Pontikaki (Uninhabited islet), * Pondikonisi (Uninhabited islet), * Praso Kissamou (Islet), * Prosfora (Uninhabited islet), * Pseira, * Sideros (Uninhabited rock), * Souda (Islet), * Valenti (Rock), * Vryonisi (Uninhabited islet), ====Cretan islands of the Libyan Sea====The islet of Trafos in the Libyan SeaIslands on the south coast of Crete are considered in the Libyan Sea.", "* Agia Eirini, * Ammoudi tous Volakous, * Artemis (Uninhabited islet), * Aspros Volakas (rock), * Chrysi (uninhabited), * Elafonisi, * Fotia (Uninhabited islet), * Gaidouronisi (Uninhabited), * Gavdopoula, * Gavdos (Southernmost point of Greece), * Koufonisi (Lefki) (Uninhabited islet), * Loutro (Rocky islet), * Makroulo (Uninhabited islet), * Marmaro (Uninhabited islet), * Mavros Volakas (Large rock), * Megalonisi (Uninhabited islet), * Mikronisi (Islet), * Papadoplaka (Reef islet), * Paximadia (Two small uninhabited islands), * Prasonisi, Gavdou (Islet), * Prasonisi, Rethymno (Islet), * Psarocharako (Rock), * Psyllos (Uninhabited islet), * Schistonisi (Islet), * Strongyli (Uninhabited islet), * Thetis (Islet), * Trachilos (Uninhabited islet), * Trafos (Islet), * Treis Volakous (Rocks), ===Cyclades islands===Cyclades islandsIconic windmills of MykonosThe Cyclades islands comprise around 220 islands and islets.", "The main islands are indicated in bold below.", "* Agios Nikolaos (Macheres), * '''Amorgos''' (), * Ananes, * '''Anafi''' (), * '''Andros''' (), * Aniros (Anydros)* Ano Antikeros* Antimilos, * '''Antiparos''', * Anydros Amorgou* Askania, * Christiana (uninhabited), * '''Delos''', * Despotiko (uninhabited), * '''Donousa''' (), * Eschati, * '''Folegandros''' (), * Glaronisi, * '''Gyaros''', * Hristiana* Htapodia Mykonou* '''Ios''' (), * '''Iraklia''', * Kalogiros* Kardiotissa, * Kato Antikeros, * Kato Koufonisi, * '''Kea''' (), * '''Keros''', * '''Kimolos''', * Kitriani, * '''Koufonisia''', * Kramvonisi* '''Kythnos''' (), * Liadi Island, * Makares, * '''Makronissos''', * Megalo, * '''Milos''' (), * '''Mykonos''', * '''Naxos''' (), * Nea Kameni, * Nikouria, * Nisida Prasini, * Ofidousa, * Pahia Anaphis* Palea Kameni, * '''Paros''' (), * '''Polyaigos''', * Rhineia, * Saliagos, * '''Santorini''' (Thera), * '''Schoinoussa''', * Serifopoula, * '''Serifos''', * '''Sifnos''', * '''Sikinos''', * Skilonisi, * Stroggyli Parou, * '''Syros''', * '''Therasia''', * '''Tinos''' (), * Vous, * Vrachoi Bouvais, ===Dodecanese islands===Dodcanese IslandsHarbor of the island of AstypalaiaThere are 164 total Dodecanese Islands of which 26 are inhabited.", "There are 12 main islands, as listed in bold below:* Agathonissi, * Agioi Theodoroi Halkis* Agreloussa* Alimia, * Antitilos* Anydros Patmou* Arefoussa* Arhangelos* Arkoi, * Armathia, * Astakida* '''Astypalaia''', * Faradonesia* Farmakonisi, * Fokionissia* Fragos* Gaidourosnissi Tilou* Glaros Kinarou* Gyali, * Halavra* Halki, * Hiliomodi Patmou* Hondro* Htenies* Imia (uninhabited), * Kalavros Kalymnou* Kalolimnos, * Kalovolos* '''Kalymnos''', * Kamilonisi* Kandeloussa* Karavolas Rodhou* '''Karpathos''' (), * '''Kasos''', * '''Kastellorizo''' (Megisti), * Kinaros, * '''Kos''' (), * Koubelonisi* Kouloundros* Kouloura Leipson* Kounoupoi* Koutsomytis* Leipsoi, * '''Leros''', * Levitha, * Makronisi Leipson* Makronissi Kasou* Makry Aspronisi Leipson* Makry Halkis* Marathos, * Marmaras* Mavra Levithas* Megalo Aspronisi Leipson* Megalo Glaronisi* Megalo Sofrano* Mesonisi Seirinas* Mikro Glaronisi, * Mikro Sofrano, * Nerónisi, * Nimos, * Nisídes Adelfoí, * '''Nisyros''', * Paheia Nisyrou* '''Patmos''', * Pergoussa* Piganoussa* Pitta* Plati Kasou* Plati Pserimou* Plati Symis* Pontikoussa* Prasonissi Rodhou* Prasouda* Pserimos, * Ro, * '''Rhodes''' (), * Safonidi* Saria, * Seirina* Sesklio* Stroggyli* Strongyli Megistis (Easternmost point of Greece), * Strongyli Kritinias* Strongyli Kasou* '''Symi''', * Syrna, * Telendos, * '''Tilos''', * Tragonisi* Zaforas, ===Euboea and surrounding islands===* Atalanti (uninhabited), * Euboea, * Hersonisi* Kavalliani (uninhabited), * Lichades, * Lithari* Mandilou* Monoliá, * Megalos Petalios* Petalioi (10 small uninhabited islands/islets), * Stouronisi, ===North Aegean islands=== * Agios Efstratios, * Chios, * Icaria, * Lesbos, * Lemnos, * Oinousses, * Pasas, * Psara, ** Antipsara, * Samos, ** Samiopoula, * Fournoi Korseon ()** Agios Minas ()** Thymaina ()There are also two North Aegean islands in the Thracian Sea:* Samothrace, * Thassos, ===Sporades islands===Northern SporadesThe 30 islands in the Sporades are listed below with the four major islands in bold.", "The largest Sporades island is Skyros.", "* Adelfoi Islets, * Agios Georgios Skopelou* '''Alonissos''' (), * Arkos (Skiathos Municipality), * Aspronisi (Skiathos Municipality)* Dasia* Erinia (Rineia Skyrou), * Gioura, * Grammeza, * Korakas Alonissou* Kyra Panagia, * Lekhoussa, * Manolas Alonissou* Maragos (Skiathos Municipality)* Peristera, * Piperi, * Polemika Alonissou* Praso Skantzouras* Psathoura, * Repi, * Sarakino, * Skandili, * Skantzoura, * '''Skiathos''' ( in Municipality), * '''Skopelos''' (), * Skyropoula (Skyros Municipality), * '''Skyros''' (), * Tsougria (Skiathos Municipality), * Troulonisi (Skiathos Municipality)* Tsougriaki (Skiathos Municipality)* Valaxa," ], [ "Ionian Sea islands", "Main Ionian IslandsEchinades islandsIslands in the Ionian Sea are listed below.", "The seven largest and most popular islands are listed in bold.", "* Antikythera, * Antipaxos, * Arkoudi, * Atokos, * '''Cephalonia''', * '''Corfu''', * Diaplo, * Echinades** Apasa, ** Drakonera, ** Filippos, ** Girovaris or Gkravaris, ** Kalogiros, ** Karlonisi, ** Kouneli or Makropoula, ** Lamprinos, ** Makri, ** Modio or Modi, ** Oxeia, ** Petalas, ** Pistros, ** Pontikos, ** Praso, ** Provati, ** Sofía, ** Soros, ** Tsakalonisi, ** Vromonas, * Elafonissos, * Ereikoussa, * '''Ithaca''', * Kalamos, * Kastos, * Kravia, * '''Kythira''', * Kythros, * Lazaretto, * '''Lefkada''', * Madouri (Uninhabited), * Makropoúla, * Mathraki, * Meganisi, * Modia Islets, * Nisída Ágios Nikólaos, * Omfori (Uninhabited, private), * Othonoi (westernmost point of Greece), * '''Paxi''', * Provati, * Proti, * Sapientza, * Schiza (Uninhabited), * Skorpios, * Skorpidi (Private), * Sparti Lefkados, * Sphacteria, * Strofades, * Thilia, * Vido, * '''Zakynthos'''," ], [ "Islets close to mainland", "The following islands are close to the mainland and not part of a sea:* Alatas Trikeriou, * Ammouliani (Chalkidiki), * Antitrikeri (Thessaly) * Kelyfos, * Paleo Trikeri (Thessaly), * Trizonia island (Central Greece)," ], [ "Islands not in the sea", "===Lake and river islands===Ioannina island in Lake Pamvotida* Agios Achilleios (Small Prespa Lake), * Ioannina Island (Lake Pamvotida), * Vidronisi (Small Prespa Lake), * Anonymous islet (Limnothálassa Pápas lagoon, Western Achaia), ===Islands in an island===* Marathi Island (Marathi Lake (reservoir) in Mykonos), ===Lagoon islands===*Aitoliko Lagoon**Aitoliko, * Missolonghi Lagoon** Dolmas** Kleisova, ** Komma, ** Prokopanistos** Schinias** Tourlida, ** Vasiladi," ], [ "See also", "* Geography of Greece* Ionian Islands* List of Aegean Islands* Lists of islands* List of islands of Turkey* List of islands in the Mediterranean" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * * , Barrington Atlas of the Greek and Roman World" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gian Lorenzo Bernini" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Gian Lorenzo''' (or '''Gianlorenzo''') '''Bernini''' (, , ; Italian '''Giovanni Lorenzo'''; 7 December 159828 November 1680) was an Italian sculptor and architect.", "While a major figure in the world of architecture, he was more prominently the leading sculptor of his age, credited with creating the Baroque style of sculpture.", "As one scholar has commented, \"What Shakespeare is to drama, Bernini may be to sculpture: the first pan-European sculptor whose name is instantaneously identifiable with a particular manner and vision, and whose influence was inordinately powerful ...\" In addition, he was a painter (mostly small canvases in oil) and a man of the theatre: he wrote, directed and acted in plays (mostly Carnival satires), for which he designed stage sets and theatrical machinery.", "He produced designs as well for a wide variety of decorative art objects including lamps, tables, mirrors, and even coaches.As an architect and city planner, he designed secular buildings, churches, chapels, and public squares, as well as massive works combining both architecture and sculpture, especially elaborate public fountains and funerary monuments and a whole series of temporary structures (in stucco and wood) for funerals and festivals.", "His broad technical versatility, boundless compositional inventiveness and sheer skill in manipulating marble ensured that he would be considered a worthy successor of Michelangelo, far outshining other sculptors of his generation.", "His talent extended beyond the confines of sculpture to a consideration of the setting in which it would be situated; his ability to synthesize sculpture, painting, and architecture into a coherent conceptual and visual whole has been termed by the late art historian Irving Lavin the \"unity of the visual arts\"." ], [ "Biography", "Portrait of Pietro Bernini, father of Gian Lorenzo=== Youth ===Bernini was born on 7 December 1598 in Naples to Angelica Galante, a Neapolitan, and Mannerist sculptor Pietro Bernini, originally from Florence.", "He was the sixth of their thirteen children.", "Gian Lorenzo Bernini was \"recognized as a prodigy when he was only eight years old, and he was consistently encouraged by his father, Pietro.", "His precocity earned him the admiration and favour of powerful patrons who hailed him as 'the Michelangelo of his century'”.", "More specifically, it was Pope Paul V, who after first attesting to the boy Bernini's talent, famously remarked, 'This child will be the Michelangelo of his age,' later repeating that prophecy to Cardinal Maffeo Barberini (the future Pope Urban VIII), as Domenico Bernini reports in his biography of his father.", "In 1606 his father received a papal commission (to contribute a marble relief to the Cappella Paolina of Santa Maria Maggiore) and so moved from Naples to Rome, taking his entire family with him and continuing in earnest the training of his son Gian Lorenzo.Several extant works, dating circa 1615–1620, are by general scholarly consensus, collaborative efforts by both father and son: they include the ''Faun Teased by Putti'' (c. 1615, Metropolitan Museum, NYC), ''Boy with a Dragon'' (c. 1616–17, Getty Museum, Los Angeles), the Aldobrandini ''Four Seasons'' (c. 1620, private collection), and the recently discovered ''Bust of the Savior'' (1615–16, New York, private collection).", "Sometime after the arrival of the Bernini family in Rome, word about the great talent of the boy Gian Lorenzo spread throughout the city and he soon caught the attention of Cardinal Scipione Borghese, nephew to the reigning pope, Paul V, who spoke of the boy genius to his uncle.", "Bernini was therefore presented before Pope Paul V, curious to see if the stories about Gian Lorenzo's talent were true.", "The boy improvised a sketch of Saint Paul for the marvelling pope, and this was the beginning of the pope's attention on this young talent.Once he was brought to Rome, he rarely left its walls, except (much against his will) for a five-month stay in Paris in the service of King Louis XIV and brief trips to nearby towns (including Civitavecchia, Tivoli and Castelgandolfo), mostly for work-related reasons.", "Rome was Bernini's city: \"You are made for Rome,\" said Pope Urban VIII to him, \"and Rome for you.\"", "It was in this world of 17th-century Rome and the international religious-political power which resided there that Bernini created his greatest works.", "Bernini's works are therefore often characterized as perfect expressions of the spirit of the assertive, triumphal but self-defensive Counter Reformation Catholic Church.", "Certainly, Bernini was a man of his times and deeply religious (at least later in life), but he and his artistic production should not be reduced simply to instruments of the papacy and its political-doctrinal programs, an impression that is at times communicated by the works of the three most eminent Bernini scholars of the previous generation, Rudolf Wittkower, Howard Hibbard, and Irving Lavin.", "As Tomaso Montanari's recent revisionist monograph, ''La libertà di Bernini'' (Turin: Einaudi, 2016) argues and Franco Mormando's anti-hagiographic biography, ''Bernini: His Life and His Rome'' (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2011), illustrates, Bernini and his artistic vision maintained a certain degree of freedom from the mindset and mores of Counter-Reformation Roman Catholicism.Bust of Pope Paul V (1621–1622) by Bernini.===Partnership with Scipione Borghese===Under the patronage of the extravagantly wealthy and most powerful Cardinal Scipione Borghese, the young Bernini rapidly rose to prominence as a sculptor.", "Among his early works for the cardinal, as an assistant in his father's workshop, would have been small contributions to decorative pieces for the garden of the Villa Borghese, such as perhaps ''The Allegory of Autumn'' (formerly in the Hester Diamond collection in New York).", "Another small garden ornament work (in the Galleria Borghese since Bernini's lifetime), ''The Goat Amalthea with the Infant Jupiter and a Faun,'' was from 1926 until 2022 generally considered by scholars to be the earliest work executed entirely by the young Bernini himself, despite the fact that it is never mentioned in any of the contemporary sources, except for a late reference (1675) as a Bernini work by Joachim von Sandrart, a German visitor to Rome, an attribution that was given no credence until the twentieth century.", "Indeed, the official 2022 ''Catalogo generale'' (vol.", "1, ''Sculture moderne,'' cat.", "41) of the Galleria Borghese, edited by Anna Coliva (former director of the gallery) formally removes the attribution to Bernini completely, on the basis of both stylistic, technical, and historical (documentary) grounds.", "Instead, among Bernini's earliest and securely documented work is his collaboration on his father's commission of February 1618 from Cardinal Maffeo Barberini to create four marble ''putti'' for the Barberini family chapel in the church of Sant'Andrea della Valle, the contract stipulating that his son Gian Lorenzo would assist in the execution of the statues.", "Also dating to 1618 is a letter by Maffeo Barberini in Rome to his brother Carlo in Florence, which mentions that he (Maffeo) was thinking of asking the young Gian Lorenzo to finish one of the statues left incomplete by Michelangelo, then in possession of Michelangelo's grandnephew which Maffeo was hoping to purchase, a remarkable attestation of the great skill that the young Bernini was already believed to possess.Although the Michelangelo statue-completion commission came to nought, the young Bernini was shortly thereafter (in 1619) commissioned to repair and complete a famous work of antiquity, the ''Sleeping Hermaphroditus'' owned by Cardinal Scipione Borghese (Galleria Borghese, Rome) and later (circa 1622) restored the so-called ''Ludovisi Ares'' (Museo Nazionale Romano, Rome).Also dating to this early period are the so-called ''Damned Soul'' and ''Blessed Soul'' of circa 1619, two small marble busts which may have been influenced by a set of prints by Pieter de Jode I or Karel van Mallery, but which were in fact unambiguously catalogued in the inventory of their first documented owner, Fernando de Botinete y Acevedo, as depicting a nymph and a satyr, a commonly paired duo in ancient sculpture (they were not commissioned by nor ever belonged to either Scipione Borghese or, as most scholarship erroneously claims, the Spanish cleric, Pedro Foix Montoya).", "By the time he was twenty-two, Bernini was considered talented enough to have been given a commission for a papal portrait, the ''Bust of Pope Paul V'', now in the J. Paul Getty Museum.Bernini's reputation, however, was definitively established by four masterpieces, executed between 1619 and 1625, all now displayed in the Galleria Borghese in Rome.", "To the art historian Rudolf Wittkower these four works—''Aeneas, Anchises, and Ascanius'' (1619), ''The Rape of Proserpina'' (1621–22), ''Apollo and Daphne'' (1622–1625), and ''David'' (1623–24)—\"inaugurated a new era in the history of European sculpture.\"", "It is a view repeated by other scholars, such as Howard Hibbard who proclaimed that, in all of the seventeenth century, \"there were no sculptors or architects comparable to Bernini.\"", "Adapting the classical grandeur of Renaissance sculpture and the dynamic energy of the Mannerist period, Bernini forged a new, distinctly Baroque conception for religious and historical sculpture, powerfully imbued with dramatic realism, stirring emotion and dynamic, theatrical compositions.", "Bernini's early sculpture groups and portraits manifest \"a command of the human form in motion and a technical sophistication rivalled only by the greatest sculptors of classical antiquity.\"", "Moreover, Bernini possessed the ability to depict highly dramatic narratives with characters showing intense psychological states, but also to organize large-scale sculptural works that convey a magnificent grandeur.Unlike sculptures done by his predecessors, these focus on specific points of narrative tension in the stories they are trying to tell: Aeneas and his family fleeing the burning Troy; the instant that Pluto finally grasps the hunted Persephone; the precise moment that Apollo sees his beloved Daphne begin her transformation into a tree.", "They are transitory but dramatic powerful moments in each story.", "Bernini's ''David'' is another stirring example of this.", "Michelangelo's motionless, idealized ''David'' shows the subject holding a rock in one hand and a sling in the other, contemplating the battle; similarly immobile versions by other Renaissance artists, including Donatello's, show the subject in his triumph after the battle with Goliath.", "Bernini illustrates David during his active combat with the giant, as he twists his body to catapult toward Goliath.", "To emphasize these moments and to ensure that they were appreciated by the viewer, Bernini designed the sculptures with a specific viewpoint in mind, though he sculpted them fully in the round.", "Their original placements within the Villa Borghese were against walls so that the viewers' first view was the dramatic moment of the narrative.The result of such an approach is to invest the sculptures with greater psychological energy.", "The viewer finds it easier to gauge the state of mind of the characters and therefore understands the larger story at work: Daphne's wide open mouth in fear and astonishment, David biting his lip in determined concentration, or Proserpina desperately struggling to free herself.", "This is shown by how Bernini portrays her braids coming undone which reveals her emotional distress.", "In addition to portraying psychological realism, they show a greater concern for representing physical details.", "The tousled hair of Pluto, the pliant flesh of Proserpina, or the forest of leaves beginning to envelop Daphne all demonstrate Bernini's exactitude and delight for representing complex real world textures in marble form.=== Papal artist: the pontificate of Urban VIII ===''Baldacchino'' in St. Peter's BasilicaIn 1621 Pope Paul V Borghese was succeeded on the throne of St. Peter by another admiring friend of Bernini's, Cardinal Alessandro Ludovisi, who became Pope Gregory XV: although his reign was very short (he died in 1623), Pope Gregory commissioned portraits of himself (both in marble and bronze) by Bernini.", "The pontiff also bestowed upon Bernini the honorific rank of 'Cavaliere,' the title with which for the rest of his life the artist was habitually referred.", "In 1623 came the ascent to the papal throne of his aforementioned friend and former tutor, Cardinal Maffeo Barberini, as Pope Urban VIII, and henceforth (until Urban's death in 1644) Bernini enjoyed near monopolistic patronage from the Barberini pope and family.", "The new Pope Urban is reported to have remarked, \"It is a great fortune for you, O Cavaliere, to see Cardinal Maffeo Barberini made pope, but our fortune is even greater to have Cavalier Bernini alive in our pontificate.\"", "Although he did not fare as well during the reign (1644–55) of Innocent X, under Innocent's successor, Alexander VII (reigned 1655–67), Bernini once again gained pre-eminent artistic domination and continued in the successive pontificate to be held in high regard by Clement IX during his short reign (1667–69).Under Urban VIII's patronage, Bernini's horizons rapidly and widely broadened: he was not just producing sculpture for private residences, but playing the most significant artistic (and engineering) role on the city stage, as sculptor, architect, and urban planner.", "His official appointments also testify to this—\"curator of the papal art collection, director of the papal foundry at Castel Sant'Angelo, commissioner of the fountains of Piazza Navona\".", "Such positions gave Bernini the opportunity to demonstrate his versatile skills throughout the city.", "To great protest from older, experienced master architects, he, with virtually no architectural training to his name, was appointed \"Architect of St Peter's\" in 1629, upon the death of Carlo Maderno.", "From then on, Bernini's work and artistic vision would be placed at the symbolic heart of Rome.Bernini's artistic pre-eminence under Urban VIII (and later under Alexander VII) meant he was able to secure the most important commissions in the Rome of his day, namely, the various massive embellishment projects of the newly finished St. Peter's Basilica, completed under Pope Paul V with the addition of Maderno's nave and facade and finally re-consecrated by Pope Urban VIII on 18 November 1626, after 100 years of planning and building.", "Within the basilica he was responsible for the Baldacchino, the decoration of the four piers under the cupola, the Cathedra Petri or Chair of St. Peter in the apse, the Tomb of Countess Matilda of Tuscany, the chapel of the Blessed Sacrament in the right nave, and the decoration (floor, walls and arches) of the new nave.", "The St Peter's Baldacchino immediately became the visual centrepiece of the new St. Peter's.", "Designed as a massive spiralling gilded bronze canopy over the tomb of St Peter, Bernini's four-pillared creation reached nearly from the ground and cost around 200,000 Roman scudi (about 8 million US dollars in the currency of the early 21st century).", "\"Quite simply\", writes one art historian, \"nothing like it had ever been seen before\".", "Soon after the St Peter's Baldacchino, Bernini undertook the whole-scale embellishment of the four massive piers at the crossing of the basilica (i.e., the structures supporting the cupola) including, most notably, four colossal, theatrically dramatic statues.", "Among the latter is the majestic ''St.", "Longinus'' executed by Bernini himself (the other three are by other contemporary sculptors François Duquesnoy, Francesco Mochi, and Bernini's disciple, Andrea Bolgi).In the basilica, Bernini also began work on the tomb for Urban VIII, completed only after Urban's death in 1644, one in a long, distinguished series of tombs and funerary monuments for which Bernini is famous and a traditional genre upon which his influence left an enduring mark, often copied by subsequent artists.", "Indeed, Bernini's final and most original tomb monument, the Tomb of Pope Alexander VII, in St. Peter's Basilica, represents, according to Erwin Panofsky, the very pinnacle of European funerary art, whose creative inventiveness subsequent artists could not hope to surpass.", "''Bust of Armand, Cardinal de Richelieu'' (1640–1641)Despite this busy engagement with large works of public architecture, Bernini was still able to devote himself to his sculpture, especially portraits in marble, but also large statues such as the life-size ''Saint Bibiana'' (1624, Church of Santa Bibiana, Rome).", "Bernini's portraits show his ever-increasing ability to capture the utterly distinctive personal characteristics of his sitters, as well as his ability to achieve in cold white marble almost painterly-like effects that render with convincing realism the various surfaces involved: human flesh, hair, fabric of varying type, metal, etc.", "These portraits included a number of busts of Urban VIII himself, the family bust of Francesco Barberini and most notably, the Two Busts of Scipione Borghese—the second of which had been rapidly created by Bernini once a flaw had been found in the marble of the first.", "The transitory nature of the expression on Scipione's face is often noted by art historians, as iconic of the Baroque concern for representing fleeting movement in static artworks.", "To Rudolf Wittkower the \"beholder feels that in the twinkle of an eye not only might the expression and attitude change but also the folds of the casually arranged mantle\".Other marble portraits in this period include that of Costanza Bonarelli unusual in its more personal, intimate nature.", "(At the time of the sculpting of the portrait, Bernini was having an affair with Costanza, wife of one of his assistants, sculptor, Matteo.)", "Indeed, it would appear to be the first marble portrait of a non-aristocratic woman by a major artist in European history.Beginning in the late 1630s, now known in Europe as one of the most accomplished portraitists in marble, Bernini also began to receive royal commissions from outside Rome, for subjects such as Cardinal Richelieu of France, Francesco I d'Este the powerful Duke of Modena, Charles I of England and his wife, Queen Henrietta Maria.", "The bust of Charles I was produced in Rome from a triple portrait (oil on canvas) executed by Van Dyck, that survives today in the British Royal Collection.", "The bust of Charles was lost in the Whitehall Palace fire of 1698 (though its design is known through contemporary copies and drawings) and that of Henrietta Maria was not undertaken due to the outbreak of the English Civil War.===Temporary eclipse and resurgence under Innocent X===''Ecstasy of Saint Teresa'', 1651In 1644, with the death of Pope Urban with whom Bernini had been so intimately connected and the ascent to power of the fierce Barberini-enemy Pope Innocent X Pamphilj, Bernini's career suffered a major, unprecedented eclipse, which was to last four years.", "This had not only to do with Innocent's anti-Barberini politics but also with Bernini's role in the disastrous project of the new bell towers for St. Peter's basilica, designed and supervised entirely by Bernini.", "The infamous bell tower affair was to be the biggest failure of his career, both professionally and financially.", "In 1636, eager to finally finish the exterior of St. Peter's, Pope Urban had ordered Bernini to design and build the two, long-intended bell towers for its facade: the foundations of the two towers had already been designed and constructed (namely, the last bays at either extremity of the facade) by Carlo Maderno (architect of the nave and the façade) decades earlier.", "Once the first tower was finished in 1641, cracks began to appear in the façade but, curiously enough, work nonetheless continued on the second tower and the first storey was completed.", "Despite the presence of the cracks, work only stopped in July 1642 once the papal treasury had been exhausted by the disastrous Wars of Castro.", "Knowing that Bernini could no longer depend on the protection of a favourable pope, his enemies (especially Francesco Borromini) raised a great alarm over the cracks, predicting a disaster for the whole basilica and placing the blame entirely on Bernini.", "The subsequent investigations, in fact, revealed the cause of the cracks as Maderno's defective foundations and not Bernini's elaborate design, an exoneration later confirmed by the meticulous investigation conducted in 1680 under Pope Innocent XI.Truth Unveiled by Time'', Galleria Borghese, Rome, 1645–1652Nonetheless, Bernini's opponents in Rome succeeded in seriously damaging the reputation of Urban's artist and in persuading Pope Innocent to order (in February 1646) the complete demolition of both towers, to Bernini's great humiliation and indeed financial detriment (in the form of a substantial fine for the failure of the work).", "After this, one of the rare failures of his career, Bernini retreated into himself: according to his son, Domenico.", "his subsequent unfinished statue of 1647, ''Truth Unveiled by Time'', was intended to be his self-consoling commentary on this affair, expressing his faith that eventually Time would reveal the actual Truth behind the story and exonerate him fully, as indeed did occur.Although he received no personal commissions from Innocent or the Pamphilj family in the early years of the new papacy, Bernini did not lose his former positions granted to him by previous popes.", "Innocent X maintained Bernini in all of the official roles given to him by Urban, including his most prestigious one as \"Architect of St.", "Peter's.\"", "Under Bernini's design and direction, work continued on decorating the massive, recently completed but still entirely unadorned nave of St. Peter's, with the addition of elaborate multi-coloured marble flooring, marble facing on the walls and pilasters, and scores of stuccoed statues and reliefs.", "It is not without reason that Pope Alexander VII once quipped, 'If one were to remove from Saint Peter's everything that had been made by the Cavalier Bernini, that temple would be stripped bare.'", "Indeed, given all of his many and various works within the basilica over several decades, it is to Bernini that is due the lion's share of responsibility for the final and enduring aesthetic appearance and emotional impact of St. Peter's.", "He was also allowed to continue to work on Urban VIII's tomb, despite Innocent's antipathy for the Barberini.", "A few months after completing Urban's tomb, in 1648 Bernini won (through furtive manoeuvring with the complicity of the pope's sister-in-law Donna Olimpia) the Pamphilj commission for the prestigious Four Rivers Fountain on Piazza Navona, marking the end of his disgrace and the beginning a yet another glorious chapter in his life.", "''Memorial to Maria Raggi'', 1651If there had been doubts over Bernini's position as Rome's preeminent artist, they were definitively removed by the unqualified success of the marvellously delightful and technically ingenious Four Rivers Fountain, featuring a heavy ancient obelisk placed over a void created by a cavelike rock formation placed in the centre of an ocean of exotic sea creatures.", "Bernini continued to receive commissions from Pope Innocent X and other senior members of Rome's clergy and aristocracy, as well as from exalted patrons outside of Rome, such as Francesco d'Este.", "Recovering quickly form the humiliation of the bell towers, Bernini's boundless creativity continued as before.", "New types of funerary monument were designed, such as, in the Church of Santa Maria sopra Minerva, the seemingly floating medallion, hovering in the air as it were, for the deceased nun Maria Raggi, while chapels he designed, such as the Raimondi Chapel in the church of San Pietro in Montorio, illustrated how Bernini could use hidden lighting to help suggest divine intervention within the narratives he was depicting and to add a dramatically theatrical \"spotlight\" to enhance the main focus of the space.One of the most accomplished and celebrated works to come from Bernini's hand in this period was the Cornaro Family Chapel in the small Carmelite church of Santa Maria della Vittoria, Rome.", "The Cornaro Chapel (inaugurated in 1651) showcased Bernini's ability to integrate sculpture, architecture, fresco, stucco, and lighting into \"a marvellous whole\" (''bel composto'', to use early biographer Filippo Baldinucci's term to describe his approach to architecture) and thus create what scholar Irving Lavin has called the \"unified work of art\".", "The central focus of the Cornaro Chapel is the Ecstasy of Saint Teresa, depicting the so-called \"transverberation\" of the Spanish nun and saint-mystic, Teresa of Avila.", "Bernini presents the spectator with a theatrically vivid portrait, in gleaming white marble, of the swooning Teresa and the quietly smiling angel, who delicately grips the arrow piercing the saint's heart.", "On either side of the chapel the artist places (in what can only strike the viewer as theatre boxes), portraits in relief of various members of the Cornaro family—the Venetian family memorialized in the chapel, including Cardinal Federico Cornaro who commissioned the chapel from Bernini—who are in animated conversation among themselves, presumably about the event taking place before them.", "The result is a complex but subtly orchestrated architectural environment providing the spiritual context (a heavenly setting with a hidden source of light) that suggests to viewers the ultimate nature of this miraculous event.Nonetheless, during Bernini's lifetime and in the centuries following till this very day, Bernini's ''Saint Teresa'' has been accused of crossing a line of decency by sexualizing the visual depiction of the saint's experience, to a degree that no artist, before or after Bernini, dared to do: in depicting her at an impossibly young chronological age, as an idealized delicate beauty, in a semi-prostrate position with her mouth open and her legs splayed-apart, her wimple coming undone, with prominently displayed bare feet (Discalced Carmelites, for modesty, always wore sandals with heavy stockings) and with the seraph \"undressing\" her by (unnecessarily) parting her mantle to penetrate her heart with his arrow.Matters of decorum aside, Bernini's ''Teresa'' was still an artistic tour de force that incorporates all of the multiple forms of visual art and technique that Bernini had at his disposal, including hidden lighting, thin gilded beams, recessive architectural space, secret lens, and over twenty diverse types of colored marble: these all combine to create the final artwork—\"a perfected, highly dramatic and deeply satisfying seamless ensemble\".=== Embellishment of Rome under Alexander VII ===Upon his accession to the Chair of St Peter, Pope Alexander VII Chigi (reigned 1655–1667) began to implement his extremely ambitious plan to transform Rome into a magnificent world capital by means of systematic, bold (and costly) urban planning.", "In so doing, he brought to fruition the long, slow recreation of the urban glory of Rome—the deliberate campaign for the \"''renovatio Romae''\"—that had begun in the fifteenth century under the Renaissance popes.", "Over the course of his pontificate, Alexander commissioned many large-scale architectural changes in the city—indeed, some of the most significant ones in the city's recent history and for years to come—choosing Bernini as his principal collaborator (though other architects, especially Pietro da Cortona, were also involved).", "Thus did commence another extraordinarily prolific and successful chapter in Bernini's career.Bernini self-portrait, c. 1665Bernini's major commissions during this period include St. Peter's Square.", "In a previously broad, irregular, and completely unstructured space, he created two massive semi-circular colonnades, each row of which was formed of four simple white Doric columns.", "This resulted in an oval shape that formed an inclusive arena within which any gathering of citizens, pilgrims and visitors could witness the appearance of the pope—either as he appeared on the loggia on the façade of St Peter's or at the traditional window of the neighbouring Palazzo Vaticano, to the right of the square.", "In addition to being logistically efficient for carriages and crowds, Bernini's design was completely in harmony with the pre-existing buildings and added to the majesty of the basilica.", "Often likened to two arms reaching out from the church to embrace the waiting crowd, Bernini's creation extended the symbolic greatness of the Vatican area, creating an emotionally thrilling and \"exhilarating expanse\" that was, architecturally, an \"unequivocal success\".Elsewhere within the Vatican, Bernini created systematic rearrangements and majestic embellishment of either empty or aesthetically undistinguished spaces that exist as he designed them to the present day and have become indelible icons of the splendour of the papal precincts.", "Within the hitherto unadorned apse of the basilica, the Cathedra Petri, the symbolic throne of St Peter, was rearranged as a monumental gilded bronze extravagance that matched the Baldacchino created earlier in the century.", "Bernini's complete reconstruction of the Scala Regia, the stately papal stairway between St. Peters's and the Vatican Palace, was slightly less ostentatious in appearance but still taxed Bernini's creative powers (employing, for example, clever tricks of optical illusion) to create a seemingly uniform, totally functional, but nonetheless regally impressive stairway to connect two irregular buildings within an even more irregular space.Not all works during this era were on such a large scale.", "Indeed, the commission Bernini received to build the church of Sant'Andrea al Quirinale for the Jesuits was relatively modest in physical size (though great in its interior chromatic splendour), which Bernini executed completely free of charge.", "Sant'Andrea shared with Piazza San Pietro—unlike the complex geometries of his rival Francesco Borromini—a focus on basic geometric shapes, circles, and ovals to create spiritually intense spaces.", "He also designed the church of Santa Maria Assunta (1662–65) in the town of Ariccia with its circular outline, rounded dome and three-arched portico, reminiscent of the Pantheon.", "In Santa Maria Assunta, as in his church of St. Thomas of Villanova in Castelgandolfo (1658-61), Bernini completely eschewed the rich polychrome marble decoration dramatically seen in Sant'Andrea and the Cornaro Chapel in Santa Maria della Vittoria, in favour of an essentially white, somewhat stark interior, albeit still much adorned with stucco work and painted altarpieces.===Visit to France and service to King Louis XIV===''Bust of Louis XIV'', 1665At the end of April 1665, and still considered the most important artist in Rome, if indeed not in all of Europe, Bernini was forced by political pressure (from both the French court and Pope Alexander VII) to travel to Paris to work for King Louis XIV, who required an architect to complete work on the royal palace of the Louvre.", "Bernini would remain in Paris until mid-October.", "Louis XIV assigned a member of his court to serve as Bernini's translator, tourist guide, and overall companion, Paul Fréart de Chantelou, who kept a ''Journal'' of Bernini's visit that records much of Bernini's behaviour and utterances in Paris.", "The writer Charles Perrault, who was serving at this time as an assistant to the French Controller-General of Finances Jean-Baptiste Colbert, also provided a first-hand account of Bernini's visit.Bernini was popular among the crowds who gathered wherever he stopped, which led him to compare his itinerary to the travelling exhibition of an elephant.", "On his walks in Paris the streets were lined with admiring crowds too.", "But things soon turned sour.", "Bernini presented finished designs for the east front (i.e., the all-important principal facade of the entire palace) of the Louvre, which were ultimately rejected, albeit not formally until 1667, well after his departure from Paris (indeed, the already constructed foundations for Bernini's Louvre addition were inaugurated in October 1665 in an elaborate ceremony, with both Bernini and King Louis in attendance).", "It is often stated in the scholarship on Bernini that his Louvre designs were turned down because Louis and his finance minister Jean-Baptiste Colbert considered them too Italianate or too Baroque in style.", "In fact, as Franco Mormando points out, \"aesthetics are ''never'' mentioned in any of the ... surviving memos\" by Colbert or any of the artistic advisors at the French court.", "The explicit reasons for the rejections were utilitarian, namely, on the level of physical security and comfort (e.g., location of the latrines).", "It is also indisputable that there was an interpersonal conflict between Bernini and the young French king, each one feeling insufficiently respected by the other.", "Though his design for the Louvre went unbuilt, it circulated widely throughout Europe by means of engravings and its direct influence can be seen in subsequent stately residences such as Chatsworth House, Derbyshire, England, seat of the Dukes of Devonshire.Other projects in Paris suffered a similar fate, such as Bernini's plans for the Bourbon funerary chapel in the cathedral of Saint Denis and the main altar of the Church of Val de Grâce (done at the request of its patron the Queen Mother), as well as his idea for a fountain for Saint-Cloud, the estate of King Louis's brother, Philippe.", "With the exception of Chantelou, Bernini failed to forge significant friendships at the French court.", "His frequent negative comments on various aspects of French culture, especially its art and architecture, did not go down well, particularly in juxtaposition to his praise for the art and architecture of Italy (especially Rome); he said that a painting by Guido Reni, the ''Annunciation'' altarpiece (then in the Carmelite convent, now the Louvre Museum), was \"alone worth half of Paris.\"", "The sole work remaining from his time in Paris is the ''Bust of Louis XIV'' although he also contributed a great deal to the execution of the Christ Child Playing with a Nail marble relief (now in the Louvre) by his son Paolo as a gift to Queen Maria Theresa.", "Back in Rome, Bernini created a monumental equestrian statue of Louis XIV; when it finally reached Paris (in 1685, five years after the artist's death), the French king found it extremely repugnant and wanted it destroyed; it was instead re-carved into a representation of the ancient Roman hero Marcus Curtius.===Later years and death===Tomb of Gian Lorenzo Bernini in the Basilica di Santa Maria MaggioreThe grave of Bernini in the Basilica di Santa Maria MaggioreBernini remained physically and mentally vigorous and active in his profession until just two weeks before his death which came as a result of a stroke.", "The pontificate of his old friend, Clement IX, was too short (barely two years) to accomplish more than the dramatic refurbishment by Bernini of the Ponte Sant'Angelo, while the artist's elaborate plan, under Clement, for a new apse for the basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore came to an unpleasant end in the midst of public uproar over its cost and the destruction of ancient mosaics that it entailed.", "The last two popes of Bernini's life, Clement X and Innocent XI, were both not especially close or sympathetic to Bernini and not particularly interested in financing works of art and architecture, especially given the disastrous conditions of the papal treasury.", "The most important commission by Bernini, executed entirely by him in just six months in 1674, under Clement X was the statue of the ''Blessed Ludovica Albertoni'', another nun-mystic.", "The work, reminiscent of Bernini's ''Ecstasy of Saint Teresa,'' is located in the chapel dedicated to Ludovica remodelled under Bernini's supervision in the Trastevere church of San Francesco a Ripa, whose façade was designed by Bernini's disciple, Mattia de' Rossi.In his last two years, Bernini also carved (supposedly for Queen Christina) the bust of the Savior (Basilica of San Sebastiano fuori le Mura, Rome) and supervised the restoration of the historic Palazzo della Cancelleria, a direct commission from Pope Innocent XI.", "The latter commission is an outstanding confirmation of both Bernini's continuing professional reputation and good health of mind and body even in advanced old age, inasmuch as the pope had chosen him over any number of talented younger architects plentiful in Rome, for this prestigious and most difficult assignment since, as his son Domenico points out, \"deterioration of the palace had advanced to such an extent that the threat of its imminent collapse was quite apparent.", "\"Shortly after the completion of the latter project, Bernini died in his home on 28 November 1680 and was buried, with little public fanfare, in the simple, unadorned Bernini family vault, along with his parents, in the Basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore.", "Though an elaborate funerary monument had once been planned (documented by a single extant sketch of circa 1670 by disciple Ludovico Gimignani), it was never built and Bernini remained with no permanent public acknowledgement of his life and career in Rome until 1898 when, on the anniversary of his birth, a simple plaque and small bust was affixed to the face of his home on the Via della Mercede, proclaiming \"Here lived and died Gianlorenzo Bernini, a sovereign of art, before whom reverently bowed popes, princes, and a multitude of peoples.", "\"===Personal life===In the late 1630s, Bernini had an affair with a married woman named Costanza (wife of his workshop assistant, Matteo Bonucelli, also called Bonarelli) and sculpted a bust of her (now in the Bargello, Florence) during the height of their romance.", "However, at some point, Costanza began at the same time an affair also with Bernini's younger brother, Luigi, who was Bernini's right-hand man in his studio.", "When Bernini found out about Costanza and his brother, in a fit of mad fury, he chased Luigi through the streets of Rome and into the basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore, almost ending his life.", "To punish his unfaithful mistress, Bernini had a servant go to the house of Costanza, where the servant slashed her face several times with a razor.", "The servant was later jailed, while Costanza herself was jailed for adultery.", "Bernini himself was exonerated by the pope, even though he had committed a crime in ordering the face-slashing.", "Soon after, in May 1639, at age forty-one, Bernini wed a twenty-two-year-old Roman woman, Caterina Tezio, in an arranged marriage, under orders from Pope Urban.", "She had eleven children, including youngest son Domenico Bernini, who would later be his father's first biographer.", "After his never-repeated episode of stalking and disfigurement by proxy, in his subsequent marriage, Bernini turned more sincerely to the practice of his faith, according to his early official biographers, whereas brother Luigi was to once again, in 1670, bring great grief and scandal to his family by his sodomitic rape of a young Bernini workshop assistant at the construction site of the 'Constantine' memorial in St. Peter's Basilica.===Personal residences===During his lifetime Bernini lived in various residences throughout the city: principal among them, a palazzo right across from Santa Maria Maggiore and still extant at Via Liberiana 24, while his father was still alive; after his father died in 1629, Bernini moved the clan to the long-ago-demolished Santa Marta neighbourhood behind the apse of St. Peter's Basilica, which afforded him more convenient access to the Vatican Foundry and to his working studio also on the Vatican site.", "In 1639, Bernini bought property on the corner of the Via della Mercede and the Via del Collegio di Propaganda Fide in Rome.", "This gave him the distinction of being only one of two artists (the other is Pietro da Cortona) to be the proprietor of his own large palatial (though not sumptuous) residence, furnished as well with its own water supply.", "Bernini refurbished and expanded the existing palazzo on the Via della Mercede site, at what are now Nos.", "11 and 12.", "(The building is sometimes referred to as \"Palazzo Bernini\", but that title more properly pertains to the Bernini family's later and larger home on Via del Corso, to which they moved in the early nineteenth century, now known as the Palazzo Manfroni-Bernini.)", "Bernini lived at No.", "11 (extensively remodelled in the 19th century), where his working studio was located, as well as a large collection of works of art, his own and those of other artists.", "It is imagined that it must have been galling for Bernini to witness through the windows of his dwelling, the construction of the tower and dome of Sant'Andrea delle Fratte by his rival, Borromini, and also the demolition of the chapel that he, Bernini, had designed at the Collegio di Propaganda Fide to see it replaced by Borromini's chapel.", "The construction of Sant'Andrea, however, was completed by Bernini's close disciple, Mattia de Rossi, and it contains (to this day) the marble originals of two of Bernini's own angels executed by the master for the Ponte Sant'Angelo." ], [ "Works of art, architecture, and mixed genre", "===Sculpture===Although he proved during his long lifetime to be a ''uomo universale'', truly accomplished in so many areas of artistic production like Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci before him, Bernini was first and foremost a sculptor.", "He was trained from his earliest youth in that profession by his sculptor father, Pietro.", "The most recent and most comprehensive catalogue raisonné of his works of sculpture compiled by Maria Grazia Bernardini (''Bernini: Catalogo delle sculture;'' Turin: Allemandi, 2022, 2 vols.)", "comprises 143 entries (not including those of debated attribution): they span Bernini’s entire productive life, the first securely attributed work dating to 1610-1612 (the marble portrait bust of Bishop Giovanni Battista Santoni, for his tomb monument in Rome’s Santa Prassede) and the last to 1679 (the marble ''Salvator Mundi'' bust, Basilica of San Sebastian fuori le Mura, Rome).These many works range in size from small garden pieces of his earliest years (e.g., the ''Boy with a Dragon,'' 1617, Getty Museum, Los Angeles) to colossal works such as the ''Saint Longinus'' (1629-38, St. Peter’s Basilica, Rome).", "The majority are in marble, with other works being in bronze (most notably his various papal portrait busts and the monumental statues adorning his ''Baldacchino'' (1624-33) and ''Cathedra Petri'' (1656-66) in St. Peter’s Basilica.", "In virtually all cases, Bernini first produced numerous clay models as preparation for the final product; these models are now treasured as works of art in themselves, though, regrettably, only a minuscule percentage have survived from what must have been a great multitude.", "The single largest sub-group of his sculptural production is represented by his portrait busts (either free-standing or incorporated into larger funerary monuments), mostly of his papal patrons or other ecclesiastical personages, as well as those few secular potentates who could afford the extraordinary expense of commissioning a portrait from Bernini (e.g., ''King Louis XIV'', 1665, Palace of Versailles).", "Other large groups are represented by his religious works – statues of Biblical figures, angels, saints of the church, the crucified Christ, etc.", "– and his mythological figures either free-standing (such as his earliest masterpieces in the Galleria Borghese, Rome) or serving as ornaments in his complex fountain designs (such as the Fountain of the Four Rivers, 1647-51, Piazza Navona, Rome).Bernini’s vast sculptural output can also be categorized according to the degree to which Bernini himself contributed to both the design and execution of the final product: to wit, some works are entirely of his own design and execution; others, of his design and partial but still substantial execution; while others of his design but with little or no actual execution by Bernini (such as the ''Madonna and Child,'' Carmelite Church of Saint Joseph, Paris).", "A further category contains those works commissioned from Bernini and fully credited to his workshop, but represent neither his direct design nor execution, only his signature stylistic inspiration (such as several of the angels on the Ponte Sant’ Angelo refurbished by Bernini, and all of the saints atop the two arms of the portico of Saint Peter’s Square).", "In general, the more prestigious the commission, and the earlier the commission in his career, the greater is Bernini’s role in both design and execution, though notable exceptions exist to both of these general rules.===Architecture===Although his formal professional training was as sculptor and his entrance into the field of architecture not of his own volition but that of Pope Urban VIII, Bernini had by the end of his life reached what has proven to be his enduring status as one of the most influential architects of seventeenth-century Europe.", "He was certainly one of the most prolific over the many decades of his long, active life.", "Despite the fact that he rarely left the city of Rome and that all of his works of architecture were confined to the limits of the papal capital or to nearby towns, Bernini's influence was indeed European-wide: this is thanks both to the many engravings that disseminated his ideas across the continent and to the many non-Italian students of architecture who made long pilgrimages to Rome from all corners of Europe to study and be inspired by the ancient and modern masters, Bernini among them.", "Bernini's architectural works include sacred and secular buildings and sometimes their urban settings and interiors.", "He made adjustments to existing buildings and designed new constructions.", "Among his most well-known works are St. Peter's Square (1656–67), the piazza and colonnades in front of St. Peter's Basilica and the interior decoration of the basilica.", "Among his secular works are a number of Roman palaces: following the death of Carlo Maderno, he took over the supervision of the building works at the Palazzo Barberini from 1630 on which he worked with Francesco Borromini; the Palazzo Ludovisi (now Palazzo Montecitorio, started 1650); and the Palazzo Chigi (now Palazzo Chigi-Odescalchi, started 1664).''St.", "Peter's baldachin'', 1624–1633His first architectural projects were the creation of the new façade and refurbishment of the interior of the church of Santa Bibiana (1624–26) and the ''St.", "Peter's Baldachin'' (1624–33), the bronze columned canopy over the high altar of St. Peter's Basilica.", "In 1629, and before ''St.", "Peter's Baldachin'' was complete, Urban VIII put him in charge of all the ongoing architectural works at St Peter's.", "However, Bernini fell out of favour during the papacy of Innocent X Pamphili because of that pope's already-mentioned animosity towards the Barberini (and hence towards their clients including Bernini) and the above-described failure of the bell towers designed and built by Bernini for St. Peter's Basilica.", "Never wholly without patronage during the Pamphili years, after Innocent's death in 1655 Bernini regained a major role in the decoration of St. Peter's with the Pope Alexander VII Chigi, leading to his design of the piazza and colonnade in front of St. Peter's.", "Further significant works by Bernini at the Vatican include the ''Scala Regia'' (1663–66), the monumental grand stairway entrance to the Vatican Palace, and the ''Cathedra Petri'', the Chair of Saint Peter, in the apse of St. Peter's, in addition to the Chapel of the Blessed Sacrament in the nave.View of the piazza and colonnade in front of St. Peter'sBernini did not build many churches ''ex novo,'' from the ground up; rather, his efforts were concentrated on pre-existing structures, such as the restored church of Santa Bibiana and in particular St. Peter's.", "He fulfilled three commissions for new churches in Rome and nearby small towns.", "Best known is the small but richly ornamented oval church of Sant'Andrea al Quirinale, done (beginning in 1658) for the Jesuit novitiate, representing one of the rare works of his hand with which Bernini's son, Domenico, reports that his father was truly and very pleased.", "Bernini also designed churches in Castelgandolfo (San Tommaso da Villanova, 1658–1661) and Ariccia (Santa Maria Assunta, 1662–1664), and was responsible for the re-modelling of the Sanctuary of Santa Maria di Galloro, Ariccia, endowing it with a majestic new façade.When Bernini was invited to Paris in 1665 to prepare works for Louis XIV, he presented designs for the east façade of the Louvre Palace, but his projects were ultimately turned down in favour of the more sober and classic proposals of a committee consisting of three Frenchmen: Louis Le Vau, Charles Le Brun, and the doctor and amateur architect Claude Perrault, signalling the waning influence of Italian artistic hegemony in France.", "Bernini's projects were essentially rooted in the Italian Baroque urbanist tradition of relating public buildings to their settings, often leading to innovative architectural expression in urban spaces like ''piazze'' or squares.", "However, by this time, the French absolutist monarchy now preferred the classicizing monumental severity of the Louvre's facade, no doubt with the added political bonus that it had been designed by Frenchmen.", "The final version did, however, include Bernini's feature of a flat roof behind a Palladian balustrade.===Fountains===''Fontana dei Quattro Fiumi''True to the decorative dynamism of Baroque which loved the aesthetic pleasure and emotional delight afforded by the sight and sound of water in motion, among Bernini's most gifted and applauded creations were his Roman fountains, which were both utilitarian public works and personal monuments to their patrons, papal or otherwise.", "His first fountain, the 'Barcaccia' (commissioned in 1627, finished 1629) at the foot of the Spanish Steps, cleverly surmounted a challenge that Bernini was to face in several other fountain commissions, the low water pressure in many parts of Rome (Roman fountains were all driven by gravity alone), creating a low-lying flat boat that was able to take greatest advantage of the small amount of water available.", "Another example is the long-ago dismantled \"Woman Drying Her Hair\" fountain that Bernini created for the no-longer-extant Villa Barberini ai Bastioni on the edge of the Janiculum Hill overlooking St. Peter's Basilica.", "His other fountains include the ''Fountain of the Triton'', or ''Fontana del Tritone'' in Piazza Barberini (celebrated in Ottorino Respighi's ''Fountains of Rome''), and the nearby Barberini Fountain of the Bees, the ''Fontana delle Api''.", "The Fountain of the Four Rivers, or ''Fontana dei Quattro Fiumi'', in the Piazza Navona is an exhilarating masterpiece of spectacle and political allegory in which Bernini again brilliantly overcame the problem of the piazza's low water pressure creating the illusion of an abundance of water that in reality did not exist.", "An oft-repeated, but false, anecdote tells that one of the Bernini's river gods defers his gaze in disapproval of the façade of Sant'Agnese in Agone (designed by the talented, but less politically successful, rival Francesco Borromini), impossible because the fountain was built several years before the façade of the church was completed.", "Bernini also provided the design for the statue of the Moor in ''La Fontana del Moro'' in Piazza Navona (1653).===Tomb monuments and other works===Another major category of Bernini's activity was that of the tomb monument, a genre on which his distinctive new style exercised a decisive and long-enduring influence; included in this category are his tombs for Popes Urban VIII and Alexander VII (both in St. Peter's Basilica), Cardinal Domenico Pimentel (Santa Maria sopra Minerva, Rome, design only), and Matilda of Canossa (St. Peter's Basilica).", "Related to the tomb monument is the funerary memorial, of which Bernini executed several (including that, most notably, of Maria Raggi (Santa Maria sopra Minerva, Rome) also of greatly innovative style and long enduring influence.", "Among his smaller commissions, although not mentioned by either of his earliest biographers, Baldinucci or Domenico Bernini, the Elephant and Obelisk is a sculpture located near the Pantheon, in the Piazza della Minerva, in front of the Dominican church of Santa Maria sopra Minerva.", "Pope Alexander VII decided that he wanted a small ancient Egyptian obelisk (that was discovered beneath the piazza) to be erected on the same site, and in 1665 he commissioned Bernini to create a sculpture to support the obelisk.", "The sculpture of an elephant bearing the obelisk on its back was executed by one of Bernini's students, Ercole Ferrata, upon a design by his master, and finished in 1667.An inscription on the base relates the Egyptian goddess Isis and the Roman goddess Minerva to the Virgin Mary, who supposedly supplanted those pagan goddesses and to whom the church is dedicated.", "Bernini's elephants are highly realistic as Bernini had twice the opportunity to see a live elephant: Don Diego in 1630 and Hansken in 1655.A popular anecdote concerns the elephant's smile.", "To find out why it is smiling, legend has it, the viewer must examine the rear end of the animal and notice that its muscles are tensed and its tail is shifted to the left as if it were defecating.", "The animal's rear is pointed directly at one of the headquarters of the Dominican Order, housing the offices of its Inquisitors as well as the office of Father Giuseppe Paglia, a Dominican friar who was one of the main antagonists of Bernini, as a final salute and last word.Gian Lorenzo Bernini in 1665, painted by Giovanni Battista GaulliAmong his minor commissions for non-Roman patrons or venues, in 1677 Bernini worked along with Ercole Ferrata to create a fountain for the Lisbon palace of the Portuguese nobleman, Luís de Meneses, 3rd Count of Ericeira: copying his earlier fountains, Bernini supplied the design of the fountain sculpted by Ferrata, featuring Neptune with four tritons around a basin.", "The fountain has survived and since 1945 has been outside the precincts of the gardens of the Palace of Queluz, several miles outside of Lisbon.===Paintings, drawings, and work for the theater===Bernini would have studied painting as a normal part of his artistic training begun in early adolescence under the guidance of his father, Pietro, in addition to some further training in the studio of the Florentine painter, Cigoli.", "His earliest activity as a painter was probably no more than a sporadic diversion practised mainly in his youth, until the mid-1620s, that is, the beginning of the pontificate of Pope Urban VIII (reigned 1623–1644) who ordered Bernini to study painting in greater earnest because the pontiff wanted him to decorate the Benediction Loggia of St. Peter's.", "The latter commission was never executed most likely because the required large-scale narrative compositions were simply beyond Bernini's ability as a painter.", "According to his early biographers, Baldinucci and Domenico Bernini, Bernini completed at least 150 canvases, mostly in the decades of the 1620s and 30s, but currently, there are no more than 35–40 surviving paintings that can be confidently attributed to his hand.", "The extant, securely attributed works are mostly portraits, seen close up and set against an empty background, employing a confident, indeed brilliant, painterly brushstroke (similar to that of his Spanish contemporary Velasquez), free from any trace of pedantry, and a very limited palette of mostly warm, subdued colours with deep chiaroscuro.", "His work was immediately sought after by major collectors.", "Most noteworthy among these extant works are several, vividly penetrating self-portraits (all dating to the mid-1620s – early 1630s), especially that in the Uffizi Gallery, Florence, purchased during Bernini's lifetime by Cardinal Leopoldo de' Medici.", "Bernini's ''Apostles Andrew and Thomas'' in London's National Gallery is the sole canvas by the artist whose attribution, approximate date of execution (circa 1625) and provenance (the Barberini Collection, Rome) are securely known.As for Bernini's drawings, about 350 still exist; but this represents a minuscule percentage of the drawings he would have created in his lifetime; these include rapid sketches relating to major sculptural or architectural commissions, presentation drawings given as gifts to his patrons and aristocratic friends, and exquisite, fully finished portraits, such as those of Agostino Mascardi (Ecole des Beaux-Arts, Paris) and Scipione Borghese and Sisinio Poli (both in New York's Morgan Library).Another area of artistic endeavour to which Bernini devoted much of his spare time between major commissions and which earned him further popular acclaim was that of the theatre.", "For many years (especially during the reign of Pope Urban VIII, 1623-44), Bernini created a long series of theatrical productions in which he simultaneously served as scriptwriter, stage director, actor, scenographer, and special-effects technician.", "These plays were mostly Carnival comedies (held often in his own home) which drew large audiences and much attention and in which the artist satirized contemporary Roman life (especially court life) with his pungent witticisms.", "At the same time, they also dazzled spectators with daring displays of special effects such as the flooding of the Tiber river or a controlled but very real fiery blaze, as reported by his son Domenico's biography.", "However, although there is much disparate, scattered documentation showing that all of this theatrical work was not simply a limited or passing diversion for Bernini, the only extant remains of these endeavours are the partial script of one play and a drawing of a sunset (or sunrise) relating to the creation of a special effect on stage." ], [ "Influence and post-mortem reputation", "===Disciples, collaborators, and rivals===Among the many sculptors who worked under his supervision (even though most were accomplished masters in their own right) were Luigi Bernini, Stefano Speranza, Giuliano Finelli, Andrea Bolgi, Giacomo Antonio Fancelli, Lazzaro Morelli, Francesco Baratta, Ercole Ferrata, the Frenchman Niccolò Sale, Giovanni Antonio Mari, Antonio Raggi, and François Duquesnoy.", "But his most trusted right-hand man in sculpture was Giulio Cartari, while in architecture it was Mattia de Rossi, both of whom travelled to Paris with Bernini to assist him in his work there for King Louis XIV.", "Other architect disciples include Giovanni Battista Contini and Carlo Fontana while Swedish architect, Nicodemus Tessin the Younger, who visited Rome twice after Bernini's death, was also much influenced by him.Among his rivals in architecture were, above all, Francesco Borromini and Pietro da Cortona.", "Early in their careers, they had all worked at the same time at the Palazzo Barberini, initially under Carlo Maderno and, following his death, under Bernini.", "Later on, however, they were in competition for commissions, and fierce rivalries developed, particularly between Bernini and Borromini.", "In sculpture, Bernini competed with Alessandro Algardi and François Duquesnoy, but they both died decades earlier than Bernini (respectively in 1654 and 1643), leaving Bernini effectively with no sculptor of his same exalted status in Rome.", "Francesco Mochi can also be included among Bernini's significant rivals, though he was not as accomplished in his art as Bernini, Algardi or Duquesnoy.There was also a succession of painters (the so-called 'pittori berniniani') who, working under the master's close guidance and at times according to his designs, produced canvases and frescos that were integral components of Bernini's larger multi-media works such as churches and chapels: Carlo Pellegrini, Guido Ubaldo Abbatini, Frenchman Guillaume Courtois (Guglielmo Cortese, known as 'Il Borgognone'), Ludovico Gimignani, and Giovanni Battista Gaulli (who, thanks to Bernini, was granted the prized commission to fresco the vault of the Jesuit mother Church of the Gesù by Bernini's friend, Jesuit Superior General, Giovanni Paolo Oliva).", "As far as Caravaggio is concerned, in all the voluminous Bernini sources, his name appears only once: this occurs in the Chantelou Diary in which the French diarist claims that Bernini agreed with his disparaging remark about Caravaggio (specifically his ''Fortune Teller'' that had just arrived from Italy as a Pamphilj gift to King Louis XIV).", "Yet, how much Bernini really scorned Caravaggio's art is a matter of debate whereas arguments have been made in favour of a strong influence of Caravaggio on Bernini.", "Bernini would, of course, have heard much about Caravaggio and seen many of his works not only because in Rome at the time such contact was impossible to avoid, but also because during his own lifetime, Caravaggio had come to the favourable attention of Bernini's own early patrons, both the Borghese and the Barberini.", "Indeed, much like Caravaggio, Bernini often devised strikingly bold compositions, akin to theatrical tableaux that arrest the scene at its dramatic key moment (such as in his ''Ecstasy of Saint Teresa'' in Santa Maria della Vittoria).", "And again much like Caravaggio, he made full and skillful use of theatrical lighting as an important aesthetic and metaphorical device in his religious settings, often employing hidden light sources that could intensify the focus of religious worship or enhance the dramatic moment of a sculptural narrative.===First biographies===The most important primary source for the life of Bernini is the biography written by his youngest son, Domenico, entitled ''Vita del Cavalier Gio.", "Lorenzo Bernino,'' published in 1713 though first compiled in the last years of his father's life (c. 1675–80).", "Filippo Baldinucci's ''Life of Bernini'' was published in 1682, and a meticulous private journal, the ''Diary of the Cavaliere Bernini's Visit to France,'' was kept by the Frenchman Paul Fréart de Chantelou during the artist's four-month stay from June through October 1665 at the court of King Louis XIV.", "Also, there is a short biographical narrative, ''The Vita Brevis of Gian Lorenzo Bernini'', written by his eldest son, Monsignor Pietro Filippo Bernini, in the mid-1670s.Until the late 20th century, it was generally believed that two years after Bernini's death, Queen Christina of Sweden, then living in Rome, commissioned Filippo Baldinucci to write his biography, which was published in Florence in 1682.However, recent research now strongly suggests that it was in fact Bernini's sons (and specifically the eldest son, Mons.", "Pietro Filippo) who commissioned the biography from Baldinucci sometime in the late 1670s, with the intent of publishing it while their father was still alive.", "This would mean that first, the commission did not at all originate in Queen Christina who would have merely lent her name as patron (in order to hide the fact that the biography was coming directly from the family) and secondly, that Baldinucci's narrative was largely derived from some pre-publication version of Domenico Bernini's much longer biography of his father, as evidenced by the extremely large amount of text repeated verbatim (there is no other explanation, otherwise, for the massive amount of verbatim repetition, and it is known that Baldinucci routinely copied verbatim material for his artists' biographies supplied by family and friends of his subjects).", "As the most detailed account and the only one coming directly from a member of the artist's immediate family, Domenico's biography, despite having been published later than Baldinucci's, therefore represents the earliest and more important full-length biographical source of Bernini's life, even though it idealizes its subject and whitewashes a number of less-than-flattering facts about his life and personality.===Legacy===Banca d'Italia 50,000 lire banknote in the 1980s and 90s.As one Bernini scholar has summarized, \"Perhaps the most important result of all of the Bernini studies and research of these past few decades has been to restore to Bernini his status as the great, principal protagonist of Baroque art, the one who was able to create undisputed masterpieces, to interpret in an original and genial fashion the new spiritual sensibilities of the age, to give the city of Rome an entirely new face, and to unify the artistic language of the times.\"", "Few artists have had as decisive an influence on the physical appearance and emotional tenor of a city as Bernini had on Rome.", "Maintaining a controlling influence over all aspects of his many and large commissions and over those who aided him in executing them, he was able to carry out his unique and harmoniously uniform vision over decades of work with his long and productive life Although by the end of Bernini's life there was in motion a decided reaction against his brand of flamboyant Baroque, the fact is that sculptors and architects continued to study his works and be influenced by them for several more decades (Nicola Salvi's later Trevi Fountain inaugurated in 1735 is a prime example of the enduring post-mortem influence of Bernini on the city's landscape).In the eighteenth century, Bernini and virtually all Baroque artists fell from favor in the neoclassical criticism of the Baroque, that criticism aimed above all at the latter's supposedly extravagant (and thus illegitimate) departures from the pristine, sober models of Greek and Roman antiquity.", "It is only from the late nineteenth century that art historical scholarship, in seeking a more objective understanding of artistic output within the specific cultural context in which it was produced, without the a priori prejudices of neoclassicism, began to recognize Bernini's achievements and slowly began to restore his artistic reputation.", "However, the reaction against Bernini and the too-sensual (and therefore \"decadent\"), too-emotionally charged Baroque in the larger culture (especially in non-Catholic countries of northern Europe, and particularly in Victorian England) remained in effect until well into the twentieth century (most notable are the public disparagement of Bernini by Francesco Milizia, Joshua Reynolds, and Jacob Burkhardt).Among the influential 18th- and 19th-century figures who despised Bernini's art was also and most prominently Johann Joachim Winckelmann (1717–68), considered by many the father of the modern discipline of art history.", "For the neo-classicist Winkelmann, the one true, laudable \"high style\" of art was characterized by noble simplicity joined with a quiet grandeur that eschewed any exuberance of emotion, whether positive or negative, as exemplified by ancient Greek sculpture.", "The Baroque Bernini, instead, represented the opposite of this ideal and, moreover, according to Winkelmann, had been “utterly corrupted...by a vulgar flattery of the coarse and uncultivated, in attempting to render everything more intelligible to them.” Another major condemning voice is that of Colen Campbell (1676-1729), who on the very first page of his monumental and influential ''Vitruvius Britannicus'' (London, 1715, Introduction, vol.", "1, p. 1) singles out Bernini and Borromini as examples of the utter degradation of post-Palladian architecture in Italy: \"With (the great Palladio) the great Manner and exquisite Taste of Building is lost; for the Italians can no more now relish the Antique Simplicity, but are entirely employed in capricious Ornaments, which must at last end in the Gothick.", "For Proof of this Assertion, I appeal to the Productions of the last Century: How affected and licentious are the Works of Bernini and Fontana?", "How wildly Extravagant are the Designs of Boromini, who has endeavoured to debauch Mankind with his odd and chimerical Beauties…?\"", "Accordingly, most of the popular eighteenth- and nineteenth-century tourist guides to Rome all but ignore Bernini and his work, or treat it with disdain, as in the case of the best-selling ''Walks in Rome'' (22 editions between 1871 and 1925) by Augustus J.C. Hare, who describes the angels on the Ponte Sant'Angelo as 'Bernini's Breezy Maniacs.", "'But now in the twenty-first century, Bernini and his Baroque have been fully and enthusiastically restored to favour, both critical and popular.", "Since the anniversary year of his birth in 1998, there have been numerous Bernini exhibitions throughout the world, especially in Europe and North America, on all aspects of his work, expanding our knowledge of his work and its influence.", "In the late twentieth century, Bernini was commemorated on the front of the Bank of Italy's 50,000 lire banknote in the 1980s and 90s (before Italy switched to the euro) with the back showing his equestrian statue of Constantine.", "Another outstanding sign of Bernini's enduring reputation came in the decision by architect I.M.", "Pei to insert a faithful copy in lead of his King Louis XIV Equestrian statue as the sole ornamental element in his massive modernist redesign of the entrance plaza to the Louvre Museum, completed to great acclaim in 1989, and featuring the giant Louvre Pyramid in glass.", "In 2000 best-selling novelist, Dan Brown, made Bernini and several of his Roman works, the centrepiece of his political thriller, ''Angels & Demons'', while British novelist Iain Pears made a missing Bernini bust the centrepiece of his best-selling murder mystery, ''The Bernini Bust'' (2003).", "There is even a crater near the south pole of Mercury named after Bernini (in 1976)." ], [ "Selected works", "===Sculpture===Bust of Jesus Christ by Gianlorenzo Bernini''Blessed Ludovica Albertoni'', 1671-1675* ''The Goat Amalthea with the Infant Jupiter and a Faun'' (c. 1609–1615) Marble, height 44 cm (17 in), Galleria Borghese, Rome* ''Bust of Giovanni Battista Santoni'' (c. 1613–1616) Marble, life-size, Santa Prassede, Rome* ''A Faun Teased by Children'' (1616–17) Marble, height 132 cm (52 in), Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York* ''The Martyrdom of Saint Lawrence'' (1617) Marble, 66 cm x 108 cm (26 in x 43 in), Uffizi, Florence* ''Saint Sebastian'' (1617–18) Marble, life-size, Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum, Madrid* ''Bust of Giovanni Vigevano'' (1617–18) Marble tomb, life-size, Santa Maria sopra Minerva, Rome* ''Bust of Pope Paul V'' (1618) Marble, 35 cm (14 in), Galleria Borghese, Rome* ''Aeneas, Anchises, and Ascanius'' (1618–19) Marble, height 220 cm (87 in), Galleria Borghese, Rome* ''Damned Soul'' (1619) Marble, life-size, Palazzo di Spagna, Rome* ''Blessed Soul'' (1619) Marble, life-size, Palazzo di Spagna, Rome* ''Neptune and Triton'' (1620) Marble, height 182 cm (72 in), Victoria and Albert Museum, London* ''The Rape of Proserpina'' (1621–22) Marble, height 225 cm (89 in), Galleria Borghese, Rome* ''Bust of Pope Gregory XV'' (1621) Marble, height 64 cm (25 in), Art Gallery of Ontario, Toronto* ''Bust of Monsignor Pedro de Foix Montoya'' (c. 1621) Marble, life-size, Santa Maria di Monserrato, Rome* ''Bust of Cardinal Escoubleau de Sourdis'' (1622) Marble, life-size, Musée d'Aquitaine, Bordeaux* ''Apollo and Daphne'' (1622–1625) Marble, height 243 cm (96 in), Galleria Borghese, Rome* ''Bust of Antonio Cepparelli'' (1622) Marble, Museo di San Giovanni dei Fiorentini, Rome* ''David'' (1623–24) Marble, height 170 cm (67 in), Galleria Borghese, Rome* ''Saint Bibiana'' (1624–1626) Marble, life-size, Santa Bibiana, Rome* ''St.", "Peter's Baldachin'' (1623–1634) Bronze, partly gilt, 20 m (66 ft), St. Peter's Basilica, Vatican City* ''Bust of Francesco Barberini'' (1626) Marble, height 80 cm (31 in), National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.* ''Charity with Four Children'' (1627–28) Terracotta, height 39 cm (15 in), Vatican Museums, Vatican City* ''Tomb of Pope Urban VIII'' (1627–1647) Bronze and marble, larger than life-size, St. Peter's Basilica, Vatican City* ''Saint Longinus'' (1631–1638) Marble, height 440 cm (174 in), St. Peter's Basilica, Vatican City* ''Two Busts of Scipione Borghese'' (1632) Marble, height 78 cm (31 in), Galleria Borghese, Rome* ''Bust of Costanza Bonarelli'' (1635) Marble, height 72 cm (28 in), Bargello, Florence* ''Bust of Thomas Baker'' (1638) Marble, height 82 cm (32 in), Victoria and Albert Museum, London* ''Bust of Cardinal Richelieu'' (1640–41) Marble, life-size, Louvre, Paris* ''Truth Unveiled by Time'' (1645–1652) Marble, height 280 cm (110 in), Galleria Borghese, Rome* ''Memorial to Maria Raggi'' (1647–1653) Gilt bronze and coloured marble, life-size Santa Maria sopra Minerva, Rome* ''Ecstasy of Saint Teresa'' (1647–1652) Marble, life-size, Cappella Cornaro, Santa Maria della Vittoria, Rome* ''Loggia of the Founders'' (1647–1652) Marble, life-size, Cappella Cornaro, Santa Maria della Vittoria, Rome* ''Corpus'' (1650) Bronze, life-size, Art Gallery of Ontario, Toronto* ''Bust of Francesco I d'Este'' (1650–51) Marble, height 107 cm, Galleria Estense, Modena* ''The Vision of Constantine'' (1654–1670) Marble, Vatican Museums, Apostolic Palace, Vatican City* ''Daniel and the Lion'' (1655) Terracotta, height 41.6 cm, Vatican Museums, Vatican City* ''Daniel and the Lion'' (1655–56) Marble, Santa Maria del Popolo, Rome* ''Habakkuk and the Angel'' (1655) Terracotta, height 52 cm, Vatican Museums, Vatican City* ''Habakkuk and the Angel'' (1656-1661) Marble, Santa Maria del Popolo, Rome* ''Altar Cross'' (1657–1661) Gilt bronze corpus on bronze cross, height 45 cm (18 in), St. Peter's Basilica, Vatican City* ''Chair of Saint Peter'' (1657–1666) Marble, bronze, white and golden stucco, St. Peter's Basilica, Vatican City* ''Statue of Saint Augustine'' (1657–1666) Bronze, St. Peter's Basilica, Vatican City* ''Saints Jerome and Mary Magdalen'' (1661–1663) Marble, height 180 cm, Cappella Chigi, Siena Cathedral, Siena* ''Constantine, Scala Regia'' (1663–1670) Marble with painted stucco drapery, Scala Regia, Apostolic Palace, Vatican City* ''Bust of Louis XIV'' (1665) White marble, height 105 cm, Salon de Diane, Palace of Versailles, Versailles* ''Elephant and Obelisk'' (erected 1667) Marble, Piazza della Minerva, Rome* ''Standing Angel with Scroll'' (1667–68) Clay, terracotta, height: 29.2 cm, Fogg Museum, Cambridge* ''List of angels of Ponte Sant'Angelo'' (1667–1669) Marble, Ponte Sant'Angelo, Rome* ''Angel with the Crown of Thorns'' (1667–1669) Marble, over life-size, Sant'Andrea delle Fratte, Rome* ''Angel with the Superscription'' (1667–1669) Marble, over life-size, Sant'Andrea delle Fratte, Rome* ''Bust of Gabriele Fonseca'' (1668–1675) Marble, over life-size, San Lorenzo in Lucina, Rome* ''Equestrian Statue of King Louis XIV'' (1669–1684) Marble, height 76 cm, Palace of Versailles, Versailles* ''Blessed Ludovica Albertoni'' (1671–1674) Marble, Cappella Altieri-Albertoni, San Francesco a Ripa, Rome* ''Tomb of Pope Alexander VII'' (1671–1678) Marble and gilded bronze, over life-size, St. Peter's Basilica, Vatican City===Architecture and fountains===* St. Peter's Square (1656–1667) Marble, granite, travertine, stone, Vatican City* Sant'Andrea al Quirinale, Via XX Settembre* ''Fontana della Barcaccia'' (1627) Marble, Piazza di Spagna, Rome* ''Fontana del Tritone'' (1624–1643) Travertine, over life-size, Piazza Barberini, Rome* ''Fontana delle Api'' (1644) Travertine, Piazza Barberini, Rome* ''Fontana dei Quattro Fiumi'' (1648–1651) Travertine and marble, Piazza Navona, Rome* ''Fontana del Moro'' (1653–54) Marble, Piazza Navona, Rome===Paintings===* ''Self-Portrait as a Young Man'' () Oil on canvas, Galleria Borghese, Rome* ''Portrait of Pope Urban VIII'' () Oil on canvas, Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Antica, Rome* ''Saint Andrew and Saint Thomas'' () Oil on canvas, 59 x 76 cm, National Gallery, London* ''Self-Portrait as a Mature Man'' (1630–35) Oil on canvas, Galleria Borghese, Rome*''Self-Portrait as a Mature Man'' (1635-1638) Oil on canvas, Museo del Prado, Madrid* ''Portrait of a Boy'' (c. 1638) Oil on canvas, Galleria Borghese, Rome* ''Christ Mocked'' (c. 1644–55) Oil on canvas, Private Collection, London" ], [ "Gallery", "File:Bernini - Damned Soul.jpg|''Damned Soul''File:Blessed Soul by Bernini.jpg|''Blessed Soul''File:Gian lorenzo bernini, ritratto di antonio cepparelli, 1622, museo di san giovanni dei fiorentini.JPG|''Bust of Antonio Cepparelli''File:Bust of Pope Urban VIII by Bernini.jpg|''Bust of Pope Urban VIII''File:Bernini's bust of Monsignor Carlo Antonio Pozzo, NGS.jpg|''Bust of Monsignor Carlo Antonio dal Pozzo''File:Gianlorenzo Bernini - Self-Portrait - WGA01973.jpg|''Self-portrait''File:Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini-Neptune and Triton-Victoria and Albert Museum.jpg|''Neptune and Triton''File:Bernini Ecstasy of St Teresa Terracotta Model Hermitage.jpg|''Ecstasy of St. Teresa''.", "Terracotta ''Modello''File:St. Peter's Square 3.jpg|''St.", "Peter's colonnade''File:Vatican Altar 2.jpg|''St.", "Peter's baldachin''File:Ponte St. Angelo.jpg|''Ponte St. Angelo angels''File:BERNINI fuente de los cuatro ríos modelo bronce.jpg|''Fontana dei Quattro fiumi''.", "Bronze." ], [ "References", "===Bibliography===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Tools and techniques used by Bernini* Checklist of Bernini's architecture and sculpture in Rome* Gian Lorenzo Bernini - Biography, Style and Artworks* Extract on Bernini from Simon Schama's ''The Power of Art''* Photographs of Bernini's Santa Maria Assunta* smARThistory: ''Ecstasy of Saint Teresa'', Cornaro Chapel, Santa Maria della Vittoria, Rome * Constantly updated list and discussion of the most recent archival discoveries regarding Bernini's biography and works* ''The Vatican: spirit and art of Christian Rome'', a book from The Metropolitan Museum of Art Libraries (fully available online as PDF), which contains a good deal of material on Bernini" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "German literature" ], [ "Introduction", "The Frankfurt Book Fair'''German literature''' () comprises those literary texts written in the German language.", "This includes literature written in Germany, Austria, the German parts of Switzerland and Belgium, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, South Tyrol in Italy and to a lesser extent works of the German diaspora.", "German literature of the modern period is mostly in Standard German, but there are some currents of literature influenced to a greater or lesser degree by dialects (e.g.", "Alemannic).Medieval German literature is literature written in Germany, stretching from the Carolingian dynasty; various dates have been given for the end of the German literary Middle Ages, the Reformation (1517) being the last possible cut-off point.", "The Old High German period is reckoned to run until about the mid-11th century; the most famous works are the ''Hildebrandslied'' and a heroic epic known as the ''Heliand''.", "Middle High German starts in the 12th century; the key works include ''The Ring'' () and the poems of Oswald von Wolkenstein and Johannes von Tepl.", "The Baroque period (1600 to 1720) was one of the most fertile times in German literature.", "Modern literature in German begins with the authors of the Enlightenment (such as Herder).", "The Sensibility movement of the 1750s–1770s ended with Goethe's best-selling ''The Sorrows of Young Werther'' (1774).", "The Sturm und Drang and Weimar Classicism movements were led by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and Friedrich Schiller.", "German Romanticism was the dominant movement of the late 18th and early 19th centuries.Biedermeier refers to the literature, music, the visual arts and interior design in the period between the years 1815 (Vienna Congress), the end of the Napoleonic Wars, and 1848, the year of the European revolutions.", "Under the Nazi regime, some authors went into exile (''Exilliteratur'') and others submitted to censorship (\"internal emigration\", ''Innere Emigration'').", "The Nobel Prize in Literature has been awarded to German language authors fourteen times (as of 2023), or the third most often, behind only French language authors (with 16 laureates) and English language authors (with 32 laureates) with winners including Thomas Mann, Hermann Hesse, Günter Grass, and Peter Handke." ], [ "Periodization", "Periodization is not an exact science but the following list contains movements or time periods typically used in discussing German literature.", "It seems worth noting that the periods of medieval German literature span two or three centuries, those of early modern German literature span one century, and those of modern German literature each span one or two decades.", "The closer one nears the present, the more debated the periodizations become.canon of German literature; however, the selection of authors especially for the Nazi era has been criticized as \"grotesque\" or as exhibiting \"bizarre gaps\" (viz.", "omitting Jewish authors); see Volker Weidermann, Ein grotesker Kanon, Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 11 May 2009.", "''Daten deutscher Dichtung'' was reprinted in 35 editions, but was discontinued in 2009.", "* Medieval German literature** Old High German literature (750–1050)** Middle High German literature (1050–1350)** Late medieval / Renaissance (1350–1500)* Early Modern German literature (see Early Modern literature)** Humanism and Protestant Reformation (1500–1650)** Baroque (1600–1720)** Enlightenment (1680–1789)* Modern German literature** 18th- and 19th-century German literature*** ''Empfindsamkeit'' / Sensibility (1750s–1770s)*** ''Sturm und Drang'' / Storm and Stress (1760s–1780s)*** German Classicism (1729–1832)**** Weimar Classicism (1788–1805) or (1788–1832), depending on Schiller's (1805) or Goethe's (1832) death*** German Romanticism (1790s–1880s)*** Biedermeier (1815–1848)*** Young Germany (1830–1850)*** Poetic Realism (1848–1890)*** Naturalism (1880–1900)** 20th-century German literature*** 1900–1933**** Fin de siècle (c. 1900)**** Symbolism**** Expressionism (1910–1920)**** Dada (1914–1924)**** New Objectivity (''Neue Sachlichkeit'')*** Well Known Writers of the 20th Century*** 1933–1945**** National Socialist literature**** Exile literature*** 1945–1989**** By country***** Federal Republic of Germany***** German Democratic Republic***** Austria***** Switzerland***** Other**** By thematic or group***** Post-war literature (1945–1967)***** Group 47***** Holocaust literature** Contemporary German literature (1989–)" ], [ "Middle Ages", "Medieval German literature refers to literature written in Germany, stretching from the Carolingian dynasty; various dates have been given for the end of the German literary Middle Ages, the Reformation (1517) being the last possible cut-off point.===Old High German===The Old High German period is reckoned to run until about the mid-11th century, though the boundary to Early Middle High German (second half of the 11th century) is not clear-cut.The most famous work in OHG is the ''Hildebrandslied'', a short piece of Germanic alliterative heroic verse which besides the ''Muspilli'' is the sole survivor of what must have been a vast oral tradition.", "Another important work, in the northern dialect of Old Saxon, is a life of Christ in the style of a heroic epic known as the ''Heliand''.===Middle High German===Middle High German proper runs from the beginning of the 12th century, and in the second half of the 12th century, there was a sudden intensification of activity, leading to a 60-year \"golden age\" of medieval German literature referred to as the ''mittelhochdeutsche Blütezeit'' (1170–1230).", "This was the period of the blossoming of MHG lyric poetry, particularly ''Minnesang'' (the German variety of the originally French tradition of courtly love).", "One of the most important of these poets was Walther von der Vogelweide.", "The same sixty years saw the composition of the most important courtly romances.", "These are written in rhyming couplets, and again draw on French models such as Chrétien de Troyes, many of them relating Arthurian material, for example, ''Parzival'' by Wolfram von Eschenbach.", "The third literary movement of these years was a new revamping of the heroic tradition, in which the ancient Germanic oral tradition can still be discerned, but tamed and Christianized and adapted for the court.", "These high medieval heroic epics are written in rhymed strophes, not the alliterative verse of Germanic prehistory (for example, the ''Nibelungenlied'').The Middle High German period is conventionally taken to end in 1350, while the Early New High German is taken to begin with the German Renaissance, after the invention of movable type in the mid-15th century.", "Therefore, the literature of the late 14th and the early 15th century falls, as it were, in the cracks between Middle and New High German, and can be classified as either.", "Works of this transitional period include ''The Ring'' (c. 1410), the poems of Oswald von Wolkenstein and Johannes von Tepl, the German versions of ''Pontus and Sidonia'', and arguably the works of Hans Folz and Sebastian Brant (''Ship of Fools'', 1494), among others.", "The ''Volksbuch'' (chapbook) tradition which would flourish in the 16th century also finds its origin in the second half of the 15th century." ], [ "Early Modern period", "===German Renaissance and Reformation===* Sebastian Brant (1457–1521)* Thomas Murner (1475–1537)* Martin Luther (1483–1546)* Philipp Melanchthon (1497–1560)* Sebastian Franck (1500–1543)* Johann Fischart (1545-1591) ===Baroque period===The Baroque period (1600 to 1720) was one of the most fertile times in German literature.", "Many writers reflected the horrible experiences of the Thirty Years' War, in poetry and prose.", "Grimmelshausen's adventures of the young and naïve Simplicissimus, in the eponymous book ''Simplicius Simplicissimus'', became the most famous novel of the Baroque period.", "Martin Opitz established rules for the \"purity\" of language, style, verse and rhyme.", "Andreas Gryphius and Daniel Caspar von Lohenstein wrote German language tragedies, or ''Trauerspiele'', often on Classical themes and frequently quite violent.", "Erotic, religious and occasional poetry appeared in both German and Latin.", "Sibylle Ursula von Braunschweig-Lüneburg wrote part of a novel, ''Die Durchlauchtige Syrerin Aramena'' (''Aramena, the noble Syrian lady''), which when complete would be the most famous courtly novel in German Baroque literature; it was finished by her brother Anton Ulrich and edited by Sigmund von Birken." ], [ "18th century", "===The Enlightenment===* August Friedrich Wilhelm Crome* Johann Gottfried Herder* Paul Heinrich Dietrich von Holbach* Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi* Theodor Gottlieb von Hippel* Immanuel Kant* Gotthold Ephraim Lessing* Moses Mendelssohn* Carl Leonhard Reinhold* Christian Thomasius* Christian Jacob Wagenseil* Christian Felix Weiße* Christoph Martin Wieland* Christian Wolff* Friedrich Nicolai* Christian Garve===Sensibility===''Empfindsamkeit'' / Sensibility (1750s–1770s)Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock (1724–1803), Christian Fürchtegott Gellert (1715–1769), Sophie de La Roche (1730–1807).", "The period culminates and ends in Goethe's best-selling ''Die Leiden des jungen Werthers'' (1774).===Sturm und Drang===''Sturm und Drang'' (the conventional translation is \"Storm and Stress\"; a more literal translation, however, might be ''storm and urge'', ''storm and longing'', or ''storm and impulse'') is the name of a movement in German literature and music taking place from the late 1760s through the early 1780s in which individual subjectivity and, in particular, extremes of emotion were given free expression in response to the confines of rationalism imposed by the Enlightenment and associated aesthetic movements.", "The philosopher Johann Georg Hamann is considered to be the ideologue of ''Sturm und Drang'', and Johann Wolfgang von Goethe was a notable proponent of the movement, though he and Friedrich Schiller ended their period of association with it, initiating what would become Weimar Classicism." ], [ "19th century", "===German Classicism===Weimar Classicism (German “''Weimarer Klassik''” and “''Weimarer Klassizismus''”) is a cultural and literary movement of Europe, and its central ideas were originally propounded by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and Johann Christoph Friedrich von Schiller during the period 1786 to 1805.===Romanticism===German Romanticism was the dominant movement of the late 18th and early 19th centuries.", "German Romanticism developed relatively late compared to its English counterpart, coinciding in its early years with the movement known as German Classicism or Weimar Classicism, which it opposed.", "In contrast to the seriousness of English Romanticism, the German variety is notable for valuing humor and wit as well as beauty.", "The early German romantics tried to create a new synthesis of art, philosophy, and science, looking to the Middle Ages as a simpler, more integrated period.", "As time went on, however, they became increasingly aware of the tenuousness of the unity they were seeking.", "Later German Romanticism emphasized the tension between the everyday world and the seemingly irrational and supernatural projections of creative genius.", "Heinrich Heine in particular criticized the tendency of the early romantics to look to the medieval past for a model of unity in art and society.", "* G.W.F.", "Hegel* Jean Paul* E.T.A.", "Hoffmann* Friedrich Hölderlin* Heinrich von Kleist* Novalis (Friedrich von Hardenberg)* Friedrich Schlegel* August Wilhelm Schlegel* Friedrich Schleiermacher* Ludwig Tieck* Friedrich de la Motte Fouqué* Ludwig Uhland*Arthur Schopenhauer* Joseph von Eichendorff===Biedermeier and Vormärz===Biedermeier refers to work in the fields of literature, music, the visual arts and interior design in the period between the years 1815 (Vienna Congress), the end of the Napoleonic Wars, and 1848, the year of the European revolutions and contrasts with the Romantic era which preceded it.", "Typical Biedermeier poets are Annette von Droste-Hülshoff, Adelbert von Chamisso, Eduard Mörike, and Wilhelm Müller, the last three named having well-known musical settings by Robert Schumann, Hugo Wolf and Franz Schubert respectively.Young Germany (''Junges Deutschland'') was a loose group of Vormärz writers which existed from about 1830 to 1850.It was essentially a youth movement (similar to those that had swept France and Ireland and originated in Italy).", "Its main proponents were Karl Gutzkow, Heinrich Laube, Theodor Mundt and Ludolf Wienbarg; Heinrich Heine, Ludwig Börne and Georg Büchner were also considered part of the movement.", "The wider circle included Willibald Alexis, Adolf Glassbrenner and Gustav Kühne.===Realism and Naturalism===Poetic Realism (1848–1890): Theodor Fontane, Gustav Freitag, Gottfried Keller, Wilhelm Raabe, Adalbert Stifter, Theodor StormNaturalism (1880–1900): Gerhart Hauptmann" ], [ "20th century", "===1900 to 1933===* Fin de siècle (c. 1900)* Weimar literature (1919–1933)* Symbolism* Expressionism (1910–1920)* Dada (1914–1924)* New Objectivity (Neue Sachlichkeit)===Well known writers of the 20th century===A well-known writer of German literature was Franz Kafka.", "A Kafka novel, ''The Trial'', was ranked #3 on Le Monde's 100 Books of the Century.", "Kafka's iconic writing style that captures themes of bureaucracy and existentialism resulted in the coining of the term “Kafkaesque.” Kafka's writing allowed a peek into his melancholic life, one where he felt isolated from all human beings, one of his inspirations for writing.===Nazi Germany===*National Socialist literature: see Blut und Boden, Nazi propagandaUnder the Nazi regime, some authors went into exile (''Exilliteratur'') and others submitted to censorship (\"inner emigration\", ''Innere Emigration'')*''Inner Emigration'': Gottfried Benn, Werner Bergengruen, Hans Blüher, Hans Heinrich Ehrler, Hans Fallada, Werner Finck, Gertrud Fussenegger, Ricarda Huch, Ernst Jünger, Erich Kästner, Volker Lachmann, Oskar Loerke, Erika Mitterer, Walter von Molo, Friedrich Reck-Malleczewen, Richard Riemerschmid, Reinhold Schneider, Frank Thiess, Carl von Ossietzky, Ernst Wiechert* in exile: Ernst Bloch, Bertolt Brecht, Hermann Broch, Alfred Döblin, Lion Feuchtwanger, Bruno Frank, A. M. Frey, Anna Gmeyner, Oskar Maria Graf, Hermann Hesse, Heinrich Eduard Jacob, Hermann Kesten, Annette Kolb, Siegfried Kracauer, Emil Ludwig, Heinrich Mann, Klaus Mann, Thomas Mann, Balder Olden, Rudolf Olden, Robert Neumann, Erich Maria Remarque, Ludwig Renn, Alice Rühle-Gerstel, Otto Rühle, Alice Schwarz-Gardos, Anna Seghers, B. Traven, Bodo Uhse, Franz Werfel, Arnold Zweig, Stefan Zweig, Joseph Roth.===1945 to 1989===* Post-war literature of West Germany (1945–1967): Heinrich Böll, Günter Grass, Group 47; Holocaust literature (Paul Celan, Edgar Hilsenrath)* GDR Literature in East Germany: Johannes R. Becher, Wolf Biermann, Bertolt Brecht, Sarah Kirsch, Günter Kunert, Reiner Kunze, Heiner Müller, Anna Seghers, Christa Wolf * Postwar literature of Switzerland and Austria: Ingeborg Bachmann, Thomas Bernhard, Friedrich Dürrenmatt, Max Frisch, Elfriede Jelinek, Peter Handke* Postmodern literature: Christian Kracht, Hans Wollschläger, Christoph Ransmayr, Marlene Streeruwitz, Rainald Goetz, Clemens J. Setz, Oswald Wiener* W.G.", "Sebald* Arno Schmidt" ], [ "21st century", "Frankfurt Book Fair 2016Much of contemporary poetry in the German language is published in literary magazines.", "DAS GEDICHT, for instance, has featured German poetry from Germany, Austria, Switzerland, and Luxemburg for the last twenty years.", "*Science-Fiction, Fantasy: Andreas Eschbach, Frank Schätzing, Wolfgang Hohlbein, Bernhard Hennen, Walter Moers*Pop Literature: Benjamin von Stuckrad-Barre*Migrant literature: Wladimir Kaminer, Feridun Zaimoglu, Rafik Schami*Poetry: Jürgen Becker, Marcel Beyer, Theo Breuer, Rolf Dieter Brinkmann, Marc Engelhard, Hans Magnus Enzensberger, Aldona Gustas, Ernst Jandl, Thomas Kling, Uwe Kolbe, Friederike Mayröcker, Durs Grünbein, Kurt Marti, Karl Krolow, Elke Erb*Aphorists: Hans Kruppa*Thriller: Ingrid Noll*Novel: Wilhelm Genazino, Günter Grass, Herta Müller, Siegfried Lenz, Charlotte Link, Rainald Goetz, Anna Kaleri, Norbert Scheuer, Dietmar Dath, Christian Kracht, Kathrin Schmidt, Burkhard Spinnen, Robert Menasse, Martin Walser, Andreas Mand, Zsuzsa Bánk, Marc Degens, Jenny Erpenbeck, Klaus Modick, Peter Handke, Elfriede Jelinek, Daniel Kehlmann* Literaturport (in German): audio clips of contemporary literature, many read out by the authors themselves* German-American literature: Paul-Henri Campbell, Walter Abish" ], [ "Nobel Prize laureates", "The Nobel Prize in Literature has been awarded to German-language authors fourteen times (as of 2020), tying with French-language authors, or the second most often after English-language authors (with 32).The following writers are from Germany unless stated otherwise:Thomas Mann(1875–1955)Hermann Hesse(1877–1962) 106px 110px*1902 Theodor Mommsen*1908 Rudolf Christoph Eucken*1910 Paul Heyse*1912 Gerhart Hauptmann*1919 Carl Spitteler (Swiss)*1929 Thomas Mann*1946 Hermann Hesse*1966 Nelly Sachs*1972 Heinrich Böll*1981 Elias Canetti (Bulgarian, later British)*1999 Günter Grass*2004 Elfriede Jelinek (Austrian)*2009 Herta Müller (Romanian by birth, later naturalized in West Germany)*2019 Peter Handke (Austrian)" ], [ "See also", "* Goethe-Institut* German-speaking Europe* Swiss literature* Austrian literature* Stiftung Lesen* History of German* List of German-language authors * List of German-language playwrights* List of German-language poets* List of German-language philosophers* History of literature* Sophie (digital lib)* Luso-Germanic Literature* Kindler literature encyclopedia* Media of Germany** Books in Germany" ], [ "References" ], [ "Literature", "===English===*''Cambridge History of German Literature''.", "Watanabe-O’Kelly, Helen, ed.", "Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997.", "*Konzett, Matthias Piccolruaz.", "''Encyclopedia of German Literature''.", "Routledge, 2000.", "*''The Oxford Companion to German Literature'', ed.", "by Mary Garland and Henry Garland, 3rd edition, Oxford University Press, 1997* Grange, William, ed.", "''Historical dictionary of German literature to 1945'' (2011) online* * * Ed.", ": Alexandra Merley Hill, Hester Baer.", "German Women's Writing in the Twenty-first Century.", "United Kingdom, Camden House, 2015.===German===*Bernd Lutz, Benedikt Jeßing (eds.", "): Metzler Lexikon Autoren: Deutschsprachige Dichter und Schriftsteller vom Mittelalter bis zur Gegenwart, Stuttgart und Weimar: 4., aktualisierte und erweiterte Auflage 2010*Theo Breuer, Aus dem Hinterland.", "Lyrik nach 2000, Sistig/Eifel : Edition YE, 2005, * Theo Breuer, Kiesel & Kastanie (ed.", "): Von neuen Gedichten und Geschichten, Sistig/Eifel : Edition YE, 2008, *Jürgen Brocan, Jan Kuhlbrodt (eds.", "), Umkreisungen.", "25 Auskünfte zum Gedicht, Leipzig: Poetenladen Literaturverlag, 2010*Manfred Enzensperger (ed.", "), Die Hölderlin-Ameisen: Vom Finden und Erfinden der Poesie, Cologne: Dumont, 2005*Peter von Matt, Die verdächtige Pracht.", "Über Dichter und Gedichte, Munich etc.", ": Hanser, 1998*Joachim Sartorius (ed.", "), Mimima Poetica.", "Für eine Poetik des zeitgenössischen Gedichts, Cologne : Kiepenheuer & Witsch, 1999===Anthologies===*German poetry from 1750 to 1900, ed.", "by Robert M. Browning.", "Foreword by Michael Hamburger, New York : Continuum, 1984, 281 pp.", "(German Library), *Twentieth-Century German Poetry: An Anthology, edited by Michael Hofmann, New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 2008 (Paperback Edition), 544 pp., *Heinz Ludwig Arnold (ed.", "), TEXT+KRITIK: Lyrik des 20.Jahrhunderts (1999).", "*Verena Auffermann, Hubert Winkels (ed.", "), Beste Deutsche Erzähler (2000–)*Hans Bender (ed.", "), In diesem Lande leben wir.", "Deutsche Gedichte der Gegenwart (1978)*Hans Bender, Was sind das für Zeiten.", "Deutschsprachige Gedichte der achtziger Jahre (1988)*Christoph Buchwald, Uljana Wolf (ed.", "), Jahrbuch der Lyrik 2009 (2009)*Karl Otto Conrady (ed.", "), Der Große Conrady.", "Das Buch deutscher Gedichte.", "Von den Anfängen bis zur Gegenwart (2008).", "*Hugo von Hofmannsthal (ed.", "), Deutsche Erzähler I (1912, 1979)*Marie Luise Kaschnitz (ed.", "), Deutsche Erzähler II (1971, 1979)*Boris Kerenski & Sergiu Stefanescu, Kaltland Beat.", "Neue deutsche Szene (1999)*Axel Kutsch (ed.", "), Versnetze.", "Deutschsprachige Lyrik der Gegenwart (2009)* Andreas Neumeister, Marcel Hartges (ed.", "), Poetry!", "Slam!", "Texte der Pop-Fraktion (1996)" ], [ "External links", "* * Sophie – A digital library of works by German-speaking women*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Galilee" ], [ "Introduction", "Map of the Galilee region'''Galilee''' (; ; ; ) is a region located in northern Israel and southern Lebanon.", "Galilee traditionally refers to the mountainous part, divided into Upper Galilee (, ; , ) and Lower Galilee (, ; , ).", "''Galilee'' refers to all of the area north of the Mount Carmel-Mount Gilboa ridge and south of the east–west section of the Litani River.", "It extends from the Israeli coastal plain and the shores of the Mediterranean Sea with Acre in the west, to the Jordan Rift Valley to the east; and from the Litani in the north plus a piece bordering on the Golan Heights all the way to Dan at the base of Mount Hermon in the northeast, to Mount Carmel and Mount Gilboa in the south.", "This definition includes the plains of the Jezreel Valley north of Jenin and the Beth Shean Valley, the valley containing the Sea of Galilee, and the Hula Valley, although it usually does not include Haifa's immediate northern suburbs.", "By this definition it overlaps with much of the administrative Northern District of Israel and with Southern Lebanon." ], [ "Etymology", "The region's Hebrew name is , meaning 'district' or 'circle'.", "The Hebrew form used in Book of Isaiah (or 8:23 in different Biblical versions) is in the construct state, leading to \"Galilee of the nations\", which refers to gentiles who settled there at the time that the book was written, either by their own volition or as a result of the resettlement policy of the Neo-Assyrian Empire." ], [ "Borders and geography", "An orchard in Upper GalileeThe borders of Galilee, split into Upper Galilee and Lower Galilee, were described by Josephus in his ''The Jewish War'':Now Phoenicia and Syria encompass about the Galilees, which are two, and called the Upper Galilee and the Lower.", "They are bounded toward the sun-setting, with the borders of the territory belonging to Ptolemais, and by Carmel; which mountain had formerly belonged to the Galileans, but now belonged to the Tyrians; to which mountain adjoins Gaba, which is called the City of Horsemen, because those horsemen that were dismissed by Herod the king dwelt therein; they are bounded on the south with Samaria and Scythopolis, as far as the river Jordan; on the east with Hippeae and Gadaris, and also with Ganlonitis, and the borders of the kingdom of Agrippa; its northern parts are hounded by Tyre, and the country of the Tyrians.", "As for that Galilee which is called the Lower, it, extends in length from Tiberias to Zabulon, and of the maritime places Ptolemais is its neighbor; its breadth is from the village called Xaloth, which lies in the great plain, as far as Bersabe, from which beginning also is taken the breadth of the Upper Galilee, as far as the village Baca, which divides the land of the Tyrians from it; its length is also from Meloth to Thella, a village near to Jordan.Keshet Cave (Rainbow Cave or Cave of the Arch), a natural arch on the ridge north of Nahal Betzet, GalileeMost of Galilee consists of rocky terrain, at heights of between 500 and 700 m. Several high mountains are in the region, including Mount Tabor and Mount Meron, which have relatively low temperatures and high rainfall.", "As a result of this climate, flora and fauna thrive in the region, while many birds annually migrate from colder climates to Africa and back through the Hula–Jordan corridor.", "The streams and waterfalls, the latter mainly in Upper Galilee, along with vast fields of greenery and colourful wildflowers, as well as numerous towns of biblical importance, make the region a popular tourist destination.Due to its high rainfall , mild temperatures and high mountains (Mount Meron's elevation is 1,000–1,208 m), the upper Galilee region contains some distinctive flora and fauna: prickly juniper (''Juniperus oxycedrus''), Lebanese cedar (''Cedrus libani''), which grows in a small grove on Mount Meron, cyclamens, paeonias, and ''Rhododendron ponticum'' which sometimes appears on Meron.Western Galilee () is a modern term referring to the western part of the Upper Galilee and its shore, and usually also the northwestern part of the Lower Galilee, mostly overlapping with Acre sub-district.", "Galilee Panhandle is a common term referring to the \"panhandle\" in the east that extends to the north, where Lebanon is to the west, and includes Hula Valley and Ramot Naftali mountains of the Upper Galilee." ], [ "History", "===Iron Age and Hebrew Bible===Map of Galilee, c. According to the Bible, Galilee was named by the Israelites and was the tribal region of Naphthali and Dan, at times overlapping the Tribe of Asher's land.", "However, Dan was dispersed among the whole people rather than isolated to the lands of Dan, as the Tribe of Dan was the hereditary local law enforcement and judiciary for the whole nation.", "Normally, Galilee is just referred to as Naphthali.Chapter 9 of 1 Kings states that Solomon rewarded his Phoenician ally, King Hiram I of Sidon, with twenty cities in the land of Galilee, which would then have been either settled by foreigners during and after the reign of Hiram, or by those who had been forcibly deported there by later conquerors such as the Assyrians.", "Hiram, to reciprocate previous gifts given to David, accepted the upland plain among the Naftali Mountains and renamed it \"the land of Cabul\" for a time.=== Hellenistic period ===Up until the end of the Hellenistic period and before the Hasmonean conquest, the Galilee was sparsely populated, with the majority of its inhabitants concentrated in large fortified centers on the edges of the western and central valleys.", "Based on archeological evidence from Tel Anafa, Kedesh, and ash-Shuhara, the Upper Galilee was then home to a pagan population with close ties to the Phoenician coast.===Hasmonean period===During the expansion of the Hasmonean kingdom of Judea, much of the Galilee region was conquered and annexed by the first Hasmonean king Aristobulus I (104–103 BCE).", "Following the Hasmonean conquest, there was a significant Jewish influx into the area.", "Sites including Yodfat, Meiron, Sepphoris, Shikhin, Qana, Bersabe, Zalmon, Mimlah, Migdal, Arbel, Kefar Hittaya, and Beth Ma'on have archeological-chronological evidence for this settlement wave.The hill where ancient Yodfat stoodJosephus, who based his account on Timagenes of Alexandria, claimed that Aristobulus I had forcibly converted the Itureans to Judaism while annexing a portion of their territory.", "Schürer believed this information to be accurate and came to the conclusion that the \"Jewish\" Galilee of Jesus' day was actually inhabited by the offspring of those same Iturean converts.", "Other scholars have suggested that the Itureans underwent a voluntary conversion to Judaism in the Upper Galilee, or at the very least in the Eastern Upper Galilee.", "However, archeological information does not support either proposal, as Iturean material culture has been identified clearly in the northern Golan Heights and Mount Hermon, and not in the Galilee, and it is clear that this area remained outside Hasmonean borders.=== Roman period ===Following the Roman conquest of Judaea, a second, more significant wave of Jewish settlement arrived in the Galilee.", "Large and significant towns were established at the end of the first century BCE or the start of the first century CE, including Kefar Hananya, Parod, Ravid, Mashkaneh, Sabban, and Tiberias.In the first century CE, the Galilee was dotted with small towns and villages.", "The Jewish historian Josephus claims that there were 204 small towns in Galilee, but modern scholars believe this estimate to be an exaggeration.", "Many of these towns were located around the Sea of Galilee, which contained many edible fish and which was surrounded by fertile land.", "Salted, dried, and pickled fish were an important export good.", "In 4 BCE, a rebel named Judah plundered Galilee's largest city, Sepphoris.", "According to Josephus, the Syrian governor Publius Quinctilius Varus responded by sacking Sepphoris and selling the population into slavery, but the region's archaeology lacks evidence of such destruction.client ruler, Herod Antipas, the tetrarch of Galilee from 4 BCE–39 CE, was permitted to mint his own coinage (''shown above'').After the death of Herod the Great that same year, his son Herod Antipas was appointed as tetrarch of Galilee by the Roman emperor Augustus.", "Galilee remained a Roman client state and Antipas paid tribute to the Roman Empire in exchange for Roman protection.", "The Romans did not station troops in Galilee, but threatened to retaliate against anyone who attacked it.", "As long as he continued to pay tribute, Antipas was permitted to govern however he wished and was permitted to mint his own coinage.", "Antipas was relatively observant of Jewish laws and customs.", "Although his palace was decorated with animal carvings, which many Jews regarded as a transgression against the law prohibiting idols, his coins bore only agricultural designs, which his subjects deemed acceptable.", "In general, Antipas was a capable ruler; Josephus does not record any instance of his use of force to put down an uprising and he had a long, prosperous reign.", "However, many Jews probably resented him as not sufficiently devout.", "Antipas rebuilt the city of Sepphoris and, in either 18 CE or 19 CE, he founded the new city of Tiberias.", "These two cities became Galilee's largest cultural centers.", "They were the main centers of Greco-Roman influence, but were still predominantly Jewish.", "A massive gap existed between the rich and poor, but lack of uprisings suggest that taxes were not exorbitantly high and that most Galileans did not feel their livelihoods were being threatened.", "Late in his reign, Antipas married his half-niece Herodias, who was already married to one of her other uncles.", "His wife, whom he divorced, fled to her father Aretas, an Arab king, who invaded Galilee and defeated Antipas's troops before withdrawing.", "Both Josephus and the Gospel of Mark record that the itinerate preacher John the Baptist criticized Antipas over his marriage and Antipas consequently had him imprisoned and then beheaded.", "In around 39 CE, at the urging of Herodias, Antipas went to Rome to request that he be elevated from the status of tetrarch to the status of king.", "The Romans found him guilty of storing arms, so he was removed from power and exiled, ending his forty-three-year reign.", "During the Great Revolt (66–73 CE), a Jewish mob destroyed Herod Antipas's palace.Jesus and the miraculous catch of fish, in the Sea of Galilee.", "Many people in Roman-era Galilee were fishermen.The archaeological discoveries of synagogues from the Hellenistic and Roman period in the Galilee show strong Phoenician influences, and a high level of tolerance for other cultures relative to other Jewish religious centers.=== Late Roman period ===Judaism reached its political and cultural zenith in the Galilee during the late second and early third century CE.", "According to rabbinic sources, Judah ha-Nasi's political leadership was at its strongest in relation to the Jewish community in Syria Palaestina, the Diaspora, and the Roman Authorities during this time.", "Judah's redaction of the Mishnah at this time period represented the peak of intense cultural activity.", "Archaeological surveys in the Galilee have revealed that the region experienced its height of thriving settlement during this time.According to medieval Hebrew legend, Shimon bar Yochai, one of the most famed of all the tannaim, wrote the ''Zohar'' while living in Galilee.=== Byzantine period ===After the completion of the Mishnah, which marked the conclusion of the tannaitic era, came the period of the ''amoraim''.", "The Jerusalem Talmud, the principal work of the amoraim in Palestine, is primarily discussions and interpretations of the Mishnah, and according to academic research, most of it was edited in Tiberias.", "The vast majority of the ''amoraim'' named there, as well as the majority of the settlements or place names referenced, were Galileans.", "By the middle of the fourth century, the Jerusalem Talmud's compilation and editing processes abruptly came to a halt, as Talmudic scholar Yaacov Sussmann put it: \"The development of the Jerusalem Talmud seems to have abruptly ceased, as if severed by a sharp and sudden blade\".Demographically, during the fourth century the entire region witnessed a significant population decrease, resulting in the abandonment of several notable settlements.", "In approximately 320 CE, Christian bishop Epiphanius reported that all the major cities and villages in Galilee were entirely Jewish.", "During the Byzantine period, however, Galilee's Jewish population experienced a decline, while Christian settlement grew.", "Archaeological data indicates that in the third and fourth centuries, several Jewish sites were abandoned, and some Christian villages were established on or near these deserted locations.", "Certain settlements, such as Rama, Magdala, Kafr Kanna, Daburiyya, and Iksal, which were materially Jewish during the Roman period, were now predominantly inhabited by Christians or had a significant Christian population.", "Safrai and Liebner argue that the decline of the Jewish population and the expansion of the Christian population in the region were separate events that happened at different times.", "Throughout this period, religious segregation between Christian and Jewish villages endured, with few exceptions like Capernaum and perhaps Nazareth, due to their sanctity in Christian tradition.Leibner has proposed tying the end of the Palestinian Amoraic period, the impact of historical occurrences like the Christianization of the Roman Empire and of Palestine, the apparent cessation of activities of at least some of the ''batei midrash'' and the transformation of the Galilee from a densely populated Jewish area to a collection of communities surrounded by non-Jewish areas to this demographic crisis.", "He assumed that Christian population in Galilee was not composed of Jews who converted to Christianity.", "This is supported by the fact that trustworthy historical records, which mention Jewish conversion to Christianity in Byzantine Palestine, refer to individual cases rather than entire villages, unlike the records from the western part of the empire.", "Eastern Galilee retained a Jewish majority until at least the seventh century.===Early Muslim and Crusader periods===After the Muslim conquest of the Levant in the 630s, the Galilee formed part of Jund al-Urdunn (the military district of Jordan), itself part of Bilad al-Sham (Islamic Syria).", "Its major towns were Tiberias the capital of the district, Qadas, Beisan, Acre, Saffuriya, and Kabul.", "During the early Islamic period, Galilee underwent a process of Arabization and Islamization, similar to other areas in the region.", "Under Umayyad rule, Islamic rule was gradually consolidated in newly conquered territories, and some Muslims settled in the villages, establishing residency there.", "Later, under Abassid rule, geographer al-Ya'qubi (d. 891), who referred to the region as '''Jabal al-Jalil''', noted that its inhabitants were Arabs from the Amila tribe.", "Michael Ehrlich suggests that during the Early Islamic period, the majority of people in the Western Galilee and Lower Galilee likely converted to Islam, while in the Eastern Galilee, the Islamization process continued for a more extended period, lasting until the Mamluk period.", "According to Moshe Gil, Jews in rural Galilean areas frequently succeeded in upholding community life during and for decades after the Umayyad period.", "He comes to the conclusion that several Galilean Jewish communities \"retained their ancient character\".", "The Shia Fatimids conquered the region in the 10th century; a breakaway sect, venerating the Fatimid caliph al-Hakim, formed the Druze religion, centered in Mount Lebanon and partially in the Galilee.", "During the Crusades, Galilee was organized into the Principality of Galilee, one of the most important Crusader seigneuries.", "According to Moshe Gil, during the periods of Fatimid and Crusader rule, the rural Jewish population of Galilee experienced a gradual decline and flight.", "He supports his argument by referring to 11th-century Cairo Geniza documents related to transactions in Ramla and other areas in central Palestine, where Jews claimed to have ancestral ties to places like Gush Halav, Dalton, or 'Amuqa, suggesting that Jewish flight from Galilee occurred during that time.=== Ayyubid and Mamluk periods ===Sunni Muslims began to immigrate to Safed and its surroundings starting in the Ayyubid period, and in particular during the Mamluk period.", "These immigrants included Sufi preachers who were crucial in converting the locals to Islam in Safed's rural area.", "Jewish immigrants did, however, come to the area in waves, during the period of the destruction of Tyre and Acre in 1291 and particularly after the Jewish expulsion from Spain in 1492.These immigrants, who included scholars and other urban elites, turned the Jewish community from a rural community into an urban hub which exerted its influence well beyond the regional boundaries of Upper Galilee.===Ottoman era===SafedDuring Early Ottoman era, the Galilee was governed as the Safad Sanjak, initially part of the larger administrative unit of Damascus Eyalet (1549–1660) and later as part of Sidon Eyalet (1660–1864).", "During the 18th century, the administrative division of Galilee was renamed to Acre Sanjak, and the Eyalet itself became centered in Acre, factually becoming the Acre Eyalet between 1775 and 1841.The Jewish population of Galilee increased significantly following their expulsion from Spain and welcome from the Ottoman Empire.", "The community for a time made Safed an international center of cloth weaving and manufacturing, as well as a key site for Jewish learning.", "Today it remains one of Judaism's four holy cities and a center for kabbalah.In the mid-17th century Galilee and Mount Lebanon became the scene of the Druze power struggle, which came in parallel with much destruction in the region and decline of major cities.In the mid-18th century, Galilee was caught up in a struggle between the Arab leader Zahir al-Umar and the Ottoman authorities who were centred in Damascus.", "Zahir ruled Galilee for 25 years until Ottoman loyalist Jezzar Pasha conquered the region in 1775.In 1831, the Galilee, a part of Ottoman Syria, switched hands from Ottomans to Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt until 1840.During this period, aggressive social and politic policies were introduced, which led to a violent 1834 Arab revolt.", "In the process of this revolt the Jewish community of Safed was greatly reduced, in the event of Safed Plunder by the rebels.", "The Arab rebels were subsequently defeated by the Egyptian troops, though in 1838, the Druze of Galilee led another uprising.", "In 1834 and 1837, major earthquakes leveled most of the towns, resulting in great loss of life.Following the 1864 Tanszimat reforms in the Ottoman Empire, the Galilee remained within Acre Sanjak, but was transferred from Sidon Eyalet to the newly formed Syria Vilayet and shortly, from 1888, became administered from Beirut Vilayet.In 1866, Galilee's first hospital, the Nazareth Hospital, was founded under the leadership of American-Armenian missionary Dr. Kaloost Vartan, assisted by German missionary John Zeller.The territory of the Ottoman Beirut Vilayet, encompassing the GalileeIn the early 20th century, Galilee remained part of Acre Sanjak of Ottoman Syria.", "It was administered as the southernmost territory of the Beirut Vilayet.===British administration===Following the defeat of the Ottoman Empire in World War I, and the Armistice of Mudros, it came under British rule, as part of the Occupied Enemy Territory Administration.", "Shortly after, in 1920, the region was included in the British Mandate territory, officially a part of Mandatory Palestine from 1923.===Israeli period===After the 1948 Arab–Israeli war, nearly the whole of Galilee came under Israel's control.", "A large portion of the population fled or was forced to leave, leaving dozens of entire villages empty; however, a large Israeli Arab community remained based in and near the cities of Nazareth, Acre, Tamra, Sakhnin, and Shefa-'Amr, due to some extent to a successful rapprochement with the Druze.", "The kibbutzim around the Sea of Galilee were sometimes shelled by the Syrian army's artillery until Israel seized Western Golan Heights in the 1967 Six-Day War.During the 1970s and the early 1980s, the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) launched multiple attacks on towns and villages of the Upper and Western Galilee from Lebanon.", "This came in parallel to the general destabilization of Southern Lebanon, which became a scene of fierce sectarian fighting which deteriorated into the Lebanese Civil War.", "On the course of the war, Israel initiated Operation Litani (1979) and Operation Peace For Galilee (1982) with the stated objectives of destroying the PLO infrastructure in Lebanon, protecting the citizens of the Galilee and supporting allied Christian Lebanese militias.", "Israel took over much of southern Lebanon in support of Christian Lebanese militias until 1985, when it withdrew to a narrow security buffer zone.From 1985 to 2000, Hezbollah, and earlier Amal, engaged the South Lebanon Army supported by the Israel Defense Forces, sometimes shelling Upper Galilee communities with Katyusha rockets.", "In May 2000, Israeli prime minister Ehud Barak unilaterally withdrew IDF troops from southern Lebanon, maintaining a security force on the Israeli side of the international border recognized by the United Nations.", "The move brought a collapse to the South Lebanon Army and takeover of Southern Lebanon by Hezbollah.", "However, despite Israeli withdrawal, clashes between Hezbollah and Israel continued along the border, and UN observers condemned both for their attacks.The 2006 Israel-Lebanon conflict was characterized by round-the-clock Katyusha rocket attacks (with a greatly extended range) by Hezbollah on the whole of Galilee, with long-range, ground-launched missiles hitting as far south as the Sharon Plain, Jezreel Valley, and Jordan Valley below the Sea of Galilee." ], [ "Demography", "Sea of Galilee as seen from the Moshava KinneretSign in front of the Galil Jewish–Arab School, a joint Arab-Jewish primary school in the Galilee, there were 1.2 million residents in Galilee, of which 47% were Jewish.", "The Jewish Agency has attempted to increase the Jewish population in this area, but the non-Jewish population also has a high growth rate.The largest cities in the region are Acre, Nahariya, Nazareth, Safed, Karmiel, Shaghur, Shefa-'Amr, Afula, and Tiberias.", "The port city of Haifa serves as a commercial center for the whole region.Because of its hilly terrain, most of the people in the Galilee live in small villages connected by relatively few roads.", "A railroad runs south from Nahariya along the Mediterranean coast, and a fork to the east was opened in 2016.The main sources of livelihood throughout the area are agriculture and tourism.", "Industrial parks are being developed, bringing further employment opportunities to the local population which includes many recent immigrants.", "The Israeli government is contributing funding to the private initiative, the Galilee Finance Facility, organised by the Milken Institute and Koret Economic Development Fund.The Galilee is home to a large Arab population, comprising a Muslim majority and two smaller populations, of Druze and Arab Christians, of comparable sizes.", "Both Israeli Druze and Christians have their majorities in the Galilee.", "Other notable minorities are the Bedouin, the Maronites and the Circassians.The north-central portion of the Galilee is also known as Central Galilee, stretching from the border with Lebanon to the northern edge of the Jezreel Valley, including the cities of Nazareth and Sakhnin, has an Arab majority of 75% with most of the Jewish population living in hilltop cities like Upper Nazareth.", "The northern half of the central Lower Galilee, surrounding Karmiel and Sakhnin is known as the \"Heart of the Galilee\".", "The eastern Galilee is nearly 100% Jewish.", "This part includes the Finger of the Galilee, the Jordan River Valley, and the shores the Sea of Galilee, and contains two of Judaism's Four Holy Cities.", "The southern part of the Galilee, including Jezreel Valley, and the Gilboa region are also nearly 100% Jewish, with a few small Arab villages near the West Bank border.", "About 80% of the population of the Western Galilee is Jewish, all the way up to the Lebanese border.", "Jews also form a small majority in the mountainous Upper Galilee with a significant minority Arab population (mainly Druze and Christians).As of 2011, the Galilee is attracting significant internal migration of Haredi Jews, who are increasingly moving to the Galilee and Negev as an answer to rising housing prices in central Israel." ], [ "Tourism", "Galilee is a popular destination for domestic and foreign tourists who enjoy its scenic, recreational, and gastronomic offerings.", "The Galilee attracts many Christian pilgrims, as many of the miracles of Jesus occurred, according to the New Testament, on the shores of the Sea of Galilee—including his walking on water, calming the storm, and feeding five thousand people in Tabgha.", "In addition, numerous sites of biblical importance are located in the Galilee, such as Megiddo, Jezreel Valley, Mount Tabor, Hazor, Horns of Hattin, and more.A popular hiking trail known as the ''yam leyam'', or sea-to-sea, starts hikers at the Mediterranean.", "They then hike through the Galilee mountains, Tabor, Neria, and Meron, until their final destination, the Kinneret (Sea of Galilee).In April 2011, Israel unveiled the \"Jesus Trail\", a 40-mile (60-km) hiking trail in the Galilee for Christian pilgrims.", "The trail includes a network of footpaths, roads, and bicycle paths linking sites central to the lives of Jesus and his disciples, including Tabgha, the traditional site of Jesus's miracle of the loaves and fishes, and the Mount of Beatitudes, where he delivered his Sermon on the Mount.", "It ends at Capernaum on the shores of the Sea of Galilee, where Jesus espoused his teachings.The Church of the Transfiguration on Mount TaborMany kibbutzim and moshav families operate ''Zimmerim'' (from the Yiddish word for 'room', צימער, from 'Zimmer' in German, with the Hebrew ending for plural, -im; the local term for a Bed and breakfast).", "Numerous festivals are held throughout the year, especially in the autumn and spring holiday seasons.", "These include the Acre (Acco) Festival of Alternative Theater, the olive harvest festival, music festivals featuring Anglo-American folk, klezmer, Renaissance, and chamber music, and Karmiel Dance Festival." ], [ "Cuisine", "The cuisine of the Galilee is very diverse.", "The meals are lighter than in the central and southern regions.", "Dairy products are heavily consumed (especially the Safed cheese that originated in the mountains of the Upper Galilee).", "Herbs like thyme, mint, parsley, basil, and rosemary are very common with everything including dips, meat, fish, stews and cheese.", "In the eastern part of the Galilee, there is freshwater fish as much as meat (especially the Tilapia that lives in the Sea of Galilee, Jordan river, and other streams in the region), including fish filled with thyme and grilled with rosemary to flavor, or stuffed with oregano leaves, then topped with parsley and served with lemon to squash.", "This technique exists in other parts of the country including the coasts of the Mediterranean and the Red Sea.", "A specialty of the region is a baked Tilapia flavored with celery, mint and a lot of lemon juice.", "Baked fish with tahini is also common in Tiberias while the coastal Galileans prefer to replace the tahini with yogurt and add sumac on top.The Galilee is famous for its olives, pomegranates, wine and especially its Labneh w'Za'atar which is served with pita bread, meat stews with wine, pomegranates and herbs such as akub, parsley, khalmit, mint, fennel, etc.", "are common.", "Galilean kubba is usually flavored with cumin, cinnamon, cardamom, concentrated pomegranate juice, onion, parsley and pine nuts and served as meze with tahini dip.", "Kebabs are also made almost in the same way with sumac replacing cardamom and with carob sometimes replacing the pomegranate juice.", "Because of its climate, beef has become more popular than lamb, although both are still eaten there.", "Dates are popular in the tropical climate of the Eastern Galilee." ], [ "Subregions", "The definition of Galilee varies depending on the period, author, and point of view (geological, geographical, administrative).", "Ancient Galilee consisted in broad terms of the Upper and Lower Galilee.", "Today the northwestern part of the Upper Galilee is in Southern Lebanon, with the rest being in Israel.", "The Israeli Galilee is often divided into these subregions, which often overlap:* Upper Galilee extends from the Beit HaKerem Valley northwards into southern Lebanon.", "Its eastern border is the Hula Valley and the Sea of Galilee separating it from the Golan Heights.", "To the west it reaches to the Coastal Plain which separates it from the Mediterranean.", "* Lower Galilee covers the area north of the Valleys (Jezreel, Harod and Beth Shean Valley) and south of the Beit HaKerem Valley.", "Its borders to the east on the Jordan Rift Valley.", "It contains the Arab city of Nazareth and the village of Cana.", "* The \"Galilee Panhandle\" (, ''Etzba HaGalil'', lit.", "\"Finger of Galilee\") is a panhandle along the Hulah Valley, squeezed between the Lebanese border and the Golan Heights; it contains the towns of Metulla and Qiryat Shemona, the Dan and part of the Banias rivers.The following subregions are sometimes regarded, from different points of view, as distinct from the Galilee, for instance the entire Jordan Valley including the Sea of Galilee and its continuation to the south as one geological and geographical unit, and the Jezreel, Harod, and Beit She'an valleys as \"the northern valleys\".", "* The Hula Valley* The Korazim Plateau* The Sea of Galilee and its valley* The Jordan Valley from the southern tip of the Sea of Galilee down to Beit She'an* The Jezreel Valley, including in its eastern part, the Harod Valley, which stretches between Afula and the Beit She'an Valley* The Beit She'an Valley at the junction of the Jordan Valley and the extended Jezreel Valley* Mount Gilboa* The '''Western Galilee''' is a modern Israeli term, which in its minimal definition refers to the coastal plain just west of the Upper Galilee, also known as Plain of Asher or Plain of the Galilee, which stretches from north of Acre to Rosh HaNikra on the Israel-Lebanon border, and in the common broad definition adds the western part of Upper Galilee, and usually the northwestern part of Lower Galilee as well, corresponding more or less to Acre sub-district or the Northern District." ], [ "Gallery", "Ari Mountain in the Upper GalileePanorama of the Harod Valley, the eastern extension of the Jezreel Valley" ], [ "See also", "* Galilean* Northern District (Israel)* Koenig Memorandum* Ahuzat Naftali" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "*" ], [ "Further reading", "* Aviam, M., \"Galilee: The Hellenistic to Byzantine Periods,\" in ''The New Encyclopedia of Archaeological Excavations in the Holy Land'', vol.", "2 (4 vols) (Jerusalem: IES / Carta), 1993, 452–58.", "* Meyers, Eric M. (ed), ''Galilee through the Centuries: Confluence of Cultures'' (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1999) (Duke Judaic Studies 1).", "* Chancey, A.M., ''Myth of a Gentile Galilee: The Population of Galilee and New Testament Studies'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002) (Society of New Testament Monograph Series 118).", "* Aviam, M., \"First-century Jewish Galilee: An archaeological perspective,\" in Edwards, D.R.", "(ed.", "), ''Religion and Society in Roman Palestine: Old Questions, New Approaches'' (New York / London: Routledge, 2004), 7–27.", "* Aviam, M., ''Jews, Pagans and Christians in the Galilee'' (Rochester NY: University of Rochester Press, 2004) (Land of Galilee 1).", "* Chancey, Mark A., ''Greco-Roman Culture and the Galilee of Jesus'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006) (Society for New Testament Studies Monograph Series, 134).", "* Freyne, Sean, \"Galilee and Judea in the First Century,\" in Margaret M. Mitchell and Frances M. Young (eds), ''Cambridge History of Christianity.", "Vol.", "1.Origins to Constantine'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006) (Cambridge History of Christianity), 163–94.", "* Zangenberg, Jürgen, Harold W. Attridge and Dale B. Martin (eds), ''Religion, Ethnicity and Identity in Ancient Galilee: A Region in Transition'' (Tübingen, Mohr Siebeck, 2007) (Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament, 210).", "* Fiensy, David A., \"Population, Architecture, and Economy in Lower Galilean Villages and Towns in the First Century AD: A Brief Survey,\" in John D. Wineland, Mark Ziese, James Riley Estep Jr. (eds), ''My Father's World: Celebrating the Life of Reuben G. Bullard'' (Eugene (OR), Wipf & Stock, 2011), 101–19.", "* Safrai, Shmuel, \"The Jewish Cultural Nature of Galilee in the First Century\" The New Testament and Christian–Jewish Dialogue: Studies in Honor of David Flusser, Immanuel 24/25 (1990): 147–86; electronically published on jerusalemperspective.com." ], [ "External links", "* Galilee (definition of) on Haaretz.com" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Goths" ], [ "Introduction", "Depiction of a Gothic warrior battling Roman cavalry, from the 3rd century Ludovisi Battle sarcophagusThe '''Goths''' (; , ) were Germanic people who played a major role in the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the emergence of medieval Europe.In his book ''Getica'' (c. 551), the historian Jordanes writes that the Goths originated in southern Scandinavia, but the accuracy of this account is unclear.", "A people called the ''Gutones''possibly early Gothsare documented living near the lower Vistula River in current Poland in the 1st century, where they are associated with the archaeological Wielbark culture.", "From the 2nd century, the Wielbark culture expanded southwards towards the Black Sea in what has been associated with Gothic migration, and by the late 3rd century it contributed to the formation of the Chernyakhov culture.", "By the 4th century at the latest, several Gothic groups were distinguishable, among whom the Thervingi and Greuthungi were the most powerful.", "During this time, Wulfila began the conversion of Goths to Christianity.In the late 4th century, the lands of the Goths were invaded from the east by the Huns.", "In the aftermath of this event, several groups of Goths came under Hunnic domination, while others migrated further west or sought refuge inside the Roman Empire.", "Goths who entered the Empire by crossing the Danube inflicted a devastating defeat upon the Romans at the Battle of Adrianople in 378.These Goths would form the Visigoths, and under their king Alaric I, they began a long migration, eventually establishing a Visigothic Kingdom in Spain at Toledo.", "Meanwhile, Goths under Hunnic rule gained their independence in the 5th century, most importantly the Ostrogoths.", "Under their king Theodoric the Great, these Goths established an Ostrogothic Kingdom in Italy at Ravenna.The Ostrogothic Kingdom was destroyed by the Eastern Roman Empire in the 6th century, while the Visigothic Kingdom was conquered by the Umayyad Caliphate in the early 8th century.", "Remnants of Gothic communities in Crimea, known as the Crimean Goths, lingered on for several centuries, although Goths would eventually cease to exist as a distinct people." ], [ "Name", "In the Gothic language, the Goths were called the *''Gut-þiuda'' ('Gothic people') or *''Gutans'' ('Goths').", "The Proto-Germanic form of the Gothic name is *''Gutōz'', which co-existed with an n-stem variant *''Gutaniz'', attested in ''Gutones'', ''gutani'', or ''gutniskr''.", "The form *''Gutōz'' is identical to that of the Gutes and closely related to that of the Geats (*''Gautōz'').", "Though these names probably mean the same, their exact meaning is uncertain.", "They are all thought to be related to the Proto-Germanic verb *''geuta-'', which means \"to pour\"." ], [ "Classification", "The Goths are classified as a Germanic people in modern scholarship.", "Along with the Burgundians, Vandals and others they belong to the East Germanic group.", "Roman authors of late antiquity did not classify the Goths as ''Germani''.", "In modern scholarship the Goths are sometimes referred to as being ''Germani''." ], [ "History", "===Prehistory===A crucial source on Gothic history is the ''Getica'' of the 6th-century historian Jordanes, who may have been of Gothic descent.", "Jordanes claims to have based the ''Getica'' on an earlier lost work by Cassiodorus, but also cites material from fifteen other classical sources, including an otherwise unknown writer, Ablabius.", "Many scholars accept that Jordanes' account on Gothic origins is at least partially derived from Gothic tribal tradition and accurate on certain details.According to Jordanes, the Goths originated on an island called ''Scandza'' (Scandinavia), from where they emigrated by sea to an area called ''Gothiscandza'' under their king Berig.", "Historians are not in agreement on the authenticity and accuracy of this account.", "Most scholars agree that Gothic migration from Scandinavia is reflected in the archaeological record, but the evidence is not entirely clear.", "Rather than a single mass migration of an entire people, scholars open to hypothetical Scandinavian origins envision a process of gradual migration in the 1st centuries BC and AD, which was probably preceded by long-term contacts and perhaps limited to a few elite clans from Scandinavia.Similarities between the name of the Goths, some Swedish place names and the names of the Gutes and Geats have been cited as evidence that the Goths originated in Gotland or Götaland.", "The Goths, Geats and Gutes may all have descended from an early community of seafarers active on both sides of the Baltic.", "Similarities and dissimilarities between the Gothic language and Scandinavian languages (particularly Gutnish) have been cited as evidence both for and against a Scandinavian origin.Scholars generally locate ''Gothiscandza'' in the area of the Wielbark culture.", "This culture emerged in the lower Vistula and along the Pomeranian coast in the 1st century AD, replacing the preceding Oksywie culture.", "It is primarily distinguished from the Oksywie by the practice of inhumation, the absence of weapons in graves, and the presence of stone circles.", "This area had been intimately connected with Scandinavia since the time of the Nordic Bronze Age and the Lusatian culture.", "Its inhabitants in the Wielbark period are usually thought to have been Germanic peoples, such as the Goths and Rugii.", "Jordanes writes that the Goths, soon after settling ''Gothiscandza'', seized the lands of the Ulmerugi (Rugii).stone circle in the area of northern Poland occupied by the Wielbark culture, which is associated with the Goths===Early history===The Goths are generally believed to have been first attested by Greco-Roman sources in the 1st century under the name ''Gutones''.", "The equation between Gutones and later Goths is disputed by several historians.Around 15 AD, Strabo mentions the Butones, Lugii, and Semnones as part of a large group of peoples who came under the domination of the Marcomannic king Maroboduus.", "The \"Butones\" are generally equated with the Gutones.", "The Lugii have sometimes been considered the same people as the Vandals, with whom they were certainly closely affiliated.", "The Vandals are associated with the Przeworsk culture, which was located to the south of the Wielbark culture.", "Wolfram suggests that the Gutones were clients of the Lugii and Vandals in the 1st century AD.In 77 AD, Pliny the Elder mentions the Gutones as one of the peoples of Germania.", "He writes that the Gutones, Burgundiones, Varini, and Carini belong to the Vandili.", "Pliny classifies the Vandili as one of the five principal \"German races\", along with the coastal Ingvaeones, Istvaeones, Irminones, and Peucini.", "In an earlier chapter Pliny writes that the 4th century BC traveler Pytheas encountered a people called the ''Guiones''.", "Some scholars have equated these ''Guiones'' with the Gutones, but the authenticity of the Pytheas account is uncertain.In his work ''Germania'' from around 98 AD, Tacitus writes that the Gotones (or Gothones) and the neighbouring Rugii and Lemovii were ''Germani'' who carried round shields and short swords, and lived near the ocean, beyond the Vandals.", "He described them as \"ruled by kings, a little more strictly than the other German tribes\".", "In another notable work, the ''Annals'', Tacitus writes that the Gotones had assisted Catualda, a young Marcomannic exile, in overthrowing the rule of Maroboduus.", "Prior to this, it is probable that both the Gutones and Vandals had been subjects of the Marcomanni.The Roman Empire under Hadrian, showing the location of the Gothones, then inhabiting the east bank of the Vistula in modern-day PolandSometime after settling ''Gothiscandza'', Jordanes writes that the Goths defeated the neighbouring Vandals.", "Wolfram believes the Gutones freed themselves from Vandalic domination at the beginning of the 2nd century AD.In his ''Geography'' from around 150 AD, Ptolemy mentions the Gythones (or Gutones) as living east of the Vistula in Sarmatia, between the Veneti and the Fenni.", "In an earlier chapter he mentions a people called the Gutae (or Gautae) as living in southern Scandia.", "These Gutae are probably the same as the later Gauti mentioned by Procopius.", "Wolfram suggests that there were close relations between the Gythones and Gutae, and that they might have been of common origin.===Movement towards the Black Sea===Beginning in the middle of the 2nd century, the Wielbark culture shifted southeast towards the Black Sea.", "During this time the Wielbark culture is believed to have ejected and partially absorbed peoples of the Przeworsk culture.", "This was part of a wider southward movement of eastern Germanic tribes, which was probably caused by massive population growth.", "As a result, other tribes were pushed towards the Roman Empire, contributing to the beginning of the Marcomannic Wars.", "By 200 AD, Wielbark Goths were probably being recruited into the Roman army.According to Jordanes, the Goths entered Oium, part of Scythia, under the king Filimer, where they defeated the Spali.", "This migration account partly corresponds with the archaeological evidence.", "The name ''Spali'' may mean \"the giants\" in Slavic, and the Spali were thus probably not Slavs.", "In the early 3rd century AD, western Scythia was inhabited by the agricultural Zarubintsy culture and the nomadic Sarmatians.", "Prior to the Sarmatians, the area had been settled by the Bastarnae, who are believed to have carried out a migration similar to the Goths in the 3rd century BC.", "Peter Heather considers the Filimer story to be at least partially derived from Gothic oral tradition.", "The fact that the expanding Goths appear to have preserved their Gothic language during their migration suggests that their movement involved a fairly large number of people.By the mid-3rd century AD, the Wielbark culture had contributed to the formation of the Chernyakhov culture in Scythia.", "This strikingly uniform culture came to stretch from the Danube in the west to the Don in the east.", "It is believed to have been dominated by the Goths and other Germanic groups such as the Heruli.", "It nevertheless also included Iranian, Dacian, Roman and probably Slavic elements as well.===3rd century raids on the Roman Empire===Gothic invasions in the 3rd centuryThe first incursion of the Roman Empire that can be attributed to Goths is the sack of Histria in 238.The first references to the Goths in the 3rd century call them ''Scythians'', as this area, known as Scythia, had historically been occupied by an unrelated people of that name.", "It is in the late 3rd century that the name ''Goths'' () is first mentioned.", "Ancient authors do not identify the Goths with the earlier Gutones.", "Philologists and linguists have no doubt that the names are linked.On the Pontic steppe the Goths quickly adopted several nomadic customs from the Sarmatians.", "They excelled at horsemanship, archery and falconry, and were also accomplished agriculturalists and seafarers.", "J.", "B.", "Bury describes the Gothic period as \"the only non-nomadic episode in the history of the steppe.\"", "William H. McNeill compares the migration of the Goths to that of the early Mongols, who migrated southward from the forests and came to dominate the eastern Eurasian steppe around the same time as the Goths in the west.", "From the 240s at the earliest, Goths were heavily recruited into the Roman Army to fight in the Roman–Persian Wars, notably participating at the Battle of Misiche in 244.An inscription at the Ka'ba-ye Zartosht in Parthian, Persian and Greek commemorates the Persian victory over the Romans and the troops drawn from ''gwt W g'rmny xštr'', the Gothic and German kingdoms, which is probably a Parthian gloss for the Danubian (Gothic) ''limes'' and the Germanic ''limes''.Meanwhile, Gothic raids on the Roman Empire continued, In 250–51, the Gothic king Cniva captured the city of Philippopolis and inflicted a devastating defeat upon the Romans at the Battle of Abrittus, in which the Roman Emperor Decius was killed.", "This was one of the most disastrous defeats in the history of the Roman army.The first Gothic seaborne raids took place in the 250s.", "The first two incursions into Asia Minor took place between 253 and 256, and are attributed to Boranoi by Zosimus.", "This may not be an ethnic term but may just mean \"people from the north\".", "It is unknown if Goths were involved in these first raids.", "Gregory Thaumaturgus attributes a third attack to Goths and Boradoi, and claims that some, \"forgetting that they were men of Pontus and Christians,\" joined the invaders.", "An unsuccessful attack on Pityus was followed in the second year by another, which sacked Pityus and Trabzon and ravaged large areas in the Pontus.", "In the third year, a much larger force devastated large areas of Bithynia and the Propontis, including the cities of Chalcedon, Nicomedia, Nicaea, Apamea Myrlea, Cius and Bursa.", "By the end of the raids, the Goths had seized control over Crimea and the Bosporus and captured several cities on the Euxine coast, including Olbia and Tyras, which enabled them to engage in widespread naval activities.After a 10-year hiatus, the Goths and the Heruli, with a raiding fleet of 500 ships, sacked Heraclea Pontica, Cyzicus and Byzantium.", "They were defeated by the Roman navy but managed to escape into the Aegean Sea, where they ravaged the islands of Lemnos and Scyros, broke through Thermopylae and sacked several cities of southern Greece (province of Achaea) including Athens, Corinth, Argos, Olympia and Sparta.", "Then an Athenian militia, led by the historian Dexippus, pushed the invaders to the north where they were intercepted by the Roman army under Gallienus.", "He won an important victory near the Nessos (Nestos) river, on the boundary between Macedonia and Thrace, the Dalmatian cavalry of the Roman army earning a reputation as good fighters.", "Reported barbarian casualties were 3,000 men.", "Subsequently, the Heruli leader Naulobatus came to terms with the Romans.After Gallienus was assassinated outside Milan in the summer of 268 in a plot led by high officers in his army, Claudius was proclaimed emperor and headed to Rome to establish his rule.", "Claudius' immediate concerns were with the Alamanni, who had invaded Raetia and Italy.", "After he defeated them in the Battle of Lake Benacus, he was finally able to take care of the invasions in the Balkan provinces.The 3rd-century Ludovisi Battle sarcophagus depicts a battle between Goths and Romans.In the meantime, a second and larger sea-borne invasion had started.", "An enormous coalition consisting of Goths (Greuthungi and Thervingi), Gepids and Peucini, led again by the Heruli, assembled at the mouth of river Tyras (Dniester).", "The ''Augustan History'' and Zosimus claim a total number of 2,000–6,000 ships and 325,000 men.", "This is probably a gross exaggeration but remains indicative of the scale of the invasion.", "After failing to storm some towns on the coasts of the western Black Sea and the Danube (Tomi, Marcianopolis), the invaders attacked Byzantium and Chrysopolis.", "Part of their fleet was wrecked, either because of the Goth's inexperience in sailing through the violent currents of the Propontis or because they were defeated by the Roman navy.", "Then they entered the Aegean Sea and a detachment ravaged the Aegean islands as far as Crete, Rhodes and Cyprus.", "According to the ''Augustan History'', the Goths achieved no success on this expedition because they were struck by the Cyprianic Plague.", "The fleet probably also sacked Troy and Ephesus, damaging the Temple of Artemis, though the temple was repaired and then later torn down by Christians a century later, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.", "While their main force had constructed siege works and was close to taking the cities of Thessalonica and Cassandreia, it retreated to the Balkan interior at the news that the emperor was advancing.Europe in AD 300, showing the distribution of the Goths near the Black SeaLearning of the approach of Claudius, the Goths first attempted to directly invade Italy.", "They were engaged near Naissus by a Roman army led by Claudius advancing from the north.", "The battle most likely took place in 269, and was fiercely contested.", "Large numbers on both sides were killed but, at the critical point, the Romans tricked the Goths into an ambush by pretending to retreat.", "Some 50,000 Goths were allegedly killed or taken captive and their base at Thessalonika destroyed.", "Apparently Aurelian, who was in charge of all Roman cavalry during Claudius' reign, led the decisive attack in the battle.", "Some survivors were resettled within the empire, while others were incorporated into the Roman army.", "The battle ensured the survival of the Roman Empire for another two centuries.In 270, after the death of Claudius, Goths under the leadership of Cannabaudes again launched an invasion of the Roman Empire, but were defeated by Aurelian, who, however, did surrender Dacia beyond the Danube.Around 275 the Goths launched a last major assault on Asia Minor, where piracy by Black Sea Goths was causing great trouble in Colchis, Pontus, Cappadocia, Galatia and even Cilicia.", "They were defeated sometime in 276 by Emperor Marcus Claudius Tacitus.By the late 3rd century, there were at least two groups of Goths, separated by the Dniester River: the Thervingi and the Greuthungi.", "The Gepids, who lived northwest of the Goths, are also attested as this time.", "Jordanes writes that the Gepids shared common origins with the Goths.In the late 3rd century, as recorded by Jordanes, the Gepids, under their king Fastida, utterly defeated the Burgundians, and then attacked the Goths and their king Ostrogotha.", "Out of this conflict, Ostrogotha and the Goths emerged victorious.", "In the last decades of the 3rd century, large numbers of Carpi are recorded as fleeing Dacia for the Roman Empire, having probably been driven from the area by Goths.===Co-existence with the Roman Empire (300–375)===Ring of Pietroassa, dated AD 250 to AD 400 and found in Pietroasele, Romania, features a Gothic language inscription in the Elder Futhark runic alphabet.In 332, Constantine helped the Sarmatians to settle on the north banks of the Danube to defend against the Goths' attacks and thereby enforce the Roman border.", "Around 100,000 Goths were reportedly killed in battle, and Aoric, son of the Thervingian king Ariaric, was captured.", "Eusebius, a historian who wrote in Greek in the third century, wrote that in 334, Constantine evacuated approximately 300,000 Sarmatians from the north bank of the Danube after a revolt of the Sarmatians' slaves.", "From 335 to 336, Constantine, continuing his Danube campaign, defeated many Gothic tribes.Having been driven from the Danube by the Romans, the Thervingi invaded the territory of the Sarmatians of the Tisza.", "In this conflict, the Thervingi were led by Vidigoia, \"the bravest of the Goths\" and were victorious, although Vidigoia was killed.", "Jordanes states that Aoric was succeeded by Geberic, \"a man renowned for his valor and noble birth\", who waged war on the Hasdingi Vandals and their king Visimar, forcing them to settle in Pannonia under Roman protection.Both the Greuthungi and Thervingi became heavily Romanized during the 4th century.", "This came about through trade with the Romans, as well as through Gothic membership of a military covenant, which was based in Byzantium and involved pledges of military assistance.", "Reportedly, 40,000 Goths were brought by Constantine to defend Constantinople in his later reign, and the Palace Guard was thereafter mostly composed of Germanic warriors, as Roman soldiers by this time had largely lost military value.", "The Goths increasingly became soldiers in the Roman armies in the 4th century leading to a significant Germanization of the Roman Army.", "Without the recruitment of Germanic warriors in the Roman Army, the Roman Empire would not have survived for as long as it did.", "Goths who gained prominent positions in the Roman military include Gainas, Tribigild, Fravitta and Aspar.", "Mardonius, a Gothic eunuch, was the childhood tutor and later adviser of Roman emperor Julian, on whom he had an immense influence.The Gothic penchant for wearing skins became fashionable in Constantinople, a fashion which was loudly denounced by conservatives.", "The 4th-century Greek bishop Synesius compared the Goths to wolves among sheep, mocked them for wearing skins and questioned their loyalty towards Rome: A man in skins leading warriors who wear the chlamys, exchanging his sheepskins for the toga to debate with Roman magistrates and perhaps even sit next to a Roman consul, while law–abiding men sit behind.", "Then these same men, once they have gone a little way from the senate house, put on their sheepskins again, and when they have rejoined their fellows they mock the toga, saying that they cannot comfortably draw their swords in it.", "''Athanaric and Valens on the Danube'', Eduard Bendemann, 1860In the 4th century, Geberic was succeeded by the Greuthungian king Ermanaric, who embarked on a large-scale expansion.", "Jordanes states that Ermanaric conquered a large number of warlike tribes, including the Heruli (who were led by Alaric), the Aesti and the Vistula Veneti, who, although militarily weak, were very numerous, and put up a strong resistance.", "Jordanes compares the conquests of Ermanaric to those of Alexander the Great, and states that he \"ruled all the nations of Scythia and Germany by his own prowess alone.\"", "Interpreting Jordanes, Herwig Wolfram estimates that Ermanaric dominated a vast area of the Pontic Steppe stretching from the Baltic Sea to the Black Sea as far eastwards as the Ural Mountains, encompassing not only the Greuthungi, but also Baltic Finnic peoples, Slavs (such as the Antes), Rosomoni (Roxolani), Alans, Huns, Sarmatians and probably Aestii (Balts).", "According to Wolfram, it is certainly possible that the sphere of influence of the Chernyakhov culture could have extended well beyond its archaeological extent.", "Chernyakhov archaeological finds have been found far to the north in the forest steppe, suggesting Gothic domination of this area.", "Peter Heather on the other hand, contends that the extent of Ermanaric's power is exaggerated.", "Ermanaric's possible dominance of the Volga-Don trade routes has led historian Gottfried Schramm to consider his realm a forerunner of the Viking-founded state of Kievan Rus'.", "In the western part of Gothic territories, dominated by the Thervingi, there were also populations of Taifali, Sarmatians and other Iranian peoples, Dacians, Daco-Romans and other Romanized populations.According to Hervarar saga ok Heiðreks (The Saga of Hervör and Heidrek), a 13th-century legendary saga, Árheimar was the capital of Reidgotaland, the land of the Goths.", "The saga states that it was located on the Dnieper river.", "Jordanes refers to the region as Oium.In the 360s, Athanaric, son of Aoric and leader of the Thervingi, supported the usurper Procopius against the Eastern Roman Emperor Valens.", "In retaliation, Valens invaded the territories of Athanaric and defeated him, but was unable to achieve a decisive victory.", "Athanaric and Valens thereupon negotiated a peace treaty, favorable to the Thervingi, on a boat in the Danube river, as Athanaric refused to set his feet within the Roman Empire.", "Soon afterwards, Fritigern, a rival of Athanaric, converted to Arianism, gaining the favor of Valens.", "Athanaric and Fritigern thereafter fought a civil war in which Athanaric appears to have been victorious.", "Athanaric thereafter carried out a crackdown on Christianity in his realm.===Arrival of the Huns (about 375)===''Gizur challenges the Huns'' by Peter Nicolai Arbo, 1886Around 375 the Huns overran the Alans, an Iranian people living to the east of the Goths, and then, along with Alans, invaded the territory of the Goths - the Gothic empire A source for this period is the Roman historian Ammianus Marcellinus, who wrote that Hunnic domination of the Gothic kingdoms in Scythia began in the 370s.", "It is possible that the Hunnic attack came as a response to the Gothic expansion eastwards.Upon the suicide of Ermanaric (died 376), the Greuthungi gradually fell under Hunnic domination.", "Christopher I. Beckwith suggests that the Hunnic thrust into Europe and the Roman Empire was an attempt to subdue the independent Goths in the west.", "The Huns fell upon the Thervingi, and Athanaric sought refuge in the mountains (referred to as Caucaland in the sagas).", "Ambrose makes a passing reference to Athanaric's royal titles before 376 in his ''De Spiritu Sancto'' (On the Holy Spirit).Battles between the Goths and the Huns are described in the \"Hlöðskviða\" (The Battle of the Goths and Huns), a medieval Icelandic saga.", "The sagas recall that Gizur, king of the Geats, came to the aid of the Goths in an epic conflict with the Huns, although this saga might derive from a later Gothic-Hunnic conflict.Although the Huns successfully subdued many of the Goths who subsequently joined their ranks, Fritigern approached the Eastern Roman emperor Valens in 376 with a portion of his people and asked to be allowed to settle on the south bank of the Danube.", "Valens permitted this, and even assisted the Goths in their crossing of the river (probably at the fortress of Durostorum).", "The Gothic evacuation across the Danube was probably not spontaneous, but rather a carefully planned operation initiated after long debate among leading members of the community.", "Upon arrival, the Goths were to be disarmed according to their agreement with the Romans, although many of them still managed to keep their arms.", "The Moesogoths settled in Thrace and Moesia.===The Gothic War of 376–382===Hunnic invasionMistreated by corrupt local Roman officials, the Gothic refugees were soon experiencing a famine; some are recorded as having been forced to sell their children to Roman slave traders in return for rotten dog meat.", "Enraged by this treachery, Fritigern unleashed a widescale rebellion in Thrace, in which he was joined not only by Gothic refugees and slaves, but also by disgruntled Roman workers and peasants, and Gothic deserters from the Roman Army.", "The ensuing conflict, known as the Gothic War, lasted for several years.", "Meanwhile, a group of Greuthungi, led by the chieftains Alatheus and Saphrax, who were co-regents with Vithericus, son and heir of the Greuthungi king Vithimiris, crossed the Danube without Roman permission.", "The Gothic War culminated in the Battle of Adrianople in 378, in which the Romans were badly defeated and Valens was killed.Following the decisive Gothic victory at Adrianople, Julius, the magister militum of the Eastern Roman Empire, organized a wholesale massacre of Goths in Asia Minor, Syria and other parts of the Roman East.", "Fearing rebellion, Julian lured the Goths into the confines of urban streets from which they could not escape and massacred soldiers and civilians alike.", "As word spread, the Goths rioted throughout the region, and large numbers were killed.", "Survivors may have settled in Phrygia.With the rise of Theodosius I in 379, the Romans launched a renewed offensive to subdue Fritigern and his followers.", "Around the same time, Athanaric arrived in Constantinople, having fled Caucaland through the scheming of Fritigern.", "Athanaric received a warm reception by Theodosius, praised the Roman Emperor in return, and was honoured with a magnificent funeral by the emperor following his death shortly after his arrival.", "In 382, Theodosius decided to enter peace negotiations with the Thervingi, which were concluded on 3 October 382.The Thervingi were subsequently made foederati of the Romans in Thrace and obliged to provide troops to the Roman army.===Later division and spread of the Goths===In the aftermath of the Hunnic onslaught, two major groups of the Goths would eventually emerge, the Visigoths and Ostrogoths.", "Visigoths means the \"Goths of the west\", while Ostrogoths means \"Goths of the east\".", "The Visigoths, led by the Balti dynasty, claimed descent from the Thervingi and lived as foederati inside Roman territory, while the Ostrogoths, led by the Amali dynasty, claimed descent from the Greuthungi and were subjects of the Huns.", "Procopius interpreted the name ''Visigoth'' as \"western Goths\" and the name ''Ostrogoth'' as \"eastern Goth\", reflecting the geographic distribution of the Gothic realms at that time.", "A people closely related to the Goths, the Gepids, were also living under Hunnic domination.", "A smaller group of Goths were the Crimean Goths, who remained in Crimea and maintained their Gothic identity well into the Middle Ages.====Visigoths====Alaric entering Athens in 395.The depiction, including Bronze Age armour, is anachronistic.The Visigoths were a new Gothic political unit brought together during the career of their first leader, Alaric I.", "Following a major settlement of Goths in the Balkans made by Theodosius in 382, Goths received prominent positions in the Roman army.", "Relations with Roman civilians were sometimes uneasy.", "In 391, Gothic soldiers, with the blessing of Theodosius I, massacred thousands of Roman spectators at the Hippodrome in Thessalonica as vengeance for the lynching of the Gothic general Butheric.The Goths suffered heavy losses while serving Theodosius in the civil war of 394 against Eugenius and Arbogast.", "In 395, following the death of Theodosius I, Alaric and his Balkan Goths invaded Greece, where they sacked Piraeus (the port of Athens) and destroyed Corinth, Megara, Argos, and Sparta.", "Athens itself was spared by paying a large bribe, and the Eastern emperor Flavius Arcadius subsequently appointed Alaric magister militum (\"master of the soldiers\") in Illyricum in 397.In 401 and 402, Alaric made two attempts at invading Italy, but was defeated by Stilicho.", "In 405–406, another Gothic leader, Radagaisus, also attempted to invade Italy, and was also defeated by Stilicho.", "In 408, the Western Roman emperor Flavius Honorius ordered the execution of Stilicho and his family, then incited the Roman population to massacre tens of thousands of wives and children of Goths serving in the Roman military.", "Subsequently, around 30,000 Gothic soldiers defected to Alaric.", "Alaric in turn invaded Italy, seeking to pressure Honorious into granting him permission to settle his people in North Africa.", "In Italy, Alaric liberated tens of thousands of Gothic slaves, and in 410 he sacked the city of Rome.", "Although the city's riches were plundered, the civilian inhabitants of the city were treated humanely, and only a few buildings were burned.", "Alaric died soon afterwards, and was buried along with his treasure in an unknown grave under the Busento river.Alaric was succeeded by his brother-in–law Athaulf, husband of Honorius' sister Galla Placidia, who had been seized during Alaric's sack of Rome.", "Athaulf settled the Visigoths in southern Gaul.", "After failing to gain recognition from the Romans, Athaulf retreated into Hispania in early 415, and was assassinated in Barcelona shortly afterwards.", "He was succeeded by Sigeric and then Wallia, who succeeded in having the Visigoths accepted by Honorius as foederati in southern Gaul, with their capital at Toulouse.", "Wallia subsequently inflicted severe defeats upon the Silingi Vandals and the Alans in Hispania.", "Periodically they marched on Arles, the seat of the praetorian prefect but were always pushed back.", "In 437 the Visigoths signed a treaty with the Romans which they kept.The maximum extent of territories ruled by Theodoric the Great in 523Under Theodoric I the Visigoths allied with the Romans and fought Attila to a stalemate in the Battle of the Catalaunian Fields, although Theodoric was killed in the battle.", "Under Euric, the Visigoths established an independent Visigothic Kingdom and succeeded in driving the Suebi out of Hispania proper and back into Galicia.", "Although they controlled Spain, they still formed a tiny minority among a much larger Hispano-Roman population, approximately 200,000 out of 6,000,000.In 507, the Visigoths were pushed out of most of Gaul by the Frankish king Clovis I at the Battle of Vouillé.", "They were able to retain Narbonensis and Provence after the timely arrival of an Ostrogoth detachment sent by Theodoric the Great.", "The defeat at Vouillé resulted in their penetrating further into Hispania and establishing a new capital at Toledo.Under Liuvigild in the latter part of the 6th century, the Visigoths succeeded in subduing the Suebi in Galicia and the Byzantines in the south-west, and thus achieved dominance over most of the Iberian peninsula.", "Liuvigild also abolished the law that prevented intermarriage between Hispano-Romans and Goths, and he remained an Arian Christian.", "The conversion of Reccared I to Roman Catholicism in the late 6th century prompted the assimilation of Goths with the Hispano-Romans.At the end of the 7th century, the Visigothic Kingdom began to suffer from internal troubles.", "Their kingdom fell and was progressively conquered by the Umayyad Caliphate from 711 after the defeat of their last king Roderic at the Battle of Guadalete.", "Some Visigothic nobles found refuge in the mountain areas of the Asturias, Pyrenees and Cantabria.", "According to Joseph F. O'Callaghan, the remnants of the Hispano-Gothic aristocracy still played an important role in the society of Hispania.", "At the end of Visigothic rule, the assimilation of Hispano-Romans and Visigoths was occurring at a fast pace.", "Their nobility had begun to think of themselves as constituting one people, the ''gens Gothorum'' or the ''Hispani''.", "An unknown number of them fled and took refuge in Asturias or Septimania.", "In Asturias they supported Pelagius's uprising, and joining with the indigenous leaders, formed a new aristocracy.", "The population of the mountain region consisted of native Astures, Galicians, Cantabri, Basques and other groups unassimilated into Hispano-Gothic society.", "The Christians began to regain control under the leadership of the nobleman Pelagius of Asturias, who founded the Kingdom of Asturias in 718 and defeated the Muslims at the Battle of Covadonga in c. 722, in what is taken by historians to be the beginning of the Reconquista.", "It was from the Asturian kingdom that modern Spain and Portugal evolved.The Visigoths were never completely Romanized; rather, they were 'Hispanicized' as they spread widely over a large territory and population.", "They progressively adopted a new culture, retaining little of their original culture except for practical military customs, some artistic modalities, family traditions such as heroic songs and folklore, as well as select conventions to include Germanic names still in use in present-day Spain.", "It is these artifacts of the original Visigothic culture that give ample evidence of its contributing foundation for the present regional culture.", "Portraying themselves heirs of the Visigoths, the subsequent Christian Spanish monarchs declared their responsibility for the Reconquista of Muslim Spain, which was completed with the Fall of Granada in 1492.====Ostrogoths====The Mausoleum of Theodoric in Ravenna, Italy.", "The frieze includes a motif found in Scandinavian metal jewellery.After the Hunnic invasion, many Goths became subjects of the Huns.", "A section of these Goths under the leadership of the Amali dynasty came to be known as the Ostrogoths.", "Others sought refuge in the Roman Empire, where many of them were recruited into the Roman army.", "In the spring of 399, Tribigild, a Gothic leader in charge of troops in Nakoleia, rose up in rebellion and defeated the first imperial army sent against him, possibly seeking to emulate Alaric's successes in the west.", "Gainas, a Goth who along with Stilicho and Eutropius had deposed Rufinus in 395, was sent to suppress Tribigild's rebellion, but instead plotted to use the situation to seize power in the Eastern Roman Empire.", "This attempt was however thwarted by the pro-Roman Goth Fravitta, and in the aftermath, thousands of Gothic civilians were massacred in Constantinople, many being burned alive in the local Arian church where they had taken shelter.", "As late as the 6th century Goths were settled as ''foederati'' in parts of Asia Minor.", "Their descendants, who formed the elite ''Optimatoi'' regiment, still lived there in the early 8th century.", "While they were largely assimilated, their Gothic origin was still well–known: the chronicler Theophanes the Confessor calls them Gothograeci.The Ostrogoths fought together with the Huns at the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains in 451.Following the death of Attila and the defeat of the Huns at the Battle of Nedao in 454, the Ostrogoths broke away from Hunnic rule under their king Valamir.", "Mentions of this event were probably preserved in Slavic epic songs.", "Under his successor, Theodemir, they utterly defeated the Huns at the Bassianae in 468, and then defeated a coalition of Roman–supported Germanic tribes at the Battle of Bolia in 469, which gained them supremacy in Pannonia.Theodemir was succeeded by his son Theodoric in 471, who was forced to compete with Theodoric Strabo, leader of the Thracian Goths, for the leadership of his people.", "Fearing the threat posed by Theodoric to Constantinople, the Eastern Roman emperor Zeno ordered Theodoric to invade Italy in 488.By 493, Theodoric had conquered all of Italy from the Scirian Odoacer, whom he killed with his own hands; he subsequently formed the Ostrogothic Kingdom.", "Theodoric settled his entire people in Italy, estimated at 100,000–200,000, mostly in the northern part of the country, and ruled the country very efficiently.", "The Goths in Italy constituted a small minority of the population in the country.", "Intermarriage between Goths and Romans were forbidden, and Romans were also forbidden from carrying arms.", "Nevertheless, the Roman majority was treated fairly.The Goths were briefly reunited under one crown in the early 6th century under Theodoric, who became regent of the Visigothic kingdom following the death of Alaric II at the Battle of Vouillé in 507.Shortly after Theodoric's death, the country was invaded by the Eastern Roman Empire in the Gothic War, which severely devastated and depopulated the Italian peninsula.", "The Ostrogoths made a brief resurgence under their king Totila, who was, however, killed at the Battle of Taginae in 552.After the last stand of the Ostrogothic king Teia at the Battle of Mons Lactarius in 553, Ostrogothic resistance ended, and the remaining Goths in Italy were assimilated by the Lombards, another Germanic tribe, who invaded Italy and founded the Kingdom of the Lombards in 567.====Crimean Goths====Doros, capital of the Crimean GothsGothic tribes who remained in the lands around the Black Sea, especially in Crimea, were known as the Crimean Goths.", "During the late 5th and early 6th century, the Crimean Goths had to fend off hordes of Huns who were migrating back eastward after losing control of their European empire.", "In the 5th century, Theodoric the Great tried to recruit Crimean Goths for his campaigns in Italy, but few showed interest in joining him.", "They affiliated with the Eastern Orthodox Church through the Metropolitanate of Gothia, and were then closely associated with the Byzantine Empire.During the Middle Ages, the Crimean Goths were in perpetual conflict with the Khazars.", "John of Gothia, the metropolitan bishop of Doros, capital of the Crimean Goths, briefly expelled the Khazars from Crimea in the late 8th century, and was subsequently canonized as an Eastern Orthodox saint.In the 10th century, the lands of the Crimean Goths were once again raided by the Khazars.", "As a response, the leaders of the Crimean Goths made an alliance with Sviatoslav I of Kiev, who subsequently waged war upon and utterly destroyed the Khazar Khaganate.", "In the late Middle Ages the Crimean Goths were part of the Principality of Theodoro, which was conquered by the Ottoman Empire in the late 15th century.", "As late as the 18th century a small number of people in Crimea may still have spoken Crimean Gothic." ], [ "Language", "The Goths were Germanic-speaking.", "The Gothic language is the Germanic language with the earliest attestation (the 4th century), and the only East Germanic language documented in more than proper names, short phrases that survived in historical accounts, and loan-words in other languages, making it a language of great interest in comparative linguistics.", "Gothic is known primarily from the Codex Argenteus, now preserved in Uppsala, Sweden, which contains a partial translation of the Bible credited to Ulfilas.The language was in decline by the mid-500s, due to the military victory of the Franks, the elimination of the Goths in Italy, and geographic isolation.", "In Spain, the language lost its last and probably already declining function as a church language when the Visigoths converted to Catholicism in 589; it survived as a domestic language in the Iberian peninsula (modern Spain and Portugal) as late as the 8th century.Frankish author Walafrid Strabo wrote that Gothic was still spoken in the lower Danube area, in what is now Bulgaria, in the early 9th century, and a related dialect known as Crimean Gothic was spoken in the Crimea until the 16th century, according to references in the writings of travelers.", "Most modern scholars believe that Crimean Gothic did not derive from the dialect that was the basis for Ulfilas' translation of the Bible." ], [ "Culture", "===Art=======Early====fibula, AD 500, Germanisches Nationalmuseum NurembergBefore the invasion of the Huns, the Gothic Chernyakhov culture produced jewelry, vessels, and decorative objects in a style much influenced by Greek and Roman craftsmen.", "They developed a polychrome style of gold work, using wrought cells or setting to encrust gemstones into their gold objects.====Ostrogoths====The eagle-shaped fibula, part of the Domagnano Treasure, was used to join clothes c. AD 500; the piece on display in the Germanisches Nationalmuseum in Nuremberg is well-known.====Visigoths====Detail of the votive crown of Recceswinth, hanging in Madrid.", "The hanging letters spell RECCESVINTHVS REX OFFERET King R. offers this.Visigothic – Pair of eagle fibulae found at Tierra de Barros (Badajoz, southwest Spain) made of sheet gold with amethysts and coloured glassIn Spain an important collection of Visigothic metalwork was found in the treasure of Guarrazar, Guadamur, Province of Toledo, Castile-La Mancha, an archeological find composed of twenty-six votive crowns and gold crosses from the royal workshop in Toledo, with Byzantine influence.", "The treasure represents the high point of Visigothic goldsmithery, according to .", "The two most important votive crowns are those of Recceswinth and of Suintila, displayed in the National Archaeological Museum of Madrid; both are made of gold, encrusted with sapphires, pearls, and other precious stones.", "Suintila's crown was stolen in 1921 and never recovered.", "There are several other small crowns and many votive crosses in the treasure.These findings, along with others from some neighbouring sites and with the archaeological excavation of the Spanish Ministry of Public Works and the Royal Spanish Academy of History (April 1859), formed a group consisting of:* National Archaeological Museum of Spain: six crowns, five crosses, a pendant and remnants of foil and channels (almost all of gold).", "* Royal Palace of Madrid: a crown and a gold cross and a stone engraved with the Annunciation.", "A crown, and other fragments of a tiller with a crystal ball were stolen from the Royal Palace of Madrid in 1921 and its whereabouts are still unknown.", "* National Museum of the Middle Ages, Paris: three crowns, two crosses, links and gold pendants.The aquiliform (eagle-shaped) fibulae that have been discovered in necropolises such as Duraton, Madrona or Castiltierra (cities of Segovia), are an unmistakable indication of the Visigothic presence in Spain.", "These fibulae were used individually or in pairs, as clasps or pins in gold, bronze and glass to join clothes, showing the work of the goldsmiths of Visigothic Hispania.The Visigothic belt buckles, a symbol of rank and status characteristic of Visigothic women's clothing, are also notable as works of goldsmithery.", "Some pieces contain exceptional Byzantine-style lapis lazuli inlays and are generally rectangular in shape, with copper alloy, garnets and glass.===Society===Archaeological evidence in Visigothic cemeteries shows that social stratification was analogous to that of the village of Sabbas the Goth.", "The majority of villagers were common peasants.", "Paupers were buried with funeral rites, unlike slaves.", "In a village of 50 to 100 people, there were four or five elite couples.", "In Eastern Europe, houses include sunken-floored dwellings, surface dwellings, and stall-houses.", "The largest known settlement is the Criuleni District.", "Chernyakhov cemeteries feature both cremation and inhumation burials; among the latter the head aligned to the north.", "Some graves were left empty.", "Grave goods often include pottery, bone combs, and iron tools, but hardly ever weapons.Peter Heather suggests that the freemen constituted the core of Gothic society.", "These were ranked below the nobility, but above the freedmen and slaves.", "It is estimated that around a quarter to a fifth of weapon-bearing Gothic males of the Ostrogothic Kingdom were freemen.===Religion===''Ulfilas explains the gospel to the Goths'', 1900Initially practising Gothic paganism, the Goths were gradually converted to Arianism in the course of the 4th century.", "According to Basil of Caesarea, a prisoner named Eutychus taken captive in a raid on Cappadocia in 260 preached the gospel to the Goths and was martyred.", "It was only in the 4th century, as a result of missionary activity by the Gothic bishop Ulfilas, whose grandparents were Cappadocians taken captive in the raids of the 250s, that the Goths were gradually converted.", "Ulfilas devised a Gothic alphabet and translated the Gothic Bible.During the 370s, Goths converting to Christianity were subject to persecution by the Thervingian king Athanaric, who was a pagan.The Visigothic Kingdom in Hispania converted to Catholicism in the late 6th century.The Ostrogoths (and their remnants, the Crimean Goths) were closely connected to the Patriarchate of Constantinople from the 5th century, and became fully incorporated under the Metropolitanate of Gothia from the 9th century.===Law======Warfare===Germanic spearheadsGothic arms and armour usually consisted of wooden shield, spear and often swords.", "'Rank and file' troops did not wear much protection, while warriors of higher social class were better equipped, as was common for most tribal peoples of the time.Armour was either a chainmail shirt or lamellar cuirass.", "Lamellar was popular among horsemen.", "Shields were either round or oval with a central boss grip.", "They were decorated with tribe or clan symbols, such as animal drawings.", "Helmets were often of spangenhelm type, often with cheek and neck plates.", "Spears were used both for thrusting and throwing, although specialized javelins were also in use.", "Swords were one handed, double edged and straight, with a very small crossguard and large pommel.", "It was called the Spatha by the Romans, and it is believed to have first been used by the Celts.", "Short wooden bows were also used, as well as occasional throwing axes.Missile weapons were mainly short throwing axes such as Fransica and short wooden bows.", "Specialized javelins such as angon were more rare but still used===Economy===Archaeology shows that the Visigoths, unlike the Ostrogoths, were predominantly farmers.", "They sowed wheat, barley, rye, and flax.", "They also raised pigs, poultry, and goats.", "Horses and donkeys were raised as working animals and fed with hay.", "Sheep were raised for their wool, which they fashioned into clothing.", "Archaeology indicates they were skilled potters and blacksmiths.", "When peace treaties were negotiated with the Romans, the Goths demanded free trade.", "Imports from Rome included wine and cooking-oil.Roman writers note that the Goths neither assessed taxes on their own people nor on their subjects.", "The early 5th-century Christian writer Salvian compared the Goths' and related people's favourable treatment of the poor to the miserable state of peasants in Roman Gaul:For in the Gothic country the barbarians are so far from tolerating this sort of oppression that not even Romans who live among them have to bear it.", "Hence all the Romans in that region have but one desire, that they may never have to return to the Roman jurisdiction.", "It is the unanimous prayer of the Roman people in that district that they may be permitted to continue to lead their present life among the barbarians.===Architecture=======Ostrogoths====The Mausoleum of Theodoric (Italian: ''Mausoleo di Teodorico'') is an ancient monument just outside Ravenna, Italy.", "It was built in 520 AD by Theodoric the Great, an Ostrogoth, as his future tomb.The current structure of the mausoleum is divided into two decagonal orders, one above the other; both are made of Istria stone.", "Its roof is a single 230-tonne Istrian stone, 10 meters in diameter.", "Possibly as a reference to the Goths' tradition of an origin in Scandinavia, the architect decorated the frieze with a pattern found in 5th- and 6th-century Scandinavian metal adornments.", "A niche leads down to a room that was probably a chapel for funeral liturgies; a stair leads to the upper floor.", "Located in the centre of the floor is a circular porphyry stone grave, in which Theodoric was buried.", "His remains were removed during Byzantine rule, when the mausoleum was turned into a Christian oratory.", "In the late 19th century, silting from a nearby rivulet that had partly submerged the mausoleum was drained and excavated.The Palace of Theodoric, also in Ravenna, has a symmetrical composition with arches and monolithic marble columns, reused from previous Roman buildings.", "With capitals of different shapes and sizes.", "The Ostrogoths restored Roman buildings, some of which have come down to us thanks to them.====Visigoths====During their governance of Hispania, the Visigoths built several churches of basilical or cruciform floor plan that survive, including the churches of San Pedro de la Nave in El Campillo, Santa María de Melque in San Martín de Montalbán, Santa Lucía del Trampal in Alcuéscar, Santa Comba in Bande, and Santa María de Lara in Quintanilla de las Viñas; the Visigothic crypt (the Crypt of San Antolín) in the Palencia Cathedral is a Visigothic chapel from the mid 7th century, built during the reign of Wamba to preserve the remains of the martyr Saint Antoninus of Pamiers, a Visigothic-Gallic nobleman brought from Narbonne to Visigothic Hispania in 672 or 673 by Wamba himself.", "These are the only remains of the Visigothic cathedral of Palencia.Visigothic crypt of Saint Antoninus, Palencia CathedralReccopolis (Spanish: ''Recópolis''), located near the tiny modern village of Zorita de los Canes in the province of Guadalajara, Castile-La Mancha, Spain, is an archaeological site of one of at least four cities founded in Hispania by the Visigoths.", "It is the only city in Western Europe to have been founded between the fifth and eighth centuries.", "According to Lauro Olmo Enciso who is a professor of archaeology at the University of Alcalá, the city was ordered to build by the Visigothic king Leovigild to honor his son Reccared I and to serve as Reccared's seat as co-king in the Visigothic province of Celtiberia, to the west of Carpetania, where the main capital, Toledo, lay." ], [ "Physical appearance", "In ancient sources, the Goths are always described as tall and athletic, with light skin, blonde hair and blue eyes.", "The 4th-century Greek historian Eunapius described their characteristic powerful musculature in a pejorative way: \"Their bodies provoked contempt in all who saw them, for they were far too big and far too heavy for their feet to carry them, and they were pinched in at the waist – just like those insects Aristotle writes of.\"", "Procopius notes that the Vandals and Gepids looked similar to the Goths, and on this basis, he suggested that they were all of common origin.", "Of the Goths, he wrote that \"they all have white bodies and fair hair, and are tall and handsome to look upon.\"" ], [ "DNA", "Stolarek et al.", "(2023) and Antonio et al.", "(2022) both sequenced genomes from the Wielbark culture Goths.", "Stolarek et al.", "includes samples from multiple sites all over the territory of the Wielbark culture, in large numbers.", "The results are in aligment with archaeological and historical evidence, strongly suggesting that the Wielbark culture formed through migration from Southern Scandinavia.", "A large majority of the Wielbark culture samples are autosomally Scandinavian-like, and carry predominantly Scandinavian Y-DNA haplogroups.", "The most common Y-DNA haplogroup among the Wielbark individuals was Y-DNA haplogroup I1-M253, characteristic of the Nordic Bronze Age in Southern Scandinavia, in which it was found at a very high frequency and from where it first expanded.", "Among the Wielbark Goths, substantial subclade diversity is seen among the I1 carriers, suggesting that the male founders of the culture descended from clans from a rather widespread area in Scandinavia.Assessing the population movement during late Antiquity, a 2023 study on the Roman frontier on the Danube concludes that \"Goths were ethnically diverse confederations\".", "A number samples obtained from Roman sites close to the limes (such as Viminacium) dated to the 3th century or later were shown to carry admixture from Central/North European and Pontic-Kazakh Steppe ancestries in addition to 42%–55% local Balkan Iron Age-related ancestry.", "7 out of 9 males among these samples belonged to haplogroups associated with these trans-frontier ancestry sources (I1 and R1b-U106: North European; Z93: Iron Age Steppe).", "Many of these samples suggest that admixture between Central/North European and Pontic-Kazakh Steppe ancestries likely occurred beyond the frontier prior to the movement into the Roman Empire, \"perhaps indicative of, e.g., the formation of diverse confederations under Gothic leadership\"." ], [ "Legacy", "In Spain, the Visigothic nobleman Pelagius of Asturias who founded the Kingdom of Asturias and began the Reconquista at the Battle of Covadonga, is a national hero regarded as the country's first monarch.The Goths' relationship with Sweden became an important part of Swedish nationalism, and until the 19th century, before the Gothic origin had been thoroughly researched by archaeologists, Swedish scholars considered Swedes to be the direct descendants of the Goths.", "Today, scholars identify this as a cultural movement called Gothicismus, which included an enthusiasm for things Old Norse.In medieval and modern Spain, the Visigoths were believed to be the progenitors of the Spanish nobility (compare Gobineau for a similar French idea).", "By the early 7th century, the ethnic distinction between Visigoths and Hispano-Romans had all but disappeared, but recognition of a Gothic origin, e.g.", "on gravestones, still survived among the nobility.", "The 7th century Visigothic aristocracy saw itself as bearers of a particular Gothic consciousness and as guardians of old traditions such as Germanic namegiving; probably these traditions were on the whole restricted to the family sphere (Hispano-Roman nobles were doing service for the Visigothic Royal Court in Toulouse already in the 5th century and the two branches of Spanish aristocracy had fully adopted similar customs two centuries later).Beginning in 1278, when Magnus III of Sweden ascended to the throne, a reference to Gothic origins was included in the title of the King of Sweden: In 1973, with the accession of King Carl XVI Gustaf, the title was changed to simply \"King of Sweden.", "\"The Spanish and Swedish claims of Gothic origins led to a clash at the Council of Basel in 1434.Before the assembled cardinals and delegations could engage in theological discussion, they had to decide how to sit during the proceedings.", "The delegations from the more prominent nations argued that they should sit closest to the Pope, and there were also disputes over who were to have the finest chairs and who were to have their chairs on mats.", "In some cases, they compromised so that some would have half a chair leg on the rim of a mat.", "In this conflict, Nicolaus Ragvaldi, bishop of the Diocese of Växjö, claimed that the Swedes were the descendants of the great Goths, and that the people of Västergötland (''Westrogothia'' in Latin) were the Visigoths and the people of Östergötland (''Ostrogothia'' in Latin) were the Ostrogoths.", "The Spanish delegation retorted that it was only the \"lazy\" and \"unenterprising\" Goths who had remained in Sweden, whereas the \"heroic\" Goths had left Sweden, invaded the Roman empire and settled in Spain.In Spain, a man acting with arrogance would be said to be \"''haciéndose los godos''\" (\"making himself to act like the Goths\").", "In Chile, Argentina, and the Canary Islands, ''godo'' was an ethnic slur used against European Spaniards, who in the early colonial period often felt superior to the people born locally (''criollos'').", "In Colombia, it remains as slang for a person with conservative views.A large amount of literature has been produced on the Goths, with Henry Bradley's ''The Goths'' (1888) being the standard English-language text for many decades.", "More recently, Peter Heather has established himself as the leading authority on the Goths in the English-speaking world.", "The leading authority on the Goths in the German-speaking world is Herwig Wolfram." ], [ "List of early literature on the Goths", "===In the sagas===* Gutasaga* Hervarar saga ok Heiðreks (The Saga of Hervör and Heidrek)* Hlöðskviða (The Battle of the Goths and Huns)===In Greek and Roman literature===* Ambrose.", "* Ammianus Marcellinus* The anonymous author(s) of the Augustan History* Aurelius Victor: The ''Caesars'', a history from Augustus to Constantius II* Cassiodorus: A lost history of the Goths used by Jordanes* Claudian: Poems* Epitome de Caesaribus* Eunapius\"* Eutropius: ''Breviary''* Eusebius* George Syncellus* Gregory of Nyssa* Isidore of Seville in his ''History of the Kings of the Goths, Vandals, and Suevi''* Jerome: ''Chronicle''* Jordanes, in his Getica* Julian the Apostate* Lactantius: ''On the death of the Persecutors''* Olympiodorus of Thebes* ''Panegyrici latini''* Paulinus the Deacon: Life of bishop Ambrose of Milan* Paulus Orosius* Philostorgius: Greek church history* Pliny the Elder in ''Natural History''* Procopius* Ptolemy in ''Geography''* Sozomen* Strabo in ''Geographica''* Synesius: ''De regno'' and ''De providentia.", "''* Tacitus in ''Germania'' and ''Annals''* Themistius: Speeches* Theoderet of Cyrrhus* Theodosian Code* Zosimus" ], [ "See also", "* Gothic Wars* Gaut* Getae* Gutes* Geats* Gothicism* Gutian people* Early Germanic culture" ], [ "Notes and sources", "===Notes======Footnotes======Ancient sources===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ===Modern sources===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Reprinted in * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Glycolysis" ], [ "Introduction", "Summary of aerobic respiration'''Glycolysis''' is the metabolic pathway that converts glucose () into pyruvate and, in most organisms, occurs in the liquid part of cells (the cytosol).", "The free energy released in this process is used to form the high-energy molecules adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH).", "Glycolysis is a sequence of ten reactions catalyzed by enzymes.Summary of the 10 reactions of the glycolysis pathwayThe wide occurrence of glycolysis in other species indicates that it is an ancient metabolic pathway.", "Indeed, the reactions that make up glycolysis and its parallel pathway, the pentose phosphate pathway, can occur in the oxygen-free conditions of the Archean oceans, also in the absence of enzymes, catalyzed by metal ions, meaning this is a plausible prebiotic pathway for abiogenesis.The most common type of glycolysis is the ''Embden–Meyerhof–Parnas (EMP) pathway'', which was discovered by Gustav Embden, Otto Meyerhof, and Jakub Karol Parnas.", "Glycolysis also refers to other pathways, such as the ''Entner–Doudoroff pathway'' and various heterofermentative and homofermentative pathways.", "However, the discussion here will be limited to the Embden–Meyerhof–Parnas pathway.The glycolysis pathway can be separated into two phases:# Investment phase – wherein ATP is consumed# Yield phase – wherein more ATP is produced than originally consumed" ], [ "Overview", "The overall reaction of glycolysis is:Glycolysis pathway overview.The use of symbols in this equation makes it appear unbalanced with respect to oxygen atoms, hydrogen atoms, and charges.", "Atom balance is maintained by the two phosphate (Pi) groups:* Each exists in the form of a hydrogen phosphate anion (), dissociating to contribute overall* Each liberates an oxygen atom when it binds to an adenosine diphosphate (ADP) molecule, contributing 2O overallCharges are balanced by the difference between ADP and ATP.", "In the cellular environment, all three hydroxyl groups of ADP dissociate into −O− and H+, giving ADP3−, and this ion tends to exist in an ionic bond with Mg2+, giving ADPMg−.", "ATP behaves identically except that it has four hydroxyl groups, giving ATPMg2−.", "When these differences along with the true charges on the two phosphate groups are considered together, the net charges of −4 on each side are balanced.For simple fermentations, the metabolism of one molecule of glucose to two molecules of pyruvate has a net yield of two molecules of ATP.", "Most cells will then carry out further reactions to \"repay\" the used NAD+ and produce a final product of ethanol or lactic acid.", "Many bacteria use inorganic compounds as hydrogen acceptors to regenerate the NAD+.Cells performing aerobic respiration synthesize much more ATP, but not as part of glycolysis.", "These further aerobic reactions use pyruvate, and NADH + H+ from glycolysis.", "Eukaryotic aerobic respiration produces approximately 34 additional molecules of ATP for each glucose molecule, however most of these are produced by a mechanism vastly different from the substrate-level phosphorylation in glycolysis.The lower-energy production, per glucose, of anaerobic respiration relative to aerobic respiration, results in greater flux through the pathway under hypoxic (low-oxygen) conditions, unless alternative sources of anaerobically oxidizable substrates, such as fatty acids, are found.", "Metabolism of common monosaccharides, including glycolysis, gluconeogenesis, glycogenesis and glycogenolysis 1000px" ], [ "History", "The pathway of glycolysis as it is known today took almost 100 years to fully elucidate.", "The combined results of many smaller experiments were required in order to understand the intricacies of the entire pathway.The first steps in understanding glycolysis began in the nineteenth century with the wine industry.", "For economic reasons, the French wine industry sought to investigate why wine sometimes turned distasteful, instead of fermenting into alcohol.", "French scientist Louis Pasteur researched this issue during the 1850s, and the results of his experiments began the long road to elucidating the pathway of glycolysis.", "His experiments showed that fermentation occurs by the action of living microorganisms, yeasts, and that yeast's glucose consumption decreased under aerobic conditions of fermentation, in comparison to anaerobic conditions (the Pasteur effect).Eduard Buchner.", "Discovered cell-free fermentation.Insight into the component steps of glycolysis were provided by the non-cellular fermentation experiments of Eduard Buchner during the 1890s.", "Buchner demonstrated that the conversion of glucose to ethanol was possible using a non-living extract of yeast, due to the action of enzymes in the extract.", "This experiment not only revolutionized biochemistry, but also allowed later scientists to analyze this pathway in a more controlled laboratory setting.", "In a series of experiments (1905-1911), scientists Arthur Harden and William Young discovered more pieces of glycolysis.", "They discovered the regulatory effects of ATP on glucose consumption during alcohol fermentation.", "They also shed light on the role of one compound as a glycolysis intermediate: fructose 1,6-bisphosphate.The elucidation of fructose 1,6-bisphosphate was accomplished by measuring levels when yeast juice was incubated with glucose.", "production increased rapidly then slowed down.", "Harden and Young noted that this process would restart if an inorganic phosphate (Pi) was added to the mixture.", "Harden and Young deduced that this process produced organic phosphate esters, and further experiments allowed them to extract fructose diphosphate (F-1,6-DP).Arthur Harden and William Young along with Nick Sheppard determined, in a second experiment, that a heat-sensitive high-molecular-weight subcellular fraction (the enzymes) and a heat-insensitive low-molecular-weight cytoplasm fraction (ADP, ATP and NAD+ and other cofactors) are required together for fermentation to proceed.", "This experiment begun by observing that dialyzed (purified) yeast juice could not ferment or even create a sugar phosphate.", "This mixture was rescued with the addition of undialyzed yeast extract that had been boiled.", "Boiling the yeast extract renders all proteins inactive (as it denatures them).", "The ability of boiled extract plus dialyzed juice to complete fermentation suggests that the cofactors were non-protein in character.Otto Meyerhof.", "One of the main scientists involved in completing the puzzle of glycolysisIn the 1920s Otto Meyerhof was able to link together some of the many individual pieces of glycolysis discovered by Buchner, Harden, and Young.", "Meyerhof and his team were able to extract different glycolytic enzymes from muscle tissue, and combine them to artificially create the pathway from glycogen to lactic acid.In one paper, Meyerhof and scientist Renate Junowicz-Kockolaty investigated the reaction that splits fructose 1,6-diphosphate into the two triose phosphates.", "Previous work proposed that the split occurred via 1,3-diphosphoglyceraldehyde plus an oxidizing enzyme and cozymase.", "Meyerhoff and Junowicz found that the equilibrium constant for the isomerase and aldoses reaction were not affected by inorganic phosphates or any other cozymase or oxidizing enzymes.", "They further removed diphosphoglyceraldehyde as a possible intermediate in glycolysis.With all of these pieces available by the 1930s, Gustav Embden proposed a detailed, step-by-step outline of that pathway we now know as glycolysis.", "The biggest difficulties in determining the intricacies of the pathway were due to the very short lifetime and low steady-state concentrations of the intermediates of the fast glycolytic reactions.", "By the 1940s, Meyerhof, Embden and many other biochemists had finally completed the puzzle of glycolysis.", "The understanding of the isolated pathway has been expanded in the subsequent decades, to include further details of its regulation and integration with other metabolic pathways." ], [ "Sequence of reactions", "===Summary of reactions======Preparatory phase===The first five steps of Glycolysis are regarded as the preparatory (or investment) phase, since they consume energy to convert the glucose into two three-carbon sugar phosphates (G3P).Once glucose enters the cell, the first step is phosphorylation of glucose by a family of enzymes called hexokinases to form glucose 6-phosphate (G6P).", "This reaction consumes ATP, but it acts to keep the glucose concentration inside the cell low, promoting continuous transport of blood glucose into the cell through the plasma membrane transporters.", "In addition, phosphorylation blocks the glucose from leaking out – the cell lacks transporters for G6P, and free diffusion out of the cell is prevented due to the charged nature of G6P.", "Glucose may alternatively be formed from the phosphorolysis or hydrolysis of intracellular starch or glycogen.In animals, an isozyme of hexokinase called glucokinase is also used in the liver, which has a much lower affinity for glucose (Km in the vicinity of normal glycemia), and differs in regulatory properties.", "The different substrate affinity and alternate regulation of this enzyme are a reflection of the role of the liver in maintaining blood sugar levels.", "''Cofactors:'' Mg2+G6P is then rearranged into fructose 6-phosphate (F6P) by glucose phosphate isomerase.", "Fructose can also enter the glycolytic pathway by phosphorylation at this point.The change in structure is an isomerization, in which the G6P has been converted to F6P.", "The reaction requires an enzyme, phosphoglucose isomerase, to proceed.", "This reaction is freely reversible under normal cell conditions.", "However, it is often driven forward because of a low concentration of F6P, which is constantly consumed during the next step of glycolysis.", "Under conditions of high F6P concentration, this reaction readily runs in reverse.", "This phenomenon can be explained through Le Chatelier's Principle.", "Isomerization to a keto sugar is necessary for carbanion stabilization in the fourth reaction step (below).The energy expenditure of another ATP in this step is justified in 2 ways: The glycolytic process (up to this step) becomes irreversible, and the energy supplied destabilizes the molecule.", "Because the reaction catalyzed by phosphofructokinase 1 (PFK-1) is coupled to the hydrolysis of ATP (an energetically favorable step) it is, in essence, irreversible, and a different pathway must be used to do the reverse conversion during gluconeogenesis.", "This makes the reaction a key regulatory point (see below).Furthermore, the second phosphorylation event is necessary to allow the formation of two charged groups (rather than only one) in the subsequent step of glycolysis, ensuring the prevention of free diffusion of substrates out of the cell.The same reaction can also be catalyzed by pyrophosphate-dependent phosphofructokinase ('''PFP''' or '''PPi-PFK'''), which is found in most plants, some bacteria, archea, and protists, but not in animals.", "This enzyme uses pyrophosphate (PPi) as a phosphate donor instead of ATP.", "It is a reversible reaction, increasing the flexibility of glycolytic metabolism.", "A rarer ADP-dependent PFK enzyme variant has been identified in archaean species.", "''Cofactors:'' Mg2+Destabilizing the molecule in the previous reaction allows the hexose ring to be split by aldolase into two triose sugars: dihydroxyacetone phosphate (a ketose), and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (an aldose).", "There are two classes of aldolases: class I aldolases, present in animals and plants, and class II aldolases, present in fungi and bacteria; the two classes use different mechanisms in cleaving the ketose ring.Electrons delocalized in the carbon-carbon bond cleavage associate with the alcohol group.", "The resulting carbanion is stabilized by the structure of the carbanion itself via resonance charge distribution and by the presence of a charged ion prosthetic group.Triosephosphate isomerase rapidly interconverts dihydroxyacetone phosphate with glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate ('''GADP''') that proceeds further into glycolysis.", "This is advantageous, as it directs dihydroxyacetone phosphate down the same pathway as glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate, simplifying regulation.===Pay-off phase===The second half of glycolysis is known as the pay-off phase, characterised by a net gain of the energy-rich molecules ATP and NADH.", "Since glucose leads to two triose sugars in the preparatory phase, each reaction in the pay-off phase occurs twice per glucose molecule.", "This yields 2 NADH molecules and 4 ATP molecules, leading to a net gain of 2 NADH molecules and 2 ATP molecules from the glycolytic pathway per glucose.The aldehyde groups of the triose sugars are oxidised, and inorganic phosphate is added to them, forming 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate.The hydrogen is used to reduce two molecules of NAD+, a hydrogen carrier, to give NADH '''+''' H+ for each triose.Hydrogen atom balance and charge balance are both maintained because the phosphate (Pi) group actually exists in the form of a hydrogen phosphate anion (), which dissociates to contribute the extra H+ ion and gives a net charge of -3 on both sides.Here, arsenate (), an anion akin to inorganic phosphate may replace phosphate as a substrate to form 1-arseno-3-phosphoglycerate.", "This, however, is unstable and readily hydrolyzes to form 3-phosphoglycerate, the intermediate in the next step of the pathway.", "As a consequence of bypassing this step, the molecule of ATP generated from 1-3 bisphosphoglycerate in the next reaction will not be made, even though the reaction proceeds.", "As a result, arsenate is an uncoupler of glycolysis.This step is the enzymatic transfer of a phosphate group from 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate to ADP by phosphoglycerate kinase, forming ATP and 3-phosphoglycerate.", "At this step, glycolysis has reached the break-even point: 2 molecules of ATP were consumed, and 2 new molecules have now been synthesized.", "This step, one of the two substrate-level phosphorylation steps, requires ADP; thus, when the cell has plenty of ATP (and little ADP), this reaction does not occur.", "Because ATP decays relatively quickly when it is not metabolized, this is an important regulatory point in the glycolytic pathway.ADP actually exists as ADPMg−, and ATP as ATPMg2−, balancing the charges at −5 both sides.", "''Cofactors:'' Mg2+Phosphoglycerate mutase isomerises 3-phosphoglycerate into 2-phosphoglycerate.Enolase next converts 2-phosphoglycerate to phosphoenolpyruvate.", "This reaction is an elimination reaction involving an E1cB mechanism.", "''Cofactors:'' 2 Mg2+, one \"conformational\" ion to coordinate with the carboxylate group of the substrate, and one \"catalytic\" ion that participates in the dehydration.A final substrate-level phosphorylation now forms a molecule of pyruvate and a molecule of ATP by means of the enzyme pyruvate kinase.", "This serves as an additional regulatory step, similar to the phosphoglycerate kinase step.", "''Cofactors:'' Mg2+=== Biochemical logic ===The existence of more than one point of regulation indicates that intermediates between those points enter and leave the glycolysis pathway by other processes.", "For example, in the first regulated step, hexokinase converts glucose into glucose-6-phosphate.", "Instead of continuing through the glycolysis pathway, this intermediate can be converted into glucose storage molecules, such as glycogen or starch.", "The reverse reaction, breaking down, e.g., glycogen, produces mainly glucose-6-phosphate; very little free glucose is formed in the reaction.", "The glucose-6-phosphate so produced can enter glycolysis ''after'' the first control point.In the second regulated step (the third step of glycolysis), phosphofructokinase converts fructose-6-phosphate into fructose-1,6-bisphosphate, which then is converted into glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate and dihydroxyacetone phosphate.", "The dihydroxyacetone phosphate can be removed from glycolysis by conversion into glycerol-3-phosphate, which can be used to form triglycerides.", "Conversely, triglycerides can be broken down into fatty acids and glycerol; the latter, in turn, can be converted into dihydroxyacetone phosphate, which can enter glycolysis ''after'' the second control point.=== Free energy changes ===+ Concentrations of metabolites in erythrocytes Compound Concentration / mMGlucose5.0Glucose-6-phosphate0.083Fructose-6-phosphate0.014Fructose-1,6-bisphosphate0.031Dihydroxyacetone phosphate0.14Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate0.0191,3-Bisphosphoglycerate0.0012,3-Bisphosphoglycerate4.03-Phosphoglycerate0.122-Phosphoglycerate0.03Phosphoenolpyruvate0.023Pyruvate0.051ATP1.85ADP0.14Pi1.0The change in free energy, Δ''G'', for each step in the glycolysis pathway can be calculated using Δ''G'' = Δ''G''°′ + ''RT''ln ''Q'', where ''Q'' is the reaction quotient.", "This requires knowing the concentrations of the metabolites.", "All of these values are available for erythrocytes, with the exception of the concentrations of NAD+ and NADH.", "The ratio of NAD+ to NADH in the cytoplasm is approximately 1000, which makes the oxidation of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (step 6) more favourable.Using the measured concentrations of each step, and the standard free energy changes, the actual free energy change can be calculated.", "(Neglecting this is very common - the delta G of ATP hydrolysis in cells is not the standard free energy change of ATP hydrolysis quoted in textbooks).+ Change in free energy for each step of glycolysis Step Reaction Δ''G''°′ (kJ/mol) Δ''G'' (kJ/mol) 1 Glucose + ATP4− → Glucose-6-phosphate2− + ADP3− + H+ −16.7 −34 2 Glucose-6-phosphate2− → Fructose-6-phosphate2− 1.67 −2.9 3 Fructose-6-phosphate2− + ATP4− → Fructose-1,6-bisphosphate4− + ADP3− + H+ −14.2 −19 4 Fructose-1,6-bisphosphate4− → Dihydroxyacetone phosphate2− + Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate2− 23.9 −0.23 5 Dihydroxyacetone phosphate2− → Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate2− 7.56 2.4 6 Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate2− + Pi2− + NAD+ → 1,3-Bisphosphoglycerate4− + NADH + H+ 6.30 −1.29 7 1,3-Bisphosphoglycerate4− + ADP3− → 3-Phosphoglycerate3− + ATP4− −18.9 0.09 8 3-Phosphoglycerate3− → 2-Phosphoglycerate3− 4.4 0.83 9 2-Phosphoglycerate3− → Phosphoenolpyruvate3− + H2O 1.8 1.1 10 Phosphoenolpyruvate3− + ADP3− + H+ → Pyruvate− + ATP4− −31.7 −23.0From measuring the physiological concentrations of metabolites in an erythrocyte it seems that about seven of the steps in glycolysis are in equilibrium for that cell type.", "Three of the steps — the ones with large negative free energy changes — are not in equilibrium and are referred to as ''irreversible''; such steps are often subject to regulation.Step 5 in the figure is shown behind the other steps, because that step is a side-reaction that can decrease or increase the concentration of the intermediate glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate.", "That compound is converted to dihydroxyacetone phosphate by the enzyme triose phosphate isomerase, which is a catalytically perfect enzyme; its rate is so fast that the reaction can be assumed to be in equilibrium.", "The fact that Δ''G'' is not zero indicates that the actual concentrations in the erythrocyte are not accurately known." ], [ "Regulation", "The enzymes that catalyse glycolysis are regulated via a range of biological mechanisms in order to control overall flux though the pathway.", "This is vital for both homeostatsis in a static environment, and metabolic adaptation to a changing environment or need.", "The details of regulation for some enzymes are highly conserved between species, whereas others vary widely.# Gene Expression: Firstly, the cellular concentrations of glycolytic enzymes are modulated via regulation of gene expression via transcription factors, with several glycolysis enzymes themselves acting as regulatory protein kinases in the nucleus.# Allosteric inhibition and activation by metabolites: In particular end-product inhibition of regulated enzymes by metabolites such as ATP serves as negative feedback regulation of the pathway.# Allosteric inhibition and activation by Protein-protein interactions (PPI).", "Indeed, some proteins interact with and regulate multiple glycolytic enzymes.# Post-translational modification (PTM).", "In particular, phosphorylation and dephosphorylation is a key mechanism of regulation of pyruvate kinase in the liver.# Localization=== Regulation by insulin in animals ===In animals, regulation of blood glucose levels by the pancreas in conjunction with the liver is a vital part of homeostasis.", "The beta cells in the pancreatic islets are sensitive to the blood glucose concentration.", "A rise in the blood glucose concentration causes them to release insulin into the blood, which has an effect particularly on the liver, but also on fat and muscle cells, causing these tissues to remove glucose from the blood.", "When the blood sugar falls the pancreatic beta cells cease insulin production, but, instead, stimulate the neighboring pancreatic alpha cells to release glucagon into the blood.", "This, in turn, causes the liver to release glucose into the blood by breaking down stored glycogen, and by means of gluconeogenesis.", "If the fall in the blood glucose level is particularly rapid or severe, other glucose sensors cause the release of epinephrine from the adrenal glands into the blood.", "This has the same action as glucagon on glucose metabolism, but its effect is more pronounced.", "In the liver glucagon and epinephrine cause the phosphorylation of the key, regulated enzymes of glycolysis, fatty acid synthesis, cholesterol synthesis, gluconeogenesis, and glycogenolysis.", "Insulin has the opposite effect on these enzymes.", "The phosphorylation and dephosphorylation of these enzymes (ultimately in response to the glucose level in the blood) is the dominant manner by which these pathways are controlled in the liver, fat, and muscle cells.", "Thus the phosphorylation of phosphofructokinase inhibits glycolysis, whereas its dephosphorylation through the action of insulin stimulates glycolysis.=== Regulated Enzymes in Glycolysis ===The three regulatory enzymes are hexokinase (or glucokinase in the liver), phosphofructokinase, and pyruvate kinase.", "The flux through the glycolytic pathway is adjusted in response to conditions both inside and outside the cell.", "The internal factors that regulate glycolysis do so primarily to provide ATP in adequate quantities for the cell's needs.", "The external factors act primarily on the liver, fat tissue, and muscles, which can remove large quantities of glucose from the blood after meals (thus preventing hyperglycemia by storing the excess glucose as fat or glycogen, depending on the tissue type).", "The liver is also capable of releasing glucose into the blood between meals, during fasting, and exercise thus preventing hypoglycemia by means of glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis.", "These latter reactions coincide with the halting of glycolysis in the liver.In addition hexokinase and glucokinase act independently of the hormonal effects as controls at the entry points of glucose into the cells of different tissues.", "Hexokinase responds to the glucose-6-phosphate (G6P) level in the cell, or, in the case of glucokinase, to the blood sugar level in the blood to impart entirely intracellular controls of the glycolytic pathway in different tissues (see below).When glucose has been converted into G6P by hexokinase or glucokinase, it can either be converted to glucose-1-phosphate (G1P) for conversion to glycogen, or it is alternatively converted by glycolysis to pyruvate, which enters the mitochondrion where it is converted into acetyl-CoA and then into citrate.", "Excess citrate is exported from the mitochondrion back into the cytosol, where ATP citrate lyase regenerates acetyl-CoA and oxaloacetate (OAA).", "The acetyl-CoA is then used for fatty acid synthesis and cholesterol synthesis, two important ways of utilizing excess glucose when its concentration is high in blood.", "The regulated enzymes catalyzing these reactions perform these functions when they have been dephosphorylated through the action of insulin on the liver cells.", "Between meals, during fasting, exercise or hypoglycemia, glucagon and epinephrine are released into the blood.", "This causes liver glycogen to be converted back to G6P, and then converted to glucose by the liver-specific enzyme glucose 6-phosphatase and released into the blood.", "Glucagon and epinephrine also stimulate gluconeogenesis, which coverts non-carbohydrate substrates into G6P, which joins the G6P derived from glycogen, or substitutes for it when the liver glycogen store have been depleted.", "This is critical for brain function, since the brain utilizes glucose as an energy source under most conditions.", "The simultaneously phosphorylation of, particularly, phosphofructokinase, but also, to a certain extent pyruvate kinase, prevents glycolysis occurring at the same time as gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis.====Hexokinase and glucokinase====Yeast hexokinase B ()All cells contain the enzyme hexokinase, which catalyzes the conversion of glucose that has entered the cell into glucose-6-phosphate (G6P).", "Since the cell membrane is impervious to G6P, hexokinase essentially acts to transport glucose into the cells from which it can then no longer escape.", "Hexokinase is inhibited by high levels of G6P in the cell.", "Thus the rate of entry of glucose into cells partially depends on how fast G6P can be disposed of by glycolysis, and by glycogen synthesis (in the cells which store glycogen, namely liver and muscles).Glucokinase, unlike hexokinase, is not inhibited by G6P.", "It occurs in liver cells, and will only phosphorylate the glucose entering the cell to form glucose-6-phosphate (G6P), when the glucose in the blood is abundant.", "This being the first step in the glycolytic pathway in the liver, it therefore imparts an additional layer of control of the glycolytic pathway in this organ.==== Phosphofructokinase ====Bacillus stearothermophilus phosphofructokinase ()Phosphofructokinase is an important control point in the glycolytic pathway, since it is one of the irreversible steps and has key allosteric effectors, AMP and fructose 2,6-bisphosphate (F2,6BP).Fructose 2,6-bisphosphate (F2,6BP) is a very potent activator of phosphofructokinase (PFK-1) that is synthesized when F6P is phosphorylated by a second phosphofructokinase (PFK2).", "In the liver, when blood sugar is low and glucagon elevates cAMP, PFK2 is phosphorylated by protein kinase A.", "The phosphorylation inactivates PFK2, and another domain on this protein becomes active as fructose bisphosphatase-2, which converts F2,6BP back to F6P.", "Both glucagon and epinephrine cause high levels of cAMP in the liver.", "The result of lower levels of liver fructose-2,6-bisphosphate is a decrease in activity of phosphofructokinase and an increase in activity of fructose 1,6-bisphosphatase, so that gluconeogenesis (in essence, \"glycolysis in reverse\") is favored.", "This is consistent with the role of the liver in such situations, since the response of the liver to these hormones is to release glucose to the blood.ATP competes with AMP for the allosteric effector site on the PFK enzyme.", "ATP concentrations in cells are much higher than those of AMP, typically 100-fold higher, but the concentration of ATP does not change more than about 10% under physiological conditions, whereas a 10% drop in ATP results in a 6-fold increase in AMP.", "Thus, the relevance of ATP as an allosteric effector is questionable.", "An increase in AMP is a consequence of a decrease in energy charge in the cell.Citrate inhibits phosphofructokinase when tested ''in vitro'' by enhancing the inhibitory effect of ATP.", "However, it is doubtful that this is a meaningful effect ''in vivo'', because citrate in the cytosol is utilized mainly for conversion to acetyl-CoA for fatty acid and cholesterol synthesis.TIGAR, a p53 induced enzyme, is responsible for the regulation of phosphofructokinase and acts to protect against oxidative stress.", "TIGAR is a single enzyme with dual function that regulates F2,6BP.", "It can behave as a phosphatase (fructuose-2,6-bisphosphatase) which cleaves the phosphate at carbon-2 producing F6P.", "It can also behave as a kinase (PFK2) adding a phosphate onto carbon-2 of F6P which produces F2,6BP.", "In humans, the TIGAR protein is encoded by ''C12orf5'' gene.", "The TIGAR enzyme will hinder the forward progression of glycolysis, by creating a build up of fructose-6-phosphate (F6P) which is isomerized into glucose-6-phosphate (G6P).", "The accumulation of G6P will shunt carbons into the pentose phosphate pathway.==== Pyruvate kinase ====Yeast pyruvate kinase ()The final step of glycolysis is catalysed by pyruvate kinase to form pyruvate and another ATP.", "It is regulated by a range of different transcriptional, covalent and non-covalent regulation mechanisms, which can vary widely in different tissues.", "For example, in the liver, pyruvate kinase is regulated based on glucose availability.", "During fasting (no glucose available), glucagon activates protein kinase A which phosphorylates pyruvate kinase to inhibit it.", "An increase in blood sugar leads to secretion of insulin, which activates protein phosphatase 1, leading to dephosphorylation and re-activation of pyruvate kinase.", "These controls prevent pyruvate kinase from being active at the same time as the enzymes that catalyze the reverse reaction (pyruvate carboxylase and phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase), preventing a futile cycle.", "Conversely, the isoform of pyruvate kinasein found in muscle is not affected by protein kinase A (which is activated by adrenaline in that tissue), so that glycolysis remains active in muscles even during fasting." ], [ "Post-glycolysis processes", "The overall process of glycolysis is::Glucose + 2 NAD+ + 2 ADP + 2 Pi → 2 pyruvate + 2 NADH + 2 H+ + 2 ATPIf glycolysis were to continue indefinitely, all of the NAD+ would be used up, and glycolysis would stop.", "To allow glycolysis to continue, organisms must be able to oxidize NADH back to NAD+.", "How this is performed depends on which external electron acceptor is available.===Anoxic regeneration of NAD+===One method of doing this is to simply have the pyruvate do the oxidation; in this process, pyruvate is converted to lactate (the conjugate base of lactic acid) in a process called lactic acid fermentation::Pyruvate + NADH + H+ → lactate + NAD+This process occurs in the bacteria involved in making yogurt (the lactic acid causes the milk to curdle).", "This process also occurs in animals under hypoxic (or partially anaerobic) conditions, found, for example, in overworked muscles that are starved of oxygen.", "In many tissues, this is a cellular last resort for energy; most animal tissue cannot tolerate anaerobic conditions for an extended period of time.Some organisms, such as yeast, convert NADH back to NAD+ in a process called ethanol fermentation.", "In this process, the pyruvate is converted first to acetaldehyde and carbon dioxide, and then to ethanol.Lactic acid fermentation and ethanol fermentation can occur in the absence of oxygen.", "This anaerobic fermentation allows many single-cell organisms to use glycolysis as their only energy source.Anoxic regeneration of NAD+ is only an effective means of energy production during short, intense exercise in vertebrates, for a period ranging from 10 seconds to 2 minutes during a maximal effort in humans.", "(At lower exercise intensities it can sustain muscle activity in diving animals, such as seals, whales and other aquatic vertebrates, for very much longer periods of time.)", "Under these conditions NAD+ is replenished by NADH donating its electrons to pyruvate to form lactate.", "This produces 2 ATP molecules per glucose molecule, or about 5% of glucose's energy potential (38 ATP molecules in bacteria).", "But the speed at which ATP is produced in this manner is about 100 times that of oxidative phosphorylation.", "The pH in the cytoplasm quickly drops when hydrogen ions accumulate in the muscle, eventually inhibiting the enzymes involved in glycolysis.The burning sensation in muscles during hard exercise can be attributed to the release of hydrogen ions during the shift to glucose fermentation from glucose oxidation to carbon dioxide and water, when aerobic metabolism can no longer keep pace with the energy demands of the muscles.", "These hydrogen ions form a part of lactic acid.", "The body falls back on this less efficient but faster method of producing ATP under low oxygen conditions.", "This is thought to have been the primary means of energy production in earlier organisms before oxygen reached high concentrations in the atmosphere between 2000 and 2500 million years ago, and thus would represent a more ancient form of energy production than the aerobic replenishment of NAD+ in cells.The liver in mammals gets rid of this excess lactate by transforming it back into pyruvate under aerobic conditions; see Cori cycle.Fermentation of pyruvate to lactate is sometimes also called \"anaerobic glycolysis\", however, glycolysis ends with the production of pyruvate regardless of the presence or absence of oxygen.In the above two examples of fermentation, NADH is oxidized by transferring two electrons to pyruvate.", "However, anaerobic bacteria use a wide variety of compounds as the terminal electron acceptors in cellular respiration: nitrogenous compounds, such as nitrates and nitrites; sulfur compounds, such as sulfates, sulfites, sulfur dioxide, and elemental sulfur; carbon dioxide; iron compounds; manganese compounds; cobalt compounds; and uranium compounds.===Aerobic regeneration of NAD+ and further catabolism of pyruvate===In aerobic eukaryotes, a complex mechanism has developed to use the oxygen in air as the final electron acceptor, in a process called oxidative phosphorylation.", "Aerobic prokaryotes, which lack mitochondria, use a variety of simpler mechanisms.", "* Firstly, the NADH + H+ generated by glycolysis has to be transferred to the mitochondrion to be oxidized, and thus to regenerate the NAD+ necessary for glycolysis to continue.", "However the inner mitochondrial membrane is impermeable to NADH and NAD+.", "Use is therefore made of two “shuttles” to transport the electrons from NADH across the mitochondrial membrane.", "They are the malate-aspartate shuttle and the glycerol phosphate shuttle.", "In the former the electrons from NADH are transferred to cytosolic oxaloacetate to form malate.", "The malate then traverses the inner mitochondrial membrane into the mitochondrial matrix, where it is reoxidized by NAD+ forming intra-mitochondrial oxaloacetate and NADH.", "The oxaloacetate is then re-cycled to the cytosol via its conversion to aspartate which is readily transported out of the mitochondrion.", "In the glycerol phosphate shuttle electrons from cytosolic NADH are transferred to dihydroxyacetone to form glycerol-3-phosphate which readily traverses the outer mitochondrial membrane.", "Glycerol-3-phosphate is then reoxidized to dihydroxyacetone, donating its electrons to FAD instead of NAD+.", "This reaction takes place on the inner mitochondrial membrane, allowing FADH2 to donate its electrons directly to coenzyme Q (ubiquinone) which is part of the electron transport chain which ultimately transfers electrons to molecular oxygen , with the formation of water, and the release of energy eventually captured in the form of ATP.", "* The glycolytic end-product, pyruvate (plus NAD+) is converted to acetyl-CoA, and NADH + H+ within the mitochondria in a process called pyruvate decarboxylation.", "* The resulting acetyl-CoA enters the citric acid cycle (or Krebs Cycle), where the acetyl group of the acetyl-CoA is converted into carbon dioxide by two decarboxylation reactions with the formation of yet more intra-mitochondrial NADH + H+.", "* The intra-mitochondrial NADH + H+ is oxidized to NAD+ by the electron transport chain, using oxygen as the final electron acceptor to form water.", "The energy released during this process is used to create a hydrogen ion (or proton) gradient across the inner membrane of the mitochondrion.", "* Finally, the proton gradient is used to produce about 2.5 ATP for every NADH + H+ oxidized in a process called oxidative phosphorylation.===Conversion of carbohydrates into fatty acids and cholesterol===The pyruvate produced by glycolysis is an important intermediary in the conversion of carbohydrates into fatty acids and cholesterol.", "This occurs via the conversion of pyruvate into acetyl-CoA in the mitochondrion.", "However, this acetyl CoA needs to be transported into cytosol where the synthesis of fatty acids and cholesterol occurs.", "This cannot occur directly.", "To obtain cytosolic acetyl-CoA, citrate (produced by the condensation of acetyl CoA with oxaloacetate) is removed from the citric acid cycle and carried across the inner mitochondrial membrane into the cytosol.", "There it is cleaved by ATP citrate lyase into acetyl-CoA and oxaloacetate.", "The oxaloacetate is returned to mitochondrion as malate (and then back into oxaloacetate to transfer more acetyl-CoA out of the mitochondrion).", "The cytosolic acetyl-CoA can be carboxylated by acetyl-CoA carboxylase into malonyl CoA, the first committed step in the synthesis of fatty acids, or it can be combined with acetoacetyl-CoA to form 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA (HMG-CoA) which is the rate limiting step controlling the synthesis of cholesterol.", "Cholesterol can be used as is, as a structural component of cellular membranes, or it can be used to synthesize the steroid hormones, bile salts, and vitamin D.===Conversion of pyruvate into oxaloacetate for the citric acid cycle===Pyruvate molecules produced by glycolysis are actively transported across the inner mitochondrial membrane, and into the matrix where they can either be oxidized and combined with coenzyme A to form , acetyl-CoA, and NADH, or they can be carboxylated (by pyruvate carboxylase) to form oxaloacetate.", "This latter reaction \"fills up\" the amount of oxaloacetate in the citric acid cycle, and is therefore an anaplerotic reaction (from the Greek meaning to \"fill up\"), increasing the cycle's capacity to metabolize acetyl-CoA when the tissue's energy needs (e.g.", "in heart and skeletal muscle) are suddenly increased by activity.In the citric acid cycle all the intermediates (e.g.", "citrate, iso-citrate, alpha-ketoglutarate, succinate, fumarate, malate and oxaloacetate) are regenerated during each turn of the cycle.", "Adding more of any of these intermediates to the mitochondrion therefore means that that additional amount is retained within the cycle, increasing all the other intermediates as one is converted into the other.", "Hence the addition of oxaloacetate greatly increases the amounts of all the citric acid intermediates, thereby increasing the cycle's capacity to metabolize acetyl CoA, converting its acetate component into and water, with the release of enough energy to form 11 ATP and 1 GTP molecule for each additional molecule of acetyl CoA that combines with oxaloacetate in the cycle.To cataplerotically remove oxaloacetate from the citric cycle, malate can be transported from the mitochondrion into the cytoplasm, decreasing the amount of oxaloacetate that can be regenerated.", "Furthermore, citric acid intermediates are constantly used to form a variety of substances such as the purines, pyrimidines and porphyrins." ], [ "Intermediates for other pathways", "This article concentrates on the catabolic role of glycolysis with regard to converting potential chemical energy to usable chemical energy during the oxidation of glucose to pyruvate.", "Many of the metabolites in the glycolytic pathway are also used by anabolic pathways, and, as a consequence, flux through the pathway is critical to maintain a supply of carbon skeletons for biosynthesis.The following metabolic pathways are all strongly reliant on glycolysis as a source of metabolites: and many more.", "* Pentose phosphate pathway, which begins with the dehydrogenation of glucose-6-phosphate, the first intermediate to be produced by glycolysis, produces various pentose sugars, and NADPH for the synthesis of fatty acids and cholesterol.", "* Glycogen synthesis also starts with glucose-6-phosphate at the beginning of the glycolytic pathway.", "* Glycerol, for the formation of triglycerides and phospholipids, is produced from the glycolytic intermediate glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate.", "* Various post-glycolytic pathways::* Fatty acid synthesis:* Cholesterol synthesis:* The citric acid cycle which in turn leads to:::*Amino acid synthesis::*Nucleotide synthesis::*Tetrapyrrole synthesisAlthough gluconeogenesis and glycolysis share many intermediates the one is not functionally a branch or tributary of the other.", "There are two regulatory steps in both pathways which, when active in the one pathway, are automatically inactive in the other.", "The two processes can therefore not be simultaneously active.", "Indeed, if both sets of reactions were highly active at the same time the net result would be the hydrolysis of four high energy phosphate bonds (two ATP and two GTP) per reaction cycle.NAD+ is the oxidizing agent in glycolysis, as it is in most other energy yielding metabolic reactions (e.g.", "beta-oxidation of fatty acids, and during the citric acid cycle).", "The NADH thus produced is primarily used to ultimately transfer electrons to to produce water, or, when is not available, to produced compounds such as lactate or ethanol (see ''Anoxic regeneration of NAD+'' above).", "NADH is rarely used for synthetic processes, the notable exception being gluconeogenesis.", "During fatty acid and cholesterol synthesis the reducing agent is NADPH.", "This difference exemplifies a general principle that NADPH is consumed during biosynthetic reactions, whereas NADH is generated in energy-yielding reactions.", "The source of the NADPH is two-fold.", "When malate is oxidatively decarboxylated by “NADP+-linked malic enzyme\" pyruvate, and NADPH are formed.", "NADPH is also formed by the pentose phosphate pathway which converts glucose into ribose, which can be used in synthesis of nucleotides and nucleic acids, or it can be catabolized to pyruvate." ], [ "Glycolysis in disease", "=== Diabetes ===Cellular uptake of glucose occurs in response to insulin signals, and glucose is subsequently broken down through glycolysis, lowering blood sugar levels.", "However, the low insulin levels seen in diabetes result in hyperglycemia, where glucose levels in the blood rise and glucose is not properly taken up by cells.", "Hepatocytes further contribute to this hyperglycemia through gluconeogenesis.", "Glycolysis in hepatocytes controls hepatic glucose production, and when glucose is overproduced by the liver without having a means of being broken down by the body, hyperglycemia results.=== Genetic diseases ===Glycolytic mutations are generally rare due to importance of the metabolic pathway; the majority of occurring mutations result in an inability of the cell to respire, and therefore cause the death of the cell at an early stage.", "However, some mutations (glycogen storage diseases and other inborn errors of carbohydrate metabolism) are seen with one notable example being pyruvate kinase deficiency, leading to chronic hemolytic anemia.=== Cancer ===Malignant tumor cells perform glycolysis at a rate that is ten times faster than their noncancerous tissue counterparts.", "During their genesis, limited capillary support often results in hypoxia (decreased O2 supply) within the tumor cells.", "Thus, these cells rely on anaerobic metabolic processes such as glycolysis for ATP (adenosine triphosphate).", "Some tumor cells overexpress specific glycolytic enzymes which result in higher rates of glycolysis.", "Often these enzymes are Isoenzymes, of traditional glycolysis enzymes, that vary in their susceptibility to traditional feedback inhibition.", "The increase in glycolytic activity ultimately counteracts the effects of hypoxia by generating sufficient ATP from this anaerobic pathway.", "This phenomenon was first described in 1930 by Otto Warburg and is referred to as the Warburg effect.", "The Warburg hypothesis claims that cancer is primarily caused by dysfunctionality in mitochondrial metabolism, rather than because of the uncontrolled growth of cells.A number of theories have been advanced to explain the Warburg effect.", "One such theory suggests that the increased glycolysis is a normal protective process of the body and that malignant change could be primarily caused by energy metabolism.This high glycolysis rate has important medical applications, as high aerobic glycolysis by malignant tumors is utilized clinically to diagnose and monitor treatment responses of cancers by imaging uptake of 2-18F-2-deoxyglucose (FDG) (a radioactive modified hexokinase substrate) with positron emission tomography (PET).There is ongoing research to affect mitochondrial metabolism and treat cancer by reducing glycolysis and thus starving cancerous cells in various new ways, including a ketogenic diet." ], [ "Interactive pathway map", "The diagram below shows human protein names.", "Names in other organisms may be different and the number of isozymes (such as HK1, HK2, ...) is likely to be different too." ], [ "Alternative nomenclature", "Some of the metabolites in glycolysis have alternative names and nomenclature.", "In part, this is because some of them are common to other pathways, such as the Calvin cycle.This articleAlternative1GlucoseGlcDextrose2Glucose-6-phosphateG6P3Fructose-6-phosphateF6P4 Fructose-1,6-bisphosphateF1,6BPFructose 1,6-diphosphateFBP; FDP; F1,6DP5Dihydroxyacetone phosphateDHAPGlycerone phosphate6Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphateGADP3-PhosphoglyceraldehydePGAL; G3P; GALP; GAP; TP7 1,3-Bisphosphoglycerate1,3BPGGlycerate-1,3-bisphosphate,glycerate-1,3-diphosphate,1,3-diphosphoglyceratePGAP; BPG; DPG83-Phosphoglycerate3PGGlycerate-3-phosphatePGA; GP9 2-Phosphoglycerate2PGGlycerate-2-phosphate10PhosphoenolpyruvatePEP11 PyruvatePyrPyruvic acid conjugate base" ], [ "Structure of glycolysis components in Fischer projections and polygonal model", "The intermediates of glycolysis depicted in Fischer projections show the chemical changing step by step.", "Such image can be compared to polygonal model representation.", "Another comparation of Fischer projections and Poligonal Model in glycolysis is shown in a video.", "Video animations in the same channel in YouTube can be seen for another metabolic pathway (Krebs Cycle) and the representation and applying of Polygonal Model in Organic Chemistry" ], [ "See also", "* Carbohydrate catabolism* Citric acid cycle* Cori cycle* Fermentation (biochemistry)* Gluconeogenesis* Glycolytic oscillation* Glycogenoses (glycogen storage diseases)* Inborn errors of carbohydrate metabolism* Pentose phosphate pathway* Pyruvate decarboxylation* Triose kinase" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* A Detailed Glycolysis Animation provided by IUBMB ( Adobe Flash Required)* The Glycolytic enzymes in Glycolysis at RCSB PDB* Glycolytic cycle with animations at wdv.com* Metabolism, Cellular Respiration and Photosynthesis - The Virtual Library of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology and Cell Biology* The chemical logic behind glycolysis at ufp.pt* Expasy biochemical pathways poster at ExPASy* * ''metpath'': Interactive representation of glycolysis" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gary North (economist)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Gary Kilgore North''' (February 11, 1942 – February 24, 2022) was an American writer, Austrian School economic historian, and leading figure in the Christian reconstructionist movement.", "North authored or coauthored over fifty books on topics including Reformed Protestant theology, economics, and history.", "He was an Associated Scholar of the Mises Institute.He is known for his advocacy of biblical or \"radically libertarian\" free-market economics and also as a theorist of dominionism and theonomy.", "North often invoked the Protestant work ethic to advance these views.", "He supported the establishment and enforcement of Bible-based religious law, a view which put him in conflict with other libertarians.", "He believed that capital punishment is appropriate punishment for male homosexuality, adultery, blasphemy, abortion, and witchcraft." ], [ "Early life and education", "North was born in San Pedro, California, on February 11, 1942, and grew up in Southern California, the son of FBI special agent Samuel W. North Jr. and his wife Peggy.", "North converted to Christianity in high school and, after attending a rally where anti-communist activist Fred Schwarz spoke, began frequenting conservative book-stores in the Los Angeles area during his college years.", "Between 1961 and 1963, while an undergraduate student at University of California, Riverside, North became acquainted with the works of Wilhelm Röpke, Rose Wilder Lane, Cornelius Van Til, Austrian School economists Eugen Böhm von Bawerk, Ludwig von Mises, F. A. Hayek and Murray Rothbard, and also read the works of Calvinist philosopher Rousas John Rushdoony.", "Later he married Rushdoony's daughter, collaborated with him and eulogized Rushdoony in a blog post on LewRockwell.com." ], [ "Career", "Starting in 1967, North became a contributor to the libertarian journal ''The Freeman'' where he had first read the work of Ludwig von Mises and Friedrich Hayek.", "In the 1970s, he was the director of seminars for the Foundation for Economic Education (FEE).", "North received a PhD in history from the University of California, Riverside in 1972.His dissertation was ''The Concept of Property in Puritan New England, 1630–1720''.He served as research assistant for libertarian Republican Congressman Ron Paul in Paul's first term (1976).", "North was a regular contributor to the LewRockwell.com website, which lists an extensive archive of his articles there.", "North's own website, Garynorth.com, posts commentary on religious, social, and political issues and offers paid access to investment advice and other premium content.", "North also published a blog called ''Deliverance from Debt'' which provided advice about relief from debt.", "Another North website, \"Free Christian Curriculum\", seeks to provide a free Christian homeschooling curriculum for children from age 3 through grade 12.===Ron Paul curriculum===In addition, North offered the ''Ron Paul Curriculum'', a home school online curriculum associated with former U.S.", "Congressman Ron Paul, which is free for grades K–5 and available to paid members from grades 6–12.As director of curriculum development, North outlined four goals of the educational project: providing a \"detailed study\" of the \"history of liberty\"; teaching a \"thorough understanding of Austrian economics\"; serving as \"an academically rigorous curriculum that is tied to primary source\" material rather than textbooks; and teaching \"the Biblical principle of self-government and personal responsibility\", which North called \"the foundation of the market economy\".===Christian, Bible-based economic methodology===North wrote that the \"starting point for all economic analysis\" lies in accepting that \"God has cursed the earth\" in the Book of Genesis 3:17–19; this \"made scarcity an inescapable fact of man's existence\".", "In his 1982 ''Dominion Covenant: Genesis'', North wrote that mainstream modern economics, whether libertarian, conservative or liberal, is \"in disintegration\" because it is \"humanist\" in its approach and consequently rejects the notion that \"biblical revelation\" is necessary for sound economic theory.", "He also wrote that economics \"must begin with the Biblical story of creation\" if it is not to collapse into \"total chaos\".===Proposed \"Christian theocratic\" political and social order===A 2011 article in ''The New York Times'' identified North as a central figure in Christian reconstructionism, the philosophy which advocates the institution of \"a Christian theocracy under Old Testament law as the best form of government, and a radically libertarian one.\"", "North wrote: \"I certainly believe in biblical theocracy.", "\"The article also described North as \"the leading proponent of 'Christian economics,' which applies biblical principles to economic issues and the free market.\"", "North supported the abolition of the fractional-reserve banking system and a return to the gold standard.", "According to the ''Times'', North believed that the Bible forbids inflation, welfare programs, and also writes that \"God would prefer gold money to paper\".====Range of capital offenses====North favored capital punishment for a range of offenders, including murderers, blasphemers, children who curse their parents, male homosexuals, and other people who commit some of the acts deemed capital offenses in the Old Testament.", "(North believed that the death penalty for sabbath breaking and some other crimes no longer applies.)", "North stated that the biblical admonition to kill homosexuals in the Book of Leviticus is God's \"law and its morally appropriate sanction\", arguing that \"God is indeed a homophobe\" who \"hates the practice of homosexuality and those who practice it\" and \"hates the sin and hates the sinner.", "\"North said that capital punishment should be carried out by stoning, because it is the biblically approved method of execution and it is cheap due to the plentiful and convenient supply of stones.====Religious liberty====North said: \"We must use the doctrine of religious liberty to gain independence for Christian schools until we train up a generation of people who know that there is no religious neutrality, no neutral law, no neutral education, and no neutral civil government.", "Then they will get busy in constructing a Bible-based social, political and religious order which finally denies the religious liberty of the enemies of God.", "\"Adam C. English suggests that this quote implies that \"religious liberty is a useful tool to Christians in the present, yet is ultimately to be denied to anyone who is not Christian once the Christians are in power\".", "English argues that although this may seem inconsistent (advocating religious liberty but denying the reality of the notion), North and his fellow reconstructionists understand \"liberty\" in a theological sense.", "According to the reconstructionists, \"anyone outside of the Christian faith is in bondage,\" and so \"government by rigorous theonomy is not oppressive but liberating\".===Y2K===North was also a prominent promoter of exaggerated predictions of computer failure from the Year 2000 problem (Y2K) during the late 1990s, earning him the nickname \"Scary Gary.\"", "His main website became dominated by links to extremist predictions for Y2K damage, including widespread collapse of governments and financial institutions.", "North declared on his home page that Y2K \"may be the biggest problem that the modern world has ever faced\" and labeled 2000 as \"The Year the Earth Stands Still\".Critics said the motivation for North's predictions was linked to his Christian reconstructionist aims, which require widespread societal collapse to set the stage for a new theocratic order.", "North made the connection explicit in communications with fellow reconstructionists: \"The Y2K crisis is systemic.", "It cannot possibly be fixed.", "I think it will wipe out every national government in the West.", "Not just modify them—destroy them...That is what I have wanted all my adult life.", "In my view, Y2K is our deliverance.\"" ], [ "Death", "North was diagnosed with prostate cancer in 2017, and underwent treatment for about five years.", "He died in Dallas, Georgia, on February 24, 2022, at the age of 80." ], [ "Publications", "===Institute for Christian Economics===North was the founder of the Institute for Christian Economics (ICE), which publishes online books and magazines focusing on Christian ethics.", "ICE, along with Dominion Press in Tyler, Texas, are important sources for reconstructionist publications.===Books and newsletters===North authored or coauthored more than fifty books, many of which are available for free download.", "For many years, North was the author and editor of the newsletter ''The Remnant Review''.", "He also provided ''Gary North's Reality Check'', a free e-newsletter.===Documentary and educational film===* ''Unknown History of the 20th Century'' (DVD) (2006)" ], [ "See also", "* Christian right* Dominion theology* Neo-Calvinism* Paleolibertarianism* Right-libertarianism" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * Biography and works by North at Mises Institute* Digitized books by Gary North at The Online Books Page" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Guernica" ], [ "Introduction", "Picasso painting of the same name transferred to the city (it is currently exhibited in the Museo Reina Sofía).", "'''Guernica''' (, ), officially '''Gernika''' () in Basque, is a town in the province of Biscay, in the Autonomous Community of the Basque Country, Spain.", "The town of Guernica is one part (along with neighbouring Lumo) of the municipality of '''Gernika-Lumo''' (), whose population is 16,224 .On April 26, 1937, Guernica was bombed by Nazi Germany's Condor Legion, in one of the first aerial bombings.", "The attack inspired Pablo Picasso's painting ''Guernica'', depicting his outrage at the attack." ], [ "Location", "An aerial view looking south.The village is situated in the region of Busturialdea, in the valley of the Oka river.", "The river ends in an estuary that gives its name to the village of Guernika.", "Its mouth is known as Urdaibai's estuary's heart.", "Gernika borders on the following townships: * North: Forua, Kortezubi and Arratzu.", "* East: Ajangiz* South: Muxika* West: Errigoiti" ], [ "History", "===1366-1936===The town of Guernica was founded by Tello Alfonso, Lord of Biscay, on April 28, 1366, at the intersection of the road from Bermeo to Durango with the road from Bilbao to Elantxobe and Lekeitio.", "The strategic importance of the site was increased by the fact that it lay on a major river estuary, where vessels could dock at the port of Suso.In time, it took on the typical shape of a Basque town, comprising a series of parallel streets (Goienkale, Azokekale, Artekale and Barrenkale; respectively: ‘upper, market, between, lower roads’) and a transverse street called Santa María, with a church at each end of the built-up area.Life in the town became rigidly structured, with the aim being to preserve the privileges of the dominant middle classes.", "This pattern continued practically unaltered until the late 17th century.On a small hillock in the town, stands the Meeting House and the Tree of Gernika.", "By ancient tradition, Basques, and indeed other peoples in Medieval Europe, held assemblies under a tree, usually an oak, to discuss matters affecting the community.In Biscay, each administrative district (known as a merindad) had its appointed tree, but over the centuries, the Tree of Guernica acquired particular importance.", "It stood in the parish of Lumo, on a site known as Gernikazarra, beside a small shrine.The laws of Biscay continued to be drawn up under this tree until 1876, with each town and village in the province sending two representatives to the sessions, known as General Assemblies.", "This early form of democracy was recorded by the philosopher Rousseau, by the poet William Wordsworth, by the dramatist Tirso de Molina and by the composer Iparragirre, who wrote the piece called Gernikako Arbola (\"The Tree of Gernika\" in Basque).When the Domain of Biscay was incorporated into the kingdom of Castile, the king of Castile visited Guernica and swore an oath under the Tree promising to uphold the ''fueros'' or local laws of Biscay.", "The oath of King Ferdinand, known as the \"Catholic Monarch\", on June 30, 1476, is depicted in a painting by popularly known as \"''El besamanos''\" (\"The Royal audience\").", "On July 3, 1875, during the Carlist Wars, the pretender to the throne, Don Carlos, also visited Guernica and swore the oath.", "Throughout the 19th century, there were frequent meetings under the Tree, including both General Assemblies and other political events.By the 18th century, there was a square at the centre of the town, flanked by the town hall, a public gaol housing prisoners from all over the Lordship of Biscay, a hospital and a poor-house for local people.", "Day-to-day life comprised agriculture (growing of cereals, vegetable and fruit), crafts (menders, tailors, cobblers, flax manufacturers) and trade (transportation and sale of goods and produce).This was also a time of continual conflicts with the neighbouring parish of Lumo over disputed land.", "These disputes were not finally settled until 1882, when the two parishes joined to form Gernika-Lumo.The first industrial factories were set up in the early years of the 20th century.", "This encouraged population growth, and the town grew from 4,500 inhabitants in 1920 to 6,000 in 1936.===Civil War: 1937 bombing===On April 26, 1937, during the Spanish Civil War, Guernica was the scene of a massive aerial bombing attack by the Condor Legion of Nazi Germany's ''Luftwaffe'' and the Italian Aviazione Legionaria.", "According to official Basque figures, 1,654 civilians were killed, but German sources report a round figure of 300 civilians killed in the bombing, according to the German ''Bundeswehr Magazine'' (published in April 2007, page 94).", "The raid was requested by Francisco Franco to aid in his overthrowing the Basque Government and the Spanish Republican government.", "The town was devastated, though the Biscayan assembly and the Oak of Guernica survived.", "The Bombing of Guernica, which went on continuously for three hours, is considered the beginning of the Luftwaffe doctrine of terror bombing civilian targets in order to demoralize the enemy.====In art====Pablo Picasso painted his ''Guernica'' painting to commemorate the horrors of the bombing and René Iché made a violent sculpture the day after the bombing.", "It has inspired musical compositions by Octavio Vazquez (''Gernika'' piano trio), René-Louis Baron, Lenny White, and Mike Batt (performed by Katie Melua), and poems by Paul Eluard (''Victory of Guernica''), and Uys Krige (''Nag van die Fascistiese Bomwerpers''; English translation from the Afrikaans: ''Night of the Fascist Bombers'').", "There is also a short film from 1950, by Alain Resnais, titled ''Guernica''.Celebrations were staged in 1966 to mark the 600th anniversary of the founding of the town.", "As part of these celebrations, a statue of Count Tello, made by local sculptor Agustín Herranz, was set up in the Fueros Square.===21st century===As of 2009, Gernika-Lumo had 16,244 inhabitants.", "It is a town with a prosperous service sector, and is also home to industrial companies, as well as good cultural and educational amenities." ], [ "Cultural importance", "Santa María ChurchtholosGuernica is historically the seat of the parliament of the province of Biscay, whose executive branch is located in nearby Bilbao.In prior centuries, Lumo had been the meeting place of the traditional Biscayan assembly, Urduña and chartered towns like Guernica were under the direct authority of the Lord of Biscay, and Enkarterri and the Durango area had separate assemblies.", "All would hold assemblies under local big trees.", "As time passed, the role of separate assemblies was superseded by the single assembly in Guernica, and by 1512, its oak, known as the Gernikako Arbola, became symbolic of the traditional rights of the Basque people as a whole.The trees are always renewed from their own acorns.", "One of these trees (the \"Old Tree\") lived until the 19th century, and may be seen, as a dry stump, near the assembly house.", "A tree planted in 1860 to replace it died in 2004 and was in turn replaced; the sapling that had been chosen to become the official Oak of Guernica is also sick so the tree will not be replaced until the earth around the site has been restored to health.A hermitage was built beside the Gernikako Arbola to double as an assembly place, followed by the current house of assembly (''Biltzar Jauregia'' in Basque), built in 1826." ], [ "Symbol for peace", "On April 26, 1937, during the Spanish Civil War, the town was razed to the ground by German aircraft belonging to the Condor Legion, sent by Hitler to support Franco's troops.", "For almost four hours bombs rained down on Guernica in an \"experiment\" for the blitzkrieg tactics and bombing of civilians seen in later wars.In 1987 the 50th anniversary of the bombing was commemorated as the town hosted the Preliminary Congress of the World Association of Martyr Cities.", "The full congress was held subsequently in Madrid, bringing together representatives of cities all over the world.", "Since then, Gernika-Lumo has been a member of this association.", "1988 saw the setting up of the monument ''Gure Aitaren Etxea'', by Basque sculptor Eduardo Chillida, and in 1990 ''Large Figure in a Shelter'', by British sculptor Henry Moore, was erected beside it.", "These monuments are symbolic of Gernika-Lumo as a city of peace.As part of the \"Symbol for Peace\" movement, Gernika has twinned with several towns, including Berga (Catalonia – 1986), Pforzheim (Germany – 1988) and Boise, Idaho (United States – 1993).", "The twinning agreements include co-operation in the fields of culture, education and industry." ], [ "Market day", "Guernica marketplaceThere is a popular saying in Guernica which runs as follows: \"lunes gerniqués, golperik ez\".", "A combination of both local languages (Castillian and Basque) into a single sentence, this translates roughly as \"not a stroke of work gets done on Mondays\".", "The Monday market day has for decades been considered as a holiday in the town.People would flock to Guernica not just from the immediate vicinity, but from all over the province, so that the town was packed.", "They came not just to buy or sell at the produce market, but also to eat at the town's renowned restaurants and afterwards perhaps to watch a pelota game at the local court.", "The Monday market has been fulfilling its age-old function of bringing people together since the times when people could not afford to travel far and it provided them with a chance to socialise.", "The bombing of Guernica by Nazi Germany's ''Luftwaffe'' and the Italian Aviazione Legionaria was deliberately chosen to occur on a Monday (April 26, 1937), because it was known that the Basque people who lived outside of Guernica proper would travel into town for the Market Day, thus affording the pilots of the German and Italian aircraft the opportunity to murder as many people as possible." ], [ "Sports", "A cesta-punta playerJai alai (cesta-punta) is a form of pelota.", "The Guernica jai alai court is the biggest operational court of its type in the world.", "It was designed by Secundino Zuano, one of Spain's leading architects of the 20th century and first opened in 1963.It is acknowledged by players of the game to be the world's finest court.Bare-handed pelota games are held at the Santanape court.", "This is the most popular form of the sport." ], [ "Twin towns – sister cities", "* Berga, Catalonia, Spain* Pforzheim, Germany* Hiroshima, Japan * Boise, Idaho, United States* Irpin, Ukraine (2022)" ], [ "Notable people", "* Manuel Allendesalazar y Muñoz de Salazar (1856-1923), conservative politician* Teodoro de Arana y Beláustegui (1858-1945), Carlist politician* Rafael Iriondo (1918-2016), footballer and manager* Mauricio Ugartemendia Lauzirika (1934-2022), footballer* Sofía Gandarias (1957-2016), painter* Fernando Lamikiz Garai (born 1959), lawyer, economist and sports manager* Enrique Guerrikagoitia (born 1967), cyclist* Ainhoa Ibarra Astellara (born 1968), alpine skier* Roberto Laiseka (born 1969), cyclist* Yolanda Alzola (born 1970), actress* Joane Somarriba (born 1972), cyclist* Gorka Gerrikagoitia (born 1973), cyclist* Rubén Oarbeascoa (born 1975), cyclist* Lander Euba (born 1977), cyclist* Andoni Lafuente (born 1985), cyclist* Pello Bilbao (born 1990), cyclist* Gorka Larrucea (born 1993), footballer* Koldo Obieta (born 1993), footballer* Iker Amorrortu (born 1995), footballer* Asier Villalibre (born 1997), footballer" ], [ "See also", "* Municipal elections in Gernika-Lumo* Bombing of Guernica" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Official site , in English, Basque and Spanish* Writer and filmmaker Begonya Plaza interviewed survivors, and people of importance in Guernica in 1987 in documentary \"GERNICA LIVES\"* Painter and art educator Dorothy Koppelman writes \"Art Opposes Injustice: Picasso’s Guernica\"* GERNIKA-LUMO in the Bernardo Estornés Lasa – Auñamendi Encyclopedia (Euskomedia Fundazioa) * Web page about Gernika-Lumo with great photos of it." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gerrit Rietveld" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Gerrit Rietveld''' (24 June 1888 – 25 June 1964) was a Dutch furniture designer and architect." ], [ "Early life", "Rietveld was born in Utrecht on 24 June 1888 as the son of a joiner.", "He left school at 11 to be apprenticed to his father and enrolled at night school before working as a draughtsman for C. J. Begeer, a jeweller in Utrecht, from 1906 to 1911." ], [ "De Stijl", "By the time he opened his own furniture workshop in 1917, Rietveld had taught himself drawing, painting and model-making.", "He afterwards set up in business as a cabinet-maker.Red and Blue Chair in the Museum für Angewandte Kunst in CologneRietveld designed his Red and Blue Chair in 1917 which has become an iconic piece of modern furniture.", "Hoping that much of his furniture would eventually be mass-produced rather than handcrafted, Rietveld aimed for simplicity in construction.", "In 1918, he started his own furniture factory, and changed the chair's colours after becoming influenced by the ''De Stijl'' movement, of which he became a member in 1919, the same year in which he became an architect.", "The contacts that he made at ''De Stijl'' gave him the opportunity to exhibit abroad as well.", "In 1923, Walter Gropius invited Rietveld to exhibit at the Bauhaus.Rietveld Schröder House in Utrecht in 2010He built the Rietveld Schröder House, in 1924, in close collaboration with the owner Truus Schröder-Schräder.", "Built in Utrecht on the Prins Hendriklaan 50, the house has a conventional ground floor, but is radical on the top floor, lacking fixed walls but instead relying on sliding walls to create and change living spaces.", "The house has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 2000.His involvement in the Schröder House exerted a strong influence on Truus' daughter, Han Schröder, who became one of the first female architects in the Netherlands." ], [ "''Nieuwe Zakelijkheid''", "Interior of the Van Gogh Museum in Amsterdam in 2009Rietveld broke with ''De Stijl'' in 1928 and became associated with a more functionalist style of architecture, known as either ''Nieuwe Zakelijkheid'' or ''Nieuwe Bouwen''.", "The same year he joined the ''Congrès Internationaux d'Architecture Moderne''.", "From the late 1920s he was concerned with social housing, inexpensive production methods, new materials, prefabrication and standardisation.", "In 1927 he was already experimenting with prefabricated concrete slabs, a very unusual material at that time.", "In the 1920s and 1930s, however, all his commissions came from private individuals, and it was not until the 1950s that he was able to put his progressive ideas about social housing into practice, in projects in Utrecht and Reeuwijk.Zig-Zag Chair in the Carnegie Museum of Art in PittsburghRietveld designed the Zig-Zag Chair in 1934 and started the design of the Van Gogh Museum in Amsterdam, which was finished after his death." ], [ "De Stijl revival", "Dutch pavilion for the 1953 Venice Biennale in 2019In 1951 Rietveld designed a retrospective exhibition about ''De Stijl'' which was held in Amsterdam, Venice and New York.", "Interest in his work revived as a result.", "In subsequent years he was given many commissions, including the Dutch pavilion for the Venice Biennale (1953), the art academies in Amsterdam and Arnhem, and the press room for the UNESCO building in Paris.", "Designed for the display of small sculptures at the Third International Sculpture Exhibition in Arnhem's Sonsbeek Park in 1955, Rietveld's 'Sonsbeek Pavilion' was rebuilt at the Kröller-Müller Museum in 1965.Due to irreparable damages caused by regular decay, it was once again rebuilt, this time with new materials, in 2010.In order to handle all these projects, in 1961 Rietveld set up a partnership with the architects Johan van Dillen and J. van Tricht built hundreds of homes, many of them in the city of Utrecht.His work was neglected when rationalism came into vogue, but he later benefited from a revival of the style of the 1920s thirty years later." ], [ "Death", "Grave of Gerrit Rietveld Rietveld died on 25 June 1964 in Utrecht.His son Wim Rietveld also became a renowned industrial designer." ], [ "Recognition", "Rietveld had his first retrospective exhibition devoted to his architectural work at the Central Museum, Utrecht, in 1958.When the art academy in Amsterdam became part of the higher professional education system in 1968 and was given the status of an Academy for Fine Arts and Design, the name was changed to the Gerrit Rietveld Academy in honour of Rietveld.", "\"Gerrit Rietveld: A Centenary Exhibition\" at the Barry Friedman Gallery, New York, in 1988 was the first comprehensive presentation of the Dutch architect's original works ever held in the U.S.", "The highlight of a celebratory \"Rietveld Year\" in Utrecht, the exhibition \"Rietveld's Universe\" opened at the Centraal Museum and compared him and his work with famous contemporaries like Wright, Le Corbusier and Mies van der Rohe.Two software tools, both for code review, have been named after Gerrit Rietveld: Gerrit and Rietveld." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Rietveld Schröder Archive on delpher.nl*\" Buildings of Gerrit Rietveld\" on architectureguide.nl* Rietveld Originals, Rietveld's furniture designs that are still in production" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gary" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Gary''' may refer to: *Gary (given name), a common masculine given name, including a list of people and fictional characters with the name*Gary, Indiana, the largest city named Gary==Places== ;Iran*Gary, Iran, Sistan and Baluchestan Province;United States*Gary (Tampa), Florida*Gary, Maryland*Gary, Minnesota*Gary, South Dakota*Gary, West Virginia*Gary – New Duluth, a neighborhood in Duluth, Minnesota*Gary Air Force Base, San Marcos, Texas*Gary City, Texas" ], [ "Ships", "*USS ''Gary'' (DE-61), a destroyer escort launched in 1943*USS ''Gary'' (CL-147), scheduled to be a light cruiser, but canceled prior to construction in 1945*USS ''Gary'' (FFG-51), a frigate, commissioned in 1984*USS ''Thomas J. Gary'' (DE-326), a destroyer escort commissioned in 1943" ], [ "People and fictional characters", "*Gary (surname), including a list of people with the name*Gary (rapper), South Korean rapper and entertainer*Gary (Argentine singer), Argentine singer of cuarteto songs" ], [ "Other uses", "*''Gary: Tank Commander'', a British television sitcom*Gary (mango), a mango cultivar*4735 Gary, an asteroid*Gary Elks, an American football team from 1920 to 1923" ], [ "See also", "* Garry (disambiguation)* Gareth (given name)* Garath (disambiguation)* Garaidh, a given name*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gary, Indiana" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Gary''' ( ) is a city in Lake County, Indiana, United States.", "The city has been historically dominated by major industrial activity and is home to U.S. Steel's Gary Works, the largest steel mill complex in North America.", "Gary is located along the southern shore of Lake Michigan about southeast of downtown Chicago.", "The city is adjacent to the Indiana Dunes National Park, and is within the Chicago metropolitan area.Gary was named after lawyer Elbert Henry Gary, who was the founding chairman of the United States Steel Corporation.", "U.S. Steel had established the city in 1906 as a company town to serve its steel mills.As of the 2020 census the city's population was 69,093, making it Indiana's ninth-largest city.", "Like other Rust Belt cities, Gary's once thriving steel industry has been significantly affected by the disappearance of local manufacturing jobs since the 1970s.", "As a result of this economic shift, the city's population has decreased drastically, having lost 61% of its population since 1960.Because of its large losses in population and deteriorating economy, Gary is often cited as an example of industrial decline and urban decay in America.", "Although initially a very diverse city, the city of Gary holds one of the nation's highest percentage of African Americans.Gary is serviced by the Gary/Chicago International Airport, an alternative airport to the Chicago region's two larger airports.", "The city's public transport is provided by the Gary Public Transportation Corporation and the South Shore Line passenger railway, which connects to the Chicago transit system.", "It is also home to a professional baseball team, the Gary SouthShore RailCats.", "In addition to its large steel mills, the city is known for being the birthplace of the Jackson family, a family of well-known entertainers whose members include singer Michael Jackson." ], [ "History", "===Founding and early years===Gary, Indiana, was founded in 1906 by the U.S. Steel as the home for its new plant, Gary Works.", "The city was named after lawyer Elbert Henry Gary, who was the founding chairman of the United States Steel Corporation.Gary was the site of civil unrest in the steel strike of 1919.On October 4, 1919, a riot broke out on Broadway, the main north-south street through downtown Gary, between steel workers and strike breakers brought in from outside.", "Three days later, Indiana governor James P. Goodrich declared martial law.", "Shortly thereafter, over 4,000 federal troops under the command of Major General Leonard Wood arrived to restore order.The jobs offered by the steel industry provided Gary with very rapid growth and a diverse population within the first 26 years of its founding.", "According to the 1920 United States Census, 29.7% of Gary's population at the time was classified as foreign-born, mostly from eastern European countries, with another 30.8% classified as native-born with at least one foreign-born parent.", "By the 1930 United States Census, the first census in which Gary's population exceeded 100,000, the city was the fifth largest in Indiana and comparable in size to South Bend, Fort Wayne, and Evansville.", "At that time, 78.7% of the population was classified as white, with 19.3% of the population classified as foreign-born and another 25.9% as native-born with at least one foreign-born parent.", "In addition to white internal migrants, Gary had attracted numerous African-American migrants from the South in the Great Migration, and 17.8% of the population was classified as black.", "3.5% were classified as Mexican (now likely to be identified as Hispanic, as some were likely American citizens in addition to immigrants).===Post-World War II===U.S.", "Steel's Gary Works in 1973Gary's fortunes have risen and fallen with those of the steel industry.", "The growth of the steel industry brought prosperity to the community.", "Broadway was known as a commercial center for the region.", "Department stores and architecturally significant movie houses were built in the downtown area and the Glen Park neighborhood.In the 1960s, like many other American urban centers reliant on one particular industry, Gary entered a spiral of decline.", "Gary's decline was brought on by reduced employment in the steel industry overall, which caused U.S. Steel to lay off many workers from the Gary area.", "The U.S. Steel Gary Works employed over 30,000 in 1970, declined to just 6,000 by 1990, and further declined to 5,100 in August 2015.Attempts to shore up the city's economy with major construction projects, such as a Holiday Inn hotel and the Genesis Convention Center, failed to reverse the decline.===1968 riots===In July 1968 riots broke out in Gary.", "3,000 National Guard members came in to restore order to the city.", "Curfews were enforced and a ban on gasoline and liquor sales helped calm the violence.", "Over 110 people were arrested, at least three stores were set on fire, and at least 15 fire-bombings were reported.===Racial changes===Gary, Indiana racial demographicsA rapid racial change occurred in Gary during the late 20th century.", "These population changes resulted in political change which reflected the racial demographics of Gary: the Black and Hispanic share of the city's population increased from 21% in 1930, 39% in 1960, to 53% in 1970.Black and Hispanic were primarily living in the Midtown section just south of downtown (per the 1950 Census, 97% of the black population of Gary was living in this neighborhood).", "Gary had one of the nation's first African-American mayors, Richard G. Hatcher, and hosted the groundbreaking 1972 National Black Political Convention.In the late 1990s and early 2000s, Gary had the highest percentage of African-Americans of U.S. cities with a population of 100,000 or more, 84% (as of the 2000 U.S. census).", "This no longer applies to Gary since the population of the city has now fallen well below 100,000 residents.", "As of 2013, the Gary Department of Redevelopment has estimated that one-third of all homes in the city are unoccupied and/or abandoned.===U.S.", "Steel===U.S.", "Steel continues to be a major steel producer, but with only a fraction of its former level of employment.", "While Gary has failed to reestablish a manufacturing base since its population peak, two casinos opened along the Gary lakeshore in the 1990s, although this has been aggravated by the state closing of Cline Avenue, an important access to the area.", "Today, Gary faces the difficulties of a Rust Belt city, including higher than national average unemployment, and decaying infrastructure.===Recent history===Gary has closed several of its schools within the last ten years.", "While some of the school buildings have been reused, most remain unused since their closing.", "As of 2014, Gary is considering closing additional schools in response to budget deficits.Gary chief of police Thomas Houston was convicted of excessive force and abuse of authority in 2008; he died in 2010 while serving a three-year, five-month federal prison sentence.In April 2011, 75-year-old mayor Rudolph M. Clay announced that he would suspend his campaign for reelection as he was being treated for prostate cancer.", "He endorsed rival Karen Freeman-Wilson, who won the Democratic mayoral primary in May 2011.Freeman-Wilson won election with 87 percent of the vote and her term began in January 2012; she is the first woman elected mayor in the city's history.", "She was reelected in 2015.She was defeated in her bid for a third term in the 2019 Democratic primary by Lake County Assessor Jerome Prince.", "Since no challengers filed for the November 2019 general election, Prince's nomination was effectively tantamount to election, and officially succeeded Freeman-Wilson on January 1, 2020, two days after he was sworn in as the city's 21st mayor on December 30, 2019.In May 2021, a $300 million Hard Rock Casino location opened in the city.", "Branded as Hard Rock Casino Northern Indiana, the location includes memorabilia from local natives Jackson 5 and a 1,950-seat Hard Rock Live performance hall." ], [ "Geography", "The Chicago skyline viewed across Lake Michigan from Lake Street Beach in Gary's Miller Beach neighborhoodThe city is located at the southern end of the former lake bed of the prehistoric Lake Chicago and the current Lake Michigan.", "Most of the city's soil, to nearly one foot below the surface, is pure sand.", "The sand beneath Gary, and on its beaches, is of such volume and quality that for over a century companies have mined it, especially for the manufacture of glass.According to the 2010 census, Gary has a total area of , of which (or 87.22%) is land and (or 12.78%) is water.Gary is T-shaped, with its northern border on Lake Michigan.", "In the northwesternmost section, Gary borders Hammond and East Chicago; 165th Street, one of several roads connecting Hammond and Gary, has been walled off from Gary since 1981, initially due to a toxic flood.", "Miller Beach, Gary's easternmost neighborhood, borders Lake Station and Portage.", "Gary's southernmost section borders Griffith, Hobart, Merrillville, and unincorporated Ross.", "Gary is about from the Chicago Loop.===Climate===Gary is listed by the Köppen-Geiger climate classification system as humid continental (Dfa).", "In July and August, the warmest months, high temperatures average 84 °F (29 °C) and peak just above 100 °F (38 °C), and low temperatures average 63 °F (17 °C).", "In January and February, the coldest months, high temperatures average around 29 °F (−2 °C) and low temperatures average 13 °F (−11 °C), with at least a few days of temperatures dipping below 0 °F (−18 °C).The weather in Gary is greatly regulated by its proximity to Lake Michigan.", "Weather varies yearly.", "In the summer months Gary is humid.", "The city's yearly precipitation averages about 40 inches.", "Summer is the rainiest season.", "Winters vary but are predominantly snowy.", "Snowfall in Gary averages approximately 25 inches per year.", "Sometimes large blizzards hit because of \"lake effect snow\", a phenomenon whereby large amounts of water evaporated from the lake deposit onto the shoreline areas as inordinate amounts of snow.=== Neighborhoods ===Lake County, Indiana Superior Court BuildingGary City HallMap of Gary; gray represents the industrial corridor.Lake County Superior Court House and US Steel Gary Works==== Downtown Gary ====Downtown Gary is separated by Broadway into two distinctive communities.", "Originally, the City of Gary consisted of The East Side, The West Side, The South Side (the area south of the train tracks near 9th Avenue), and Glen Park, located further South along Broadway.", "The East Side was demarcated by streets named after the States in order of their acceptance into the Union.", "This area contained mostly wood-frame houses, some of the earliest in the city, and became known in the 20th century for its ethnic populations from Europe and large families.", "The single-family houses had repeating house designs that alternated from one street to another, with some streets looking very similar.", "Among the East Side's most notable buildings were Memorial Auditorium (a large red-brick and stone civic auditorium and the site of numerous events, concerts and graduations), The Palace Theater, Emerson School, St. Luke's Church, H.C. Gordon & Sons, and Goldblatt's Department stores, in addition to the Fair Department Store.", "All fronted Broadway as the main street that divided Gary.The West Side of Gary, or West of Broadway, the principal commercial street, had streets named after the presidents of the United States in order of their election.", "Lytton's, Hudson's ladies store, J.C. Penney, and Radigan Bros Furniture Store developed on the west side of Broadway.", "Developed later, this side of town was known for its masonry or brick residences, its taller and larger commercial buildings, including the Gary National Bank Building, Hotel Gary (now Genesis Towers), The Knights of Columbus Hotel & Building (now affordable housing fronting 5th Avenue), the Tivoli Theater (demolished), the U.S. Post Office, Main Library, Mercy and Methodist Hospitals and Holy Angels Cathedral and School.", "The West Side also had a secondary principal street, Fifth Avenue, which was lined with many commercial businesses, restaurants, theaters, tall buildings, and elegant apartment buildings.", "The West Side was viewed as having wealthier residents.", "The houses dated from about 1908 to the 1930s.", "Much of the West Side's housing were for executives of U.S. Steel and other prominent businessmen.", "Notable mansions were 413 Tyler Street and 636 Lincoln Street.", "Many of the houses were on larger lots.", "By contrast, a working-class area was made up of row houses made of poured concrete were arranged together and known as \"Mill Houses\"; they were built to house steel mill workers.", "'I Love Gary' - Pop Up Arts Display Gateway Park (2019) Former Gary Knights of Columbus BuildingThe areas known as Emerson and Downtown West combine to form Downtown Gary.", "It was developed in the 1920s and houses several pieces of impressive architecture, including the Moe House, designed by Frank Lloyd Wright, and another, the Wynant House (1917), which was destroyed by fire.", "A significant number of older structures have been demolished in recent years because of the cost of restoration.", "Restructuring of the steel and other heavy industry in the late 20th century resulted in a loss of jobs, adversely affecting the city.City Methodist Church, circa 1955Abandoned buildings in the downtown area include historic structures such as Union Station, the Palace Theater, and City Methodist Church.", "A large area of the downtown neighborhood (including City Methodist) was devastated by a major fire on October 12, 1997.Interstate 90 was constructed between downtown Gary and the United States Steel plant.==== West ====Homes in the Combs Addition Historic District of the Ambridge Mann neighborhoodAmbridge Mann is a neighborhood located on Gary's near west side along 5th Avenue.", "Ambridge was developed for workers at the nearby steel plant in the 1910s and 1920s.", "It is named after the American Bridge Works, which was a subsidiary of U.S. Steel.", "The neighborhood is home to a huge stock of prairie-style and art deco homes.", "The Gary Masonic Temple was located in the neighborhood, along with the Ambassador apartment building.", "Located just south of Interstate 90, the neighborhood can be seen while passing Buchanan Street.Brunswick is located on Gary's far west side.", "The neighborhood is located just south of Interstate 90 and can also be seen from the expressway.", "The Brunswick area includes the Tri-City Plaza shopping center on West 5th Avenue (U.S. 20).", "The area is south of the Gary Chicago International Airport.Downtown West is located in north-central Gary on the west side of Broadway just south of Interstate 90.The Genesis Convention Center, the Gary Police Department, the Lake Superior Court House, and the Main Branch of the Gary Public Library are located along 5th Avenue.", "A new 123-unit mixed-income apartment development was built using a HUD HOPE VI grant in 2006.The Adam Benjamin Metro Center is located just north of 4th Avenue.", "It is operated by the Gary Public Transportation Corporation and serves as a multi-modal hub.", "It serves both as the Downtown Gary South Shore train station and an intercity bus stop.Tolleston is one of Gary's oldest neighborhoods, predating much of the rest of the city.", "It was platted by George Tolle in 1857 when the railroads were constructed in this area.", "This area is west of Midtown and south of Ambridge Mann.", "Tarrytown is a subdivision located in Tolleston between Whitcomb Street and Clark Road.==== South ====Broadway in the Glen Park neighborhoodBlack Oak is located on the far southwest side of Gary, in the vicinity of the Burr Street exit to the Borman Expressway.", "It was annexed in the 1970s.", "Prior to that, Black Oak was an unincorporated area informally associated with Hammond, and the area has Hammond telephone numbers.", "After three referendums, the community voters approved annexation, having been persuaded by Mayor Hatcher that they would benefit more from services provided by the city than from those provided by the county.", "In the 21st century, it is the only majority-white neighborhood in Gary.Glen Park is located on Gary's far south side and is made up mostly of mid-twentieth-century houses.", "Glen Park is divided from the remainder of the city by the Borman Expressway.", "The northern portion of Glen Park is home to Gary's Gleason Park Golf Course and the campus of Indiana University Northwest.", "The far western portion of Glen Park is home to the Village Shopping Center.", "Glen Park includes the 37th Avenue corridor at Broadway.Midtown is located south of Downtown Gary, along Broadway.", "In the pre-1960s days of ''de facto'' segregation, this developed historically as a \"black\" neighborhood as African Americans came to Gary from the rural South in the Great Migration to seek jobs in the industrial economy.===North and East===Commercial district in the Miller Beach neighborhoodAetna is located on Gary's far east side along the Dunes Highway.", "Aetna predates the city of Gary.", "This company town was founded in 1881 by the Aetna Powder Works, an explosives company.", "Their factory closed after the end of World War I.The Town of Aetna was annexed by Gary in 1928, around the same time that the city annexed the Town of Miller.", "In the late 1920s and early 1930s, Gary's prosperous industries helped generate residential and other development in Aetna, resulting in an impressive collection of art deco architecture.", "The rest of the community was built after World War II and the Korean War in the 1950s, in a series of phases.", "On its south and east, Aetna borders the undeveloped floodplain of the Little Calumet River.Emerson is located in north-central Gary on the east side of Broadway.", "Located just south of Interstate 90, Gary City Hall is located in Emerson, along with the Indiana Department of Social Services building and the Calumet Township Trustee's office.", "A 6,000-seat minor league baseball stadium for the Gary SouthShore RailCats, U.S. Steel Yard, was constructed in 2002, along with contiguous commercial space and minor residential development.Miller Beach, also known simply as Miller, is on Gary's far northeast side.", "Settled in the 1850s and incorporated as an independent town in 1907, Miller was annexed by the city of Gary in 1918.Miller developed around the old stagecoach stop and train station known by the 1850s as Miller's Junction and/or Miller's Station.", "Miller Beach is racially and economically diverse.", "It attracts investor interest due to the many year-round and summer homes within walking distance of Marquette Park and Lake Michigan.", "Prices for lakefront property are affordable compared to those in Illinois suburban communities.", "Lake Street provides shopping and dining options for Miller Beach visitors and residents.", "East Edge, a development of 28 upscale condominium, townhome, and single-family homes, began construction in 2007 at the eastern edge of Miller Beach along County Line Road, one block south of Lake Michigan." ], [ "Demographics", "The change in the economy and resulting loss of jobs has caused a drop in population by nearly two thirds since its peak in 1960.Gary, along with St. Louis and Detroit, have each lost near or more than two thirds of their peak populations.===2020 census===+'''Gary city, Indiana – Racial and Ethnic Composition''' (''NH = Non-Hispanic'')Race / EthnicityPop 2000Pop 2010% 2000% 2010White alone (NH)10,3387,1516,37410.06%8.91%9.23%Black or African American alone (NH)85,70467,36354,66083.41%83.90%79.11%Native American or Alaska Native alone (NH)1621971120.16%0.25%0.16%Asian alone (NH)1231561240.12%0.19%0.18%Pacific Islander alone (NH)155110.01%0.01%0.02%Some Other Race alone (NH)124693900.12%0.09%0.56%Mixed Race/Multi-Racial (NH)1,2151,2252,2011.18%1.53%3.19%Hispanic or Latino (any race)5,0654,1285,2214.93%5.14%7.56%'''Total''''''102,746''''''80,294''''''69,093''''''100.00%''''''100.00%''''''100.00%'''===2010 census===As of the census of 2010, there were 80,294 people, 31,380 households, and 19,691 families residing in the city.", "The population density was .", "There were 39,531 housing units at an average density of .", "The racial makeup of the city was 84.8% African American, 10.7% White, 0.3% Native American, 0.2% Asian, 1.8% from other races, and 2.1% from two or more races.", "Hispanic or Latino people of any race were 5.1% of the population.", "Non-Hispanic Whites were 8.9% of the population in 2010, down from 39.1% in 1970.There were 31,380 households, of which 33.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 25.2% were married couples living together, 30.9% had a female householder with no husband present, 6.7% had a male householder with no wife present, and 37.2% were non-families.", "32.8% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.", "The average household size was 2.54 and the average family size was 3.23.The median age in the city was 36.7 years.", "28.1% of residents were under the age of 18; 8.6% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 21.8% were from 25 to 44; 27.1% were from 45 to 64; and 14.5% were 65 years of age or older.", "The gender makeup of the city was 46.0% male and 54.0% female.===2000 census===As of the census of 2000, there were 102,746 people, 38,244 households, and 25,623 families residing in the city.", "The population density was .", "There were 43,630 housing units at an average density of .", "The racial makeup of the city was 84.03% African American, 11.92% White, 0.21% Native American, 0.14% Asian, 0.02% Pacific Islander, 1.97% from other races, and 1.71% from two or more races.", "Hispanic or Latino people of any race were 4.93% of the population.There were 38,244 households, out of which 31.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 30.2% were married couples living together, 30.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 33.0% were non-families.", "28.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.", "The average household size was 2.66 and the average family size was 3.28.In the city, the population was spread out, with 29.9% under the age of 18, 10.1% from 18 to 24, 25.1% from 25 to 44, 22.2% from 45 to 64, and 12.8% who were 65 years of age or older.", "The median age was 34 years.", "For every 100 females, there were 84.6 males.", "For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 78.0 males.The median income for a household in the city was $27,195, and the median income for a family was $32,205.Males had a median income of $34,992 versus $24,432 for females.", "The per capita income for the city was $14,383.About 22.2% of families and 25.8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 37.9% of those under age 18 and 14.1% of those age 65 or over." ], [ "Arts and culture", "===Arts and film===''A Nightmare on Elm Street'' being filmed in GaryMeredith Willson's 1957 Broadway musical ''The Music Man'' featured the song \"Gary, Indiana\", in which lead character (and con man) Professor Harold Hill wistfully recalls his purported hometown, then prosperous.", "Hill claims to be an alumnus of \"Gary Conservatory of Music, Class of '05\", but this is later revealed to be another of his lies.", "The City of Gary was not founded until 1906.Willson's musical, set in 1912, was adapted both as a film of the same name released in 1962, and as a television film, produced in 2003.The 1996 urban film ''Original Gangstas'' was filmed in the city.", "It starred Gary native Fred Williamson, Pam Grier, Jim Brown, Richard Roundtree, and Isabel Sanford, among others.", "Since the early 2000s, Gary has been the setting for numerous films made by Hollywood filmmakers.", "In 2009, scenes for the remake of ''A Nightmare on Elm Street'' were filmed in Gary.", "Scenes from ''Transformers: Dark of the Moon'' wrapped up filming on August 16, 2010.The History Channel documentary ''Life After People'' was filmed in Gary, exploring areas that have deteriorated or been abandoned because of the loss of jobs and residents.In John Mellencamp's 1985 song, \"Minutes to Memories\", an old man on a bus, recalling his humble life, tells the young man beside him, \"I worked my whole life in the steel mills of Gary.", "\"===Historic places on the National Register===The following single properties and national historic districts are listed on the National Register of Historic Places:* American Sheet and Tin Mill Apartment Building* Louis J. Bailey Branch Library-Gary International Institute* Combs Addition Historic District* Ralph Waldo Emerson School* Eskilson Historic District* Gary Bathing Beach Aquatorium* Gary City Center Historic District* Gary Land Company Building* Gary Public Schools Memorial Auditorium* Jackson-Monroe Terraces Historic District* Jefferson Street Historic District* Knights of Columbus Building* Lincoln Street Historic District* Horace Mann Historic District* Miller Town Hall* Monroe Terrace Historic District* Morningside Historic District* Polk Street Concrete Cottage Historic District* Polk Street Terraces Historic District* Theodore Roosevelt High School* Barney Sablotney House* St. Augustine's Episcopal Church* Van Buren Terrace Historic District* West Fifth Avenue Apartments Historic District* St. John's Evangelical Lutheran Church and School===Public libraries===Gary Public Library and Cultural Center in 2019The Gary Public Library System consists of the main library at 220 West 5th Avenue and several branches: Brunswick Branch, W. E. B. DuBois Branch, J. F. Kennedy Branch, Tolleston Branch, and Woodson Branch.", "In March 2011, the Gary Library Board voted to close the main library on 5th Avenue and the Tolleston branch in what officials said was their best economic option.", "The main library closed at the end of 2011.The building now houses a museum.Lake County Public Library operates the Black Oak Branch at 5921 West 25th Avenue in the Gary city limits.", "In addition, Indiana University Northwest operates the John W. Anderson Library on its campus." ], [ "Sports", "U.S. Steel Yard, home of the Gary SouthShore RailCatsThe following sports franchises are based in Gary:*The Gary SouthShore RailCats are an American Association, professional baseball team.", "The team plays in Gary's U.S. Steel Yard baseball stadium.", "The RailCats played in the Northern League from 2002 until 2010.They now play in the modern American Association.", "The team won league championships in 2005, 2007, and 2013.", "*Gary has hosted two professional basketball franchises.", "The Gary Splash played in the International Basketball League from 2010 to 2013, at the Genesis Convention Center.", "Previously, the Gary Steelheads played in the Genesis Convention Center as part of the IBL (1999–2001), CBA, USBL, and IBL." ], [ "Education", "Three school districts serve the city, and multiple charter schools are located within the city.===Public schools===Most public schools in Gary are administered by the Gary Community School Corporation.", "The other public schools within the city are administered by Lake Ridge Schools Corporation, which is the school system for the Black Oak neighborhood and unincorporated Calumet Township.", "Due to annexation law, Black Oak residents retained their original school system and were not required to attend Gary public schools.", "In 1927, it was mandated that Black students attend a separate high school.===Charter schools===Charter schools in Indiana, including those in Gary, are granted charters by one of a small number of chartering institutions.", "Indiana charter schools are generally managed in cooperation between the chartering institution, a local board of parents and community members, salaried school administrators, and a management company.", "Charter schools in Gary as of 2011 include Thea Bowman Leadership Academy, Charter School of the Dunes, Gary Lighthouse Charter School (formerly Blessed Sacrament Parish and Grade School), and 21st Century Charter.===Higher education===Indiana University NorthwestGary is home to two regional state college campuses:*Indiana University Northwest*Ivy Tech Community College Northwest" ], [ "Media", "===Newspapers===Gary is served by two major newspapers based outside the city, and by a Gary-based, largely African-American interest paper.", "These papers provide regional topics, and cover events in Gary.", "*''The Post-Tribune'', originally the ''Gary Post-Tribune'', is now based in the nearby town of Merrillville.", "*''The Times'', previously known as the ''Hammond Times''.", "Offices and facilities for ''The Times'' are in nearby Munster.", "*''The Gary Crusader'', based in Gary and largely focused on African-American interests and readership*''The INFO Newspaper'', based in Gary and largely focused on African-American interests and readership*The ''Chicago Tribune'' and the ''Chicago Sun-Times'', based in Chicago, are also distributed in Gary.===Television and radio===Gary is served by five local broadcasters plus government access and numerous Chicago area radio and TV stations, and by other nearby stations in Illinois and Indiana.", "*WPWR-TV (Channel 50) is the Chicago MyNetworkTV affiliate but is licensed to Gary.", "Studios and transmitters are co-located with WFLD's in Chicago, and are also owned by Fox Television Stations.", "*WYIN (Channel 56) is a PBS affiliate licensed to Gary.", "Their studios are in Merrillville.", "*WGVE (FM 88.7) is owned by the Gary Community School Corporation, and is used primarily as a teaching facility.", "Programming is maintained by students in the broadcast program at the Gary Career Center.", "WGVE also carries limited NPR programming.", "*WLTH (AM 1370) primarily carries talk programming, as well as other local programs.", "*WWCA (AM 1270) is a Relevant Radio owned-and-operated radio station, carrying programming from the Catholic-oriented Relevant Radio network." ], [ "Infrastructure", "===Medical facilities===*Gary Community Health Center*Methodist Hospital===Police===Gary is served by the Gary Police Department and the Lake County Sheriff.===Fire department===Historical photo of the Gary Fire Department in 1914The Gary Fire Department (GFD) provides fire protection and emergency medical services to the city of Gary.=== Transportation ===Adam Benjamin Metro Center is the city's intermodal public transit center.", "*Gary Public Transportation Corporation (GPTC) is a public transit system that offers service to numerous stops throughout the city and neighboring suburbs.", "GPTC also has express service, such as the ''Broadway Metro Express'' to locations outside the city, including connections to Chicago transit.", "Front-door pickup is available for disabled citizens at no extra cost.", "*Gary/Chicago International Airport is operating as the \"third airport\" for the Chicago area.", "With a new runway, it previously underwent a federally funded expansion, and the administration has been courting airlines aggressively.", "The National Guard has based its Chicago area air operation there as well.", "*Interstate 90 (I-90, Indiana Toll Road), I-80, I-94, and I-65 run through Gary, as well as U.S. Highway 6 (US 6), US 12 and US 20, and State Road 912 (SR 912, Cline Avenue).", "A former stretch of SR 312 has been decommissioned.", "*Northern Indiana Commuter Transportation District (NICTD) operates the South Shore Line, a commuter rail system between Chicago and South Bend.", "It is one of the last original operating interurban railway systems in the US." ], [ "Notable people", "===The Jacksons===Michael Jackson's childhood home in Gary, Indiana, shortly after the singer's death in 2009Gary is the hometown of the Jackson family, a family of musicians who influenced the sound of modern popular music.", "In 1950, Joseph and Katherine Jackson moved from East Chicago, Indiana into their two-bedroom house at 2300 Jackson Street.", "They had married on November 5, 1949.Their entertainer children later recorded a song entitled \"2300 Jackson Street\" (1989).", "The Jackson children include:*Rebbie Jackson *Jackie Jackson *Tito Jackson *Jermaine Jackson *La Toya Jackson *Marlon Jackson*Michael Jackson *Randy Jackson *Janet Jackson ===Other notable people===*Charles Adkins, Olympic boxer*Forddy Anderson, NCAA basketball coach*Dan Barreiro, sports radio talk show host*Bob Benoit, horse racing executive*Albert M. Bielawski, early 20th century Michigan politician*Karen McDougal, Playboy model who was Playmate of the Month in December 1997 and Playmate of the Year in 1998.", "*Frank Borman, crew member of Apollo 8 *Lyman Bostock, Major League Baseball (MLB) player *John Brim, bluesman*Donna Britt, journalist and author*Avery Brooks, actor, director *Vic Bubas, NCAA basketball coach *John A. Bushemi, WWII photographer killed in action *Vivian Carter, music producer*John Chickerneo, National Football League (NFL) player*Rudolph M. Clay, Mayor of Gary 2006–12*William Coyne, DuPont Company executive*Branden Dawson (born 1993), basketball player*Tony DeSantis (1914–2007), founder of Drury Lane theaters*Polly Draper (born 1955), actress, ''Thirtysomething''*Dianne Durham (1967-2021), first Black national gymnastics champion*Clarissa Pinkola Estés, writer and psychoanalyst*Bianca Ferguson (born 1955), actress, ''General Hospital''*Harry Flournoy (1943–2016), basketball player*Tellis Frank (born 1965), basketball player*Karen Freeman-Wilson (born 1960), Mayor of Gary 2012–19, former Indiana Attorney General*Maurice Friedman (1903–1991), reproductive-physiology researcher*Winston Garland (born 1964), basketball player*Darius Garland (born 2000), basketball player*Joe Gates (1954–2010), baseball player*Freddie Gibbs (born 1982), rapper*A. J. Hammons (born 1992), basketball player*Tom Harmon (1919–1990), 1940 Heisman Trophy winner for Michigan, sportscaster, father of actor Mark Harmon*Richard G. Hatcher (1933–2019), Mayor of Gary 1968–87*LaTroy Hawkins (born 1972), MLB pitcher for 21 years*Chuck Higgins, saxophonist, best known for the song \"Pachuko Hop\" *Eric Hillman (1966–2021), MLB and Japan pitcher*Gerald Irons (born 1947), NFL linebacker for Oakland Raiders and Cleveland Browns 1970–1979*Johnny Jackson (1955–2006), drummer for Jackson 5; murdered in Gary in 2006*Tim Jankovich, basketball head coach, SMU*Elijah Johnson (born 1990), basketball player in the Israeli Basketball Premier League*Jason Johnson (born 1965), NFL player*Tank Johnson (born 1981), NFL player*Alex Karras (1935–2012), winner of Outland Trophy, member of College Football Hall of Fame and Pro Football Hall of Fame, NFL player and actor (''Blazing Saddles'', ''Webster'')*Lou Karras (1927–2018), NFL player 1950–1952*Ted Karras Jr. (born 1964), football player and coach*Ted Karras Sr. (1934–2016), NFL player 1958–1966*Robert Kearns (1927–2005), inventor of intermittent windshield wiper systems, subject of ''Flash of Genius''*Big Daddy Kinsey (1927-2002) Blues singer, guitarist, harmonica player and bandleader of The Kinsey Report with his sons *Ron Kittle (born 1958), Chicago White Sox outfielder and 1983 American League Rookie of the Year*Milo Komenich (1920–1977), basketball player for 1943 national champion Wyoming*Bob Kuechenberg (1947–2019), NFL lineman, two-time Super Bowl champion with Miami Dolphins*Barney Liddell (1921–2003), trombonist in the Lawrence Welk Orchestra, 1948–1982* Kevin Magee (1959–2003), basketball player*Karl Malden (1912–2009), Academy Award-winning actor; born in Chicago, raised in Gary*William Marshall (1924–2003), stage and film actor*Milt May (born 1950), professional baseball player*Kym Mazelle (born 1960), singer*Willie McCarter (born 1946–2023), NBA player, Los Angeles Lakers*Lloyd McClendon (born 1959), professional baseball player, manager of Pittsburgh Pirates, Seattle Mariners*Matt McConnell (born 1963), television broadcaster for the Arizona Coyotes, National Hockey League*James McCracken, opera singer*Robert A. McDonald (born 1953), CEO of Procter & Gamble, Secretary of Veterans Affairs under Barack Obama*Ralph McQuarrie (1929–2012), conceptual designer and illustrator for ''Star Wars''*Eddie Melton, Indiana state senator*Larry Moffett (1954–2011), basketball player*Brandon Moore (born 1980), NFL player*Sista Monica Parker (1956–2014), electric blues, gospel and soul singer, songwriter, producer*Jerilynn Patton, known as Jlin, electronic musician*Jon Petrovich (1947–2011), television executive, CNN*Dan Plesac (born 1962), MLB pitcher with 18-year career, MLB Network analyst*Jesse Powell (1971–2022), recording artist*Elizabeth Brown Pryor (1951–2015), author and diplomat*Jimmy Reed (1925–1976), musician, Blues Hall of Fame*Glenn Robinson (born 1973), NBA player and league's No.", "1 draft pick, father of Glenn Robinson III*Glenn Robinson III (born 1994), NBA player*Paul Samuelson (1915–2009), economist, recipient of John Bates Clark Medal (1947) and Nobel Prize (1970)*Sharmell (born 1970), WWE wrestler and valet*Jerry Shay (born 1944), NFL player 1966–1971*Helene Stanley (1929–1990), film actress*Joseph Stiglitz (born 1943), economist, recipient of John Bates Clark Medal (1979) and Nobel Prize (2001)*Hank Stram (1923–2005), NFL head coach 1960–1977, member of Pro Football Hall of Fame*Jeanne Stunyo (born 1936), diver, Olympic silver medalist*George Taliaferro (1927–2018), quarterback in College Football Hall of Fame*Crystal Taliefero (born 1963), singer*Ernest Lee Thomas (born 1949), actor (''What's Happening'')*Todd Wagner (born 1960), entrepreneur*Deniece Williams (born 1950), Grammy Award-winning R&B artist*Fred Williamson (born 1938), NFL player, linebacker for Kansas City Chiefs in Super Bowl I, three-time AFL All-Star, actor, director, producer*Tony Zale (1913–1997), twice middleweight champion, member of International Boxing Hall of Fame" ], [ "Sister cities", "* Fuxin, Liaoning, China* Lagos, Nigeria" ], [ "See also", "*Northwest Indiana*Neighborhoods in Gary, Indiana*:Magnitogorsk, a city in Russia modeled after Gary*King assassination riots*1968 Chicago riots" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Barnes, Sandra L. ''The cost of being poor: A comparative study of life in poor urban neighborhoods in Gary, Indiana'' (State University of New York Press, 2012).", "* Betten, Neil, and Raymond A. Mohl. \"", "From discrimination to repatriation: Mexican Life in Gary, Indiana, during the great depression\".", "''Pacific Historical Review'' 42.3 (1973): 370-388.", "* Brook, Anthony.", "\"Gary, Indiana: steeltown extraordinary\".", "''Journal of American Studies'' 9.1 (1975): 35-53.", "* Catlin, Robert A.", "''Racial politics and urban planning: Gary, Indiana, 1980-1989'' (University Press of Kentucky, 1993).", "* Cohen, Ronald D. ''Children of the mill: Schooling and society in Gary, Indiana, 1906-1960'' (Routledge, 2014).", "online* Cohen, Ronald D. and Raymond Mohl.", "''The Paradox of Progressive Education: The Gary Plan and Urban Schooling'' (Kennikat Press, 1979).", "* Davich, Jerry.", "''Lost Gary, Indiana'' (Arcadia Publishing, 2015).", "online* * Greer, Edward. \"", "The 'Liberation' of Gary, Indiana\".", "''Ghetto Revolts'' (Routledge, 2019).", "263-291.", "* Hurley, Andrew.", "\"The social biases of environmental change in Gary, Indiana, 1945–1980\".", "''Environmental Review'' 12.4 (1988): 1-20.", "* Hurley, Andrew.", "''Environmental inequalities: Class, race, and industrial pollution in Gary, Indiana, 1945-1980'' (Univ of North Carolina Press, 1995).", "* , a major scholarly history* * * Lane, James B. \"", "'THE OLD PROPHET': Reverend L. K. Jackson of Gary, Indiana\".", "''Traces of Indiana and Midwestern History'', vol.", "29, no.", "4, fall 2017, pp.", "28+; a leading Black minister of 1940s.", "* Lane, James B. \"", "THE CHAMP: Boxer Joe Louis and Race Relations in Gary, Indiana\".", "''Traces of Indiana and Midwestern History'', vol.", "31, no.", "2, spring 2019, pp.", "24+.", "* Mohl, Raymond A., and Neil Betten.", "\"The failure of industrial city planning: Gary, Indiana, 1906–1910\".", "''Journal of the American Institute of Planners'' 38.4 (1972): 203-214.", "* * Moralez, Felicia.", "\"From Immigrants to Citizens: Mexicans and Settlement Houses in Gary, Indiana, 1919-1965\" (PhD.", "Diss.", "University Of Notre Dame, 2018) doi:10.7274/w6634171g3k** Moralez, Felicia. \"", "Mexican Immigrants, the Gary-Alerding Settlement House, and the Limits of Catholic Americanization in Gary, Indiana, 1919–1928\".", "''US Catholic Historian'' 37.3 (2019): 19-41.", "** Moralez, Felicia. \"", "Mexican Immigrants and the International Institute of Northwest Indiana During the Mexican Repatriation Crisis in Gary, Indiana, 1929–1937\".", "''Indiana Magazine of History'' 115.4 (2019): 237-259.", "* O'Hara, S. Paul. \"", "'The Very Model of Modern Urban Decay': Outsiders' Narratives of Industry and Urban Decline in Gary, Indiana\".", "''Journal of Urban History'' 37.2 (2011): 135-154..* * Rich, Wilbur C. ''Black mayors and school politics: The failure of reform in Detroit, Gary and Newark'' (Garland Science, 2021) online.", "* Trafny, John.", "''Gary's West Side.", "Charleston SC, Chicago, IL, Portsmouth HN and San Francisco, CA.''", "(Arcadia, 2006)" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gregory the Illuminator" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Gregory the Illuminator''' (Classical , reformed spelling: Գրիգոր Լուսավորիչ, ''Grigor Lusavorich'';  – ) was the founder and first official head of the Armenian Apostolic Church.", "He converted Armenia from Zoroastrianism to Christianity in the early fourth century (traditionally dated to 301), making Armenia the first state to adopt Christianity as its official religion.", "He is venerated as a saint in the Armenian Apostolic Church and in some other churches.", "Gregory is said to have been the son of a Parthian nobleman, Anak, who assassinated the Arsacid king of Armenia Khosrov II.", "The young Gregory was saved from the extermination of Anak's family and was raised as a Christian in Caesarea of Cappadocia.", "Gregory returned to Armenia as an adult and entered the service of King Tiridates III, who had Gregory tortured after he refused to make a sacrifice to a pagan goddess.", "After discovering Gregory's true identity, Tiridates had him thrown into a deep pit well called Khor Virap for 14 years.", "Gregory was miraculously saved from death and released after many years with the help of Tiridates' sister Khosrovidukht.", "Gregory then converted the King to Christianity, and Armenia then became the first country to adopt Christianity as a state religion in 301 AD.", "Gregory, the Illuminator, then healed King Tiridates, who the hagiographical sources say had been transfomed into a boar for his sins, and preached Christianity in Armenia.", "He was consecrated bishop of Armenia at Caesarea, baptized King Tiridates and the Armenian people, and traveled throughout Armenia, destroying pagan temples and building churches in their place.Gregory eventually gave up the patriarchate to live as a hermit and was succeeded by his son Aristaces.", "Gregory's descendants, called the Gregorids, hereditarily held the office of Patriarch of Armenia with some interruptions until the fifth century.", "It is in Gregory's honor that the Armenian Church is sometimes called (\"of the Illuminator\") or Gregorian." ], [ "Early life", "In the Armenian tradition, the standard version of the life of Gregory the Illuminator derives from the fifth-century hagiographic history attributed to Agathangelos.", "According to Agathangelos's account, Gregory was the son of the Parthian nobleman Anak; the later Armenian historian Movses Khorenatsi identifies Anak as a member of the Parthian noble house of Suren.", "At the incitation of the Sasanian king Ardashir I, who promised to return Anak his domain as a reward, the Parthian nobleman went to Armenia and assassinated the Arsacid king of Armenia Khosrov II after gaining his confidence.", "Anak was then put to death by the Armenian nobles along with his entire family․ Anak's son Gregory narrowly escaped execution with the help of his nurse, whom Khorenatsi calls Sophy, sister of a Cappadocian notable named Euthalius (Ewtʻagh).", "Gregory was taken to Caesarea in Cappadocia, where he received a Christian upbringing.", "Jean-Michel Thierry described him as of \"Cappadocian culture and religion\" and credited him with having introduced \"Greek civilization to Armenia.", "\"According to Khorenatsi, upon coming of age, Gregory married Mariam, daughter of a Christian named David.", "He had two children with Mariam: Aristaces and Vrtanes, who would later succeed Gregory as patriarchs of Armenia." ], [ "Christianization of Armenia", "After the birth of their sons, Mariam and Gregory separated, and Gregory went to Armenia to enter the service of King Tiridates III, son of the assassinated king Khosrov II.", "After Gregory refused to sacrifice to the goddess Anahit, the king had Gregory imprisoned and subjected to many tortures.", "Once Tiridates discovered that Gregory was the son of his father's killer, he had Gregory thrown into a deep pit called Khor Virap near Artaxata, where he remained for thirteen (or fifteen) years.", "In Agathangelos's history, Gregory is miraculously saved and brought out from the pit after Tiridates' sister Khosrovidukht sees a vision.", "Gregory then healed the king, who, Agathangelos writes, had been transformed into a wild boar for his sinful behavior.", "Tiridates and his court accepted Christianity, making Armenia the first state to adopt Christianity as its official religion.", "''The Baptism of the Armenian People'' (1892), by Ivan AivazovskyAfter being released, Gregory preached the Christian faith in Armenia and erected shrines to the martyrs Gayane and Hripsime in Vagharshapat on a spot indicated to him in a vision.", "Vagharshapat would later become home to the mother church of Armenian Christianity and, by medieval times, called Ejmiatsin (\"descent of the only-begotten\") in reference to Gregory's vision.", "Gregory, sometimes accompanied by Tiridates, went around Armenia destroying pagan temples, defeating the armed resistance of the pagan priests.", "Gregory then went to Caesarea with a retinue of Armenian princes and was consecrated bishop of Armenia by Leontius of Caesarea.", "Until the death of Nerses I in the late fourth century, Gregory's successors would go to Caesarea to be confirmed as bishops of Armenia, and Armenia remained under the titular authority of the metropolitans of Caesarea.", "Returning to Armenia, Gregory raised churches in place of the destroyed pagan temples and seized their estates and wealth for the Armenian Church and his house.", "On the site of the destroyed temple to Vahagn at Ashtishat, Gregory raised a church which became the original center of the Armenian Church and remained so until after the partition of the country in 387.Gregory met King Tiridates near the town of Bagavan and baptized the Armenian king, army and people in the Euphrates.", "In two non-Armenian versions of Agathangelos's history, Gregory also baptizes together with Tiridates the kings of Caucasian Albania, Georgia and Lazica/Abkhazia.", "He founded schools for the Christian education of children, where the languages of instruction were Greek and Syriac.", "He established the ecclesiastical structure of Armenia, appointing as bishops some of the children of pagan priests.", "Gregory is also said to have journeyed to Rome with King Tiridates in an embassy to the recently converted Constantine the Great, but scholar Robert W. Thomson views this as fictional.The conversion of Armenia to Christianity is traditionally dated to 301, but modern scholarship considers a later date, approximately 314, to be a more likely.", "Additionally, the history of Agathangelos depicts the spread of Christianity of Armenia as having occurred practically entirely within Gregory's lifetime, when, in fact, it was a more gradual process." ], [ "Retirement and death", "Some time after converting Armenia to Christianity, Gregory appointed his younger son Aristaces as his successor and went to live an ascetic life in the \"cave of Manē\" in the district of Daranali in Upper Armenia.", "The Patriarchate of Armenia would be held as a hereditary office, with some interruptions, by the house of Gregory, called the Gregorids, until the death of Patriarch Isaac in the fifth century.", "According to Movses Khorenatsi, Gregory sometimes came out from his hermitage and traveled around the country until Aristaces returned from the Council of Nicaea (325), after which Gregory never appeared to anyone again.", "He died in seclusion in the cave of Manē and was buried nearby by shepherds who did not know who he was.", "All of the sources indicate that Gregory's death occurred not long after the Council of Nicaea; Cyril Toumanoff gives 328 as the year of Gregory's death." ], [ "Historical assessment", "Levon Ter-Petrosyan, philologist and Armenia's first president, postulates that Gregory and Mesrop Mashtots had the most influence on the course of Armenian history.", "James R. Russell argues that both Gregory and Mashtots were visionaries, found a champion for their program in the king, looked to the West, had very strong pro-Hellenic bias, trained the children of pagan priests and assembled their own disciples to spread the faith through learning." ], [ "Relics and veneration", "After his death his corpse was removed to the village of Thodanum (T'ordan, modern Doğanköy, Kemah, near Erzincan).", "The Mother See of Holy Etchmiadzin and the Holy See of Cilicia in Antelias, Lebanon each claim to have the right arm of the saint, in an arm-shaped reliquary, which is used for the blessing of the Holy Myron every seven years.In the calendar of the Armenian Church, the discovery of the relics of St. Gregory is an important feast and is commemorated on the Saturday before the Fourth Sunday after Pentecost.", "Two other feast days in the Armenian Apostolic Church are devoted to St. Gregory: the feast of his entry into Khor Virap, the 'deep pit or dungeon' (commemorated on the last Saturday of Lent) and his deliverance from Khor Virap (commemorated on the Saturday before the second Sunday after Pentecost).", "File:Saint Grégoire et la foule, 1569.jpg|16th century manuscript File:Etchmiadzin Cathedral Gregory the Illuminator relief.jpg|Etchmiadzin Cathedral, 17th century File:Անհայտ հայ նկարիչ, 18-րդ դար Սուրբ Գրիգոր Լուսավորիչ.jpg|An 18th century painting by an unknown authorFile:Gregory the Illuminator.jpg|''The Baptism of the Armenian People.", "Gregory the Illuminator'' by Ivan Aivazovsky (1892)File:Սուրենյանց Վարդգես.", "Գրիգոր Լուսավորիչ.jpg|A painting by Vardges Sureniants ===Byzantium and the Orthodox world===Gregory is commemorated on September 30 by the Eastern Orthodox Church, which styles him \"Holy Hieromartyr Gregory, Bishop of Greater Armenia, Equal of the Apostles and Enlightener of Armenia.\"", "His relics were scattered near and far in the reign of the Eastern Roman Emperor Zeno.", "Veneration of Gregory began in the Byzantine Empire in the late 9th century with the ascend of Basil I.", "A 9th century mosaic of Gregory was uncovered in Hagia Sophia under a layer of plaster in 1847–49 during the restoration by the Fossati brothers.", "Located in the south tympanum, next to the Fathers of the Church, it shows Gregory standing in bishop robes, blessing with one hand and holding the Book of the Gospels with the other.", "The mosaic, thought to have been destroyed in the 1894 earthquake, survives in drawing by Wilhelm Salzenberg and the Fossati brothers.", "Sirarpie Der Nersessian argued that his inclusion in the series of the Church Fathers is explained by the myth of the Arsacid origin of Basil I, likely fabricated by Patriarch Photios I of Constantinople.", "Gregory is depicted in two prominent Byzantine illuminated manuscripts—the ''Menologion of Basil II'' (c. 1000) and the ''Theodore Psalter'' (1066)—and in a number of Byzantine churches and monasteries, most notably Hosios Loukas (11th century), Church of Panagia Chalkeon in Thessaloniki (11th century), and the Pammakaristos Church in Constantinople (14th century).One of the sections of Moscow's iconic Saint Basil's Cathedral is named after Gregory the Armenian (''Tserkov Grigoriya Armyanskogo'').", "It is dedicated to the capture of Ars Tower of the Kazan Kremlin by Ivan the Terrible during the Siege of Kazan on September 30, 1552, on his feast day.File:Gregory the Illuminator mosaic in Hagia Sophia by Wilhelm Salzenberg.jpg|Lost mosaic from Hagia Sophia (9th century)File:Menologion of Basil 038.jpg|in the ''Menologion of Basil II'' (c. 1000)File:Theodore Psalter.", "Gregory brings Tiridates to Christ.jpg|in the ''Theodore Psalter'' (1066)File:Istanbul - Chiesa Pammacaristos (Fetiye camii) - San Gregorio armeniaco - Foto G. Dall'Orto 26-5-2006.jpg|A mosaic at the Pammakaristos Church (14th century)===Italy and the Catholic world===A statue of St. Gregory in Vatican's St. Peter's Basilica inaugurated in 2005.In the 8th century, the iconoclast decrees in Greece caused a number of religious orders to flee the Byzantine Empire and seek refuge elsewhere.", "San Gregorio Armeno in Naples was built in that century over the remains of a Roman temple dedicated to Ceres, by a group of nuns escaping from the Byzantine Empire with the relics of Gregory, including his skull, a femur bone, his staff, the leather straps used in his torture and the manacles that held the saint.", "The femur and manacles were returned by Pope John Paul II to Catholicos Karekin II and are now enshrined at Saint Gregory the Illuminator Cathedral in Yerevan.", "On 20 February, 1743, Nardò, Italy was hit by a devastating earthquake that destroyed almost the entire city.", "The only structure to survive intact after the quake was the city's statue of St. Gregory the Illuminator.", "According to the city's registers, only 350 out of the city's 10,000 inhabitants died in the earthquake, leading the inhabitants to believe that St. Gregory saved the city.", "Every year, they mark the anniversary of the earthquake by holding three days of celebrations in his honor.", "Relics of the saint are kept at Nardò Cathedral.He is listed on September 30 in the Roman Martyrology of the Ordinary Form of the Catholic Church; his feast day is listed as October 1 in the Extraordinary Form.", "He is honored with a feast day on the liturgical calendar of the Episcopal Church (USA) on March 23.A tall statue of Gregory in the Carrara marble was installed in the north courtyard of St. Peter's Basilica in Vatican City in January 2005.Sculpted by France-based Lebanese-Armenian sculptor Khatchik Kazandjian, the statue was inaugurated by Pope John Paul II.", "Gregory is depicted holding a cross in one hand and the Bible in the other.", "Pope Benedict XVI inaugurated the area as St. Gregory the Illuminator Courtyard in February 2008." ], [ "Gallery", "Image:Stgregoryilluminator.jpg|14th-century Byzantine icon of St. GregoryImage:The Right Hand of St Gregory the Illuminator.jpg|The Right Arm of Gregory in the museum of the Holy See of Cilicia in Antelias, LebanonFile:2014 Erywań, Katedra św.", "Grzegorza Oświeciciela (05) cropped.jpg|Saint Gregory the Illuminator Cathedral, Yerevan, completed in 2001, contains the remains of Gregory" ], [ "See also", "*Eastern Christianity*Gregorids*Gregory of Narek, similarly named saint venerated by Armenian christians*Vardapet, Armenian preaching monks" ], [ "References", "===Notes======Citations===" ], [ "Sources", "* * * * * * * * * * * * ***" ], [ "External links", "* * ''Agathangelos: History of St. Gregory and the Conversion of Armenia''** Gandzasar Monastery, Nagorno Karabakh" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "God Emperor of Dune" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''God Emperor of Dune''''' is a science fiction novel by American writer Frank Herbert, published in 1981.The fourth in his ''Dune'' series of six novels, it was ranked as the No.", "11 hardcover fiction best seller of 1981 by ''Publishers Weekly''." ], [ "Plot", "Leto II Atreides, the God Emperor, has ruled the universe as a tyrant for 3,500 years after becoming a hybrid of human and giant sandworm in ''Children of Dune''.", "The death of all other sandworms as a result of the terraforming of Arrakis, and his control of the remaining supply of the all-important drug melange, has allowed him to keep civilization under his complete command.", "Leto has been physically transformed into a worm, retaining only his human face and arms, and though he is now seemingly immortal and invulnerable to harm, he is prone to instinct-driven bouts of violence when provoked to anger.", "As a result, his rule is one of religious awe and despotic fear.", "Leto has disbanded the Landsraad to all but a few Great Houses; the remaining powers defer to his authority, although they individually conspire against him in secret.", "The Fremen have long since lost their identity and military power, and have been replaced as the Imperial army by the Fish Speakers, an all-female army who obey Leto without question.", "He has rendered the human population into a state of trans-galactic stagnation; space travel is non-existent to most people in his Empire, which he has deliberately kept to a near-medieval level of technological sophistication.", "All of this he has done in accordance with a prophecy divined through precognition that will establish an enforced peace preventing humanity from destroying itself through aggressive behavior.The desert planet Arrakis has been entirely transformed by terraforming into a lush forested biosphere with the exception of \"The Sareer\", a single section of desert retained by Leto for his Citadel.", "A string of Duncan Idaho gholas have served Leto over the millennia, and Leto has also fostered the bloodline of his twin sister Ghanima.", "Her descendant Moneo Atreides is Leto's majordomo and closest confidante, while Moneo's daughter Siona has become the leader of an Arrakis-based rebellion against Leto.", "She steals a set of secret records from his archives, not realizing that he has allowed it.", "Leto intends to breed Siona with the latest Duncan ghola, but is aware that the ghola, moved by his own morality, may try to assassinate him before this can occur.", "The Ixians send a new ambassador named Hwi Noree to serve Leto, and though he realizes that she has been specifically designed and trained to ensnare him, he cannot resist falling in love with her.", "She agrees to marry him.", "Leto tests Siona by taking her out to the middle of the desert.", "After improperly using her stillsuit to preserve moisture, dehydration forces her to accept Leto's offer of spice essence from his body to replenish her.", "Awakened to Leto's prophecy, which he calls the Golden Path, Siona is convinced of the importance of it.", "She remains dedicated to Leto's destruction, and an errant rainstorm demonstrates for her his mortal vulnerability to water.When Idaho falls in love and copulates with Hwi, Moneo sends him and Siona out to Tuono Village, an outcropping along the Royal Procession road, to keep them safe from Leto's wrath.", "Leto changes the venue of his wedding from Tabur Village to Tuono Village.", "Siona and Idaho overcome a searing mutual hatred of each other to plan an assassination.", "As Leto's wedding procession moves across a high bridge over a river, Siona's associate Nayla destroys the support beams with a lasgun.", "The bridge collapses and Leto's entourage, including Hwi, plunge to their deaths into the river below.", "Leto's body rends apart in the water; the sandtrout which are part of his body encyst the water and scurry off, while the worm portion burns and disintegrates on the shore.", "With his dying breaths, Leto reveals a secret portion of the Golden Path: the production of a human who is invisible to prescient vision.", "Having begun millennia before with the union of Leto's twin sister Ghanima and Farad'n of House Corrino, Siona is the finished result, and she and her descendants will retain this ability.", "He explains that humanity is now free from the domination of oracles, free to scatter throughout the universe, never again to face complete domination or complete destruction.", "After revealing the location of his secret spice hoard, Leto dies, leaving Duncan and Siona to face the task of managing the empire.", "The Ixians have also begun the construction of navigation computers that will render the Spacing Guild's Navigators obsolete.", "Leto's death causes the Scattering, a great forced exodus of the former Imperium citizens to other galaxies and planets." ], [ "Analysis", "In ''God Emperor of Dune'', Frank Herbert analyzes the cyclical patterns of human society, as well as humanity's evolutionary drives.", "Using his ancestral memories, Leto II has knowledge of the entirety of human history and is able to recall the effects and patterns of tyrannical institutions, from the Babylonian empire through to the Jesuits on ancient Earth, and thus builds an empire existing as a complete nexus encompassing all these methods.", "This galactic empire differs from the historical tyrants in that it is deliberately designed to end in destruction, and is only instituted in the first place as part of a plan to rescue humanity from an absolute destruction which Leto II has foreseen through his prescient visions.", "Leto II personally explores the emergent effects of civilization, noting that most hierarchical structures are remnants of evolutionary urges toward safety.", "Thus, by forming a perfectly safe and stable empire, Leto II delivers a message to be felt throughout history.Stylistically, the novel is permeated by quotations from, and speeches by its main character, Leto, to a degree unseen in any of the other ''Dune'' novels.", "The quotations are from Leto's own dictated records, made for future humanity.", "In part, this stylistic shift is an artifact of how Herbert wrote it: the first draft was written almost entirely in the first-person narrative voice, only being revised in later drafts to insert more third-person narration of events." ], [ "Critical reception", "''God Emperor of Dune'' was ranked as the No.", "11 hardcover fiction best seller of 1981 by ''Publishers Weekly''.", "The ''Los Angeles Times'' wrote that the novel was \"Rich fare ... heady stuff\", and ''Time'' called it \"a fourth visit to distant Arrakis that is every bit as fascinating as the other three—every bit as timely.\"", "Critic John Leonard of ''The New York Times'' was less charitable, stating the original ''Dune'' novel \"was just about a perfect science fiction\" that had not been improved on: \"not in ''Dune Messiah,'' in ''Children of Dune'' or in ''God Emperor of Dune.''\"" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * ''God Emperor of Dune''" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Goonhilly Satellite Earth Station" ], [ "Introduction", " '''Goonhilly Satellite Earth Station''' is a large radiocommunication site located on Goonhilly Downs near Helston on the Lizard peninsula in Cornwall, England.", "Owned by Goonhilly Earth Station Ltd under a 999-year lease from BT Group plc, it was at one time the largest satellite earth station in the world, with more than 30 communication antennas and dishes in use.", "The site also links into undersea cable lines." ], [ "History", "Its first dish, Antenna One (dubbed \"Arthur\"), was built in 1962 to link with Telstar.", "It was the first open parabolic design and is 25.9 metres (85 feet) in diameter and weighs 1,118 tonnes.", "After Pleumeur-Bodou Ground Station (Brittany) which received the first live transatlantic television broadcasts from the United States via the Telstar satellite at 0H47 GMT on 11 July 1962, Arthur received his first video in the middle of the same day.", "It is now a Grade II listed structure and is therefore protected.The site has also played a key role in communications events such as the Muhammad Ali fights, the Olympic Games, the Apollo 11 Moon landing, and 1985's Live Aid concert." ], [ "Statistics", "The site's largest dish, dubbed \"Merlin\", has a diameter of 32 metres (105 feet).", "Other dishes include Guinevere, Tristan, and Isolde after characters in Arthurian legend, much of which takes place in Cornwall.The earth station is powered by the National Grid.", "If power fails, all essential equipment will run off huge batteries for up to 20 minutes, during which time four one-megawatt diesel generators will take over.", "The nearby wind generator farm is not part of the complex." ], [ "Closure", "On 12 September 2006, BT announced it would shut down satellite operations at Goonhilly in 2008, and move them to Madley Communications Centre in Herefordshire, making that centre BT's only earth station." ], [ "Visitor centre", "Until Easter 2010 the site had a visitor centre inside which the Connected Earth gallery told the history of satellite communications.", "There were many other interactive exhibits, a cafe, a shop and one of Britain's fastest cybercafés (a one gigabit pipe and a theoretical maximum speed per computer of 100 Mbit).", "There were also tours around the main BT site and into the heart of Arthur.At its prime, the site attracted around 80,000 visitors a year, but in March 2010 BT announced that the visitor centre would be \"Closed for Easter and beyond, until further notice.\"" ], [ "Development to Commercial Deep Space Communication", "On 11 January 2011 it was announced that part of the site was to be sold to create a space science centre.", "This would involve upgrading some of the dishes to make them suitable for deep space communication with spacecraft missions.", "A new company was formed to manage the operations, Goonhilly Earth Station Ltd.", "The company leased most of the antennas for at least three years with the option to buy the entire complex in the future.", "Goonhilly Earth Station Ltd. took ownership of the site in January 2014.There are plans to connect one or more of the Goonhilly dishes into global radio astronomy interferometer networks.There are also plans to upgrade the former visitor centre into \"an outreach centre promoting space and space science for visitors, including local residents and schools\".In July 2015 European Space Agency examined if antenna Goonhilly 6 could be used to support Artemis 1 of the Orion spacecraft.", "Since then the 30 and 32 meter dishes have been refurbished, upgraded, tested and certified as deep space stations and confirm to CCSDS and now can enhance NASA's Deep-Space-Network or ESA's ESTRACK network.", "The services are offered to NASA, ESA, JAXA, ASI, CNES, CSA, DLR and UKSA.The site is (as of 2017) a partner in the bid by Newquay Airport to become the UK's first Spaceport.===Support for Moon exploration===In April 2018, Goonhilly became part of a collaboration partnership for commercial lunar mission support services, with the European Space Agency and Surrey Satellite Technology.", "The agreement calls for the upgrade of Goonhilly, and development of the Lunar Pathfinder mission.", "Plans exist for small landers with a lunar mothership providing communications relay." ], [ "Gallery", "Image:Antenna One (Arthur) at Goonhilly (rear view).jpg|Rear view of \"Arthur\"File:Goonhilly Satellite Earth Station, Cornwall, England-29Sept2009.jpg|Side view of \"Arthur\"Image:Antenna One (Arthur) at Goonhilly (front view).jpg|Front view of \"Arthur\"" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Godwin's law" ], [ "Introduction", "An attendee at the Rally to Restore Sanity and/or Fear wearing a T-shirt implicitly referencing Godwin's Law: \"I disagree with you but I'm pretty sure you're not Hitler.", "\"'''Godwin's law''', short for '''Godwin's law''' (or '''rule''') '''of Nazi analogies''', is an Internet adage asserting: \"As an online discussion grows longer, the probability of a comparison involving Nazis or Hitler approaches 1.\"" ], [ "History", "Promulgated by the American attorney and author Mike Godwin in 1990, Godwin's law originally referred specifically to Usenet newsgroup discussions.", "He stated that he introduced Godwin's law in 1990 as an experiment in memetics, specifically to address the ubiquity of such comparisons which he believes regrettably trivialize the Holocaust.", "Later, it was applied to any threaded online discussion, such as Internet forums, chat rooms, and social-media comment threads, as well as to speeches, articles, and other rhetoric where occurs.In 2012, ''Godwin's law'' became an entry in the third edition of the ''Oxford English Dictionary''." ], [ "Generalization, corollaries, and usage", "Godwin's law can be applied mistakenly or abused as a distraction, a diversion, or even censorship, when miscasting an opponent's argument as hyperbole even when the comparison made by the argument is appropriate.", "Godwin has criticized the over-application of the adage, claiming that it does not articulate a fallacy, but rather is intended to reduce the frequency of inappropriate and hyperbolic comparisons:In 2021, Harvard researchers published an article showing that the Nazi-comparison phenomenon does not occur with statistically meaningful frequency in Reddit discussions.Godwin's law has many corollaries, some considered more canonical (by being adopted by Godwin himself) than others.", "For example, many newsgroups and other Internet discussion forums have a tradition that, when a Nazi or Hitler comparison is made, the thread is finished and whoever made the comparison loses whatever debate is in progress.", "This idea is itself sometimes mistakenly referred to as Godwin's law.", "Godwin rejects the idea that whoever invokes Godwin's law has lost the argument, and suggests that, applied appropriately, the rule \"should function less as a conversation ender and more as a conversation starter.\"", "In an interview with ''Time Magazine'', Godwin said that making comparisons to Hitler would actually be appropriate under the right circumstances:In August 2017, while commenting on the Unite the Right rally in Charlottesville, Virginia, Godwin himself endorsed and encouraged social-media users to compare its \"alt-right\" participants to Nazis.Godwin has denied the need to update or amend the rule.", "in June 2018, he wrote, in an opinion piece for the ''Los Angeles Times'': \"It still serves us as a tool to recognize specious comparisons to Nazism – but also, by contrast, to recognize comparisons that aren't.\"" ], [ "See also", "* Association fallacy* Goebbels gap* List of eponymous laws* Nazi analogies* Poe's law* * Straw man* Thought-terminating cliché" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "* * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Groningen (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Groningen''' is a city in the Netherlands.", "'''Groningen''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Places", "*Groningen (province), a province of the Netherlands of which Groningen is the capital city*Lordship of Groningen, the name under which the province was ruled by the Habsburg between 1536 and 1594*Groningen gas field, a natural gas field in province of Groningen*Groningen, Suriname, a town in the Saramacca District, Suriname*Groningen, Minnesota, an unincorporated community in Minnesota, United States*Gröningen, a town in Saxony-Anhalt, Germany*Grøningen, a Norwegian lake" ], [ "Other uses", "*Groningen (cattle), a breed of dairy cattle*Gronings dialect, the Dutch language dialect spoken in Groningen*FC Groningen, the football club from Groningen, the Netherlands*HNLMS ''Groningen'', several ships of the Dutch navy*University of Groningen, Netherlands" ], [ "See also", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Goya (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Francisco Goya''' (1746–1828) was a Spanish romantic painter and printmaker.", "'''Goya''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Film and television", "* ''Goya or the Hard Way to Enlightenment'', a 1971 East German film* ''Goya'' (TV series), a 2015 Pakistani television series* Goya Awards, a film award in Spain* Goya (film), a 2022 Mexican drama film" ], [ "Music", "* Goya (band), a Polish pop group* ''Goya: A Life in Song'', a musical by Maury Yeston* ''Goya'' (opera), an opera by Gian Carlo Menotti* Goya guitar, a line of acoustic guitars created by Levin* Goya, a line of electric guitars by Hagström" ], [ "Places", "* Goya, Argentina, a city in Corrientes Province, Argentina** Goya Department, Corrientes Province, Argentina* Goya (crater), a crater on Mercury" ], [ "Ships", "* , a Norwegian motor freighter used by Nazi Germany in World War II* SS ''Goya'', a Norwegian ship that carried eastern European refugees to New Zealand in 1951" ], [ "Other uses", "* Goya Foods, a food manufacturer and distributor in the U.S. and Latin America* ''Goya'' (moth), a genus of moth* Goya (surname)* Goya (wrestler) (b.", "1987), Mexican professional wrestler* Greek Orthodox Youth of America, a Greek-American youth group* 6592 Goya, a Main-belt asteroid* Goya Museum, a museum in Castres, France*Goya (Madrid Metro), a station named after the Spanish painter* Bitter melon or goya, a tropical and subtropical vine with edible fruit* ''Goya'', a biography by Lion Feuchtwanger* ''Goya'', a biography by Robert Hughes* Goya, a nightclub in the former Neues Schauspielhaus, Berlin, Germany" ], [ "See also", "* Goia (disambiguation)* Goiás (disambiguation)*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Green Bay Packers" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Green Bay Packers''' are a professional American football team based in Green Bay, Wisconsin.", "The Packers compete in the National Football League (NFL) as a member club of the National Football Conference (NFC) North division.", "It is the third-oldest franchise in the NFL, dating back to 1919, and is the only non-profit, community-owned major league professional sports team based in the United States.", "Home games have been played at Lambeau Field since 1957.They have the most wins of any NFL franchise.The Packers are the last of the \"small-town teams\" that were common in the NFL during the league's early days of the 1920s and 1930s.", "Founded in 1919 by Earl \"Curly\" Lambeau and George Whitney Calhoun, the franchise traces its lineage to other semi-professional teams in Green Bay dating back to 1896.Between 1919 and 1920, the Packers competed against other semi-pro clubs from around Wisconsin and the Midwest, before joining the American Professional Football Association (APFA), the forerunner of today's NFL, in 1921.In 1933, the Packers began playing part of their home slate in Milwaukee until changes at Lambeau Field in 1995 made it more lucrative to stay in Green Bay full-time; Milwaukee is still considered a home media market for the team.", "Although Green Bay is by far the smallest major league professional sports market in North America, ''Forbes'' ranked the Packers as the world's 27th-most-valuable sports franchise in 2019, with a value of $2.63 billion.The Packers have won 13 league championships, the most in NFL history, with nine pre-Super Bowl NFL titles and four Super Bowl victories.", "The Packers, under coach Vince Lombardi, won the first two Super Bowls in 1966 and 1967; they were the only NFL team to defeat the American Football League (AFL) before the AFL–NFL merger.", "After Lombardi retired, the Super Bowl trophy was named for him, but the team struggled through the 1970s and 1980s.", "Since 1993, the team has enjoyed much regular-season success, making the playoffs 23 times and winning two Super Bowls in 1996 under head coach Mike Holmgren and 2010 under head coach Mike McCarthy.", "The Packers have the most wins (826) and the second-highest win–loss record (.571) in NFL history, including both regular season and playoff games.The Packers are longstanding adversaries of the Chicago Bears, Minnesota Vikings, and Detroit Lions, who today form the NFL's NFC North division (formerly known as the NFC Central Division).", "They have played more than 100 games against each of those teams, and have a winning overall record against all of them, a distinction only shared with the Kansas City Chiefs and Dallas Cowboys.", "The Bears–Packers rivalry is one of the oldest rivalries in U.S. professional sports history, dating to 1921." ], [ "Franchise history", "Curly Lambeau, founder, player and first coach of the Packers=== Curly Lambeau years (1919–1949) ===The Green Bay Packers were founded on August 11, 1919 by former high-school football rivals Earl \"Curly\" Lambeau and George Whitney Calhoun.", "Lambeau solicited funds for uniforms from his employer, the Indian Packing Company, a meat packing company.", "He was given $500 ($ today) for uniforms and equipment, on the condition that the team be named after its sponsor.", "The Green Bay Packers have played in their original city longer than any other team in the NFL.On August 27, 1921, the Packers were granted a franchise in the American Professional Football Association, a new national pro football league that had been formed the previous year.", "The APFA changed its name to the National Football League a year later.", "Financial troubles plagued the team, and the franchise was forfeited within the year before Lambeau found new financial backers and regained the franchise the next year.", "These backers, known as \"The Hungry Five\", formed the Green Bay Football Corporation.==== NFL champions (1929, 1930, 1931) ====After a near-miss in 1927, Lambeau's squad claimed the Packers' first NFL title in 1929 with an undefeated 12–0–1 campaign, behind a stifling defense which registered eight shutouts.", "Green Bay would repeat as league champions in 1930 and 1931, bettering teams from New York, Chicago and throughout the league, with all-time greats and future Hall of Famers Mike Michalske, Johnny (Blood) McNally, Cal Hubbard and Green Bay native Arnie Herber.", "Among the many impressive accomplishments of these years was the Packers' streak of 29 consecutive home games without defeat, an NFL record which still stands.==== NFL champions (1936, 1939, 1944) ====leftThe arrival of end Don Hutson from Alabama in 1935 gave Lambeau and the Packers the most feared and dynamic offensive weapon in the game.", "Credited with inventing pass patterns, Hutson would lead the league in receptions eight seasons and spur the Packers to NFL championships in 1936, 1939 and 1944.An iron man, Hutson played both ways, leading the league in interceptions as a safety in 1940.Hutson claimed 18 NFL records when he retired in 1945, many of which still stand.", "In 1951, his number 14 was the first to be retired by the Packers, and he was inducted as a charter member of the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 1963.After Hutson's retirement, Lambeau could not stop the Packers' slide.", "He purchased a large lodge near Green Bay for team members and families to live.", "Rockwood Lodge was the home of the 1946–49 Packers.", "The 1947 and 1948 seasons produced a record of 12–10–1, and 1949 was even worse at 3–9.The lodge burned down on January 24, 1950, and insurance money paid for many of the Packers' debts.A 1950 depiction of Tony Canadeo, whose No.", "3 was retired by the Packers in 1952Curly Lambeau departed after the 1949 season.", "Gene Ronzani and Lisle Blackbourn could not coach the Packers back to their former magic, even as a new stadium was unveiled in 1957.The losing would descend to the disastrous 1958 campaign under coach Ray \"Scooter\" McLean, whose lone 1–10–1 year at the helm is the worst in Packers history.===Vince Lombardi years (1959–1967)===Former New York Giants assistant Vince Lombardi was hired as Packers head coach and general manager on February 2, 1959.Few suspected the hiring represented the beginning of a remarkable, immediate turnaround.", "Under Lombardi, the Packers would become ''the'' team of the 1960s, winning five championships over a seven-year span, including victories in the first two Super Bowls.", "During the Lombardi era, the stars of the Packers' offense included Bart Starr, Jim Taylor, Carroll Dale, Paul Hornung (as halfback and placekicker), Forrest Gregg, and Jerry Kramer.", "The defense included Willie Davis, Henry Jordan, Willie Wood, Ray Nitschke, Dave Robinson, and Herb Adderley.retired by the PackersThe Packers' first regular-season game under Lombardi was on September 27, 1959, a 9–6 victory over the Chicago Bears in Green Bay.", "After winning their first three, the Packers lost the next five before finishing strong by sweeping their final four.", "The 7–5 record represented the Packers' first winning season since 1947, enough to earn rookie head coach Lombardi the NFL Coach of the Year.The next year, the Packers, led by Paul Hornung's 176 points, won the NFL West title and played in the NFL Championship against the Philadelphia Eagles at Philadelphia.", "In a see-saw game, the Packers trailed by only four points when All-Pro Eagle linebacker Chuck Bednarik tackled Jim Taylor just nine yards short of the goal line as time expired.====NFL champions (1961, 1962, 1965)====The \"Golden Boy\" Paul Hornung, featured on a 1961 sports cardThe Packers returned to the NFL Championship game the following season and faced the New York Giants in the first league title game to be played in Green Bay.", "The Packers scored 24-second-quarter points, including a championship-record 19 by Paul Hornung, on special \"loan\" from the Army (one touchdown, four extra-points and three field goals), powering the Packers to a 37–0 rout of the Giants, their first NFL Championship since 1944.It was in 1961 that Green Bay became known as \"Titletown\".The Packers stormed back in the 1962 season, jumping out to a 10–0 start on their way to a 13–1 season.", "This consistent level of success would lead to Lombardi's Packers becoming one of the most prominent teams of their era, and to being featured as the face of the NFL on the cover of ''Time'' on December 21, 1962, as part of the magazine's cover story on \"The Sport of the '60s\".", "Shortly after ''Time'' article, the Packers faced the Giants in a much more brutal championship game than the previous year, but the Packers prevailed on the kicking of Jerry Kramer and the determined running of Jim Taylor.", "The Packers defeated the Giants in New York, 16–7.The Packers returned to the championship game in 1965 following a two-year absence when they defeated the Colts in a playoff for the Western Conference title.", "That game would be remembered for Don Chandler's controversial tying field goal in which the ball allegedly went wide right, but the officials signaled \"good\".", "The 13–10 overtime win earned the Packers a trip to the NFL Championship game, where Hornung and Taylor ran through the defending champion Cleveland Browns, helping the Packers win, 23–12, to earn their third NFL Championship under Lombardi and ninth overall.", "Goalpost uprights would be made taller the next year.====Super Bowl I champions (1966)====Willie Davis (left) and Henry Jordan tackling a Chiefs player in the first AFL-NFL Championship (Super Bowl I)The 1966 season saw the Packers led to the first-ever Super Bowl by MVP quarterback Bart Starr.", "The team went 12–2, and as time wound down in the NFL Championship against the Dallas Cowboys, the Packers clung to a 34–27 lead.", "Dallas had the ball on the Packers' two-yard line, threatening to tie the ballgame.", "But on fourth down the Packers' Tom Brown intercepted Don Meredith's pass in the end zone to seal the win.", "The team crowned its season by rolling over the AFL champion Kansas City Chiefs 35–10 in Super Bowl I.====Super Bowl II champions (1967)====The 1967 season was the last for Lombardi as the Packers' head coach.", "The NFL Championship game, a rematch of the 1966 contest against Dallas, became indelibly known as the \"Ice Bowl\" as a result of the brutal conditions at Lambeau Field.", "Still the coldest NFL game ever played, it remains one of the most famous football games at any level in the history of the sport.", "With 16 seconds left, Bart Starr's touchdown on a quarterback sneak brought the Packers a 21–17 victory and their still unequaled third straight NFL Championship.", "They then won Super Bowl II with a 33–14 victory over the Oakland Raiders.", "Lombardi stepped down as head coach after the game, and Phil Bengtson was named his successor.", "Lombardi remained as general manager for one season but left in 1969 to become head coach and minority owner of the Washington Redskins.After Lombardi died of cancer on September 3, 1970, the NFL renamed the Super Bowl trophy the Vince Lombardi Trophy in recognition of his accomplishments with the Packers.", "The city of Green Bay renamed Highland Avenue in his honor in 1968, placing Lambeau Field at 1265 Lombardi Avenue ever since.1982–83 playoffs, only qualified for the postseason twice during the team's post-Lombardi \"dark ages\" (1969–91).For about a quarter-century after Lombardi's departure, the Packers had relatively little on-field success.", "In the 24 seasons from 1968 to 1991, they had only five seasons with a winning record, one being the shortened 1982 strike season.", "They appeared in the playoffs twice, with a 1–2 record.", "The period saw five different head coaches—Phil Bengtson, Dan Devine, Bart Starr, Forrest Gregg, and Lindy Infante—two of whom, Starr and Gregg, were Lombardi's era stars, while Bengtson was a former Packer coach.", "Each led the Packers to a worse record than his predecessor.", "Poor personnel decisions were rife, notoriously the 1974 trade by acting general manager Dan Devine which sent five 1975 or 1976 draft picks (two first-rounders, two-second-rounders and a third) to the Los Angeles Rams for aging quarterback John Hadl, who would spend only 1 seasons in Green Bay.", "Another came in the 1989 NFL Draft, when offensive lineman Tony Mandarich was taken with the second overall pick ahead of future Hall of Fame inductees Barry Sanders, Derrick Thomas, and Deion Sanders.", "Though rated highly by nearly every professional scout at the time, Mandarich's performance failed to meet expectations, earning him ESPN's ranking as the third \"biggest sports flop\" in the last 25 years.Packers great Brett Favre played for 16 years in Green Bay.", "He had his No.", "4 jersey retired by the Packers in 2015.The Packers' performance in the 1970s, 1980s, and early 1990s led to a shakeup, with Ron Wolf hired as general manager and given full control of the team's football operations to start the 1991 season.=== Mike Holmgren years (1992–1998) ===In 1992, Wolf hired San Francisco 49ers offensive coordinator Mike Holmgren as the Packers' new head coach.Soon afterward, Wolf acquired quarterback Brett Favre from the Atlanta Falcons for a first-round pick.", "Favre got the Packers their first win of the 1992 season, stepping in for injured quarterback Don Majkowski and leading a comeback over the Cincinnati Bengals.", "He started the following week, a win against the Pittsburgh Steelers, and never missed another start for Green Bay through the end of the 2007 season.", "He would go on to break the record for consecutive starts by an NFL quarterback, starting 297 consecutive games including stints with the New York Jets and Minnesota Vikings with the streak finally coming to an end late in the 2010 season.The Packers had a 9–7 record in 1992, and began to turn heads around the league when they signed perhaps the most prized free agent in NFL history in Reggie White on the defense in 1993.White believed that Wolf, Holmgren, and Favre had the team heading in the right direction with a \"total commitment to winning\".", "With White on board the Packers made it to the second round of the playoffs during both the 1993 and 1994 seasons but lost their 2nd-round matches to their playoff rival, the Dallas Cowboys, playing in Dallas on both occasions.", "In 1995, the Packers won the NFC Central Division championship for the first time since 1972.After a home playoff 37–20 win against Favre's former team, the Atlanta Falcons, the Packers defeated the defending Super Bowl champion San Francisco 49ers 27–17 in San Francisco on the road to advance to the NFC Championship Game, where they lost again to the Dallas Cowboys 38–27.==== Super Bowl XXXI champions (1996) ====Reggie White in 1998.White is widely considered one of the greatest defensive players in NFL history, and had his number retired by the Packers in 2005.In 1996, the Packers' turnaround was complete.", "The team posted a league-best 13–3 record in the regular season, dominating the competition and securing home-field advantage throughout the playoffs.", "They were ranked no.", "1 in offense with Brett Favre leading the way, no.", "1 in defense with Reggie White as the leader of the defense and no.", "1 in special teams with former Heisman Trophy winner Desmond Howard returning punts and kickoffs for touchdowns.", "After relatively easy wins against the San Francisco 49ers in a muddy 35–14 beatdown and Carolina Panthers 30–13, the Packers advanced to the Super Bowl for the first time in 29 years.", "In Super Bowl XXXI, Green Bay defeated the New England Patriots 35–21 to win their 12th championship.", "Desmond Howard was named MVP of the game for his kickoff return for a touchdown that ended the Patriots' bid for a comeback.", "Then-Packers president Bob Harlan credited Wolf, Holmgren, Favre, and White for ultimately changing the fortunes of the organization and turning the Green Bay Packers into a model NFL franchise.", "A 2007 panel of football experts at ESPN ranked the 1996 Packers the 6th-greatest team ever to play in the Super Bowl.The following season the Packers recorded another 13–3 record and won their second consecutive NFC championship.", "After defeating the Tampa Bay Buccaneers 21–7 and San Francisco 49ers 23–10 in the playoffs, the Packers returned to the Super Bowl as an 11 point favorite.", "The team ended up losing in an upset to John Elway and the Denver Broncos in Super Bowl XXXII, by the score of 31–24.Holmgren, one of three Packer coaches to win a Super Bowl, pictured in 1998In 1998, the Packers went 11–5 and met the San Francisco 49ers in the first round of the NFC playoffs.", "It was the fourth consecutive year these teams had met in the playoffs and the sixth overall contest since the 1995 season.", "The Packers had won all previous games, and the media speculated that another 49ers loss would result in the dismissal of San Francisco head coach Steve Mariucci.", "Unlike the previous playoff matches, this game was hotly contested, with the teams frequently exchanging leads.", "With 4:19 left in the 4th quarter, Brett Favre and the Packers embarked on an 89-yard drive, which concluded with a Favre touchdown pass to receiver Antonio Freeman.", "This play appeared to give Green Bay the victory.", "But San Francisco quarterback Steve Young led the 49ers on an improbable touchdown drive, which culminated when Terrell Owens caught Young's pass between several defenders to give the 49ers a lead with three seconds remaining.", "Afterwards, the game was mired in controversy.", "Many argued that during the 49ers game-winning drive, Niners receiver Jerry Rice fumbled the ball but officials stated he was down by contact.", "Television replays confirmed the fumble, but referees were unable to review the play; the next season the NFL reinstituted an instant replay system.", "In the end, this game turned out to be the end of an era in Green Bay.", "Days later Mike Holmgren left the Packers to become vice president, general manager and head coach of the Seattle Seahawks.", "Much of Holmgren's coaching staff went with him, and Reggie White also retired after the season (but later played one season for the Carolina Panthers in 2000).In 1999, the team struggled to find an identity after the departure of so many of the individuals responsible for their Super Bowl run.", "Ray Rhodes was hired in 1999 as the team's new head coach.", "Rhodes had served around the league as a highly regarded defensive coordinator and more recently experienced moderate success as head coach of the Philadelphia Eagles from 1995 to 1998.Ron Wolf believed that Rhodes' experience and player-friendly demeanor would fit nicely in Green Bay's veteran locker room, but Rhodes was fired after one 8–8 season.", "Wolf visited team practice late in the 1999 season and believed that players had become too comfortable with Rhodes' style, and said the atmosphere resembled a country club.In 2000, Wolf replaced Rhodes with Mike Sherman.", "Sherman had never been a head coach at any level of football and was relatively unknown in NFL circles.", "He had only coached in professional football for three years starting as the Packers' tight ends coach in 1997 and 1998.In 1999, he followed Mike Holmgren to Seattle and became the Seahawks' offensive coordinator, although Sherman did not call the plays during games.", "Despite Sherman's apparent anonymity, Wolf was blown away in the interview process by the coach's organizational skills and attention to detail.", "Sherman's inaugural season started slowly, but the Packers won their final four games to achieve a 9–7 record.", "Brett Favre praised the atmosphere Sherman had cultivated in Green Bay's locker room and fans were optimistic about the team's future.", "In the offseason, however, Wolf suddenly announced his own resignation as general manager to take effect after the April 2001 draft.", "Packers' president Bob Harlan was surprised by Wolf's decision and felt unsure of how to replace him.", "Harlan preferred the structure Green Bay had employed since 1991; a general manager who ran football operations and hired a subservient head coach.", "But with the momentum and locker room chemistry that was built during the 2000 season, Harlan was reluctant to bring in a new individual with a potentially different philosophy.", "Wolf recommended that Harlan give the job to Sherman.", "Though Harlan was wary of the structure in principle, he agreed with Wolf that it was the best solution.", "In 2001, Sherman assumed the duties of both general manager and head coach.From 2001 to 2004, Sherman coached the Packers to respectable regular-season success, led by the spectacular play of Brett Favre, Ahman Green, and a formidable offensive line.", "But Sherman's teams faltered in the playoffs.", "Prior to 2003, the Packers had never lost a home playoff game since the NFL instituted a post-season in 1933 (they were 13–0, with 11 of the wins at Lambeau and two more in Milwaukee.).", "That ended January 4, 2003, when the Atlanta Falcons defeated the Packers 27–7 in an NFC Wild Card game.", "The Packers would also lose at home in the playoffs to the Minnesota Vikings two years later.By the end of the 2004 season, the Packers team depth appeared to be diminishing.", "Sherman also seemed overworked and reportedly had trouble communicating with players on the practice field with whom he was also negotiating contracts.", "Harlan felt the dual roles were too much for one man to handle and removed Sherman from the general manager position in early 2005 while retaining him as a head coach.", "Harlan hired the Seattle Seahawks' vice president of operations Ted Thompson as the new executive vice president, general manager and director of football operations.", "The relationship between Thompson and Sherman appeared strained, as Thompson immediately began rebuilding Green Bay's roster.", "Following a dismal 4–12 season, Thompson fired Sherman.=== Mike McCarthy years (2006–2018) ===Former Packers wide receiver 302x302pxIn 2006, Thompson hired Mike McCarthy, the former offensive coordinator for the San Francisco 49ers and New Orleans Saints, as his new head coach.", "McCarthy had also previously served as the quarterbacks coach for the Packers in 1999.In McCarthy's debut year coaching the Packers, the team began the season with a 4–8 record.", "Then, Brett Favre sustained injuries, as did the backup quarterback, Aaron Rodgers.", "Despite the injuries, McCarthy coached the team to four consecutive wins, finishing with an 8–8 record.After missing the playoffs in 2006, Brett Favre announced that he would return for the 2007 season; under McCarthy it would turn out to be one of his best.", "The Packers won 10 of their first 11 games and finished 13–3, earning a first-round bye in the playoffs.", "That was sufficient to propel McCarthy to secure the best record among active coaches through their first 25 games.", "The Packers' passing offense, led by Favre and a very skilled wide receiver group, finished second in the NFC, behind the Dallas Cowboys, and third overall in the league.", "Running back Ryan Grant, acquired for a sixth-round draft pick from the New York Giants, became the featured back in Green Bay and rushed for 956 yards and 8 touchdowns in the final 10 games of the regular season.", "In the divisional playoff round, in a heavy snowstorm, the Packers beat the Seattle Seahawks 42–20.Grant rushed for 201 yards and three touchdowns, while Favre tossed an additional three touchdown passes to receiver Donald Driver (as well as a snowball, which Favre memorably threw at Driver in celebration).On January 20, 2008, Green Bay appeared in their first NFC Championship Game in 10 years facing the New York Giants in Green Bay.", "The game was lost 23–20 on an overtime field goal by Lawrence Tynes.", "This would be Brett Favre's final game as a Green Bay Packer with his final pass being an interception in overtime.Mike McCarthy coached the NFC team during the 2008 Pro Bowl in Hawaii.", "Al Harris and Aaron Kampman were also picked to play for the NFC Pro Bowl team as starters.", "Donald Driver was named as a third-string wideout on the Pro Bowl roster.", "Brett Favre was named the first-string quarterback for the NFC, but he declined to play in the Pro Bowl and was replaced on the roster by Tampa Bay quarterback Jeff Garcia.", "The Packers also had several first alternates, including offensive tackle Chad Clifton and linebacker Nick Barnett.In December 2007, Ted Thompson was signed to a 5-year contract extension with the Packers.", "In addition, on February 5, 2008, head coach Mike McCarthy signed a 5-year contract extension.Quarterback Aaron Rodgers in 2008On March 4, 2008, Brett Favre announced his retirement.", "Within five months, however, he filed for reinstatement with the NFL on July 29.Favre's petition was granted by Commissioner Roger Goodell, effective August 4, 2008.On August 6, 2008, it was announced that Brett Favre was traded to the New York Jets for a conditional draft pick in 2009.The Packers began their 2008 season with their 2005 first-round draft pick, quarterback Aaron Rodgers, under center, as the first QB other than Favre to start for the Packers in 16 years.", "Rodgers played well in his first year starting for the Packers, throwing for over 4,000 yards and 28 touchdowns.", "However, injuries plagued the Packers' defense, as they lost 7 close games by 4 points or less, finishing with a 6–10 record.", "After the season, eight assistant coaches were dismissed by the organization, including Bob Sanders, the team's defensive coordinator, who was replaced by Dom Capers.In March 2009, the organization assured fans that Brett Favre's jersey number would be retired, but not during the 2009 season.", "In April 2009, the Packers selected defensive lineman B. J. Raji of Boston College as the team's first pick in the draft.", "The team then traded three draft picks (including the pick the Packers acquired from the Jets for Brett Favre) for another first-round pick, selecting linebacker Clay Matthews III of the University of Southern California.During the 2009 NFL season, two match-ups between the franchise and its former quarterback Brett Favre were highly anticipated after Favre's arrival with the division-rival Vikings in August.", "The first encounter took place in Week 4, on a Monday Night Football game that broke several TV audience records.", "The scheduling of this game was made possible when Baseball Commissioner and Packer board of directors member Bud Selig forced baseball's Minnesota Twins to play 2 games within a 12-hour span.", "The Vikings won the game 30–23.Brett Favre threw 3 TDs, no interceptions, and had a passer rating of 135.The teams met for a second time in Week 8, Favre leading the Vikings to a second win, 38–26, in Green Bay.", "Rodgers was heavily pressured in both games, being sacked 14 times total, but still played well, throwing five touchdowns and only one interception.", "The next week, the Packers were upset by the winless Tampa Bay Buccaneers.", "Following a players-only meeting, the team found some stability on the offensive line with the return of tackle Mark Tauscher bringing a minor halt to sacks to Rodgers and opening the running game to Ryan Grant and the other running backs.", "Green Bay finished the season strongly, winning 7 out of their last 8 games, including winning their 16th regular season finale in the past 17 seasons, and earning a NFC wild-card playoff bid with an 11–5 regular-season record.", "The Packers defense was ranked No.", "2 and the offense was ranked No.", "6 with rookies Brad Jones and Clay Matthews III becoming sensations at linebacker and young players like James Jones, Brandon Jackson, Jermichael Finley and Jordy Nelson becoming threats on offense.", "Rodgers also became the first quarterback in NFL history to throw for at least 4,000 yards in each of his first two seasons as a starter.", "Also, cornerback Charles Woodson won NFL Defensive Player of the Year honors after recording 9 interceptions, forcing four fumbles, 3 touchdowns and registering 74 tackles and 2 sacks.", "In fact, Woodson's 9 interceptions were more than the 8 collected by all Packer opponents that season.", "Though the defense was ranked high, injuries to Al Harris, Tramon Williams, Will Blackmon, Atari Bigby and Brandon Underwood severely limited the depth of the secondary and teams like the Minnesota Vikings and Pittsburgh Steelers used that to their advantage by unleashing aerial assaults against inexperienced players with the NFL's best receivers.", "The season ended with an overtime loss in a wild card round shootout at the Arizona Cardinals, 51–45.It was the second time McCarthy led the Packers to the postseason.", "While they weren't as successful as their 90s counterparts in the postseason, the 2000s were by no means a dark time for the Packers.", "The team finished the decade with the 5th highest winning percentage.====Super Bowl XLV champions (2010)====Former Super Bowl winning Packers head coach Mike McCarthyThe team lost Johnny Jolly to a season-long suspension after he violated the NFL drug policy.", "Their running corps suffered a blow when RB Ryan Grant sustained a season-ending ankle injury in Week 1.By the end of the season, the team had 16 people on injured reserve, including 7 starters: running back Ryan Grant, tight end Jermichael Finley, linebacker Nick Barnett, safety Morgan Burnett, linebacker Brandon Chillar, tackle Mark Tauscher, and linebacker Brad Jones.", "Key injuries didn't stop McCarthy's team from finishing the regular season with a 10–6 record.", "In week 7, the team faced the Minnesota Vikings, then led by former Packers quarterback Brett Favre.", "Green Bay beat Favre's new team 28–24, when Favre's final pass to Randy Moss in the end zone flew incomplete.", "In week 17, the Packers clinched their playoff berth with a 10–3 victory over the Chicago Bears at Lambeau Field, aided in large part by Nick Collins' interception of Jay Cutler's throw that allowed Green Bay to run out the clock.The Packers 10–6 record allowed them to clinch the No.", "6 seed in the NFC playoffs.", "They first faced No.", "3 seeded Philadelphia, winning 21–16.In the Divisional round, they defeated No.", "1 seed Atlanta 48–21.They then played the Chicago Bears at Soldier Field in the NFC Championship Game—only the second playoff meeting between the two storied rivals (the other a 33–14 Chicago victory which sent them to the 1941 NFL Championship Game).", "McCarthy's Packers won 21–14 to move on to Super Bowl XLV, having secured a 3–0 record in the postseason.On the evening before the Super Bowl, McCarthy had each player fitted for a championship ring.", "Aware of the motivational tactic, team president Mark Murphy instructed his organization to begin designing the ring.", "The following day on February 6, 2011, they defeated the AFC champion Pittsburgh Steelers 31–25, becoming the first No.", "6 seed from the NFC to win a Super Bowl.", "It was the first time the Packers had won the Lombardi Trophy since 1996.Aaron Rodgers was named Super Bowl MVP.During Super Bowl XLV, McCarthy's team initially enjoyed a comfortable 21–3 lead over the Steelers.", "Then, Charles Woodson had to leave the game with a broken collarbone and the Steelers' Hines Ward found the end-zone to make the score 21–10 by halftime.", "During the third quarter, Pittsburgh scored 7 more points to make the score 21–17.In the fourth quarter, Green Bay's Clay Matthews tackled Pittsburgh's Rashard Mendenhall, and Desmond Bishop recovered the ball for a key turnover.Clay Matthews (52) and Charles Woodson (21), two defensive stars for the Packers under Coach Mike McCarthyIn 2011, coming off their victory in Super Bowl XLV, the Packers won their first 13 games, eventually finishing the season 15–1.The 15 victories marked the franchise record for wins in a season, and tied for second-most regular-season wins in NFL history, behind only the 2007 Patriots who went 16–0.Following the season, Aaron Rodgers would be named the NFL's MVP, his first such award.", "During that year, McCarthy's offensive strategies aided Rodgers in throwing for 4,643 yards and 45 touchdowns.", "These strategies also propelled the Packers to lead the NFL in scoring that year.Despite receiving home-field advantage, Green Bay lost their first postseason game to eventual Super Bowl XLVI champion New York Giants, 37–20.Finishing the 2012 season with an 11–5 record and their second straight division title, the Packers beat the Minnesota Vikings in the NFC wild-card round 24–10, but lost in the divisional round of the playoffs to the eventual NFC Champion San Francisco 49ers by a score of 45–31.The Packers offense finished the season fifth in points and 11th in yards per game.", "Under McCarthy, Rodgers passed for 4,295 yards.", "The defense finished 11th in points allowed and 22nd in yards allowed per game.The Packers topped the first-ever AP Pro32 rankings, a new pro football version of the AP Top 25 college football and basketball polls.In 2013, the Packers started 5–2, leading up to a Week 9 match-up against the Bears.", "It was in that game which the Packers lost Aaron Rodgers to a broken collarbone; Rodgers would miss the next six games, during which the club would go 2–3–1 under three different quarterbacks: Seneca Wallace (injured during first start), Scott Tolzien (benched), and Matt Flynn.Despite having a 7–7–1 record, the Packers were still in a position to win the NFC North division, if they were able to win their final game.", "With Rodgers returning, the Packers managed to beat the Bears in a Week 9 rematch, 33–28.Finishing at 8–7–1, the Packers won their division and were awarded a home playoff game.", "It was the fifth consecutive time that McCarthy led his team to a playoff appearance.", "However, despite Rodgers' return, the Packers would lose to the San Francisco 49ers 20–23 in the first round of the playoffs.The Packers recorded their 700th victory, against the Bears, in Week 4.The team went undefeated at home for the first time since the 2011 season; they also led the league in scoring, with 486 points, the second-most in franchise history.", "The 2014 season also marked the first time since 2009 that the team had a 4,000-yard passer, two 1,000-yard receivers, and a 1,000-yard rusher.", "McCarthy led an offense that finished sixth in the league in total offense.", "After winning against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers in Week 16, McCarthy (99 wins) passed Hall of Famer Vince Lombardi (98) on the all-time wins list for the Packers.", "Overall, the team went 12–4, clinching the No.", "2 seed in the NFC and a fourth consecutive NFC North division title, making the playoffs for the sixth straight season, tying a franchise record.", "The Packers beat the Cowboys in the divisional round, advancing to the NFC Championship to face the Seattle Seahawks.", "After leading throughout most of regulation, the Packers lost 28–22 in a historic overtime rally by Seattle.Following the season, quarterback Aaron Rodgers was named the league's Most Valuable Player for the second time.Jordy Nelson, who tore his ACL in the 2015 preseason, would go on to be the NFL Comeback Player of the Year the following 2016 season upon returning from his injury.During Week 2 of the preseason against the Pittsburgh Steelers, wide receiver Jordy Nelson caught an eight-yard pass from Aaron Rodgers, but then fell to the turf without contact.", "A few days later, it was revealed that Nelson had torn his ACL.", "He would remain inactive for the rest of the 2015 season.", "Even without Nelson, the Packers managed to get off to a 6–0 start, but the Packers then lost four of their next five games, falling to 7–4.On December 3, against the Detroit Lions, the Packers quickly fell to a 20–0 deficit going into halftime.", "Green Bay started to make a comeback in the second half thanks to a touchdown by Davante Adams and a 27-yard touchdown run by Aaron Rodgers to bring the game within two points at 23–21.The Packers then got the ball back in their possession with 23 seconds left in the game.", "While attempting a \"lateral\" play, Rodgers was sacked with no time remaining but then a flag was thrown for a facemask penalty on Detroit.", "The Packers now had one more un-timed play, which Aaron Rodgers threw a 61-yard Hail Mary touchdown to tight end Richard Rodgers II.", "It was the longest Hail Mary touchdown pass thrown in NFL history.Up until week 14, McCarthy delegated play calling duties to associate head coach Tom Clements.", "However, the team's struggling offense made McCarthy decide to take back play calling duties.", "During that first game that McCarthy resumed play calling, the Packers ran the ball for 230 yards in 44 carries.", "Green Bay then finished the season 10–6 and 2nd in the NFC North behind the Minnesota Vikings.The Packers beat the Washington Redskins in the NFC wild-card game to advance to the divisional round with the Arizona Cardinals.", "A similar play to tie the game against the Cardinals happened between Aaron Rodgers and Jeff Janis.", "Janis caught a 41-yard touchdown from Rodgers which sent the game into overtime.", "However, the Packers fell to Arizona 26–20, ending their season.After a 4–6 start to the season, the Packers went on a six-game winning streak to finish the regular season with a 10–6 record.", "The team clinched the NFC North for the fifth time in six years with their Week 17 win over the Detroit Lions.", "At the conclusion of the regular season, the success of his team made McCarthy the fourth head coach in NFL history to guide his team to eight or more consecutive playoff appearances.", "They routed the fifth-seeded New York Giants, 38–13, in the wild-card round of the playoffs and upset the top-seeded Dallas Cowboys, 34–31, in the divisional round of the playoffs, but their season came to an end when they were beaten by the second-seeded Atlanta Falcons in the NFC Championship Game, 44–21.The Green Bay Packers began the 2017 regular season with a 4–2 record.", "On October 15, during a week 6 game against the Minnesota Vikings, Aaron Rodgers was driven to the ground by Vikings linebacker Anthony Barr after throwing a pass.", "Rodgers suffered a broken collarbone during the play, and the Packers placed him on injured reserve on October 20, with the stipulation that he could return in eight weeks (in accordance with NFL rules), especially if the injury healed quickly and the Packers were still in playoff contention.", "Rodgers did indeed return to the field for a week 15 game against the Carolina Panthers on December 17, but the Packers were eliminated from the playoff hunt after a 31–24 loss.", "The team placed Rodgers back on injured reserve after the game, a move that prompted several teams to complain that the Packers had violated the NFL's rules about reactivating injured players.During Rodgers' absence, backup quarterback Brett Hundley stepped into the starting role for the first time in his professional career, but struggled to replicate Rodgers' success, despite a Pro Bowl-caliber season by receiver Davante Adams.", "In a 23–0 loss to the Baltimore Ravens in week 11, the Packers suffered their first shutout at Lambeau Field in 11 years (the last time was a 35–0 loss to the New England Patriots in 2006).", "The Packers finished the season at 7–9, missing the playoffs for the first time since 2008.Off the field, the Packers organization opened the Titletown District adjacent to Lambeau Field.", "This shopping, entertainment, and restaurant district includes a public plaza, park, and various commercial businesses.In 2018, the Packers again failed to qualify for the playoffs, finishing third in the NFC North with a record of 6–9–1.Following a Week 13 loss to the Arizona Cardinals, Mike McCarthy was released as head coach, replaced by Offensive Coordinator Joe Philbin on an interim basis.", "McCarthy left Green Bay having tallied a 125–77–2 (.618) regular season record, as well as a postseason record of 10–8 (.556).", "His total record with the Packers was 135–85–2.McCarthy had brought the team to nine playoff berths and facilitated one Super Bowl win.", "Following the season, Matt LaFleur, the Offensive Coordinator of the Tennessee Titans the prior season, was hired as the Packers' new coach.=== Matt LaFleur years (since 2019) ===Matt Lafleur calling from his playsheetUnder first-year head coach Matt LaFleur, Aaron Rodgers and the Packers opened the season by defeating the Chicago Bears in the season's opening game, the first time since 2003 that the league-wide kickoff game did not feature the defending Super Bowl champions, with the Packers and Bears being selected for their historic rivalry in the NFL's 100th season.", "The Packers returned to the playoffs for the first time since 2016, finishing with a record of 13–3 and securing a first-round bye as the NFC's second seed.", "They defeated the Seattle Seahawks 28–23 in the NFC Divisional round to advance to the NFC Championship game, where they were defeated 37–20 by the San Francisco 49ers.In 2020, the Green Bay Packers won the NFC North Division for the second consecutive year.", "They also earned a first-round bye, with the top seed in the NFC.", "They defeated the Los Angeles Rams 32–18 in the Divisional Round, but fell to the underdog Tampa Bay Buccaneers in the NFC championship- their fourth straight loss in the game in five appearances under Rodgers.", "Rodgers won his third MVP award during the season.The next year, they clinched the top seed in the NFC again, with a 13–4 record, before losing 13–10 to the 49ers in the Divisional round.", "The special teams unit was consistently the worst in the NFL during the season, though their defense was noted as an improvement from previous seasons.", "The special teams was especially costly in the postseason game as a field goal attempt and punt were both blocked, the latter of which the 49ers returned for a touchdown.", "The defense did not allow any touchdowns in that game, as the only other points the 49ers scored were off two field goals.", "Matt LaFleur became the first coach to have three straight 13-win seasons, however none of them ended with a trip to the Super Bowl.", "For his performance in the season, Aaron Rodgers won his fourth MVP award- the second most for any quarterback, only behind Peyton Manning who has five.In the 2022 season, the Green Bay Packers struggled, and were eliminated from advancing to the NFL's wild card playoffs when they lost their last regular-season game 20–16 to the Detroit Lions.", "This was the first time the team missed the playoffs during Matt LaFleur's coaching stint, and the last season with Rodgers.", "The team finished with an 8–9 record." ], [ "Community ownership", "The Don Hutson CenterThe Packers are the only community-owned franchise in North America's four traditional major leagues.", "Rather than being the property of an individual, partnership, or corporate entity, they are held by stockholders, more than 537,000 in total as of 2022.No one is allowed to hold more than 200,000 shares.", "It is this broad-based community support and non-profit structure which has kept the team in Green Bay for nearly a century even though it is the smallest market in North American professional sports.The city of Green Bay had a population of only 107,395 as of the 2020 census, and 600,000 in its television market, significantly less than the average NFL figures.", "The team, however, has long had an extended fan base throughout Wisconsin and parts of the Midwest, thanks in part to playing one pre-season and three regular-season home games each year in Milwaukee through 1995.It was only when baseball-only Miller Park preempted football there that the Packers' home slate became played entirely in Green Bay.As of 2021, there have been six stock sales to fund Packer operations over the team's history, beginning with $5,000 being raised through 1,000 shares offered at $5 apiece in 1923.The latest was in November 2021, where they sold almost 200,000 shares.The original \"Articles of Incorporation for the Green Bay Football Corporation\", enacted in 1923, specified that should the franchise be sold, any post-expenses money would have gone to the Sullivan-Wallen Post of the American Legion to build \"a proper soldier's memorial\".", "This stipulation was included to ensure there could never be any financial inducement for shareholders to move the club from Green Bay.", "At the November 1997 annual meeting, shareholders voted to change the beneficiary from the Sullivan-Wallen Post to the Green Bay Packers Foundation, which makes donations to many charities and institutions throughout Wisconsin.Even though it is referred to as \"common stock\" in corporate offering documents, a share of Packers stock does not share the same rights traditionally associated with common or preferred stock.", "It does not include an equity interest, does not pay dividends, cannot be traded, has no securities-law protection, and brings no season ticket purchase privileges.", "All shareholders receive are voting rights, an invitation to the corporation's annual meeting, and an opportunity to buy exclusive shareholder-only merchandise.", "Shares of stock cannot be resold, except back to the team for a fraction of the original price.", "While new shares can be given as gifts, transfers are technically allowed only between immediate family members once ownership has been established.Green Bay is the only team with this form of ownership structure in the NFL, which does not comply with current league rules stipulating a maximum of 32 owners per team, with one holding a minimum 30% stake.", "The Packers' corporation was grandfathered when the NFL's current ownership policy was established in the 1980s.", "As a publicly held nonprofit, the Packers are also the only American major-league sports franchise to release its financial balance sheet every year.===Board of directors===Green Bay Packers, Inc., is governed by a seven-member executive committee elected from a 45-member board of directors.", "It consists of a president, vice president, treasurer, secretary and three members-at-large; only the president is compensated.", "Responsibilities include directing corporate management, approving major capital expenditures, establishing broad policy, and monitoring management performance.The team's elected president normally represents the Packers in NFL owners meetings.", "During his time as coach, Vince Lombardi generally represented the team at league meetings in his role as general manager, except at owners-only meetings, where president Dominic Olejniczak appeared.===Green Bay Packers Foundation===The team created the Green Bay Packers Foundation in December 1986.It assists in a wide variety of activities and programs benefiting education, civic affairs, health services, human services and youth-related programs.At the team's 1997 annual stockholders meeting the foundation was designated in place of a Sullivan-Wallen Post soldiers memorial as recipient of any residual assets upon the team's sale or dissolution." ], [ "Fan base", "Annual postcard sent out by the organization to those currently on the waiting list for season ticketsThe Packers have an exceptionally loyal fan base.", "Regardless of team performance, every game played in Green Bay—preseason, regular season, and playoffs—has been sold out since 1960.Despite the Packers having by far the smallest local TV market, the team consistently ranks as one of the most popular in the NFL.", "They also have one of the longest season ticket waiting lists in professional sports: 140,000 names long, more than there are seats at Lambeau Field.", "The average wait is said to be over 30 years, but with only 90 or so tickets turned over annually it would be 955 years before the newest name on the list got theirs.", "As a result, season tickets are willed to next of kin and newborns placed optimistically on the waiting list.A cheesehead hat, commonly worn by Packer fansPackers fans are often referred to as cheeseheads, a nickname for Wisconsin residents reflecting the state's bountiful cheese production first leveled as an insult at a 1987 game between the Chicago White Sox and Milwaukee Brewers.", "Instead, it came to be a statewide source of pride, and particularly since 1994 has been embraced by Packers fans.", "Bright orange triangular cheesehead hats are a fixture wherever the team plays.During training camp in the summer months, held outside the Don Hutson Center, young Packers fans can bring their bikes and have their favorite players ride them from the locker room to practice at Ray Nitschke Field.", "This old tradition began around the time of Lambeau Field's construction in 1957.Gary Knafelc, a Packers end at the time, said, \"I think it was just that kids wanted us to ride their bikes.", "I can remember kids saying, 'Hey, ride my bike.The team holds an annual scrimmage called Family Night, typically an intra-squad affair, at Lambeau Field.", "During 2004 and 2005 sellout crowds of over 60,000 fans showed up, with an all-time mark of 62,492 set in 2005 when the Buffalo Bills appeared.In August 2008, ESPN.com ranked Packers fans as second-best in the NFL.", "The team initially finished tied with the Pittsburgh Steelers (who finished ahead of the Packers) as having the best fans, but the tie was broken by ESPN's own John Clayton, a Pittsburgh native." ], [ "Branding", "===Nickname===The Packers' first alternate uniform, a throwback first introduced in 2010Needing to outfit his new squad, team founder Curly Lambeau solicited funds from his employer, the Indian Packing Company.", "He was given $500 for uniforms and equipment in return for the team being named for its sponsor.", "An early newspaper article referred to the fledglings as \"the Indians\", but by the time they played their first game \"Packers\" had taken hold.Indian Packing was purchased in 1920 by the Acme Packing Company.", "Acme continued to support the team, which played its first NFL season with \"ACME PACKERS\" emblazoned on its jerseys.===Team colors===Lambeau, a Notre Dame alumnus, borrowed its Irish's navy blue and gold team colors, much as George Halas borrowed his Illinois alma mater's for the Chicago Bears.", "As a result, the early Packers were often referred to as the \"Bays\" or the \"Blues\" (and even occasionally as \"the Big Bay Blues\").By 1950, Green Bay replaced navy blue with kelly green, but kept what was by then a lighter shade of athletic gold.", "Navy blue was kept as a secondary color, seen primarily on sideline capes, but was quietly dropped on all official materials shortly thereafter.", "In 1958, this kelly green was replaced by a darker hunter green; it and athletic gold have served as the team colors since.", "The team's current uniform combination of forest green or white jerseys and metallic gold pants was adopted soon after Vince Lombardi arrived in 1959.However, to celebrate the NFL's 75th anniversary in 1994, the Packers joined in a league-wide donning of \"throwback\" jerseys, back to navy blue and gold.", "The team would go throwback again for two Thanksgiving Day games against the Detroit Lions, in blue and gold 1930s-era uniforms in 2001, and 1960s green and gold (only slightly different from the current ones) in 2003.===Logo===The Green Bay Packers in their throwback navy blue uniforms in 2010In 1951, the team finally stopped wearing leather helmets, adopting the metallic gold plastic headgear it has used ever since.", "The oval \"G\" logo was added in 1961 when Lombardi asked Packers equipment manager Gerald \"Dad\" Braisher to design a logo.", "Braisher tasked his assistant, St. Norbert College art student John Gordon.", "Satisfied with a football-shaped letter \"G\", the pair presented it to Lombardi, who then approved the addition.", "Tiki Barber falsely reported it to stand for \"greatness\" without a reliable source to back up his claims.", "Other reputable media outlets then published similar stories using Barber's false claim as a source.", "The Packers' Assistant Director of PR and Corporate Communications had the following to say: \"There's nothing in our history that suggests there's any truth to this.", "The Packers Hall of Fame archivist said the same thing.\"", "The team used a number of different logos prior to 1961, but the \"G\" is the only logo that has ever appeared on the helmet.", "The Packers hold the trademark on the \"G\" logo, and have granted limited permission to other organizations to utilize a similar logo, such as the University of Georgia and Grambling State University, in addition to the city of Green Bay itself as part of its civic logo.", "Adopted in 1964, the Georgia \"G\", though different in design and color, was similar to the Packers' \"G\".", "Then-Georgia head coach Vince Dooley thought it best to clear the use of Georgia's new emblem with the Packers.===Uniform variation===While several NFL teams choose to wear white jerseys at home early in the season due to white's ability to reflect the late summer sun rays, the Packers have done so only twice, during the opening two games of the 1989 season.", "In 2016, the Packers debuted their Color Rush uniform, wearing white pants and socks with the white uniform.", "This set has been worn five times, four of them at home and two against the Chicago Bears.", "Although alternate gold jerseys with green numbers are sold on a retail basis, the team currently has no plans to introduce such a jersey to be used in actual games.During the 2010 season, the Packers paid tribute to their historical roots with a throwback jersey modeled after that worn by the club in 1929, during its first championship season.", "The jersey was navy blue with a gold circle and navy numbers, again making the Packers \"the Blues\".", "These were then changed in 2015 to the navy blue throwback worn from 1937 to 1949, featuring gold shoulders and numbers.", "In 2021, the Packers changed their throwback thirds to an all-green design, resembling the uniforms worn from 1950 to 1953.Originally, the Packers wore brown helmets with the throwbacks, but in 2013, they started wearing their gold helmets without any decals due to the then-implementation of the NFL's one-shell rule; this rule has been abolished in 2022.As a result, they changed their throwbacks in both 2015 and 2021 in order to properly recreate those original uniforms, which had gold helmets with them.Upon the NFL's switch of uniform suppliers in 2012 to Nike from Reebok, the Packers refused any changes to their uniform in any way outside of the required supplier's logo and new league uniform logos, declining all of Nike's \"Elite 51\" enhancements, including retaining the traditional striped collar of the jersey rather than Nike's new collar design." ], [ "Rivalries", "===Chicago Bears===The Packers and Chicago Bears have been rivals since their team's inception in 1920, becoming one of the oldest and most storied rivalries in the league's history.", "The Packers currently lead the series 103–95–6, and the teams have met twice in the postseason.", "The Bears won the 1941 meeting, 33–14, and eventually defeated the New York Giants in the 1941 NFL Championship Game, and the Packers won the 2011 meeting, 21–14, en route to a Super Bowl XLV win over the Pittsburgh Steelers.", "The teams' first meeting was a victory for the Bears (known as the Staleys at the time) in 1921 in a shutout, 20–0.The Packers claimed their first win over the Bears in 1925, 14–10.The 1924 matchup (which ended in a 3–0 win for Chicago) was notable for featuring the first-ever ejection of players in a game in NFL history, as Frank Hanny of the Bears and Walter Voss of the Packers were ejected for punching each other.", "The rivalry also featured one of the last successful fair catch kicks in 1968, when Bears kicker Mac Percival kicked the game-winning field goal.===Minnesota Vikings===The rivalry between the Packers and Minnesota Vikings began in 1961, similarly to their other divisional rivalries.", "It is also considered to be one of the most intense rivalries in the NFL, due the intensity of most of the matchups over the years, As is the case with many of their respective state's college teams sharing a rivalry; (Minnesota and Wisconsin) have a rivalry in multiple sports, seen between the Big Ten rivals, the University of Wisconsin and University of Minnesota.", "Events such as Randy Moss mooning the Green Bay crowd in the first playoff game between these two teams (won by the Vikings), and former Packer great Brett Favre's move to the Vikings have created more resentment between these teams.", "The Packers lead the all-time series 65–57–3, despite the two teams splitting their two playoff contests.===Detroit Lions===The Packers' rivalry with the Detroit Lions has been another one of the oldest regular matchups in the NFL.", "They first met in 1930 when the Lions were known as the Portsmouth Spartans and based in Portsmouth, Ohio.", "The team eventually moved to Detroit for the 1934 season.", "The Lions and Packers have been division rivals since 1933 and have always met at least twice a season since 1932, without any canceled games between both rivals.", "The Packers lead the series 105–75–7 as of the end of the 2022 season, the first time in NFL history that a team has recorded 100 wins over an opponent.===Dallas Cowboys===The rivalry between the Packers and Dallas Cowboys has resulted in a number of notable games in league history, including the \"Ice Bowl\" and other games impacting the playoff race.", "The rivalry heated up during the 2010s, with several of their games impacting the NFC playoff race during that decade.", "During the Brett Favre era in Green Bay, the Cowboys dominated the rivalry, going 9–2 (including 9–0 in Dallas) against the Packers when Favre was the quarterback.", "However, in the Aaron Rodgers era from 2008 to 2022, the Packers have dominated the rivalry, as Rodgers had an 8–2 record against the Cowboys with Green Bay, including a perfect 3–0 record in Dallas.", "The Packers lead the all-time series 22–17.The teams are tied 5–4 in the playoffs, with the last playoff match taking place in January 2024 at AT&T Stadium in the Wild Card round with a 48–32 Packers win.===New York Giants===The series between the Packers and New York Giants has been one of the oldest regular matchups in the league as the two teams first met in 1928.The two teams have played since 1970 in the National Football Conference, and they play each other in the regular season either every three years or depending on its NFC division placement, and in the postseason, The Packers lead the all-time series 34–27–2 and postseason series 5–3.===San Francisco 49ers===The rivalry between the Packers and the San Francisco 49ers ignited during the 1990s, with the two teams facing each other in four consecutive playoff games.", "The Packers won four of five playoff games against the 49ers with Brett Favre as its quarterback, with four of those games pitting Favre against 49ers' Hall of Fame quarterback Steve Young.", "Since 2012, the 49ers have defeated the Aaron Rodgers-led Packers four times in the playoffs.The Packers currently lead the series 38–33–1, but the 49ers have won the last four postseason meetings to take a 5–4 lead.===Seattle Seahawks===Following Seattle's relocation to the NFC in 2002, the Packers have faced the Seattle Seahawks multiple times in the playoffs, developing an intense rivalry as well.", "Some notable moments include the clubs' first playoff meeting in in which Seahawks quarterback Matt Hasselbeck threw a game-losing pick-six in overtime after guaranteeing a game-winning drive, the Fail Mary, and Russell Wilson overcoming four interceptions and a 16–0 Packers lead to lead Seattle to a 28–22 overtime win to advance to Super Bowl XLIX.===Tampa Bay Buccaneers===The Tampa Bay Buccaneers and Packers were division rivals from 1977 to 2002, when both were in the NFC Central division.", "The teams have played a number of notable games, including a Snow Bowl game in 1985, a playoff game in 1998 and the NFC Championship Game in 2021.The Packers lead the series 34–23–1." ], [ "Stadium history", "Lambeau Field after its 2003 renovationAfter their early seasons at Bellevue Park and Hagemeister Park, the Packers played home games in City Stadium from 1925 to 1956.The team won its first six NFL championships there.By the 1950s, the wooden 25,000-seat arena was considered outmoded.", "The NFL threatened to move the franchise to Milwaukee full-time unless it got a better stadium.", "The city responded by building a new 32,150 seat City Stadium for the team, the first built exclusively for an NFL team, which opened in time for the 1957 season.", "It was renamed Lambeau Field in 1965 to honor Curly Lambeau, who had died earlier in the year.Expanded seven times before the end of the 1990s, Lambeau Field capacity reached 60,890.In 2003, it was extensively renovated to expand seating, modernize stadium facilities, and add an atrium area.", "Even with a current seating capacity of 72,928, ticket demand far outpaces supply, as all Packers games have been sold out since 1960.About 86,000 names are on the waiting list for season tickets.The Packers played part of their home slate in Milwaukee starting in 1933, including two to three home games each year in Milwaukee's County Stadium from 1953 to 1994.Indeed, County Stadium had been built partly to entice the Packers to move to Milwaukee full-time.", "The Packers worked to capture their growing fan base in Milwaukee and the larger crowds.", "By the 1960s, threat of an American Football League franchise in Milwaukee prompted the Packers to stay, including scheduling a Western Conference Playoff in 1967.County Stadium was built primarily as a baseball stadium and made only the bare minimum adjustments to accommodate football.", "At its height, it only seated 56,000 people, just barely above the NFL minimum; many of those seats were badly obstructed.", "The field was just barely large enough to fit a football field.", "Both teams shared the same sideline (separated by a piece of tape) and the end zones extended onto the warning track.", "By 1994, improvements and seating expansions at Lambeau, along with the Brewers preparing to campaign for their new stadium prompted the Packers to play their full slate in Green Bay for the first time in 62 years.", "Former season ticketholders for the Milwaukee package continue to receive preference for one pre-season and the second and fifth regular-season games at Lambeau Field each season, along with playoff games through a lottery under the \"Gold Package\" plan.The Packers have three practice facilities across the street from Lambeau Field in Ashwaubenon, Wisconsin: the Don Hutson Center, an indoor facility; Ray Nitschke Field, an outdoor field with artificial FieldTurf; and Clarke Hinkle Field, an outdoor field with natural grass.The Packers Pro Shop has been the official retail store of the Packers since 1989.The primary retail store is located at Lambeau Field, having been expanded numerous times since it opened.", "The Pro Shop reported sales of over $7 million in 2015." ], [ "Statistics and records", "===Season-by-season results===This is a partial list of the Packers' last five completed seasons.", "For the full season-by-season franchise results, see List of Green Bay Packers seasons.", "'''''Note:''' The Finish, Wins, Losses, and Ties columns list regular season results and exclude any postseason play.", "'''''Super Bowl champions''''''Conference champions''''''Division champions''''''Wild Card berth'''As of January 2023SeasonTeamLeagueConferenceDivisionRegular seasonPostseason resultsAwardsFinishWinsLossesTies 2019 NFL NFC North 1st 13 3 0 '''Won''' Divisional Playoffs (Seahawks) 28–23Lost NFC Championship (49ers) 37–20 — 2020 NFL NFC North 1st 13 3 0 '''Won''' Divisional Playoffs (Rams) 32–18Lost NFC Championship (Buccaneers) 31–26 — 2021 NFL NFC North 1st 13 4 0 Lost Divisional Playoffs (49ers) 13–10 — 2022 NFL NFC North 3rd 8 9 0 — — 2023 NFL NFC North 2nd 9 8 0 '''Won''' Wild-Card Playoffs (Cowboys) 48–32Lost Divisional Playoffs (49ers) 21–24 —===Records===All-Time Packers leadersLeader Player Record Number Years on Packers Passing Brett Favre 61,655 passing yards 1992–2007 Rushing Ahman Green 8,322 rushing yards 2000–2006; 2009 Receiving Donald Driver 10,137 receiving yards 1999–2012 Coaching wins Curly Lambeau 209 wins 1919–1949===Playoff record===YearGameOpponentResult1936NFL ChampionshipBoston Braves '''W''' 21–6 1938New York Giants'''L''' 17–231939New York Giants'''W''' 27–01941Western Division ChampionshipChicago Bears'''L''' 14–331944NFL ChampionshipNew York Giants'''W''' 14–71960Philadelphia Eagles'''L''' 13–171961New York Giants'''W''' 37–01962New York Giants'''W''' 16–71965Western Conference ChampionshipBaltimore Colts'''W''' 13–10 (OT)NFL ChampionshipCleveland Browns'''W''' 23–121966Dallas Cowboys'''W''' 34–27Super Bowl IKansas City Chiefs'''W''' 35–101967Conference ChampionshipLos Angeles Rams'''W''' 28–7NFL ChampionshipDallas Cowboys'''W''' 21–17Super Bowl IIOakland Raiders'''W''' 33–141972Divisional RoundWashington Redskins'''L''' 3–161982First RoundSt.", "Louis Cardinals'''W''' 41–16Second RoundDallas Cowboys'''L''' 26–371993Wild CardDetroit Lions'''W''' 28–24Divisional RoundDallas Cowboys'''L''' 17–271994Wild CardDetroit Lions'''W''' 16–12Divisional RoundDallas Cowboys'''L''' 9–351995Wild CardAtlanta Falcons'''W''' 37–20Divisional RoundSan Francisco 49ers'''W''' 27–17NFC ChampionshipDallas Cowboys'''L''' 27–381996Divisional RoundSan Francisco 49ers'''W''' 35–14NFC ChampionshipCarolina Panthers'''W''' 30–13Super Bowl XXXINew England Patriots'''W''' 35–211997Divisional RoundTampa Bay Buccaneers'''W''' 21–7NFC ChampionshipSan Francisco 49ers'''W''' 23–10Super Bowl XXXIIDenver Broncos'''L''' 24–311998Wild CardSan Francisco 49ers'''L''' 27–302001NFC Wild CardSan Francisco 49ers'''W''' 15–25Divisional RoundSt.", "Louis Rams'''L''' 17–452002NFC Wild CardAtlanta Falcons'''L''' 7–272003NFC Wild CardSeattle Seahawks'''W''' 33–27 (OT)Divisional RoundPhiladelphia Eagles'''L''' 17–20 (OT)2004NFC Wild CardMinnesota Vikings'''L''' 17–312007Divisional RoundSeattle Seahawks'''W''' 42–20NFC ChampionshipNew York Giants'''L''' 20–23 (OT)2009NFC Wild CardArizona Cardinals'''L''' 45–51 (OT)2010NFC Wild CardPhiladelphia Eagles'''W''' 21–16Divisional RoundAtlanta Falcons'''W''' 48–21NFC ChampionshipChicago Bears'''W''' 21–14Super Bowl XLVPittsburgh Steelers'''W''' 31–252011Divisional RoundNew York Giants'''L''' 20–372012NFC Wild CardMinnesota Vikings'''W''' 24–10Divisional RoundSan Francisco 49ers'''L''' 31–452013NFC Wild CardSan Francisco 49ers'''L''' 20–232014Divisional RoundDallas Cowboys'''W''' 26–21NFC ChampionshipSeattle Seahawks'''L''' 22–28 (OT)2015NFC Wild CardWashington Redskins'''W''' 35–18Divisional RoundArizona Cardinals'''L''' 20–26 (OT)2016NFC Wild CardNew York Giants'''W''' 38–13Divisional RoundDallas Cowboys'''W''' 34–31NFC ChampionshipAtlanta Falcons'''L''' 21–442019Divisional RoundSeattle Seahawks'''W''' 28–23NFC ChampionshipSan Francisco 49ers'''L''' 20–372020Divisional RoundLos Angeles Rams'''W''' 32–18NFC ChampionshipTampa Bay Buccaneers'''L''' 26–312021Divisional RoundSan Francisco 49ers'''L''' 10–132023NFC Wild Card Dallas Cowboys'''W''' 48–32Divisional RoundSan Francisco 49ers'''L''' 21–24'''Overall Playoff Record: 37-26'''" ], [ "Championships", "The Packers have been league champions a record 13 times, topping their nearest rival, the Chicago Bears, by four.", "The first three were decided by league standing, the next six by the NFL Title Game, and the last four by Super Bowl victories.", "The Packers are also the only team to win three consecutive NFL titles, having accomplished this twice—from 1929 to 1931 under Lambeau, and from 1965 to 1967 under Lombardi.=== Super Bowl Championships ===Starting in 1966, the NFL began holding the Super Bowl.", "The Packers have won four Super Bowls.", "Year Coach Super Bowl Location Opponent Score Record 1966Vince Lombardi I Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum (Los Angeles) Kansas City Chiefs 35–10 12–2 1967 II Orange Bowl (Miami) Oakland Raiders 33–14 9–4–1 1996 Mike Holmgren XXXI Louisiana Superdome (New Orleans) New England Patriots 35–21 13–3 2010 Mike McCarthy XLV Cowboys Stadium (Arlington, Texas) Pittsburgh Steelers 31–25 10–6 '''Total Super Bowls won: 4'''=== NFL Championships (pre Super Bowl era) ===From 1933 to 1969, the NFL held a championship game to decide their champion.", "The Packers won 8 NFL Championship Games.", "From 1966 to 1969, the NFL Championship Game was followed by the Super Bowl.", "Year Coach Location Opponent Score Record 1936Curly Lambeau Polo Grounds (New York) Boston Redskins 21–6 10–1–1 1939 Dairy Bowl (West Allis, Wisconsin) New York Giants 27–0 9–2 1944 Polo Grounds (New York) New York Giants 14–7 8–2 1961Vince Lombardi New City Stadium (Green Bay) New York Giants 37–0 11–3 1962 Yankee Stadium (New York) New York Giants 16–7 13–1 1965 Lambeau Field (Green Bay) Cleveland Browns 23–12 10–3–1 1966 Cotton Bowl (Dallas) Dallas Cowboys 34–27 12–2 1967 Lambeau Field (Green Bay) Dallas Cowboys 21–17 9–4–1 '''Total NFL championships won: 8'''=== NFC Championships ===The Packers have won three NFC Championship Games, with twice as many losses.", "NFC Championships did not exist before the AFL–NFL merger in 1970.Year Coach Location Opponent Score Record 1996 Mike Holmgren Lambeau Field (Green Bay) Carolina Panthers 30–13 13–3 1997 3Com Park (San Francisco) San Francisco 49ers 23–10 13–3 2010 Mike McCarthy Soldier Field (Chicago) Chicago Bears 21–14 10–6 '''Total NFC Championships won: 3'''=== NFL Championship by standings ===From 1920 to 1932, the NFL championship was awarded based on standings, with no championship game taking place.", "The Packers won three such championships.", "Year Coach Record 1929 Curly Lambeau 12–0–1 1930 10–3–1 1931 12–2 '''Total NFL championships by best record: 3'''===Division Championships===The Packers have won 21 divisional championships.", "Year Coach Division Record 1936 Curly Lambeau NFL West 10–1–1 1938 8–3 1939 9–2 1944 8–2 1967 Vince Lombardi NFL Central 9–4–1 1972 Dan Devine NFC Central 10–4 1995 Mike Holmgren 11–5 1996 13–3 1997 13–3 2002 Mike Sherman NFC North 12–4 2003 12–4 2004 10–6 2007 Mike McCarthy 13–3 2011 15–1 2012 11–5 2013 8–7–1 2014 12–4 2016 10–6 2019 Matt LaFleur 13–3 2020 13–3 2021 13–4 '''Total NFC Divisional Championships won: 21'''" ], [ "Notable players", "===Current roster======Pro Football Hall of Fame members===The Packers have the second most members in the Pro Football Hall of Fame with 30, 25 of which were inducted as Packers.", "They trail only the Chicago Bears with 37 Hall of Famers, 30 of which were inducted as Bears.Green Bay Packers Pro Football Hall of Famers Players No.", "Name Positions SeasonsInducted No.", "Name Positions Seasons Inducted 26 '''Herb Adderley''' CB1961–1969 1980 64 '''Jerry Kramer''' G1958–1968 2018 36 '''LeRoy Butler''' S1990–2001 2022 20 '''Earl (Curly) Lambeau''' HBCoach 1919–19291930–1949 1963 3 '''Tony Canadeo''' HB1941–19441946–1952 1974 80 '''James Lofton''' WR1978–1986 2003 87 '''Willie Davis''' DE1960–1969 1981 24 '''Johnny \"Blood\" McNally''' HB1929–19331935–1936 1963 44 '''Bobby Dillon''' S 1952–1959 2020 2 '''Mike Michalske''' OG1929–19351937 1964 4 '''Brett Favre''' QB1992–2007 2016 66 '''Ray Nitschke''' LB1958–1972 1978 75 '''Forrest Gregg''' OT19561958–1970 1977 51 '''Jim Ringo''' C1953–1963 1981 56 Ted Hendricks LB 19741990 89 '''Dave Robinson''' LB1963–1972 2013 38 '''Arnie Herber''' QB1930–1940 1966 15 '''Bart Starr''' QB1956–1971 1977 30 '''Clarke Hinkle''' FB1932–1941 1964 31 '''Jim Taylor''' FB 1958–1966 1976 5 '''Paul Hornung''' HB1956–19621964–1966 1986 92 '''Reggie White''' DE1993–1998 2006 36 '''Cal Hubbard''' OT1929–19331935 1963 24 '''Willie Wood''' S1960–1971 1989 14 '''Don Hutson''' E1935–1945 1963 21 '''Charles Woodson''' CB2006–2012 2021 74 '''Henry Jordan''' DT1959–1969 1995 Coaches and ExecutivesNamePositionsSeasonsInducted'''Vince Lombardi''' Coach 1959–1967 1971'''Ron Wolf''' General manager1991–2001 2015===Wisconsin Athletic Hall of Fame===Many Packers players and coaches are also enshrined in the Wisconsin Athletic Hall of Fame.", "In 2018 Ron Wolf, the most recent Packers contributor to be honored, was inducted.===Retired numbers===alt=A photo of the part of Lambeau field that shows all of the Packers' retired numbers and player names.In nearly nine decades of Packers football, the Packers have formally retired six numbers.", "All six Packers are members of the Pro Football Hall of Fame and their numbers and names are displayed on the green facade of Lambeau Field's north endzone as well as in the Lambeau Field Atrium.94px94px94px94px94px94px'''Tony Canadeo''''''Brett Favre''''''Don Hutson''''''Bart Starr''''''Ray Nitschke''''''Reggie White'''===Green Bay Packers Hall of Fame===The Green Bay Packers Hall of Fame was the first hall of fame built to honor a single professional American football team.", "John P. Holloway, a Brown County administrator and arena director, and William L. Brault, a Green Bay restaurateur and Packers fan, co-founded the Packer Hall of Fame museum in 1966.As of 2019, the Packers Hall of Fame has inducted 162 people, 24 of whom have been inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame." ], [ "Notable coaches", "===Current staff======Head coaches===NameTenureRecordTitlesWLT Earl (Curly) Lambeau1919–1949231108216 Gene Ronzani1950–195314311 Hugh Devore*1953020 Ray (Scooter) McLean* Lisle Blackbourn1954–195717310 Ray (Scooter) McLean19581101 Vince Lombardi1959–1967983045 Phil Bengtson1968–197020211 Dan Devine1971–197425284 Bart Starr1975–198353773 Forrest Gregg1984–198725371 Lindy Infante1988–199124400 Mike Holmgren1992–1998733601 Ray Rhodes1999880 Mike Sherman2000–200556390 Mike McCarthy2006–20181257721 Joe Philbin*2018220 Matt LaFleur2019–present47190Interim head coaches" ], [ "Media", "The Packers are unique in having their market area cover two media markets, both Green Bay and Milwaukee.", "NFL blackout restrictions for the team apply within both areas.", "However, Packers games have not been blacked out locally since 1972 (the last year home game local telecasts were prohibited regardless of sellout status) due to strong home attendance and popularity.", "As mentioned above, every Packers home game—preseason, regular season and playoffs—has been sold out since 1960.===Radio===The flagship station of the Packers Radio Network is Good Karma Brands's WTMJ in Milwaukee, which was the former flagship of the Journal Broadcast Group before its merger with E. W. Scripps Company in April 2015; Scripps itself sold their Milwaukee radio assets to GKB in November 2018, and the team then brought their broadcast operations in-house, thus the personnel is directly employed by the team.", "WTMJ has aired Packers games since 1929, the longest association between a radio station and an NFL team to date, and the only rights deal in American professional sports where a station outside of the team's main metro area is the radio flagship.", "While this might be unusual, the station can be heard at city-grade strength at all hours in Green Bay proper.", "Games air in Green Bay on WTAQ (1360/97.5) and WIXX-FM (101.1), and WAPL (105.7) and WHBY (1150) in Appleton and the Fox Cities.", "Wayne Larrivee is the play-by-play announcer and Larry McCarren is the color analyst.", "Larrivee joined the team after many years as the Chicago Bears' announcer.", "Jim Irwin and Max McGee were the longtime radio announcers before Larrivee and McCarren.", "When victory is assured for the Packers, either a game-winning touchdown, interception or a crucial 4th down defensive stop, Larrivee's trademark declaration of \"And there is your dagger!\"", "signifies the event.", "In limited circumstances where the Milwaukee Brewers are in either playoff or post-season contention and their play-by-play takes priority, WTMJ's sister FM station WKTI (94.5) currently airs Packer games to avert game conflicts.", "Surrounding pre-game programming is also carried on sister station WAUK (540), an ESPN Radio affiliate and former competitor which produced unofficial Packers programming for years.On October 27, 2021, the Packers announced that it would end its longtime association with WTMJ at the end of the season, with iHeartMedia's sports radio station WRNW (97.3) becoming the team's Milwaukee radio affiliate in 2022.===Television===The TV rights for pre-season games not nationally broadcast are held by E. W. Scripps Company-owned television stations WGBA-TV (channel 26) in Green Bay and WTMJ-TV (channel 4) in Milwaukee; the game broadcasts are distributed to 19 further TV stations in Wisconsin, Michigan, North Dakota, South Dakota, Iowa, Nebraska, Illinois, Missouri, and Alaska, as well as Spanish-language WYTU-LD \"Telemundo Wisconsin\" in Milwaukee.", "The deal marked a change in affiliate in Green Bay from WFRV-TV; in the wake of the 2012 deal, McCarren resigned his duties as sports director of WFRV to move to WTMJ/WGBA as a Packers analyst, becoming WGBA's official sports director on April 1, 2013.McCarren left WGBA in 2015 and became a team employee.The team's intra-squad Lambeau scrimmage at the beginning of the season, marketed as ''Packers Family Night'', was produced for over a decade by WLUK-TV in Green Bay and broadcast by the state's Fox affiliates through the 2016 season.", "In 2017, Scripps and the Packers Television Network began to originate the Packers Family Night broadcast.Preseason television games are announced by Kevin Harlan, son of former Packers president Bob Harlan, and color commentator Rich Gannon.", "Regular-season and postseason games not aired on a broadcast network are simulcast on broadcast stations in the Green Bay and Milwaukee markets." ], [ "In popular culture", "On the television sitcom ''That '70s Show'', in season 7 episode 14, Donna Pinciotti gave the gang—including Red Forman, a long-time Packer fan—six free tickets to Lambeau Field for a game against the Chicago Bears.", "Eric comes back wearing Bears Jersey # 34 Sweetness Walter Payton causing the crowd to boo and make negative comments towards him.", "Eric doesn't understand football in general.", "In the season 8 finale, Red declined to move to Florida after Steven Hyde bought him season tickets.In 2015, five members of the Packers (David Bakhtiari, Don Barclay, T. J. Lang, Clay Matthews, and Josh Sitton) made an appearance as an ''a cappella'' group in the musical comedy ''Pitch Perfect 2''.", "Aaron Rodgers' brother Jordan also appeared.", "That same year, Rodgers himself appeared in an episode of the sketch comedy television series ''Key & Peele'', along with Ha Ha Clinton-Dix.In the television series ''Danny Phantom'', the main antagonist, Vlad Masters/Vlad Plasmius, is a Packers \"Fanatic\".", "His prized possession is a football autographed by Ray Nitschke, and his dream is to own the team.In the 1998 film ''There's Something about Mary'', Mary, played by actress Cameron Diaz, consistently talks about her boyfriend \"Brett\".", "It is revealed towards the end of the film that \"Brett\" is then-Packers' quarterback Brett Favre." ], [ "References", "; Notes; Citations" ], [ "External links", "** Green Bay Packers at the National Football League official website* Green Bay Packers at the ''Milwaukee Journal Sentinel''* Green Bay Packers at the ''Green Bay Press-Gazette''" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "General-purpose machine gun" ], [ "Introduction", "The MG-42 type general-purpose machine guns in both bipod and tripod configurations.", "The tall tripod on the right is for anti-aircraft use.A '''general-purpose machine gun''' ('''GPMG''') is an air-cooled, usually belt-fed machine gun that can be adapted flexibly to various tactical roles for light and medium machine guns.", "A GPMG typically features a quick-change barrel design calibered for various fully powered cartridges such as the 7.62×51mm NATO, 7.62×54mmR, 7.5×54mm French, 7.5×55mm Swiss and 7.92×57mm Mauser, and be configured for mounting to different stabilizing platforms from bipods and tripods to vehicles, aircraft, boats and fortifications, usually as an infantry support weapon or squad automatic weapon." ], [ "History", "The general-purpose machine gun (GPMG) originated with the MG 34, designed in 1934 by Heinrich Vollmer of Mauser on the commission of Nazi Germany to circumvent the restrictions on machine guns imposed by the Treaty of Versailles.", "It was introduced into the Wehrmacht as an entirely new concept in automatic firepower, dubbed the ''Einheitsmaschinengewehr'', meaning \"universal machine gun\" in German.", "In itself the MG 34 was an excellent weapon for its time: an air-cooled, recoil-operated machine gun that could run through belts of 7.92×57mm Mauser ammunition at a rate of 850 rounds per minute, with lethality at ranges of more than 1,000 meters.", "The main feature of the MG 34 is that simply by changing its mount, sights and feed mechanism, the operator could radically transform its function: on its standard bipod it was a light machine gun ideal for infantry assaults; on a tripod it could serve as a sustained-fire medium machine gun; mounting on aircraft or vehicles turned it into an air defence weapon, and it also served as the coaxial machine gun on numerous German tanks.During World War II, the MG 34 was supplemented by a new GPMG, the MG 42, although it remained in combat use.", "The MG 42 was more efficient and cheaper to manufacture, and more robust, as well as having an extremely high cyclic rate of fire of 1,200 to 1,500 rounds per minute.", "One of the ''Einheits Maschinengewehr'' GPMG roles was to provide low level anti-aircraft coverage.", "A high cyclic rate of fire is advantageous for use against targets typically exposed to fire for a limited time span, like aircraft or targets minimizing their exposure by quickly moving from cover to cover.", "It was nicknamed \"Hitler's buzzsaw\" by Allied troops, and alongside the MG 34 it inflicted heavy casualties on Allied soldiers on all European and North African fronts of World War II.", "Following the war the victorious Allied nations took an interest in the MG 34 and MG 42, influencing many post-war general-purpose machine guns, many still in use today.", "They lent design elements to the Belgian FN MAG and the American M60, while spawning the Zastava M53, Swiss M51, and Austrian MG 74.The MG 42's qualities of firepower and usability meant that it became the foundation of an entire series of postwar machine guns, including the MG 1 and MG 3 - the latter, , is still in production." ], [ "Post-WWII examples", "* German Rheinmetall MG 3, a direct descendant of the MG 42, still in service with the German Army and others and widely exported.", "* German Heckler & Koch HK21, is based on the Heckler & Koch G3 rifle and widely exported.", "* German Heckler & Koch MG5, the new standard machine gun of the German Army.", "* Italian MG 42/59, a direct descendant of the MG 42 and a licensed MG 3 variant, is still in service with the Italian military* Belgian FN MAG, which copied the MG 42's feed-system and trigger-mechanism.", "It is the most widely used GPMG among western armies.", "* Belgian/American Mk 48, is a GPMG based on the FN Minimi light machine gun and M249 SAW.", "*American M60, which is based on the German FG 42 and uses the MG 42's feed system and stamp-steel construction.", "* American M240, itself an FN MAG variant.", "It replaced the M60 in U.S.", "service.", "* French MAS AA-52, which more or less copies the MG 42 feed-system.", "It has been largely phased out in favour of the FN MAG and FN Minimi.", "* Czechoslovakian Uk vz.", "59, is based on the Vz.", "52 and Vz.52/57, and originating with ZB vz.", "26 and Bren gun designs.", "* Russian PK/PKM, family of multi-purpose machine guns, is based on the AKM assault rifle featuring stamped receivers, widely exported.", "* Russian AEK-999, is an improved version of the PK/PKM.", "* Russian Pecheneg, is a variant of the PK/PKM with a fixed barrel and cooling jacket.", "* Yugoslav Zastava M84, is a direct copy of the Russian PK machine-gun.", "* Polish UKM-2000, is based on the Russian PK machine-gun.", "* People's Republic of China Type 80, is based on the Russian PK machine-gun.", "* People's Republic of China Type 67, and later improved models.", "* People's Republic of China Type 88 Machine Gun* People's Republic of China QJY-201* Japanese Sumitomo NTK-62, is a GPMG based on the FN MAG.", "* South African Vektor SS-77, is based on the Russian PK/PKM.", "* South African Denel DMG-5, is based on the Vektor SS-77 and Russian PK/PKM.", "* South Korean S&T Motiv K12, is based on the K3 light machine gun.", "* Swiss MG 51, a direct descendant of the MG42.", "* Swiss SIG MG 710-3* Swiss SIG MG 50* Austrian MG 74, a direct descendant of the MG 42/59 and since 1974 the standard machine gun of the Austrian Armed Forces.", "* Israeli IWI Negev NG-7, is a GPMG based on the IWI Negev light machine gun.", "* Canadian C6A1 FLEX, an improved version of C6 that is a Canadian version of FN MAG.", "* Belgian FN EVOLYS, is a multi-caliber, 3D printing and polymers material lightweight machine gun." ], [ "Gallery", "File:MG34.jpg|MG 34 belt-fed tripod version (top) and saddle-drum magazine bipod version (below)File:MG42 Sideview 2.jpg|MG 42File:Poligono Mg.jpg|MG 42/59File:BundeswehrMG3.jpg|MG3File:MG74 Dreibein und ZF.jpg|MG 74 mounted on its tripodFile:Machine gun p1040625.jpg|AA-52File:M60 Medium Machine Gun (7414626098).jpg|M60File:FN MAG white background.jpg|FN MAGFile:7,62 KK PKM Helsinki 2012.JPG|PKMFile:HK 21 LMG RIGHT SIDE.jpg|HK21A1File:Japan Type 62 General Purpose Machine Gun.jpg|Type 62Image:ChineseType672MG.jpg|Type 67 on a tripod field mountFile:PEO M240B Profile.jpg|M240File:Демонстрация стрельбы из пулеметов ПКП Печенег - 4-й гвардейской Кантемировской танковой дивизии 01.jpg|PechenegFile:UKM2000P REMOV.jpg|UKM-2000PFile:Mk 48 PEO Soldier.jpg|MK48 MOD 0/1, 7.62mm Lightweight Machine GunFile:S&T Motiv K12.JPG|K12File:Heckler & Koch MG5.jpg|MG5File:Latvian soldiers with machine guns.jpg|Latvian soldiers with MG3, FN MAG and HK21 machine guns" ], [ "See also", "* Light machine gun* Heavy machine gun* Squad automatic weapon* List of firearms* Fully powered cartridge" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gdynia" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Gdynia''' (; ; , ) is a city in northern Poland and a seaport on the Baltic Sea coast.", "With a population of 243,918, it is the 12th-largest city in Poland and the second-largest in the Pomeranian Voivodeship after Gdańsk.", "Gdynia is part of a conurbation with the spa town of Sopot, the city of Gdańsk, and suburban communities, which together form a metropolitan area called the Tricity (''Trójmiasto'') with around one million inhabitants.Historically and culturally part of Kashubia and Eastern Pomerania, Gdynia for centuries remained a small fishing village.", "By the 20th-century it attracted visitors as a seaside resort town.", "In 1926, Gdynia was granted city rights after which it enjoyed demographic and urban development, with a modernist cityscape.", "It became a major seaport city of Poland.", "In 1970, protests in and around Gdynia contributed to the rise of the Solidarity movement in nearby Gdańsk.The port of Gdynia is a regular stopover on the cruising itinerary of luxury passenger ships and ferries travelling to Scandinavia.", "Gdynia's downtown, designated a historical monument of Poland in 2015, is an example of building an integrated European community and includes Functionalist architectural forms.", "Its axis is based around 10 Lutego Street and connects the main train station with the Southern Pier.", "The city is also known for holding the annual Gdynia Film Festival.", "In 2013, Gdynia was ranked by readers of ''The News'' as Poland's best city to live in, and topped the national rankings in the category of \"general quality of life\".", "In 2021, the city entered the UNESCO Creative Cities Network and was named UNESCO City of Film." ], [ "History", "===Early history===Medieval St. Michael Archangel Church is the oldest building in GdyniaThe area of the later city of Gdynia shared its history with Pomerelia (Eastern Pomerania).", "In prehistoric times, it was the center of Oksywie culture; it was later populated by Slavs with some Baltic Prussian influences.", "In the late 10th century, the region was united with the emerging state of Poland by its first historic ruler Mieszko I.", "During the reign of Bolesław II, the region seceded from Poland and became independent, to be reunited with Poland in 1116/1121 by Bolesław III.", "In 1209, the present-day district of Oksywie was first mentioned (''Oxhöft'').", "Following the fragmentation of Poland, the region became part of the Duchy of Pomerania (Eastern), which became separate from Poland in 1227, to be reunited in 1282.The first known mention of the name \"Gdynia\", as a Pomeranian (Kashubian) fishing village dates back to 1253.The first church on this part of the Baltic Sea coast was built there.", "In 1309–1310, the Teutonic Order invaded and annexed the region from Poland.", "In 1380, the owner of the village which became Gdynia, Peter from Rusocin, gave the village to the Cistercian Order.", "In 1382, Gdynia became property of the Cistercian abbey in Oliwa.", "In 1454, King Casimir IV Jagiellon signed the act of reincorporation of the region to the Kingdom of Poland, and the Thirteen Years' War, the longest of all Polish-Teutonic wars, started.", "It ended in 1466, when the Teutonic Knights recognized the region as part of Poland.", "Administratively, Gdynia was located in the Pomeranian Voivodeship in the province of Royal Prussia in the Greater Poland Province of the Kingdom of Poland and later of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.", "The present-day neighbourhood of Kolibki was the location of the Kolibki estate, purchased by King John III Sobieski in 1685.In 1772, Gdynia was annexed by the Kingdom of Prussia in the First Partition of Poland.", "Gdynia, under the Germanized name ''Gdingen'', was included within the newly formed province of West Prussia and was expropriated from the Cistercian Order.", "In 1789, there were only 21 houses in Gdynia.", "Around that time Gdynia was so small that it was not marked on many maps of the period: it was about halfway from Oksywie and Mały Kack, now districts of Gdynia.", "In 1871, the village became part of the German Empire.", "In the early 20th century Gdynia was not a poor fishing village as it is sometimes described; it had become a popular tourist spot with several guest houses, restaurants, cafés, several brick houses and a small harbour with a pier for small trading ships.", "The first Kashubian mayor was Jan Radtke.", "It is estimated that around 1910 the population of Gdynia was 895 people.Following World War I, in 1918, Poland regained independence, and following the Treaty of Versailles, in 1920, Gdynia was re-integrated with the reborn Polish state.", "Simultaneously, the nearby city of Gdańsk (''Danzig'') and surrounding area was declared a free city and put under the League of Nations, though Poland was given economic liberties and requisitioned for matters of foreign representation.=== Construction of the seaport ===Gdynia Seaport in 1935The decision to build a major seaport at Gdynia village was made by the Polish government in winter 1920, in the midst of the Polish–Soviet War (1919–1920).", "The authorities and seaport workers of the Free City of Danzig felt Poland's economic rights in the city were being misappropriated to help fight the war.", "German dockworkers went on strike, refusing to unload shipments of military supplies sent from the West to aid the Polish army, and Poland realized the need for a port city it was in complete control of, economically and politically.leftConstruction of Gdynia seaport started in 1921 but, because of financial difficulties, it was conducted slowly and with interruptions.", "It was accelerated after the Sejm (Polish parliament) passed the ''Gdynia Seaport Construction Act'' on 23 September 1922.By 1923 a 550-metre pier, of a wooden tide breaker, and a small harbour had been constructed.", "Ceremonial inauguration of Gdynia as a temporary military port and fishers' shelter took place on 23 April 1923.The first major seagoing ship, the French Line steamer ''Kentucky'', arrived on 13 August 1923 after being diverted because of a strike at Gdansk.", "MS Pilsudski in Gdynia, 1935To speed up the construction works, the Polish government in November 1924 signed a contract with the French-Polish Consortium for Gdynia Seaport Construction.", "By the end of 1925, they had built a small seven-metre-deep harbour, the south pier, part of the north pier, a railway, and had ordered the trans-shipment equipment.", "The works were going more slowly than expected, however.", "They accelerated only after May 1926, because of an increase in Polish exports by sea, economic prosperity, the outbreak of the German–Polish trade war which reverted most Polish international trade to sea routes, and thanks to the personal engagement of Eugeniusz Kwiatkowski, Polish Minister of Industry and Trade (also responsible for the construction of Centralny Okręg Przemysłowy).", "By the end of 1930 docks, piers, breakwaters, and many auxiliary and industrial installations were constructed (such as depots, trans-shipment equipment, and a rice processing factory) or started (such as a large cold store).Trans-shipments rose from 10,000 tons (1924) to 2,923,000 tons (1929).", "At this time Gdynia was the only transit and special seaport designed for coal exports.In the years 1931–1939 Gdynia harbour was further extended to become a universal seaport.", "In 1938 Gdynia was the largest and most modern seaport on the Baltic Sea, as well as the tenth biggest in Europe.", "The trans-shipments rose to 8.7 million tons, which was 46% of Polish foreign trade.", "In 1938 the Gdynia shipyard started to build its first full-sea ship, the ''Olza''.=== Construction of the city ===The city was constructed later than the seaport.", "In 1925 a special committee was inaugurated to build the city; city expansion plans were designed and city rights were granted in 1926, and tax privileges were granted for investors in 1927.The city started to grow significantly after 1928.A new railway station and the Post Office were completed.", "The State railways extended their lines, built bridges and also constructed a group of houses for their employees.", "Within a few years houses were built along some of road leading northward from the Free City of Danzig to Gdynia and beyond.", "Public institutions and private employers helped their staff to build houses.In 1933 a plan of development providing for a population of 250,000 was worked out by a special commission appointed by a government committee, in collaboration with the municipal authorities.", "By 1939 the population had grown to over 120,000.File:Sąd rejonowy betonowe 06.jpg|Gdynia Courthouse by Zbigniew Karpiński, 1936File:Gdynia Dowodztwo MW 2.jpg|Headquarters of the Polish NavyFile:Gdynia urząd miasta UM.jpg|Piłsudski Avenue with modernist buildingsFile:PlacKaszubski.PomnikAntoniAbrahamk.jpg|''Plac Kaszubski'', one of the main squares in the cityFile:Siedziba_Zakładu_Ubezpieczeń_i_PLO.jpg|''PLO Building'' designed by Roman Piotrowski File:Gdynia, Świętojańska 55 (1) - czupirek 2013.jpg|''Krenski House'', detail, by Zbigniew Kupiec=== Gdynia during World War II (1939–1945) ===German occupying forces in Gdynia in 1939During the German invasion of Poland, which started World War II in September 1939, Gdynia was the site of fierce Polish defense.", "On 13 September 1939, the Germans carried out first arrests of local Poles in the southern part of the city, while the Polish defense was still ongoing in the northern part.", "On 14 September 1939, the Germans captured the entire city, and then occupied it until 1945.On 15–16 September, the Germans carried out further mass arrests of 7,000 Poles, while Polish soldiers still fought in nearby Kępa Oksywska.", "The German police surrounded the city and carried out mass searches of weapons.", "Arrested Poles were held and interrogated in churches, cinemas and halls, and then around 3,000 people were released until 18 September.", "The occupiers established several prisons and camps for Polish people, who were afterwards either deported to concentration camps or executed.", "Some Poles from Gdynia were executed by the Germans near Starogard Gdański in September 1939.In October and November 1939, the Germans carried out public executions of 52 Poles, including activists, bank directors and priests, in various parts of the city.", "In November 1939, the occupiers also murdered hundreds of Poles from Gdynia during the massacres in Piaśnica committed nearby as part of the ''Intelligenzaktion''.", "Among the victims were policemen, officials, civil defenders of Gdynia, judges, court employees, the director and employees of the National Bank of Poland, merchants, priests, school principals, teachers, and students of local high schools.", "On the night of 10–11 November, the German security police carried out mass arrests of over 1,500 Poles in the Obłuże district, and then murdered 23 young men aged 16–20, in retaliation for breaking windows at the headquarters of the German security police.Poles arrested by the Germans in Gdynia in September 1939 On 11 November, a German gendarme shot and killed two Polish boys who were collecting Polish books from the street, which were thrown out of the windows by new German settlers in the Oksywie district.", "The Germans renamed the city to ''Gotenhafen'' after the Goths, an ancient Germanic tribe, who had lived in the area.", "10 Poles from Gdynia were also murdered by the Russians in the large Katyn massacre in April–May 1940.Some 50,000 Polish citizens were expelled to the General Government (German-occupied central Poland) to make space for new German settlers in accordance with the ''Lebensraum'' policy.", "Local Kashubians who were suspected to support the Polish cause, particularly those with higher education, were also arrested and executed.", "The German gauleiter Albert Forster considered Kashubians of \"low value\" and did not support any attempts to create a Kashubian nationality.", "Despite such circumstances, local Poles, including Kashubians, organized Polish resistance groups, Kashubian Griffin (later Pomeranian Griffin), the exiled \"Związek Pomorski\" in the United Kingdom, and local units of the Home Army, Service for Poland's Victory and Gray Ranks.", "Activities included distribution of underground Polish press, smuggling data on German persecution of Poles and Jews to Western Europe, sabotage actions, espionage of the local German industry, and facilitating escapes of endangered Polish resistance members and British and French prisoners of war who fled from German POW camps via the city's port to neutral Sweden.", "The Gestapo cracked down on the Polish resistance several times, with the Poles either killed or deported to the Stutthof and Ravensbrück concentration camps.", "In 1943, local Poles managed to save some kidnapped Polish children from the Zamość region, by buying them from the Germans at the local train station.ORP ''Błyskawica'', Polish destroyer which served in World War II, now a museum shipThe harbour was transformed into a German naval base.", "The shipyard was expanded in 1940 and became a branch of the Kiel shipyard (''Deutsche Werke Kiel A.G.'').", "The city became an important base, due to its being relatively distant from the war theater, and many German large ships—battleships and heavy cruisers—were anchored there.", "During 1942, Dr Joseph Goebbels authorized relocation of to Gotenhafen Harbour as a stand-in for during filming of the German-produced movie ''Titanic'', directed by Herbert Selpin.The Germans set up an ''Einsatzgruppen''-operated penal camp in the Grabówek district, a transit camp for Allied marine POWs, a forced labour subcamp of the Stalag XX-B POW camp for several hundred Allied POWs at the shipyard, and two subcamps of the Stutthof concentration camp, the first located in the Orłowo district in 1941–1942, the second, named ''Gotenhafen'', located at the shipyard in 1944–1945.The seaport and the shipyard both witnessed several air raids by the Allies from 1943 onwards, but suffered little damage.", "Gdynia was used during winter 1944–45 to evacuate German troops and refugees trapped by the Red Army.", "Some of the ships were hit by torpedoes from Soviet submarines in the Baltic Sea on the route west.", "The ship sank, taking about 9,400 people with her – the worst loss of life in a single sinking in maritime history.", "The seaport area was largely destroyed by withdrawing German troops and millions of encircled refugees in 1945 being bombarded by the Soviet military (90% of the buildings and equipment were destroyed) and the harbour entrance was blocked by the German battleship that had been brought to Gotenhafen for major repairs.=== After World War II ===Solidarity election rally in Gdynia, 1989On 28 March 1945, the city was captured by the Soviets and restored to Poland.", "The Soviets installed a communist regime, which stayed in power until the Fall of Communism in the 1989.The post-war period saw an influx of settlers from Warsaw which was destroyed by Germany, and other parts of the country as well as Poles from the cities of Wilno (now ''Vilnius'') and Lwów (now ''Lviv'') from the Soviet-annexed former eastern Poland.", "Also Greeks, refugees of the Greek Civil War, settled in the city.", "The port of Gdynia was one of the three Polish ports through which refugees of the Greek Civil War reached Poland.On December 17, 1970, worker demonstrations took place at Gdynia Shipyard.", "Workers were fired upon by the police.", "Janek Wiśniewski was one of 40 killed, and was commemorated in a song by Mieczysław Cholewa, ''Pieśń o Janku z Gdyni''.", "One of Gdynia's important streets is named after Janek Wiśniewski.", "The event was also portrayed in Andrzej Wajda's movie ''Man of Iron''.On 4 December 1999, a storm destroyed a huge crane in a shipyard." ], [ "Geography", "=== Climate ===The climate of Gdynia is an oceanic climate owing to its position of the Baltic Sea, which moderates the temperatures, compared to the interior of Poland.", "The climate is rather cool throughout the year and there is a somewhat uniform precipitation throughout the year.", "Typical of Northern Europe, there is little sunshine during late autumn, winter and early spring, but plenty during summer.", "Because of its northerly latitude, Gdynia has 17 hours of daylight in midsummer but only around 7 hours in midwinter.", "The lowest pressure in Poland was recorded in Gdynia - 960.2 hPa on January 17, 1931.===Districts===Gdynia is divided into smaller divisions: ''dzielnicas'' and ''osiedles''.", "Gdynia's ''dzielnicas'' include: Babie Doły, Chwarzno-Wiczlino, Chylonia, Cisowa, Dąbrowa, Działki Leśne, Grabówek, Kamienna Góra, Karwiny, Leszczynki, Mały Kack, Obłuże, Oksywie, Orłowo, Pogórze, Pustki Cisowskie-Demptowo, Redłowo, Śródmieście, Wielki Kack, Witomino-Leśniczówka, Witomino-Radiostacja, Wzgórze Św.", "Maksymiliana.", "''Osiedles'': Bernadowo, Brzozowa Góra, Chwarzno, Dąbrówka, Demptowo, Dębowa Góra, Fikakowo, Gołębiewo, Kacze Buki, Kolibki, Kolonia Chwaszczyno, Kolonia Rybacka, Krykulec, Marszewo, Międzytorze, Niemotowo, Osada Kolejowa, Osada Rybacka, Osiedle Bernadowo, Port, Pustki Cisowskie, Tasza, Wiczlino, Wielka Rola, Witomino, Wysoka, Zielenisz." ], [ "Cityscape", "View from Kościuszko Square; Dar Pomorza on the left, Sea Towers on the rightOrłowoGdynia is a relatively modern city.", "Its architecture includes the 13th century St. Michael the Archangel's Church in Oksywie, the oldest building in Gdynia, and the 17th century neo-Gothic manor house located on Folwarczna Street in Orłowo.The surrounding hills and the coastline attract many nature lovers.", "A leisure pier and a cliff-like coastline in Kępa Redłowska, as well as the surrounding Nature Reserve, are also popular locations.", "In the harbour, there are two anchored museum ships, the destroyer and the tall ship frigate ''Dar Pomorza''.", "A -long promenade leads from the marina in the city center, to the beach in Redłowo.Most of Gdynia can be seen from Kamienna Góra ( asl) or the viewing point near Chwaszczyno.", "There are also two viewing towers, one at Góra Donas, the other at Kolibki.In 2015 the Emigration Museum opened in the city.", "Other museums include the Gdynia Aquarium, Experyment Science Center, Abraham's house, Żeromski's house, Gdynia Automotive Museum, Naval Museum, and Gdynia City Museum.=== Modernist Center ===Gdynia holds many examples of early 20th-century architecture, especially monumentalism and early functionalism, and modernism.", "Historic Urban Layout of the City Center was drafted by Adam Kuncewicz and Roman Feliński in 1926.The central axis of Gdynia is built around 10 Lutego Street, Kosciuszka Square and the Southern Pier.", "The structure of the city is designed to emphasize the connection of Gdynia and Poland with the Baltic Sea.", "Examples of modernist architecture are the buildings of the Bank of Poland and many tenement houses (''kamienice'').", "Another good example of modernism is ''PLO Building'' situated at 10 Lutego Street.The architecture of central Gdynia was inspired by the work of European architects such as Erich Mendelssohn and is sometimes compared to the White City of Tel Aviv.", "The center of Gdynia has become a symbol of modernity, but was included in the list of historical monuments of Poland and is a candidate for the UNESCO World Heritage List." ], [ "Culture", "Open'er Festival in 2019 Gdynia hosts the Gdynia Film Festival, the main Polish film festival.", "The International Random Film Festival was hosted in Gdynia in November 2014.Since 2003 Gdynia has been hosting the Open'er Festival, one of the biggest contemporary music festivals in Europe.", "The festival welcomes many foreign hip-hop, rock and electronic music artists every year.", "In record-high 2018 it was attended by over 140,000 people, who enjoyed the lineup headlined by Bruno Mars, Gorillaz, Arctic Monkeys, and Depeche Mode.Another important summer event in Gdynia is the Viva Beach Party, which is a large two-day techno party made on Gdynia's Public Beach and a summer-welcoming concerts CudaWianki.", "Gdynia also hosts events for the annual Gdańsk Shakespeare Festival.In the summer of 2014 Gdynia hosted Red Bull Air Race World Championship.=== Cultural references ===In 2008, Gdynia made it onto the ''Monopoly Here and Now World Edition'' board after being voted by fans through the Internet.", "Gdynia occupies the space traditionally held by Mediterranean Avenue, being the lowest voted city to make it onto the Monopoly Here and Now board, but also the smallest city to make it in the game.", "All of the other cities are large and widely known ones, the second smallest being Riga.", "The unexpected success of Gdynia can be attributed to a mobilization of the town's population to vote for it on the Internet.An abandoned factory district in Gdynia was the scene for the survival series ''Man vs Wild'', season 6, episode 12.The host, Bear Grylls, manages to escape the district after blowing up a door and crawling through miles of sewer.Ernst Stavro Blofeld, the supervillain in the James Bond novels, was born in Gdynia on 28 May 1908, according to ''Thunderball''.Gdynia is sometimes called \"Polish Roswell\" due to the alleged UFO crash on 21 January 1959." ], [ "Notable people", "* Stanisław Baranowski (1935–1978), glaciologist, undertook scientific expeditions to Spitsbergen and Antarctica* Karol Olgierd Borchardt (1905–1986), writer and captain of the Polish Merchant Marine* Krzysztof Charamsa (born 1972), former Catholic theologian and author* Zbigniew Ciesielski (1934–2020), mathematician* Adam Darski (born 1977), musician and TV personality, frontman for the blackened death metal band Behemoth* Wiesław Dawidowski (born 1964), Augustinian Catholic priest, doctor of theology and journalist* Rafał de Weryha-Wysoczański (born 1975), art historian, genealogist and writer* Jacek Fedorowicz (born 1937), satirist and actor* Tova Friedman (born 1938), therapist, social worker, author and Holocaust survivor* Eugeniusz Geno Małkowski (1942–2016), painter* Gunnar Heinsohn (born 1943), German author, sociologist and economist* Klaus Hurrelmann (born 1944), Professor of Public Health and Education* Hilary Jastak (1914–2000 in Gdynia), Catholic priest, Doctor of Theology, Chaplain of Solidarity movement, Major of Polish Armed Forces, Lieutenant Commander of the Polish Navy* Jan Kaczkowski (1977–2016), Roman Catholic priest, doctor of theological sciences, bioethicist, vlogger, organizer, and director of the Puck Hospice* Janusz Kaczmarek (born 1961), lawyer, prosecutor and politician* Marcin Kupinski (born 1983), ballet dancer* Tomasz Makowiecki (born 1983), musician, singer and songwriter* Dorota Nieznalska (born 1973), visual artist and sculptor* Kazimierz Ostrowski (1917–1999 in Gdynia), painter* Anna Przybylska (1978–2014), actress and model* Zvi Aryeh Rosenfeld (1922–1978), Polish-American rabbi and educator* Jerzy Rubach (born 1948), Polish and American linguist who specializes in phonology* Arkadiusz Rybicki (1953–2010), politician, active in the Solidarity movement* Joanna Senyszyn (born 1949), left-wing politician, vice-president of the Democratic Left Alliance (SLD) and MEP* Anna Siewierska (1955-2011), Polish-born linguist, specialist in language typology* Wojciech Szczurek (born 1963), Mayor of the City of Gdynia since 1998* Józef Unrug (1884–1973), German-born Polish vice admiral who helped create the Polish navy* Marian Zacharski (born 1951), Intelligence officer convicted of espionage* Marek Żukowski (born 1952), theoretical physicist, specializes in quantum mechanics=== Sport ===* Teresa Remiszewska (1928–2002), Solo ocean yacht sailor* Jörg Berger (1944–2010), German soccer player, trainer* Adelajda Mroske (1944–1975), speed skater, she competed in four events at the 1964 Winter Olympics* Ryszard Marczak (born 1945), former long-distance runner from Poland, competed in the marathon at the 1980 Summer Olympics* Józef Błaszczyk (born 1947), sailor who competed in the 1972 Summer Olympics* Andrzej Chudziński (1948–1995), swimmer, competed in three events at the 1972 Summer Olympics* Anna Sobczak (born 1967), fencer, competed in the women's individual and team foil events at the 1988 and 1992 Summer Olympics * Tomasz Sokołowski (born 1970), footballer, over 350 pro games and 12 for Poland* Jarosław Rodzewicz (born 1973), fencer, won a silver medal in the team foil event at the 1996 Summer Olympics* Marcin Mięciel (born 1975), soccer player, over 500 pro games* Michael Klim (born 1977), Polish-born Australian swimmer, Olympic gold medallist and world champion* Anna Rybicka (born 1977), fencer, she won a silver medal in the women's team foil event at the 2000 Summer Olympics* Andrzej Bledzewski (born 1977), retired football goalkeeper, over 400 pro games* Tomasz Dawidowski (born 1978), footballer, over 200 pro games and 10 for Poland* Maciej Grabowski (born 1978), laser class sailor, competed in the 2000, 2004 and 2008 Summer Olympics* Adriana Dadci (born 1979), judoka, competed at the 2004 Summer Olympics* Stefan Liv (1980–2011), Polish-born Swedish professional ice hockey goaltender* Monika Pyrek (born 1980), retired pole vaulter, competed at the 2000, 2004 2008 and 2012 Summer Olympics* Anna Rogowska (born 1981), pole vaulter, the bronze medallist at the 2004 Summer Olympics* Michał Zych (born 1982), ice dancer* Karolina Chlewińska (born 1983), foil fencer, competed at the 2008 Summer Olympics* Igor Janik (born 1983), javelin thrower, competed in the 2008 and 2012 Summer Olympics* Klaudia Jans-Ignacik (born 1984), retired tennis player, competed in the 2008 and 2012 Summer Olympics * Piotr Hallmann (born 1987), mixed martial artist, second lieutenant in the Polish Navy* Joanna Mitrosz (born 1988), rhythmic gymnast, competed at the 2008 and 2012 Summer Olympics* Małgorzata Białecka (born 1988), windsurfer, competed at 2016 Summer Olympics* Olek Czyż (born 1990), professional basketball player, played for Poland* Justyna Plutowska (born 1991), ice dancer===Fictional characters===* Ernst Stavro Blofeld (born 28 May 1908 in Gdingen), fictional character and villain from the James Bond series of novels and films, created by Ian Fleming" ], [ "Sports", "National Rugby Stadium'''Sport teams'''* Arka Gdynia – men's football team (Polish Cup winner 1979 and 2017, Polish SuperCup winner in 2017 and in 2018.Currently plays in the first division of Polish football, the Ekstraklasa)* Bałtyk Gdynia – men's football team, currently playing in Polish 4th division* Arka Gdynia (basketball) – men's basketball team (9 time Polish Basketball League winner)* Arka Gdynia (women's basketball) – women's basketball team (12-time Basket Liga Kobiet champion)* RC Arka Gdynia – rugby team (4-time Polish Champions)* Seahawks Gdynia – American football team (Polish American Football League) (4-time champion of Poland in 2012, 2014 and in 2015)* Arka Gdynia (handball) – handball team which plays in Ekstraliga (First division of Polish handball)=== International events ===*2017 UEFA European Under-21 Championship*2019 FIFA U-20 World Cup*2020 World Athletics Half Marathon Championships" ], [ "Economy and infrastructure", "'''Notable companies that have their headquarters or regional offices in Gdynia''':* PROKOM SA – the largest Polish I.T.", "company* C. Hartwig Gdynia SA – one of the largest Polish freight forwarders* Sony Pictures – finance center* Thomson Reuters – business data provider* Vistal – bridge constructions, offshore and shipbuilding markets; partially located on old Stocznia Gdynia terrains* Nauta – ship repair yard; partially located on old Stocznia Gdynia terrains* Crist – shipbuilding, offshore constructions, steel structures, sea engineering, civil engineering; located on old Stocznia Gdynia terrains'''Former''':* Stocznia Gdynia – former largest Polish shipyard, now under bankruptcy procedures* Nordea – banks, sold and consolidated with PKO bankPesa Atribo SA133 of the Tricity Fast Urban Railways (SKM) departing from Gdynia=== Transport ===Gdynia Główna, the city's main railway station==== Port of Gdynia ====In 2007, 364,202 passengers, 17,025,000 tons of cargo and containers passed through the port.", "Regular car ferry service operates between Gdynia and Karlskrona, Sweden.==== Public transport ====Gdynia operates one of only three trolleybus systems in Poland, alongside Lublin and Tychy.", "Today there are 12 trolleybus lines in Gdynia with a total length of 96 km.", "The fleet is modern and consists of Solaris Trollino cars.", "There is also a historic line, connecting city centre with a district of Orłowo operated by three retro trolleybuses.", "In addition to that, Gdynia operates an extensive network of bus lines, connecting the city with the adjacent suburbs.==== Airport ====The conurbation's main airport, Gdańsk Lech Wałęsa Airport, lays approximately south-west of central Gdynia, and has connections to approximately 55 destinations.", "It is the third largest airport in Poland.", "A second General Aviation terminal was scheduled to be opened by May 2012, which will increase the airport's capacity to 5mln passengers per year.Another local airport, (Gdynia-Kosakowo Airport) is situated partly in the village of Kosakowo, just to the north of the city, and partly in Gdynia.", "This has been a military airport since the World War II, but it has been decided in 2006 that the airport will be used to serve civilians.", "Work was well in progress and was due to be ready for 2012 when the project collapsed following a February 2014 EU decision regarding Gdynia city funding as constituting unfair competition to Gdańsk airport.", "In March 2014, the airport management company filed for bankruptcy, this being formally announced in May that year.", "The fate of some PLN 100 million of public funds from Gdynia remain unaccounted for with documents not being released, despite repeated requests for such from residents to the city president, Wojciech Szczurek.==== Road transport ====Trasa Kwiatkowskiego links Port of Gdynia and the city with Obwodnica Trójmiejska, and therefore A1 motorway.", "National road 6 connects Tricity with Słupsk, Koszalin and Szczecin agglomeration.==== Railways ====The principal station in Gdynia is Gdynia Główna railway station, the busiest railway station in the Tricity and northern Poland and seventh busiest in Poland overall (as of 2021).", "Gdynia has eleven railway stations.", "Local train services are provided by the 'Fast Urban Railway,' Szybka Kolej Miejska (Tricity) operating frequent trains covering the Tricity area including Gdańsk, Sopot and Gdynia.", "Long-distance trains from Warsaw via Gdańsk terminate at Gdynia, and there are direct trains to Szczecin, Poznań, Katowice, Lublin and other major cities.", "In 2011-2015 the Warsaw-Gdańsk-Gdynia route was undergoing a major upgrading costing $3 billion, partly funded by the European Investment Bank, including track replacement, realignment of curves and relocation of sections of track to allow speeds up to , modernization of stations, and installation of the most modern ETCS signalling system, which was completed in June 2015.In December 2014 new Alstom Pendolino high-speed trains were put into service between Gdynia, Warsaw and Kraków reducing rail travel times to Gdynia by 2 hours." ], [ "Education", "Gdynia Maritime University, Faculty of NavigationPolish Naval AcademyThere are currently 8 universities and institutions of higher education based in Gdynia.", "Many students from Gdynia also attend universities located in the Tricity.", "* State-owned:** Gdynia Maritime University** Polish Naval Academy* Privately owned:** WSB Merito Universities – WSB Merito University in Gdańsk, departments of Economics and Management** Academy of International Economic and Political Relations** University of Business and Administration in Gdynia** Pomeranian Higher School of Humanities** Cardinal Stefan Wyszyński University – department in Gdynia** Higher School of Social Communication" ], [ "Twin towns – sister cities", "Gdynia is twinned with:* Aalborg, Denmark* Baranavichy, Belarus* Brooklyn (New York), United States* Côte d'Opale (communauté), France* Haikou, China* Karlskrona, Sweden* Kiel, Germany* Klaipėda, Lithuania* Kotka, Finland* Kristiansand, Norway* Kunda (Viru-Nigula), Estonia* Liepāja, Latvia* Plymouth, England, United Kingdom* Seattle, United StatesFormer twin towns:* Kaliningrad, Russia (terminated in 2022 due to the Russian invasion of Ukraine)" ], [ "See also", "* Gdynia trolleybus* Ports of the Baltic Sea* St. Anthony parish, Gdynia* Wiczlino, Gdynia" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* (ed.)", "R. Wapiński, ''Dzieje Gdyni'', Gdańsk 1980* (ed.).", "S. Gierszewski, ''Gdynia'', Gdańsk 1968* ''Gdynia'', in: Pomorze Gdańskie, nr 5, Gdańsk 1968* J. Borowik, ''Gdynia, port Rzeczypospolitej'', Toruń 1934* B. Kasprowicz, ''Problemy ekonomiczne budowy i eksploatacji portu w Gdyni w latach 1920–1939'', Zapiski Historyczne, nr 1-3/1956* M. Widernik, ''Główne problemy gospodarczo-społeczne miasta Gdyni w latach 1926–1939.", "'', Gdańsk 1970* (ed.)", "A. Bukowski, ''Gdynia.", "Sylwetki ludzi, oświata i nauka, literatura i kultura'', Gdańsk 1979* ''Gminy województwa gdańskiego'', Gdańsk 1995* H. Górnowicz, Z. Brocki, ''Nazwy miast Pomorza Gdańskiego'', Wrocław 1978* Gerard Labuda (ed.", "), ''Historia Pomorza'', vol.", "I-IV, Poznań 1969–2003* (ed.)", "W. Odyniec, ''Dzieje Pomorza Nadwiślańskiego od VII wieku do 1945 roku'', Gdańsk 1978* L. Bądkowski, ''Pomorska myśl polityczna'', Gdańsk 1990* L. Bądkowski, W. Samp, ''Poczet książąt Pomorza Gdańskiego'', Gdańsk 1974* B. Śliwiński, ''Poczet książąt gdańskich'', Gdańsk 1997* Józef Spors, ''Podziały administracyjne Pomorza Gdańskiego i Sławieńsko-Słupskiego od XII do początków XIV w'', Słupsk 1983* M. Latoszek, ''Pomorze.", "Zagadnienia etniczno-regionalne'', Gdańsk 1996* B. Bojarska, ''Eksterminacja inteligencji polskiej na Pomorzu Gdańskim (wrzesień-grudzień 1939)'', Poznań 1972* K. Ciechanowski, ''Ruch oporu na Pomorzu Gdańskim 1939–1945.", "'', Warszawa 1972" ], [ "External links", "* Gdynia Port - Home for all Polish Ocean Liners* Gdynia city website* Virtual tour on Gdynia's coast* Gdynia tourist guide* Gdynia Tripadvisor" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gluon" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''gluon''' ( ) is a type of elementary particle that mediates the strong interaction between quarks, acting as the exchange particle for the interaction.", "Gluons are massless vector bosons, thereby having a spin of 1.Through the strong interaction, gluons bind quarks into groups according to quantum chromodynamics (QCD), forming hadrons such as protons and neutrons.Gluons carry the color charge of the strong interaction, thereby participating in the strong interaction as well as mediating it.", "Because gluons carry the color charge, QCD is more difficult to analyze compared to quantum electrodynamics (QED) where the photon carries no electric charge.The term was coined by Murray Gell-Mann in 1962 for being similar to an adhesive or glue that keeps the nucleus together.", "Together with the quarks, these particles were referred together as partons by Richard Feynman." ], [ "Properties", "The gluon is a vector boson, which means it has a spin of 1.While massive spin-1 particles have three polarization states, massless gauge bosons like the gluon have only two polarization states because gauge invariance requires the field polarization to be transverse to the direction that the gluon is traveling.", "In quantum field theory, unbroken gauge invariance requires that gauge bosons have zero mass.", "Experiments limit the gluon's rest mass (if any) to less than a few MeV/''c''2.The gluon has negative intrinsic parity." ], [ "Counting gluons", "Unlike the photon of QED or the three W and Z bosons of the weak interaction, there are eight independent types of gluons in QCD.However, gluons are subject to the color charge phenomena (of which they have combinations of color and anticolor).", "Quarks carry three types of color charge; antiquarks carry three types of anticolor.", "Gluons may be thought of as carrying both color and anticolor.", "This gives nine ''possible'' combinations of color and anticolor in gluons.", "The following is a list of those combinations (and their schematic names):* red–antired red–antigreen red–antiblue * green–antired green–antigreen green–antiblue * blue–antired blue–antigreen blue–antiblue Diagram 2: e+e− → Υ(9.46) → 3gThese are not the ''actual'' color states of observed gluons, but rather ''effective'' states.", "To correctly understand how they are combined, it is necessary to consider the mathematics of color charge in more detail.=== Color singlet states ===It is often said that the stable strongly interacting particles (such as hadrons like the proton and neutron) observed in nature are \"colorless\", but more precisely they are in a \"color singlet\" state, which is mathematically analogous to a ''spin'' singlet state.", "Such states allow interaction with other color singlets, but not with other color states; because long-range gluon interactions do not exist, this illustrates that gluons in the singlet state do not exist either.The color singlet state is:: In other words, if one could measure the color of the state, there would be equal probabilities of it being red–antired, blue–antiblue, or green–antigreen.=== Eight color states ===There are eight remaining independent color states, which correspond to the \"eight types\" or \"eight colors\" of gluons.", "Because states can be mixed together as discussed above, there are many ways of presenting these states, which are known as the \"color octet\".", "One commonly used list is:      These are equivalent to the Gell-Mann matrices.", "The critical feature of these particular eight states is that they are linearly independent, and also independent of the singlet state, hence 32 − 1 or 23.There is no way to add any combination of these states to produce any other, and it is also impossible to add them to make ''r,'' ''g,'' or ''b'' the forbidden singlet state.", "There are many other possible choices, but all are mathematically equivalent, at least equally complicated, and give the same physical results.=== Group theory details ===Formally, QCD is a gauge theory with SU(3) gauge symmetry.", "Quarks are introduced as spinors in ''N''f flavors, each in the fundamental representation (triplet, denoted '''3''') of the color gauge group, SU(3).", "The gluons are vectors in the adjoint representation (octets, denoted '''8''') of color SU(3).", "For a general gauge group, the number of force-carriers (like photons or gluons) is always equal to the dimension of the adjoint representation.", "For the simple case of SU(''N''), the dimension of this representation is .In terms of group theory, the assertion that there are no color singlet gluons is simply the statement that quantum chromodynamics has an SU(3) rather than a U(3) symmetry.", "There is no known ''a priori'' reason for one group to be preferred over the other, but as discussed above, the experimental evidence supports SU(3).", "If the group were U(3), the ninth (colorless singlet) gluon would behave like a \"second photon\" and not like the other eight gluons." ], [ "Confinement", "Since gluons themselves carry color charge, they participate in strong interactions.", "These gluon–gluon interactions constrain color fields to string-like objects called \"flux tubes\", which exert constant force when stretched.", "Due to this force, quarks are confined within composite particles called hadrons.", "This effectively limits the range of the strong interaction to meters, roughly the size of a nucleon.", "Beyond a certain distance, the energy of the flux tube binding two quarks increases linearly.", "At a large enough distance, it becomes energetically more favorable to pull a quark–antiquark pair out of the vacuum rather than increase the length of the flux tube.One consequence of the hadron-confinement property of gluons is that they are not directly involved in the nuclear forces between hadrons.", "The force mediators for these are other hadrons called mesons.Although in the normal phase of QCD single gluons may not travel freely, it is predicted that there exist hadrons that are formed entirely of gluons — called glueballs.", "There are also conjectures about other exotic hadrons in which real gluons (as opposed to virtual ones found in ordinary hadrons) would be primary constituents.", "Beyond the normal phase of QCD (at extreme temperatures and pressures), quark–gluon plasma forms.", "In such a plasma there are no hadrons; quarks and gluons become free particles." ], [ "Experimental observations", "Quarks and gluons (colored) manifest themselves by fragmenting into more quarks and gluons, which in turn hadronize into normal (colorless) particles, correlated in jets.", "As revealed in 1978 summer conferences, the PLUTO detector at the electron-positron collider DORIS (DESY) produced the first evidence that the hadronic decays of the very narrow resonance Υ(9.46) could be interpreted as three-jet event topologies produced by three gluons.", "Later, published analyses by the same experiment confirmed this interpretation and also the spin = 1 nature of the gluon (see also the recollection and PLUTO experiments).In summer 1979, at higher energies at the electron-positron collider PETRA (DESY), again three-jet topologies were observed, now clearly visible and interpreted as q gluon bremsstrahlung, by TASSO, MARK-J and PLUTO experiments (later in 1980 also by JADE).", "The spin = 1 property of the gluon was confirmed in 1980 by TASSO and PLUTO experiments (see also the review).", "In 1991 a subsequent experiment at the LEP storage ring at CERN again confirmed this result.The gluons play an important role in the elementary strong interactions between quarks and gluons, described by QCD and studied particularly at the electron-proton collider HERA at DESY.", "The number and momentum distribution of the gluons in the proton (gluon density) have been measured by two experiments, H1 and ZEUS, in the years 1996–2007.The gluon contribution to the proton spin has been studied by the HERMES experiment at HERA.", "The gluon density in the proton (when behaving hadronically) also has been measured.Color confinement is verified by the failure of free quark searches (searches of fractional charges).", "Quarks are normally produced in pairs (quark + antiquark) to compensate the quantum color and flavor numbers; however at Fermilab single production of top quarks has been shown.", "No glueball has been demonstrated.Deconfinement was claimed in 2000 at CERN SPS in heavy-ion collisions, and it implies a new state of matter: quark–gluon plasma, less interactive than in the nucleus, almost as in a liquid.", "It was found at the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider (RHIC) at Brookhaven in the years 2004–2010 by four contemporaneous experiments.", "A quark–gluon plasma state has been confirmed at the CERN Large Hadron Collider (LHC) by the three experiments ALICE, ATLAS and CMS in 2010.Jefferson Lab's Continuous Electron Beam Accelerator Facility, in Newport News, Virginia, is one of 10 Department of Energy facilities doing research on gluons.", "The Virginia lab was competing with another facility – Brookhaven National Laboratory, on Long Island, New York – for funds to build a new electron-ion collider.", "In December 2019, the US Department of Energy selected the Brookhaven National Laboratory to host the electron-ion collider." ], [ "See also", "* Quark* Hadron* Meson* Gauge boson* Quark model* Quantum chromodynamics* Quark–gluon plasma* Color confinement* Glueball* Gluon field* Gluon field strength tensor* Exotic hadrons* Standard Model* Three-jet event* Deep inelastic scattering* Quantum chromodynamics binding energy* Special unitary group* Hadronization* Color charge* Coupling constant" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * Cambridge Handout 8 : Quantum Chromodynamics – Particle Physics" ], [ "External resources", "* Big Think website, clear explanation of the QCD Octet" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Book of Genesis" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Book of Genesis''' (from Greek ; ; ) is the first book of the Hebrew Bible and the Christian Old Testament.", "Its Hebrew name is the same as its first word, ('In the beginning').", "Genesis is an account of the creation of the world, the early history of humanity, and the origins of the Jewish people.Tradition credits Moses as the author of Genesis, as well as the books of Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and most of Deuteronomy; however, modern scholars, especially from the 19th century onward, place the books' authorship in the 6th and 5th centuries BC, hundreds of years after Moses is supposed to have lived.", "Based on scientific interpretation of archaeological, genetic, and linguistic evidence, most mainstream Bible scholars consider Genesis to be primarily mythological rather than historical.It is divisible into two parts, the primeval history (chapters 1–11) and the ancestral history (chapters 12–50).", "The primeval history sets out the author's concepts of the nature of the deity and of humankind's relationship with its maker: God creates a world which is good and fit for humans, but when man corrupts it with sin God decides to destroy his creation, sparing only the righteous Noah and his family to re-establish the relationship between man and God.", "The ancestral history (chapters 12–50) tells of the prehistory of Israel, God's chosen people.", "At God's command, Noah's descendant Abraham journeys from his birthplace (described as Ur of the Chaldeans and whose identification with Sumerian Ur is tentative in modern scholarship) into the God-given land of Canaan, where he dwells as a sojourner, as does his son Isaac and his grandson Jacob.", "Jacob's name is changed to \"Israel\", and through the agency of his son Joseph, the children of Israel descend into Egypt, 70 people in all with their households, and God promises them a future of greatness.", "Genesis ends with Israel in Egypt, ready for the coming of Moses and the Exodus (departure).", "The narrative is punctuated by a series of covenants with God, successively narrowing in scope from all humankind (the covenant with Noah) to a special relationship with one people alone (Abraham and his descendants through Isaac and Jacob).In Judaism, the theological importance of Genesis centres on the covenants linking God to his chosen people and the people to the Promised Land." ], [ "Title", "''The Creation of Man'' by Ephraim Moses Lilien, 1903.The name ''Genesis'' is from the Latin Vulgate, in turn borrowed or transliterated from Greek , meaning 'origin'; , 'In the beginning'." ], [ "Composition", "For much of the 20th century, most scholars agreed that the five books of the Pentateuch—Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy—came from four sources: the Yahwist, the Elohist, the Deuteronomist and the Priestly source.", "Known as the documentary hypothesis, each source was held to tell the same basic story, with the sources later joined together by various editors.", "Since the 1970s, however, there has been a revolution in this line of thought, leading scholars to view the Elohist source as no more than a variation on the Yahwist, and the Priestly source as a body of revisions and expansions to the Yahwist (or \"non-Priestly\") material (the Deuteronomistic source does not appear in Genesis).Scholars use examples of repeated and duplicate stories to identify separate sources.", "In Genesis, these include three different accounts of a patriarch claiming that his wife was his sister, the two creation stories, and the two versions of Abraham sending Hagar and Ishmael into the desert.This leaves the question of when these works were created.", "Scholars in the first half of the 20th century concluded that the Yahwist source was a product of the monarchic period, specifically at the court of Solomon, 10th century BC, and the Priestly work a product of the middle of the 5th century BC (with claims that the author was Ezra).", "However, more recent thinking is that the Yahwist source dates to from either just before or during the Babylonian captivity in the 6th century BC, and that the Priestly final edition was made late in the Exilic period or soon after.", "The almost complete absence of all the characters and incidents mentioned in primeval history from the rest of the Hebrew Bible has led a sizeable minority of scholars to conclude that these chapters were composed much later than those that follow, possibly in the 3rd century BC.", "By comparing Dead Sea level indications in chapter 14 of Genesis Amos Frumkin and Yoel Elitzur suggest the composition dating between 1500 and 1200 BC.As for why the book was created, a theory which has gained considerable interest, although still controversial, is that of Persian imperial authorisation.", "This proposes that the Persians of the Achaemenid Empire, after their conquest of Babylon in 539 BC, agreed to grant Jerusalem a large measure of local autonomy within the empire, but required the local authorities to produce a single law code accepted by the entire community.", "The two powerful groups making up the community—the priestly families who controlled the Second Temple and who traced their origin to Moses and the wilderness wanderings, and the major landowning families who made up the \"elders\" and who traced their own origins to Abraham, who had \"given\" them the land—were in conflict over many issues, and each had its own \"history of origins\".", "However, the Persian promise of greatly increased local autonomy for all provided a powerful incentive to cooperate in producing a single text." ], [ "Genre", "Genesis is an example of a work in the \"antiquities\" genre, as the Romans knew it, a popular genre telling of the appearance of humans and their ancestors and heroes, with elaborate genealogies and chronologies fleshed out with stories and anecdotes.", "Notable examples are found in the work of Greek historians of the 6th century BC: their intention was to connect notable families of their own day to a distant and heroic past, and in doing so they did not distinguish between myth, legend, and facts.", "Professor Jean-Louis Ska of the Pontifical Biblical Institute calls the basic rule of the antiquarian historian the \"law of conservation\": everything old is valuable, nothing is eliminated.", "This antiquity was needed to prove the worth of Israel's traditions to the nations (the neighbours of the Jews in the early Persian province of Judea), and to reconcile and unite the various factions within Israel itself.Describing the work of the biblical authors, John Van Seters wrote that lacking many historical traditions and none from the distant past, \"They had to use myths and legends for earlier periods.", "In order to make sense out of the variety of different and often conflicting versions of stories, and to relate the stories to each other, they fitted them into a genealogical chronology.\"" ], [ "Textual witnesses", "There are four major textual witnesses to the book: the Masoretic Text, the Samaritan Pentateuch, the Septuagint, and fragments of Genesis found at Qumran.", "The Qumran group provides the oldest manuscripts but covers only a small proportion of the book; in general, the Masoretic Text is well preserved and reliable, but there are many individual instances where the other versions preserve a superior reading." ], [ "Structure", "Genesis appears to be structured around the recurring phrase , meaning \"these are the generations\", with the first use of the phrase referring to the \"generations of heaven and earth\" and the remainder marking individuals—Noah, the \"sons of Noah\", Shem, etc., down to Jacob.", "The formula, occurring eleven times in the book of Genesis, delineating its sections and shaping its structure, serves as a heading which marks a transition to a new subject:* Genesis 1:1 (narrative) In the beginning* Genesis 2:4 (narrative) of Heaven and Earth* Genesis 5:1 (genealogy) of Adam* Genesis 6:9 (narrative) of Noah* Genesis 10:1 (genealogy) of Shem, Ham, and Japheth* Genesis 11:10 (genealogy) of Shem* Genesis 11:27 (narrative) of Terach* Genesis 25:12 (genealogy) of Ishmael* Genesis 25:19 (narrative) of Isaac* Genesis 36:1 and 36:9 (genealogy) of Esau* Genesis 37:2 (narrative) of JacobIt is not clear, however, what this meant to the original authors, and most modern commentators divide it into two parts based on the subject matter, a \"primeval history\" (chapters 1–11) and a \"patriarchal history\" (chapters 12–50).", "While the first is far shorter than the second, it sets out the basic themes and provides an interpretive key for understanding the entire book.", "The \"primeval history\" has a symmetrical structure hinging on chapters 6–9, the flood story, with the events before the flood mirrored by the events after; the \"ancestral history\" is structured around the three patriarchs Abraham, Jacob and Joseph.", "(The stories of Isaac arguably do not make up a coherent cycle of stories and function as a bridge between the cycles of Abraham and Jacob.)" ], [ "Summary", "===Primeval history (chapters 1–11)===''The Creation of Adam'' by Michelangelo, 1512.", "''The Garden of Eden with the Fall of Man'' by Jan Brueghel the Elder and Pieter Paul Rubens, , depicting both domestic and exotic wild animals such as tigers, parrots and ostriches co-existing in the garden''Noah's Ark'' (1846), by the American folk painter Edward Hicks.The Genesis creation narrative comprises two different stories; the first two chapters roughly correspond to these.", "In the first, Elohim, the generic Hebrew word for God, creates the heavens and the earth including humankind, in six days, and rests on the seventh.", "In the second, God, now referred to as \"Yahweh Elohim\" (rendered as \"the God\" in English translations), creates two individuals, Adam and Eve, as the first man and woman, and places them in the Garden of Eden.In the third chapter, God instructs them not to eat the fruit of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil.", "They promise not to, but a talking serpent, portrayed as a deceptive creature or trickster, convinces Eve to eat the fruit against God's wishes, and she convinces Adam, whereupon God throws them out and curses both of them—Adam was cursed with getting what he needs only by sweat and work, and Eve to giving birth in pain.", "This is interpreted by Christians as the \"fall of man\" into sin.", "Eve bears two sons, Cain and Abel.", "Cain works in the garden, and Abel works with meat; they both offer offerings to God one day, and God does not accept Cain's offering but does accept Abel's.", "This causes Cain to resent Abel, and Cain ends up murdering him.", "God then curses Cain.", "Eve bears another son, Seth, to take Abel's place in accordance to the promises given at 3:15, 20.After many generations of Adam have passed from the lines of Cain and Seth, the world becomes corrupted by human sin and Nephilim, and God wants to wipe out humanity for their wickedness.", "However, Noah is the only good human; so first, he instructs the righteous Noah and his family to build an ark and put examples of all the animals on it, seven pairs of every clean animal and one pair of every unclean.", "Then God sends a great flood to wipe out the rest of the world.", "When the waters recede, God promises he will never destroy the world with water again, making a rainbow as a symbol of his promise.", "God sees humankind cooperating to build a great tower city, the Tower of Babel, and divides humanity with many languages and sets them apart with confusion.", "Then, a generation line from Shem to Abram is described.===Patriarchal age (chapters 12–50)===Ur to Canaan'' (József Molnár, 1850)Abram, a man descended from Noah, is instructed by God to travel from his home in Mesopotamia to the land of Canaan.", "There, God makes a promise to Abram, promising that his descendants shall be as numerous as the stars, but that people will suffer oppression in a foreign land for four hundred years, after which they will inherit the land \"from the river of Egypt to the great river, the river Euphrates\".", "Abram's name is changed to 'Abraham' and that of his wife Sarai to Sarah (meaning 'princess'), and God says that all males should be circumcised as a sign of his promise to Abraham.", "Due to her old age, Sarah tells Abraham to take her Egyptian handmaiden, Hagar, as a second wife (to bear a child).", "Through Hagar, Abraham fathers Ishmael.God then plans to destroy the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah for the sins of their people.", "Abraham protests but fails to get God to agree not to destroy the cities (reasoning with Abraham that not even ten righteous persons were found there; and among the righteous was Abraham's nephew Lot).", "Angels save Abraham's nephew Lot (who was living there at the same time) and his family, but his wife looks back on the destruction, (even though God commanded not to) and turns into a pillar of salt for going against his word.", "Lot's daughters, concerned that they are fugitives who will never find husbands, get Lot drunk so they can become pregnant by him, and give birth to the ancestors of the Moabites and Ammonites.Abraham and Sarah go to the Philistine town of Gerar, pretending to be brother and sister (they are half-siblings).", "The King of Gerar takes Sarah for his wife, but God warns him to return her (as she is really Abraham's wife) and he obeys.", "God sends Sarah a son and tells her she should name him Isaac; through him will be the establishment of the covenant (promise).", "Sarah then drives Ishmael and his mother Hagar out into the wilderness (because Ishmael is not her real son and Hagar is a slave), but God saves them and promises to make Ishmael a great nation.", "''The Angel Hinders the Offering of Isaac'' (Rembrandt, 1635)Then, God tests Abraham by demanding that he sacrifice Isaac.", "As Abraham is about to lay the knife upon his son, \"the Angel of the Lord\" restrains him, promising him again innumerable descendants.", "On the death of Sarah, Abraham purchases Machpelah (believed to be modern Hebron) for a family tomb and sends his servant to Mesopotamia to find among his relations a wife for Isaac; after proving herself worthy, Rebekah becomes Isaac's betrothed.", "Keturah, Abraham's other wife, births more children, among whose descendants are the Midianites.", "Abraham dies at a prosperous old age and his family lays him to rest in Hebron (Machpelah).", "''Jacob flees Laban'' by Charles Foster, 1897.Isaac's wife Rebekah gives birth to the twins Esau (meaning 'velvet'), father of the Edomites, and Jacob (meaning 'supplanter' or 'follower').", "Esau was a couple of seconds older as he had come out of the womb first, and was going to become the heir; however, through carelessness, he sold his birthright to Jacob for a bowl of stew.", "His mother, Rebekah, ensures Jacob rightly gains his father's blessing as the firstborn son and inheritor.", "At 77 years of age, Jacob leaves his parents and later seeks a wife and meets Rachel at a well.", "He goes to her father, his uncle, where he works for a total of 14 years to earn his wives, Rachel and Leah.", "Jacob's name is changed to Israel after his wrestle with an angel, and by his wives and their handmaidens he has twelve sons, the ancestors of the twelve tribes of the children of Israel, and a daughter, Dinah.Shechem, son of Hamor the Hivite, rapes Dinah and asks his father to get Dinah for him as his wife, according to Chapter 34.Jacob agrees to the marriage but requires that all the males of Hamor's tribe be circumcised, including Hamor and Shechem.", "After this was performed and all the men were still weak, Jacob's sons Simeon and Levi murdered all the males.", "Jacob complained that their act would mean retribution by others, namely the Canaanites and Perizzites.", "Jacob and his tribe took all the Hivite women and children as well as livestock and other property for themselves.Joseph, Jacob's favourite son of the twelve, makes his brothers jealous (especially because of special gifts Jacob gave him) and because of that jealousy they sell Joseph into slavery in Egypt.", "Joseph endures many trials including being innocently sentenced to jail but he stays faithful to God.", "After several years, he prospers there after the pharaoh of Egypt asks him to interpret a dream he had about an upcoming famine, which Joseph does through God.", "He is then made second in command of Egypt by the grateful pharaoh, and later on, he is reunited with his father and brothers, who fail to recognize him and plead for food as the famine had reached Canaan as well.", "After much manipulation to see if they still hate him, Joseph reveals himself, forgives them for their actions, and lets them and their households into Egypt, where Pharaoh assigns to them the land of Goshen.", "Jacob calls his sons to his bedside and reveals their future before he dies.", "Joseph lives to old age and tells his brothers before his death that if God leads them out of the country, then they should take his bones with them." ], [ "Themes", "''Joseph Recognized by His Brothers'' (Léon Pierre Urban Bourgeois, 1863)=== Promises to the ancestors ===In 1978, David Clines published ''The Theme of the Pentateuch''.", "Considered influential as one of the first authors to take up the question of the overarching theme of the Pentateuch, Clines' conclusion was that the overall theme is \"the partial fulfilment—which implies also the partial nonfulfillment—of the promise to or blessing of the Patriarchs\".", "(By calling the fulfilment \"partial\", Clines was drawing attention to the fact that at the end of Deuteronomy the people of Israel are still outside Canaan.", ")The patriarchs, or ancestors, are Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, with their wives (Joseph is normally excluded).", "Since the name YHWH had not been revealed to them, they worshipped El in his various manifestations.", "(It is, however, worth noting that in the Jahwist source, the patriarchs refer to deity by the name YHWH, for example in Genesis 15.)", "Through the patriarchs, God announces the election of Israel, that is, he chooses Israel to be his special people and commits himself to their future.", "God tells the patriarchs that he will be faithful to their descendants (i.e.", "to Israel), and Israel is expected to have faith in God and his promise.", "(\"Faith\" in the context of Genesis and the Hebrew Bible means an agreement to the promissory relationship, not a body of a belief.", ")The promise itself has three parts: offspring, blessings, and land.", "The fulfilment of the promise to each patriarch depends on having a male heir, and the story is constantly complicated by the fact that each prospective mother—Sarah, Rebekah and Rachel—is barren.", "The ancestors, however, retain their faith in God and God in each case gives a son—in Jacob's case, twelve sons, the foundation of the chosen Israelites.", "Each succeeding generation of the three promises attains a more rich fulfilment, until through Joseph \"all the world\" attains salvation from famine, and by bringing the children of Israel down to Egypt he becomes the means through which the promise can be fulfilled.=== God's chosen people ===Scholars generally agree that the theme of divine promise unites the patriarchal cycles, but many would dispute the efficacy of trying to examine Genesis' theology by pursuing a single overarching theme, instead citing as more productive the analysis of the Abraham cycle, the Jacob cycle, and the Joseph cycle, and the Yahwist and Priestly sources.", "The problem lies in finding a way to unite the patriarchal theme of the divine promise to the stories of Genesis 1–11 (the primeval history) with their theme of God's forgiveness in the face of man's evil nature.", "One solution is to see the patriarchal stories as resulting from God's decision not to remain alienated from humankind: God creates the world and humans, humans rebel, and God \"elects\" (chooses) Abraham.To this basic plot (which comes from the Yahwist), the Priestly source has added a series of covenants dividing history into stages, each with its own distinctive \"sign\".", "The first covenant is between God and all living creatures, and is marked by the sign of the rainbow; the second is with the descendants of Abraham (Ishmaelites and others as well as Israelites), and its sign is circumcision; and the last, which does not appear until the Book of Exodus, is with Israel alone, and its sign is Sabbath.", "A great leader mediates each covenant (Noah, Abraham, Moses), and at each stage God progressively reveals himself by his name (Elohim with Noah, El Shaddai with Abraham, Yahweh with Moses).===Deception===Throughout Genesis, various figures engage in deception or trickery to survive or prosper.", "Biblical scholar David M. Carr notes that such stories reflect the vulnerability felt by ancient Israelites and that \"such stories can be a major way of gaining hope and resisting domination\".", "Examples include:*To avoid being killed, a patriarch (Abraham in 12:10–20 and 20:1–18 and Isaac in 26:6–11) tells a king that his wife is actually his sister.", "*In chapter 25, Jacob tricks Esau into selling his birthright for a pot of lentil stew.", "*In chapter 27, Isaac is tricked by Rebekah into giving Jacob the superior blessing instead of Esau.", "*In chapter 29, Jacob believes he is marrying Rachel but is tricked into marrying her sister." ], [ "Cultural impact", "By totaling the spans of time in the genealogies of Genesis, religious authorities have calculated what they consider to be the age of the world since creation.", "This ''Anno Mundi'' system of counting years is the basis of the Hebrew calendar and Byzantine calendar.", "Counts differ somewhat, but they generally place the age of the Earth at about six thousand years.During the Protestant Reformation, rivalry between Catholic and Protestant Christians led to a closer study of the Bible and a competition to take its words more seriously.", "Thus, scholars in Europe from the 16th to the 19th century treated the book of Genesis as factual.", "As evidence in the fields of paleontology, geology and other sciences was uncovered, scholars tried to fit these discoveries into the Genesis creation account.", "For example, Johann Jakob Scheuchzer in the 18th century believed that fossils were the remains of creatures killed during the flood.", "This literal understanding of Genesis fell out of favor with scholars during the Victorian crisis of faith as evidence mounted that the Earth was far older than six thousand years." ], [ "Judaism's weekly Torah portions", "It is a custom among religious Jewish communities for a weekly Torah portion, popularly referred to as a , to be read during Jewish prayer services on Saturdays, Mondays and Thursdays.", "The full name, , is popularly abbreviated to (also or ), and is also known as a (or ).The is a section of the Torah (Five Books of Moses) used in Jewish liturgy during a particular week.", "There are 54 weekly parshas, or in Hebrew, and the full cycle is read over the course of one Jewish year.The first 12 of the 54 come from the Book of Genesis, and they are:# Chapters 1–6 (verses 1–8) Parashat Bereshit# Chapters 6 (v. 9 ''ff'')–11 Parashat Noach# Chapters 12–17 Parashat Lekh Lekha# Chapters 18–22 Parashat Vayera# Chapters 23–25 (v. 1–18) Parashat Chayyei Sarah# Chapters 25 (v. 19 ''ff'')–28 (v. 1–9) Parashat Toledot# Chapters 28 (v. 10 ''ff'')–32 (v. 1–3) Parashat Vayetzei# Chapters 32 (v. 4 ''ff'')–36 Parashat Vayishlach# Chapters 37–40 Parashat Vayeshev# Chapters 41–44 (v. 1–17) Parashat Miketz# Chapters 44 (v. 18 ''ff'')–47 (v. 1–27) Parashat Vayigash# Chapters 47 (v. 28 ''ff'')–50 Parashat Vayechi" ], [ "See also", "* Apollo 8 Genesis reading while in lunar orbit* Biblical criticism* Criticism of the Bible* Dating the Bible* * Genesis 1:1* Genesis creation narrative* Historicity of the Bible* Mosaic authorship* ''Paradise Lost''* Protevangelium* Wife–sister narratives in the Book of Genesis" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "=== Commentaries on Genesis ===* * * * * * * * * Fretheim, Terence E. \"The Book of Genesis.\"", "In ''The New Interpreter's Bible''.", "Edited by Leander E. Keck, vol.", "1, pp.", "319–674.Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1994..* * * Hirsch, Samson Raphael.", "''The Pentateuch: Genesis''.", "Translated by Isaac Levy.", "Judaica Press, 2nd edition 1999..", "Originally published as ''Der Pentateuch uebersetzt und erklaert'' Frankfurt, 1867–1878.", "* Kass, Leon R. ''The Beginning of Wisdom: Reading Genesis''.", "New York: Free Press, 2003..* * * Plaut, Gunther.", "''The Torah: A Modern Commentary'' (1981), * * * Sarna, Nahum M. ''The JPS Torah Commentary: Genesis: The Traditional Hebrew Text with the New JPS Translation''.", "Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1989..* Speiser, E.A.", "''Genesis: Introduction, Translation, and Notes''.", "New York: Anchor Bible, 1964..* * * * * === General ===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Various versions" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "GM" ], [ "Introduction", "'''GM''' or '''Gm''' may refer to:" ], [ "Companies", "* General Motors, US automobile manufacturing company which was founded in 1908** Motors Liquidation Company, the US automobile manufacturing company known as General Motors Corporation from 1916 to 2009* General Mills, US food manufacturing company* Gunn & Moore, UK sports equipment company" ], [ "Places", "* The Gambia, by ISO 3166 code* Germany, by FIPS 10-4 country code* Greater Manchester, England" ], [ "Sports and gaming", "* RGM-79 GM, a mobile suit series in the video game ''Mobile Suit Gundam''* Gamemaster or game master, a person officiating in a multiplayer role-playing game* Grandmaster (chess)* Grandmaster (martial arts)* ''GM'' (magazine)" ], [ "Science and measurement", "* Geiger–Müller tube or G-M tube, a type of radiation detector* Genetic modification or genetically modified, manipulation of an organism's genome* Gigametre or gigameter (Gm), one billion metres* Silty gravel, in the Unified Soil Classification System* Standard gravitational parameter * Metacentric height, related to ship stability* Transconductance, an electronic component parameter* GM, unit of cross section named after Maria Goeppert Mayer" ], [ "Other uses", "* Gm (digraph)* GM chassis or Gusenichnaya Machina, a Russian tracked vehicle chassis* G minor, chords and scale* General manager* General MIDI, a standardized specification for music synthesizers* Genital mutilation* George Medal, a UK, primarily civil, decoration for acts of great bravery* Gold master, a version of software to be distributed to customers, i.e.", "ready for release to manufacturing* Google Maps* Gunner's mate, a US Navy rating" ], [ "See also", "* GM1, a ganglioside in brain biochemistry* Gram, a unit of mass, usually abbreviated \"g\" rather than \"gm\"* Grandmaster (disambiguation)* * * MG (disambiguation)* G (disambiguation)* M (disambiguation)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Galois group" ], [ "Introduction", "In mathematics, in the area of abstract algebra known as Galois theory, the '''Galois group''' of a certain type of field extension is a specific group associated with the field extension.", "The study of field extensions and their relationship to the polynomials that give rise to them via Galois groups is called Galois theory, so named in honor of Évariste Galois who first discovered them.For a more elementary discussion of Galois groups in terms of permutation groups, see the article on Galois theory." ], [ "Definition", "Suppose that is an extension of the field (written as and read \"''E'' over ''F'' \").", "An automorphism of is defined to be an automorphism of that fixes pointwise.", "In other words, an automorphism of is an isomorphism such that for each .", "The set of all automorphisms of forms a group with the operation of function composition.", "This group is sometimes denoted by If is a Galois extension, then is called the '''Galois group''' of , and is usually denoted by .If is not a Galois extension, then the Galois group of is sometimes defined as , where is the Galois closure of .=== Galois group of a polynomial ===Another definition of the Galois group comes from the Galois group of a polynomial .", "If there is a field such that factors as a product of linear polynomials:over the field , then the '''Galois group of the polynomial''' is defined as the Galois group of where is minimal among all such fields." ], [ "Structure of Galois groups", "=== Fundamental theorem of Galois theory ===One of the important structure theorems from Galois theory comes from the fundamental theorem of Galois theory.", "This states that given a finite Galois extension , there is a bijection between the set of subfields and the subgroups Then, is given by the set of invariants of under the action of , so:Moreover, if is a normal subgroup then .", "And conversely, if is a normal field extension, then the associated subgroup in is a normal group.=== Lattice structure ===Suppose are Galois extensions of with Galois groups The field with Galois group has an injection which is an isomorphism whenever .==== Inducting ====As a corollary, this can be inducted finitely many times.", "Given Galois extensions where then there is an isomorphism of the corresponding Galois groups::" ], [ "Examples", "In the following examples is a field, and are the fields of complex, real, and rational numbers, respectively.", "The notation indicates the field extension obtained by adjoining an element to the field .=== Computational tools ======= Cardinality of the Galois group and the degree of the field extension ====One of the basic propositions required for completely determining the Galois groups of a finite field extension is the following: Given a polynomial , let be its splitting field extension.", "Then the order of the Galois group is equal to the degree of the field extension; that is,:==== Eisenstein's criterion ====A useful tool for determining the Galois group of a polynomial comes from Eisenstein's criterion.", "If a polynomial factors into irreducible polynomials the Galois group of can be determined using the Galois groups of each since the Galois group of contains each of the Galois groups of the === Trivial group === is the trivial group that has a single element, namely the identity automorphism.Another example of a Galois group which is trivial is Indeed, it can be shown that any automorphism of must preserve the ordering of the real numbers and hence must be the identity.Consider the field The group contains only the identity automorphism.", "This is because is not a normal extension, since the other two cube roots of ,: and are missing from the extension—in other words is not a splitting field.=== Finite abelian groups ===The Galois group has two elements, the identity automorphism and the complex conjugation automorphism.==== Quadratic extensions ====The degree two field extension has the Galois group with two elements, the identity automorphism and the automorphism which exchanges and .", "This example generalizes for a prime number ==== Product of quadratic extensions ====Using the lattice structure of Galois groups, for non-equal prime numbers the Galois group of is:==== Cyclotomic extensions ====Another useful class of examples comes from the splitting fields of cyclotomic polynomials.", "These are polynomials defined as:whose degree is , Euler's totient function at .", "Then, the splitting field over is and has automorphisms sending for relatively prime to .", "Since the degree of the field is equal to the degree of the polynomial, these automorphisms generate the Galois group.", "If then:If is a prime , then a corollary of this is :In fact, any finite abelian group can be found as the Galois group of some subfield of a cyclotomic field extension by the Kronecker–Weber theorem.==== Finite fields ====Another useful class of examples of Galois groups with finite abelian groups comes from finite fields.", "If is a prime power, and if and denote the Galois fields of order and respectively, then is cyclic of order and generated by the Frobenius homomorphism.==== Degree 4 examples ====The field extension is an example of a degree field extension.", "This has two automorphisms where and Since these two generators define a group of order , the Klein four-group, they determine the entire Galois group.Another example is given from the splitting field of the polynomial:Note because the roots of are There are automorphisms :generating a group of order .", "Since generates this group, the Galois group is isomorphic to .=== Finite non-abelian groups ===Consider now where is a primitive cube root of unity.", "The group is isomorphic to , the dihedral group of order 6, and is in fact the splitting field of over ==== Quaternion group ====The Quaternion group can be found as the Galois group of a field extension of .", "For example, the field extension:has the prescribed Galois group.==== Symmetric group of prime order ====If is an irreducible polynomial of prime degree with rational coefficients and exactly two non-real roots, then the Galois group of is the full symmetric group For example, is irreducible from Eisenstein's criterion.", "Plotting the graph of with graphing software or paper shows it has three real roots, hence two complex roots, showing its Galois group is .=== Comparing Galois groups of field extensions of global fields ===Given a global field extension (such as ) and equivalence classes of valuations on (such as the -adic valuation) and on such that their completions give a Galois field extensionof local fields, there is an induced action of the Galois group on the set of equivalence classes of valuations such that the completions of the fields are compatible.", "This means if then there is an induced isomorphism of local fieldsSince we have taken the hypothesis that lies over (i.e.", "there is a Galois field extension ), the field morphism is in fact an isomorphism of -algebras.", "If we take the isotropy subgroup of for the valuation class then there is a surjection of the global Galois group to the local Galois group such that there is an isomorphism between the local Galois group and the isotropy subgroup.", "Diagrammatically, this meanswhere the vertical arrows are isomorphisms.", "This gives a technique for constructing Galois groups of local fields using global Galois groups.=== Infinite groups ===A basic example of a field extension with an infinite group of automorphisms is , since it contains every algebraic field extension .", "For example, the field extensions for a square-free element each have a unique degree automorphism, inducing an automorphism in One of the most studied classes of infinite Galois group is the absolute Galois group, which is an infinite, profinite group defined as the inverse limit of all finite Galois extensions for a fixed field.", "The inverse limit is denoted:,where is the separable closure of the field .", "Note this group is a topological group.", "Some basic examples include and:.", "Another readily computable example comes from the field extension containing the square root of every positive prime.", "It has Galois group:,which can be deduced from the profinite limit:and using the computation of the Galois groups." ], [ "Properties", "The significance of an extension being Galois is that it obeys the fundamental theorem of Galois theory: the closed (with respect to the Krull topology) subgroups of the Galois group correspond to the intermediate fields of the field extension.If is a Galois extension, then can be given a topology, called the Krull topology, that makes it into a profinite group." ], [ "See also", "*Fundamental theorem of Galois theory*Absolute Galois group*Galois representation*Demushkin group*Solvable group" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "**" ], [ "External links", "** Galois group and the Quaternion group** Comparing the global and local galois groups of an extension of number fields* Galois Representations - Richard Taylor" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "German Empire" ], [ "Introduction", " The '''German Empire''' (), also referred to as '''Imperial Germany''', the '''Second Reich''' (German: ''Zweites Reich'') or simply '''Germany''', was the period of the German Reich from the unification of Germany in 1871 until the November Revolution in 1918, when the German Reich changed its form of government from a monarchy to a republic.The empire was founded on 18 January 1871, when the south German states, except for Austria, Switzerland, and Liechtenstein, joined the North German Confederation and the new constitution came into force on 16 April, changing the name of the federal state to the German Empire and introducing the title of German Emperor for Wilhelm I, King of Prussia from the House of Hohenzollern.", "Berlin remained its capital, and Otto von Bismarck, Minister President of Prussia, became Chancellor, the head of government.", "As these events occurred, the Prussian-led North German Confederation and its southern German allies, such as Baden, Bavaria, Württemberg, and Hesse, were still engaged in the Franco-Prussian War.", "The German Empire consisted of 25 states, each with its own nobility, four constituent kingdoms, six grand duchies, five duchies (six before 1876), seven principalities, three free Hanseatic cities, and one imperial territory.", "While Prussia was one of four kingdoms in the realm, it contained about two-thirds of the Empire's population and territory, and Prussian dominance was also constitutionally established, since the King of Prussia was also the German Emperor (''Deutscher Kaiser'').After 1850, the states of Germany had rapidly become industrialized, with particular strengths in coal, iron (and later steel), chemicals, and railways.", "In 1871, Germany had a population of 41 million people; by 1913, this had increased to 68 million.", "A heavily rural collection of states in 1815, the now united Germany became predominantly urban.", "The success of German industrialization manifested itself in two ways in the early 20th century; the German factories were larger and more modern than their British and French counterparts.", "The dominance of the German Empire in the natural sciences, especially in physics and chemistry, was such that one-third of all Nobel Prizes went to German inventors and researchers.", "During its 47 years of existence, the German Empire became the industrial, technological, and scientific giant of Europe, and by 1913, Germany was the largest economy in continental Europe and the third-largest in the world.", "Germany also became a great power, building the longest railway network of Europe, the world's strongest army, and a fast-growing industrial base.", "Starting very small in 1871, in a decade, the navy became second only to Britain's Royal Navy.From 1871 to 1890, Otto von Bismarck's tenure as the first and to this day longest-serving Chancellor was marked by relative liberalism at its start, but in time grew more conservative.", "Broad reforms, the anti-Catholic ''Kulturkampf'' and systematic repression of Polish people marked his period in the office.", "Despite his hatred of liberalism and socialism – he called liberals and socialists \"enemies of the Reich\" – social programs introduced by Bismarck included old-age pensions, accident insurance, medical care and unemployment insurance, all aspects of the modern European welfare state.Late in Bismarck's chancellorship and in spite of his earlier personal opposition, Germany became involved in colonialism.", "Claiming much of the leftover territory that was not yet conquered by Europeans in the Scramble for Africa, it managed to build the third-largest colonial empire at the time, after the British and the French ones.", "As a colonial state, it sometimes clashed with the interests of other European powers, especially the British Empire.", "During its colonial expansion, the German Empire committed the Herero and Namaqua genocide.After the removal of Otto von Bismarck by Wilhelm II in 1890, the empire embarked on ''Weltpolitik'' (\"world politics\") – a bellicose new course that ultimately contributed to the outbreak of World War I. Bismarck's successors were incapable of maintaining their predecessor's complex, shifting, and overlapping alliances which had kept Germany from being diplomatically isolated.", "This period was marked by increased oppression of Polish people and various factors influencing the Emperor's decisions, which were often perceived as contradictory or unpredictable by the public.", "In 1879, the German Empire consolidated the Dual Alliance with Austria-Hungary, followed by the Triple Alliance with Italy in 1882.It also retained strong diplomatic ties to the Ottoman Empire.", "When the great crisis of 1914 arrived, Italy left the alliance and the Ottoman Empire formally allied with Germany.In the First World War, German plans to capture Paris quickly in the autumn of 1914 failed, and the war on the Western Front became a stalemate.", "The Allied naval blockade caused severe shortages of food and supplements.", "However, Imperial Germany had success on the Eastern Front; it occupied a large amount of territory to its east following the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk.", "The German declaration of unrestricted submarine warfare in early 1917 contributed to bringing the United States into the war.", "In October 1918, after the failed Spring Offensive, the German armies were in retreat, allies Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire had collapsed, and Bulgaria had surrendered.", "The empire collapsed in the November 1918 Revolution with the abdication of Wilhelm II, which left the post-war federal republic to govern a devastated populace.", "The Treaty of Versailles imposed post-war reparation costs of 132 billion gold marks (around US$269 billion or €240 billion in 2019, or roughly US$32 billion in 1921), as well as limiting the army to 100,000 men and disallowing conscription, armored vehicles, submarines, aircraft, and more than six battleships.", "The consequential economic devastation, later exacerbated by the Great Depression, as well as humiliation and outrage experienced by the German population are considered leading factors in the rise of Adolf Hitler and Nazism." ], [ "History", "===Background===Chancellor BismarckThe German Confederation had been created by an act of the Congress of Vienna on 8 June 1815 as a result of the Napoleonic Wars, after being alluded to in Article 6 of the 1814 Treaty of Paris.The liberal Revolutions of 1848 were crushed after the relations between the educated, well-off middle-class liberals and the urban artisans broke down; Otto von Bismarck's pragmatic ''Realpolitik'', which appealed to peasants as well as the aristocracy, took its place.", "Bismarck sought to extend Hohenzollern hegemony throughout the German states; to do so meant unification of the German states and the exclusion of Prussia's main German rival, Austria, from the subsequent German Empire.", "He envisioned a conservative, Prussian-dominated Germany.", "The Second Schleswig War against Denmark in 1864, the Austro-Prussian War in 1866, and the Franco-Prussian War in 1870–1871 sparked a growing pan-German ideal and contributed to the formation of the German state.The German Confederation ended as a result of the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 between the constituent Confederation entities of the Austrian Empire and its allies on one side and Prussia and its allies on the other.", "The war resulted in the partial replacement of the Confederation in 1867 by a North German Confederation, comprising the 22 states north of the river Main.", "The patriotic fervor generated by the Franco-Prussian War of 1870 overwhelmed the remaining opposition to a unified Germany (aside from Austria) in the four states south of the Main, and during November 1870, they joined the North German Confederation by treaty.==== Foundation ====Wilhelm I in 1884On 10 December 1870, the North German Confederation Reichstag renamed the Confederation the \"German Empire\" and gave the title of German Emperor to William I, the King of Prussia, as ''Bundespräsidium'' of the Confederation.", "The new constitution (Constitution of the German Confederation) and the title Emperor came into effect on 1 January 1871.During the siege of Paris on 18 January 1871, William was proclaimed Emperor in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles.The second German Constitution, adopted by the Reichstag on 14 April 1871 and proclaimed by the Emperor on 16 April, was substantially based upon Bismarck's North German Constitution.", "The political system remained the same.", "The empire had a parliament called the ''Reichstag'', which was elected by universal male suffrage.", "However, the original constituencies drawn in 1871 were never redrawn to reflect the growth of urban areas.", "As a result, by the time of the great expansion of German cities in the 1890s and 1900s, rural areas were grossly over-represented.", "''Die Proklamation des Deutschen Kaiserreiches'' by Anton von Werner (1877), depicting the proclamation of Emperor William I (18 January 1871, Palace of Versailles).", "From left, on the podium (in black): Crown Prince Frederick (later Frederick III), his father the emperor, and Frederick I of Baden, proposing a toast to the new emperor.", "At centre (in white): Otto von Bismarck, first Chancellor of Germany, Helmuth von Moltke the Elder, Prussian Chief of Staff.The legislation also required the consent of the ''Bundesrat'', the federal council of deputies from the 27 states.", "Executive power was vested in the emperor, or ''Kaiser'', who was assisted by a Chancellor responsible only to him.", "The emperor was given extensive powers by the constitution.", "He alone appointed and dismissed the chancellor (so in practice, the emperor ruled the empire through the chancellor), was supreme commander-in-chief of the armed forces, and final arbiter of all foreign affairs, and could also disband the ''Reichstag'' to call for new elections.", "Officially, the chancellor was a one-man cabinet and was responsible for the conduct of all state affairs; in practice, the State Secretaries (top bureaucratic officials in charge of such fields as finance, war, foreign affairs, etc.)", "functioned much like ministers in other monarchies.", "The ''Reichstag'' had the power to pass, amend, or reject bills and to initiate legislation.", "However, as mentioned above, in practice, the real power was vested in the emperor, who exercised it through his chancellor.Although nominally a federal empire and league of equals, in practice, the empire was dominated by the largest and most powerful state, Prussia.", "It stretched across the northern two-thirds of the new ''Reich'' and contained three-fifths of the country's population.", "The imperial crown was hereditary in the ruling house of Prussia, the House of Hohenzollern.", "With the exception of 1872–1873 and 1892–1894, the chancellor was always simultaneously the prime minister of Prussia.", "With 17 out of 58 votes in the ''Bundesrat'', Berlin needed only a few votes from the smaller states to exercise effective control.The other states retained their own governments but had only limited aspects of sovereignty.", "For example, both postage stamps and currency were issued for the empire as a whole.", "Coins through one mark were also minted in the name of the empire, while higher-valued pieces were issued by the states.", "However, these larger gold and silver issues were virtually commemorative coins and had limited circulation.While the states issued their own decorations and some had their own armies, the military forces of the smaller ones were put under Prussian control.", "Those of the larger states, such as the Kingdoms of Bavaria and Saxony, were coordinated along Prussian principles and would, in wartime, be controlled by the federal government.The evolution of the German Empire is somewhat in line with parallel developments in Italy, which became a united nation-state a decade earlier.", "Some key elements of the German Empire's authoritarian political structure were also the basis for conservative modernization in Imperial Japan under Emperor Meiji and the preservation of an authoritarian political structure under the tsars in the Russian Empire.One factor in the social anatomy of these governments was the retention of a very substantial share in political power by the landed elite, the Junkers, resulting from the absence of a revolutionary breakthrough by the peasants in combination with urban areas.Although authoritarian in many respects, the empire had some democratic features.", "Besides universal manhood suffrage, it permitted the development of political parties.", "Bismarck intended to create a constitutional façade that would mask the continuation of authoritarian policies.", "However, in the process, he created a system with a serious flaw.", "There was a significant disparity between the Prussian and German electoral systems.", "Prussia used a three-class voting system which weighted votes based on the amount of taxes paid, all but assuring a conservative majority.", "The king and (with two exceptions) the prime minister of Prussia was also the emperor and chancellor of the empire – meaning that the same rulers had to seek majorities from legislatures elected from completely different franchises.", "Universal suffrage was significantly diluted by gross over-representation of rural areas from the 1890s onward.", "By the turn of the century, the urban-rural population balance was completely reversed from 1871; more than two-thirds of the empire's people lived in cities and towns.===Bismarck era===Bismarck's domestic policies played an important role in forging the authoritarian political culture of the ''Kaiserreich''.", "Less preoccupied with continental power politics following unification in 1871, Germany's semi-parliamentary government carried out a relatively smooth economic and political revolution from above that pushed them along the way towards becoming the world's leading industrial power of the time.Bismarck's \"revolutionary conservatism\" was a conservative state-building strategy designed to make ordinary Germans—not just the Junker elite—more loyal to the throne and empire.", "According to Kees van Kersbergen and Barbara Vis, his strategy was:Bismarck created the modern welfare state in Germany in the 1880s and enacted universal male suffrage in 1871.He became a great hero to German conservatives, who erected many monuments to his memory and tried to emulate his policies.====Foreign policy====A postage stamp from the Caroline IslandsBismarck's post-1871 foreign policy was conservative and sought to preserve the balance of power in Europe.", "British historian Eric Hobsbawm concludes that he \"remained undisputed world champion at the game of multilateral diplomatic chess for almost twenty years after 1871, devoting himself exclusively, and successfully, to maintaining peace between the powers\".", "This was a departure from his adventurous foreign policy for Prussia, where he favored strength and expansion, punctuating this by saying, \"The great questions of the age are not settled by speeches and majority votes – this was the error of 1848–49 – but by iron and blood.", "\"Bismarck's chief concern was that France would plot revenge after its defeat in the Franco-Prussian War.", "As the French lacked the strength to defeat Germany by themselves, they sought an alliance with Russia, which would trap Germany between the two in a war (as would ultimately happen in 1914).", "Bismarck wanted to prevent this at all costs and maintain friendly relations with the Russians and thereby formed an alliance with them and Austria-Hungary, the ''Dreikaiserbund'' (League of Three Emperors), in 1881.The alliance was further cemented by a separate non-aggression pact with Russia called Reinsurance Treaty, which was signed in 1887.During this period, individuals within the German military were advocating a preemptive strike against Russia, but Bismarck knew that such ideas were foolhardy.", "He once wrote that \"the most brilliant victories would not avail against the Russian nation, because of its climate, its desert, and its frugality, and having but one frontier to defend\", and because it would leave Germany with another bitter, resentful neighbor.Meanwhile, the chancellor remained wary of any foreign policy developments that looked even remotely warlike.", "In 1886, he moved to stop an attempted sale of horses to France because they might be used for cavalry and also ordered an investigation into large Russian purchases of medicine from a German chemical works.", "Bismarck stubbornly refused to listen to Georg Herbert Münster, ambassador to France, who reported back that the French were not seeking a revanchist war and were desperate for peace at all costs.Bismarck and most of his contemporaries were conservative-minded and focused their foreign policy attention on Germany's neighboring states.", "In 1914, 60% of German foreign investment was in Europe, as opposed to just 5% of British investment.", "Most of the money went to developing nations such as Russia that lacked the capital or technical knowledge to industrialize on their own.", "The construction of the Berlin–Baghdad railway, financed by German banks, was designed to eventually connect Germany with the Ottoman Empire and the Persian Gulf, but it also collided with British and Russian geopolitical interests.", "Conflict over the Baghdad Railway was resolved in June 1914.Many consider Bismarck's foreign policy as a coherent system and partly responsible for the preservation of Europe's stability.", "It was also marked by the need to balance circumspect defensiveness and the desire to be free from the constraints of its position as a major European power.", "Bismarck's successors did not pursue his foreign policy legacy.", "For instance, Kaiser Wilhelm II, who dismissed the chancellor in 1890, let the treaty with Russia lapse in favor of Germany's alliance with Austria, which finally led to a stronger coalition-building between Russia and France.====Colonies====The German colonial empire and its protectorates in 1914Germans had dreamed of colonial imperialism since 1848.Although Bismarck had little interest in acquiring overseas possessions, most Germans were enthusiastic, and by 1884 he had acquired German New Guinea.", "By the 1890s, German colonial expansion in Asia and the Pacific (Jiaozhou Bay and Tianjin in China, the Marianas, the Caroline Islands, Samoa) led to frictions with the UK, Russia, Japan, and the US.", "The largest colonial enterprises were in Africa, where the Herero Wars in what is now Namibia in 1906–1907 resulted in the Herero and Namaqua genocide.====Economy====By 1900, Germany became the largest economy in continental Europe and the third-largest in the world behind the United States and the British Empire, which were also its main economic rivals.", "Throughout its existence, it experienced economic growth and modernization led by heavy industry.", "In 1871, it had a largely rural population of 41 million, while by 1913, this had increased to a predominantly urban population of 68 million.=====Industrial power=====The Krupp works in Essen, 1890For 30 years, Germany struggled against Britain to be Europe's leading industrial power.", "Representative of Germany's industry was the steel giant Krupp, whose first factory was built in Essen.", "By 1902, the factory alone became \"A great city with its own streets, its own police force, fire department and traffic laws.", "There are 150 kilometers of rail, 60 different factory buildings, 8,500 machine tools, seven electrical stations, 140 kilometers of underground cable, and 46 overhead.", "\"Under Bismarck, Germany was a world innovator in building the welfare state.", "German workers enjoyed health, accident and maternity benefits, canteens, changing rooms, and a national pension scheme.Industrialisation progressed dynamically in Germany, and German manufacturers began to capture domestic markets from British imports, and also to compete with British industry abroad, particularly in the U.S.", "The German textile and metal industries had by 1870 surpassed those of Britain in organisation and technical efficiency and superseded British manufacturers in the domestic market.", "Germany became the dominant economic power on the continent and was the second-largest exporting nation after Britain.Technological progress during German industrialisation occurred in four waves: the railway wave (1877–1886), the dye wave (1887–1896), the chemical wave (1897–1902), and the wave of electrical engineering (1903–1918).", "Since Germany industrialised later than Britain, it was able to model its factories after those of Britain, thus making more efficient use of its capital and avoiding legacy methods in its leap to the envelope of technology.", "Germany invested more heavily than the British in research, especially in chemistry, ICE engines and electricity.", "Germany's dominance in physics and chemistry was such that one-third of all Nobel Prizes went to German inventors and researchers.The German cartel system (known as ''Konzerne''), being significantly concentrated, was able to make more efficient use of capital.", "Germany was not weighted down with an expensive worldwide empire that needed defense.", "Following Germany's annexation of Alsace-Lorraine in 1871, it absorbed parts of what had been France's industrial base.Germany overtook British steel production in 1893 and pig iron production in 1903.The German steel and pig iron production continued its rapid expansion: Between 1911 and 1913, the German steel and pig iron output reached one quarter of total global production.German factories were larger and more modern than their British and French counterparts.", "By 1913, the German electricity production was higher than the combined electricity production of Britain, France, Italy and Sweden.By 1900, the German chemical industry dominated the world market for synthetic dyes.", "The three major firms BASF, Bayer and Hoechst produced several hundred different dyes, along with the five smaller firms.", "Imperial Germany built up the world's largest chemical industry, the production of German chemical industry was 60% higher than that of the United States.", "In 1913, these eight firms produced almost 90% of the world supply of dyestuffs and sold about 80% of their production abroad.", "The three major firms had also integrated upstream into the production of essential raw materials and they began to expand into other areas of chemistry such as pharmaceuticals, photographic film, agricultural chemicals and electrochemicals.", "Top-level decision-making was in the hands of professional salaried managers; leading Chandler to call the German dye companies \"the world's first truly managerial industrial enterprises\".", "There were many spinoffs from research—such as the pharmaceutical industry, which emerged from chemical research.By the start of World War I (1914–1918), German industry switched to war production.", "The heaviest demands were on coal and steel for artillery and shell production, and on chemicals for the synthesis of materials that were subject to import restrictions and for chemical weapons and war supplies.=====Railways=====Lacking a technological base at first, the Germans imported their engineering and hardware from Britain but quickly learned the skills needed to operate and expand the railways.", "In many cities, the new railway shops were the centers of technological awareness and training, so that by 1850, Germany was self-sufficient in meeting the demands of railroad construction, and the railways were a major impetus for the growth of the new steel industry.", "German unification in 1870 stimulated consolidation, nationalisation into state-owned companies, and further rapid growth.", "Unlike the situation in France, the goal was support of industrialisation, and so heavy lines crisscrossed the Ruhr and other industrial districts and provided good connections to the major ports of Hamburg and Bremen.", "By 1880, Germany had 9,400 locomotives pulling 43,000 passengers and 30,000 tons of freight, and forged ahead of France.", "The total length of German railroad tracks expanded from in 1871 to by 1913, establishing the largest rail network in the world after the United States.", "The German rail network was followed by Austria-Hungary (), France (), the United Kingdom (), Italy () and Spain ().====Consolidation====The creation of the Empire under Prussian leadership was a victory for the concept of (Smaller Germany) over the ''Großdeutschland'' concept.", "This meant that Austria-Hungary, a multi-ethnic Empire with a considerable German-speaking population, would remain outside of the German nation state.", "Bismarck's policy was to pursue a solution diplomatically.", "The effective alliance between Germany and Austria played a major role in Germany's decision to enter World War I in 1914.Bismarck announced there would be no more territorial additions to Germany in Europe, and his diplomacy after 1871 was focused on stabilizing the European system and preventing any wars.", "He succeeded, and only after his departure from office in 1890 did the diplomatic tensions start rising again.====Social issues====After achieving formal unification in 1871, Bismarck devoted much of his attention to the cause of national unity.", "He opposed Catholic civil rights and emancipation, especially the influence of the Vatican under Pope Pius IX, and working-class radicalism, represented by the emerging Social Democratic Party.=====Kulturkampf=====Tensions between Germany and the Catholic Church hierarchy as depicted in a chess game between Bismarck and Pope Pius IX.", "''Between Berlin and Rome'', Kladderadatsch, 1875.Prussia in 1871 included 16,000,000 Protestants, both Reformed and Lutheran, and 8,000,000 Catholics.", "Most people were generally segregated into their own religious worlds, living in rural districts or city neighbourhoods that were overwhelmingly of the same religion, and sending their children to separate public schools where their religion was taught.", "There was little interaction or intermarriage.", "On the whole, the Protestants had a higher social status, and the Catholics were more likely to be peasant farmers or unskilled or semiskilled industrial workers.", "In 1870, the Catholics formed their own political party, the Centre Party, which generally supported unification and most of Bismarck's policies.", "However, Bismarck distrusted parliamentary democracy in general and opposition parties in particular, especially when the Centre Party showed signs of gaining support among dissident elements such as the Polish Catholics in Silesia.", "A powerful intellectual force of the time was anti-Catholicism, led by the liberal intellectuals who formed a vital part of Bismarck's coalition.", "They saw the Catholic Church as a powerful force of reaction and anti-modernity, especially after the proclamation of papal infallibility in 1870, and the tightening control of the Vatican over the local bishops.The Kulturkampf launched by Bismarck 1871–1880 affected Prussia; although there were similar movements in Baden and Hesse, the rest of Germany was not affected.", "According to the new imperial constitution, the states were in charge of religious and educational affairs; they funded the Protestant and Catholic schools.", "In July 1871 Bismarck abolished the Catholic section of the Prussian Ministry of ecclesiastical and educational affairs, depriving Catholics of their voice at the highest level.", "The system of strict government supervision of schools was applied only in Catholic areas; the Protestant schools were left alone.Much more serious were the May laws of 1873.One made the appointment of any priest dependent on his attendance at a German university, as opposed to the seminaries that the Catholics typically used.", "Furthermore, all candidates for the ministry had to pass an examination in German culture before a state board which weeded out intransigent Catholics.", "Another provision gave the government a veto power over most church activities.", "A second law abolished the jurisdiction of the Vatican over the Catholic Church in Prussia; its authority was transferred to a government body controlled by Protestants.Nearly all German bishops, clergy, and laymen rejected the legality of the new laws, and were defiant in the face of heavier and heavier penalties and imprisonments imposed by Bismarck's government.", "By 1876, all the Prussian bishops were imprisoned or in exile, and a third of the Catholic parishes were without a priest.", "In the face of systematic defiance, the Bismarck government increased the penalties and its attacks, and were challenged in 1875 when a papal encyclical declared the whole ecclesiastical legislation of Prussia was invalid, and threatened to excommunicate any Catholic who obeyed.", "There was no violence, but the Catholics mobilized their support, set up numerous civic organizations, raised money to pay fines, and rallied behind their church and the Centre Party.", "The \"Old Catholic Church\", which rejected the First Vatican Council, attracted only a few thousand members.", "Bismarck, a devout pietistic Protestant, realized his Kulturkampf was backfiring when secular and socialist elements used the opportunity to attack all religion.", "In the long run, the most significant result was the mobilization of the Catholic voters, and their insistence on protecting their religious identity.", "In the elections of 1874, the Centre party doubled its popular vote, and became the second-largest party in the national parliament—and remained a powerful force for the next 60 years, so that after Bismarck it became difficult to form a government without their support.=====Social reform=====Bismarck built on a tradition of welfare programs in Prussia and Saxony that began as early as in the 1840s.", "In the 1880s he introduced old-age pensions, accident insurance, medical care and unemployment insurance that formed the basis of the modern European welfare state.", "He came to realize that this sort of policy was very appealing, since it bound workers to the state, and also fit in very well with his authoritarian nature.", "The social security systems installed by Bismarck (health care in 1883, accident insurance in 1884, invalidity and old-age insurance in 1889) at the time were the largest in the world and, to a degree, still exist in Germany today.Bismarck's paternalistic programs won the support of German industry because its goals were to win the support of the working classes for the Empire and reduce the outflow of immigrants to America, where wages were higher but welfare did not exist.", "Bismarck further won the support of both industry and skilled workers by his high tariff policies, which protected profits and wages from American competition, although they alienated the liberal intellectuals who wanted free trade.=====Antisemitism=====As it was throughout Europe at the time, antisemitism was endemic in Germany during the period.", "Before Napoleon's decrees ended the ghettos in Confederation of the Rhine, it had been religiously motivated, but by the 19th century, it was a factor in German nationalism.", "In the popular mind Jews became a symbol of capitalism and wealth.", "On the other hand, the constitution and legal system protected the rights of Jews as German citizens.", "Antisemitic parties were formed but soon collapsed.", "But after the Treaty of Versailles, and Adolf Hitler's rise to power in Germany, antisemitism in Germany would increase.=====Germanisation=====Prussian deportations of ethnic Poles ''(Polenausweisungen)'', 1909 painting by Wojciech KossakOne of the effects of the unification policies was the gradually increasing tendency to eliminate the use of non-German languages in public life, schools and academic settings with the intent of pressuring the non-German population to abandon their national identity in what was called \"Germanisation\".", "These policies often had the reverse effect of stimulating resistance, usually in the form of homeschooling and tighter unity in the minority groups, especially the Poles.The Germanisation policies were targeted particularly against the significant Polish minority of the empire, gained by Prussia in the partitions of Poland.", "Poles were treated as an ethnic minority even where they made up the majority, as in the Province of Posen, where a series of anti-Polish measures was enforced.", "Numerous anti-Polish laws had no great effect especially in the province of Posen where the German-speaking population dropped from 42.8% in 1871 to 38.1% in 1905, despite all efforts.====Law====Crime; convicts in relation to the population, 1882–1886Bismarck's efforts also initiated the levelling of the enormous differences between the German states, which had been independent in their evolution for centuries, especially with legislation.", "The completely different legal histories and judicial systems posed enormous complications, especially for national trade.", "While a common trade code had already been introduced by the Confederation in 1861 (which was adapted for the Empire and, with great modifications, is still in effect today), there was little similarity in laws otherwise.In 1871, a common was introduced; in 1877, common court procedures were established in the court system by the , code of civil procedure () and code of criminal procedure ().", "In 1873 the constitution was amended to allow the Empire to replace the various and greatly differing Civil Codes of the states (If they existed at all; for example, parts of Germany formerly occupied by Napoleon's France had adopted the French Civil Code, while in Prussia the of 1794 was still in effect).", "In 1881, a first commission was established to produce a common Civil Code for all of the Empire, an enormous effort that would produce the (BGB), possibly one of the most impressive legal works in the world; it was eventually put into effect on 1 January 1900.All of these codifications are, albeit with many amendments, still in effect today.Deutsche Rechts- und Gerichtskarte (1895).jpg| Different legal systems in Germany prior to 1900DR Fields of Law.png|Fields of law in the German Empire===Year of the three emperors===Frederick III, emperor for only 99 days (9 March15 June 1888)On 9 March 1888, Wilhelm I died shortly before his 91st birthday, leaving his son Frederick III as the new emperor.", "Frederick was a liberal and an admirer of the British constitution, while his links to Britain strengthened further with his marriage to Princess Victoria, eldest child of Queen Victoria.", "With his ascent to the throne, many hoped that Frederick's reign would lead to a liberalization of the Reich and an increase of parliament's influence on the political process.", "The dismissal of Robert von Puttkamer, the highly conservative Prussian interior minister, on 8 June was a sign of the expected direction and a blow to Bismarck's administration.By the time of his accession, however, Frederick had developed incurable laryngeal cancer, which had been diagnosed in 1887.He died on the 99th day of his rule, on 15 June 1888.His son Wilhelm II became emperor.===Wilhelmine era=======Bismarck's resignation====Wilhelm II in 1902Wilhelm II wanted to reassert his ruling prerogatives at a time when other monarchs in Europe were being transformed into constitutional figureheads.", "This decision led the ambitious Kaiser into conflict with Bismarck.", "The old chancellor had hoped to guide Wilhelm as he had guided his grandfather, but the emperor wanted to be the master in his own house and had many sycophants telling him that Frederick the Great would not have been great with a Bismarck at his side.", "A key difference between Wilhelm II and Bismarck was their approaches to handling political crises, especially in 1889, when German coal miners went on strike in Upper Silesia.", "Bismarck demanded that the German Army be sent in to crush the strike, but Wilhelm II rejected this authoritarian measure, responding \"I do not wish to stain my reign with the blood of my subjects.\"", "Instead of condoning repression, Wilhelm had the government negotiate with a delegation from the coal miners, which brought the strike to an end without violence.", "The fractious relationship ended in March 1890, after Wilhelm II and Bismarck quarrelled, and the chancellor resigned days later.", "Bismarck's last few years had seen power slip from his hands as he grew older, more irritable, more authoritarian, and less focused.With Bismarck's departure, Wilhelm II became the dominant ruler of Germany.", "Unlike his grandfather, Wilhelm I, who had been largely content to leave government affairs to the chancellor, Wilhelm II wanted to be fully informed and actively involved in running Germany, not an ornamental figurehead, although most Germans found his claims of divine right to rule amusing.", "Wilhelm allowed politician Walther Rathenau to tutor him in European economics and industrial and financial realities in Europe.As Hull (2004) notes, Bismarckian foreign policy \"was too sedate for the reckless Kaiser\".", "Wilhelm became internationally notorious for his aggressive stance on foreign policy and his strategic blunders (such as the Tangier Crisis), which pushed the German Empire into growing political isolation and eventually helped to cause World War I.====Domestic affairs====Reichstag'' in the 1890searly 1900sUnder Wilhelm II, Germany no longer had long-ruling strong chancellors like Bismarck.", "The new chancellors had difficulty in performing their roles, especially the additional role as Prime Minister of Prussia assigned to them in the German Constitution.", "The reforms of Chancellor Leo von Caprivi, which liberalized trade and so reduced unemployment, were supported by the Kaiser and most Germans except for Prussian landowners, who feared loss of land and power and launched several campaigns against the reforms.While Prussian aristocrats challenged the demands of a united German state, in the 1890s several organizations were set up to challenge the authoritarian conservative Prussian militarism which was being imposed on the country.", "Educators opposed to the German state-run schools, which emphasized military education, set up their own independent liberal schools, which encouraged individuality and freedom.", "However nearly all the schools in Imperial Germany had a very high standard and kept abreast with modern developments in knowledge.Artists began experimental art in opposition to Kaiser Wilhelm's support for traditional art, to which Wilhelm responded \"art which transgresses the laws and limits laid down by me can no longer be called art\".", "It was largely thanks to Wilhelm's influence that most printed material in Germany used blackletter instead of the Roman type used in the rest of Western Europe.", "At the same time, a new generation of cultural creators emerged.Berlin in the late 19th centuryFrom the 1890s onwards, the most effective opposition to the monarchy came from the newly formed Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD), whose radicals advocated Marxism.", "The threat of the SPD to the German monarchy and industrialists caused the state both to crack down on the party's supporters and to implement its own programme of social reform to soothe discontent.", "Germany's large industries provided significant social welfare programmes and good care to their employees, as long as they were not identified as socialists or trade-union members.", "The larger industrial firms provided pensions, sickness benefits and even housing to their employees.Having learned from the failure of Bismarck's Kulturkampf, Wilhelm II maintained good relations with the Roman Catholic Church and concentrated on opposing socialism.", "This policy failed when the Social Democrats won a third of the votes in the 1912 elections to the ''Reichstag'', and became the largest political party in Germany.", "The government remained in the hands of a succession of conservative coalitions supported by right-wing liberals or Catholic clerics and heavily dependent on the Kaiser's favour.", "The rising militarism under Wilhelm II caused many Germans to emigrate to the U.S. and the British colonies to escape mandatory military service.During World War I, the Kaiser increasingly devolved his powers to the leaders of the German High Command, particularly future President of Germany, Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg and ''Generalquartiermeister'' Erich Ludendorff.", "Hindenburg took over the role of commander–in–chief from the Kaiser, while Ludendorff became de facto general chief of staff.", "By 1916, Germany was effectively a military dictatorship run by Hindenburg and Ludendorff, with the Kaiser reduced to a mere figurehead.====Foreign affairs=========Colonialism=====Bismarck at the Berlin Conference, 1884Wilhelm II wanted Germany to have her \"place in the sun\", like Britain, which he constantly wished to emulate or rival.", "With German traders and merchants already active worldwide, he encouraged colonial efforts in Africa and the Pacific (\"new imperialism\"), causing the German Empire to vie with other European powers for remaining \"unclaimed\" territories.", "With the encouragement or at least the acquiescence of Britain, which at this stage saw Germany as a counterweight to her old rival France, Germany acquired German Southwest Africa (modern Namibia), German Kamerun (modern Cameroon), Togoland (modern Togo) and German East Africa (modern Rwanda, Burundi, and the mainland part of current Tanzania).", "Islands were gained in the Pacific through purchase and treaties and also a 99-year lease for the territory of Jiaozhou in northeast China.", "But of these German colonies only Togoland and German Samoa (after 1908) became self-sufficient and profitable; all the others required subsidies from the Berlin treasury for building infrastructure, school systems, hospitals and other institutions.Flag of the German colonial empireBismarck had originally dismissed the agitation for colonies with contempt; he favoured a Eurocentric foreign policy, as the treaty arrangements made during his tenure in office show.", "As a latecomer to colonization, Germany repeatedly came into conflict with the established colonial powers and also with the United States, which opposed German attempts at colonial expansion in both the Caribbean and the Pacific.", "Native insurrections in German territories received prominent coverage in other countries, especially in Britain; the established powers had dealt with such uprisings decades earlier, often brutally, and had secured firm control of their colonies by then.", "The Boxer Rising in China, which the Chinese government eventually sponsored, began in the Shandong province, in part because Germany, as colonizer at Jiaozhou, was an untested power and had only been active there for two years.", "Seven western nations, including the United States, and Japan mounted a joint relief force to rescue westerners caught up in the rebellion.", "During the departure ceremonies for the German contingent, Wilhelm II urged them to behave like the Hun invaders of continental Europe – an unfortunate remark that would later be resurrected by British propagandists to paint Germans as barbarians during World War I and World War II.", "On two occasions, a French-German conflict over the fate of Morocco seemed inevitable.Mioko, German New Guinea, in 1884Upon acquiring Southwest Africa, German settlers were encouraged to cultivate land held by the Herero and Nama.", "Herero and Nama tribal lands were used for a variety of exploitative goals (much as the British did before in Rhodesia), including farming, ranching, and mining for minerals and diamonds.", "In 1904, the Herero and the Nama revolted against the colonists in Southwest Africa, killing farm families, their laborers and servants.", "In response to the attacks, troops were dispatched to quell the uprising which then resulted in the Herero and Namaqua Genocide.", "In total, some 65,000 Herero (80% of the total Herero population), and 10,000 Nama (50% of the total Nama population) perished.", "The commander of the punitive expedition, General Lothar von Trotha, was eventually relieved and reprimanded for his usurpation of orders and the cruelties he inflicted.", "These occurrences were sometimes referred to as \"the first genocide of the 20th century\" and officially condemned by the United Nations in 1985.In 2004 a formal apology by a government minister of the Federal Republic of Germany followed.=====Middle East=====Bismarck and Wilhelm II after him sought closer economic ties with the Ottoman Empire.", "Under Wilhelm II, with the financial backing of the Deutsche Bank, the Baghdad Railway was begun in 1900, although by 1914 it was still short of its destination in Baghdad.", "In an interview with Wilhelm in 1899, Cecil Rhodes had tried \"to convince the Kaiser that the future of the German empire abroad lay in the Middle East\" and not in Africa; with a grand Middle-Eastern empire, Germany could afford to allow Britain the unhindered completion of the Cape-to-Cairo railway that Rhodes favoured.", "Britain initially supported the Baghdad Railway; but by 1911 British statesmen came to fear it might be extended to Basra on the Persian Gulf, threatening Britain's naval supremacy in the Indian Ocean.", "Accordingly, they asked to have construction halted, to which Germany and the Ottoman Empire acquiesced.=====South America=====In South America, Germany's primary interest was in Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and Uruguay and viewed the countries of northern South America – Ecuador, Colombia, and Venezuela – as a buffer to protect its interest from the growing influence of the United States.", "Policymakers in Germany analysed the possibility of establishing bases in Margarita Island and showed interest in the Galápagos Islands but soon abandoned any such designs given that far-flung bases in northern South America would be very vulnerable.", "Germany attempted to promote Chile, a country that was heavily influenced by Germany, into a regional counterweight to the United States.", "Germany and Britain managed through Chile to have Ecuador deny the United States a naval base in the Galápagos Islands.Claims that German communities in South America acted as extensions of the German Empire were ubiquituous by 1900 but it has never been proved that these communities acted in such way to any significant degree.", "German political, cultural and scientific influence was particularly intense in Chile in the decades before World War I, and the prestige of Germany and German things in Chile remained high after the war but did not recover to its pre-war levels.=====Pre-war Europe=====Berlin was deeply suspicious of a supposed conspiracy of its enemies: that year-by-year in the early 20th century it was systematically encircled by enemies.", "There was a growing fear that the supposed enemy coalition of Russia, France and Britain was getting stronger militarily every year, especially Russia.", "The longer Berlin waited the less likely it would prevail in a war.", "According to American historian Gordon A. Craig, it was after the set-back in Morocco in 1905 that the fear of encirclement began to be a potent factor in German politics.\"", "Few outside observers agreed with the notion of Germany as a victim of deliberate encirclement.", "English historian G. M. Trevelyan expressed the British viewpoint:The encirclement, such as it was, was of Germany's own making.", "She had encircled herself by alienating France over Alsace-Lorraine, Russia by her support of Austria-Hungary's anti—Slav policy in the Balkans, England by building her rival fleet.", "She had created with Austria-Hungary a military bloc in the heart of Europe so powerful and yet so restless that her neighbors on each side had no choice but either to become her vassals or to stand together for protection....They used their central position to create fear in all sides, in order to gain their diplomatic ends.", "And then they complained that on all sides they had been encircled.Wilhelm II, under pressure from his new advisors after Bismarck left, committed a fatal error when he decided to allow the \"Reinsurance Treaty\" that Bismarck had negotiated with Tsarist Russia to lapse.", "It allowed Russia to make a new alliance with France.", "Germany was left with no firm ally but Austria-Hungary, and her support for action in annexing Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908 further soured relations with Russia.", "Berlin missed the opportunity to secure an alliance with Britain in the 1890s when it was involved in colonial rivalries with France, and he alienated British statesmen further by openly supporting the Boers in the South African War and building a navy to rival Britain's.", "By 1911, Wilhelm had completely picked apart the careful power balance established by Bismarck and Britain turned to France in the Entente Cordiale.", "Germany's only other ally besides Austria was the Kingdom of Italy, but it remained an ally only ''pro forma''.", "When war came, Italy saw more benefit in an alliance with Britain, France, and Russia, which, in the secret Treaty of London in 1915 promised it the frontier districts of Austria and also colonial concessions.", "Germany did acquire a second ally in 1914 when the Ottoman Empire entered the war on its side, but in the long run, supporting the Ottoman war effort only drained away German resources from the main fronts.===World War I=======Origins====Entente's side (at one point or another) are depicted in green, the Central Powers in orange, and neutral countries in grey.Following the assassination of the Austro-Hungarian Archduke Franz Ferdinand by Gavrilo Princip, the Kaiser offered Emperor Franz Joseph full support for Austro-Hungarian plans to invade the Kingdom of Serbia, which Austria-Hungary blamed for the assassination.", "This unconditional support for Austria-Hungary was called a \"blank cheque\" by historians, including German Fritz Fischer.", "Subsequent interpretation – for example at the Versailles Peace Conference – was that this \"blank cheque\" licensed Austro-Hungarian aggression regardless of the diplomatic consequences, and thus Germany bore responsibility for starting the war, or at least provoking a wider conflict.Germany began the war by targeting its chief rival, France.", "Germany saw the French Republic as its principal danger on the European continent as it could mobilize much faster than Russia and bordered Germany's industrial core in the Rhineland.", "Unlike Britain and Russia, the French entered the war mainly for revenge against Germany, in particular for France's loss of Alsace-Lorraine to Germany in 1871.The German high command knew that France would muster its forces to go into Alsace-Lorraine.", "Aside from the very unofficial Septemberprogramm, the Germans never stated a clear list of goals that they wanted out of the war.====Western Front====German troops being mobilized, 1914Germany did not want to risk lengthy battles along the Franco-German border and instead adopted the Schlieffen Plan, a military strategy designed to cripple France by invading Belgium and Luxembourg, sweeping down to encircle and crush both Paris and the French forces along the Franco-German border in a quick victory.", "After defeating France, Germany would turn to attack Russia.", "The plan required violating the official neutrality of Belgium and Luxembourg, which Britain had guaranteed by treaty.", "However, the Germans had calculated that Britain would enter the war regardless of whether they had formal justification to do so.", "At first the attack was successful: the German Army swept down from Belgium and Luxembourg and advanced on Paris, at the nearby river Marne.", "However, the evolution of weapons over the last century heavily favored defense over offense, especially thanks to the machine gun, so that it took proportionally more offensive force to overcome a defensive position.", "This resulted in the German lines on the offense contracting to keep up the offensive timetable while correspondingly the French lines were extending.", "In addition, some German units that were originally slotted for the German far-right were transferred to the Eastern Front in reaction to Russia mobilizing far faster than anticipated.", "The combined effect had the German right flank sweeping down in front of Paris instead of behind it exposing the German Right flank to the extending French lines and attack from strategic French reserves stationed in Paris.", "Attacking the exposed German right flank, the French Army and the British Army put up a strong resistance to the defense of Paris at the First Battle of the Marne, resulting in the German Army retreating to defensive positions along the river Aisne.", "A subsequent Race to the Sea resulted in a long-held stalemate between the German Army and the Allies in dug-in trench warfare positions from Alsace to Flanders.German Army positions, 1914German attempts to break through failed at the two battles of Ypres (1st/2nd) with huge casualties.", "A series of allied offensives in 1915 against German positions in Artois and Champagne resulted in huge allied casualties and little territorial change.", "German Chief of Staff Erich von Falkenhayn decided to exploit the defensive advantages that had shown themselves in the 1915 Allied offensives by attempting to goad France into attacking strong defensive positions near the ancient city of Verdun.", "Verdun had been one of the last cities to hold out against the German Army in 1870, and Falkenhayn predicted that as a matter of national pride the French would do anything to ensure that it was not taken.", "He expected that he could take strong defensive positions in the hills overlooking Verdun on the east bank of the river Meuse to threaten the city and the French would launch desperate attacks against these positions.", "He predicted that French losses would be greater than those of the Germans and that continued French commitment of troops to Verdun would \"bleed the French Army white.\"", "In February 1916, the Battle of Verdun began, with the French positions under constant shelling and poison gas attack and taking large casualties under the assault of overwhelmingly large German forces.", "However, Falkenhayn's prediction of a greater ratio of French killed proved to be wrong as both sides took heavy casualties.", "Falkenhayn was replaced by Erich Ludendorff, and with no success in sight, the German Army pulled out of Verdun in December 1916 and the battle ended.====Eastern Front====Eastern Front at the time of the cease-fire and the Treaty of Brest-LitovskWhile the Western Front was a stalemate for the German Army, the Eastern Front eventually proved to be a great success.", "Despite initial setbacks due to the unexpectedly rapid mobilisation of the Russian army, which resulted in a Russian invasion of East Prussia and Austrian Galicia, the badly organised and supplied Russian Army faltered and the German and Austro-Hungarian armies thereafter steadily advanced eastward.", "The Germans benefited from political instability in Russia and its population's desire to end the war.", "In 1917 the German government allowed Russia's communist Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin to travel through Germany from Switzerland into Russia.", "Germany believed that if Lenin could create further political unrest, Russia would no longer be able to continue its war with Germany, allowing the German Army to focus on the Western Front.In March 1917, the Tsar was ousted from the Russian throne, and in November a Bolshevik government came to power under the leadership of Lenin.", "Facing political opposition, he decided to end Russia's campaign against Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria to redirect Bolshevik energy to eliminating internal dissent.", "In March 1918, by the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, the Bolshevik government gave Germany and the Ottoman Empire enormous territorial and economic concessions in exchange for an end to war on the Eastern Front.", "All of present-day Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania was given over to the German occupation authority ''Ober Ost'', along with Belarus and Ukraine.", "Thus Germany had at last achieved its long-wanted dominance of \"Mitteleuropa\" (Central Europe) and could now focus fully on defeating the Allies on the Western Front.", "In practice, however, the forces that were needed to garrison and secure the new territories were a drain on the German war effort.====Colonies====Germany quickly lost almost all its colonies.", "However, in German East Africa, a guerrilla campaign was waged by the colonial army leader there, General Paul Emil von Lettow-Vorbeck.", "Using Germans and native Askaris, Lettow-Vorbeck launched multiple guerrilla raids against British forces in Kenya and Rhodesia.", "He also invaded Portuguese Mozambique to gain his forces supplies and to pick up more Askari recruits.", "His force was still active at war's end.====1918====The German Empire during World War I, shortly before its collapse:The defeat of Russia in 1917 enabled Germany to transfer hundreds of thousands of troops from the Eastern to the Western Front, giving it a numerical advantage over the Allies.", "By retraining the soldiers in new infiltration tactics, the Germans expected to unfreeze the battlefield and win a decisive victory before the army of the United States, which had now entered the war on the side of the Allies, arrived in strength.", "In what was known as the \"kaiserschlacht\", Germany converged their troops and delivered multiple blows that pushed back the allies.", "However, the repeated German offensives in the spring of 1918 all failed, as the Allies fell back and regrouped and the Germans lacked the reserves needed to consolidate their gains.", "Meanwhile, soldiers had become radicalised by the Russian Revolution and were less willing to continue fighting.", "The war effort sparked civil unrest in Germany, while the troops, who had been constantly in the field without relief, grew exhausted and lost all hope of victory.", "In the summer of 1918, the British Army was at its peak strength with as many as 4.5 million men on the western front and 4,000 tanks for the Hundred Days Offensive, the Americans arriving at the rate of 10,000 a day, Germany's allies facing collapse and the German Empire's manpower exhausted, it was only a matter of time before multiple Allied offensives destroyed the German army.=====Home front=====The concept of \"total war\" meant that supplies had to be redirected towards the armed forces and, with German commerce being stopped by the Allied naval blockade, German civilians were forced to live in increasingly meagre conditions.", "First food prices were controlled, then rationing was introduced.", "During the war about 750,000 German civilians died from malnutrition.Towards the end of the war, conditions deteriorated rapidly on the home front, with severe food shortages reported in all urban areas.", "The causes included the transfer of many farmers and food workers into the military, combined with the overburdened railway system, shortages of coal, and the British blockade.", "The winter of 1916–1917 was known as the \"turnip winter\", because the people had to survive on a vegetable more commonly reserved for livestock, as a substitute for potatoes and meat, which were increasingly scarce.", "Thousands of soup kitchens were opened to feed the hungry, who grumbled that the farmers were keeping the food for themselves.", "Even the army had to cut the soldiers' rations.", "The morale of both civilians and soldiers continued to sink.======Spanish Flu Pandemic======The population of Germany was already suffering from outbreaks of disease due to malnutrition due to Allied blockade preventing food imports.", "Spanish flu arrived in Germany with returning troops.", "Around 287,000 people died of Spanish flu in Germany between 1918 and 1920 with 50,000 deaths in Berlin alone.=====Revolt and demise=====SPD leader Philipp Scheidemann proclaims the republic for Germany from the Reichstag building on 9 November 1918.Many Germans wanted an end to the war and increasing numbers began to associate with the political left, such as the Social Democratic Party (SPD) and the more radical Independent Social Democratic Party (USPD), which demanded an end to the war.", "The entry of the U.S. into the war in April 1917 tipped the long-run balance of power even more in favour of the Allies.The end of October 1918, in Kiel, in northern Germany, saw the beginning of the German Revolution of 1918–1919.Units of the German Navy refused to set sail for a last, large-scale operation in a war which they saw as good as lost, initiating the uprising.", "On 3 November, the revolt spread to other cities and states of the country, in many of which workers' and soldiers' councils were established.", "Meanwhile, Hindenburg and the senior generals lost confidence in the Kaiser and his government.Bulgaria signed the Armistice of Salonica on 29 September 1918.The Ottoman Empire signed the Armistice of Mudros on 30 October 1918.Between 24 October and 3 November 1918, Italy defeated Austria-Hungary in the battle of Vittorio Veneto, which forced Austria-Hungary to sign the Armistice of Villa Giusti on 3 November 1918.So, in November 1918, with internal revolution, the Allies advancing toward Germany on the Western Front, Austria-Hungary falling apart from multiple ethnic tensions, its other allies out of the war and pressure from the German high command, the Kaiser and all German ruling kings, dukes, and princes abdicated, and German nobility was abolished.", "On 9 November, the Social Democrat Philipp Scheidemann proclaimed a republic.", "The new government led by the German Social Democrats called for and received an armistice on 11 November.", "It was succeeded by the Weimar Republic.", "Those opposed, including disaffected veterans, joined a diverse set of paramilitary and underground political groups such as the Freikorps, the Organisation Consul, and the Communists." ], [ "Constitution", "The Empire was a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy.The Federal Council () held sovereignty over the Empire and served as its highest authority.", "The was a legislative body that possessed the right of legislative initiative (Article VII Nr.", "1) and, because all laws required its consent, could effectively veto any bill coming from the ''Reichstag'' (Article V).", "The was able to set guidelines and make organisational changes within the executive branch, act as supreme arbitrator in administrative disputes between states, and serve as constitutional court for states that did not have a constitutional court (Article LXXVI).", "It was composed of representatives who were appointed by and reported to the state governments.The Imperial Diet (''Reichstag'') was a legislative body elected by universal male suffrage that effectively served as parliament.", "It had the right to propose bills and, with the concurrence of the , approve the state budget annually and the military budget for periods of seven years until 1893, then after that for five years.", "All laws required the ''Reichstag's'' approval to pass.", "After the constitutional reforms of October 1918, the Reich chancellor, through a change to Article XV, became dependent on the confidence of the ''Reichstag'' rather than the emperor.The emperor (''Kaiser'') was head of state of the Empire – he was not a ruler.", "He appointed the chancellor, usually the person able to command the confidence of the ''Reichstag''.", "The chancellor, in consultation with the emperor, determined the government's broad policy guidelines and presented them to the ''Reichstag.''", "On the advice of the chancellor, the emperor appointed the ministers and – at least formally – all other imperial officers.", "All acts of the emperor except for military directives required the countersignature of the chancellor (Article XVII).", "The emperor was also responsible for signing bills into law, declaring war (which required the consent of the ''Bundesrat''), negotiating peace, making treaties, and calling and adjourning sessions of the and the ''Reichstag'' (Articles XI and XII).", "The emperor was commander-in-chief of the Empire's Army (Article LXIII) and Navy (Article LIII); when exercising his military authority he had plenary power.The chancellor was head of government and chaired the and the Imperial Government, led the lawmaking process and countersigned all acts of the emperor (except for military directives)." ], [ "Constituent states", "Coats of arms and flags of the constituent states in 1900Before unification, German territory (excluding Austria and Switzerland) was made up of 27 constituent states.", "These states consisted of kingdoms, grand duchies, duchies, principalities, free Hanseatic cities and one imperial territory.", "The free cities had a republican form of government on the state level, even though the Empire at large was constituted as a monarchy, and so were most of the states.", "Prussia was the largest of the constituent states, covering two-thirds of the empire's territory.Several of these states had gained sovereignty following the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire, and had been ''de facto'' sovereign from the mid-1600s onward.", "Others were created as sovereign states after the Congress of Vienna in 1815.Territories were not necessarily contiguous—many existed in several parts, as a result of historical acquisitions, or, in several cases, divisions of the ruling families.", "Some of the initially existing states, in particular Hanover, were abolished and annexed by Prussia as a result of the war of 1866.Each component of the German Empire sent representatives to the Federal Council (''Bundesrat'') and, via single-member districts, the Imperial Diet (''Reichstag'').", "Relations between the Imperial centre and the Empire's components were somewhat fluid and were developed on an ongoing basis.", "The extent to which the German Emperor could, for example, intervene on occasions of disputed or unclear succession was much debated on occasion—for example in the inheritance crisis of the Lippe-Detmold.Unusually for a federation and/or a nation-state, the German states maintained limited autonomy over foreign affairs and continued to exchange ambassadors and other diplomats (both with each other and directly with foreign nations) for the Empire's entire existence.", "Shortly after the Empire was proclaimed, Bismarck implemented a convention in which his sovereign would only send and receive envoys to and from other German states as the King of Prussia, while envoys from Berlin sent to foreign nations always received credentials from the monarch in his capacity as German Emperor.", "In this way, the Prussian foreign ministry was largely tasked with managing relations with the other German states while the Imperial foreign ministry managed Germany's external relations.===Map and table======Other maps===Karte Deutsches Reich, Verwaltungsgliederung 1900-01-01.png|Administrative mapMeyers b4 s0812a.jpg|Population density ()Karte der Reichstagswahlkreise farbig-2011-11-09.svg|Election constituencies for the ReichstagDeutsches Kaiserreich 1893.jpg|Detailed map in 1893 with cities and larger towns" ], [ "Demographics", "KreisAbout 92% of the population spoke German as their first language.", "The only minority language with a significant number of speakers (5.4%) was Polish (a figure that rises to over 6% when including the related Kashubian and Masurian languages).The non-German Germanic languages (0.5%), like Danish, Dutch and Frisian, were located in the north and northwest of the empire, near the borders with Denmark, the Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg.", "Low German was spoken throughout northern Germany and, though linguistically as distinct from High German (''Hochdeutsch'') as from Dutch and English, was considered \"German\", hence also its name.", "Danish and Frisian were spoken predominantly in the north of the Prussian province of Schleswig-Holstein and Dutch in the western border areas of Prussia (Hanover, Westphalia, and the Rhine Province).Polish and other West Slavic languages (6.28%) were spoken chiefly in the east.A few (0.5%) spoke French, the vast majority of these in the Reichsland Elsass-Lothringen where francophones formed 11.6% of the total population.===1900 census results===Demographics of pre-WW1 European countries+Native languages of the citizens of the German Empire(1 December 1900)languageCountPercentageGerman51,883,13192.05German and a foreign language252,9180.45Polish3,086,4895.48French211,6790.38Masurian142,0490.25Danish141,0610.25Lithuanian106,3050.19Kashubian100,2130.18Wendish (Sorbian)93,0320.16Dutch80,3610.14Italian65,9300.12Moravian (Czech)64,3820.11Czech43,0160.08Frisian20,6770.04English20,2170.04Russian9,6170.02Swedish8,9980.02Hungarian8,1580.01Spanish2,0590.00Portuguese4790.00 Other foreign languages14,5350.03'''Imperial citizens''' '''56,367,187''' '''100'''===Linguistic maps===Sprachen deutsches reich 1900 dänisch.png|DanishSprachen deutsches reich 1900 niederländisch.png|DutchSprachen deutsches reich 1900 friesisch.png|FrisianSprachen deutsches reich 1900 polnisch.png|PolishSprachen deutsches reich 1900 tschechisch.png|Czech (and Moravian)Sprachen deutsches reich 1900 masurisch.png|MasurianSprachen deutsches reich 1900 kaschubisch.png|KashubianSprachen deutsches reich 1900 sorbisch.png|SorbianSprachen deutsches reich 1900 französisch.png|FrenchSprachen deutsches reich 1900 wallonisch.png|WalloonSprachen deutsches reich 1900 italienisch.png|ItalianSprachen deutsches reich 1900 litauisch.png|LithuanianSprachen deutsches reich 1900 nichtdeutsch.png|non-German" ], [ "Immigration", "In the 1860s, Russia removed privileges for German emigrants and placed pressure on German immigrants to assimilate.", "The majority of German emigrants left Russia after the turn of the century.", "Some of these ethnic Germans immigrated to Germany." ], [ "Religion", "Emperor Wilhelm II, who was the ''Supreme Governor of the Evangelical Church of Prussia's older Provinces'', and Empress Augusta Victoria after the inauguration of the Evangelical Church of the Redeemer in Jerusalem (Reformation Day, 31 October 1898)Generally, religious demographics of the early modern period hardly changed.", "Still, there were almost entirely Catholic areas (Lower and Upper Bavaria, northern Westphalia, Upper Silesia, etc.)", "and almost entirely Protestant areas (Schleswig-Holstein, Pomerania, Saxony, etc.).", "Confessional prejudices, especially towards mixed marriages, were still common.", "Bit by bit, through internal migration, religious blending was more and more common.", "In eastern territories, confession was almost uniquely perceived to be connected to one's ethnicity and the equation \"Protestant = German, Catholic = Polish\" was held to be valid.", "In areas affected by immigration in the Ruhr area and Westphalia, as well as in some large cities, religious landscape changed substantially.", "This was especially true in largely Catholic areas of Westphalia, which changed through Protestant immigration from the eastern provinces.Politically, the confessional division of Germany had considerable consequences.", "In Catholic areas, the Centre Party had a big electorate.", "On the other hand, Social Democrats and Free Trade Unions usually received hardly any votes in the Catholic areas of the Ruhr.", "This began to change with the secularization arising in the last decades of the German Empire.+ Religious confessions in the German Empire 1880AreaProtestantCatholicOther ChristianJewishOtherNumber%Number%Number%Number%Number% Prussia 17,633,279 64.64 9,206,283 33.75 52,225 0.19 363,790 1.33 23,534 0.09 Bavaria 1,477,952 27.97 3,748,253 70.93 5,017 0.09 53,526 1.01 30 0.00 Saxony 2,886,806 97.11 74,333 2.50 4,809 0.16 6,518 0.22 339 0.01 Württemberg 1,364,580 69.23 590,290 29.95 2,817 0.14 13,331 0.68 100 0.01 Baden 547,461 34.86 993,109 63.25 2,280 0.15 27,278 1.74 126 0.01 Alsace-Lorraine 305,315 19.49 1,218,513 77.78 3,053 0.19 39,278 2.51 511 0.03 '''Total''' 28,331,152 62.63 16,232,651 35.89 78,031 0.17 561,612 1.24 30,615 0.07In Germany's overseas colonial empire, millions of subjects practiced various indigenous religions in addition to Christianity.", "Over two million Muslims also lived under German colonial rule, primarily in German East Africa.Verbreitung der Konfessionen im deutschen Reich.jpg|Distribution of Protestants and Catholics in Imperial GermanyMeyers b4 s0817a.jpg|Distribution of Protestants, Catholics and Jews in Imperial Germany (Meyers Konversationslexikon)Verbreitung der Juden im deutschen Reich.jpg|Distribution of Jews in Imperial Germany" ], [ "Coat of arms", "Greater imperial coat of arms of Germany.svg|Greater Imperial coat of arms of GermanyMiddle imperial coat of arms of Germany.svg|Middle Imperial coat of arms of GermanyWappen Deutsches Reich - Reichsadler 1889.svg|Lesser Imperial coat of arms of Germany" ], [ "Legacy", "The defeat and aftermath of the First World War and the penalties imposed by the Treaty of Versailles shaped the positive memory of the Empire, especially among Germans who distrusted and despised the Weimar Republic.", "Conservatives, liberals, socialists, nationalists, Catholics and Protestants all had their own interpretations, which led to a fractious political and social climate in Germany in the aftermath of the empire's collapse.War flag of the German Empire used since 1903.In 1956, the Iron Cross was re-introduced as the symbol of the '''', the modern German armed forces.Under Bismarck, a united German state had finally been achieved, but it remained a Prussian-dominated state and did not include German Austria as Pan-German nationalists had desired.", "The influence of Prussian militarism, the Empire's colonial efforts and its vigorous, competitive industrial prowess all gained it the dislike and envy of other nations.", "The German Empire enacted a number of progressive reforms, such as Europe's first social welfare system and freedom of press.", "There was also a modern system for electing the federal parliament, the Reichstag, in which every adult man had one vote.", "This enabled the Social Democrats and the Catholic Centre Party to play considerable roles in the empire's political life despite the continued hostility of Prussian aristocrats.The era of the German Empire is well remembered in Germany as one of great cultural and intellectual vigour.", "Thomas Mann published his novel ''Buddenbrooks'' in 1901.Theodor Mommsen received the Nobel prize for literature a year later for his Roman history.", "Painters like the groups Der Blaue Reiter and Die Brücke made a significant contribution to modern art.", "The AEG turbine factory in Berlin by Peter Behrens from 1909 was a milestone in classic modern architecture and an outstanding example of emerging functionalism.", "The social, economic, and scientific successes of this , or founding epoch, have sometimes led the Wilhelmine era to be regarded as a golden age.In the field of economics, the \"''Kaiserzeit''\" laid the foundation of Germany's status as one of the world's leading economic powers.", "The iron and coal industries of the Ruhr, the Saar and Upper Silesia especially contributed to that process.", "The first motorcar was built by Karl Benz in 1886.The enormous growth of industrial production and industrial potential also led to a rapid urbanisation of Germany, which turned the Germans into a nation of city dwellers.", "More than 5 million people left Germany for the United States during the 19th century.===Sonderweg===Many historians have emphasized the central importance of a German or \"special path\" (or \"exceptionalism\") as the root of Nazism and the German catastrophe in the 20th century.", "According to the historiography by Kocka (1988), the process of nation-building from above had very grievous long-term implications.", "In terms of parliamentary democracy, Parliament was kept weak, the parties were fragmented, and there was a high level of mutual distrust.", "The Nazis built on the illiberal, anti-pluralist elements of Weimar's political culture.", "The Junker elites (the large landowners in the east) and senior civil servants used their great power and influence well into the twentieth century to frustrate any movement toward democracy.", "They played an especially negative role in the crisis of 1930–1933.Bismarck's emphasis on military force amplified the voice of the officer corps, which combined advanced modernisation of military technology with reactionary politics.", "The rising upper-middle-class elites, in the business, financial and professional worlds, tended to accept the values of the old traditional elites.", "The German Empire was for Hans-Ulrich Wehler a strange mixture of highly successful capitalist industrialisation and socio-economic modernisation on the one hand, and of surviving pre-industrial institutions, power relations and traditional cultures on the other.", "Wehler argues that it produced a high degree of internal tension, which led on the one hand to the suppression of socialists, Catholics and reformers, and on the other hand to a highly aggressive foreign policy.", "For these reasons Fritz Fischer and his students emphasised Germany's primary guilt for causing the First World War.Hans-Ulrich Wehler, a leader of the Bielefeld School of social history, places the origins of Germany's path to disaster in the 1860s–1870s, when economic modernisation took place, but political modernisation did not happen and the old Prussian rural elite remained in firm control of the army, diplomacy and the civil service.", "Traditional, aristocratic, premodern society battled an emerging capitalist, bourgeois, modernising society.", "Recognising the importance of modernising forces in industry and the economy and in the cultural realm, Wehler argues that reactionary traditionalism dominated the political hierarchy of power in Germany, as well as social mentalities and in class relations ().", "The catastrophic German politics between 1914 and 1945 are interpreted in terms of a delayed modernisation of its political structures.", "At the core of Wehler's interpretation is his treatment of \"the middle class\" and \"revolution\", each of which was instrumental in shaping the 20th century.", "Wehler's examination of Nazi rule is shaped by his concept of \"charismatic domination\", which focuses heavily on Hitler.The historiographical concept of a German has had a turbulent history.", "19th-century scholars who emphasised a separate German path to modernity saw it as a positive factor that differentiated Germany from the \"western path\" typified by Great Britain.", "They stressed the strong bureaucratic state, reforms initiated by Bismarck and other strong leaders, the Prussian service ethos, the high culture of philosophy and music, and Germany's pioneering of a social welfare state.", "In the 1950s, historians in West Germany argued that the led Germany to the disaster of 1933–1945.The special circumstances of German historical structures and experiences, were interpreted as preconditions that, while not directly causing National Socialism, did hamper the development of a liberal democracy and facilitate the rise of fascism.", "The paradigm has provided the impetus for at least three strands of research in German historiography: the \"long 19th century\", the history of the bourgeoisie, and comparisons with the West.", "After 1990, increased attention to cultural dimensions and to comparative and relational history moved German historiography to different topics, with much less attention paid to the .", "While some historians have abandoned the thesis, they have not provided a generally accepted alternative interpretation." ], [ "Military", "The Empire of Germany had two armed forces:*the Imperial German Army, which included**the ''Schutztruppe'',**the ''Polizeitruppen'',**the ''Luftstreitkräfte'', and*the Imperial German Navy,**the ''Seebataillon''." ], [ "Territorial legacy", "In addition to present-day Germany, large parts of what comprised the German Empire now belong to several other modern European countries.German territories lost in both World Wars are shown in black, while present-day Germany is marked dark grey on this 1914 map.", "When lost from Germany Name Country Region Both World Wars Alsace-Lorraine France The departments of , (both within Alsace region) and (northeastern part of the Lorraine region) Both World Wars Eupen-Malmedy Belgium The two towns of Eupen and Malmedy and the municipalities of Amel, Büllingen, Burg-Reuland, Bütgenbach, Kelmis, Lontzen, Raeren, Waimes and St. Vith (all are parts of Liège Province in the Wallonia region on the Belgian–German border) World War II Wylerberg Netherlands (), an uninhabited hill and some nearby slivers of land, annexed by the Netherlands after WWII World War I Northern Schleswig Denmark South Jutland County (excluding towns of Taps, Hejle and Vejstrup), and the towns of Hviding, Roager and Spandet Both World Wars Hultschin Region Czech Republic Hlučín Region, on the Czech–Polish border in Silesia, whose German population was partially deported following WWII; part of Czechoslovakia until its dissolution in 1992 Both World Wars Memel Territory Lithuania Klaipėda Region, annexed by Lithuania in 1923, retaken by Nazi Germany in 1939, from which Germans were deported following WWII by the Soviet authorities; now part of independent Lithuania since 1990 Both World Wars Most of West Prussia and Posen, a part of Upper Silesia, parts of the districts of Bütow, Lauenburg and Stolp in Pomerania, Soldau in East Prussia Poland Silesian, Pomeranian and Greater Poland Voivodeships, the towns of Bytów, Lębork, Słupsk and Działdowo (the German population was deported following WWII) World War II Silesia, East Brandenburg, Warmia, Masuria, southern East Prussia, central and eastern parts of Pomerania Poland Northern and western parts of the country, including Pomerania, Silesia, Lubusz Land, Warmia and Masuria, from all of which Germans were deported following WWII World War II Northern East Prussia Russia The Kaliningrad Oblast exclave on the Baltic, from which Germans were deported following WWII.", "Transferred to the Russian SFSR and continued as a part of Russia following the collapse of the Soviet Union" ], [ "See also", "*Economic history of Germany*Kingdom of Germany*List of German monarchs*List of German monarchs in 1918" ], [ "References", "'''Informational notes''''''Citations'''" ], [ "Further reading", "**Barker, J. Ellis. ''", "Modern Germany; her political and economic problems, her foreign and domestic policy, her ambitions, and the causes of her success'' (1907)*Berghahn, Volker Rolf.", "''Modern Germany: society, economy, and politics in the twentieth century'' (1987) ACLS E-book*Berghahn, Volker Rolf.", "''Imperial Germany, 1871–1914: Economy, Society, Culture, and Politics'' (2nd ed.", "2005)*Berghahn, Volker Rolf.", "\"German Colonialism and Imperialism from Bismarck to Hitler\".", "''German Studies Review'', vol.", "40, no.", "1 (2017) pp.", "147–162 Online *Blackbourn, David.", "''The Long Nineteenth Century: A History of Germany, 1780–1918'' (1998)*Blackbourn, David, and Geoff Eley.", "''The Peculiarities of German History: Bourgeois Society and Politics in Nineteenth-Century Germany'' (1984) *Blanke, Richard.", "''Prussian Poland in the German Empire'' (1981)*Brandenburg, Erich.", "''From Bismarck to the World War: A History of German Foreign Policy 1870–1914'' (1927) online .", "*Carroll, E. Malcolm. ''", "Germany and the great powers, 1866–1914: A study in public opinion and foreign policy '' (1938); written for advanced students.", "*Cecil, Lamar.", "''Wilhelm II: Prince and Emperor, 1859–1900'' (1989); vol 2: ''Wilhelm II: Emperor and Exile, 1900–1941'' (1996) vol 2 online*Chickering, Roger.", "''Imperial Germany and the Great War, 1914–1918'' (2nd ed.", "2004)*Clark, Christopher. ''", "Iron Kingdom: The Rise and Downfall of Prussia, 1600–1947'' (2006), the standard scholarly survey; online*Dawson, William Harbutt. ''", "The Evolution of Modern Germany'' (1908), 503 pages, covers 1871–1906 with focus on social and economic history and colonies*Dawson, William Harbutt. ''", "Bismarck and state socialism; an exposition of the social and economic legislation of Germany since 1870'' (1890) 175 pages*Dawson, William Harbutt. ''", "Municipal life and government in Germany'' (1914); 507 pages, describes the workings of local government and bureaucracy*Dawson, William Harbutt. ''", "Germany and the Germans'' (1894); politics and parties, Volume 2*Eyck, Erich.", "''Bismarck and the German Empire'' (1964)*Fife, Robert Herndon.", "(1916).", "''The German Empire between Two Wars; a Study of the Political and Social Development of the Nation between 1871 and 1914.''", "New York: Macmillan Company.", "*Fischer, Fritz.", "''From Kaiserreich to Third Reich: Elements of Continuity in German History, 1871–1945''.", "(1986).", ".", "*Geiss, Imanuel.", "''German Foreign Policy, 1871–1914'' (1979)*Haardt, Oliver FR.", "\"The Kaiser in the Federal State, 1871–1918.\"", "''German History'' 34.4 (2016): 529–554.online **Hewitson, Mark.", "\"Germany and France before the First World War: a reassessment of Wilhelmine foreign policy.\"", "''English Historical Review'' 115.462 (2000): 570–606; argues Germany had a growing sense of military superiority*Holborn, Hajo.", "''A History of Modern Germany: 1840–1945'' (1969), pp.", "173–532 online*Hoyer, Katja.", "''Blood and Iron: The Rise and Fall of the German Empire 1871–1918'' (2021)*Jefferies, Mattew.", "''Imperial Culture in Germany, 1871–1918''.", "(Palgrave, 2003) .", "*Kennedy, Paul.", "''The Rise of the Anglo-German Antagonism, 1860–1914'' (2nd ed.", "1988) *Koch, Hannsjoachim W. ''A constitutional history of Germany in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries'' (1984).", "*Kurlander, Eric.", "''The Price of Exclusion: Ethnicity, National Identity, and the Decline of German Liberalism, 1898–1933'' (2007).", "*Levy, Richard S. ''The Downfall of the Anti-Semitic Political Parties in Imperial Germany'' (Yale University Press, 1975).", "*Levy, Richard S. ed.", "''Antisemitism: A historical encyclopedia of prejudice and persecution'' (2 vol Abc-clio, 2005).", "*Milward, Alan S. and S. B. Saul.", "''The Development of the Economies of Continental Europe: 1850–1914'' (1977) pp. 17–70.", "*Mombauer, Annika and Wilhelm Deist, eds.", "''The Kaiser: New Research on Wilhelm II's Role in Imperial Germany'' (2003)*Mommsen, Wolfgang.", "''Imperial Germany 1867–1918: Politics, Culture, and Society in an Authoritarian State''.", "(1995).", ".", "*Nipperdey, Thomas.", "''Germany from Napoleon to Bismarck'' (1996) dense coverage of chief topics; online*Padfield, Peter.", "''The Great Naval Race: Anglo-German Naval Rivalry 1900–1914'' (2005)*Ragins, Sanford.", "''Jewish Responses to Anti-Semitism in Germany, 1870–1914: A Study in the History of Ideas'' (ISD, 1980).", "**Retallack, James.", "''Germany in the Age of Kaiser Wilhelm II'', (1996) .", "*Retallack, James.", "''Imperial Germany 1871–1918'' (2008)*Rich, Norman.", "\"The Question of National Interest in Imperial German Foreign Policy: Bismarck, William II, and the Road to World War I.\"", "''Naval War College Review'' (1973) 26#1: 28–41.online *Ritter, Gerhard.", "''The Sword and the Scepter; the Problem of Militarism in Germany''.", "(4 vol University of Miami Press 1969–1973)*Richie, Alexandra.", "''Faust's Metropolis: A History of Berlin'' (1998), 1139 pages, pp.", "188–233*Sagarra, Eda.", "''A Social History of Germany, 1648–1914'' (1977) online*Scheck, Raffael.", "\"Lecture Notes, Germany and Europe, 1871–1945\" (2008), a brief textbook by a leading scholar*Schollgen, Gregor.", "''Escape into War?", "The Foreign Policy of Imperial Germany''.", "(Berg, 1990) .", "*Smith, Helmut Walser, ed.", "''The Oxford Handbook of Modern German History'' (2011), 862 pp; 35 essays by specialists; Germany since 1760*Smith, Woodruff D. ''The German Colonial Empire'' (1978*Sperber, Jonathan.", "''The Kaiser's Voters: Electors and Elections in Imperial Germany'' (1997) online review*Stern, Fritz.", "''Gold and Iron: Bismarck, Bleichroder, and the Building of the German Empire'' (1979) Bismarck worked closely with this leading banker and financier*Steinberg, Jonathan.", "''Bismarck: A Life'' (2011), a recent scholarly biography; emphasis on Bismarck's personality online*Steinmetz, George (2007) ''The Devil's Handwriting: Precoloniality and the German Colonial State in Qingdao, Samoa, and Southwest Africa''.", "Chicago: University of Chicago Press.", "*Taylor, A.J.P.", "''Bismarck: The Man and the Statesman'' (1967) online*Wehler, Hans-Ulrich.", "''The German Empire, 1871–1918''.", "(Berg, 1985).", "*Wildenthal, Lora.", "''German Women for Empire, 1884–1945'' (2001)'''Historiography'''*Berghahn, Volker Rolf.", "\"Structure and Agency in Wilhelmine Germany: The history of the German Empire, Past, present and Future\", in Annika Mombauer and Wilhelm Deist, eds.", "''The Kaiser: New Research on Wilhelm II's Role in Imperial Germany'' (2003) pp.", "281–293, historiography*Chickering, Roger, ed.", "''Imperial Germany: A Historiographical Companion'' (1996); 18 essays by specialists*Dickinson, Edward Ross.", "\"The German Empire: an Empire?\"", "''History Workshop Journal'' Issue 66, (Autumn 2008) online in Project MUSE, with guide to recent scholarship**Jefferies, Matthew.", "''Contesting the German Empire 1871–1918'' (2008)*Müller, Sven Oliver, and Cornelius Torp, ed.", "''Imperial Germany Revisited: Continuing Debates and New Perspectives'' (2011)*Reagin, Nancy R. \"Recent Work on German National Identity: Regional?", "Imperial?", "Gendered?", "Imaginary?\"", "''Central European History'' (2004) v 37, pp.", "273–289 '''Primary sources'''*Dawson, William Harbutt. ''", "Germany at Home'' (1908) 275 pp; popular description of social life in villages and cities*Vizetelly, Henry. ''", "Berlin Under the New Empire: Its Institutions, Inhabitants, Industry, Monuments, Museums, Social Life, Manners, and Amusements'' (2 vol.", "London, 1879) Volume 2" ], [ "External links", "* Ravenstein's Atlas of the German Empire.", ".", "''library.wis.edu''.", "* Administrative subdivision and census results (1900/1910).", "''gemeindeverzeichnis.de'' .", "* German Reich map of states 1913 (300 dpi)* Dissemination of the German Language 1913 (map, 300 dpi)* Dissemination of the main foreign mother tongues in the German Reich 1913 (map, 300 dpi)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gallienus" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Publius Licinius Egnatius Gallienus''' (; c. 218 – September 268) was Roman emperor with his father Valerian from 253 to 260 and alone from 260 to 268.He ruled during the Crisis of the Third Century that nearly caused the collapse of the empire.", "He won numerous military victories against usurpers and Germanic tribes, but was unable to prevent the secession of important provinces.", "His 15-year reign was the longest in half a century.Born into a wealthy and traditional senatorial family, Gallienus was the son of Valerian and Mariniana.", "Valerian became Emperor in September 253 and had the Roman Senate elevate Gallienus to the rank of ''Augustus''.", "Valerian divided the empire between him and his son, with Valerian ruling the east and his son the west.", "Gallienus defeated the usurper Ingenuus in 258 and destroyed an Alemanni army at Mediolanum in 259.The defeat and capture of Valerian at Edessa in 260 by the Sasanian Empire threw the Roman Empire into the chaos of civil war.", "Control of the whole empire passed to Gallienus.", "He defeated the eastern usurpers Macrianus Major and Lucius Mussius Aemilianus in 261–262 but failed to stop the formation of the breakaway Gallic Empire under general Postumus.", "Aureolus, another usurper, proclaimed himself emperor in Mediolanum in 268 but was defeated outside the city by Gallienus and besieged inside.", "While the siege was ongoing, Gallienus was assassinated, stabbed to death by the officer Cecropius, as part of a conspiracy." ], [ "Early life", "=== Youth and family ===Bust of 273x273pxThe exact birth date of Gallienus is unknown.", "The 6th-century Greek chronicler John Malalas and the ''Epitome de Caesaribus'' report that he was about 50 years old at the time of his death, meaning he was born around 218.He was the son of Emperor Valerian and Mariniana, who may have been of senatorial rank, possibly the daughter of Egnatius Victor Marinianus, and his brother was Valerianus Minor.", "Inscriptions on coins connect him with Falerii in Etruria, which may have been his birthplace; it has yielded many inscriptions relating to his mother's family, the Egnatii.", "Gallienus married Cornelia Salonina about ten years before his accession to the throne.", "She was the mother of three princes: Valerian II, who died in 258; Saloninus, who was named co-emperor but was murdered in 260 by the army of general Postumus; and Marinianus, who was killed in 268, shortly after his father was assassinated." ], [ "Rule", "When Valerian was proclaimed emperor in September 253, he asked the Senate to ratify the elevation of Gallienus to ''Augustus''.", "He was also designated consul ordinarius for 254.As Marcus Aurelius and his adopted brother Lucius Verus had done a century earlier, Gallienus and his father divided the Empire.", "Valerian left for the East to stem the Persian threat, and Gallienus remained in Italy to repel the Germanic tribes on the Rhine and Danube.", "Division of the empire had become necessary due to its sheer size and the numerous threats it faced, and it facilitated negotiations with enemies who demanded to communicate directly with the emperor.===Early reign===Gallienus spent most of his time in the provinces of the Rhine area (Germania Inferior, Germania Superior, Raetia, and Noricum), though he almost certainly visited the Danube area and Illyricum in the years from 253 to 258.According to Eutropius and Aurelius Victor, he was particularly energetic and successful in preventing invaders from attacking the German provinces and Gaul, despite the weakness caused by Valerian's march on Italy against Aemilianus in 253.According to numismatic evidence, he seems to have won many victories there, and a victory in Roman Dacia might also be dated to that period.", "Even the hostile Latin tradition attributes success to him at this time.In 255 or 257, Gallienus was made consul again, suggesting that he briefly visited Rome on those occasions, although no record survives.", "During his Danube sojourn (Drinkwater suggests in 255 or 256), he proclaimed his elder son Valerian II Caesar and thus official heir to himself and Valerian I; the boy probably joined Gallienus on campaign at that time, and when Gallienus moved west to the Rhine provinces in 257, he remained behind on the Danube as the personification of Imperial authority.=== Revolts and usurpers ======= Ingenuus revolt ====Aureus of Gallienus marked: GALLIENVS AVG.Sometime between 258 and 260 (the exact date is unclear), while Valerian was distracted with the ongoing invasion of Shapur I in the East, and Gallienus was preoccupied with his problems in the West, Ingenuus, governor of at least one of the Pannonian provinces, took advantage and declared himself emperor.", "Valerian II had apparently died on the Danube, most likely in 258.Ingenuus may have been responsible for Valerian II's death.", "Alternatively, the defeat and capture of Valerian at the battle of Edessa may have been the trigger for the subsequent revolts of Ingenuus, Regalianus, and Postumus.", "In any case, Gallienus reacted with great speed.", "He left his son Saloninus as Caesar at Cologne, under the supervision of Albanus (or Silvanus) and the military leadership of Postumus.", "He then hastily crossed the Balkans, taking with him the new cavalry corps (''comitatus'') under the command of Aureolus and defeated Ingenuus at Mursa or Sirmium.", "Ingenuus was killed by his own guards or committed suicide by drowning himself after the fall of his capital, Sirmium.====Alemanni invasion====A major invasion by the Alemanni and other Germanic tribes occurred between 258 and 260 (it is hard to fix the precise date of these events), probably due to the vacuum left by the withdrawal of troops supporting Gallienus in the campaign against Ingenuus.", "Franks broke through the lower Rhine, invading Gaul, some reaching as far as southern Spain, sacking Tarraco (modern Tarragona).", "The Alemanni invaded, probably through Agri Decumates (an area between the upper Rhine and the upper Danube), likely followed by the Juthungi.", "After devastating Germania Superior and Raetia (parts of southern France and Switzerland), they entered Italy, the first invasion of the Italian peninsula, aside from its most remote northern regions, since Hannibal 500 years before.", "When invaders reached the outskirts of Rome, they were repelled by an improvised army assembled by the Senate, consisting of local troops (probably praetorian guards) and the strongest of the civilian population.", "On their retreat through northern Italy, they were intercepted and defeated in the battle of Mediolanum (near present-day Milan) by Gallienus' army, which had advanced from Gaul, or from the Balkans after dealing with the Franks.", "The battle of Mediolanum was decisive, and the Alemanni did not bother the empire for the next ten years.", "The Juthungi managed to cross the Alps with their valuables and captives from Italy.", "A historian in the 19th century suggested that the initiative of the Senate gave rise to jealousy and suspicion by Gallienus, thus contributing to his exclusion of senators from military commands.====Regalianus' revolt====Antoninianus of Regalianus: IMP.", "C. P. C. REGALIANVS P. F. AVG.Around the same time, Regalianus, who held some command in the Balkans, was proclaimed emperor.", "The reasons for this are unclear, and the ''Historia Augusta'' (almost the sole resource for these events) does not provide a credible story.", "It is possible the seizure can be attributed to the discontent of the civilian and military provincials, who felt the defense of the province was being neglected.Regalianus held power for some six months and issued coins bearing his image.", "After some success against the Sarmatians, his revolt ended when the Roxolani invaded Pannonia and killed Regalianus in taking the city of Sirmium.", "There is a suggestion that Gallienus invited the Roxolani to attack Regalianus, but other historians dismiss the accusation.", "It is also suggested that the invasion was finally checked by Gallienus near Verona and that he directed the restoration of the province, probably in person.====Capture of Valerian====A bas relief of Emperor Valerian standing at the background and held captive by Shapur I was found at Naqsh-e Rustam, Shiraz, Iran.", "The kneeling man is probably Philip the Arab.In the East, Valerian was confronted with serious troubles.", "Bands of \"Scythai\" began a naval raid of Pontus, in the northern part of Asia Minor.", "After ravaging the province, they moved south into Cappadocia.", "A Roman army from Antioch, under Valerian, tried to intercept them but failed.", "According to Zosimus, this army was infected by a plague that gravely weakened it.", "In that condition, this army had to repel a new invasion of the province of Mesopotamia by Shapur I, ruler of the Sassanid Empire.", "The invasion occurred probably in the early spring of 260.The Roman army was defeated at the Battle of Edessa, and Valerian was taken prisoner.", "Shapur's army raided Cilicia and Cappadocia (in present-day Turkey), sacking, as Shapur's inscriptions claim, 36 cities.==== Macrianus revolt ====It took a rally by an officer named Callistus (Balista), a fiscal official named Fulvius Macrianus, the remnants of the Roman army in the east, and Odenathus and his Palmyrene horsemen to turn the tide against Shapur.", "The Sassanids were driven back, but Macrianus proclaimed his two sons Quietus and Macrianus (sometimes misspelled Macrinus) as emperors.", "Coins struck for them in major cities of the East indicate acknowledgement of the usurpation.", "The two Macriani left Quietus, Ballista, and, presumably, Odenathus to deal with the Persians while they invaded Europe with an army of 30,000 men, according to the ''Historia Augusta''.", "At first they met no opposition.The Pannonian legions joined the invaders, being resentful of the absence of Gallienus.", "He sent his successful commander Aureolus against the rebels, however, and the decisive battle was fought in the spring or early summer of 261, most likely in Illyricum, although Zonaras locates it in Pannonia.", "In any case, the army of the usurpers was defeated and surrendered, and their two leaders were killed.In the aftermath of the battle, the rebellion of Postumus had already started, so Gallienus had no time to deal with the rest of the usurpers, namely Balista and Quietus.", "He came to an agreement with Odenathus, who had just returned from his victorious Persian expedition.", "Odenathus received the title of ''dux Romanorum'' and besieged the usurpers, who were based at Emesa.", "Eventually, the people of Emesa killed Quietus, and Odenathus arrested and executed Balista about November 261.====Postumus revolt====Antoninianus of Postumus.", "Legend:IMP.", "C. POSTVMVS P. F. AVG.After the defeat at Edessa, Gallienus lost control over the provinces of Britain, Spain, parts of Germania, and a large part of Gaul when another general, Postumus, declared his own realm (usually known today as the Gallic Empire).", "The revolt partially coincided with that of Macrianus in the East.", "Gallienus had installed his son Saloninus and his guardian, Silvanus, in Cologne in 258.Postumus, a general in command of troops on the banks of the Rhine, defeated some raiders and took possession of their spoils.", "Instead of returning it to the original owners, he preferred to distribute it amongst his soldiers.", "When news of this reached Silvanus, he demanded the spoils be sent to him.", "Postumus made a show of submission, but his soldiers mutinied and proclaimed him emperor.", "Under his command, they besieged Cologne, and after some weeks the defenders of the city opened the gates and handed Saloninus and Silvanus to Postumus, who had them killed.", "The dating of these events was long uncertain, but an inscription discovered in 1992 at Augsburg indicates that Postumus had been proclaimed emperor by September 260.Postumus claimed the consulship for himself and one of his associates, Honoratianus, but according to D.S.", "Potter, he never tried to unseat Gallienus or invade Italy.Upon receiving news of the murder of his son, Gallienus began gathering forces to face Postumus.", "The invasion of the Macriani forced him to dispatch Aureolus with a large force to oppose them, however, leaving him with insufficient troops to battle Postumus.", "After some initial defeats, the army of Aureolus, having defeated the Macriani, rejoined him, and Postumus was expelled.", "Aureolus was entrusted with the pursuit and deliberately allowed Postumus to escape and gather new forces.", "Gallienus returned in 263 or 265 and surrounded Postumus in an unnamed Gallic city.", "During the siege, Gallienus was severely wounded by an arrow and had to flee.", "The standstill persisted until his later death, and the Gallic Empire remained independent until 274.Aureus of Gallienus, minted in Mediolanum (Milan), dated 262====Aemilianus revolt====In 262, the mint in Alexandria started to again issue coins for Gallienus, demonstrating that Egypt had returned to his control after suppressing the revolt of the Macriani.", "In spring of 262, the city was wrenched by civil unrest as a result of a new revolt.", "The rebel this time was the prefect of Egypt, Lucius Mussius Aemilianus, who had already given support to the revolt of the Macriani.", "The correspondence of bishop Dionysius of Alexandria provides a commentary on the background of invasion, civil war, plague, and famine that characterized this age.Knowing he could not afford to lose control of the vital Egyptian granaries, Gallienus sent his general Theodotus against Aemilianus, probably by a naval expedition.", "The decisive battle probably took place near Thebes, and the result was a clear defeat of Aemilianus.", "In the aftermath, Gallienus became Consul three more times in 262, 264, and 266.====Herulian invasions====Bust of Gallienus, Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek.In the years 267–269, Goths and other barbarians invaded the empire in great numbers.", "Sources are extremely confused on the dating of these invasions, the participants, and their targets.", "Modern historians are not even able to discern with certainty whether there were two or more of these invasions or a single prolonged one.", "It seems that, at first, a major naval expedition was led by the Heruli starting from north of the Black Sea and leading to the ravaging of many cities of Greece (among them, Athens and Sparta).", "Then another, even more numerous army of invaders started a second naval invasion of the empire.", "The Romans defeated the barbarians on sea first.", "Gallienus' army then won a battle in Thrace, and the emperor pursued the invaders.", "According to some historians, he was the leader of the army who won the great Battle of Naissus, while the majority believes that the victory must be attributed to his successor, Claudius II.==== Aureolus revolt ====In 268, at some time before or soon after the battle of Naissus, the authority of Gallienus was challenged by Aureolus, commander of the cavalry stationed in Mediolanum (Milan), who was supposed to keep an eye on Postumus.", "Instead, he acted as deputy to Postumus until the very last days of his revolt, when he seems to have claimed the throne for himself.", "The decisive battle took place at what is now Pontirolo Nuovo near Milan; Aureolus was clearly defeated and driven back to Milan.", "Gallienus laid siege to the city but was murdered during the siege.", "There are differing accounts of the murder, but the sources agree that most of Gallienus' officials wanted him dead.", "According to the Historia Augusta, an unreliable source compiled long after the events it describes, a conspiracy was led by the commander of the guard Aurelius Heraclianus and Lucius Aurelius Marcianus.", "Marcianus's role in the conspiracy is not confirmed by any other ancient source." ], [ "Assassination", "Cecropius, commander of the Dalmatians, spread the word that the forces of Aureolus were leaving the city, and Gallienus left his tent without his bodyguard, only to be struck down by Cecropius.", "One version has Claudius selected as emperor by the conspirators, another chosen by Gallienus on his death bed; the ''Historia Augusta'' was concerned to substantiate the descent of the Constantinian dynasty from Claudius, and this may explain its accounts, which do not involve Claudius in the murder.", "The other sources (Zosimus i.40 and Zonaras xii.25) report that the conspiracy was organized by Heraclianus, Claudius, and Aurelian.According to Aurelius Victor and Zonaras, on hearing the news that Gallienus was dead, the Senate in Rome ordered the execution of his family (including his brother Valerianus and son Marinianus) and their supporters, just before receiving a message from Claudius to spare their lives and deify his predecessor.", "The tomb of Gallienus is thought to be located to the south of Rome, at the IXth mile of the Via Appia.Arch of Gallienus in Rome dedicated to, rather than built by, Gallienus." ], [ "Legacy", "=== Historiography ===Gallienus was not treated favorably by ancient historians.", "The biased and largely fictional account of that reign in the Historia Augusta describes him as a lover of luxury, who dressed in purple, sprinkled gold dust in his hair, and built castles of apples.", "Emperor Julian's ''The Caesars'' presents Gallienus \"with the dress and languishing gait of a woman\", which is possibly connected with coins portraying the emperor with unusual iconography and bearing the legend ''Gallienae Augustae''.", "This animosity within the sources was partly due to the secession of Gaul and Palmyra and his inability to win them back; at the time of Gallienus' death, Palmyra was still nominally loyal to Rome, but, under the leadership of Odaenathus, was independent in nearly every other respect.", "Palmyra would formally secede after Odaenathus' death and the ascension of his widow Zenobia.", "It was not until the reign of Aurelian several years later that the breakaway provinces were truly brought back into the Roman fold.", "According to modern scholar Pat Southern, some historians now see Gallienus in a more positive light.", "Gallienus produced some useful reforms.=== Coins ===About 40 rare gold coins of Gallienus have been discovered as part of the Lava Treasure in Corsica, France, in the 1980s.Image:Antoninianus Gallienus 260-leg 2 Italica.jpg|Antoninianus issued to celebrate LEG II ITAL VII P VII F, \"Legio II ''Italica'' seven times faithful and loyal.", "\"Image:Antoninianus Gallienus 260-leg 3 Italica.jpg|Antoninianus issued to celebrate LEG III ITAL VI P VI F, \"Legio III ''Italica'' six times faithful and loyal.", "\"Image:Antoninianus-Gallienus-l5macedonica-RIC 0345-Bj-.jpg|Antoninianus issued to celebrate LEG VII MAC VI P VI F, \"Legio VII ''Macedonica'' six times faithful and loyal.", "\"File:Gallienus legio VII Claudia.jpg|Antoninianus issued to celebrate LEG VII CLA VI P VI F, \"Legio VII ''Claudia'' six times faithful and loyal.", "\"Bust of Gallienus in the Capitoline Museums, Rome===Military reforms===He contributed to military history as the first to commission primarily cavalry units, the Comitatenses, that could be dispatched anywhere in the Empire in short order.", "This reform arguably created a precedent for the future emperors Diocletian and Constantine I.", "The biographer Aurelius Victor reports that Gallienus forbade senators from becoming military commanders.", "This policy undermined senatorial power, as more reliable equestrian commanders rose to prominence.", "In Southern's view, these reforms and the decline in senatorial influence not only helped Aurelian to salvage the Empire, but they also make Gallienus one of the emperors most responsible for the creation of the Dominate, along with Septimius Severus, Diocletian, and Constantine I.===Decree of Toleration===The capture of Valerian in the year 259 forced Gallienus to issue the first official declaration of tolerance with regard to the Christians, restoring their places of worship and cemeteries, therefore implying a recognition of the property of the Church.", "However, the edict did not turn Christianity into an official religion.===In popular culture=======Films====Gallienus was played by Franco Cobianchi in the 1964 film ''The Magnificent Gladiator''.====Novels====*He appears in Harry Sidebottom's historical fiction novel series ''Warrior of Rome''.", "*David Drake's novel ''Birds of Prey'' takes place during Gallienus' reign." ], [ "Family tree" ], [ "See also", "* Little Peace of the Church* Thirty Tyrants (Roman)" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "References", "===Primary sources===* Aurelius Victor, Epitome de Caesaribus* Eutropius, Breviarium ab urbe condita* Historia Augusta (Augustan History), The Two Gallieni* Joannes Zonaras, ''Epitome Historiarum'', extract: Zonaras: Alexander Severus to Diocletian: 222–284* Zosimus, Historia Nova===Secondary sources===*Lukas de Blois.", "''The policy of the emperor Gallienus'', Brill, Leiden, 1976, **Drinkwater, John F. ''The Gallic Empire.", "Separatism and Continuity in the North-Western Provinces of the Roman Empire A.D. 260–274''.", "Franz Steiner Verlag, Wiesbaden, 1987.", "*Isbouts, Jean-Pierre \"The Biblical World: An Illustrated Atlas\" copyright 2007 National Geographic Society.", "*Lissner, Ivar.", "\"Power and Folly; The Story of the Caesars\".", "Jonathan Cape Ltd., London, 1958.", "* **Southern, Pat.", "''The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine'', Routledge, London and New York, 2001.", "*Syme, Ronald.", "''Ammianus and the Historia Augusta'', The Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1968.", "*Syme, Ronald.", "''Historia Augusta Papers'', The Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1983.", "*Watson, Alaric.", "''Aurelian and the Third Century'', Routledge, Oxon, 1999." ], [ "External links", "* \"Valerian and Gallienus\", at ''De Imperatoribus Romanis''.", "* Download an Excel list of all Gallienus bronze and billon coins incl.", "hoard coins not in RIC etc." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gambeson" ], [ "Introduction", "Depiction of a 13th-century gambeson (Morgan Bible, fol.", "10r)A '''gambeson''' (similar to the '''aketon''', '''padded jack''', '''pourpoint''', or '''arming doublet''') is a padded defensive jacket, worn as armour separately, or combined with mail or plate armour.", "Gambesons were produced with a sewing technique called quilting that produced a padded cloth.", "They were usually constructed of linen or wool; the stuffing varied, and could be, for example, scrap cloth or horse hair.", "An '''arming doublet''' worn under armour, particularly plate armour of fifteenth- and sixteenth-century Europe, contains arming points for attaching plates.", "Fifteenth-century examples may include mail goussets sewn into the elbows and armpits, to protect the wearer in locations not covered by plate.", "German gothic armour arming doublets were generally shorter than Italian white armour doublets, which could extend to the upper thigh.", "In late fifteenth-century Italy, this also became a civilian fashion.", "Men who were not knights wore arming doublets, probably because the garment suggested status and chivalry.Men's gambeson, c. 1660–1670.Collection left" ], [ "Etymology", "The term ''gambeson'' is a loan from the Old French , , originally , formed after the Middle High German term , 'doublet', in turn from Old High German , 'stomach' (cognate to ''womb'').The term ''aketon'', originally the medieval French , might be a loan from Arabic , meaning 'cotton' (definite article – \" cotton\").In medieval Norse, the garment was known as , literally 'weapon shirt', or .", "is a loan from (Middle) Low German.", "is probably also a loan from Middle Low German, though the word has its likely origin in Italian, and is related to the Latin , meaning 'abdomen', cognate with English ''paunch''." ], [ "History", "13th century gambeson worn by soldier in the Morgan bibleOpen, quilted leather jackets and trousers were worn by Scythian horsemen before the 4th century BC, as can be seen on Scythian gold ornaments crafted by Greek goldsmiths.", "As stand-alone cloth armour, the European gambeson can be traced at least to the late tenth century, but it is likely to have been in use in various forms for longer than that.", "In Europe, its use became widespread in the thirteenth century being similar in appearance to the tunic.", "Eventually, it made way for the pourpoint (jack or paltock) in the 14th century.The gambeson was used both as a complete armour unto itself, and underneath mail and plate in order to cushion the body and prevent chafing.", "Evidence for its use under armour does not appear until the mid-twelfth century in iconography.", "Although they are thought to have been used in Europe much earlier, gambesons underwent a revolution from their first proven use (in the late eleventh and early twelfth centuries) as an independent item of armour to one that facilitated the wearing of mail, but they remained popular amongst infantry as cloth armour.", "Although quilted armour survived into the English Civil War in England as a poor man's cuirass, and as an item to be worn beneath the few remaining suits of full plate, it was increasingly replaced by the 'buff coat' – a leather jacket of rough suede.There are two distinctive designs of gambeson: those designed to be worn beneath armour, and those designed to be worn as independent armour.", "The latter tend to be thicker and higher in the collar and faced with other materials, such as leather or heavy canvas.", "This variant is usually referred to as \"padded jack\" and made of several (some say around 18, some even 30) layers of cotton, linen or wool.", "These jacks were known to stop even heavy arrows, and their design of multiple layers bears a striking resemblance to modern-day body armour, which used at first silk, then ballistic nylon and later, Kevlar as its fabric.For common soldiers who could not afford mail or plate armour, the gambeson, combined with a helmet as the only additional protection, remained a common sight on European battlefields during the entire Middle Ages, and its decline – paralleling that of plate armour – came only with the Renaissance, as the use of firearms became more widespread.", "By the eighteenth century, it was no longer in military use.While the use of linen in these jackets has been proven by archaeological evidence, the use of cotton – and cotton-based canvas – is disputed, since large amounts of cotton cloth were not widely available in Northern Europe at this time.", "It is quite probable that Egypt (and Asia Minor generally) still produced cotton well after the 7th and 8th centuries, and knowledge (and samples) of this cloth was brought to Europe by the returning Crusaders; however, the logistics and expense of equipping a town militia or army with large numbers of cotton-based garments make its usage doubtful when flax-based textiles (linen) were in widespread use.leftLinothorax was a type of armour similar to gambeson, used by ancient Greeks.", "Meanwhile, the Mesoamericans were known to have used a kind of quilted textile armour called Ichcahuipilli before the arrival of the Spaniards.", "Another example is the bullet-resistant Myeonje baegab that was created during Korea's Joseon Dynasty in an attempt to confront the effects of Western rifles." ], [ "See also", "* Doublet (a.k.a.", "''pourpoint'')* Buff coat* Jack of plate" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * How a man shall be armed for his ease when he shall fight on foot a translation of the mid-fifteenth century treatise on armour, translated into modern English and accompanied by pictorial references.", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Geography of Afghanistan" ], [ "Introduction", " Afghanistan is a landlocked mountainous country located on the Iranian Plateau, at the crossroads of Central Asia and South Asia.", "The country is the 40th largest in the world in size.", "Kabul is the capital and largest city of Afghanistan, located in the Kabul Province.", "With a location at the intersection of major trade routes, Afghanistan has attracted a succession of invaders since the sixth century BCE.Afghanistan contains most of the Hindu Kush.", "There are a number of major rivers in the country, including Amu Darya, Arghandab, Farah, Hari, Helmand, Kabul, Kokcha, and Kunar.", "The country also possesses many smaller rivers as well as streams, canals, lakes, ponds, and springs.", "Most of its fresh water has been historically flowing into neighboring countries." ], [ "Climate", "The Wakhan District of Badakhshan Province, which connects Afghanistan with neighboring Tajikistan in the north, China in the east and Pakistan in the south.Rainfall in Afghanistan is very scarce, and mainly only affects the northern highlands, arriving in March and April.", "Rainfall in the more arid lowlands is rare, and can be very unpredictable.", "Marked characteristics are the great differences of summer and winter temperature and of day and night temperature, as well as the extent to which change of climate can be attained by slight change of place.", "The Afghan climate is a dry one.", "The sun shines for three-fourths of the year, and the nights are clearer than the days.Taking the highlands of the country as a whole, there is no great difference between the mean temperature of Afghanistan and that of the lower Himalaya.", "However, a remarkable feature of the Afghan climate is its extreme temperature range within limited periods.", "The smallest daily range in the north is when the weather is cold; the greatest is when it is hot.", "For seven months of the year (from May to November) this range exceeds 17 °C (31 °F) daily.", "Waves of intense cold occur, lasting for several days, and one may have to endure temperatures of , rising to a maximum of .", "At Ghazni the snow has been known to stay long beyond the vernal equinox; the temperatures sink as low as .", "Oral tradition tells of the destruction of the entire population of Ghazni by snowstorms on more than one occasion.", "On the other hand, the summer temperature is exceedingly high, especially in the Oxus regions, where a shade maximum of is not uncommon.The summer heat is strong in the Sistan Basin, Jalalabad and Turkestan.", "The simoom wind occurs in Kandahar province during the summer.", "The hot season is rendered more intense by frequent dust storms and strong winds; whilst the bare rocky ridges that traverse the country, absorbing heat by day and radiating it by night, render the summer nights most oppressive.", "In Kabul the heat is tempered occasionally by cool breezes from the Hindu Kush, and the nights are usually cool.", "In Kandahar snow seldom falls on the plains or lower hills; when it does, it melts at once.The combination of hot summers and bitterly cold winters has been noted comparable to the U.S. state of Wyoming.The summer rains that accompany the southwest monsoon in India, beat along the southern slopes of the Himalaya, and travel up the Kabul valley as far as Laghman, though they are more clearly felt in Bajour and Panjkora, under the Hindu Kush, and in the eastern branches of Safed Koh.", "Rain also falls at this season at the head of Kurram valley.", "South of this the Suliman mountains may be taken as the western limit of the monsoon's action.", "It is not felt in the rest of Afghanistan, in which, as in the rest of western Asia, the winter rains and snow are the most considerable.", "The spring rain, though less copious, is more important to agriculture than the winter rain, unless where the latter falls in the form of snow.", "In the absence of monsoon influences there are steadier weather indications than in India.", "The north-west blizzards which occur in winter and spring are the most noticeable feature, and their influence is clearly felt on the Indian frontier.Köppen climate map of Afghanistan===Examples===" ], [ "Mountain systems", "Snow-covered Koh-i-Baba mountains in Bamyan ProvinceThe Hindu Kush mountain range reaches a height of at Noshaq, Afghanistan's highest peak.", "Of the ranges extending southwestward from the Hindu Kush, the Foladi peak (''Shah Foladi'') of the Baba mountain range (''Koh-i-Baba'') reaches the greatest height: .", "The Safed Koh range, which includes the Tora Bora area, dominates the border area southeast of Kabul.Snow-covered Hindu Kush mountains in AfghanistanSnow-covered mountains in Paktia ProvinceImportant passes include the Unai Pass across the Safed Koh, the Kushan and Salang Passes through the Hindu Kush, and the Khyber Pass that connects Afghanistan with Pakistan.", "The summit of the Khyber Pass at at Landi Kotal, Pakistan is 5 km (3 mi) east of the border town of Torkham.", "Other key passages through the mountainous Pakistan border include two from Paktika Province into Pakistan's Waziristan region: one at Angoor Ada, and one further south at the Gumal River crossing, plus the Charkai River passage south of Khost, Afghanistan, at Pakistan's Ghulam Khan village into North Waziristan.", "The busy Pak-Afghan border crossing at Wesh, Afghanistan is in a flat and dry area, though this route involves Pakistan's Khojak Pass at just from the border.", "The border connects Kandahar and Spin Boldak in Afghanistan with Quetta in Pakistan.The Wakhan Corridor in the northeast lies eastward of the province of Panjshir, between the Hindu Kush and the Pamir Mountains, which leads to the Wakhjir Pass into Xinjiang in China.", "In Kabul, and over all the northern part of the country to the descent at Gandamak, winter is rigorous, especially so on the high Arachosian plateau.", "Although Herat is approximately lower than Kandahar, the summer climate there is more temperate along with the yearly climate.", "From May to September, the wind blows from the northwest with great force, and this extends across the country to Kandahar.", "The winter is mild; snow melts as it falls, and even on the mountains does not lie long.", "Three years out of four at Herat it does not freeze hard enough for the people to store ice.", "Yet, it was not very far from Herat, in Rafir Kala, in 1750, where Ahmad Shah's army, retreating from Persia, is said to have lost 18,000 men from cold in a single night.", "In the northern Herat districts records of the coldest month (February) show the mean minimum as and the maximum as .", "The eastern reaches of the Hari River, including the rapids, are frozen hard in the winter, and people travel on it as on a road." ], [ "Rivers, streams and lakes", "Helmand River and Boghra Canal running parallel in Helmand ProvinceScenic view in western AfghanistanTakhar Province in northern AfghanistanThe Kokcha River in Badakhshan ProvinceAfghanistan receives snow between November and March, which gradually melts into numerous rivers, streams, canals, lakes, ponds, and springs, but most of the country's fresh water continues to flow into neighboring countries.", "It loses about two-thirds of its water to neighboring Pakistan, Iran, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan.The nation's drainage system is largely landlocked." ], [ "Vegetation", "The characteristic distribution of vegetation on the mountains of Afghanistan is worthy of attention.", "The great mass of it is confined to the main ranges and their immediate offshoots, whilst on the more distant and terminal prolongations it is almost entirely absent; in fact, these are naked rock and stone.", "On the Safed Koh alpine range itself and its immediate branches, at a height of there is abundant growth of large forest trees, among which conifers are the most noble and prominent, such as ''Cedrus deodara'', ''Abies excelsa'', ''Pinus longifolia'', ''Pinus pinaster'', Stone pine (the edible pine, although this species is probably introduced, since it is original to Spain and Portugal) and the larch.", "There is also the yew, the hazel, juniper, walnut, wild peach and almond.", "Growing under the shade of these are several varieties of rose, honeysuckle, currant, gooseberry, hawthorn, rhododendron and a luxuriant herbage, among which the ranunculus family is important for frequency and number of genera.", "The lemon and wild vine are also here met with, but are more common on the northern mountains.", "The walnut and oak (evergreen, holly-leaved and kermes) descend to the secondary heights, where they become mixed with alder, ash, khinjak, Arbor-vitae, juniper, with species of Astragalus.", "Here also are Indigoferae rind dwarf laburnum.Down to there are wild olive, species of rock-rose, wild privet, acacias and mimosas, barberry and ''Zizyphus''; and in the eastern ramifications of the chain, ''Nannerops ritchiana'' (which is applied to a variety of useful purposes), ''Bignonia'' or trumpet flower, sissu, ''Salvadora persica'', verbena, acanthus, varieties of Gesnerae.The lowest terminal ridges, especially towards the west, are, as it has been said, naked in aspect.", "Their scanty vegetation is almost wholly herbal; shrubs are only occasional; trees almost non-existent.", "Labiate, composite and umbelliferous plants are most common.", "Ferns and mosses are almost confined to the higher ranges.In the low brushwood scattered over portions of the dreary plains of the Kandahar tablelands, it is possible to find leguminous thorny plants of the papilionaceous suborder, such as camel-thorn (''Hedysarum alhagi''), ''Astragalus'' in several varieties, spiny rest-harrow (''Ononis spinosa''), the fibrous roots of which often serve as a tooth-brush; plants of the sub-order Mimosae, as the sensitive mimosa; a plant of the rue family, called by the natives ''lipad''; the common wormwood; also certain orchids, and several species of Salsola.", "The rue and wormwood are in general use as domestic medicines—the former for rheumatism and neuralgia; the latter in fever, debility and dyspepsia, as well as for a vermifuge.", "The lipad, owing to its heavy nauseous odour, is believed to keep off evil spirits.", "In some places, occupying the sides and hollows of ravines, it is found the Rose Bay, called in Persian ''khar-zarah'', or ass-bane, the wild laburnum and various Indigoferae.In the last several decades, 90% of forests in Afghanistan have been destroyed and much of the timber has been exported to neighboring Pakistan.", "As a result, large percent of Afghanistan's land could be subject to soil erosion and desertification.", "On the positive note, the Karzai administration and international organizations are helping counter this problem by often planting millions of saplings.", "Afghanistan had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 8.85/10, ranking it 15th globally out of 172 countries." ], [ "See also", "*Environmental issues in Afghanistan*Provinces of Afghanistan" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Federal Research Division, Library of Congress.", "1997.", "\"Afghanistan: A Country Sturdy\"." ], [ "External links", "* Topographic map of Afghanistan (1 : 300 000)* Persia (Iran), Afghanistan and Baluchistan is a map from 1897* Afghanistan, Beloochistan, etc.", "is a map from 1893 created by the American Methodist Church" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gauntlet" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Gauntlet''' or '''the gauntlet''' may refer to:" ], [ "Common uses", "*Gauntlet (glove), protective gloves used as a form of armor**14th-century gauntlet, a well-preserved and nearly-intact example found in Switzerland*Running the gauntlet, a form of physical punishment" ], [ "Arts, entertainment, and media", "===Fictional characters===*Gauntlet (comics), a Marvel Comics superhero*Gauntlet (Inhuman), a Marvel Comics supervillain===Games===*''Gauntlet'' (1985 video game), a 1985 four-player arcade game with many followups:**''Gauntlet II'', a 1986 arcade sequel**''Gauntlet: The Third Encounter'', a 1990 game for the Atari Lynx**''Gauntlet III: The Final Quest'', a 1991 home computer game**''Gauntlet IV'', a 1994 video game for the Sega Genesis**''Gauntlet Legends'', a 1998 arcade game**''Gauntlet Dark Legacy'', a 2000 arcade game**''Gauntlet: Seven Sorrows'', a 2005 video game**''Gauntlet'' (2014 video game), developed by Arrowhead Game studios**''Gauntlet'' (Nintendo DS), an unreleased remake of the first game*''Gauntlet'' (Donald R. Lebeau video game), a 1984 shoot 'em up game for the Atari 8-bit family*''Gauntlet'' (Micro Power video game), a 1984 ''Defender'' clone*''The Gauntlet'' (module), an adventure module for ''Dungeons & Dragons''*The Gauntlet (tabletop games producer), a publisher/producer of tabletop role-playing games and podcasts===Television=======Series====*''Real World/Road Rules Challenge: The Gauntlet'' (2003–2004), an MTV reality television game show series*''Real World/Road Rules Challenge: The Gauntlet II'' (2005–2006), an MTV reality television game show series*''Real World/Road Rules Challenge: The Gauntlet III'' (2008), an MTV reality television game show series====Episodes====*\"Gauntlet\" (''Stargate Universe''), an episode of ''Stargate Universe''*\"The Gauntlet\" (''Supergirl''), an episode of ''Supergirl''*\"The Gauntlet,\" an episode of ''Ben 10: Alien Force''*\"The Gauntlet,\" an episode of ''MacGyver''*\"The Gauntlet,\" the name given to the twelfth season of ''Mystery Science Theater 3000''===Other uses in arts, entertainment, and media===*''Gauntlet'' (newspaper), published by students at the University of Calgary*\"The Gauntlet\" (comics), a ''Spider-Man'' storyline*''The Gauntlet'' (film), 1977, starring Clint Eastwood and Sondra Locke*''The Gauntlet'' (novel), a children's book, written by Ronald Welch, 1951*RVR-01 \"Gauntlet\", a fighter craft in the game Thunder Force V" ], [ "Sports", "*Gauntlet for the Gold, a professional wrestling match type exclusive to TNA Wrestling*Gauntlet match, a professional wrestling match type" ], [ "Other uses", "*Gauntlet (body piercing studio), a former California-based company, closed in 1998*Gauntlet track, a type of railroad track*Gloster Gauntlet, a British biplane*SA-15 \"Gauntlet\", a Soviet surface-to-air missile" ], [ "See also", "****" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Grand jury" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''grand jury''' is a jury—a group of citizens—empowered by law to conduct legal proceedings, investigate potential criminal conduct, and determine whether criminal charges should be brought.", "A grand jury may subpoena physical evidence or a person to testify.", "A grand jury is separate from the courts, which do not preside over its functioning.Originating in England during the Middle Ages, grand juries are retained in only two countries, the United States and Liberia.", "Other common law jurisdictions formerly employed them, and most others now employ a different procedure, referred to as a preliminary hearing, that does not involve a jury.", "Grand juries perform both accusatory and investigatory functions.", "The investigatory functions of grand juries include obtaining and reviewing documents and other evidence, and hearing sworn testimonies of witnesses who appear before it; the accusatory function determines whether there is probable cause to believe that one or more persons committed a particular offense within the venue of a district court.In Ireland, for a period, they also functioned as local government authorities: In Japan, the Law of July 12, 1948, created the ''Kensatsu Shinsakai'' (Prosecutorial Review Commission or PRC system), inspired by the American system.The grand jury (from the French word ''grand'' meaning \"large\") is so named because traditionally it has more jurors than a trial jury, sometimes called a petit jury (from the French word ''petit'' meaning \"small\").", "A grand jury in the United States is usually composed of 16 to 23 citizens, though in Virginia it has fewer members for regular or special grand juries." ], [ "Purpose", "The function of a grand jury is to accuse persons who may be guilty of a crime, but the institution is also a shield against unfounded and oppressive prosecution.", "It is a means for lay citizens, representative of the community, to participate in the administration of justice.", "It can also make presentments on crime and maladministration in its area.", "Traditionally, a grand jury consists of 23 members.The mode of accusation is by a written statement of two types:# in solemn form (indictment) describing the offense with proper accompaniments of time and circumstances, and certainty of act and person, or # by a less formal mode, which is usually the spontaneous act of the grand jury, called presentment.No indictment or presentment can be made except by concurrence of at least twelve of the jurors.", "The grand jury may accuse upon their own knowledge, but it is generally done upon the testimony of witnesses under oath and other evidence heard before them.", "Grand jury proceedings are, in the first instance, at the instigation of the government or other prosecutors, and ex parte and in secret deliberation.", "The accused has no knowledge nor right to interfere with their proceedings.If they find the accusation true, which is usually drawn up in form by the prosecutor or an officer of the court, they write upon the indictment the words \"a true bill\" which is signed by the foreperson of the grand jury and presented to the court publicly in the presence of all the jurors.", "If the indictment is not proven to the satisfaction of the grand jury, the word ''ignoramus'' or \"not a true bill\" is written upon it by the grand jury, or by their foreman and then said to be ignored, and the accusation is dismissed as unfounded; the potential defendant is said to have been \"no-billed\" by the grand jury.", "If the grand jury returns an indictment as a true bill (''billa vera''), the indictment is said to be founded and the party to stand indicted and required to be put on trial." ], [ "Origins", "The first instance of a grand jury can be traced back to the Assize of Clarendon in 1166, an Act of Henry II of England.", "Henry's chief impact on the development of the English monarchy was to increase the jurisdiction of the royal courts at the expense of the feudal courts.", "Itinerant justices on regular circuits were sent out once each year to enforce the \"King's Peace\".", "To make this system of royal criminal justice more effective, Henry employed the method of inquest used by William the Conqueror in the Domesday Book.", "In each shire, a body of important men were sworn (''juré'') to report to the sheriff all crimes committed since the last session of the circuit court.", "Thus originated the more recent grand jury that presents information for an indictment.", "The grand jury was later recognized by King John in Magna Carta in 1215 on demand of the nobility.The grand jury can be said to have \"celebrated\" its 800th birthday in 2015, because a precursor to the grand jury is defined in Article 61, the longest of the 63 articles of Magna Carta, also called ''Magna Carta Libertatum'' (Latin: \"the Great Charter of Liberties\") executed on 15 June 1215 by King John and by the Barons.", "The document was primarily composed by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Stephen Langton (1150–1228).", "He and Cardinal Hugo de Sancto Caro developed schemas for the division of the Bible into chapters and it is the system of Archbishop Langton which prevailed.", "He was a Biblical scholar, and the concept of the grand jury may possibly derive from Deuteronomy 25:1: \"If there be a controversy between men, and they come unto judgment, that the judges may judge them; then they shall justify the righteous, and condemn the wicked.\"", "(King James Version) Thus the grand jury has been described as the \"Shield and the Sword\" of the People: as a \"Shield for the People\" from abusive indictments of the governmentor malicious indictments of individualsand as the \"Sword of the People\" to cut away crime by any private individual; or to cut away crime by any public servant, whether in the judicial, executive, or legislative branches." ], [ "Notable cases", "On 2 July 1681, a popular statesman, Anthony Ashley Cooper, 1st Earl of Shaftesbury was arrested on suspicion of high treason and committed to the Tower of London.", "He immediately petitioned the Old Bailey on a writ of habeas corpus, but the Old Bailey said it did not have jurisdiction over prisoners in the Tower of London, so Cooper had to wait for the next session of the Court of King's Bench.", "Cooper moved for a writ of habeas corpus on 24 October 1681, and his case finally came before a grand jury on 24 November 1681.The government's case against Cooper was particularly weak – the government admitted that most of the witnesses brought against Cooper had already perjured themselves, and the documentary evidence was inconclusive, and the jury was handpicked by the Whig Sheriff of London.", "For these reasons the government had little chance of securing a conviction, and on 13 February 1682, the case was dropped when the grand jury issued an ''ignoramus'' bill (a finding of deficient evidence), rather than comply with the king's intent of a ''true bill'' (a grand jury indictment).The grand jury's theoretical function against abuse of executive power was seen during the Watergate scandal.", "In ''United States v. Nixon'', the U.S. Supreme Court ruled eight-to-zero on 24 July 1974 (Justice William Rehnquist who had been appointed by Nixon recused himself from the case) that executive privilege applied only to the legislative and judicial branchesand not to grand jury subpoenasthus implying a grand jury constituted protections equivalent to a \"fourth branch of government\".", "The second Watergate grand jury indicted seven lawyers in the White House, including former Attorney General John Mitchell, and named President Nixon as a \"secret, un-indicted, co-conspirator\".", "Despite evading impeachment by resigning from office, Nixon was still required to testify before a grand jury.Similarly, in 1998, President Clinton became the first sitting president required to testify before a grand jury as the subject of an investigation by the Office of Independent Counsel.", "The testimony came after a four-year investigation into Clinton and his wife Hillary's alleged involvement in several scandals including Whitewater and the Rose Law Firm.", "Revelations from the investigation sparked a battle in Congress over whether or not to impeach Clinton." ], [ "By jurisdiction", "===England and Wales ===The sheriff of every county was required to return to every quarter sessions and assizes (or more precisely the commission of ''oyer and terminer'' and of gaol delivery), 24 men of the county \"to inquire into, present, do and execute all those things which, on the part of our Lord the King (''or'' our Lady the Queen), shall then be commanded them\".", "Grand jurors at the assizes or at the borough quarter sessions did not have property qualifications; but, at the county quarter sessions, they had the same property qualification as petty jurors.", "However, at the assizes, the grand jury generally consisted of gentlemen of high standing in the county.After the court was opened by the crier making proclamation, the names of those summoned to the grand jury were called and they were sworn.", "They numbered at least 14 and not more than 23.The person presiding (the judge at the assizes, the chairman at the county sessions, the recorder at the borough sessions) gave the charge to the grand jury, i.e.", "he directed their attention to points in the various cases about to be considered which required explanation.The charge having been delivered, the grand jury withdrew to their own room, having received the bills of indictment.", "The witnesses whose names were endorsed on each bill were sworn as they came to be examined, in the grand jury room, the oath being administered by the foreman, who wrote his initials against the name of the witness on the back of the bill.", "Only the witnesses for the prosecution were examined, as the function of the grand jury was merely to inquire whether there was sufficient ground to put the accused on trial.", "If the majority of them (and at least 12) thought that the evidence so adduced made out a sufficient case, the words \"a true bill\" were endorsed on the back of the bill.", "If they were of the opposite opinion, the phrase \"not a true bill\", or the single Latin word ''ignoramus'' (\"we do not know\" or \"we are ignorant (of)\"), was endorsed instead and the bill was said to be \"ignored\" or thrown out.", "They could find a true bill as to the charge in one count, and ignore that in another; or as to one defendant and not as to another; but they could not, like a petty jury, return a special or conditional finding, or select part of a count as true and reject the other part.", "When some bills were \"found\", some of the jurors came out and handed the bills to the clerk of arraigns (in assizes) or clerk of the peace, who announced to the court the name of the prisoner, the charge, and the endorsements of the grand jury.", "They then retired and considered other bills until all were disposed of; after which they were discharged by the judge, chairman, or recorder.If a bill was thrown out, although it could not again be referred to the grand jury during the same assizes or sessions, it could be preferred at subsequent assizes or sessions, but not in respect of the same offense if a petty jury had returned a verdict.Ordinarily, bills of indictment were preferred after there had been an examination before the magistrates.", "But this need not always take place.", "With certain exceptions, any person would prefer a bill of indictment against another before the grand jury without any previous inquiry into the truth of the accusation before a magistrate.", "This right was at one time universal and was often abused.", "A substantial check was put on this abuse by the Vexatious Indictments Act 1859.This Act provided that for certain offences which it listed (perjury, libel, etc.", "), the person presenting such an indictment must be bound by recognizance to prosecute or give evidence against the accused, or alternatively had judicial permission (as specified) so to do.If an indictment was found in the absence of the accused, and he/she was not in custody and had not been bound over to appear at assizes or sessions, then process was issued to bring that person into court, as it is contrary to the English law to \"try\" an indictment in the absence of the accused.The grand jury's functions were gradually made redundant by the development of committal proceedings in magistrates' courts from 1848 onward when the (three) Jervis Acts, such as the Justices Protection Act 1848, codified and greatly expanded the functions of magistrates in pre-trial proceedings; these proceedings developed into almost a repeat of the trial itself.", "In 1933 the grand jury ceased to function in England, under the Administration of Justice (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 1933 and was entirely abolished in 1948, when a clause from 1933 saving grand juries for offences relating to officials abroad was repealed by the Criminal Justice Act 1948.===Scotland===The grand jury was introduced in Scotland, solely for high treason, a year after the union with England, by the Treason Act 1708, an Act of the Parliament of Great Britain.", "Section III of the Act required the Scottish courts to try cases of treason and misprision of treason according to English rules of procedure and evidence.", "This rule was repealed in 1945.The first Scottish grand jury under this Act met at Edinburgh on 10 October 1748 to take cognisance of the charges against such rebels as had not surrendered, following the Jacobite rising of 1745.An account of its first use in Scotland illustrates the institution's characteristics.", "It consisted of 23 good and lawful men, chosen out of 48 who were summoned: 24 from the county of Edinburgh (Midlothian), 12 from Haddington (East Lothian) and 12 from Linlithgow (West Lothian).", "The court consisted of three judges from the High Court of Justiciary (Scotland's highest criminal court), of whom Tinwald (Justice Clerk) was elected ''preses'' (presiding member).", "Subpoenas under the seal of the court and signed by the clerk were executed on a great number of persons in different shires, requiring them to appear as witnesses under the penalty of £100 each.", "The ''preses'' named Sir John Inglis of Cramond as Foreman of the Grand Jury, who was sworn first in the English manner by kissing the book; the others followed three at a time; after which Lord Tinwald, addressing the jurors, informed them that the power His Majesty's advocate possessed before the union, of prosecuting any person for high treason, who appeared guilty on a precognition taken of the facts, being now done away, power was lodged with them, a grand jury, 12 of whom behoved to concur before a true bill could be found.", "An indictment was then preferred in court and the witnesses endorsed on it were called over and sworn; on which the jury retired to the exchequer chambers and the witnesses were conducted to a room near it, whence they were called to be examined separately.", "Two solicitors for the crown were present at the examination but no one else; and after they had finished and the sense of the jury was collected, the indictment was returned a \"true bill\", if the charges were found proved, or \"ignoramus\" if doubtful.", "The proceedings continued for a week, in which time, out of 55 bills, 42 were sustained and 13 dismissed.Further Acts of Parliament in the 19th century regarding treason did not specify this special procedure and the Grand Jury was used no longer.===Ireland===In Ireland, grand juries were active from the Middle Ages during the Lordship of Ireland in parts of the island under the control of the English government (The Pale), that was followed by the Kingdom of Ireland.", "They mainly functioned as local government authorities at the county level.", "The system was so-called as the grand jurors had to present their public works proposals and budgets in court for official sanction by a judge.", "Grand jurors were usually the largest local payers of rates, and therefore tended to be the larger landlords, and on retiring they selected new members from the same background.Distinct from their public works function, as property owners they also were qualified to sit on criminal juries hearing trials by jury, as well as having a pre-trial judicial function for serious criminal cases.", "Many of them also sat as magistrates judging the less serious cases.They were usually wealthy \"country gentlemen\" (i.e.", "landowners, landed gentry, farmers and merchants):From 1691 to 1793, Dissenters and Roman Catholics were excluded from membership.", "The concentration of power and wealth in a few families caused resentment over time.", "The whole local government system started to become more representative from the passing of the Municipal Corporations (Ireland) Act 1840.The growing divergence of opinions can be seen in the House of Commons debate on 8 March 1861 led by Isaac Butt.", "Grand juries were eventually replaced by democratically elected County Councils by the Local Government (Ireland) Act 1898, as regards their administrative functions.After the formation of Irish Free State in 1922, grand juries were not required, but they persisted in Northern Ireland until abolished by the Grand Jury (Abolition) Act of the Parliament of Northern Ireland in 1969.===United States===The Fifth Amendment to the Constitution of the United States reads, \"No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury...\"A grand jury investigating the Arcadia Hotel fire in Boston, Massachusetts in 1913In the early decades of the United States, grand juries played a major role in public matters.", "During that period counties followed the traditional practice of requiring all decisions be made by at least 12 of the grand jurors, (e.g., for a 23-person grand jury, 12 people would constitute a bare majority).", "Any citizen could bring a matter before a grand jury directly, from a public work that needed repair, to the delinquent conduct of a public official, to a complaint of a crime, and grand juries could conduct their own investigations.In that era most criminal prosecutions were conducted by private parties, either a law enforcement officer, a lawyer hired by a crime victim or his family, or even by laymen.", "A layman could bring a bill of indictment to the grand jury; if the grand jury found that there was sufficient evidence for a trial, that the act was a crime under law, and that the court had jurisdiction, it would return the indictment to the complainant.", "The grand jury would then appoint the complaining party to exercise essentially the same authority as a state attorney general has, that is, a general power of attorney to represent the state in the case.The grand jury served to screen out incompetent or malicious prosecutions.", "The advent of official public prosecutors in the later decades of the 19th century largely displaced private prosecutions.While all states currently have provisions for grand juries, today approximately half of the states employ them and 22 require their use, to varying extents.", "The constitution of Pennsylvania required, between 1874 and 1968, that a grand jury indict all felonies.", "Six states (Oklahoma, Nebraska, New Mexico, North Dakota, Nevada, and Kansas) allow citizens to circulate a petition in order to impanel a grand jury.An American federal grand jury has from 16 to 23 jurors, with twelve votes required to return an indictment.", "All grand jury proceedings are conducted behind closed doors, without a presiding judge.", "The prosecutors are tasked with arranging for the appearance of witnesses, as well as drafting the order in which they are called, and take part in the questioning of witnesses.", "The targets of the grand jury or their lawyers have no right to appear before a grand jury unless they are invited, nor do they have a right to present exculpatory evidence.", "Possibly as a result, there is a running joke in the legal profession that a grand jury could \"indict a ham sandwich\" if the prosecutor asked.", "Some sources state the joke originated from a quote by Sol Wachtler in 1985, but it is found in a newspaper article from 1979, attributed to an unnamed \"Rochester defense lawyer\".===Canada===Grand juries were once common across Canada.", "The institution of British civil government in 1749 at Nova Scotia brought the judicature system peculiar to that form, and the grand jury was inherent to it.", "A similar form derived in Quebec from the promise of the Royal Proclamation of 1763 that a faithful copy of '''Laws of England''' would be instituted in the North American possessions of the Crown.", "Archival records are found that document the presentments of a grand jury in Quebec as early as 16 October 1764.One of the chief complaints was related to the jury trial, and the use of language.", "The desire for English law was a driver for the division in 1791 of Quebec, as it was then known, at the Ottawa river into Upper Canada and Lower Canada, as each of the two groups (French and English) desired to maintain their traditions.", "In point of fact, the second law passed in Upper Canada relates to (petit) jury trial.", "This was continued so that Chapter 31 of the 1859 Consolidated Statutes of Upper Canada specifies the constitution of Grand and Petit Juries in the province (now known as Ontario).", "The colony at St. John's Island, ceded by France in 1763, and separated on 30 May 1769 from Nova Scotia, became Prince Edward Island on 29 November 1798.Prince Edward Island derived its grand jury from its administrative parent between 1763 and 1769, Nova Scotia, as did Sunbury County when it was split off in 1784 to become the Colony of New Brunswick.", "The Colony of British Columbia, when it was formed on 2 August 1858, instituted a grand jury, along with the Colony of the Queen Charlotte Islands (1853–1863) and the Colony of Vancouver Island (1848–1866) when the latter were absorbed by the former.Old courthouses with the two jury boxes necessary to accommodate the 24 jurors of a grand jury can still be seen.", "The grand jury would evaluate charges and return what was called a \"true bill (of indictment)\" if the charges were to proceed.", "or a verdict of ''nolle prosequi'' if not.", "The practice gradually disappeared in Canada over the course of the twentieth century, after being the subject of extended discussions late in the 19th.", "It was ultimately abolished in 1984 when the Nova Scotia courts formally ended the practice.", "Prince Edward Island maintained a grand jury as recently as 1871.===Australia===The grand jury existed in New South Wales for a short period in the 1820s.", "The New South Wales Act 1823 (UK) enabled the establishment of quarter sessions, as a subsidiary court structure below that of the Supreme Court.", "Francis Forbes, Chief Justice, reasoned that this entailed the creation of quarter sessions as they existed in England.", "Thus, inadvertently, trial by jury and indictment by grand jury were introduced, but only for these subsidiary courts.", "Grand juries met in Sydney, Parramatta, Windsor and other places.", "This democratic method of trial proved very popular, but was resented by conservatives.", "Eventually, conservative elements in the colony were successful in having these innovations suppressed by the Australian Courts Act 1828 (UK).", "George Forbes, a member of the Legislative Council, unsuccessfully moved for the reintroduction of grand juries in 1858, but this was thwarted by the Attorney-General and the Chief Justice.In South Australia and Western Australia, grand juries existed for longer periods of time.", "In South Australia, the first grand jury sat on 13 May 1837, but they were abolished in 1852.In Western Australia, by the Grand Jury Abolition Act Amendment Act 1883 (WA), grand juries were abolished (section 4: A Grand Jury shall not be summoned for the Supreme Court of Western Australia, nor for any General Quarter Sessions for the said Colony).", "This 1883 abolition Act was itself abolished by the Criminal Procedure and Appeals (Consequential and Other Provisions) Act 2004 (section 5: The Grand Jury Abolition Act Amendment Act 1883 is repealed).The Australian state of Victoria maintained, until 2009, provisions for a grand jury in the Crimes Act 1958 under section 354 indictments, which had been used on rare occasions by individuals to bring other persons to court seeking them to be committed for trial on indictable offences.", "Grand juries were introduced by the Judicature Act 1874 and have been used on a very limited number of occasions.", "Their function in Victoria particularly relates to alleged offences either by bodies corporate or where magistrates have aborted the prosecution.===New Zealand===New Zealand abolished the grand jury in 1961.===Cape Colony===Trial by jury was introduced in the Cape Colony by Richard Bourke, Lieutenant Governor and acting Governor of the colony between 1826 and 1828.The acting Governor, who was later influential in the establishment of jury trial in New South Wales, obtained the consent of the Secretary of State for the Colonies in August 1827 and the first Charter of Justice was issued on 24 August 1827.Jury trial was brought into practical operation in 1828 and the 1831 Ordinance 84 laid down that criminal cases would be heard by a panel of nine, selected from males aged between 21 and 60, owning or renting property to a value of £1.17s (37 shillings) per annum or having liability for taxes of 30 shillings in Cape Town and 20 shillings outside the town.", "Black (i.e.", "non-white) jurors were not entirely excluded and sat occasionally.", "This is not to imply, however, that juries did not operate in an oppressive manner towards the Black African and Asian residents of the Cape, whose participation in the jury lists was, in any event, severely limited by the property qualification.", "The property qualification was amended in 1831 and 1861 and, experimentally, a grand jury came into operation.The grand jury was established for Cape Town alone.", "It met quarterly.", "In 1842 it was recorded that it served a district of 50,000 inhabitants and in one quarterly session there were six presentments (1 homicide, 2 assaults, 1 robbery, 1 theft, 1 fraud).As elsewhere, the judge could use his charge to the grand jury to bring matters of concern to him to the attention of the public and the government.", "In May 1879 Mr. Justice Fitzpatrick, returning from circuit in the northern and western parts of Cape Colony, gave a charge to the grand jury at the Criminal Sessions at Cape Town, in which, after congratulating them upon the lightness of the calendar, he observed there were indications in the country of a growing mutual bad feeling between the races, etc.", "This was reported in the ''Cape Argus'' and was a subject of a question to the government in the House of Commons in London.The grand jury continued in operation until 1885, by which time the Cape was under responsible government, when it was abolished by Act 17 of 1885 of the Cape Parliament.===France===Grand juries were established in France in 1791 under the name ''jury d'accusation'', but they were abolished with the introduction of the Code of Criminal Instruction in 1808.The jury law of 1791 created an eight-man ''jury d'accusation'' in each ''arrondissement'' (a subdivision of the ''departement'') and a 12-man ''jury de jugement'' in each ''departement''.", "In each ''arrondissement'' the ''procureur-syndic'' drew up a list of 30 jurors from the electoral roll every three months for the ''jury d'accusation''.", "There was no public prosecutor or ''juge d'instruction''.", "Instead the police or private citizens could bring a complaint to the Justice of the Peace established in each canton (a subdivision of the arrondissement).", "This magistrate interrogated the accused to determine whether grounds for prosecution existed and if so sent the case to the ''directeur du jury'' (the director of the ''jury d'accusation''), who was one of the ''arrondissement's'' civil court judges, and who served in the post for six months on a rotating basis.", "He decided whether to dismiss the charges or, if not, whether the case was a ''délit'' (misdemeanour) or a crime (felony, i.e.", "imprisonable for 2 years or more).", "''Délits'' went to the ''tribunal de police correctionnelle'' of the ''arrondissement'', while for ''crimes'' the ''directeur de jury'' convoked the ''jury d'accusation'' of the ''arrondissement'', in order to get an indictment.", "The ''directeur du jury'' drew up the bill of indictment (''acte d'accusation'') summarising the charges to be presented to the ''jury d'accusation''.", "The ''directeur'' made a presentation to the jury in the absence of the accused and the jury heard the witnesses.", "The jury then decided by majority vote whether there were sufficient grounds for the case to go to the ''tribunal criminel'' of the ''departement''.", "Between 1792 and 1795 there was no property qualification for jurors.The functions of the ''jury d’accusation'' were prescribed in the law of 1791 passed by the Constituent Assembly and were maintained and re-enacted in the ''Code des Délits et des Peines'' of 3 Brumaire, Year 4 (25 October 1795) and this was the operative law until it was abolished in 1808.Special juries and special grand juries were originally defined in law, for cases thought to require more qualified jurors, but these were abolished in Year 8 (1799).===Belgium===From 1795 to 1808 grand juries also operated in Belgium, which was divided into French ''departements'' in October 1795.===Japan===After World War II, under the influence of the Allies, Japan passed the Prosecutorial Review Commission Law on July 12, 1948, which created the ''Kensatsu Shinsakai'' (or Prosecutorial Review Commission (PRC) system), a figure analogue to the grand jury system.", "However, until 2009 the PCR's recommendations were not binding, and were only regarded as advisory.", "Additionally, a survey conducted by the Japanese Cabinet Office in October 1990 showed that 68.8% of surveyed Japanese citizens were not familiar with the PRC system.", "On May 21, 2009, the Japanese government introduced new legislation which would make the PRC's decisions binding.", "A PRC is made up of 11 randomly selected citizens, is appointed to a six-month term, and its primary purpose is examining cases prosecutors have chosen not to continue prosecuting.", "It has therefore been perceived as a way to combat misfeasance in public officials.From 1945 to 1972 Okinawa was under American administration.", "Grand jury proceedings were held in the territory from 1963 until 1972.By an ordinance of the civil administration of the Ryukyu Islands promulgated in 1963, grand jury indictment and petit jury trial were assured for criminal defendants in the civil administration courts.", "This ordinance reflected the concern of the U.S. Supreme Court that U.S. civilians tried for crimes abroad under tribunals of U.S. provenance should not be shorn of the protections of the U.S. Bill of Rights.", "Indeed, the District Court in Washington twice held that the absence of the jury system in the civil administration courts in Okinawa invalidated criminal convictions.===Liberia===By article 21 of the Constitution of Liberia, 'No person shall be held to answer for a capital or infamous crime except in cases of impeachment, cases arising in the Armed Forces and petty offenses, unless upon indictment by a Grand Jury\".", "For example, the national Port Authority's managing director was indicted by the Monteserrado County Grand Jury in July 2015, on charges of economic sabotage, theft of property and criminal conspiracy.Grand juries in Liberia date from the time of the original constitution in 1847.===Sierra Leone===Under the administration of the Sierra Leone Company, which began in 1792, the Governor and Council or any two members thereof, being also justices of the peace, held quarter sessions for the trial of offences committed within the colony.", "The process for indictment etc.", "was the same as the practice in England or as near as possible thereto.", "To effect this, they were empowered to issue their warrant or precept to the Sheriff, commanding him to summon a grand jury to sit at the court of quarter sessions.", "Grand juries continued in operation after the transfer to the colony to the Crown in 1807.Governor Kennedy (1852–1854) was concerned that jurors were frustrating government policy by being biased in certain cases; in particular he felt that liberated Africans on the grand jury would never convict another liberated African on charges of owning or importing slaves.", "He promulgated the Ordinance of 29 November 1853 which abolished the grand jury.", "Opposition was immediately mounted in Freetown.", "A public meeting launched a petition with 550 names to the Colonial Secretary in London, and the opposition declared that the Kennedy ordinance was a reproach upon the loyalty of the community.", "Grand juries have been considered one colonial body representative of local opinion and the Colonial Secretary's support for Kennedy upholding the abolition inspired a round of agitation for a local voice in government decision-making." ], [ "See also", "*Blue-ribbon committee*Civil grand jury*Examining magistrate*Immunity from prosecution*Inquests in England and Wales" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "****** ****===Grand juror handbooks===*U.S. Federal Grand Jury Handbook (PDF)***Handbook for Hennepin County (Minnesota) Grand Jurors (PDF)*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Overview of gun laws by nation" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Gun laws and policies''', collectively referred to as '''firearms regulation''' or '''gun control''', regulate the manufacture, sale, transfer, possession, modification, and use of small arms by civilians.", "Laws of some countries may afford civilians a right to keep and bear arms, and have more liberal gun laws than neighboring jurisdictions.", "Countries that regulate access to firearms will typically restrict access to certain categories of firearms and then restrict the categories of persons who may be granted a license for access to such firearms.", "There may be separate licenses for hunting, sport shooting ( target shooting), self-defense, collecting, and concealed carry, with different sets of requirements, permissions, and responsibilities.Gun laws are usually justified by a legislative intent to reduce the use of small arms in crime, and to this end they frequently target makes and models of arms identified in crimes and shootings, such as handguns and other types of concealable firearms.", "Persons restricted from legal access to firearms may include those below a certain age or those with a criminal record.", "Firearms licenses to purchase or possess may be denied to those defined as most at risk of harming or murdering themselves or others, persons with a history of domestic violence, alcohol use disorder or substance use disorder, mental illness, depression, or those who have attempted suicide.", "Those applying for a firearm license may have to demonstrate competence by completing a gun safety course and show provision for a secure location to store weapons.The legislation which restricts small arms may also restrict other weapons, such as explosives, crossbows, swords, electroshock weapons, air guns, and pepper spray.", "It may also restrict firearm accessories, notably high-capacity magazines and sound suppressors.", "There may be restrictions on the quantity or types of ammunition purchased, with certain types prohibited.", "Due to the global scope of this article, detailed coverage cannot be provided on all these matters; the article will instead attempt to briefly summarize each country's weapon laws in regard to small arms use and ownership by civilians." ], [ "Vocabulary and terminology", "Firearms are not defined the same way in each country.Some terms are used in several countries in the context of gun laws.", "These include the following:*''shall-issue'': granting of a required license or permit is subject only to the applicant's meeting determinate criteria laid out in the law; the granting authority has no discretion in the awarding of licenses.", "*''may-issue'': granting of a required permit or license is partially at the discretion of local authorities.", "Some jurisdictions may provide administrative and legal avenues for an applicant to appeal a permit denial, while others may not.", "*''no-issue'': granting of a required permit or license is forbidden, or, at most, allowed only in certain very limited circumstances.Gun laws might be classified by countries according to some specific common characteristics:* Yemen and most U.S. states do not require any permit or any license for the purchase, the shopping, the buying or acquisition of most types of firearms, meaning they're sold over the counter and is required a license for buying a great number of firearms and people (excluding prohibited persons in the latter case) may freely buy them from licensed and state authorized dealers or suppliers* Some countries including Austria, Liechtenstein, Philippines, and Switzerland are partially licensed, meaning that any non-prohibited citizen may buy repeating rifles and break-action shotguns from licensed dealers and a permit is required only for handguns and semi-automatic firearms.", "* Some countries allow firearm ownership without good reason or with a simple declaration of reason.", "For example, in Austria, while the law requires an applicant to have good reason to acquire a license for a handgun, self-defense at home is accepted as a good reason.", "Canada and New Zealand do not require good reason for applicants' acquisition of most types of long guns, although they require it for restricted weapons like handguns.", "* Some countries require an applicant to show good reason to secure a firearm license.", "In some, like Poland and Malta, the list of good reasons and conditions that must be met is explicitly stated in the law, while in others, like Kenya and the United Kingdom, the law does not specify what constitutes a good reason but leaves it at the discretion of authorities, but a good reason or a legitimate reason for obtain and get a firearm is hunting, sport shooting.", "collecting and self defense license.", "* In some countries, like China, Japan, Venezuela and Myanmar, only people that are abled and trained and are meeting narrow conditions are allowed to own firearms, and few licenses are issued.", "* In some countries, including Cambodia, Eritrea, and the Solomon Islands, ownership of firearms by civilians is completely prohibited with exceptions for private security companies, militias and paramilitary groups." ], [ "Firearms license", "A Norwegian firearms license for a .44 Magnum revolver, with name and address of the owner, as well as firearm type, brand, caliber and serial number.A German firearms license.A '''firearms license''' (also known as a '''gun license'''; or '''licence''' in British English) is a license or permit issued by a government authority (typically by the police) of a jurisdiction, that allows the licensee to buy, own, possess, or carry a firearm, often subject to a number of conditions or restrictions, especially with regard to storage requirements or the completion of a firearms safety course, as well as background checks, etc.", "Firearms licenses are not required in all jurisdictions.", "Additionally, some countries or states may require by law a \"permit-to-purchase\" in order to buy handguns or firearms.", "A licence may also be required to buy ammunition.The permit or license scope varies according to what firearm(s) or activity(s) it allows the holder to legally do with the firearm.", "Some jurisdictions may require a firearm license to own a firearm, to engage in hunting, target shooting or collecting, or to carry a concealed firearm, or operate a business (such as being a gun dealer or a gunsmith).", "Some jurisdictions may require separate licenses for rifles, shotguns or handguns.The requirement to have a firearm license is usually in addition to a requirement for firearm registration.", "For example, gun laws in Australia require firearms to be registered by serial number to the owner, who holds a firearm licence." ], [ "Comparison", "This section uses the expressions ''shall issue'' and ''may issue'' which are partly specific to and defined by the US system of firearm regulations.+Gun laws worldwideRegionGood reasonPermitted types of firearmsCarrying firearmsMagazine capacity limits (exc.", "semi- and full-auto)HandgunsSemi-automatic rifles Independent countries Afghanistan Albania Algeria .", "Andorra Angola Antigua and Barbuda Argentina Armenia Australia Determined by the courts Austria (EU) Azerbaijan Bahrain Bangladesh Barbados Bahamas Belarus Belgium (EU) RegionGood reason required?", "(excl.", "semi- and full-auto)HandgunsSemi-automatic riflesMagazine capacity limitBelize Benin Bhutan Bolivia Bosnia and Herzegovina Botswana Brazil Brunei Bulgaria (EU) Burkina Faso Burundi Canada Cambodia Cameroon Cape Verde Central African Republic Chad Chile China (excl.", "Hong Kong and Macau) Colombia RegionGood reason required?", "(excl.", "semi- and full-auto)HandgunsSemi-automatic riflesMagazine capacity limit Comoros Costa Rica Croatia (EU) Cuba Cyprus (EU) Czech Republic (EU) – shall issue – shall issue Permitless for 2 shot black powder firearms DR Congo Congo Denmark (EU) (excl.", "Greenland and Faroe Islands) Djibouti Dominica Dominican Republic Ecuador East Timor Egypt up to life imprisonment El Salvador Eritrea Ethiopia Estonia (EU) – shall issue – shall issue – shall issue(no bullet in chamber – except revolvers) RegionGood reason required?", "(excl.", "semi- and full-auto)HandgunsSemi-automatic riflesMagazine capacity limit Equatorial Guinea Fiji Finland (EU) France (EU) Gabon Gambia Georgia (country) Germany (EU) Ghana /// Greece Grenada Guinea Guinea-Bissau Guyana Guatemala Haiti Honduras Hungary (EU) Iceland India up to life imprisonment RegionGood reason required?", "(excl.", "semi- and full-auto)HandgunsSemi-automatic riflesMagazine capacity limit Indonesia 20 or death Iraq Iran Ireland (EU) Israel Italy (EU) Jamaica Ivory Coast Japan 15 Jordan Kazakhstan Kenya Kiribati Kuwait Kyrgyzstan Laos Latvia (EU) RegionGood reason required?", "(excl.", "semi- and full-auto)HandgunsSemi-automatic riflesMagazine capacity limit Lebanon Lesotho Liberia Libya Lithuania (EU) – shall issue(no bullet in chamber – except revolvers) Luxembourg (EU) Madagascar Malawi Malaysia 14 Maldives Mali Malta (EU) Marshall Islands Mauritania Mauritius Mexico Micronesia Moldova Monaco RegionGood reason required?", "(excl.", "semi- and full-auto)HandgunsSemi-automatic riflesMagazine capacity limit Montenegro Mongolia Morocco Mozambique Myanmar Namibia Nauru Nepal Netherlands (EU) New Zealand Nicaragua Niger Nigeria North Korea 20 or death North Macedonia Norway Oman Pakistan Palau Papua New Guinea colspa\"2\" RegionGood reason required?", "(excl.", "semi- and full-auto)HandgunsSemi-automatic riflesMagazine capacity limit Panama Paraguay Peru Philippines Poland (EU) Portugal (EU) Qatar Romania (EU) Russia Rwanda Saint Kitts and Nevis Saint Lucia St Vincent & Grenadines Samoa San Marino São Tomé and Príncipe Saudi Arabia Senegal RegionGood reason required?", "(excl.", "semi- and full-auto)HandgunsSemi-automatic riflesMagazine capacity limit Seychelles Serbia Sierra Leone Singapore 14 Slovakia (EU) Slovenia Solomon Islands Somalia South Africa 15 South Korea South Sudan Spain (EU) Sri Lanka Sudan Suriname Switzerland (including Liechtenstein) RegionGood reason required?", "(excl.", "semi- and full-auto)HandgunsSemi-automatic riflesMagazine capacity limit Swaziland Sweden Syria Taiwan Tajikistan Tanzania Thailand Togo Tonga Trinidad and Tobago Tunisia Turkey Turkmenistan Tuvalu Uganda Ukraine United Arab Emirates United Kingdom - England, Wales, Scotland United Kingdom - Northern Ireland United States RegionGood reason required?", "(excl.", "semi- and full-auto)HandgunsSemi-automatic riflesMagazine capacity limitUruguay Uzbekistan Vanuatu Vatican City Venezuela Vietnam Yemen Zambia Zimbabwe Individual jurisdictionsRegionGood reason required?", "(excl.", "semi- and full-auto)HandgunsSemi-automatic riflesMagazine capacity limit Cayman Islands Cook Islands Gaza Strip Greenland Guam Hong Kong Idlib Governorate (rebel-held) Kosovo Northern Mariana Islands Puerto Rico American Samoa Somaliland U.S. Virgin Islands West Bank RegionGood reason required?", "(excl.", "semi- and full-auto)HandgunsSemi-automatic riflesMagazine capacity limit" ], [ "Africa", "The Bamako Declaration on an African Common Position on the Illicit Proliferation, Circulation and Trafficking of Small Arms and Light Weapons was adopted in Bamako, Mali, on 1 December 2000 by the representatives of the 51 member states of the Organisation of African Unity (OAU).", "The provisions of this declaration recommend that the signatories would establish the illegal possession of small arms and light weapons as a criminal offence under national law in their respective countries.===Botswana===Botswana's law allows possession of shotguns and rifles only.", "The government has put a limit on the number of licenses issued every year – only 50 people can receive them, no matter how many apply, meaning that the acceptance rate is usually below 1%.Currently there are 34,550 (or 1.5 per 100 people) registered firearms.===Central African Republic===Officially only 139 people have a permit to own firearms in Central African Republic, mostly members of parliament.", "They are entitled to possess one 12-gauge shotgun and one 9mm automatic pistol.", "Regardless, illegal possession and carry of firearms is widespread in Central African Republic, large parts of which are under control of different armed groups.", "Anti-balaka and ex-Seleka militias possess and carry home-made shotguns, automatic rifles and rocket launchers.===Chad===A law on firearms passed in 1968 requires a permit to own a firearm in Chad which must be renewed annually.", "This law does not specify any conditions that must be met to obtain a license except for a tax stamp which must be paid, between 500 and 3000 CFA francs depending on the type of firearm.", "Considering that in 2017 the Chadian government raised 5 million francs from issuing firearm licenses it would mean that there are between 1,666 and 10,000 active firearm licenses in Chad or between 0.01 and 0.06 per 100 people.=== Djibouti ===Possession of firearms in Djibouti is generally prohibited except when special permits are granted in exceptional circumstances by the Head of State.Firearms in Eritrea are completely prohibited for civilian use without exceptions.=== Eswatini ===Permitted types of firearms in Eswatini are shotguns, revolvers, pistols and rifles.", "To obtain a license one must get approval from the Local Chief's council, Local Station Commander, Regional Administrator, Director of Crimes at Police Headquarters, Licensing Officer/Registrar of Firearms Registry, Licensing Board and lastly the Police Station Commander.", "Requirements include general standing in the community.", "The application acceptance rate is around 57% === Gambia ===Current law states that firearm licenses are a privilege in Gambia and authorities have full discretion in issuing them.=== Ghana ===Firearm law in Ghana allows acquisition of shotguns and handguns (pistols and revolvers).", "It requires that every firearm must be reregistered every year; however, this is widely ignored.", "Out of 1,230,000 people who legally bought a gun only 40,000 are reregistering their weapons every year.", "Unlike other African countries, handguns are popular in Ghana.", "For example, in Greater Accra Region 74.4% of people who legally acquired guns in 2020 chose revolvers, while 21% chose shotguns.", "In the Ashanti region 45.5% chose shotguns, while 21.5% chose revolvers.===Kenya===Gun regulation in Kenya is established by the Firearms Act (Cap.", "114) of Kenya.", "The Act states: \"No person under the age of twelve years shall have in his possession any firearm or ammunition to which Part II applies, and no person under the age of fourteen years shall have in his possession any firearm or ammunition to which Part II applies other than a miniature rifle not exceeding 0.22 calibre or a shotgun the bore of which is not larger than 20 gauge, and ammunition suitable therefor, except in circumstances where he is entitled to have possession thereof without holding a firearm certificate by virtue of subsection (8), subsection (9) or subsection (10) of section 7; and no person shall part with the possession of any such firearm or ammunition to any person whom he knows or has reason to believe to be under the age of twelve or fourteen years, as the case may be, except in circumstances where that other person is entitled to have possession thereof.", "\"The Chief Licensing Officer (CLO) has discretion to award, deny, or revoke firearm licenses.", "Applicants must be 21 years of age or older, pass a stringent background check for criminal activity, mental health and domestic violence, and state genuine reason(s) for their need to privately own and carry a firearm.", "Checks are regularly repeated, with failure to pass resulting in immediate revocation of the license.", "Once licensed to own a gun, no additional permit is required to carry a concealed firearm.=== Lesotho ===Applicants for firearm possession must obtain a reference letter from the village chief or headman.", "It is later sent to local police stations for approval, then to district police for their approval, then to the National Security Service for their final approval.=== Liberia ===Liberia allows only possession of single-shot shotguns and black powder long guns for hunting purposes.", "Private security agencies are banned from arming their employees.", "However, some criminals have automatic firearms, particularly AK-styled rifles.", "These are believed to be leftovers from the country's decade-long intermittent civil war.", "Automatic firearms are also likely coming across the country's porous borders with Guinea, Ivory Coast, and Sierra Leone.", "These countries have more liberal gun-ownership laws.", "All of Liberia's neighbors have experienced some form of armed conflict in the last two decades leaving them awash with illegal automatic weapons.", "The Emergency Response Unit (ERU), the only armed unit within the Liberia National Police, responds to armed incidents, particularly armed robbery.Liberia Firearms and Ammunition Control Act of 2015 regulates the possession and use of small arms and light weapons in the country.", "The illegal possession of small arms and light weapons constitutes a first-degree misdemeanor and is punishable by a term of imprisonment of not more than a year and seizure of the illegally possessed arm or ammunition.=== Mozambique ===There are no licensed firearm dealers in Mozambique, therefore any person wanting to obtain one must travel to a different country (usually South Africa), purchase guns, then return, surrender them for authorities and ask them to allow them to obtain them.=== Namibia ===Namibia permits firearm ownership under license, which is issued on a may-issue basis.", "In 2017 Namibian police issued 7,647 firearm licenses from 9,239 applications, the acceptance rate therefore being around 83%.", "Overall there are currently 200,100 registered firearms in Namibia or 9 per 100 people.", "Most popular types of firearms owned by civilians are pistols (46%), rifles (34%) and shotguns (24%).", "Carrying unloaded concealed firearms in public is allowed.=== Rwanda ===In 2019 Rwanda passed a new law dealing with firearm possession.", "It states that authorities have total discretion when determining whether persons can own firearms and can therefore deny applications without reason, even if someone met all requirements.=== Senegal ===Senegal has a strict gun legislation.", "Applications for firearm licenses do not need to specify a reason.", "An application requires: copy of identity card, criminal record, medical check-up, four photos, tax stamp and personality test.", "Decisions should be made after a few months.Gun ownership is very rare, however numbers are on the rise.", "In 2016 Senegal police issued 1000 licenses, while rejecting 250 (80% acceptance rate), compared to 456 in 2011.In 2017 it was estimated that police issued more than 7,000 total licenses (0.04 per 100 people).=== Sierra Leone ===In 2012, Sierra Leone legalized gun ownership after 16 years of a total ban being enforced.", "According to the act, authorities have discretion in determining whether persons have good reasons to own firearms.", "The Arms Act of 2021 repealed the Arms Act of 2012, with little change to licensing procedures.=== Somalia ===From 1992 until 2023, a UN embargo had prohibited importation of any firearms into Somalia except for security forces.=== Somaliland ===According to 2010 gun control law residents of Somaliland are allowed to possess firearms for the purpose of defense of life and property.", "The law specifies pistols and AK automatic rifles as permissible while also mentioning that others can be allowed.", "Only one weapon of each type can be registered.", "Possession of more than one weapon of each type require justification and is granted only for legal persons.", "Permits to register a weapon are provided to people over 18 without criminal background.", "Permit must be renewed every year.", "Both citizens and residents can register firearms and they can be inherited.", "Sale of firearms is limited to government and licensed dealers.", "Weapons of war such as mortars, bombs, chemical weapons as well as suppressors are prohibited.", "Openly carrying firearms is prohibited.", "As the arms embargo on Somalia was lifted, the Somaliland government opposed the measure.===South Africa===To apply for a firearm license in South Africa applicants must pass a competency test covering the specific type of firearm that is being applied for, and a test on the South African firearm laws.", "Once these tests are passed one needs to apply for a competency certificate, where the South African Police Service performs a background check and an inspection of the premises where the firearm will be stored.", "After both tests are passed and the respective certificates are awarded, one can then apply for a firearm license in categories ranging from self-defence to professional hunting.", "Different license categories have different restrictions, for example the amount of ammunition owners may hold.", "Using guns to hunt is permitted" ], [ "Americas", "===Argentina===Firearms in Argentina are restricted, being regulated by ANMaC (Agencia Nacional de Materiales Controlados) since October 2015.Said agency replaced RENAR (Registro Nacional de Armas de la Republica Argentina), both being a branch of the Ministry of Justice and Human Rights.", "To own a firearm in Argentina, one must be a legitimate user.", "Applicants must: be 21 years of age or older, provide a medical certificate that certifies they are physically and mentally fit, complete a safety course, provide a legitimate means of income, and undergo and pass a background check.", "A successful applicant is fingerprinted and issued a license which has to be renewed every five years.", "One may not legally discharge a firearm in Argentina if they are not a legitimate user, even if that gun belongs to someone else.", "Once a legitimate user wants to purchase a firearm, they must provide a secure location to store the firearm(s), and give an acceptable reason for wanting a firearm – such as collecting, target shooting, hunting, business, or self-defense in the home.Firearms must be purchased through a licensed registry registered with the ANMaC.", "If a firearm is inherited, a re-registering form must be filed.", "There is no limit on the number of firearms owned so long as they are properly stored.", "Ammunition sales are recorded but unlimited.", "Carry permits for licensed handgun owners are extremely difficult to obtain, and require appearing before the ANMaC board to make their case.", "Carry permits are renewed yearly to re-examine their \"clear and present\" danger, and the permit is usually revoked immediately if this danger is removed.", "Those dealing in money or valuables or in private security may be issued a business carry permit.Handguns above .32 calibre are conditional-use; fully automatic handguns are prohibited to civilians.", "Bolt-action rifles above .22, long rifles and semi-automatic rifles above .22, and long rifles with a non-detachable magazine are conditional-use; fully automatic rifles and semi-automatic rifles above .22, and long rifles with detachable magazines are prohibited.", "Semi-automatic shotguns and shotguns with barrels between long are conditional-use; fully automatic shotguns and shotguns with barrels under are prohibited.===Belize===Permanent residents or citizens of Belize are allowed to own a gun after a background check.", "The maximum caliber is 9mm, and one may have only 100 rounds at any given time.", "Licenses are available to farmers to have shotguns to protect livestock, as well as for hunting and personal protection.", "Firearms may be imported but must be declared before arrival.", "Imported guns will be impounded by the police and registered before a license is granted.===Brazil===All firearms in Brazil are required to be registered.", "The minimum age for ownership is 25,and certificates of aptitude and mental health are required prior to the acquisition of a firearm and every ten years thereafter.It is generally illegal to carry a firearm outside one's residence, commerce/store or farm.Executive Order  5.123, of 1 July 2004allows the Federal Police to confiscate firearms which are not possessed for a valid reason;The total number of firearms in Brazil is thought to be between 14 million and 17 millionwith an estimated 9 million being unregistered.In a 2005 referendum, Brazilians voted against a government proposal for a total ban on the sales of firearms to private citizens.In January 2019, President Bolsonaro signed an executive order which loosened Brazil's gun laws by removing the police's discretionary power to reject license applications.Currently there are more than one million guns legally registered by civilians.On September 5 the Minister of Supreme Court, Luiz Edson Fachin, did invalidate some decrees signed by President Bolsonaro.", "Those decisions, are named as ADI 6119, ADI 6139 and ADI 6466.The immediate action of those ADIs were the ban to purchase any firearm for home protectionand the purchase of ammunition for any civilian in the country.", "Those ADIs also affected the shooting sports in some degree, by forbidden the acquisition of firearms of restricted calibers.===Canada===Canada's firearm laws are stated in the Firearms Act.", "The possession and acquisition licence (PAL) is distributed by the RCMP (federal police) and requires taking a firearms safety course and passing a test, a background check, and reference interviews.", "The PAL allows purchase of most popular sporting rifles and shotguns.", "A Restricted-PAL (RPAL) has an additional course for restricted weapons, which have increased storage requirements.The two main reasons for owning firearms are target shooting and hunting.Carrying firearms for self-defense against human threats is prohibited without a permit.", "These permits are typically only issued to police, and those in a profession that involves carrying valuable goods, such as armoured car personnel.", "The RCMP is also able to issue an Authorization to Carry permit to private individuals on the basis that a person's life is in imminent danger and police protection is inadequate.", "These permits are seldom issued.", "In the 1990s, Toronto City Councillor Norm Gardner was revealed to hold such a permit when he shot a man who was committing a robbery.", "only two permits for protection of life were actively issued in the country.An Authorization to Carry permit can be obtained for protection against wild animals.", "However these are only issued to a licensed professional trapper, or to people in a profession that exposes them to dangerous animals in remote areas.", "However, the applicant must prove why carrying a rifle or shotgun is not possible, and they must choose a firearm that is appropriate for the circumstances.In Canada, firearms fall into one of three categories:# Non-Restricted: Long guns with an overall length greater than and semi-automatics with a barrel longer than .", "These can be possessed with an ordinary PAL, and are the only class of firearms which can be used for hunting.# Restricted: This includes handguns with barrel lengths greater than 4.1 inches (105 mm), and long guns which do not meet the length requirements for non-restricted but are not prohibited.", "These guns require ATTs, so can only be discharged at ranges.# Prohibited: These weapons generally cannot be possessed by civilians, and include fully automatic weapons and many military arms, military-grade assault weapons, and handguns with barrel length equal to or shorter than 4.1 inches (105 mm), and those chambered for .25 and .32 cartridges.", "Normally, the only way to possess these is by being grandfathered in or through inheritance.", "Most magazines for semi-automatic long guns capable of holding more than 5 centerfire cartridges or 10 rounds for handguns are prohibited.Restricted and Prohibited firearms can only be used at an approved shooting range, and cannot be used for hunting.", "Transportation of firearms that meet these classifications are restricted by an Authorization to Transport (ATT) permit, and they can only be transported to and from approved ranges in a locked case.Non-citizens may obtain a non-resident firearms declaration from a customs officer, for a temporary 60-day authorization to bring a non-prohibited firearm into Canada.===Chile===In Chile, the 103rd article of the Constitution declares gun ownership as a privilege granted in accordance to a special law.", "Firearms are regulated by the police.", "Civilian gun ownership is allowed by law but discouraged by authorities, with regular press statements and campaigns denouncing the dangers of possessing firearms.Police-issued firearm permits require applicants to be 18 years of age, provide a mental health certificate issued by a psychiatrist, have a clean criminal record with no domestic violence accusations, and pass a written test on firearm safety and knowledge.", "Final approval lies in a district police commander, who can deny the permit in \"justified cases\" not detailed by the law.", "There are five types of permits:* A defense permit allowing ownership of 2 firearms which must remain at the declared address.", "* A hunting permit requiring a hunting license, and allowing up to 6 firearms.", "* A sporting permit requiring membership in a registered gun club, and also allowing up to 6 firearms.", "It is possible for those under 18 years of age to obtain this permit.", "* A collection permit allows up to 100 firearms to be owned, and does not allow the holder to possess ammunition.Each of these permits has limits on types of firearms used, and allows for a police-issued permit to buy a specified quantity of appropriate ammunition from a specific gun shop.", "Transport permits are required to take firearms from the permit-holder's residence to a specified shooting range or hunting ground, and are valid for two years.", "Transported firearms must be unloaded and not attached to the body.A self-defense permit allows carrying a firearm for protection against specific human threats.", "Such permits are valid for one year, but as the police commander can deny applications without stating a reason, they are very rarely issued.", "Automatic firearms are forbidden for civilian use.===Cuba===Gun control law enacted in 2008 in Cuba divides firearm licenses in to six categories:* ''First self-defense permit'' allows possession and carry of pistols or revolvers.", "It is issued for people who require them due to their job in security or who are authorized by the Ministry of Interior,* ''Second self-defense permit'' allows carry of pistols, revolvers and shotguns by employees of security companies during their duty,* ''Hunting permit'' allows possession of shotguns,* ''Sport shooting permit'' allows possession, carry and use in authorized places of rifles, shotguns, pistols and revolvers,* ''Fifth permit'' allows possession, carry and use of firearms for the hunting, sport shooting and scientific purposes by legal entities.", "* ''Collection permit'' allows possession of firearms with historical value.===Colombia===Article 3 of Colombia's firearm law states that civilians may possess firearms only via permit issued at discretion of the competent authority.In 1993, Colombia legislated gun ownership, effectively establishing a government licensing monopoly.", "In 2016, president of Colombia Juan Manuel Santos signed an executive order suspending civilians from carrying firearms, with some exceptions including security details, hunting, private defense and collection.", "It was extended in 2018 by newly elected president Ivan Duque, albeit with the added stipulation: \"for reasons of emergency or security ... taking into consideration among other factors, the particular circumstances of each application\".", "A legal challenge to this modification has been prepared.===Costa Rica===Only citizens and permanent residents of Costa Rica are allowed to possess firearms: handguns (up to three), rifles (up to three for sporting use; hunting is illegal in Costa Rica), and semi-automatic weapons between the calibers of 5.6 to 18.5 millimeters.Foreigners wishing to bring guns into the country must apply with the Ministry of Public Security and declare it when they arrive to the customs department, who will hold it until they go through the registration process.", "Firearms can be purchased from a licensed gun shop or private individual.", "Gun owners must have a clean criminal record in Costa Rica and must pass a psychological exam.===El Salvador===El Salvador's laws aim to allow and regulate civilian possession of firearms.", "In order to get a firearm license one must have no criminal record, be at least 21 years of age(24 for a carry license), pay for a tax stamp, and undergo a written test.", "In 2017 there were 344,587 registered firearms in El Salvador, or 5.6 per 100 people.===Greenland===Possession of most long guns is allowed without a permit in Greenland, while semi- and fully-automatic firearms and handguns require a permit.", "In 2018, proposed amendment to firearm law would raise the minimum age to purchase guns to 16.=== Haiti ===The constitution of Haiti provides citizens with the constitutional right to possess firearms at home.", "Only police and military can possess rifles.", "Handguns are allowed to be carried open or concealed with the correct license issued by the Haitian National Police assigned to the serial number of the firearm and with the name of the individual or organization responsible for the firearm.===Honduras===Gun laws in Honduras are stated in the Act on the Control of Firearms, Ammunition, Explosives and Other Related Material of 2000.In April 2002, the National Arms Registry was formed, requiring all citizens to register their firearms with the Ministry of Defense.In 2003, a ban on certain \"assault rifles\" was passed, restricting citizens from possessing military-style rifles such as the AK-47 and the M-16.In 2007, an additional decree suspended the right to openly carry and conceal carry a firearm in public, and limited the number of firearms a person can possess.===Jamaica===Gun laws in Jamaica are stated in the Firearms Act and regulated by the Firearms Licensing Authority.Applicants must pass a police background check and complete a certification process to obtain a firearms license for shotguns, handguns and rifles.", "Shotguns and rifles for hunting or sport-shooting purposes are easier to obtain than handguns.", "Fully automatic weapons are prohibited.", "Handguns are limited to those under .45 calibre for revolvers or 10 mm for pistols.", "Ammunition purchases are limited to 250 rounds per year for shotguns and 50 for handguns, with applications for additional ammunition generally granted during the hunting season.", "A gun safe is required for storage of all firearms and ammunition.", "Once licensed, no additional permit is required to carry a firearm open or concealed, unless the carrying of firearms has been temporarily prohibited under section 22 of the Act.===Mexico===Under the Mexican Constitution, Article 10, citizens and legal residents have the right to own and carry arms, but may only carry them in accordance with police regulations, i.e.", "Article 32 of the \"Ley Federal de Armas de Fuego y Explosivos\".Applicants must: have a clear criminal record; proven income and residence (i.e.", ": cannot be homeless); undergone compulsory military service; a clean bill of health (including drug tests); justified the weapon's use; be employed.New firearms are purchased through the Ministry of Defense.", "Prohibited weapons include: large-calibre handguns; shotguns with barrels shorter than or bore greater than 12 gauge; and rifles which are fully automatic or of large calibre.", "One handgun is permitted for home defense, but it must be registered within 30 days of purchase.", "For hunting and sport shooting, up to nine long guns and one handgun is permitted, requiring membership in a hunting or shooting club.", "Collectors may be authorized to possess additional and prohibited weapons.A carry license may be issued to those employed by private security firms, and certain weapons are exclusive to the armed forces.", "Licenses must be renewed biennially.===Panama===Obtaining firearms in Panama requires a Firearms Possession Certificate (FPC), which requires: criminal background check, drugs test, psychological test and firearms training.", "The minimum age to own a firearm is 18.The FPC allows the owner to move the firearms, unloaded and stowed, to and from a gun range.", "At least 6 hours of annual gun range practice is mandatory.", "There are no firearm caliber nor magazine capacity restrictions and all kinds of semiautomatic weapons are allowed for civilian ownership.", "Automatic weapons may only be owned by the state.", "Ammunition is restricted by type.", "Tracer, incendiary, armor-piercing and explosive ammunition is prohibited to civilians.", "An FPC is valid for 10 years.Concealed carry of firearms is allowed through a Firearms Carry License (FCL).", "An FCL has the same requirements as an FPC, but carrier must be at least 21 years of age.", "Only handguns, such as pistols and revolvers, are permitted for concealed carry; however, up to two handguns may be carried loaded simultaneously.", "An FCL is valid for 4 years.The Public Security Ministry handles all firearm matters.", "All legally owned firearms must be registered to their owners and appear on their permits.", "Direct or private handover of firearms is prohibited.", "A buyer must submit an application to the Security Ministry which, if approved, will deliver the updated permits and the firearms directly to the owner.", "No private owner may take out a firearm directly from a dealer.", "A shall-issue permit policy apply for all permits; the state must issue a permit if applicant meets all requirements.", "Firearm applications must be resolved in 30 business days or less.Importation of firearms is only allowed to authorized local dealers.", "An individual may not privately import his/her own firearms while immigrating from another country.", "Firearms may temporarily be taken out of the country for sport events or repairs.Firearms are regulated by Article 312 of the Panamanian Constitution of 1972 and the General Firearms, Ammunition and Related Materials Act (Law 57 of 2011).=== Paraguay ===In order to get a firearm possession license one must have no criminal records, be at least 22 years of age, and obtain certificate of safely handling a firearm.", "Carry permit requires a good reason.", "Automatic weapons are prohibited.", "there are 392,000 registered firearms and 1,961 carry permits issued to civilians.===United States===open carry laws in the United States In the United States, firearms are regulated by both federal and individual state statutes.", "Federal firearms laws are enforced by the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF).", "State and local firearms laws, which vary greatly, are enforced by state and local authorities.", "The right to keep and bear arms has been protected by the Second Amendment to the Constitution since 1791, and the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that it protects any individual's right to keep and bear arms unconnected with service in a militia for traditionally lawful purposes, such as self-defense within the home and in public, in ''District of Columbia v. Heller'' (2008) and ''New York State Rifle & Pistol Association, Inc. v. Bruen'' (2022).", "The Supreme Court affirmed in ''McDonald v. City of Chicago'' (2010) that the Second Amendment is incorporated by the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment and thereby applies to state and local laws as well as federal laws.", "Most state constitutions also guarantee this right, although there is some variance across the country as both federal and state laws apply to firearm possession and ownership.Firearm ownership in the United States is by right and does not require licensure or proof of need.", "Federally, there is no minimum age to possess long guns; 18 is the minimum age to possess handguns.", "To purchase from a licensed dealer, one must be 18 for long guns and 21 for handguns.", "The respective age requirements apply to purchasing ammunition from a dealer, retail store or online.Federally, new firearms must be transferred by a federally licensed dealer (FFL) with form 4473 and background check.", "Used firearms transferred interstate must also go through an FFL.", "Intrastate private party sales are not required to use an FFL under federal law, but many states require FFLs to conduct private party transfers.Federal law does not limit the number of firearms or quantity of ammunition and reloading supplies a private citizen may keep.Air guns, antique ignition (muzzle loading) guns and guns made prior to 1899 are not firearms under U.S. law, although they are still considered deadly weapons.Federal law designates two classes of firearms in the United States:Title I, GCA firearms: This includes all handguns, rifles with at least 16\" barrel and 26\" overall length, Shotguns with at least 18\" barrel and 26\" overall length, other firearms with an overall length of 26\" or more which are neither handgun nor long gun.", "Sporting arms over .50 caliber are title I; non-sporting arms over .50 caliber fall into the Title II category below.Title II, NFA Firearms.", "NFA firearms include:* Machine guns (fully automatic firearms; those that can fire more than one shot by a single function of the trigger)* Short Barreled Rifles (<16\" rifled barrel or <26\" OAL)* Short Barreled Shotguns(<18\" smoothbore barrel or <26\" OAL)* Destructive Devices (Non-sporting weapons over .50 caliber, anything with more than 1/4 ounce explosives content)* Any Other Weapon (generally, firearms which do not look like firearms or which would be a smoothbore \"other firearm\" except that its overall length is too short)* Silencers (suppressors; any device designed or redesigned and intended to reduce the report of a gunshot).", "Sound suppressors which are permanently attached to a non-firearm (e.g.", "air rifle, muzzle-loader) are not considered firearm silencers and are not regulated.Non-prohibited persons over 21 years of age may own NFA firearms in most states, though some states prohibit some or all of this class.", "NFA firearms must be registered and go through a manufacturing or transfer approval by ATF before the individual may make or take possession of the weapon.", "This process can take months, sometimes even years.", "It requires fingerprinting, photo ID and a tax of $200 per application (per weapon).", "There is no lawful way to make or transfer an NFA firearm without going through this process.Fully-automatic firearms ( machine guns) are heavily restricted and can only be owned by private citizens if manufactured and registered before May 18, 1986.unless an individual is to obtain status as an SOT \"Special Occupational Taxpayer\" as a FFL \"Federal Firearms License\" holder.", "Since civilians without SOT status are only allowed to own machine guns manufactured before 1986, the finite supply has caused the market value of pre-1986 transferable automatic weapons to be 20 to 50 times that of their semiautomatic counterparts (2022 ex.,$500-$800 for a basic AR-15, $20,000-$25,000 for an M-16)Law varies greatly from state to state, both in its scope and in its range.Pursuant to – Unlawful Acts, persons are prohibited from possessing firearms or ammunition if:* they have been convicted of a felony, or any other crime for which they could have been sentenced to more than a year in prison, or are under indictment for such* they are a fugitive from justice* they have been convicted of a misdemeanor crime of domestic violence* they are an unlawful user of, or addicted to, any illegal controlled substance* they have been adjudicated mentally defective* they have been discharged from the Armed Forces under dishonorable conditions* they have renounced their United States citizenshipThe carrying of weapons, either openly or concealed, is regulated by the states, and these laws have changed rapidly beginning in the latter part of the 20th century.", "Some states allow residents to carry without a permit, while others only allow the public carry of firearms upon issuance of a permit or license.", "Under the Law Enforcement Officers Safety Act, current and former law enforcement officers can carry anywhere (except private property where they are subject to the rules of the owner and gun-free public places like schools) as long as they carry a photo identification from their agency and have completed yearly training from said agency.Federal law provides protection for travellers who may find themselves going through states with more restrictive gun laws than their origin or destination.", "As long as the weapons are transported in accordance with FOPA and the weapon(s) are legally owned and not prohibited in the origin or destination(s), the travellers are immune from prosecution.Being engaged in the business of importing firearms, dealing firearms, gunsmithing or manufacturing arms requires licensure in the United States.", "There are multiple license types, depending on the nature of the business, and some licenses have additional requirements, such as registration with Directorate of Defense Trade Controls.Private citizens in the United States may manufacture weapons for personal use without any government approval or registration for Title I GCA firearms (NFA rules still apply to home made weapons).", "However, it becomes unlawful to manufacture without a license if the intent is to distribute.The United States federal government is prohibited by law from maintaining a registry of firearms owners, although the NFA registry which predated this prohibition has been exempted.", "Some states do have registration.=== Uruguay ===Uruguayan law allows for firearm possession on a shall-issue basis.", "These firearms must be of a caliber smaller than .50 BMG.", "Carry permits are issued on a may-issue basis, which in practice is no-issue except for people working as private security guards.", "Policemen and military can carry their firearms while off-duty without the need for a licence.", "The legal carrying of firearms must always be in a concealed manner, no open carry is allowed.", "In recent times, politicians from the governing coalition have expressed their intentions of allowing the issuing of concealed carry permits to civilians.", "With approximately 35 civilian firearms per 100 people, Uruguay is the eighth most armed country in the world and most armed in Latin America.=== Venezuela ===During the dictatorship of Juan Vicente Gómez, in 1914, a disarmament decree in the Federal District was enacted, and later in 1919, a disarmament law was decreed, ordering every weapon owner to give them away to the authorities; the only exceptions were machetes and hunting shotguns.", "The official justification offered was to diminish crime, but the law was ultimately used to disarm the population and to prevent possible uprisings.", "Historian Manuel Caballero argued that while Gómez's final intention was to prevent his enemies from obtaining weapons, the law contributed to avoid civil wars in Venezuela for the next century.In 2012 Venezuela banned private sales of firearms and ammunition hoping to lower crime rates.", "The Army, police, and certain groups trusted by the government (colectivos) are exempted from the ban and can buy firearms from state-owned manufacturers.", "In 2013 Venezuela stopped issuing new firearm licenses.", "In 2017 government banned carrying firearms in public places." ], [ "Asia", "===Afghanistan===Automatic rifles are restricted to government forces and security companies in Afghanistan.", "Handguns, while allowed, are mostly issued for important people.", "Non-automatic rifles can be obtained for sports and hunting.", "Rules regarding shotguns and antique firearms are most permissive with no good reason required.", "Shotguns including pump-action shotguns are popular in some regions as self-defense weapons.===Bangladesh===Gun laws are very restrictive in Bangladesh.", "Only people over the age of 25 (30 for handguns) and under 60 who pay taxes can apply for firearm licence.", "Self-defence is only accepted reason and requires proving danger to life.", "Legal owners can only own one long gun (shotgun or rifle) and one handgun (pistol or revolver).", "They cannot work as security guards.===Brunei===Firearms are prohibited for citizens.", "Military and police personnel may apply for a licence to keep a private firearm by establishing a genuine reason, such as sport shooting or gun collecting.===Cambodia===Firearms are completely prohibited for civilian use without exceptions since 1999.=== China ===Gun ownership in the People's Republic of China (PRC) is regulated by law.", "Generally, private citizens are not allowed to possess guns.", "Civilian ownership of guns is largely restricted to authorized, non-individual entities, including sporting organizations, authorized hunting reserves, and wildlife protection, management and research organizations.", "The chief exception to the general ban on individual firearm ownership is for the purpose of hunting.Illegal possession or sale of firearms may result in a minimum punishment of three years in prison, and penalties for the trafficking of \"arms and ammunition or other military materials to an enemy during war time\" include life imprisonment.====Hong Kong and Macau====In Hong Kong and Macau, gun ownership is tightly controlled and possession is mainly in the hands of law enforcement, military, and private security firms (providing protection for jewelers and banks).", "Under Section 13 of Cap 238 Firearms and Ammunition Ordinance of Hong Kong, a license is required for unrestricted firearms and ammunition.", "A license may be issued after a rigorous process to check for criminal records or a history of mental illness.", "License holders may store other firearms at home in a locked box, but ammunition must be kept at different premises.", "Only fully automatic firearms appear prohibited; those found in possession without a license could be fined at level 6 of the standard scale (\"Maximum fine of HKD $100,000\") and face imprisonment for up to 14 years.===East Timor===Under East Timorese law, only the military and police forces may possess, carry and use firearms, with few exceptions.In late June 2008, the Prime Minister, Xanana Gusmão, introduced a proposed gun law to Parliament for \"urgent debate\", pushing back scheduled budgetary discussions.", "The new law, which would allow civilians to own guns, sparked heated debates in the East Timorese parliament.", "The United Nations, which has a peacekeeping force deployed in the nation, also expressed concerns over the new law.", "The law was defeated in the Parliament.===India===Guns in India are regulated by law.", "The Arms Act, 1959 and the Arms Rules 1962 prohibit the sale, manufacture, possession, acquisition, import, export, and transport of firearms and ammunition unless under a license, which is difficult to obtain.", "The Indian Government has a monopoly over the production and sale of firearms, with the exception of some breech-loading smooth-bore shotguns, of which a limited number may be produced and imported.", "The Arms Act classifies firearms into two categories: Prohibited Bore (PB) and Non-Prohibited Bore (NPB), where all semi-automatic and fully automatic firearms fall under the Prohibited Bore category.", "The Arms Act of 1962 added to the Prohibited bore category, any firearm which can chamber and fire ammunition of calibers .303, 7.62 mm, .410, .380, .455, .45 rimless, or 9 mm.", "Smooth-bore guns having barrels shorter than 20 Inches (508 mm) are also specified as Prohibited guns.Licenses for acquisition and possession of both PB and NPB firearms could be given by a state government or district magistrate before 1987.Since that year, issuing of licenses for PB firearms became the responsibility of the central government.", "Licenses are valid for five years and may be renewed after the term.", "The sale of firearms requires both the selling and purchasing party to possess a permit.The criteria considered during issuing of NPB firearm permits are whether the applicant faces a threat to their life.", "PB firearms criteria are more stringent, often for persons in government positions who face immediate danger or threats, those whose occupations involve open threats and danger, and their immediate family members.", "PB licenses were tightened since 2014, when otherwise-eligible persons started to be frequently rejected on basis of national security grounds.", "Exceptions are made for defense officers, who are allowed to keep firearms without licenses under the Defence Service rule, and a handful of professional shooters.Firearm licenses are issued on a may-issue basis and approximately half of applications are accepted.", "For example, between April 2015 and March 2016 authorities in Mumbai rejected 169 out of 342 firearm applications.===Indonesia===In Indonesia, gun licenses are only issued to civilians employed in a profession that involves using firearms, such as in the military and law enforcement, with an exception made for politicians and businessmen.Applicants must be over the age of 21 to obtain a firearms license, and go through a background check and mental evaluation.", "They must also state a genuine reason for wanting to own a firearm, which can include hunting, target shooting, collecting, security, and self-defense.", "All firearms must be registered.", "Gun permits are valid for five years and may be renewed.Civilians cannot possess military weapons, but may possess long rifles.", "Handguns can only be used for sport-shooting and hunting.", "In 2012 however, it was claimed that police had been issuing permits to regular citizens.=== Iran ===There are 200.000 rifles registered for Nomads.Iranian law had changed in 2021–22 with military, security and police having permit to access firearms use them preemptively.", "Airguns, airsoft guns and hunting rifles were criminalized September 2023.===Iraq===In 2012, Iraq relaxed its gun laws.", "The \"possession of one rifle or pistol per home\" was allowed via simple registration at local police stations.In 2017, the law was relaxed once again.", "The possession and carrying of handguns, semi-automatic and fully automatic firearms and other weapons for self-defense, hunting and sport shooting purposes was allowed.", "Firearm licenses require official authorization and identity cards.===Israel===Gun laws in Israel are comprehensive despite soldiers being allowed to carry their service weapons on or off duty.", "Civilians must obtain a firearms license to lawfully acquire, possess, sell or transfer firearms and ammunition.", "In 2018, Israel loosened firearms restrictions, allowing all citizens who had undergone combat training and qualified in Advanced Infantry Training ('Rifleman \"07\"') to apply for a private handgun license.Prior to 2018, only a small group of people had been eligible for firearms licenses: certain retired military personnel, police officers or prison guards; residents of settlements (in the West Bank) or those who often work in such towns; and licensed hunters and animal-control officers.", "Age requirements vary: 21 for those who completed military service or civil service equivalent, 27 otherwise, and 45 for non-citizens.", "Firearm license applicants must have been a resident of Israel for at least three consecutive years, pass a background check (criminal, health, and mental history), establish a so-called \"genuine reason\" for possessing a firearm (such as self-defense, hunting, or sport), and pass a weapons-training course.", "As many as 40% of applications for firearms permits were rejected.Those holding firearms licenses must renew them and pass a shooting course every three years.", "Security guards must pass these tests to renew their license to carry firearms belonging to their employers.", "Applicants must demonstrate that they have a safe at their residence in which to keep the firearm.", "Permits are given only for personal use, and holders for self-defense purposes may own only one handgun and purchase an annual supply of 50 cartridges (although more may be purchased to replace rounds used at a firing range).Most individuals who are licensed to possess handguns may carry them loaded in public, concealed or openly.In 2005, there were 237,000 private citizens and 154,000 security guards licensed to carry firearms.", "Another 34,000 Israelis own guns illegally due to their failure to renew their firearms license.", "In 2007, there were estimated to be 500,000 licensed small arms held by civilians, in addition to 1,757,500 by the military, and 26,040 by the police.==== 2023 Israel–Hamas war ====Following the outbreak of the 2023 Israel–Hamas war on October 7, 2023, Israel almost immediately reacted strongly in favor of loosening gun restrictions in favor of a more liberal access for Israeli civilians to have firearms to defend themselves and their communities.", "The Israeli government also called on civilians that did find a way to arm themselves to band together and form protective groups in light of the attack initiated out of Gaza.", "''The Times of Israel'' reported, \"The reform was unveiled by Public Security Minister Gilad Erdan, who has pushed for allowing more Israelis to arm themselves as a response to terror attacks.\"", "Left-wing party Meretz opposed the changes, with party member Tamar Zandberg saying in a statement, \"...guns are a death machine whose civilian use needs to be reduced as much as possible...\", Erdan in turn argued that, \"Qualified citizens carrying firearms in public contribute to the sense of security, are an important line of defense from ‘lone-wolf’ attacks and thus strengthen public security.", "\", and \"Many citizens have saved lives during terror attacks, and in the era of ‘lone-wolf’ attacks, the more qualified gun-carrying citizens there are — the better the chance to thwart terror attacks without casualties and reduce the number of casualties.", "\"National Security Minister Itamar Ben-Gvir was quoted in a report from Fox News as saying:When civilians have guns, they can defend themselves.Ben-Gvir issued an emergency directive after the attack to loosen gun restrictions for Israeli civilians in several ways, however, reportedly the comments section on the social media site X (formerly Twitter) had many people saying that this was, \"too little too late.", "\"American and international media outlets reacted largely critical of Israel's historically strict gun laws that potentially served to endanger Israelis by leaving them defenseless in many cases as the surprise attack unfolded.", "Only 2% of Israeli civilians were armed prior to the attack according to a report from the BBC, compared to as little as 30% of American civilians (though that number may be much higher due to gunowners that do not report accurately).A rabbi in Israel named Raz Blizovsky was quoted as saying:People are changing their opinion after the attack, and now there is more awareness.", "I have been involved with groups that have been talking about this issue loosening gun restrictions for civilians for years.", "During calm times, people don't do anything.Israel citizens also petitioned their government by the tens of thousands to further loosen gun laws for Israeli and Jewish civilians in light of the prior laws that made it very difficult to acquire guns and possess the means for Israeli civilians to defend themselves.", "One petition gathered as many as 22,000 signatures in less than 24 hours seeking to loosen restrictions on Israeli civilians buying and carrying firearms.===Japan===The weapons law of Japan begins by stating \"No one shall possess a firearm or firearms or a sword or swords\", and very few exceptions are allowed.Citizens are permitted to possess firearms for hunting and sport shooting, but only after submitting to a lengthy licensing procedure.", "As part of the procedure, a shooting-range test must be passed with a \"mark of at least 95%\".", "A mental-health evaluation taking place at a hospital, and a thorough background check where one's family and friends are interviewed, are also part of the procedure.A gun license expires after three years, after which license tests must be repeated.", "After ten years of shotgun ownership, a license-holder may apply to obtain a rifle.Japan has been described as the country with \"perhaps the first ever gun buyback initiative\" in 1685, and is the first nation to have imposed gun laws in the world; as such, gun ownership is very rare: 0.6 guns per 100 people in 2007.When mass killings occur, they are often perpetrated by assailants wielding knives or other means, not guns.", "In 2014, Japan saw six gun deaths.Each prefecture in the country can operate a total of three gun shops.", "New cartridges can only be purchased after turning in expended cartridges.", "In turn, new magazines can be bought only by trading in old ones.", "If a gun owner dies, their relatives must surrender their firearms.", "Off-duty police are not allowed to carry weapons, rarely do on-duty apart from special squads, and arrests are generally made without firearms; instead, police are expected to be proficient in judo.===Jordan===According to Jordanian law on gun control passed in 1952 Jordanian residents are allowed to keep rifles and handguns at their home with amount of ammunition necessary for self-defense provided they obtain a permit.", "Permits are denied for people under 21 and convicted of any crimes.", "Possession and carrying of automatic firearms require special permit.In 2019 law was proposed that would ban both semi- and fully-automatic firearms in Jordan.===Kuwait===Firearms may be licensed to a citizen (or foreigner recommended by the Minister of Interior) who is at least 25 years old and fully capable of handling a weapon, with no criminal record, who is not a suspect or under police surveillance, and who has a source of income.Hunting shotguns are the most commonly licensed weapons.", "Rifles chambered for .22 long rifle are also common, with hunting rifles being more difficult to obtain.", "Handguns are only allowed for VIPs.", "Machine guns are not legally permitted for civilian possession.===Lebanon===In the Lebanese Republic, ownership of any firearm other than handguns, hunting arms or antiques is illegal and only the latter two are permitted to leave the owner's home.", "Disregard for this law is prevalent.", "Lebanon does not officially grant the right to bear arms, but it is a firmly held cultural belief in the country.", "Firearm licenses are granted to certain individuals, but the test is not open to the public and requires a particular need to be demonstrated.Gun control has been largely unsuccessful in Lebanon due to a historic context of gun availability and usage, a lack of effective central government control or authority over many parts of the country, and the tumultuous nature of the region.", "Although gunsmithing was once prominent in the region, it has all but ceased since the mid-1930s, yet it remains legal with a permit.", "Lebanon has come to be one of the largest arms markets in the Middle East.Lebanon ranks 58th worldwide for privately owned firearms per capita.===Malaysia===Firearm ownership is highly restricted in Malaysia.", "The Arms Act (1960) requires Malaysian citizens to have a license for the manufacture, import, export, repair, or ownership of firearms.", "A firearm license can only be granted by the Chief Police Officer of a state.", "Discharging a firearm in crimes such as extortion, robbery, resisting arrest and house-breaking is punished by the death penalty.", "Exhibiting a firearm for any of the scheduled offences (without discharging) carries a penalty of life imprisonment and caning of not less than six strokes.", "Possession of unlawful firearms carries a sentence of up to fourteen years in prison and caning.===Mongolia===Mongolia currently observes a law on firearms passed in 2001 which allows anyone to apply for a firearm license, which may be issued after 21 days.There are 46,982 (or 1.6 per 100 people) registered firearms in Mongolia including 44,306 for hunting, 1,598 for security and ward use, 619 for sports training, 260 as \"art\" firearms and 199 for collection purposes.===Myanmar===The right to firearm ownership, which is primarily governed by the Weapons Act of 1878, is generally restricted in Myanmar.", "The law has been amended several times, and generally provides citizens with a right to own firearms for self-defence.", "Since the 1962 Burmese coup d'état, successive military regimes have restricted legal gun ownership to individuals closely connected with the regimes, including army veterans.", "After the 1962 coup, the government confiscated all citizen-owned firearms, which were re-distributed to Burma Socialist Programme Party members, retired civil servants, and army veterans.After the 2021 Myanmar coup d'état and ensuing Myanmar civil war (2021–present), the military regime has revisited existing gun laws as part of an effort to combat pro-democracy forces.", "On 31 January 2023, the Ministry of Home Affairs issued a directive enabling organisations and citizens deemed \"loyal to the state,\" including civilians, civil servants, and army personnel, to obtain firearm licences and permits.", "The directive stipulates that firearm applicants must be at least 18 years old, and must demonstrate a need for firearms for \"personal security.\"", "The regulatory shift has enabled the military junta to arm pro-regime paramilitary groups like the Pyusawhti militias and to suppress pro-democracy forces in the country, in light of waning military recruitment and their challenges in concurrently operating in multiple war theatres throughout the country.===Nepal===Nepal allows firearm ownership if an applicant can provide sufficient reason, for example hunting or self-defense.There are 34,315 (or 0.1 per 100 people) registered firearms in Nepal including 13,892 shotguns, 312 pistols and 118 revolvers.===North Korea===According to 2009 law civilian possession of firearms is prohibited in North Korea.===Pakistan===Pakistan has permissive firearm laws compared to the rest of South Asia, and has the sixth-highest number of privately owned guns in the world.", "Laws regulate the carrying of weapons in public in most urban areas.", "Private guns are prohibited in educational institutions, hostels, boarding and lodging houses, fairs, gatherings or processions of a political, religious, ceremonial, or sectarian character, and on the premises of courts of law or public offices.", "The law in Pakistan does not stipulate whether gun licenses should be denied or revoked, and a license permits ownership of any number of weapons including handguns of any size and fully automatic weapons.", "Firearms are a traditionally important part of rural life in its North-Western areas where it is not uncommon to see people legally carrying RPGs and fully automatic weapons.===Philippines===The Philippines is currently considered to be the most gun-friendly country in Asia.", "However, Philippine gun control became notorious in 1972 during the presidency of Ferdinand Marcos who implemented a near-prohibition of all civilian guns.", "Current gun laws in the Philippines are outlined in Republic Act 10591 or the \"Comprehensive Firearms and Ammunition Regulation Act\", signed in 2013.In order to own a firearm, a citizen must acquire a License to Own and Possess Firearms (LTOPF).", "Applicants must meet the following requirements: (a) has not been convicted of any crime involving moral turpitude; (b) has passed the psychiatric test administered by a PNP-accredited psychologist or psychiatrist; (c) has passed the drug test conducted by an accredited and authorized drug testing laboratory or clinic; (d) has passed a gun safety seminar which is administered by the PNP or a registered and authorized gun club; (e) has filed in writing the application to possess a registered firearm which shall state the personal circumstances of the applicant; (f) must present a police clearance from the city or municipality police office; and (g) has not been convicted or is currently an accused in a pending criminal case before any court of law for a crime that is punishable with a penalty of more than two (2) years.License holders may carry concealed handguns in public with the acquisition of a separate Permit to Carry Firearms Outside of Residence (PTCFOR), which is granted on a may-issue basis.", "Generally, applicants must demonstrate an imminent threat of danger and secure a Threat Assessment Certificate from the police in order to be issued a PTCFOR.", "Exempted from this requirement are members of the national bar (lawyers, prosecutors, judges), accountants, accredited media practitioners, cashiers, bank tellers, clergymen (priests, ministers, rabbis, imams), physicians, nurses, engineers, high-risk businessmen, elected incumbent and former officials, and active and retired military and law enforcement personnel, as they are deemed to be in imminent danger due to the nature of their profession, occupation or business.Many Filipinos own firearms for self-protection and target-shooting, which require licenses: around 2,000,000 people out of 100,000,000 have a registered firearm.Despite the laws, some people in the Philippines are gun enthusiasts and gun users, in part due to the influence of its history of being an American Commonwealth.", "It is widely believed there is a ''de facto'' right to gun ownership in the country.===Singapore===Singaporean citizens must obtain a license to lawfully possess firearms or ammunition; applicants must provide justification for the license, which is often restricted to the military, police, and private security companies.", "Target-shooting licenses permit ownership of a gun, provided it is securely stored in an approved and protected firing range, and is not taken out of the firing range without special permission.", "Self-defense permits are not allowed, unless there is an 'imminent threat' to their lives that can be justified to the government.", "There is no restriction on types of small arms one may own after obtaining a license.", "Illegal firearms and firearm-related crimes are grounds for the death penalty in Singapore.Owing to its mandatory national service, nearly half the civilian population have the experience and are well-trained in operating firearms, most notably the M16 and the SAR 21.Singapore has the lowest gun-related deaths in the world.===South Korea===Similar to Singapore, the majority of South Korean men are well-trained in the use of firearms, due to mandatory military service.", "Guns are also notably absent in South Korean society outside of the military, and gun ownership and gun-related deaths rank among the lowest in the world.South Korea has strict gun policies.", "Hunting and sporting licenses are issued, but any firearm used in these circumstances must be stored at a local police station.", "Air rifles also have to be stored at police stations; crossbows and electric shock devices are also classified as firearms but their private retention is permitted.", "Tasers are prohibited, and possessing a toy gun without an orange tip is strictly prohibited.", "Violation of firearms laws can result in a US$18,000 fine and up to 10 years in prison.===Syria===According to 2001 law Syrian citizens and foreign Arabs can own one revolver and two shotguns under license issued for people who can provide genuine reason such as protection of business.====Idlib====All types of firearms including pistols, rifles and grenades are reportedly sold in rebel-held Idlib district without any license in shops which are mostly run by militia groups.", "In October 2020 Idlib's Salvation Government reportedly stated it will start licensing firearms.", "Many other rebel groups expressed opposition to this and some doubted possibility of registering firearms in Idlib.===Taiwan===Taiwan has extremely strict gun control for all persons on the island, though some carveouts used to be made for indigenous Taiwanese persons.", "Some argue that the strict policy endangers the homeland to potential invasion by mainland China.", "An unusual feature of Taiwan's gun control scheme was a specific provision for indigenous people, allowing black powder muzzleloader-type single shot rifles for hunting, though in the pursuit of a total gun control policy, even indigenous persons of Taiwan have lost their right to use and own even these guns as of 2021.There is an absolute \"zero tolerance policy\" for owning guns in Taiwan.", "The indigenous people that were allowed a carve out to the absolute-no-guns policy though are increasingly antagonistic against the mainly Han Chinese that are seen as foreign occupiers that restrict the natural right of indigenous peoples of Taiwan to own and use guns for hunting and other purposes.===Thailand===A firearm license in Thailand is only granted for the following uses: self-defense, property protection, hunting, or sporting.", "Applicants for a firearms license must be at least 20 years of age (the age of majority under the Civil and Commercial Code), have a record of good behavior, have an occupation and receive income, and have a permanent address in Thailand with a name \"listed in the house registration specifically in the area where you are applying for a license, for at least six months\".", "A license may not be issued to anyone who is a repeat criminal offender or mentally unstable.", "The application fee for most firearms licenses is 1,000 Baht for each license or unit; a license for possession and use of air rifles is 200 Baht per license/unit.", "; carry licenses are also 1,000 Baht per license.", "Since October 2017 citizenship is required to purchase and use firearms.", "A person is also not allowed to carry his gun without an additional permit for concealed carry.", "Fully automatic firearms and explosive devices are prohibited.The amended 2017 law will cover weapon suppressors, electric darts, and new types of fireworks including ''bang fai'' (locally-made rockets) and ''talai'' (\"rocket-like fireworks with a circular wing\").", "The amendment further provides that anyone who creates a bomb scare may be subject to convictions of up to three years of imprisonment and/or fined up to 60,000 Baht.", "Another significant change is that only Thais will be permitted to register a gun with the authorities.", "Formerly, foreigners residing in Thailand could also apply for weapons permits.", "The Act already prohibits the manufacture, purchase, ownership, use, ordering, or import of firearms or ammunition, except by persons who have been granted a license from the local registrar.", "Violation of this provision is punishable with convictions including imprisonment for a period of between one and ten years and/or fines of between 2,000 and 20,000 Baht.===Turkey===Turkey is restrictive in terms of gun control statutes.", "Automatic and semi-automatic firearms are \"prohibited for civilian possession (with no or limited exceptions)\", and for any application, \"an applicant may be asked to produce a medical certificate confirming he or she is capable of handling firearms and that he or she has no psychological – or physical – impediments\".", "Background checks are mandatory, and a \"genuine reason\" is required for the issue of licenses.Civilians must additionally apply through the police for a handgun carry permit or a rifle carry license (the latter also requiring a hunting license).", "They must have a special reason prior to application and pay the required expenses.", "Special professions like police officers, military personnel, judges, public prosecutors, and senior politicians have their own life-time license from the government, and can apply for free licenses for handgun and rifle carry.", "All police officers can have an unlimited number of handguns and rifles with a carry license.", "Military officers can have five handguns and two rifles.", "Generals are exempt from these limits.", "Mayors, deputies, ministers, and presidents are lifetime carry licensed with no money in order.", "Some other government employees are extraordinarily have lifetime carry licenses.", "Examples are forest rangers, headman, customs officers, judges and prosecutors.", "These employees do not have to be health controlled every 5 years.", "Normal civilians can have licenses to keep as long as they are healthy and no serious criminal record.", "Another interesting detail is that the civilians must have no tax debt to apply for a license.", "The numbers of guns is limitless as long as the tax is paid.", "The tax for every single keep license for any rifle and handgun is something like 200-250USD which every year changes as Turkish Lira.", "Carry permit for handguns is prohibited.", "Only people who have more than 50 employees, some of professions like jewelers, money-changers and people who carry gold or money, fuel dealers, lawyers and people who pays more than a limit of tax can have carry license.", "In Turkey it's possible for all of these people to get carry license by paying tax plus the restrictions of license to keep.", "Tax is somewhere between $700 and US$1000, as every years changes in Turkish lira.", "Carry licenses can be obtained one by one.", "Every single firearm is licensed individually.", "Carry licenses for handguns are legally limitless but not practically.", "Rifles can be carried legally, as long as one has a legal hunting license.", "It is not possible to have a carry license without a hunting license.", "Semi-Automatic rifles have been prohibited since 2002, because of a ban on hunting with semi-auto rifles.", "Licensed semi-auto rifles could have keep license for everyone or carry license, for exampled government employees.", "But it's forbidden for them to be used in hunting.", "Semi-auto tactical rifles and full-auto shotguns or rifles are fully prohibited for civilians, but with some exceptions.", "It's possible for a VIP to have full auto or semi-auto rifle with a special permission.", "The examples are some rifles which had gifted by Turkish presidents to some businessmen during the time.", "Also, there are some old semi-auto or full-auto tactical rifles or assault rifles which were licensed years ago and are still in some families.", "These rifles cannot be licensed after death of license owner.", "The most important thing for any rifle or handgun is spare parts, which are rare to find and difficult to change.", "Especially gun rebarreling is most difficult process which customers prefer to not to do or do far from legal process.Shotgun license is easier.", "Turkey is a country with a huge shotgun industry.", "Shotguns are widespread and easy to buy in Turkey.", "A shotgun license is much more cheaper than in most European countries.", "For a shotgun license, one must have a bill of health, clean criminal record, and no tax debt.", "Every 5 shotguns are recordable in just a license.", "Spare parts are common and rebarreling is easy and legal.=== United Arab Emirates ===In 2019, the government of the United Arab Emirates relaxed its gun laws.", "The minimum age to possess firearms was lowered from 25 to 21, while legal owners can now have up to three guns.", "People from other countries are not allowed to apply for licenses.", "Most popular purposes to own them include hunting and trap shooting.Weapons can be purchased during a yearly gun show called Adihex.", "In 2018, more than 1,764 legal weapons were sold.Firearm licenses are issued after 60 days of applications to the relevant authority.", "If there is no response that means that the license has been rejected.=== Uzbekistan ===In 2019, the president of Uzbekistan signed a new gun law.", "It allows citizens to own smooth-bore firearms and firearms with rifled barrels for hunting and sport shooting purposes.", "Carrying in public places is prohibited and the minimum age is 21 years.", "Only gas and electric weapons can be used for self-defense purposes.", "The maximum magazine capacity is ten rounds.=== Vietnam ===Firearms in Vietnam are restricted to the military and law enforcement agencies, with possession of firearms prohibited to civilians.", "The chief exception to this is for hunting and sporting purposes, requiring users to undergo mandatory background checks to be licensed.=== Yemen ===Yemen has a permissive gun policy and does not require permits for firearm ownership.", "The 1992 Law \"On Regulating Carrying Firearms and Ammunitions and Their Trade\", established the right to own firearms (rifles, machine guns, revolvers and hunting rifles) for the purpose of legitimate defense.", "Licenses are required to carry firearms in cities, which are issued on a may-issue basis with varying restrictions depending on the city.", "Open and concealed carry is unrestricted in rural areas.", "Since the breakout of the civil war in 2011 there has been barely any state gun control, and fully-automatic rifles/assault rifles, anti-tank guided missiles or armored vehicles are available over the counter for various militias and individuals willing to buy them.According to the Small Arms Survey of 2018 titled ''Estimating Global Civilian-Held Firearms Numbers'', there are roughly 14.9 million civilian-held firearms in Yemen (52.8 firearms held per 100 residents), making Yemen the second most armed country in the world after the United States." ], [ "Europe", "Issuing of concealed carry permit in Europe (by country, 2019):===Bosnia and Herzegovina===In Bosnia and Herzegovina, its two autonomous entities, the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Republika Srpska have relatively strict weapon laws compared to the rest of Europe.", "Weapons are regulated by the Weapons and Ammunition Law.", "People over 21 may apply for a permit.", "Those with a history of criminal activity, mental disorders, alcohol or substance use will be denied a permit.", "There is also a thorough background check, interviewing neighbors and family, and the applicant must complete a course and pass a multiple-choice exam.", "Police have the last word on the matter, with an appeal possible to a police captain.", "Firearms must be kept in a \"safe place\" within a residence, and may be confiscated by police if the owner is found to be \"irresponsible\".", "Concealed carry is allowed with a permit.", "Pepper spray may be carried by females if registered with police.===European Union===upright=3Historically and legally EU member states have their own laws which differ from one country to another which led to differences in the extent of legal access to firearms among EU countries.EU harmonisation started in 1991, with European Directive 91/477/EC which set minimum standards regarding civilian firearms acquisition and possession that EU member states must implement into their national legal systems.", "In this text, firearms are considered as ''any portable barrelled weapon that expels, is designed to expel or may be converted to expel a shot, bullet or projectile by the action of a combustible propellant''.Since 2017 EU directive amendment, arms are classified in three EU categories:* Category A – Prohibited firearms: including for instance explosive military missiles and launchers, automatic firearms, firearms disguised as other objects, or ammunition with penetrating, explosive or incendiary projectiles, and the projectiles for such ammunition, or semi-automatic firearms;* Category B – Firearms subject to authorisation, including for instance various kind of repeating and semi-automatic long firearms, but excluding those which belongs to category A* Category C – Firearms and weapons subject to declaration, including various kind of long firearms with, but excluding those which belongs to category A or B* Category D existing previously (''Other firearms'') is deletedThis classification relies on short firearms having a barrel not exceeding 30 centimetres or whose overall length does not exceed 60 centimetres.Under article 5 of the directive:Member states are free to adopt more stringent rules, according to article 3.====UN trend in EU====EU plans related to firearms are in line with the UN Firearms Protocol (117 states parties in 2019).", "This UN protocol existing since 2005 tighten regulations on the manufacture and trafficking of small firearms, like handguns and pistols.", "This relies on three main legal measures: criminalizing illicit trafficking of firearms; authorising or licensing legitimate manufacturers and vendors; and establishing marking and recording for tracing firearms.All EU member states, except Ireland and Malta, have ratified the UN Firearms Protocol.====Austria====Austria is the only country in the European Union where firearms are only partially licensed; the ''Waffengesetz'' (Weapons Act) provides the legal terms for all types of weapons, including firearms.", "§ 1 of the law defines ''Weapons'' as objects that are designed to directly eliminate or reduce the ability of people to attack or defend themselves (e.g.", "knives, pepper spray, gas pistols, etc.)", "or for firing projectiles during hunting or sport shooting (e.g.", "crossbows, bows, etc.).", "§ 2 further defines ''Firearms'' as weapons where projectiles can be fired from a barrel in a predefined direction.", "Most common firearms and some other weapons fall into three different categories, which come with different restrictions:Category A is divided into two subcategories \"war material\" and \"restricted weapons\".", "\"War material\" includes for example tanks, fully automatic weapons and armour-piercing weapons; \"restricted weapons\" includes weapons disguised as other objects, firearms which can be disassembled in a faster than usual fashion for hunting and sport, shotguns with an overall length of less than 90 cm (35 in) or barrel length shorter than 45 cm (18 in), pump action shotguns, suppressors and firearms with suppressors, knuckledusters, blackjacks, steel rods.", "Category B covers all handguns, repeating shotguns and semi-automatic weapons which are not category A (e.g.", "pistols, revolvers, semi-automatic rifles and semi-automatic shotguns).", "Category C includes most other firearms that are not category A or B (e.g.", "repeating rifles, revolving rifles, break-action rifles and break-action shotguns).All firearms of category A, B, and C are registered in the central weapon register (Zentrales Waffenregister, or short ZWR).", "Firearms of category C are the least restricted; all citizens over 18 may purchase them at licensed sellers, even without a firearms licence (barring a 3-day waiting period to check for a weapon ban on the buyer).", "Category B weapons have further restrictions; buyers must have a firearms license or a carry permit, and be 21, unless granted an exception for the age of 18.Category A weapons typically require further exceptions to be granted for holders, except in the case of suppressors and suppressed weapons, which may be held by those with valid hunting licences without an additional permit.", "\"War material\" requires a further special federal permit, which is in practice only granted to approved collectors and experts.", "In general, ammunition sales are unrestricted, though handgun ammunition and some rifle ammunition requires a permit.", "Antique firearms made before 1871, many black powder firearms and some other \"less effective weapons\" also require no licence or registration.In addition, § 11a defines further restrictions on the purchase, possession and carrying of all weapons and ammunition for asylum seekers and many third-country nationals.", "Owning weapons without a permit for them is strictly prohibited and controlled by the police.Carrying firearms in public generally requires a carry permit (or \"Waffenpass\").", "Carry permits are issued by the authorities on a shall issue or may issue basis, depending on reason and applicant.", "Austrian law makes no distinction between concealed or open carry; with a carry permit, the holder may carry their weapon(s) freely throughout the whole country and even in certain \"weapon free zones\".", "However, holders must carry their weapons in a way that does not constitute a public nuisance; for example, openly displaying a handgun in one's belt at the cinema while wearing civil clothing would be considered unusual and could be considered a public nuisance if the police were called.====Belgium====Possessing or carrying firearms is generally illegal in Belgium.", "An exception is made for people who have a valid firearms licence.", "Since 2006, after a shooting incident in Antwerp, there are very strict conditions and rules for gun owners to obtain such a licence.However the laws and regulations concerning the carrying and possession of firearms for hunters, sport shooters, collectors and also for the import and export of guns, differs from area to area in Belgium; a valid licence is almost always required.", "Blank guns, airsoft guns, paintball guns, and deactivated guns do not need a permit or licence and are free to purchase.The gun law in Belgium does not apply (or at least applies differently) for the military and law enforcement services such as the police, customs and some private security units (only handguns).", "Until its abolition in 2019, the security units of Belgian courts and prison transport (''Corps de securité Justice/Veiligheidskorps Justitie'') were also permitted to carry handguns.====Croatia====Croatia issues firearms permits for self-defense, hunting, sport shooting:* Hunting permits require a certificate indicating successfully passing the hunting exam;* Sporting permits require a certificate issued by a target shooting organization on active membership;* Self-defense permits require a proof of danger to life.Every permit also requires an applicant to be at least 18 years old, not be convicted of crimes, there being no other circumstances indicating that the weapon may be abused (for example by a history of alcoholism) and passing medical examinations.", "there 99,829 legal gun owners in Croatia.", "14,711 people can own and carry firearms for the purpose of personal safety.====Cyprus====The Republic of Cyprus has strict gun control.", "Private citizens are completely forbidden from owning handguns and rifles in any calibre, including .22 rimfire ammunition.", "Shotguns limited to two rounds are allowed with a license, issued by provincial police.", "Shotguns must be for hunting purposes, and a licensed citizen may own up to ten shotguns, typically double-barrelled.", "A firearm license is required to buy ammunition, of up to 250 shells per purchase, with sales being recorded.", "Cyprus also controls airguns, and airgun owners require a license.", "Even though purchasing automatic weapons is illegal, the military issues their reserves an automatic weapon, therefore the majority of the male population has one due to military conscription.====Czech Republic====Civilian firearms possession in the Czech Republic has spanned over six centuries beginning with the Hussite revolution in the 1420s when firearms became indispensable for success of the mostly commoners militia army in its battles with professional crusader warriors armed with cold weapons.", "Starting with their use in the war for religious freedom, the right to be armed remains to be generally considered as a symbol of liberty in the country, alongside concepts such as freedom of speech and free elections.The first legislation pertaining to firearms was adopted in the 1517 St. Wenceslaus Agreement, which stated that \"''all people of all standing have the right to keep firearms at home''\" and established ban on firearm carrying.", "A 1524 enactment on firearms then introduced a system of issuing firearms carry permits.", "Permitless right to possess firearms and carrying subject to shall-issue permits remained in place until the 1939 German occupation.", "During Czech history, only Nazis and Communists enacted firearms bans.Following the Velvet Revolution of 1989, the country's firearms legislation returned to its historical roots.", "The authorities shall issue firearms license to any person older than 21 (sometimes 18 depending on type of license), with a clean criminal record, and physically and mentally sound, that passes a firearms proficiency test and is legally reliable.The Czech Republic is unusual in comparison to other EU countries in that the vast majority of gun owners (250,342 out of 307,372) possess their firearms for purposes of protection of life and property.", "Furthermore, the Czech Republic has a shall-issue concealed carry permit system, whereby every self-defense license holder may carry up to two concealed firearms with a round chambered.", "The Czech Republic had a higher rate of concealed carry licenses per capita than the US up to 2010, despite a relatively lower gun-ownership rate.====Denmark====Civilians in Denmark aged 16 and above can acquire gun licenses for hunting or sport shooting.", "This requires passing a written multiple-choice test and a practical test, after which a certified hunting license instructor determines if the applicant is suitable to own a weapon.", "A license is usually provided if the applicant has no or only minor marks on their criminal record.A hunting license permits the over-the-counter-purchase and ownership of an unlimited number of shotguns of up to 12 gauge and two-round capacity.", "From there, the police has to be notified of new weapon purchases through an online form.", "Bolt-action rifles can also be bought over-the-counter, although they require a rifle license which is obtained through the police.", "The allowed calibers range from the smallest possible, up to .50 BMG, with .50 BMG not included.", "Semi-automatic rifles are allowed if the rifle is limited to two rounds (hunting in Denmark), or without limitation on capacity (hunting outside of Denmark).", "Currently, only larger calibers (.308, 6.555, .300wm etc.)", "are issued as semi-auto rifles for hunting abroad.", ".223/5.5645 and similar caliber rifles are generally not approved.", "The hunter must pass a shotgun or rifle shooting test before being allowed to hunt.For sport-shooting purposes, shotguns can also be used, as can bolt-action rifles of almost any caliber (.50 BMG as one of the exceptions).", "Sporting rifles are often chambered in .22 LR and 6.555 mm.Semi-automatic rifles are not allowed for sports shooting.Handguns: After two years of active membership in a shooting club, one can apply for a handgun permit which is then subject to background checks and approval by the police, and one has to be 21 years old.Approved calibers: All calibers under 9mm (919, .38 special, .357 magnum, .32 ACP, etc.", "), plus a limited number of larger calibers; .40 S&W, .45 ACP, .44 special.", "The maximum number of handguns are six in .22 caliber.", "When applying for a third gun, a special permit from the department of justice is required.", "Large caliber guns, i.e.", "bigger than .22 caliber, are restricted to a maximum of two in the same caliber.", "Therefore, one can only own two handguns in 9 mm at any given time.", "However, it is legal to own an additional two handguns in 9 mm, if these are revolvers.", "For all handguns, the overall length must be at least , regardless of caliber, measured without orthopedic grips or removal parts.A weapon permit for sporting purposes (both long and short firearms) has to be renewed every five years.", "Rifle permits for hunting rifles have to be renewed every 10 years.", "Shotguns are not held on individual permits; holders are allowed to own these as long as they have a valid hunting license – and they can keep it for up to 10 years after the hunting license expires – albeit they are not allowed to keep ammunition without a valid license.Carrying a firearm in public is strictly prohibited, however, a notion of proportional self-defense exists.", "This means that if someone is attacked with a firearm, they are legally allowed to defend themselves proportionally – e.g.", "with a firearm of their own.Fully automatic weapons are prohibited for civilian use, unless a special permit is issued by the Ministry of Justice.", "These permits are extremely rare, and are normally only issued to people or companies working for, or supplying the police or military.Illegal possession of a firearm may be punished with imprisonment of no less than one year.", "Civilians may keep privately owned weapons including pistols, revolvers, shotguns and rifles at their residences.", "These, together with its ammunition have to be stored in an approved gun cabinet (EN1143-1 grade 0 or better).", "The police may inspect a shooting club's weapons at their discretion, but require a court order to inspect privately held firearms.====Estonia====Estonia is a shall-issue nation.", "Background checks, doctor's approval, written and practical exam and a firearms course are required.", "The courses are only offered by private parties (not law enforcement) and must be performed in Estonian as must be the national exam given by law enforcement.", "Earlier, a translator was permitted, but it was changed as a consequence of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine due to the large number of ethnic Russians applying for licenses.", "After the national exam is passed, the taking of which already requires passing the previous requisites, a license must be issued on request with law enforcement having no final say afterwards unless a later cause (like committing a felony) invalidates a license.====Finland====The ownership and use of firearms in Finland is regulated by the country's Firearms Act of 1998.Weapons are individually licensed by local police, with no limit on the number of licenses an individual may hold.", "Licenses are granted for recreational uses, exhibition or (under certain circumstances) professional use.", "No type of weapon is explicitly prohibited, but licenses are granted only for a reason.", "Self-defense is not accepted as a valid reason for licensing.", "In general, this excludes all but hunting and sports guns from non-professional use.", "Fully automatic weapons are generally not permitted.", "With the exception of law enforcement, only specially trained security guards may carry loaded weapons in public.In 2007, Finland had the third largest gun-ownership rate globally (behind the US and Yemen), and the first in Europe.", "Finns are avid hunters, and there were 1.6 million registered weapons and 650,000 people with firearm permits in the country, i.e.", "12% of the population.", "In November that year, Finland updated their gun laws after two school shootings that left 20 people dead, and to comply with an EU directive by removing the ability of 15-18-year-olds to have their own permit.", "The possibility of creating a dual-license for an already licensed weapon with permission of the license holder was allowed (e.g.", "parental permission).", "In 2011, a constitutional law committee concluded that people over the age of 20 can receive a permit for semi-automatic handguns; individuals must demonstrate continuous activity in handgun sporting group for two years prior.====France====In 1563, Charles IX of France had an address to the Rouen parliament about forbidding firearms in which he made the following statement: Old French English In France, a hunting license or a sport-shooting license is needed to purchase any smokeless powder firearm.", "In September 2015, firearms were divided into four categories that determine the regulations that apply to their possession and use.", "Category D arms include black powder firearms designed before 1900 and compressed air arms developing between 2 and 20 joules, they can be purchased by any citizen over the age of 18.Category C firearms can be obtained with a hunting license, or sport-shooting license with a medical certificate.", "Category C includes mainly single-shot-per-barrel shotguns and single-shot or manual repeating rifles (including centre-fire rifles, for hunting or target shooting).", "Once legally purchased these category C arms may be kept, without using them, even when no longer licensed for hunting or sport-shooting.Category B firearms are only available to sport-shooters licensed for at least 6 months, with a medical certificate, without any felony convictions, and additionally requires at least three shooting sessions with an instructor each separated by 2 months.", "Specific authorisations for purchase and possession may then be sought from a local police administration, are valid for 5 years, and are renewable.", "Such weapons may then only be used for sport-shooting at shooting ranges, never for hunting.", "Category B includes all assault type rifles, such as AK-47/AKM, AK-74 or AR-15/M16/M4, and any look-alike weapons even when chambered for rimfire cartridges (.22 LR).", "These must be semi-automatic only.", "All handguns, including those using rimfire ammunition, are classed as category B.", "It is illegal to possess these category B weapons after expiry of a non-renewed specific authorisation: the arms must be disposed of (sold to a gun shop or else destroyed, for example).", "Authorisations can also be revoked at any time by any of the parties involved in the authorisations delivery (Government, Prefecture, Police).Air-guns including pistols are freely available to adults, as category D arms, provided that their energy level does not exceed 20 J (previously 10 J).", "Typical energy levels are 6 J for a target pistol and 7.5 J for a target rifle.", "A scoped Field Target rifle might produce 15 or 16 J (maximum authorised in FT competition).", "Air-soft arms, firing non-metallic pellets and not exceeding 2 J energy, are considered to be toys, rather than weapons, and so are excluded from firearm regulations.Also freely available are category D defensive pepper sprays up to a maximum 75 g capacity.", "Bigger capacity sprays are considered offensive weapons, not defensive, and so are classed in category B, and require specific authorisation.A person cannot own more than 12 centerfire firearms, and cannot own more than 10 magazines and 1,000 rounds of ammunition per firearm.", "A one-year carry license may be issued for persons \"exposed to exceptional risks to their life\" allowing them to carry a handgun with a maximum of 50 rounds.", "Such authorizations are extremely rare, however, as the state would normally insist on providing police protection in such cases.", "Since November 2015, police officers are authorised to carry their service weapons whilst off-duty.====Germany====Gun ownership in Germany is restrictive, being regulated by the Federal Weapons Act (German: Waffengesetz) of 1972.The laws apply to weapons with a fire energy exceeding 7.5 J.", "A firearms license may be granted to those over the age of 18 who have no criminal convictions or mental disability, who are deemed reliable and can justify a reason for owning a firearm.", "A separate license is required for each firearm owned.", "Target-shooters must have been a member of a shooting club with 18 recorded visits in the previous 12 months.", "A firearms carry permit is a second-tier license which allows concealed carrying in public, and is only issued to those with a particular need.Several weapons and special ammunitions are completely prohibited, such as automatic firearms.", "Buying, possessing, lending, using, carrying, crafting, altering and the trading of these weapons is illegal and punishable by up to five years imprisonment, confiscation of the weapon and a fine of up to €10,000.Using an illegal weapon for crimes of any kind is punishable by 1–10 years imprisonment.Germany's National Gun Registry, introduced at the end of 2012, counted 5.5 million firearms legally owned by 1.4 million people.====Greece====Greece has gun regulations in place.", "Shotguns (limited to a 3-round capacity), rifles and handguns require a license issued by Police Headquarters.", "A license may be issued to a Greek citizen over the age of 18 if: a) there are serious fears about his or her personal security along with a positive recommendation by the Prosecutor and b) it is required for the safety of shops, banks, other financial institutions, etc.", "To purchase handguns and rifles, citizens must either have a concealed-carry permit or a target-shooting permit (for rifles and pistols).", "Semi auto rifles are not prohibited since the beginning of 2023.Hunters can own up to 10 shotguns and rifles (with no gun barrel rifling) and sport shooters can own up to 8 guns.", "There is no license-check or record kept for ammunition purchases for shotguns but target shooters can only own 1000 rounds per weapon but 3500 in total tops.====Hungary====Gun laws in Hungary are relatively strict, regulated by Code 24/2004, governmental decision 253/2004.(VIII.", "31.)", "and directive of the Minister of Internal Affairs 49/2004.The law defines a firearm as having muzzle energy that exceeds .", "A firearms license may be granted to those over the age of 18 who have no criminal convictions or mental disability, and have passed a basic firearms theory/practical examination.", "Three categories of firearms ownership are allowed: Hunting (Firearms restricted to bolt action rifles and double barrel shotguns), Sports shooting (only restriction is no fully automatic firearms), Self defense (special permission from the Police, very rarely granted in special cases e.g.", "gun shop owners).", "Sports shooting has in recent years gained popularity with the number of sports category licenses being issued steadily climbing.", "Government initiatives to popularize shooting sports such as building shooting ranges and introducing shooting as a sport in the schooling system has slowly begun.", "It is generally expected that obtaining (and keeping) a firearms permit is a slow and somewhat costly process, but once a permit is granted and the necessary yearly memberships are paid, yearly doctors certificates are obtained and the mandatory 2–3 sporting events are attended (for sports shooter) ownership is fairly liberal as to the type of firearm one can own.In 2010, there were 129,000 registered gun owners (1.3% of the population) in Hungary with 235,000 firearms.", "The majority of these were hunting rifles.", "Gun violence is very rare in Hungary due to the close monitoring and control of firearm ownership.", "Crime with firearms are very rare and this statistic usually includes crimes committed with non-lethal \"pepper spray\" guns.", "Police use lethal force with a firearm less than 10 times per year, on average.====Ireland====Gun laws in Ireland are strict, requiring all firearms to be licensed individually through the Gardaí (police).", "Applicants must be 16 years of age and have a good reason for ownership, a secure location to store firearms, proof of competency with the firearm or arrangements to achieve such, provide access to medical records and two character references, and be of sound mind and temperate habits.", "Applicants convicted of certain specified offenses will be denied a firearms certificate.", "Personal protection is not a valid reason for ownership.Irish firearms law is based on the Firearms Act 1925, which was amended by several following acts in 1964, 1968, 1971, 1990, 1998 and 2000.The cumulative effect of these modifications, along with modifications in other acts and confusion over which amendments applied, resulted in a 2006 Irish Law Reform Commission recommendation that all extant legislation be restated (written in a single document with all prior Acts repealed).", "However, the Criminal Justice Act 2006, contained a rewriting almost 80% of the Firearms Act.", "It was quickly followed by amendments in 2007 and further major amendments in 2009, exacerbating the legislative confusion.", "the Law Reform Commission recommendation has not as yet been fully enacted; the Firearms Act consists of the initial 1925 Act amended by approximately twenty separate Acts and is well understood by only a handful of those directly involved in its drafting, amendment or usage.", "Extensive complaints have arisen over the application of the legislation, with several hundred judicial review cases won in the High Court and Supreme Court by firearms owners, all relating to licensing decisions which had not adhered to the Firearms Act.====Italy====In Italy, national police issue gun licenses to those over the age of 18 without criminal records, who are not mentally ill or known to use illicit substances, and who can prove competence with firearm safety.", "A shooting sports license permits transporting unloaded firearms and firing them in designated shooting ranges.", "A hunting license allows holders to engage in hunting with firearms.", "A concealed carry license permits a person to carry a loaded firearm in public, and requires proving a \"valid reason\" to do so (e.g.", ": a security guard or a jeweler at risk of robbery).", "All weapons must be registered within 72 hours from the moment of purchase.", "The number of firearms an individual may own and retain at the place declared during registration is limited to:* unlimited weapons suitable for hunting.", "These are defined as smoothbore or rifled firearms having a barrel length of at least 30 centimetres and a total length of at least 60 centimetres.", "In the case of smoothbores the caliber must not be greater than 12 gauge, while in the case of rifles it must not be smaller than 5.6 millimetres measured between the lands, with a casing length no shorter than 40 millimetres if the caliber is exactly equal to 5.6 millimetres.", "* twelve long or short firearms classified as suited for shooting sports by the Italian national proof house at the request of a sport association federated with the Italian Olympic Committee (CONI).", "* three weapons whose characteristics do not make the suitable for hunting and that have not been classified as suitable for sporting.", "* eight antiques firearms (manufactured before 1890).", "* an unlimited quantity of single shot muzzle-loading functioning replicas of firearms built before than 1890.", "* Unlimited quantity of Moderate Offensive Capacity (<7,5 Joule) air guns.The last two can be purchased in an authorized firearm shop by anyone who can prove to be at least 18 years old, without the need for a license.", "The carrying of such weapons is forbidden without a licence and no registration is required (Art.", "7 c.4 DM 362/2001).", "These limits can be exceeded with a collector license.Ammunition: any licence allows the owner to keep 200 rounds of handgun and 1500 rounds of hunting ammunition or up to 5 kg of gunpowder (smokeless or black) to handload cartridges.", "Registration is required within 72 hours form acquisition for all ammunition and powder.", "Registration is not to be repeated if ammunition and powder are used and then bought again, unless the original quantity registered is being exceeded with the new purchase.", "Smoothbore cartridges not loaded with slugs but instead with shot (regardless of its size) can be owned without registration if the number possessed is inferior to one thousand.====Lithuania========Luxembourg====In Luxembourg, anyone wishing to purchase, possess or use a firearm must hold a permit issued by the Minister of Justice in person.The most common reasons for applying for a permit are hunting, recreational shooting, weapons collecting, and inheriting a firearm.", "Anyone who inherits a firearm must have a permit even if they have no intention to ever touch or use the gun.Self-defence is not a valid reason for owning a firearm.", "However, the Ministry of Justice is concerned that some permit holders falsely cite another reason (such as recreational shooting) as a justification for acquiring their permit when their sole actual motivation is self-defence.====Malta====Firearms are allowed in Malta for sport shooting, collection and hunting purposes.", "To get firearm license one must join a shooting or collectors club for training, which will issue a recommendation letter for the police, after which applicant must pass knowledge of firearm safety and the Arms Act.", "After successfully completing every step one will get license.There are 102,610 registered firearms (or 22 per 100 people), including 56,000 shotguns, 10,553 pistols, 7,856 rifles, 5,369 revolvers, 501 machine guns, 477 sub-machine guns, 633 combat shotguns, 22 cannons, 7 humane killers and 2 rocket launchers.Law allow carrying firearms while hunting, with 10,544 licensed to do so on land and 247 on sea.", "Carrying loaded firearms outside of hunting grounds or shooting range is illegal.", "Automatic firearms are allowed only if they were produced before 1946.====Netherlands====In the Netherlands, gun ownership is restricted to hunters, collectors and target shooters.", "A hunting license requires passing a hunters safety course and an exam.", "To own a gun for target shooting, the applicant must have been a member of a shooting club for a year.", "People with felonies, drug addictions, and mental illnesses may not possess firearms.", "To be a collector one has to limit oneself to a specific area of expertise and demonstrate a serious and thorough knowledge of that area, for instance through publications or lectures.Once obtained, firearms must be stored in a safe and are annually inspected by police (every 3 years when over 25).", "Legally owned firearms may only be used in self-defense as a last resort.", "Fully automatic firearms are only allowed on a special permit (usually issued to collectors), but there are otherwise few restrictions: semi-automatics, handguns, and magazines of all sizes are legal, as are all types of non-armourpiercing, non-incendiary or non-explosive ammunition.", "Silencers require special permission.", "A licensed target shooter may only have five firearms registered to his or her license at one time (hunters seven, collectors unlimited) but exceptions are possible.", "Antique firearms (not replicas or center fire cartridge revolvers) are free to own when originally designed and produced for black powder and not at any time officially proofed and stamped for nitro powder.====Poland====Gun ownership in Poland is regulated by the Weapons and Munitions Act of 1999 as further amended.", "A permit is required to own or possess firearms.", "Permits are granted for specific purposes, such as self-defense, sport, hunting, collecting etc.", "and are except the ones for self-defense, which are .", "Institutional permits allow for firearm ownership by private security companies, shooting ranges, sport clubs etc.Permits are issued to permanent residents over 21, not addicted to alcohol or other substances, having no criminal record, being in good physical and mental health, who passed an exam before sporting association, hunting association or the Police.", "Permits specify the purposes, categories and quantities of allowed guns; categories depend on permit purpose while quantities are assigned at the discretion of the Police, based on documentation provided.", "Quantities can be increased when one uses up all available slots.Carrying loaded guns is allowed on all types of permits except permits for collecting and memorial purposes.", "Hunters can carry loaded only on hunting grounds.", "Guns shall be carried concealed in a holster close to the body.", "Carrying in public transport is limited only to self-defense permit holders.", "It is prohibited to carry while intoxicated, and when attending public gatherings or mass events.Everyone, including foreigners, is allowed to use legal guns at registered shooting ranges, regardless of actual gun's ownership, e.g.", "rented from the range or shared by a legal owner present.", "Discharging a firearm for training or leisure out of a registered shooting range (even on a large private property) is prohibited.Full-auto or select-fire firearms are permitted only on institutional and training permits.", "Since 2020 the Police can issue permits for firearms with suppressors for hunting, but only to be used for sanitary shootings, see main article for details.", "Armor-piercing, incendiary, tracer and other special ammunition is banned.", "Only valid permit holders are allowed to buy or possess live ammunition, and only of the types exactly matching the guns they legally own.", "The quantity of matching ammunition in possession is not limited.", "Hunters, collectors and sport shooters are allowed to manufacture (reload) ammunition, but strictly for their own use.", "There are further limits regarding allowed types and calibers depending on the purpose of the permit – see main article for details.", "There are no limits of magazine capacity, except when hunting.Replicas of cartridgeless black powder firearms designed before 1885 require no permit to own.", "However, a separate bill of law allows businesses to sell black powder to licensed customers only.", "This is often circumvented by obtaining a European Firearms Pass for a black powder firearm, asking a licensed colleague (there are no restrictions of private sale or just giving out of black powder) or by buying powder in neighboring countries, mostly the Czech Republic.Air guns up to 17 Joules of muzzle energy are unregulated.", "Air guns above that limit are considered pneumatic weapons, no permit is required but the owner has to be 18 and has to pass medical and psychological evaluation as for firearms permit; guns must be registered with the Police and may be used only on registered shooting ranges.", "Use of pneumatic weapons outside of shooting range is considered the same kind of offense as using firearms.Some other weapons are restricted and require a permit, such as electroshock weapons with mean current greater than 10 mA, large pepper spray dispensers, crossbows, specific kinds of batons, brass knuckles and nunchakus, however ban on nuchakus is not enforced.====Romania====Gun ownership in Romania is regulated by Law 295/2004.Romania has one of the toughest gun ownership laws in the world.", "In order for citizens to obtain a weapon, they must obtain a permit from the police, and must register their weapon once they purchase it.", "There are several categories of permits, with different requirements and rights, including hunting permits, self-defense permits, sports shooting permits and collectors permits.", "The only categories of people who are legally entitled to carry a weapon are owners of self-defense permits, magistrates, MPs, military forces and certain categories of diplomats.", "A psychological evaluation is required beforehand in all cases.Furthermore, knives and daggers may in certain conditions (blade longer than 15 cm and at least 0.4 cm in width, double edge along the whole blade, etc.)", "be considered weapons and have a similar regime to those of firearms.In order for a hunter to obtain a hunting/gun ownership license, he must spend a certain \"practice time\" with a professional hunter.", "To obtain a self-defense permit, one must be under witness protection.", "Sporting and collectors licenses require membership in a sport shooting club or collectors' association, respectively.The amount of ammunition that can be owned is regulated by permit type.", "Sporting permits allow the ownership of 1,000 matching cartridges per gun; hunting permits allow 300 matching cartridges per gun; self-defense permits allow 50 bullet cartridges and 50 blanks per gun; Collectors permits do not allow for private ownership of ammunition.Explosive weapons and ammunitions, fully automatic weapons, weapons camouflaged in the shape of another object, armor-piercing ammunition and lethal weapons that do not fit in any category defined by the law are prohibited.The type of gun is also regulated by permit.", "Below is a shortened version of the table detailing the restrictions by type of lethal weapon and permit, for civilian owners.", "Note that for collectors, short weapons designed after 1945 are forbidden, while only non-lethal weapons are allowed for self-defense permits.It is illegal to use or carry weapons with a muzzle velocity of over 10 kJ if \"the barrel is fitted with devices conceived or adapted to reduce recoil\" Gun type Hunting Sporting Collection Short, center-fire weapons such as pistols and revolvers Long, semi-automatic weapons with a magazine capacity of more than 3 cartridges Long, semi-automatic weapons that retain the appearance of a fully automatic weapon Long, semi-automatic weapons with a magazine capacity of at most 3 cartridges, and which cannot be reasonably modified to hold more than 3 cartridges Long, smooth-bore semi-automatic and repetition weapons with a length of at most 60 cm Short, single-shot centerfire weapons with a length of at most 28 cm Short, rim-fire single-shot, semi-automatic and repetition weapons Single-shot center-fire rifles Single-shot smoothbore weapons at least 28 cm long :Note that there are other restrictions for obtaining weapons under a sports-shooting license.", ":Minors (14 and older) may also use a weapon, provided that they are under the supervision of someone who has a gun license.", "However, they cannot own or carry one until the age of 18.:The use of guns for self-defense is only allowed if the gun is a last resort option.====Slovakia====Gun ownership in Slovakia is regulated principally by law 190/2003 (law of weapons and ammunition).A firearms license may be issued to an applicant at least 21 years of age (18 years for category D if they own a valid hunting permit, 15 years for state representative in sport-shooting), with no criminal history, and of sound health and mind, who has a valid reason for owning a gun, passes an oral exam covering aspects of gun law, safe handling, and first aid.Licenses are issued in 6 categories:* Category A: Concealed carry for self-defense* Category B: Home self-defense* Category C: Possession for work purposes* Category D: Long guns for hunting* Category E: Possession for sport shooting* Category F: CollectingA concealed carry license is only issued if the police deem a sufficient justification.", "Because of that issue of this license is may-issue in practice, and vary across Slovakia by stance of individual police department issuing licence.", "It is kind of similar to California, some department is almost shall-issue, another need true sufficient reason (like a constant more than average threat, previous assaults on applicant, transports of money, former service in army or law enforcement, legal awareness of applicant, clientelism).", "Only about 2% of the adult population holds this license.There is an exception for non-repeating muzzle-loaded firearms, which may be purchased without a license.====Slovenia====Gun ownership in Slovenia is regulated under the \"Weapons Law\" (Zakon o orožju) which is harmonised with the directives of the EU.", "Gun permits are issued to applicants at least 18 years old, reliable, without criminal history and who has not been a conscientious objector, who passes a medical exam and a test on firearm safety.", "A specific reason must be given for gun ownership: for hunting or target shooting, the applicant must provide proof of membership in a hunting or sports shooting organization; for collection, the applicant must arrange safe storage with a level of security dependent on the type of weapons; for self-defense, the applicant must prove a risk to personal safety to such an extent that a weapon is needed.As in most EU member states, the ownership of Category A firearms is prohibited; however these can be owned by weapon collectors, providing that requirements are met.", "Suppressors are legal and unregulated since 2021.Firearms must be stored in a locked cabinet with ammunition stored separately.", "Concealed carry is allowed in special circumstances.", "A gun permit is also required for airguns with muzzle velocity greater than or energy of .====Spain====Firearm regulation in Spain is restrictive, enacted in Citizen Security Protection Organic Act of 2015 and the Weapons Regulation (Royal Decree 137/1993).", "Both laws are covered by article 149.1.26.ª of the Spanish Constitution, which attributes to the State the exclusive competence in terms of the \"regime of production, trade, possession and use of weapons and explosives\".A firearm license may be obtained from the Guardia Civil after passing a police background check, a physiological and medical test, and a practical and theoretical exam.", "Shotgun, rifle and sporting licenses must be renewed after 5 years, subject to firearm inspection.", "Sporting licence requires to present proof of sporting activity of at least one competition each year.", "A minimum score may be required for some categories.", "Police may inspect firearms at any time.", "A self-defense and concealed carry license must be renewed every year, and is only available under special conditions.A license-holder may own up to 6 shotguns, and unlimited rifles.", "With a sporting license, valid for 5 years, 1 to 10 handguns may be owned, depending on sports-shooting level.", "Magazine capacity for semi-automatic centerfire rifles and semi-automatic shotguns is limited to 10 rounds for sports shooting and 2 rounds for hunting.", "Handgun magazines are limited to 20 round capacity.", "Rimfire rifles, regardless of type have no magazine limit.", "Rifles chambered for certain cartridges with military origins are prohibited, such as .223/5.56 NATO and .50 BMG.", "The .308 Winchester and 7.62x39 mm (AK round) cartridges are only permitted in bolt-action, repetition or single-shot firearms.", "Proof of ownership of an approved safe is required for all centerfire rifles and handguns, and the owner is responsible for firearm thefts.", "Ammunition must be stored separately.", "Rifle and handgun ammunition may only be possessed for legally owned firearms, and purchases and possession is limited to 200 rounds rifle and 100 rounds for handguns.", "In addition, there are yearly limits in quantity (1000 for rifles,100 for handguns); however additional quantities can be petitioned, mainly for sporting use.", "For shotgun Ammunition, adults with a valid ID can purchase/possess up to 5,000 shells and there are no yearly limits in quantity.", "License-holders are only allowed to transport their unloaded firearms from their residence to the shooting range or hunting field and back, with no detours.", "Firearms may only be discharged at approved shooting ranges or hunting grounds (in season).There are firearm license for private security for handguns and rifles.", "These cannot be used outside of work and must be stored in the workplace premises (with approved safe).In addition there are handgun license for self-defense in concealed carry.", "However, this is granted on a \"may issue\" basis with several standards of necessity to be met and very few are granted.", "This license must be renewed annually and is not automatic.Members of police forces and officers and non-commissioned officers of the armed forces have a special firearms license which encompasses all of the others.", "There are additional licenses for collectors and muzzle-loading firearms.====Sweden====Gun ownership in Sweden is regulated by Vapenlagen 1996:67 (literally, The Weapon Law),modified by weapon decree Vapenförordningen 1996:70 and FAP 551-3 / RPSFS 2009:13.The police issue licenses to persons older than 18 years in good standing on the \"need to have\" basis, which generally implies either hunting or sport shooting.", "Passing a hunting examination or membership in an approved sport shooting club for six months is required.", "Licenses for semi-automatic handguns are issued for five years and can be renewed, rifle and single-shot handgun licenses are valid for the owner's lifetime.", "License-holders may lend a weapon to a person at least 15 years of age for supervised use.A separate license is required for each particular firearm or caliber conversion kit.", "There's no codified limit on the number of licenses a person can hold, but in practice a license-holder may own up to six hunting rifles, ten handguns, or a mix of eight rifles and handguns.", "Firearms must be stored in an approved safe.", "A firearm registered for hunting may be used for sport shooting, but not vice versa.", "Licenses obtained for hunting are implicitly limited to bolt-action or, more rarely, semi-automatic rifles that are \"applicable for hunting\", with no strict definition of the latter in the laws, which causes controversy.Starting 1 July 2022, suppressors no longer require a separate license and can be freely acquired by anyone with a valid gun license and can be legally used both for hunting and target shooting.Self-defense with firearms, as well as carry, is generally prohibited.", "Carry permits can be issued by the police under very special circumstances like an immediate and proven life threat.", "Transportation of unloaded firearms is allowed to and from approved shooting ranges or hunting grounds.", "Sweden is notorious for having even pepper spray and other nonlethal self-defence methods under its weapons law with similar legal punishments for misuse.Firearm collectors must have a clearly stated demarcation of their interest in collecting (e.g.", ": pre-World War II British handguns).", "The police may demand security measures on keeping the collection.", "Collectors may request a time-limited permit to discharge their weapons.", "Firearms manufactured before 1890 and not using sealed cartridges are exempt from the weapon law.===Georgia===In Georgia, civilians above 18 years of age may obtain a firearm permit from the Ministry of Internal Affairs, allowing them to purchase and keep firearms for hunting and sports (pump-action shotguns, hunting rifles, carbines, combined hunting firearms), self-defense (handguns, air guns, sprays, electric tranquilizers) or collections.", "Permits are denied to persons who are mentally ill, use illicit substances or alcohol recreationally, and those who have criminal records.===Iceland===In Iceland, a license is required to own or possess firearms.", "A national government safety course must be passed before applying for a license.", "A special license is required to own a handgun, which may only be used for target shooting at a licensed range.", "Semi-automatic firearms have caliber restrictions, while fully automatic firearms are only permitted for collectors.Applicants must sit through a mandatory four-hour lecture on the \"history and physics of the firearm\".", "Paperwork must be filed in the police, magistrate, and the Environment Agency of Iceland.", "Applicants need to prove clean criminal records, need to be evaluated by a doctor to prove they \"are of sound mind\" and have \"good enough eyesight\".", "Two books referring to guns must be bought and read, a three-day course must be attended, and the applicant should score at least 75% on exams concerning gun safety, management, \"what animals are allowed to be hunted and when\".", "Finally, a practical exam must be taken.", "After Icelanders have their license, they need to own a gun safe to store the weapons in, plus a separate place to store the ammunition\".Approximately one gun is owned for every three people in the country, being used mostly for hunting and competitive shooting.", "From January to July 2019, 394 shotguns, 785 rifles, and 208 handguns were registered in Iceland.", "In total, police counts for guns in Iceland include about 40,000 shotguns, 25,000 rifles, and 3,600 handguns as of July that year.=== Monaco ===Law in Monaco divides firearms into two categories:* Category \"A\" weapons including hand guns, semi-automatic firearms and those firing centerfire ammunition require membership in the Monaco Rifle Club, a certificate of aptitude and handling for the requested weapon, and no past history of treatment in a psychiatric unit;* Category \"B\" weapons are hunting weapons that do not require licensing unless they are imported.===North Macedonia===To obtain a firearm license in North Macedonia one must be at least 18 years old, able-bodied, healthy, not representing danger to public order, have permanent residency, possess technical knowledge of weapons and regulations related to them and have a justified reason for acquiring the weapon.", "Justified reasons include:* Proving one's life or property is in danger;* Being an active member of hunting or archery associations and passing a specific hunting exam;* Being a weapons collector;* Legally inheriting a weapon;* Weapons having been granted as awards by the state or during archery competitions.Fully automatic firearms are prohibited.", "Carrying firearms in public places is prohibited.North Macedonia has its own defense industry with ATS Group, Eurokompozit Prilep===Norway===Firearm ownership in Norway is controlled by laws passed by the Norwegian Parlament, with further regulations passed by the Ministry of Justice and Public Security.", "The National Police Directorate can issue government circulars with further in depth definition of how the firearm regulations should be interpreted (by the police).The Norwegian police can issue firearms licenses to those with a hunting license or members of a sports shooting club.", "They can also issue licenses to ''Norwegian historical weapons society'' collectors, museums, ''international ship and port facility security'' and more.Hunters can own up to 8 firearms, and sports shooters can own up to two firearms per approved shooting disciplines as defined by The National Police Directorate.", "The purchase of ammunition is restricted to those with a valid firearms license for any given calibre.Long guns must have a minimum barrel length of 40 centimetres and an overall length of 84 centimetres when operable.", "Rifles are restricted to 10-round magazines, shotguns to 5 rounds, and pistols to 20 rounds per default.", "Detachable box magazines for semi-automatic shotguns are prohibited.Hunters can own semi-automatic and manually loaded rifles and shotguns.", "Semi-automatic rifles for hunting shall only accept detachable 10-round magazines or smaller ones.", "They must also have the visual appearance of a \"''hunting rifle''\" (i.e.", "no detachable pistol-grip, or handguard that covers the top half of the barrel).Sports shooters can own semi-automatic and manually loaded rifles, shotguns and pistols.", "Sports shooters can apply for unrestricted magazine capacity for each firearm used in an approved sports shooting discipline.", "However, in practice, it is only approved for rifles and pistols.Civilians are not permitted to transport/carry firearms loaded or in a manner that allows for easy access in public places, effectively prohibiting any form of concealed or open-carrying of firearms.", "Moreover, self-defence is not a valid reason for having a firearms licence issued.", "Firearms licences are only issued for hunting and sporting (or other speciality purposes not generally applicable to ordinary civilians).===Russia===Russian citizens over 21 years of age can obtain a firearms license after attending gun-safety classes and passing a federal test and background check.", "Firearms may be acquired for self-defense, hunting, or sports activities.", "Carrying permits may be issued for hunting firearms licensed for hunting purposes.", "Initially, purchases are limited to long smooth-bore firearms and pneumatic weapons with a muzzle energy of up to .", "After five years of shotgun ownership, rifles may be purchased.", "Handguns are generally not allowed (except traumatic handguns which are allowed for self-defense but can fire only cartridges with Rubber bullets), but with the growing popularity of practical shooting events and competitions in Russia in recent years (e.g.", "IPSC), handgun ownership has now been allowed and the handguns have to be stored at a shooting club.", "Rifles and shotguns with barrels less than long are prohibited, as are firearms which shoot in bursts or have more than a 10-cartridge capacity.", "Suppressors are prohibited.===Serbia===Serbia has weapon laws and ranks third in guns per capita with a strong gun culture, especially in rural areas, with about one million guns in legal circulation.", "Weapons are regulated by the Weapons and Ammunition Law (''Zakon o oružju i municiji'').People over age 18 may own firearms with a permit, which is denied to those with a criminal history, mental disorder, or history of alcohol or illegal substance use.", "There is a thorough background check with police having the final decision.", "Firearms must be stored in a designated gun cabinet, and may be confiscated by police if the owner is found irresponsible.Rifles, shotguns and handguns may be owned with an appropriate permit.", "Having a permit to own a firearm does not itself allow the bearer to carry the firearm anywhere outside the home, regardless of whether it is concealed or not.", "The owner may transport their firearms at any time provided they are unloaded.", "Concealed carry permits for handguns require proving an imminent threat, with the police making a final decision.", "Therefore, concealed carry permits are hard to obtain.", "There is no limit on the number of firearms one may own, though every gun transaction is recorded by the police.", "There is no caliber restriction.", "Fully automatic firearms and suppressors are prohibited for civilians.", "Automatic long firearms are allowed to be obtained and used by legal entities under special circumstances.", "People over 18 years of age can buy and carry stun guns and electric tranquilizers with no permit needed.", "People over 16 can carry OC sprays.", "There is no restriction regarding the number of rounds that may be purchased.", "Ammunition may be bought only for the caliber in which an owned firearm is chambered.", "Reloading is allowed only to those who have passed an exam in handling explosive materials.", "Old firearms (produced before 1900), historically significant firearms, as well as black powder firearms (all category C items) may be bought without any permit.Serbia has its own civilian gun and ammunition industry: Zastava Arms, Prvi Partizan, and Krušik.===Switzerland===Firearm regulations in Switzerland are comparatively liberal.", "Swiss gun laws are primarily about the acquisition of arms, and not ownership.", "As such a license is not required to own a gun by itself, but a shall-issue permit is required to purchase most types of firearms.", "Bolt-action rifles do not require an acquisition permit, and can be acquired with just a background check.The Swiss have male conscription for military service.", "A 2011 referendum to force military weapons to be kept at military sites was defeated.", "Weapons may voluntarily be kept in the local armory and there is no longer an obligation to keep the weapon at home.The Swiss \"Federal Law on Arms, Arms Accessories and Ammunitions\" (WG, LArm) of 20 June 1997 has as its objectives (Article 1) to combat the wrongful use of arms, their accessories, parts and ammunition.", "It governs the acquisition of arms, their introduction into Swiss territory, export, storage, possession, carrying, transport, and brokerage.", "It regulates the manufacture and trade in arms, and seeks to prevent the wrongful carrying of ammunition and dangerous objects.", "Article 3 states that \"The right to acquire, possess and carry arms is guaranteed in the framework of this law\".===Ukraine=== there are no restrictions on ownership of any types of weapons, in fact the Ukrainian government has given out thousands of military-grade weapons to its populace.", "This is due to the ongoing Russo-Ukrainian war.Ukraine is the only European country without firearms legislation.", "Regulation is by executive fiat; specifically, Order No.", "622 of the Ministry of Internal Affairs.", "A firearm license may be issued to citizens who meet an age requirement (21 for shotguns, 18 for shotguns for hunting purposes, and 25 for rifles), have no criminal record or history of domestic violence or mental illness and have a specific reason such as target shooting, hunting or collecting.", "Handguns of .22, 9 mm, .357 magnum and .38 caliber are permitted only for target shooting and those who can prove a threat against their lives (who are typically also given concealed carry permits).", "All firearms must be stored unloaded in a safe.Citizens wishing to purchase weapons must complete courses on the fundamentals of Ukrainian legislation on weapons, their technical design and rules for the safe handling of weapons, as well as practical shooting.", "The organization of relevant courses is assigned to the internal affairs bodies.", "In order to obtain a weapon permit, citizens submit an application in the prescribed form, a certificate of completion of relevant courses, undergo a medical examination, an inspection of the internal affairs agencies and pass a test on the fundamentals of current legislation and rules for handling weapons and their application skills.Article 263 of the Ukrainian Criminal Code says that for illegal carrying, storing and selling firearms, explosives and ammunition a person faces from 3 to 7 years in prison.Weapon permits are not issued, and issued ones are canceled if there are:* Certificates (conclusions) of the medical institution that a person cannot own a weapon for health reasons;* The court's decision to declare him incompetent, partially capable, or to lead missing;* Information about the systematic violations by the person of the rules of arms trafficking, public order, being registered and treated for alcohol use disorder, use of narcotic drugs or psychotropic substances without a doctor's prescription;* Court verdict on conviction of a person to imprisonment;* Outstanding or not removed in the prescribed manner of conviction for serious crimes, as well as crimes committed with the use of weapons or explosive devices;* Court rulings on the direction to serve deprivation of liberty, conditionally convicted with a delay in the execution of the sentence, or a court ruling on the replacement of the unmerited term of correctional labor with a sentence of imprisonment.The list of diseases and physical defects, in the presence of which a weapon permit is not issued, is approved by the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine.Foreigners have the right to purchase civilian weapons of ammunition and ammunition for permits issued by the internal affairs bodies on the basis of petitions from diplomatic missions or consular offices of the states of which they are citizens, as well as ministries and other central executive authorities of Ukraine, subject to the export of such weapons from Ukraine later than 5 days after purchase.", "Foreigners who have received certificates of permanent residence in Ukraine have the right to purchase weapons in the manner established for citizens of Ukraine.", "Hunting and sporting weapons can be imported by foreigners into Ukraine with the appropriate permission of the internal affairs bodies and hunting agreements made with hunting farms or inviting ministries and other central executive authorities to participate in sports competitions.===United Kingdom (Except Northern Ireland)===The UK increased firearm regulation through several Firearms Acts, leading to an outright ban on automatic firearms and many semi-automatic firearms.", "Breech-loading handguns are also tightly controlled.There are three main types of firearm that require different licences:* Section 1 firearms require a firearms certificate (FAC), and includes any article that can be defined as a firearm but which is not covered under some other section.", "Section 1 most commonly includes bolt-action rifles, semi-automatic rifles in rimfire only, long-barrelled pistols, and all shotguns that do not conform to section 2 requirements.", "There are additional requirements for both sections, such as length and ammunition type, and some accessories such as suppressors are also subject to licensing restrictions.", "* Section 2 firearms are shotguns with a maximum magazine capacity of two cartridges, excluding those in the chamber, and require a Shotgun Certificate (SGC); unlike the other licences, the onus is on the police to find good reason not to grant applicants a licence.", "* Section 5 firearms are generally prohibited from private ownership.", "A S.5 permit may be obtained under certain circumstances, but from the Home Office, rather than local Police.", "Section 5 firearms include fully automatic firearms; semi-automatic rifles in centre-fire calibres; \"short firearms\" (most handguns); rocket launchers and mortars (other than for line throwing or pyrotechnic use); firearms disguised as another object; ammunition designed to explode on impact.", "* Section 7(3) permits bona-fide collectors to obtain Section 5 firearms ''\"of particular rarity, aesthetic quality or technical interest\"'' or ''\"of historical importance\"'' on the authority of local Police, rather than with Home Office.", "Section 7(3) permits are typically granted only to those with a demonstrable academic background in firearm or military history, such as members of the Historical Breechloading Smallarms Association (HBSA) or institutions such as the Royal Armouries Museum or Imperial War Museum.", "Section 7(3) firearms are subject to enhanced conditions of storage, being kept at Designated Sites.An SGC allows the holder to purchase and own any number of shotguns, so long as they can be securely stored, and does not restrict purchase or storage of ammunition; additionally they may legally give shotgun ammunition to non-licence holders.", "Section 1 and 5 firearms require individual permission for each firearm or accessory, and there are restrictions as to the type and quantity of ammunition held.", "Aside from Northern Ireland, private ownership of most handguns was banned in 1997, with exception for section 5 firearms licences, which are only generally issued to maritime security personnel, and those under police protection.", "In the run up to the 2012 Olympic Games, British Shooting reached agreement with the Home Office to nominate a small number of elite athletes who could keep and train with Section 5 pistols in the UK at designated ranges.There are several factors that may disqualify applicants.", "A custodial sentence of between three months and three years disqualifies applicants for five years from release; three years or greater disqualifies applicants for life.", "\"Intemperate habits\", such as substance use, may disqualify applicants.", "Being of \"unsound mind\", meaning a history of mental illness, or other relevant medical conditions may disqualify applicants, however there are no conditions that \"make them automatically unsuitable to possess a firearm\", and police will contact the applicant's general practitioner, who place a flag on the records of all licence holders.", "Applicants must also have suitable measures for storing firearms and ammunition, such as a gun safe.", "The FAC additionally requires demonstrating a good reason for each firearm the applicant wishes to own (such as hunting, pest control, collecting, or target shooting).", "Self-defence is only accepted as a good reason in Northern Ireland." ], [ "Oceania", "Firearms are completely prohibited for civilian use without exceptions in Nauru, Palau and Marshall Islands.", "Fiji suspended all firearm licenses in 2000, Cook Islands and Solomon Islands did the same respectively in 1999 and 1992.Papua New Guinea does not issue new licenses since 2000, but former are still valid.", "Kiribati effectively made it impossible to obtain new firearms by banning import of them.===Australia===Gun laws in Australia are under the jurisdiction of the state governments, with the importation of guns regulated by the federal government.", "Gun laws were largely aligned in 1996 by the National Firearms Agreement.", "In two federally funded gun buybacks and voluntary surrenders and state governments' gun amnesties before and after the Port Arthur Massacre, more than a million firearms were collected and destroyed, possibly one third of the national stock.A person must have a firearm licence to possess or use a firearm.", "Licence holders must demonstrate a \"genuine reason\" (which does not include self-defence) for holding a firearm licence and must not be a \"prohibited person\".", "All firearms must be registered by serial number to the owner, who must also hold a firearms licence.===New Zealand===New Zealand's gun laws focus mainly on vetting firearm owners.", "A firearms licence may be issued by police to applicants who attend a safety lecture, pass a written test on safety and the Arms Code, and have secure storage for firearms and ammunition; the police will also interview the applicant and two references to be certain the applicant is \"fit and proper\" to own a firearm.", "Having criminal associations, a history of domestic violence, mental instability, or alcohol or drug use almost always result in the application being denied.", "Misbehavior involving firearms commonly leads to a firearms licence being revoked by police.", "Even when licensed, a person may only be in possession of a firearm for a particular lawful, proper and sufficient purpose,for which the NZ Police policy is to exclude self-defense, however this is not written in the Arms Act or supporting regulations.Handguns, machine guns, or selective-fire assault rifles require stricter vetting procedures, a higher level of storage security, and a \"special reason\" for obtaining the weapon.", "The applicant must gain an appropriate endorsement on their licence and a permit to procure before obtaining.After the Christchurch mosque shootings in 2019, legislation to restrict semi-automatic firearms and magazines with a capacity of more than 10 rounds, and provide an amnesty and buyback of such weapons was introduced and passed by the New Zealand parliament." ], [ "See also", "* Arms Trade Treaty* Concealed carry* Defensive gun use* Estimated number of civilian guns per capita by country* Global gun cultures* Glossary of firearms terms* Gun control* Gun ownership* Gun violence* Index of gun politics articles* Laws on crossbows* List of countries by firearm-related death rate* Percent of households with guns by country* Right to arms" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Relevant legislation===" ], [ "External links", "* GunPolicy.org – University of Sydney hosted database on armed violence, firearm law and gun control * Small Arms Survey with 2007 survey of 178 countries* New York handgun law The Aware News.", "Retrieved 24 June 2022* Missing Pieces: A Guide for Reducing Gun Violence through parliamentary action Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue, Inter-Parliamentary Union, 2007* Questionnaire for the Seventh United Nations Survey of Crime Trends and Operations of Criminal Justice Systems, covering the period 1998––2000" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Shock site" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''shock site''' is a website that is intended to be offensive or disturbing to its viewers, though it can also contain elements of humor or evoke (in some viewers) sexual arousal.", "Shock-oriented websites generally contain material such as pornographic, scatological, racist, antisemitic, sexist, graphically violent, insulting, vulgar, profane, or otherwise some other provocative nature.", "Websites that are primarily fixated on real death and graphic violence are particularly referred to as '''gore sites'''.", "Some shock sites display a single picture, animation, video clip or small gallery, and are circulated via email or disguised in posts to discussion sites as a prank.", "Steven Jones distinguishes these sites from those that collect galleries where users search for shocking content, such as Rotten.com.", "Gallery sites can contain beheadings, execution, electrocution, suicide, murder, stoning, torching, police brutality, hangings, terrorism, cartel violence, drowning, vehicular accidents, war victims, rape, necrophilia, genital mutilation and other sexual crimes.Some shock sites have also gained their own subcultures and have become internet memes on their own.", "Goatse.cx featured a page devoted to fan-submitted artwork and tributes to the site's hello.jpg, and a parody of the image was unwittingly shown by a BBC newscast as an alternative for the then-recently unveiled logo for the 2012 Summer Olympics.", "A 2007 shock video known as ''2 Girls 1 Cup'' also quickly became an Internet phenomenon, with videos of reactions, homages, and parodies widely posted on video sharing sites such as YouTube." ], [ "History", "There have been several shock galleries that have launched and shut down.", "Rotten.com hosted murder videos and images of deceased people, and brandished the motto \"Pure Evil Since 1996\".", "During their operation, the owners of Rotten.com launched several new sites, one of which was Shockumentary.com in 2006.Shockumentary.com was created to sell mondo films like ''Traces of Death'' (1993).", "Ogrish.com, which was established in 2000, hosted \"mutilated corpses, car accidents, burn victims, congenital malformations and other grotesqueries\".", "Ogrish.com's reputation rested on its publication of gore media from terrorists and war.", "In 2006, Ogrish.com was rebranded as Liveleak.com.", "Bestgore.com, established in 2008 by Mark Marek, was notorious for its extremely graphic content, such as photos and videos of murders, suicides and violent accidents with an estimated 15–20 million monthly visits during its operation.", "Marek pleaded guilty and was given a six-month conditional sentence for his role in a case where he was accused of corrupting public morals in Alberta, Canada.", "Some shock galleries, however, established more specific niches.", "In the early 2000s, the site Necrobabes hosted images of women pretending to be dead, while the sites Cannibal Café and Gourmet tailored themselves to would-be cannibals.", "The latter sites gained attention in 2003 when Armin Meiwes, an aspiring cannibal, used the sites to connect with Jürgen Brandes, a man who desired to be eaten.", "Additionally, Graham Coutts visited Necrobabes, Rapepassion, Violentpleasure, and Hangingbitches frequently before strangling teacher Jane Longhurst.There have also been several individual videos that received viral attention.", "Goatse was one of the earliest and best-known shock sites, featuring an image of a man stretching his anus with his hands.", "The site featured a page devoted to fan-submitted artwork and tributes to the site.", "The site was shut down in 2004; however, various mirror sites featuring the image still exist.", "In 2012, it was resurrected as an e-mail service.", "In 2008, the Dnepropetrovsk maniacs posted the graphic murder video \"3 Guys 1 Hammer\".", "This was followed years later by Eric Clinton Kirk Newman's (known now as Luka Rocco Magnotta) video \"1 Lunatic 1 Icepick\" in 2012—a video of Newman murdering Chinese student Jun Lin that contained dismemberment, cannibalism, and necrophilia, and was posted on Bestgore.com.", "Newman also shared a video one year prior of him using a vacuum and plastic bag to suffocate two kittens to the song \"Happy Xmas (War is Over)\" by John Lennon to several gore sites.", "Meatspin is a shock site containing a looping video (set playing to \"You Spin Me Round (Like a Record)\" by Dead or Alive) of two people engaging in anal sex, while the penis of the receiving partner spins endlessly.", "Although frequently reported to be gay pornography, it has been mentioned that the clip was derived from a transgender pornography film.", "A counter keeps track of how many \"spins\" the viewer has watched.", "In 2013, a student at Florida State University hacked the wireless network of his campus and redirected all traffic to Meatspin.", "In 2015, consternation followed when a family restaurant played the website in front of young children.", "In 2016, the website was played on a public digital billboard in Sweden, resulting in international media attention.", "The site first went live on March 10, 2005., the domain is now meatspin.cc.", "John-Michael Bond of ''The Daily Dot'' stated that to an extent, \"casual homophobia\" of the 2000s helped popularize Meatspin." ], [ "Legality", "Currently, there is no federal or state legislation in the United States that outlaws possessing or viewing videos or images that depict the death of a human being.", "In 2000, a bill was introduced in the California State Legislature to outlaw these films, but after the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) raised protest over First Amendment concerns, the bill failed to pass.", "No other bill has passed since.", "In the case of ''Miller v. California'', the Supreme Court of the United States established a test to determine whether content falls under the category of unprotected obscenity.", "The Miller test requires that content \"appeals to the prurient interest\" to be obscene, meaning content must have a sexual component.That test was modified by ''United States v. Richards'', which ruled that animal crush videos (videos that involve the killing of animals) can be obscene and therefore, are not protected by the First Amendment even though they do not clearly appeal to sexual interests.", "The court ruled animal crush videos to be unprotected obscenity for two reasons.", "First, animal crush videos can appeal to a \"specific sexual fetish,\" which fits the sexual conduct requirement of the ''Miller'' test.", "Second, ''United States v. Richards'' modified the ''Miller'' test by ruling that obscenity \"can also cover unusual deviant acts\" even if they are not directly sexual.", "Child pornography also falls under the category of unprotected obscenity by these tests.", "Due to the combination of murder and pornography depicted on shock sites that contain murder videos like gore2gasm.com, legal scholars have argued that murder videos also appeal to specific sexual interests and are thus unprotected under ''United States v. Richards''.In terms of liability, unless death videos are illegal, third party providers like shock sites that host death videos are protected by the Communications Decency Act of 1996 (CDA).", "However, websites that require users to upload illegal content or actively encourage users to create and share illegal content can be held liable.", "Additionally, courts have granted increasing privacy rights to families over the publication and distribution of images of deceased relatives.", "The owners of Rotten.com were successfully sued by families for hosting photos of dead people and videos of their deaths on the site.In the United Kingdom, Parliament passed the Criminal Justice and Immigration Act 2008, which included a section outlawing extreme pornography (that which is intended to sexually arouse viewers that threatens a person's life, is likely to seriously harm a person's anus, breasts, or genitals, or involves a human corpse or an animal).", "This has resulted in shock sites, as well as American pornographers including Max Hardcore and Extreme Associates, being convicted of obscenity in the United Kingdom.During the Christchurch mosque shootings in New Zealand, the shooter broadcast the killings live on Facebook.", "The video was shared on Facebook and uploaded to YouTube shortly after.", "Footage of the mass killings were hosted on 4chan, 8chan, LiveLeak, Voat, Zero Hedge, and KiwiFarms.", "Rather than the Australian government trying to ban this specific instance of murder video, internet service providers in Australia chose to place temporary blocks on any sites that hosted the footage until all the footage was believed to be removed." ], [ "Ethics", "Several ethical concerns have been raised on the topic of shock sites and murder videos.", "One concern is that the popularity of shock sites will encourage an increase in violent murders, which can result in more extreme and violent videos that will likely generate more views on shock sites.", "Murder videos can inspire copycats to replicate the snuff films.", "After one of the Dnepropetrovsk Maniacs' videos leaked on the internet as \"3 Guys 1 Hammer\" in 2007, Luka Magnotta murdered Lin Jun, a Chinese student, and uploaded the video (including scenes of dismemberment, cannibalism, and necrophilia) under the similar title of \"1 Lunatic 1 Icepick\" in 2012.Another concern is the right of a victim and the victim's family to privacy after death.", "This is the issue of whether Lin Jun's parents have a right to remove the video of their son's murder from the internet.", "Murder victims cannot consent to the footage of their deaths being used and uploaded, and several court cases have agreed that parents and loved ones should have a right to prevent the widespread viewership of a personal tragedy and stop the video from being published.Finally, while shock value is not sufficient to justify banning content legally (as was determined by Cohen v. California), there are still ethical concerns about the emotional damages caused by the jarring nature and content of shock sites.", "Viewing violent content such as murder videos on social media can cause or trigger post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and cause other emotional distress." ], [ "Media", "As more people upload and view murder videos on shock sites, some believe that this practice is being mirrored in the horror movie genre.", "The presence of CCTV in ''Saw'' and the online torture auctions in ''Hostel Part II'' raise questions on the nefarious use of monitoring systems and the widespread access to videos of Al-Qaeda beheadings, executions in American prisons, and other real depictions of violence and murder on the internet.", "In examples like ''Saw'', the contemporary horror genre reflects real horror on the internet.Additionally, a parody of Goatse was shown by a BBC newscast as an alternative for the then recently unveiled logo for the 2012 Summer Olympics." ], [ "See also", "* ''2 Girls 1 Cup''* 4chan* Deepfake pornography* Elsagate* Fan service* Internet censorship* Internet pornography* Internet privacy* Internet troll* Traces of Death* List of Internet phenomena* Moral panic* NSFW* Rule 34* Shock humour" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Geography of Albania" ], [ "Introduction", " '''Albania''' is a country in Southeastern Europe that lies along the Adriatic and Ionian Seas, with a coastline spanning approximately .", "Situated on the Balkan Peninsula, it is one of the most mountainous countries in Europe.", "It is bounded by Montenegro to the northwest, Kosovo to the northeast, North Macedonia to the east and Greece to the southeast and south.Most of Albania rises into mountains and hills, tending to run the length of the country from north to south, as for instance the Albanian Alps in the north, the Sharr Mountains in the northeast, the Skanderbeg Mountains in the center, the Korab Mountains in the east, the Pindus Mountains in the southeast, and the Ceraunian Mountains in the southwest.", "Plains and plateaus extend in the west along the Albanian Adriatic and Ionian Sea Coast.Some of the most considerable and oldest bodies of freshwater of Europe can be found in Albania.", "The second largest lake of Southern Europe, the Lake of Shkodër, is located in the northwest surrounded by the Albanian Alps and the Adriatic Sea.", "And one of the oldest continuously existing lakes in the world, the Lake of Ohrid, lies in the southeast, while the highest tectonic lakes of the Balkan Peninsula, the Large and Small Lake of Prespa, are well hidden among high mountains in the southeast.Rivers originate in the east of Albania and loop towards the west into the sea.", "They are encompassed by the drainage basins of the Adriatic, Aegean and Black Sea.", "The longest river in the country, measured from its mouth to its source, is the Drin that starts at the confluence of its two headwaters, the Black and White Drin, though also notable is the Vjosë, one of the last intact large river systems in Europe.For a small country, Albania is characterized for its biological diversity and abundance of contrasting ecosystems and habitats, defined in an area of 28,748 square kilometres.", "This great diversity derives from Albania's geographic location on the Mediterranean Sea, with typical climatic conditions, varied topography, as well as the wealth of terrestrial and marine ecosystems providing a variety of habitats, each with its own typical flora and fauna.There are 799 Albanian protected areas covering a surface of 5,216.96 square kilometres.", "These include two strict nature reserves, 14 national parks, one marine park, eight archaeological parks, 750 natural monuments, 22 habitat/species management areas, five protected landscapes, 4 protected landscapes, four managed resources areas and four ramsar wetlands.", "The national parks cover a surface area of or roughly 13.65% of the overall territory." ], [ "Borders", "A total surface area of 28.748 square kilometres (11,100 sq mi), the country is located in the southeastern part of the Adriatic and the northeastern part of the Ionian Sea, both located within the Mediterranean Sea.", "It has a length of borders of about , of which are taken by terrestrial borders, of shore borders, river borders and of lake borders.", "Inland water surface is , composed by natural lakes , coastal lagoons , artificial lakes and rivers .The countries of Montenegro () and Kosovo () border the country in the north and northeast, respectively.", "A significant portion of this border connects high points and follows mountain ridges through the largely inaccessible Albanian Alps.", "The eastern border is shared with North Macedonia, which stretches .", "This border is located at the tripoint between Albania, Kosovo, and North Macedonia passing through the Sharr and Korab Mountains and continues until it reaches Lake Ohrid and Lake Prespa.", "The southern and southeastern border with Greece is long.", "The border is located at the tripoint border between Albania, North Macedonia, and Greece running across the Large and Small Lake Prespa until it reaches the Ionian Sea at the Strait of Corfu." ], [ "Physical geography", "=== Topography ===The most significant feature of Albania is possibly its relief, with numerous successive mountain ranges and its average altitude, more than 700 metres above sea level.", "Much of the mountains lie to the north, east and south of the western lowlands in the northern, eastern and southern mountain ranges.The Albanian Alps extend over 90 kilometres through the north of Albania, traversing an area of 2,000 square kilometres.", "These mountains represent anextension of the Dinaric Alps and no wider than 40 kilometres.", "They are deeply fragmented and often inaccessible.", "It holds the Maja Jezercë, which is the highest point of the Dinarides and simultaneously the second highest point of Albania.The Korab Mountains dominate the east of the country and expand 40 kilometres along the eastern border of the country, where peaks can clearly reach 2,500 metres.", "The mountains offer the country's most prominent peak at Mount Korab, which is fragmented by many deep structural depressions.", "Another distinguishing feature remains the evidence of the last ice age in form of glacial lakes at relatively low altitudes.One of the most remarkable features about the south of Albania is the presence of the Ceraunian Mountains that cut across the landscape for nearly 100 kilometres.", "Thousand meter high mountains fall vertically into the Mediterranean Sea constituting at least the first barrier to communication between the sea and the country's southern inland.=== Hydrography ===The country has a dense network of rivers and streams characterized by a high flow rate.", "They belong to the drainage basins of the Adriatic, Aegean and Black Sea.", "They mostly rise in the mountainous eastern half of the country and have their mouths in the west along the coasts.", "They are sustained from snowmelt of the snow-capped mountains or from the abundant precipitation that falls at loftier elevations.Eight notable rivers, along with their numerous tributaries, make up the river system of the country.", "The longest river is the Drin, which flows for within the country.", "Its catchment area is one of the most biodiverse places in Europe and encompasses the lakes of Shkodër, Ohrid and Prespa.", "Of particular concern represent the river of Vjosa as it is considered as the last remaining wild river in Europe.", "The country's other rivers are Fan, Ishëm, Erzen, Mat, Seman and Shkumbin.With more than 250 lakes, the country is home to two of the largest lakes in Southern Europe and one of the oldest in the World.", "The lakes of the country are predominantly of karstic or glacial origin.", "The largest lake in Southern Europe is the Lake of Shkodër geographically located in the north, shared with Montenegro.", "One of the ancientest lakes in the world is the Lake of Ohrid located in the southeast, shared with North Macedonia.", "The highest positioned lakes in Southern Europe are the Large and Small Lake of Prespa in the southeast, shared with North Macedonia and Greece.The country is also home to many lagoons of varied shape, size and structure.", "They are primarily positioned along the coast in the west of the country and also in the southeast.", "They contribute to the overall productivity of the coastal waters by supporting a variety of habitats and ecosystems.", "The largest lagoon in the country is the Lagoon of Karavasta located between the mouth of Shkumbin and Seman.", "Another significant lagoons are the lagoons of Patoku, Narta, Kunë-Vain and Butrint." ], [ "Biodiversity", "The proximity to the Mediterranean Sea and the convergence of exceptional climatic, geological and hydrological conditions, have contributed for the development of a diverse biodiversity, making Albania one of the biodiversity hotspots of Europe.In terms of phytogeography, the land area of Albania extends within the Boreal Kingdom, specifically within the Illyrian province of the Circumboreal Region.", "Its territory can be subdivided into four terrestrial ecoregions of the Palearctic realm – the Illyrian, Balkan, Pindus and Dinaric forests.Forests and woodlands are the most widespread terrestrial ecosystem in Albania.", "That of the northern edge of the country has an affinity for those of Continental Europe, while those of the southern edge refer to the affinity with that of the Mediterranean Basin.", "They are substantial because they provide shelter for a vast array of rare and endangered species of animals, among others the brown bear, Balkan lynx, grey wolf, golden jackal, Egyptian vulture and golden eagle.", "Albania had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 6.77/10, ranking it 64th globally out of 172 countries.The Mediterranean monk seal, short-beaked common dolphin and common bottlenose dolphin can frequently be seen in the coastal waters of the country.", "Outstanding is the presence of the Dalmatian pelican, the rarest pelican in the world.", "The biodiversity of Albania is conserved in its protected areas, which provide protection to hundreds of threatened and endangered species.=== Protected areas ===Ohrid-Prespa Biosphere Reserve in southeastern Albania and southwestern North MacedoniaNumerous parts of Albania are protected in accordance with a number of national and international designations due to their natural, historical or cultural value.", "Protected areas belong to the most principal instruments of conservation which in turn contributes effectively to the maintenance of species, habitats and ecosystems.The country has currently fifteen designated national parks, whereby one is specified as a marine park.", "Ranging from the Adriatic Sea and the Ionian Sea to the Albanian Alps and the Ceraunian Mountains, they possess outstanding landscapes constituting habitats to thousands of plant and animal species.", "Butrint, Divjakë-Karavasta, Karaburun-Sazan, Llogara, Prespa, Shebenik-Jabllanicë, Theth and Valbonë are among the most spectacular national parks of the country." ], [ "Climate", "Valley of Valbonë within the Albanian Alps during autumnAlbania has a combination of a mediterranean climate and a continental climate, with four distinct seasons.", "The climatic conditions are highly variable and modified locally by altitude and latitude.", "Its climate is strongly influenced by the Mediterranean Sea in the west, and the mountains that raise in every corner around the country.Its diverse regions have a remarkable range of microclimates, with the weather system on the coasts contrasting with that prevailing in the interior.", "Moreover, the weather varies from the north and towards the south and the west to the east.", "Albania occupies the climate ranges from temperate climate on the coasts to continental climate in the interior.", "The warmest areas of the country are at the coasts, which are characterized by a Mediterranean climate (Csa, Csb and Cfa) as defined by the Köppen climate classification.", "The highlands experiences an Oceanic climate.", "Winters in Albania are characteristically mild and wet while summers are warm and dry.", "The northern areas of country such as the Albanian Alps experiences a subarctic climate with frequently very cold winters, and short, mild summers.The lowlands of Albania have mild winters, averaging about .", "The summer temperatures average , however, humidity is low.", "In the southern lowlands, specifically the areas on the Ionian sea, temperatures average about in the winter and during the summer." ], [ "Physiographic regions", "The country is divided into four physiographic regions, the Northern Mountain Range, Central Mountain Range, Southern Mountain Range and Western Lowlands with two subdivisions corresponding roughly to the Albanian Adriatic and Ionian Sea Coast.=== Western Lowlands ===The Myzeqe plain, seen from the ancient city of ApolloniaExcept for its sea coast in the west, the western lowlands are ringed by a great arc-shaped line of mountains spreading in the north, east and south.", "The predominantly flat and regular landscape is morphologically characterized by the sea and rivers, in terms of topography and soil, and also in its climate and biodiversity.", "The region experiences mild and short winters, with low rainfalls, and long hot and dry summers.", "It is mostly dominated by the extensive Myzeqe plain, a large alluvial plain traversed by three main rivers, the Shkumbin, Seman and Vjosë.The Albanian Adriatic Sea Coast stretches from the mouth of the River of Buna nearby the Lake of Shkodër in the north, across the Gulf of Drin, to the Bay of Vlorë in the south.", "The two largest coastal cities Durrës and Vlorë are located in the northern and the southern part of the region, respectively.", "The total length of the coastline is approximately , mostly of which are taken up by sandy beaches, wetlands and alluvial deposits, occurred by quaternary sediments of the main rivers of the country.Ksamil in the extreme south of the Albanian Ionian Sea CoastThe coastline is lined with different habitats and ecosystems, providing optimal conditions for a rich biodiversity.", "Of particular importance is the presence of numerous lagoons and ponds, representing one of the wealthiest scenery of the country, in terms of biology.", "Likely, the lagoons of Karavasta and Narta, in the immediate proximity to the sea, are among the most important ones in the Mediterranean Sea.While the Adriatic coast is relatively low, the Ionian coast is, with few exceptions, rugged and mountainous.", "The Albanian Ionian Sea Coast stretches from the Peninsula of Karaburun in the north, through the Albanian Riviera, to the Straits of Corfu in the south.", "The largest coastal city Sarandë is located in the southern part of the region, while smaller villages include Borsh, Dhermi, Himara, Qeparo, Piqeras, and Lukovë.", "The total length of the coastline is approximately .The most characteristic features of the coastline are the Ceraunian Mountains, which extend nearly along the Albanian Riviera roughly in a southeast–northwest direction.", "The region is particular fertile and known for its citrus fruits and viticulture, that has a long and special tradition in the region.", "The coastline is abundant in dolomite from the triassic period, the carbonate rocks follows with limestone from the jurassic period and bituminous schists, cretaceous porcelain and phosphate limestone.", "=== Northern Mountain Range ===Shala, seen from the village of ThethThe northern mountain range is the most mountainous region in the country and its physical geography and shape is distinguished by the convergence of two distinct geological regions, the Albanian Alps and Mirdita Highlands.", "A dominant feature of the region's landscape is the presence of several u-shaped valleys, such as the Valley of Valbonë, formed by the process of glaciation.The Albanian Alps are the southernmost extension of the Dinaric Alps and simultaneously the highest and most imposing mountains of the country.", "Despite the fact that the ice ages had relatively little geological influence on the alps, the southernmost glaciers of Europe were recently discovered on the alps.The Albanian Alps are home to many important rivers of Western Balkans.", "The main drainage basins of the Alps are those of the Drin and Danube Rivers.", "Rivers on the Alps fall roughly into two categories, those that flow into the Lim and those that enter the White Drin and meet the Black Drin downstream at the Drin confluence.", "However, Drin dominates, draining most of the Alps with its tributaries and when measured from the source of the White Drin to the mouth of the Drin near Lezhë.", "But not all of the Drin flows near or parallel to the Alps.", "One Drin tributary is the Valbona River, which drains into the Adriatic Sea, and its eastern tributary the Gashi River.", "=== Central Mountain Range ===Mali i BardhëThe terrain of the central mountain range is predominantly mountainous and extremely fragmented carved into its present shape by the glaciers of the last ice age.", "The region is dominated by three mountain ranges, each running from north-northeast to south-southwest, roughly parallel to the eastern border of Albania.The Korab Mountains are certainly the most striking feature of the physical geography of the region.", "They offer simultaneously the highest mountain of the country, the Mount Korab.", "The mountains extends over 40 kilometres and covers an area of 560 square kilometres.", "Between the valleys of Shkumbin and Devoll rise the mountains that constitute to the Valamara Mountains, while farther north stretches the connected mountain massifs of Shebenik and Jabllanicë.The vast majority of the region's natural lakes are located in the southern half of the region and most of them are the product of a long contiguous history.", "The Lake of Ohrid lie adjacent to the border shared with North Macedonia.", "It is one of the oldest continuously existing lakes in the world with a unique biodiversity.", "Further south, well hidden among high mountains, extend the Lake of Prespa that is linked by a small channel with a sluice that separates the two lakes.=== Southern Mountain Range ===A view of the Albanian Riviera, from the Llogara National ParkThe Ceraunian Mountains, a coastal mountain range in southwestern Albania, stretches about besides the Ionian Sea from Sarandë in south-east-northwest direction along the Albanian Riviera to Orikum.", "The relief is varied, with many mountain passes, canyons, gorges, hills and other landforms.", "The mountains are characterized by housing Black pines, Bulgarian firs, Bosnian pines and Ash trees.", "The mountain chain is home to many large mammals, including brown bears, grey wolves, lynx, golden eagles and others.", "The highest point on the chain is Maja e Çikës, that rises to an elevation of above the Adriatic.", "From the peak, there is a view of the Albanian Riviera, the northern Ionian Islands as well as the Italian coast of Apulia and Otranto.", "The section has wide and long beaches, with a number of bays and headlands.Stretching until the Llogara Pass at , the mountain chain gets separated into the Ceraunians in the west and the Akroceraunians (or ''Reza e Kanalit'') in the east within the Karaburun Peninsula.", "The villages of Palasë, Dhërmi, Vuno, Himarë, Qeparo, Borsh, Pilur, Kudhës and Ilias are located on the Ceraunian range.", "The Llogara National Park covers an area of andGjiri i GramësThe Karaburun Peninsula is situated at the eastern side of Strait of Otranto, where the Adriatic Sea meets the Ionian Sea.", "Its area is , having a length of , and a width of only .", "The Mesokanali is the narrow channel, that separates the peninsula from the Sazan Island.", "Geologically, it is made up of carbonic limestone, dating back to the Mesozoic period, while in the northwestern it is composed of terrigenous sediment.", "Furthermore, these formations have been continuously under the effect of Karst and are exploited as marble.", "The relief of the peninsula comprises a number of hills with an average altitude of about above the Adriatic.", "The highest summits are Maja eIlqës , Maja e Flamurit and Maja Çadëri .The coastal landscape is characterized by a rough relief, that dips vertically into the Ionian Sea, it features several solitary peaks, large canyons, bays, caves and gulfs.", "Examples of typical landforms include Gjipe Canyon, Gjiri i Arushës, Gjiri i Dafinës, Gjiri i Gramës and so on.", "The geological evolution has formed also capes such as Haxhi Aliu, Galloveci and Kepi i Gjuhëzës, and other of 20 caves along the entire shoreline.", "The climate is Mediterranean, having hot summers and generally warm to cool, dry winters.", "Due to its climatic, hydrological and geological conditions, the area is characterized by its unique flora and fauna.", "Most of the territory consists of forests and is relatively well preserved, it includes many types of trees, such as Mediterranean oak, Manna ash, Kermes oak, and Field maple." ], [ "See also", "* Environment of Albania* Climate of Albania* Biodiversity of Albania" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Dako, Alba, Mirela Lika and Hysen Mankolli – ''Monitoring Aspects of Air Quality in Urban Areas of Tirana and Durrës, Albania'', ''Natura Montenegrina'' 7, Number 2 (2008): 549–557.", "* Floqi, Tania, Daut Vezi and Ilirian Malollari – ''Identification and Evaluation of Water Pollution from Albanian Tanneries'', ''Desalination'' 213, Number 1-3 (2007): 56–64.", "* Muller, Daniel, Thomas Sikor – ''Effects of Post-Socialist Reforms on Land Cover and Land Use in South-Eastern Albania''.", "''Applied Geography'' 26, Number 3-4 (2006): 175–191." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gimp" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Gimp''' or '''GIMP''' may refer to:" ], [ "Character", "* Gimp (gaming), weak game character* Gimp (sadomasochism), a sexual submissive dressed generally in a bondage suit" ], [ "Embroidery and crafts", "* Gimp (thread), an ornamental trim used in sewing and embroidery* Gimp thread (scoubidou), plastic thread used in crafts such as lanyards" ], [ "Arts and entertainment", "* ''Gimp'' (album), by Psylons* The GIMP Project, a New York dance company* \"The Gimp\", a character wearing a bondage suit in the film ''Pulp Fiction''* \"The Gimp (Sometimes)\", a song by British experimental band Coil off their 2004 album ''Black Antlers''" ], [ "Science and technology", "* GIMP (GNU Image Manipulation Program), an open-source image editor* Great Internet Mersenne Prime Search (GIMPS)" ], [ "See also", "* Gimp-Print, a collection of printer drivers* Martin Snyder (1893–1981), Jewish-American gangster commonly known as Moe the Gimp" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gymnosphaerid" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''gymnosphaerids''' (or '''Gymnosphaerida''') are a small group of heliozoan protists found in marine environments.", "They tend to be roughly spherical with radially directed axopods, supported by microtubules in a triangular-hexagonal array arising from an amorphous central granule." ], [ "Genera", "There are only three genera, each with a single species: ''Gymnosphaera albida'', ''Hedraiophrys hovassei'', and ''Actinocoryne contractilis''.", "*''Gymnosphaera albida'' is free-living, usually benthic in shallow water.", "The cells are round and naked, around 70-100 μm in diameter, and resemble the unrelated ''Actinosphaerium''.", "The outer cytoplasm, or ectoplasm, forms a distinct layer containing large vesicles.", "*''Hedraiophrys hovassei'' is larger and lives attached to algae and other objects.", "The cells have a conical base, and are covered with long siliceous spicules.", "The ectoplasm is distinct and frothy, and typically contains bacterial and algal endosymbionts.", "*''Actinocoryne contractilis'' is benthic.", "When feeding, it has a multinucleate base and a contractile stalk up to 150 μm in length, supporting a relatively small uninucleate head, where the central granule and axopods are located.", "In order to move, it collapses the stalk and head into an amoeboid form which is capable of migration.", "Reproduction is either by budding off the head or fragmentation of the headless form, producing small free-living cells similar to ''Gymnosphaera'', which then attach themselves and regrow the stalk and base." ], [ "Classification", "Gymnosphaerids were originally considered centrohelids, which also have microtubules in a triangular-hexagonal array, but are set apart from the others by the structure of the central granule and the mitochondria, which have tubular cristae.", "The two groups have been treated as separate orders (Axoplasthelida and Centroplasthelida) in a common class, but this has lost support.", "Instead the gymnosphaerids may be allied with the desmothoracids, and on account of this have been placed in the Cercozoa, but this is somewhat tentative.", "* Order '''Gymnosphaerida''' Poche 1913 emend.", "Mikrjukov 2000** Family '''Gymnosphaeridae''' Poche 1913*** Genus ?", "''Actinolophus'' Schultze 1874**** Species ''Actinolophus pedunculatus'' Schulze 1874*** Genus ?", "''Wagnerella'' Mereschkowsky 1878**** Species ''Wagnerella borealis'' Mereschkowsky 1878*** Genus ''Gymnosphaera'' Sassaki 1894 non BIume 1828**** Species ''Gymnosphaera albida'' Sassaki 1894*** Genus ''Hedraiophrys'' Febvre-Chevalier & Febvre 2005**** Species ''Hedraiophrys hovassei'' Febvre-Chevalier & Febvre 2005*** Genus ''Actinocoryne'' Febvre-Chevalier 1980**** Species ''Actinocoryne contractilis'' Febvre-Chevalier 1980" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Group representation" ], [ "Introduction", "group \"acts\" on an object.", "A simple example is how the symmetries of a regular polygon, consisting of reflections and rotations, transform the polygon.In the mathematical field of representation theory, '''group representations''' describe abstract groups in terms of bijective linear transformations of a vector space to itself (i.e.", "vector space automorphisms); in particular, they can be used to represent group elements as invertible matrices so that the group operation can be represented by matrix multiplication.In chemistry, a group representation can relate mathematical group elements to symmetric rotations and reflections of molecules.Representations of groups are important because they allow many group-theoretic problems to be reduced to problems in linear algebra, which is well understood.", "They are also important in physics because, for example, they describe how the symmetry group of a physical system affects the solutions of equations describing that system.The term ''representation of a group'' is also used in a more general sense to mean any \"description\" of a group as a group of transformations of some mathematical object.", "More formally, a \"representation\" means a homomorphism from the group to the automorphism group of an object.", "If the object is a vector space we have a ''linear representation''.", "Some people use ''realization'' for the general notion and reserve the term ''representation'' for the special case of linear representations.", "The bulk of this article describes linear representation theory; see the last section for generalizations." ], [ "Branches of group representation theory", "The representation theory of groups divides into subtheories depending on the kind of group being represented.", "The various theories are quite different in detail, though some basic definitions and concepts are similar.", "The most important divisions are:*''Finite groups'' — Group representations are a very important tool in the study of finite groups.", "They also arise in the applications of finite group theory to crystallography and to geometry.", "If the field of scalars of the vector space has characteristic ''p'', and if ''p'' divides the order of the group, then this is called ''modular representation theory''; this special case has very different properties.", "See Representation theory of finite groups.", "*''Compact groups or locally compact groups'' — Many of the results of finite group representation theory are proved by averaging over the group.", "These proofs can be carried over to infinite groups by replacement of the average with an integral, provided that an acceptable notion of integral can be defined.", "This can be done for locally compact groups, using the Haar measure.", "The resulting theory is a central part of harmonic analysis.", "The Pontryagin duality describes the theory for commutative groups, as a generalised Fourier transform.", "See also: Peter–Weyl theorem.", "*''Lie groups'' — Many important Lie groups are compact, so the results of compact representation theory apply to them.", "Other techniques specific to Lie groups are used as well.", "Most of the groups important in physics and chemistry are Lie groups, and their representation theory is crucial to the application of group theory in those fields.", "See Representations of Lie groups and Representations of Lie algebras.", "*''Linear algebraic groups'' (or more generally ''affine group schemes'') — These are the analogues of Lie groups, but over more general fields than just '''R''' or '''C'''.", "Although linear algebraic groups have a classification that is very similar to that of Lie groups, and give rise to the same families of Lie algebras, their representations are rather different (and much less well understood).", "The analytic techniques used for studying Lie groups must be replaced by techniques from algebraic geometry, where the relatively weak Zariski topology causes many technical complications.", "*''Non-compact topological groups'' — The class of non-compact groups is too broad to construct any general representation theory, but specific special cases have been studied, sometimes using ad hoc techniques.", "The ''semisimple Lie groups'' have a deep theory, building on the compact case.", "The complementary ''solvable'' Lie groups cannot be classified in the same way.", "The general theory for Lie groups deals with semidirect products of the two types, by means of general results called ''Mackey theory'', which is a generalization of Wigner's classification methods.Representation theory also depends heavily on the type of vector space on which the group acts.", "One distinguishes between finite-dimensional representations and infinite-dimensional ones.", "In the infinite-dimensional case, additional structures are important (e.g.", "whether or not the space is a Hilbert space, Banach space, etc.", ").One must also consider the type of field over which the vector space is defined.", "The most important case is the field of complex numbers.", "The other important cases are the field of real numbers, finite fields, and fields of p-adic numbers.", "In general, algebraically closed fields are easier to handle than non-algebraically closed ones.", "The characteristic of the field is also significant; many theorems for finite groups depend on the characteristic of the field not dividing the order of the group." ], [ "Definitions", "A '''representation''' of a group ''G'' on a vector space ''V'' over a field ''K'' is a group homomorphism from ''G'' to GL(''V''), the general linear group on ''V''.", "That is, a representation is a map : such that:Here ''V'' is called the '''representation space''' and the dimension of ''V'' is called the '''dimension''' or '''degree''' of the representation.", "It is common practice to refer to ''V'' itself as the representation when the homomorphism is clear from the context.In the case where ''V'' is of finite dimension ''n'' it is common to choose a basis for ''V'' and identify GL(''V'') with , the group of invertible matrices on the field ''K''.", "* If ''G'' is a topological group and ''V'' is a topological vector space, a '''continuous representation''' of ''G'' on ''V'' is a representation ''ρ'' such that the application defined by is continuous.", "* The '''kernel''' of a representation ''ρ'' of a group ''G'' is defined as the normal subgroup of ''G'' whose image under ''ρ'' is the identity transformation:::: A faithful representation is one in which the homomorphism is injective; in other words, one whose kernel is the trivial subgroup {''e''} consisting only of the group's identity element.", "* Given two ''K'' vector spaces ''V'' and ''W'', two representations and are said to be '''equivalent''' or '''isomorphic''' if there exists a vector space isomorphism so that for all ''g'' in ''G'',::" ], [ "Examples", "Consider the complex number ''u'' = e2πi / 3 which has the property ''u''3 = 1.The set ''C''3 = {1, ''u'', ''u''2} forms a cyclic group under multiplication.", "This group has a representation ρ on given by::This representation is faithful because ρ is a one-to-one map.Another representation for ''C''3 on , isomorphic to the previous one, is σ given by::The group ''C''3 may also be faithfully represented on by τ given by::where:Another example:Let be the space of homogeneous degree-3 polynomials over the complex numbers in variables Then acts on by permutation of the three variables.For instance, sends to ." ], [ "Reducibility", "A subspace ''W'' of ''V'' that is invariant under the group action is called a ''subrepresentation''.", "If ''V'' has exactly two subrepresentations, namely the zero-dimensional subspace and ''V'' itself, then the representation is said to be '''irreducible'''; if it has a proper subrepresentation of nonzero dimension, the representation is said to be '''reducible'''.", "The representation of dimension zero is considered to be neither reducible nor irreducible, just as the number 1 is considered to be neither composite nor prime.Under the assumption that the characteristic of the field ''K'' does not divide the size of the group, representations of finite groups can be decomposed into a direct sum of irreducible subrepresentations (see Maschke's theorem).", "This holds in particular for any representation of a finite group over the complex numbers, since the characteristic of the complex numbers is zero, which never divides the size of a group.In the example above, the first two representations given (ρ and σ) are both decomposable into two 1-dimensional subrepresentations (given by span{(1,0)} and span{(0,1)}), while the third representation (τ) is irreducible." ], [ "Generalizations", "===Set-theoretical representations===A ''set-theoretic representation'' (also known as a group action or ''permutation representation'') of a group ''G'' on a set ''X'' is given by a function ρ : ''G'' → ''X''''X'', the set of functions from ''X'' to ''X'', such that for all ''g''1, ''g''2 in ''G'' and all ''x'' in ''X'':::where is the identity element of ''G''.", "This condition and the axioms for a group imply that ρ(''g'') is a bijection (or permutation) for all ''g'' in ''G''.", "Thus we may equivalently define a permutation representation to be a group homomorphism from G to the symmetric group S''X'' of ''X''.For more information on this topic see the article on group action.===Representations in other categories===Every group ''G'' can be viewed as a category with a single object; morphisms in this category are just the elements of ''G''.", "Given an arbitrary category ''C'', a ''representation'' of ''G'' in ''C'' is a functor from ''G'' to ''C''.", "Such a functor selects an object ''X'' in ''C'' and a group homomorphism from ''G'' to Aut(''X''), the automorphism group of ''X''.In the case where ''C'' is '''Vect'''''K'', the category of vector spaces over a field ''K'', this definition is equivalent to a linear representation.", "Likewise, a set-theoretic representation is just a representation of ''G'' in the category of sets.When ''C'' is '''Ab''', the category of abelian groups, the objects obtained are called ''G''-modules.For another example consider the category of topological spaces, '''Top'''.", "Representations in '''Top''' are homomorphisms from ''G'' to the homeomorphism group of a topological space ''X''.Two types of representations closely related to linear representations are:*projective representations: in the category of projective spaces.", "These can be described as \"linear representations up to scalar transformations\".", "*affine representations: in the category of affine spaces.", "For example, the Euclidean group acts affinely upon Euclidean space." ], [ "See also", "*Irreducible representations*Character table*Character theory*Molecular symmetry*List of harmonic analysis topics*List of representation theory topics*Representation theory of finite groups*Semisimple representation" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* .", "Introduction to representation theory with emphasis on Lie groups.", "* Yurii I. Lyubich. ''", "Introduction to the Theory of Banach Representations of Groups''.", "Translated from the 1985 Russian-language edition (Kharkov, Ukraine).", "Birkhäuser Verlag.", "1988." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "GRE Physics Test" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''GRE physics test''' is an examination administered by the Educational Testing Service (ETS).", "The test attempts to determine the extent of the examinees' understanding of fundamental principles of physics and their ability to apply them to problem solving.", "Many graduate schools require applicants to take the exam and base admission decisions in part on the results.The scope of the test is largely that of the first three years of a standardUnited States undergraduate physics curriculum, since many students who plan to continue to graduate school apply during the first half of the fourth year.", "It consists of 70 five-option multiple-choice questions covering subject areas including classical mechanics, electromagnetism, wave phenomena and optics, thermal physics, relativity, atomic and nuclear physics, quantum mechanics, laboratory techniques, and mathematical methods.", "The table below indicates the relative weights, as asserted by ETS, and detailed contents of the major topics." ], [ "Major content topics", "===1.Classical mechanics (20%)===* kinematics* Newton's laws of motion* work and energy* rotational motion about a fixed axis* dynamics of systems of particles* central forces and celestial mechanics* three-dimensional particle dynamics* Lagrangian and Hamiltonian formalism* noninertial reference frames* elementary topics in fluid mechanics===2.Electromagnetism (18%)===* electrostatics* currents and DC circuits* magnetic fields in free space* Lorentz force*Induction*Maxwell's equations and their applications* electromagnetic waves (electromagnetic radiation)* AC circuits* magnetic and electric fields in matter===3.Optics and wave phenomena (9%)===* wave properties* superposition* interference* diffraction* geometrical optics* light polarization* Doppler effect===4.Thermodynamics and statistical mechanics (10%)===* laws of thermodynamics* thermodynamic processes* equations of state* ideal gases* Kinetic theory of gases* ensembles* statistical concepts and calculation of thermodynamic quantities* thermal expansion and heat transfer===5.Quantum mechanics (12%)===* fundamental concepts* solutions of the Schrödinger wave equation* square wells (Particle in a box)* harmonic oscillators* hydrogenic atoms* spin* angular momentum* wave function symmetry* elementary perturbation theory===6.Atomic physics (10%)===* properties of electrons* Bohr model* energy quantization* atomic structure* atomic spectra* selection rules* black-body radiation* x-rays* atoms in electric and magnetic fields===7.Special relativity (6%)===* introductory concepts of special relativity* time dilation* length contraction* simultaneity* energy and momentum* four-vectors and Lorentz transformation*===8.Laboratory methods (6%)===* data and error analysis* electronics* instrumentation* radiation detection* counting statistics* interaction of charged particles with matter* laser and optical interferometers* dimensional analysis* fundamental applications of probability and statistics===9.Specialized topics (9%)===* '''particle and nuclear physics'''** nuclear properties** radioactive decay** fission and fusion** reactions** fundamental properties of elementary particles* '''condensed matter'''** crystal structure** x-ray diffraction** thermal properties** electron theory of metals** semiconductors** superconductors* '''mathematical methods'''** single and multivariate calculus** coordinate systems (rectangular, cylindrical, spherical)** vector algebra and vector differential operators** Fourier series** partial differential equations** boundary value problems** matrices and determinants** functions of complex variables* '''miscellaneous'''** astrophysics** computer applications" ], [ "See also", "* Graduate Record Examination* GRE Biochemistry Test* GRE Biology Test* GRE Chemistry Test* GRE Literature in English Test* GRE Mathematics Test* GRE Psychology Test* Graduate Management Admission Test (GMAT)* Graduate Aptitude Test in Engineering (GATE)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Official Description of the GRE Physics Test* Detailed Solutions to ETS released tests - The Missing Solutions Manual, free online, and User Comments and discussions on individual problems* More solutions to the released tests - Includes solutions to the recently released 2008 exam* GRE Prep Course at Ohio State University - Preparation course, with links to all 4 publicly released Physics GRE tests, as well as links to other Physics GRE resources* GR0877 Solutions - Solutions to 2008 exam* - Physics GRE Review at Troy University" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gardnerian Wicca" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Gardnerian Wicca''', or '''Gardnerian witchcraft''', is a tradition in the neopagan religion of Wicca, whose members can trace initiatory descent from Gerald Gardner.", "The tradition is itself named after Gardner (1884–1964), a British civil servant and amateur scholar of magic.", "The term \"Gardnerian\" was probably coined by the founder of Cochranian Witchcraft, Robert Cochrane in the 1950s or 60s, who himself left that tradition to found his own.Gardner claimed to have learned the beliefs and practices that would later become known as Gardnerian Wicca from the New Forest coven, who allegedly initiated him into their ranks in 1939.For this reason, Gardnerian Wicca is usually considered to be the earliest created tradition of Wicca, from which most subsequent Wiccan traditions are derived.From the supposed New Forest coven, Gardner formed his own Bricket Wood coven, and in turn initiated many Witches, including a series of High Priestesses, founding further covens and continuing the initiation of more Wiccans into the tradition.", "In the UK, Europe and most Commonwealth countries someone self-defined as Wiccan is usually understood to be claiming initiatory descent from Gardner, either through Gardnerian Wicca, or through a derived branch such as Alexandrian Wicca.", "Elsewhere, these original lineaged traditions are termed \"British Traditional Wicca\"." ], [ "Beliefs and practices", "===Covens and initiatory lines===Gardnerian Wiccans organize into covens, that traditionally, though not always, are limited to thirteen members.", "Covens are led by a High Priestess and the High Priest of her choice, and celebrate both a Goddess and a God.Gardnerian Wicca and other forms of British Traditional Wicca operate as an initiatory mystery cult; membership is gained only through initiation by a Wiccan High Priestess or High Priest.", "Any valid line of initiatory descent can be traced all the way back to Gerald Gardner, and through him back to the New Forest coven.Rituals and coven practices are kept secret from non-initiates, and many Wiccans maintain secrecy regarding their membership in the religion.", "Whether any individual Wiccan chooses secrecy or openness often depends on their location, career, and life circumstances.", "In all cases, Gardnerian Wicca absolutely forbids any member to share the name, personal information, fact of membership, and so on without advanced individual consent of that member for that specific instance of sharing.In Gardnerian Wicca, there are three grades of initiation.", "Ronald Hutton suggests that \"the outlines of the first two initiation rituals are very clearly Masonic.", "\"===Theology===In Gardnerian Wicca, the two principal deities are the Horned God and the Mother Goddess.", "Gardnerians use specific names for the God and the Goddess in their rituals.", "Doreen Valiente, a Gardnerian High Priestess, revealed that there were more than one.===Ethics and morality===The Gardnerian tradition teaches a core ethical guideline, often referred to as \"The Rede\" or \"The Wiccan Rede\".", "In the archaic language often retained in some Gardnerian lore, the Rede states, \"An it harm none, do as thou wilt.", "\"A second ethical guideline is often called the Law of Return, sometimes the Rule of Three.", "Like the Rede, this guideline teaches Gardnerians that whatever energy or intention one puts out into the world, whether magical or not, will return to that person ''multiplied by three.''", "This law is controversial, as discussed by John Coughlin, author of ''The Pagan Resource Guide,'' in an essay, \"The Three-Fold Law.", "\"The religion tends to be non-dogmatic, allowing each initiate to find for themselves what the ritual experience means by using the basic language of the shared ritual tradition, to be discovered through the Mysteries.", "The tradition is often characterized as an orthopraxy (correct practice) rather than an orthodoxy (correct thinking), with adherents placing greater emphasis on a shared body of practices as opposed to faith." ], [ "History", "===Gardner and the New Forest coven===In the early 20th century, Margaret Murray promoted the theory that persecuted witches had actually been followers of a surviving pagan religion, but this theory is now rejected by academia.", "Nevertheless, it was an influence on some neo-pagans.", "On retirement from the British Colonial Service, Gerald Gardner moved to London but then before World War II moved to Highcliffe, east of Bournemouth and near the New Forest on the south coast of England.", "After attending a performance staged by the Rosicrucian Order Crotona Fellowship, he reports meeting a group of people who had preserved their historic occult practices.", "They recognised him as being \"one of them\" and convinced him to be initiated.", "It was only halfway through the initiation, he says, that it dawned on him what kind of group it was, and that witchcraft was still being practised in England.The group into which Gardner was initiated, known as the New Forest coven, was small and utterly secret as the Witchcraft Act of 1735 made it illegal to claim to predict the future, conjure spirits, or cast spells; it likewise made an accusation of witchcraft a criminal offence.", "Gardner's enthusiasm for the coven led him to wish to document it, but both the witchcraft laws and the coven's secrecy forbade that, despite his excitement.", "After World War II, Gardner's High Priestess and coven leader relented sufficiently to allow a fictional treatment that did not expose them to prosecution, \"High Magic's Aid\":After the witchcraft laws were repealed in 1951, and replaced by the Fraudulent Mediums Act, Gerald Gardner went public, publishing his first non-fiction book, \"Witchcraft Today\", in 1954.Gardner continued, as the text often iterates, to respect his oaths and the wishes of his High Priestess in his writing.", "Gardner said that the \"Witchcraft\" religion was dying out, and he pursued publicity and welcomed new initiates during the last years of his life.", "Gardner even courted the attentions of the tabloid press, to the consternation of some more conservative members of the tradition.", "In Gardner's own words, \"Witchcraft doesn't pay for broken windows!", "\"Gardner knew many famous occultists.", "Ross Nichols was a friend and fellow Druid (until 1964 member of the Ancient Order of Druids, when he left to found his own Druidic Order of Bards, Ovates, and Druids).", "Nichols edited Gardner's \"Witchcraft Today\" and is mentioned extensively in Gardner's \"The Meaning of Witchcraft\".", "Near the end of Aleister Crowley's life, Gardner met with him for the first time on 1 May 1947 and visited him twice more before Crowley's death that autumn; at some point, Crowley gave Gardner an Ordo Templi Orientis (OTO) charter and the 4th OTO degree—the lowest degree authorising use of the charter.Doreen Valiente, one of Gardner's priestesses, identified the woman who initiated Gardner as Dorothy Clutterbuck, referenced in \"A Witches' Bible\" by Janet and Stewart Farrar.", "Valiente's identification was based on references Gardner made to a woman he called \"Old Dorothy\" whom Valiente remembered.", "Biographer Philip Heselton corrects Valiente, clarifying that Clutterbuck (Dorothy St. Quintin-Fordham, née Clutterbuck), a Pagan-minded woman, owned the Mill House, where the New Forest coven performed Gardner's initiation ritual.", "Scholar Ronald Hutton argues in his ''Triumph of the Moon'' that Gardner's tradition was largely the inspiration of members of the Rosicrucian Order Crotona Fellowship and especially that of a woman known by the magical name of \"Dafo\".", "Dr. Leo Ruickbie, in his ''Witchcraft Out of the Shadows'', analysed the documented evidence and concluded that Aleister Crowley played a crucial role in inspiring Gardner to establish a new pagan religion.", "Ruickbie, Hutton, and others further argue that much of what has been published of Gardnerian Wicca, as Gardner's practice came to be known, was written by Blake, Yeats, Valiente and Crowley and contains borrowings from other identifiable sources.The witches Gardner was originally introduced to were originally referred to by him as \"the Wica\" and he would often use the term \"Witch Cult\" to describe the religion.", "Other terms used, included \"Witchcraft\" or \"the Old Religion.\"", "Later publications standardised the spelling to \"Wicca\" and it came to be used as the term for the Craft, rather than its followers.", "\"Gardnerian\" was originally a pejorative term used by Gardner's contemporary Roy Bowers (also known as Robert Cochrane), a British cunning man, who nonetheless was initiated into Gardnerian Wicca a couple of years following Gardner's death.===Reconstruction of the Wiccan rituals===Gardner stated that the rituals of the existing group were fragmentary at best, and he set about fleshing them out, drawing on his library and knowledge as an occultist and amateur folklorist.", "Gardner borrowed and wove together appropriate material from other artists and occultists, most notably Charles Godfrey Leland's ''Aradia, or the Gospel of the Witches'', the Key of Solomon as published by S.L.", "MacGregor Mathers, Masonic ritual, Crowley, and Rudyard Kipling.", "Doreen Valiente wrote much of the best-known poetry, including the much-quoted Charge of the Goddess.===Bricket Wood coven===In 1948–1949, Gardner and Dafo were running a coven separate from the original New Forest coven at a naturist club near Bricket Wood to the north of London.", "By 1952 Dafo's health had begun to decline, and she was increasingly wary of Gardner's publicity-seeking.", "In 1953 Gardner met Doreen Valiente who was to become his High Priestess in succession to Dafo.", "The question of publicity led to Doreen and others formulating thirteen proposed 'Rules for the Craft', which included restrictions on contact with the press.", "Gardner responded with the sudden production of the Wiccan Laws which led to some of his members, including Valiente, leaving the coven.Gardner reported that witches were taught that the power of the human body can be released, for use in a coven's circle, by various means, and released more easily without clothing.", "A simple method was dancing round the circle singing or chanting; another method was the traditional \"binding and scourging.\"", "In addition to raising power, \"binding and scourging\" can heighten the initiates' sensitivity and spiritual experience.Following the time Gardner spent on the Isle of Man, the coven began to experiment with circle dancing as an alternative.", "It was also about this time that the lesser 4 of the 8 Sabbats were given greater prominence.", "Bricket Wood coven members liked the Sabbat celebrations so much, they decided that there was no reason to keep them confined to the closest full moon meeting, and made them festivities in their own right.", "As Gardner had no objection to this change suggested by the Bricket Wood coven, this collective decision resulted in what is now the standard eight festivities in the Wiccan Wheel of the year.The split with Valiente led to the Bricket Wood coven being led by Jack Bracelin and a new High Priestess, Dayonis.", "This was the first of a number of disputes between individuals and groups, but the increased publicity only seems to have allowed Gardnerian Wicca to grow much more rapidly.", "Certain others also helped fuel this publicity, such as Alex Sanders (real name Orrell Alexander Carter) and Raymond Buckland.", "Sanders started his own separate tradition, together with his wife Maxine, known as Alexandrian Wicca and frequently were covered by the press.", "Buckland, who authored dozens of books on the subject, brought the Gardnerian tradition to the United States in 1964, later to start his own tradition known as Seax Wicca.=== Controversy Over Transgender Individuals and Male/Female Polarity ===On July 18, 2022, an open letter titled “A Declaration of the Traditional Gardnerian Wica” was electronically published by 47 Third-degree and autonomous Second-degree Gardnerian initiates, representing coven leaders and Gardnerian Elders, who identified themselves as practicing Gardnerian Wicca within the framework of male/female polarity.", "The letter’s signatories claimed that biological gender essentialism was fundamental to Gardnerian practice, and that initiates who disagreed with this view of gender had effectively left the Gardnerian tradition.", "These claims met with accusations of transphobia from three members of the Gardnerian community.", "Pagan blog site ''The Wild Hunt'' noted that because of Gardnerian Wicca’s decentralized structure and emphasis on coven autonomy, “the proclamation effectively only applies to covens that are led by or hive from the documents’ signers.”" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Gerald Gardner – The History of Wicca* Gardnerian History* ''A Very British Witchcraft'' TV program * Wiccan descendants from Gardner ----" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Greenwich Mean Time" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Greenwich Mean Time''' ('''GMT''') is the local mean time at the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, London, counted from midnight.", "At different times in the past, it has been calculated in different ways, including being calculated from noon; as a consequence, it cannot be used to specify a particular time unless a context is given.", "The term ''GMT'' is also used as one of the names for the time zone UTC+00:00 and, in UK law, is the basis for civil time in the United Kingdom.Because of Earth's uneven angular velocity in its elliptical orbit and its axial tilt, noon (12:00:00) GMT is rarely the exact moment the Sun crosses the Greenwich Meridian and reaches its highest point in the sky there.", "This event may occur up to 16 minutes before or after noon GMT, a discrepancy described by the equation of time.", "Noon GMT is the annual average (the arithmetic mean) moment of this event, which accounts for the word \"mean\" in \"Greenwich Mean Time\".Originally, astronomers considered a GMT day to start at noon, while for almost everyone else it started at midnight.", "To avoid confusion, the name Universal Time was introduced in 1928 to denote GMT as counted from midnight.", "Today, Universal Time usually refers to Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) or UT1; English speakers often use GMT as a synonym for UTC.", "For navigation, it is considered equivalent to UT1 (the modern form of mean solar time at 0° longitude); but this meaning can differ from UTC by up to 0.9s.", "The term ''GMT'' should thus not be used for purposes that require precision.The term ''GMT'' is especially used by United Kingdom bodies, such as the BBC World Service, the Royal Navy, and the Met Office; and others particularly in Arab countries, such as the Middle East Broadcasting Centre and OSN." ], [ "History", "The Shepherd Gate Clock at the gates of the Royal Observatory, Greenwich is permanently kept on Greenwich Mean Time.As the United Kingdom developed into an advanced maritime nation, British mariners kept at least one chronometer on GMT to calculate their longitude from the Greenwich meridian, which was considered to have longitude zero degrees, by a convention adopted in the International Meridian Conference of 1884.Synchronisation of the chronometer on GMT did not affect shipboard time, which was still solar time.", "But this practice, combined with mariners from other nations drawing from Nevil Maskelyne's method of lunar distances based on observations at Greenwich, led to GMT being used worldwide as a standard time independent of location.", "Most time zones were based upon GMT, as an offset of a number of hours (and possibly half or quarter hours) \"ahead of GMT\" or \"behind GMT\".Greenwich Mean Time was adopted across the island of Great Britain by the Railway Clearing House in 1847 and by almost all railway companies by the following year, from which the term ''railway time'' is derived.", "It was gradually adopted for other purposes, but a legal case in 1858 held \"local mean time\" to be the official time.", "On 14 May 1880, a letter signed by \"Clerk to Justices\" appeared in ''The Times'', stating that \"Greenwich time is now kept almost throughout England, but it appears that Greenwich time is not legal time.", "For example, our polling booths were opened, say, at 8 13 and closed at 4 13 p.m.\" This was changed later in 1880, when Greenwich Mean Time was legally adopted throughout the island of Great Britain.", "GMT was adopted in the Isle of Man in 1883, in Jersey in 1898 and in Guernsey in 1913.Ireland adopted GMT in 1916, supplanting Dublin Mean Time.", "Hourly time signals from Greenwich Observatory were first broadcast by shortwave radio on 5 February 1924 at 17:30:00 UTC, rendering the time ball at the observatory redundant.The daily rotation of the Earth is irregular (see ΔT) and has a slowing trend; therefore atomic clocks constitute a much more stable timebase.", "On 1 January 1972, GMT as the international civil time standard was superseded by Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), maintained by an ensemble of atomic clocks around the world.", "''Universal Time'' (''UT''), a term introduced in 1928, initially represented mean time at Greenwich determined in the traditional way to accord with the originally defined universal day; from 1 January 1956 (as decided by the International Astronomical Union in Dublin in 1955, at the initiative of William Markowitz) this \"raw\" form of UT was re-labelled ''UT0'' and effectively superseded by refined forms UT1 (UT0 equalised for the effects of polar wandering) and UT2 (UT1 further equalised for annual seasonal variations in Earth rotation rate)." ], [ "Ambiguity in the definition of GMT", "Historically, GMT has been used with two different conventions for numbering hours.", "The long-standing astronomical convention, dating from the work of Ptolemy, was to refer to noon as zero hours (see Julian day).", "This contrasted with the civil convention of referring to midnight as zero hours dating from the Roman Empire.", "The latter convention was adopted on and after 1 January 1925 for astronomical purposes, resulting in a discontinuity of 12 hours, or half a day.", "The instant that was designated as \"December 31.5 GMT\" in 1924 almanacs became \"January 1.0 GMT\" in 1925 almanacs.", "The term ''Greenwich Mean Astronomical Time'' (''GMAT'') was introduced to unambiguously refer to the previous noon-based astronomical convention for GMT.", "The more specific terms ''UT'' and ''UTC'' do not share this ambiguity, always referring to midnight as ''zero hours''." ], [ "GMT in legislation", "=== United Kingdom ===Legally, the civil time used in the UK is called \"Greenwich mean time\" (without capitalisation), with an exception made for those periods when the Summer Time Act 1972 orders an hour's shift for daylight saving.", "The Interpretation Act 1978, section 9, provides that whenever an expression of time occurs in any Act, the time referred to shall (unless otherwise specifically stated) be held to be Greenwich mean time.", "Under subsection 23, the same rule applies to deeds and other instruments.During the experiment of 1968 to 1971, when the British Isles did not revert to Greenwich Mean Time during the winter, the all-year British Summer Time was called ''British Standard Time'' (''BST'').In the UK, UTC+00:00 is disseminated to the general public in winter and UTC+01:00 in summer.BBC radio stations broadcast the \"six pips\" of the Greenwich Time Signal.", "It is named from its original generation at the Royal Greenwich Observatory.", "If announced (such as near the start of summer time or of winter time), announcers on domestic channels declare the time as ''GMT'' or ''BST'' as appropriate.", "As the BBC World Service is broadcast to all time zones, the announcers use the term \"Greenwich Mean Time\" consistently throughout the year.=== Other countries ===Several countries define their local time by reference to Greenwich Mean Time.", "Some examples are:*Belgium: Decrees of 1946 and 1947 set legal time as one hour ahead of GMT.", "* Ireland: \"Standard Time\" () is defined as being one hour in advance of GMT.", "\"Winter Time\" () is defined as being the same as GMT.", "*Canada: Interpretation Act, R.S.C.", "1985, c. I-21, section 35(1).", "This refers to \"standard time\" for the several provinces, defining each in relation to \"Greenwich time\", but does not use the expression \"Greenwich mean time\".", "Several provinces, such as Nova Scotia (Time Definition Act.", "R.S., c. 469, s. 1), have their own legislation which specifically mentions either \"Greenwich Mean Time\" or \"Greenwich mean solar time\"." ], [ "Time zone", "Greenwich Mean Time is defined in law as standard time in the following countries and areas, which also advance their clocks one hour (GMT+1) in summer.", "* United Kingdom, where the summer time is called ''British Summer Time'' (''BST'')* Ireland, where it is called ''Winter Time'', changing to Standard Time in summer.", "*Portugal (with the exception of the Azores)*Canary Islands*Faroe IslandsClock in Kumasi, Ghana, set to GMTGreenwich Mean Time is used as standard time all year round in the following countries and areas:*Burkina Faso*The Gambia*Ghana*Guinea*Guinea-Bissau*Iceland*Ivory Coast*Liberia*Mali*Mauritania*Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (disputed)*Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha*Senegal*Sierra Leone*Togo" ], [ "See also", "* Ruth Belville – \"the Greenwich Time Lady\", daughter of John Henry Belville, who was in the business of daily personal distribution of Greenwich Mean Time via a watch* * * * * * * * * * Zulu Time" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* * * .", "* * * CanLII.", "(Canadian statute)* (UK statute, see also Interpretation Act 1978)* (Irish Statute Book)* * * * * Irish Statute Book* (Irish statute)" ], [ "External links", "* International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service* The original BBC World Service GMT time signal in MP3 format*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "GIF" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Graphics Interchange Format''' ('''GIF'''; or , ) is a bitmap image format that was developed by a team at the online services provider CompuServe led by American computer scientist Steve Wilhite and released on June 15, 1987.The format can contain up to 8 bits per pixel, allowing a single image to reference its own palette of up to 256 different colors chosen from the 24-bit RGB color space.", "It can also represent multiple images in a file, which can be used for animations, and allows a separate palette of up to 256 colors for each frame.", "These palette limitations make GIF less suitable for reproducing color photographs and other images with color gradients but well-suited for simpler images such as graphics or logos with solid areas of color.GIF images are compressed using the Lempel–Ziv–Welch (LZW) lossless data compression technique to reduce the file size without degrading the visual quality.While once in widespread usage on the World Wide Web because of its wide implementation and portability between applications and operating systems, usage of the format has declined for space and quality reasons, often being replaced with video formats such as the MP4 file format.", "These replacements, in turn, are often termed \"GIFs\" despite having no relation to the original file format." ], [ "History", "CompuServe introduced GIF on 15 June 1987 to provide a color image format for their file downloading areas.", "This replaced their earlier run-length encoding format, which was black and white only.", "GIF became popular because it used Lempel–Ziv–Welch data compression.", "Since this was more efficient than the run-length encoding used by PCX and MacPaint, fairly large images could be downloaded reasonably quickly even with slow modems.The original version of GIF was called 87a.", "This version already supported multiple images in a stream.In 1989, CompuServe released an enhanced version, called 89a, This version added:* support for animation delays* transparent background colors* storage of application-specific metadata* allowing text labels as text (not embedding them in the graphical data).", "As there is little control over display fonts, however, this feature is rarely used.The two versions can be distinguished by looking at the first six bytes of the file (the \"magic number\" or signature), which, when interpreted as ASCII, read \"GIF87a\" or \"GIF89a\", respectively.CompuServe encouraged the adoption of GIF by providing downloadable conversion utilities for many computers.", "By December 1987, for example, an Apple IIGS user could view pictures created on an Atari ST or Commodore 64.GIF was one of the first two image formats commonly used on Web sites, the other being the black-and-white XBM.In September 1995 Netscape Navigator 2.0 added the ability for animated GIFs to loop.While GIF was developed by CompuServe, it used the Lempel–Ziv–Welch (LZW) lossless data compression algorithm patented by Unisys in 1985.Controversy over the licensing agreement between Unisys and CompuServe in 1994 spurred the development of the Portable Network Graphics (PNG) standard.", "In 2004, all patents relating to the proprietary compression used for GIF expired.The feature of storing multiple images in one file, accompanied by control data, is used extensively on the Web to produce simple animations.The optional interlacing feature, which stores image scan lines out of order in such a fashion that even a partially downloaded image was somewhat recognizable, also helped GIF's popularity, as a user could abort the download if it was not what was required.In May 2015 Facebook added support for GIF.", "In January 2018 Instagram also added GIF stickers to the story mode." ], [ "Terminology", "As a noun, the word ''GIF'' is found in the newer editions of many dictionaries.", "In 2012, the American wing of the Oxford University Press recognized ''GIF'' as a verb as well, meaning \"to create a GIF file\", as in \"GIFing was the perfect medium for sharing scenes from the Summer Olympics\".", "The press's lexicographers voted it their word of the year, saying that GIFs have evolved into \"a tool with serious applications including research and journalism\".===Pronunciation===A humorous image announcing the launch of a Tumblr account for the White House suggests pronouncing ''GIF'' with a hard ''g''.The pronunciation of the first letter of ''GIF'' has been disputed since the 1990s.", "The most common pronunciations in English are (with a soft ''g'' as in ''gin'') and (with a hard ''g'' as in ''gift''), differing in the phoneme represented by the letter ''G''.", "The creators of the format pronounced the acronym ''GIF'' as , with a soft ''g'', with Wilhite stating that he intended for the pronunciation to deliberately echo the American peanut butter brand Jif, and CompuServe employees would often quip \"choosy developers choose GIF\", a spoof of Jif's television commercials.", "However, the word is widely pronounced as , with a hard ''g'', and polls have generally shown that this hard ''g'' pronunciation is more prevalent.", "''Dictionary.com'' cites both pronunciations, indicating as the primary pronunciation, while ''Cambridge Dictionary of American English'' offers only the hard-''g'' pronunciation.", "''Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary'' and Oxford Dictionaries cite both pronunciations, but place the hard ''g'' first: .", "The ''New Oxford American Dictionary'' gave only in its second edition but updated it to in the third edition.The disagreement over the pronunciation has led to heated Internet debate.", "On the occasion of receiving a lifetime achievement award at the 2013 Webby Awards ceremony, Wilhite publicly rejected the hard-''g'' pronunciation; his speech led to more than 17,000 posts on Twitter and dozens of news articles.", "The White House and the TV program ''Jeopardy!''", "also entered the debate in 2013.In February 2020, The J.M.", "Smucker Company, the owners of the Jif brand, partnered with the animated image database and search engine Giphy to release a limited-edition \"Jif vs. GIF\" (hashtagged as #JIFvsGIF) jar of peanut butter that had a label humorously declaring the soft-''g'' pronunciation to refer exclusively to the peanut butter, and ''GIF'' to be exclusively pronounced with the hard-''g'' pronunciation." ], [ "Usage", "GIFs are suitable for sharp-edged line art with a limited number of colors, such as logos.", "This takes advantage of the format's lossless compression, which favors flat areas of uniform color with well defined edges.", "They can also be used to store low-color sprite data for games.", "GIFs can be used for small animations and low-resolution video clips, or as reactions in online messaging used to convey emotion and feelings instead of using words.", "They are popular on social media platforms such as Tumblr, Facebook and Twitter." ], [ "File format", "Conceptually, a GIF file describes a fixed-sized graphical area (the \"logical screen\") populated with zero or more \"images\".", "Many GIF files have a single image that fills the entire logical screen.", "Others divide the logical screen into separate sub-images.", "The images may also function as animation frames in an animated GIF file, but again these need not fill the entire logical screen.GIF files start with a fixed-length header (\"GIF87a\" or \"GIF89a\") giving the version, followed by a fixed-length Logical Screen Descriptor giving the pixel dimensions and other characteristics of the logical screen.", "The screen descriptor may also specify the presence and size of a Global Color Table (GCT), which follows next if present.Thereafter, the file is divided into segments of the following types, each introduced by a 1-byte sentinel:* An image (introduced by 0x2C, an ASCII comma )* An extension block (introduced by 0x21, an ASCII exclamation point )* The trailer (a single byte of value 0x3B, an ASCII semicolon ), which should be the last byte of the file.An image starts with a fixed-length Image Descriptor, which may specify the presence and size of a Local Color Table (which follows next if present).", "The image data follows: one byte giving the bit width of the unencoded symbols (which must be at least 2 bits wide, even for bi-color images), followed by a series of sub-blocks containing the LZW-encoded data.Extension blocks (blocks that \"extend\" the 87a definition via a mechanism already defined in the 87a spec) consist of the sentinel, an additional byte specifying the type of extension, and a series of sub-blocks with the extension data.", "Extension blocks that modify an image (like the Graphic Control Extension that specifies the optional animation delay time and optional transparent background color) must immediately precede the segment with the image they refer to.Each sub-block begins with a byte giving the number of subsequent data bytes in the sub-block (1 to 255).", "The series of sub-blocks is terminated by an empty sub-block (a 0 byte).This structure allows the file to be parsed even if not all parts are understood.", "A GIF marked 87a may contain extension blocks; the intent is that a decoder can read and display the file without the features covered in extensions it does not understand.The full detail of the file format is covered in the GIF specification." ], [ "Palettes", "web-safe palette and dithered using the Floyd–Steinberg method; because the number of colors allowed in the image is small, the image's contrast and colorfulness are noticeably poor.GIF is palette-based: the colors used in an image (a frame) in the file have their RGB values defined in a palette table that can hold up to 256 entries, and the data for the image refer to the colors by their indices (0–255) in the palette table.", "The color definitions in the palette can be drawn from a color space of millions of shades (224 shades, 8 bits for each primary), but the maximum number of colors a frame can use is 256.This limitation was reasonable when GIF was developed because hardware that could display more than 256 colors simultaneously was rare.", "Simple graphics, line drawings, cartoons, and grey-scale photographs typically need fewer than 256 colors.Each frame can designate one index as a \"transparent background color\": any pixel assigned this index takes on the color of the pixel in the same position from the background, which may have been determined by a previous frame of animation.Many techniques, collectively called dithering, have been developed to approximate a wider range of colors with a small color palette by using pixels of two or more colors to approximate in-between colors.", "These techniques sacrifice spatial resolution to approximate deeper color resolution.", "While not part of the GIF specification, dithering can be used in images subsequently encoded as GIF images.", "This is often not an ideal solution for GIF images, both because the loss of spatial resolution typically makes an image look fuzzy on the screen, and because the dithering patterns often interfere with the compressibility of the image data, working against GIF's main purpose.In the early days of graphical web browsers, graphics cards with 8-bit buffers (allowing only 256 colors) were common and it was fairly common to make GIF images using the websafe palette.", "This ensured predictable display, but severely limited the choice of colors.", "When 24-bit color became the norm, palettes could instead be populated with the optimum colors for individual images.A small color table may suffice for small images, and keeping the color table small allows the file to be downloaded faster.", "Both the 87a and 89a specifications allow color tables of 2''n'' colors for any ''n'' from 1 through 8.Most graphics applications will read and display GIF images with any of these table sizes; but some do not support all sizes when ''creating'' images.", "Tables of 2, 16, and 256 colors are widely supported.===True color===Although GIF is almost never used for true color images, it is possible to do so.", "A GIF image can include multiple image blocks, each of which can have its own 256-color palette, and the blocks can be tiled to create a complete image.", "Alternatively, the GIF89a specification introduced the idea of a \"transparent\" color where each image block can include its own palette of 255 visible colors plus one transparent color.", "A complete image can be created by layering image blocks with the visible portion of each layer showing through the transparent portions of the layers above.An animated GIF illustrating a technique for displaying more than the typical limit of 256 colorsTo render a full-color image as a GIF, the original image must be broken down into smaller regions having no more than 255 or 256 different colors.", "Each of these regions is then stored as a separate image block with its own local palette and when the image blocks are displayed together (either by tiling or by layering partially transparent image blocks), the complete, full-color image appears.", "For example, breaking an image into tiles of 16 by 16 pixels (256 pixels in total) ensures that no tile has more than the local palette limit of 256 colors, although larger tiles may be used and similar colors merged resulting in some loss of color information.Since each image block can have its own local color table, a GIF file having many image blocks can be very large, limiting the usefulness of full-color GIFs.", "Additionally, not all GIF rendering programs handle tiled or layered images correctly.", "Many rendering programs interpret tiles or layers as animation frames and display them in sequence as an animation with most web browsers automatically displaying the frames with a delay time of 0.1 seconds or more." ], [ "Example GIF file", "Microsoft Paint saves a small black-and-white image as the following GIF file (illustrated enlarged).Paint does not make optimal use of GIF; due to the unnecessarily large color table (storing a full 256 colors instead of the used 2) and symbol width, this GIF file is not an efficient representation of the 15-pixel image.Although the Graphic Control Extension block declares color index 16 (hexadecimal 10) to be transparent, that index is not used in the image.", "The only color indexes appearing in the image data are decimal 40 and 255, which the Global Color Table maps to black and white, respectively.centerThe hex numbers in the following tables are in little-endian byte order, as the format specification prescribes.+ Table of example GIF image values Byte # (hex) Hexadecimal Text or value Meaning 0 47 49 46 38 39 61 GIF89a Header Logical Screen Descriptor 6 03 00 3 Logical screen width 8 05 00 5 Logical screen height A F7 GCT follows for 256 colors with resolution 38 bits/primary, the lowest 3 bits represent the bit depth minus 1, the highest true bit means that the GCT is present B 00 0 Background color: index #0; #000000 black C 00 0 Default pixel aspect ratio, 0:0 Global Color Table D 00 00 00 R (red) G (green) B (blue) 0 0 0 Global Color Table, color #0: #000000, black Bytes Dh to 30Ch in the example define a palette of 256 colors.", "The indexes used in the sample image for black and white are 28h and FFh.", "10 80 00 00 R (red) G (green) B (blue) 128 0 0 Global Color Table, color #1: transparent bit, not used in image ... ... ...", "Global Color Table extends to 30A 30A FF FF FF R (red) G (green) B (blue) 255 255 255 Global Color Table, color #255: #ffffff, white Graphic Control Extension 30D 21 '!'", "An Extension Block (introduced by an ASCII exclaimation point '!')", "30E F9 A Graphic Control Extension 30F 04 4 Amount of GCE data, 4 bytes 310 01 Transparent background color; this is a bit field, the lowest bit signifies transparency 311 00 00 Delay for animation in hundredths of a second; '''not used''' 313 10 16 Color number of transparent pixel in GCT 314 00 End of GCE block Image Descriptor 315 2C ',' An Image Descriptor (introduced by 0x2C, an ASCII comma ',') 316 00 00 00 00 (0, 0) North-west corner position of image in logical screen 31A 03 00 05 00 (3, 5) Image width and height in pixels 31E 00 0 Local color table bit, 0 means none Image Data 31F 08 8 Start of image, LZW minimum code size 320 0B 11 Beginning of first data sub-block, specifying 11 bytes of encoded data to follow 321 00 51 FC 1B 28 70 A0 C1 83 01 01 11 bytes of image data, see field 320 32C 00 0 Ending data sub-block, specifying no following data bytes (and the end of the image) Trailer 32D 3B ';' File termination block indicator (an ASCII semi-colon ';')===Image coding===The image pixel data, scanned horizontally from top left, are converted by LZW encoding to codes that are then mapped into bytes for storing in the file.", "The pixel codes typically don't match the 8-bit size of the bytes, so the codes are packed into bytes by a \"little-Endian\" scheme: the least significant bit of the first code is stored in the least significant bit of the first byte, higher order bits of the code into higher order bits of the byte, spilling over into the low order bits of the next byte as necessary.", "Each subsequent code is stored starting at the least significant bit not already used.This byte stream is stored in the file as a series of \"sub-blocks\".", "Each sub-block has a maximum length 255 bytes and is prefixed with a byte indicating the number of data bytes in the sub-block.", "The series of sub-blocks is terminated by an empty sub-block (a single 0 byte, indicating a sub-block with 0 data bytes).For the sample image above the reversible mapping between 9-bit codes and bytes is shown below.+ Reversible mapping 9-bit code Byte Hexadecimal Binary Binary Hexadecimal 00 51 FC 1B 28 70 A0 C1 83 01 01A slight compression is evident: pixel colors defined initially by 15 bytes are exactly represented by 12 code bytes including control codes.The encoding process that produces the 9-bit codes is shown below.", "A local string accumulates pixel color numbers from the palette, with no output action as long as the local string can be found in a code table.", "There is special treatment of the first two pixels that arrive before the table grows from its initial size by additions of strings.", "After each output code, the local string is initialized to the latest pixel color (that could not be included in the output code).", "'''Table 9-bit''' '''string --> code code Action''' #0 | 000h Initialize root table of 9-bit codes palette : colors : #255 | 0FFh clr | 100h end | 101h 100h Clear Pixel Local color Palette string BLACK #40 28 028h 1st pixel always to output WHITE #255 FF String found in table 28 FF 102h Always add 1st string to table FF Initialize local string WHITE #255 FF FF String not found in table 0FFh - output code for previous string FF FF 103h - add latest string to table FF - initialize local string WHITE #255 FF FF String found in table BLACK #40 FF FF 28 String not found in table 103h - output code for previous string FF FF 28 104h - add latest string to table 28 - initialize local string WHITE #255 28 FF String found in table WHITE #255 28 FF FF String not found in table 102h - output code for previous string 28 FF FF 105h - add latest string to table FF - initialize local string WHITE #255 FF FF String found in table WHITE #255 FF FF FF String not found in table 103h - output code for previous string FF FF FF 106h - add latest string to table FF - initialize local string WHITE #255 FF FF String found in table WHITE #255 FF FF FF String found in table WHITE #255 FF FF FF FF String not found in table 106h - output code for previous string FF FF FF FF| 107h - add latest string to table FF - initialize local string WHITE #255 FF FF String found in table WHITE #255 FF FF FF String found in table WHITE #255 FF FF FF FF String found in table No more pixels 107h - output code for last string 101h EndFor clarity the table is shown above as being built of strings of increasing length.", "That scheme can function but the table consumes an unpredictable amount of memory.", "Memory can be saved in practice by noting that each new string to be stored consists of a previously stored string augmented by one character.", "It is economical to store at each address only two words: an existing address and one character.The LZW algorithm requires a search of the table for each pixel.", "A linear search through up to 4096 addresses would make the coding slow.", "In practice the codes can be stored in order of numerical value; this allows each search to be done by a SAR (Successive Approximation Register, as used in some ADCs), with only 12 magnitude comparisons.", "For this efficiency an extra table is needed to convert between codes and actual memory addresses; the extra table upkeeping is needed only when a new code is stored which happens at much less than pixel rate.===Image decoding===Decoding begins by mapping the stored bytes back to 9-bit codes.", "These are decoded to recover the pixel colors as shown below.", "A table identical to the one used in the encoder is built by adding strings by this rule:+ Is incoming code found in table?", "add string for local code followed by first byte of string for incoming code add string for local code followed by copy of its own first byte '''shift''' '''9-bit ----> Local Table Pixel''' '''code code code --> string Palette color Action''' 100h 000h #0 Initialize root table of 9-bit codes : palette : colors 0FFh #255 100h clr 101h end 028h #40 Decode 1st pixel 0FFh 028h Incoming code found in table #255 - output string from table 102h 28 FF - add to table 103h 0FFh Incoming code not found in table 103h FF FF - add to table - output string from table #255 #255 102h 103h Incoming code found in table - output string from table #40 #255 104h FF FF 28 - add to table 103h 102h Incoming code found in table - output string from table #255 #255 105h 28 FF FF - add to table 106h 103h Incoming code not found in table 106h FF FF FF - add to table - output string from table #255 #255 #255 107h 106h Incoming code not found in table 107h FF FF FF FF - add to table - output string from table #255 #255 #255 #255 101h End===LZW code lengths===Shorter code lengths can be used for palettes smaller than the 256 colors in the example.", "If the palette is only 64 colors (so color indexes are 6 bits wide), the symbols can range from 0 to 63, and the symbol width can be taken to be 6 bits, with codes starting at 7 bits.", "In fact, the symbol width need not match the palette size: as long as the values decoded are always less than the number of colors in the palette, the symbols can be any width from 2 to 8, and the palette size any power of 2 from 2 to 256.For example, if only the first four colors (values 0 to 3) of the palette are used, the symbols can be taken to be 2 bits wide with codes starting at 3 bits.Conversely, the symbol width could be set at 8, even if only values 0 and 1 are used; these data would only require a two-color table.", "Although there would be no point in encoding the file that way, something similar typically happens for bi-color images: the minimum symbol width is 2, even if only values 0 and 1 are used.The code table initially contains codes that are one bit longer than the symbol size in order to accommodate the two special codes ''clr'' and ''end'' and codes for strings that are added during the process.", "When the table is full the code length increases to give space for more strings, up to a maximum code 4095 = FFF(hex).", "As the decoder builds its table it tracks these increases in code length and it is able to unpack incoming bytes accordingly.===Uncompressed GIF ===centerThe GIF encoding process can be modified to create a file without LZW compression that is still viewable as a GIF image.", "This technique was introduced originally as a way to avoid patent infringement.", "Uncompressed GIF can also be a useful intermediate format for a graphics programmer because individual pixels are accessible for reading or painting.", "An uncompressed GIF file can be converted to an ordinary GIF file simply by passing it through an image editor.The modified encoding method ignores building the LZW table and emits only the root palette codes and the codes for CLEAR and STOP.", "This yields a simpler encoding (a 1-to-1 correspondence between code values and palette codes) but sacrifices all of the compression: each pixel in the image generates an output code indicating its color index.", "When processing an uncompressed GIF, a standard GIF decoder will not be prevented from writing strings to its dictionary table, but the code width must never increase since that triggers a different packing of bits to bytes.If the symbol width is , the codes of width fall naturally into two blocks: the lower block of codes for coding single symbols, and the upper block of codes that will be used by the decoder for sequences of length greater than one.", "Of that upper block, the first two codes are already taken: for CLEAR and for STOP.", "The decoder must also be prevented from using the last code in the upper block, , because when the decoder fills that slot, it will increase the code width.", "Thus in the upper block there are codes available to the decoder that won't trigger an increase in code width.", "Because the decoder is always one step behind in maintaining the table, it does not generate a table entry upon receiving the first code from the encoder, but will generate one for each succeeding code.", "Thus the encoder can generate codes without triggering an increase in code width.", "Therefore, the encoder must emit extra CLEAR codes at intervals of codes or less to make the decoder reset the coding dictionary.", "The GIF standard allows such extra CLEAR codes to be inserted in the image data at any time.", "The composite data stream is partitioned into sub-blocks that each carry from 1 to 255 bytes.For the sample 3×5 image above, the following 9-bit codes represent \"clear\" (100) followed by image pixels in scan order and \"stop\" (101).", "100 028 0FF 0FF 0FF 028 0FF 0FF 0FF 0FF 0FF 0FF 0FF 0FF 0FF 0FF 101After the above codes are mapped to bytes, the uncompressed file differs from the compressed file thus: Byte # (hex) Hexadecimal Text or value Meaning 320 14 20 20 bytes uncompressed image data follow 321 00 51 FC FB F7 0F C5 BF 7F FF FE FD FB F7 EF DF BF 7F 01 01 335 00 0 End of image data" ], [ "Compression example", "The trivial example of a large image of solid color demonstrates the variable-length LZW compression used in GIF files.+Sample compression of a GIF file Code Pixels Notes No.N ValueN + 256 Length(bits) This codeN Accumulated Relations using N only apply to same-color pixels until coding table is full.", "0 100h 9 Clear code table 1 FFh 1 1 Top left pixel color chosen as the highest index of a 256-color palette 2 102h 2 3 3⋮255 103h⋮1FFh 3⋮255 6⋮32640 Last 9-bit code 256⋮767 200h⋮3FFh 10 256⋮767 32896⋮294528 Last 10-bit code 768⋮1791 400h⋮7FFh 11 768⋮1791 295296⋮1604736 Last 11-bit code 1792⋮3839 800h⋮FFFh 12 1792⋮3839 1606528⋮7370880 Code table full ⋮ FFFh 3839 The maximum code may repeat for more same-color pixels.Overall data compression asymptotically approaches 3839 × = 101h End of image dataThe code values shown are packed into bytes which are then packed into blocks of up to 255 bytes.", "A block of image data begins with a byte that declares the number of bytes to follow.", "The last block of data for an image is marked by a zero block-length byte." ], [ "Interlacing", "Screen capture of an interlaced GIF loading in a web browserThe GIF Specification allows each image within the logical screen of a GIF file to specify that it is interlaced; i.e., that the order of the raster lines in its data block is not sequential.", "This allows a partial display of the image that can be recognized before the full image is painted.An interlaced image is divided from top to bottom into strips 8 pixels high, and the rows of the image are presented in the following order:* Pass 1: Line 0 (the top-most line) from each strip.", "* Pass 2: Line 4 from each strip.", "* Pass 3: Lines 2 and 6 from each strip.", "* Pass 4: Lines 1, 3, 5, and 7 from each strip.The pixels within each line are not interlaced, but presented consecutively from left to right.", "As with non-interlaced images, there is no break between the data for one line and the data for the next.", "The indicator that an image is interlaced is a bit set in the corresponding Image Descriptor block." ], [ "Animated GIF", "GIF can be used to display animation, as in this image of Newton's cradle.Although GIF was not designed as an animation medium, its ability to store multiple images in one file naturally suggested using the format to store the frames of an animation sequence.", "To facilitate ''displaying'' animations, the GIF89a spec added the Graphic Control Extension (GCE), which allows the images (frames) in the file to be painted with time delays, forming a video clip.", "Each frame in an animation GIF is introduced by its own GCE specifying the time delay to wait after the frame is drawn.", "Global information at the start of the file applies by default to all frames.", "The data is stream-oriented, so the file offset of the start of each GCE depends on the length of preceding data.", "Within each frame the LZW-coded image data is arranged in sub-blocks of up to 255 bytes; the size of each sub-block is declared by the byte that precedes it.By default, an animation displays the sequence of frames only once, stopping when the last frame is displayed.", "To enable an animation to loop, Netscape in the 1990s used the Application Extension block (intended to allow vendors to add application-specific information to the GIF file) to implement the Netscape Application Block (NAB).", "This block, placed immediately before the sequence of animation frames, specifies the number of times the sequence of frames should be played (1 to 65535 times) or that it should repeat continuously (zero indicates loop forever).", "Support for these repeating animations first appeared in Netscape Navigator version 2.0, and then spread to other browsers.", "Most browsers now recognize and support NAB, though it is not strictly part of the GIF89a specification.The following example shows the structure of the animation file ''Rotating earth (large).gif'' shown (as a thumbnail) in the article's infobox.+ Structure of GIF Byte # (hex) Hexadecimal Text or value Meaning 0 47 49 46 38 39 61 GIF89a Logical Screen Descriptor 6 90 01 400 Width in pixels 8 90 01 400 Height in pixels A F7 GCT follows for 256 colors with resolution 38 bits/primary B 00 0 Background color: #000000, black C 00 0 Default pixel aspect ratio, 0:0 D 00 Global Color Table ⋮ 30D21'!", "'An Extension Block (introduced by an ASCII exclaimation point '!')", "30E FF Application Extension 30F 0B 11 Size of block including application name and verification bytes (always 11) 310 4E 45 54 53 43 41 50 45 32 2E 30 NETSCAPE2.0 8-byte application name plus 3 verification bytes 31B 03 3 Number of bytes in the following sub-block 31C 01 1 Index of the current data sub-block ''(always 1 for the NETSCAPE block)'' 31D FF FF 65535 Unsigned number of repetitions 31F 00 End of the sub-block chain for the Application Extension block32021'!", "'An Extension Block (introduced by an ASCII exclaimation point '!')", "321 F9 Graphic Control Extension for frame #1 322 04 4 Number of bytes (4) in the current sub-block 323 04 000........001........0........0 ''(broken into sections for easier reading)'' Reserved, 5 lower bits are bit fieldDisposal method 1: do not disposeNo user inputTransparent color, 0 means not given 324 09 00 9 Frame delay: 0.09 second delay before painting next frame 326 FF Transparent color index ''(unused in this frame)'' 327 00 End of sub-block chain for Graphic Control Extension block 328 2C ',' An Image Descriptor (introduced by 0x2C, an ASCII comma ',') 329 00 00 00 00 (0, 0) North-west corner position of image in logical screen: (0, 0) 32D 90 01 90 01 (400, 400) Frame width and height: 400400 pixels 331 00 0 Local color table: 0 means none & no interlacing 332 08 8 Minimum LZW code size for Image Data of frame #1 333 FF 255 Number of bytes of LZW image data in the following sub-block: 255 bytes 334 ...", "Image data, 255 bytes 433 FF 255 Number of bytes of LZW image data in the following sub-block, 255 bytes 434 ...", "Image data, 255 bytes ⋮ Repeat for next blocks 92C0 00 End of sub-block chain for this frame92C121'!", "'An Extension Block (introduced by an ASCII exclaimation point '!')", "92C2 F9 Graphic Control Extension for frame #2 ⋮ Repeat for next framesEDABD21'!", "'An Extension Block (introduced by an ASCII exclaimation point '!')", "EDABE F9 Graphic Control Extension for frame #44 ⋮ Image information and data for frame #44 F48F5 3B Trailer: Last byte in the file, signaling EOFThe animation delay for each frame is specified in the GCE in hundredths of a second.", "Some economy of data is possible where a frame need only rewrite a portion of the pixels of the display, because the Image Descriptor can define a smaller rectangle to be rescanned instead of the whole image.", "Browsers or other displays that do not support animated GIFs typically show only the first frame.The size and color quality of animated GIF files can vary significantly depending on the application used to create them.", "Strategies for minimizing file size include using a common global color table for all frames (rather than a complete local color table for each frame) and minimizing the number of pixels covered in successive frames (so that only the pixels that change from one frame to the next are included in the latter frame).", "More advanced techniques involve modifying color sequences to better match the existing LZW dictionary, a form of lossy compression.", "Simply packing a series of independent frame images into a composite animation tends to yield large file sizes.", "Tools are available to minimize the file size given an existing GIF." ], [ "Metadata", "Metadata can be stored in GIF files as a comment block, a plain text block, or an application-specific application extension block.", "Several graphics editors use unofficial application extension blocks to include the data used to generate the image, so that it can be recovered for further editing.All of these methods technically require the metadata to be broken into sub-blocks so that applications can navigate the metadata block without knowing its internal structure.The Extensible Metadata Platform (XMP) metadata standard introduced an unofficial but now widespread \"XMP Data\" application extension block for including XMP data in GIF files.", "Since the XMP data is encoded using UTF-8 without NUL characters, there are no 0 bytes in the data.", "Rather than break the data into formal sub-blocks, the extension block terminates with a \"magic trailer\" that routes any application treating the data as sub-blocks to a final 0 byte that terminates the sub-block chain.== Unisys and LZW patent enforcement ==In 1977 and 1978, Jacob Ziv and Abraham Lempel published a pair of papers on a new class of lossless data-compression algorithms, now collectively referred to as LZ77 and LZ78.In 1983, Terry Welch developed a fast variant of LZ78 which was named Lempel–Ziv–Welch (LZW).Welch filed a patent application for the LZW method in June 1983.The resulting patent, US4558302, granted in December 1985, was assigned to Sperry Corporation who subsequently merged with Burroughs Corporation in 1986 and formed Unisys.", "Further patents were obtained in the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Italy, Japan and Canada.In addition to the above patents, Welch's 1983 patent also includes citations to several other patents that influenced it, including:* two 1980 Japanese patents from NEC's Jun Kanatsu,* (1974) from John S. Hoerning,* (1977) from Klaus E. Holtz, and* a 1981 German patent from Karl Eckhart Heinz.In June 1984, an article by Welch was published in the IEEE magazine which publicly described the LZW technique for the first time.", "LZW became a popular data compression technique and, when the patent was granted, Unisys entered into licensing agreements with over a hundred companies.The popularity of LZW led CompuServe to choose it as the compression technique for their version of GIF, developed in 1987.At the time, CompuServe was not aware of the patent.", "Unisys became aware that the version of GIF used the LZW compression technique and entered into licensing negotiations with CompuServe in January 1993.The subsequent agreement was announced on 24 December 1994.Unisys stated that they expected all major commercial on-line information services companies employing the LZW patent to license the technology from Unisys at a reasonable rate, but that they would not require licensing, or fees to be paid, for non-commercial, non-profit GIF-based applications, including those for use on the on-line services.Following this announcement, there was widespread condemnation of CompuServe and Unisys, and many software developers threatened to stop using GIF.", "The PNG format (see below) was developed in 1995 as an intended replacement.", "However, obtaining support from the makers of Web browsers and other software for the PNG format proved difficult and it was not possible to replace GIF, although PNG has gradually increased in popularity.", "Therefore, GIF variations without LZW compression were developed.", "For instance the libungif library, based on Eric S. Raymond's giflib, allows creation of GIFs that followed the data format but avoided the compression features, thus avoiding use of the Unisys LZW patent.", "A 2001 ''Dr.", "Dobb's'' article described a way to achieve LZW-compatible encoding without infringing on its patents.In August 1999, Unisys changed the details of their licensing practice, announcing the option for owners of certain non-commercial and private websites to obtain licenses on payment of a one-time license fee of $5000 or $7500.Such licenses were not required for website owners or other GIF users who had used licensed software to generate GIFs.", "Nevertheless, Unisys was subjected to thousands of online attacks and abusive emails from users believing that they were going to be charged $5000 or sued for using GIFs on their websites.", "Despite giving free licenses to hundreds of non-profit organizations, schools and governments, Unisys was completely unable to generate any good publicity and continued to be condemned by individuals and organizations such as the League for Programming Freedom who started the \"Burn All GIFs\" campaign in 1999.The United States LZW patent expired on 20 June 2003.The counterpart patents in the United Kingdom, France, Germany and Italy expired on 18 June 2004, the Japanese patents expired on 20 June 2004, and the Canadian patent expired on 7 July 2004.Consequently, while Unisys has further patents and patent applications relating to improvements to the LZW technique, LZW itself (and consequently GIF) have been free to use since July 2004." ], [ "Alternatives", "===PNG===Portable Network Graphics (PNG) was designed as a replacement for GIF in order to avoid infringement of Unisys' patent on the LZW compression technique.", "PNG offers better compression and more features than GIF, animation being the only significant exception.", "PNG is more suitable than GIF in instances where true-color imaging and alpha transparency are required.Although support for PNG format came slowly, new web browsers support PNG.", "Older versions of Internet Explorer do not support all features of PNG.", "Versions 6 and earlier do not support alpha channel transparency without using Microsoft-specific HTML extensions.", "Gamma correction of PNG images was not supported before version 8, and the display of these images in earlier versions may have the wrong tint.For identical 8-bit (or lower) image data, PNG files are typically smaller than the equivalent GIFs, due to the more efficient compression techniques used in PNG encoding.", "Complete support for GIF is complicated chiefly by the complex canvas structure it allows, though this is what enables the compact animation features.===Animation formats===Videos resolve many issues that GIFs present through common usage on the web.", "They include drastically smaller file sizes, the ability to surpass the 8-bit color restriction, and better frame-handling and compression through inter-frame coding.", "Virtually universal support for the GIF format in web browsers and a lack of official support for video in the HTML standard caused GIF to rise to prominence for the purpose of displaying short video-like files on the web.", "* MNG (\"Multiple-image Network Graphics\") was originally developed as a PNG-based solution for animations.", "MNG reached version 1.0 in 2001, but few applications support it.", "* APNG (\"Animated Portable Network Graphics\") was proposed by Mozilla in 2006.APNG is an extension to the PNG format as alternative to the MNG format.", "APNG is supported by most browsers as of 2019.APNG provides the ability to animate PNG files, while retaining backwards compatibility in decoders that cannot understand the animation chunk (unlike MNG).", "Older decoders will simply render the first frame of the animation.", ": The PNG group officially rejected APNG as an official extension on 20 April 2007.: There have been several subsequent proposals for a simple animated graphics format based on PNG using several different approaches.", "Nevertheless, APNG is still under development by Mozilla and is supported in Firefox 3.0 while MNG support was dropped.", "APNG is currently supported by all major web browsers including Chrome (since version 59.0), Opera, Firefox and Edge.", "* Embedded Adobe Flash objects and* MPEG files were used on some websites to display simple video, but required the use of an additional browser plugin.", "* WebM and WebP are in development and are supported by some web browsers.", "* Other options for web animation include serving individual frames using AJAX, or * animating SVG (\"Scalable vector graphics\") images using JavaScript or SMIL (\"Synchronized Multimedia Integration Language\").", "* With the introduction of widespread support of the HTML5 video () tag in most web browsers, some websites use a looped version of the video tag generated by JavaScript functions.", "This gives the appearance of a GIF, but with the size and speed advantages of compressed video.", ": Notable examples are Gfycat and Imgur and their GIFV metaformat, which is really a video tag playing a looped MP4 or WebM compressed video.", "* HEIF (\"High Efficiency Image File Format\") is an image file format, finalized in 2015, which uses a discrete cosine transform (DCT) lossy compression algorithm based on the HEVC video format, and related to the JPEG image format.", "In contrast to JPEG, HEIF supports animation.", ": Compared to the GIF format, which lacks DCT compression, HEIF allows significantly more efficient compression.", "HEIF stores more information and produces higher-quality animated images at a small fraction of an equivalent GIF's size.", "* VP9 only supports alpha compositing with 4:2:0 chroma subsampling, which may be unsuitable for GIFs that combine transparency with rasterised vector graphics with fine color details.", "* AV1 video codec or AVIF can also be used either as a video or a sequenced image.====Uses====In April 2014, 4chan added support for silent WebM videos that are under 3 MB in size and 2 min in length, and in October 2014, Imgur started converting any GIF files uploaded to the site to H.264 video and giving the link to the HTML player the appearance of an actual file with a .gifv extension.In January 2016, Telegram started re-encoding all GIFs to MPEG-4 videos that \"require up to 95% less disk space for the same image quality.\"" ], [ "See also", "* AVIF* Cinemagraph, a partially animated photograph often in GIF* Clear GIF, a technique used to check content access* Comparison of graphics file formats* GIF art, a form of digital art associated with GIF* GIFBuilder, early animated GIF creation program* GNU plotutils (supports pseudo-GIF, which uses run-length encoding rather than LZW)* Microsoft GIF Animator, historic program to create simple animated GIFs* Software patent" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* The GIFLIB project* spec-gif89a.txt GIF 89a specification on w3.org* GIF 89a specification reformatted into HTML* LZW and GIF explained* Animated GIFs: a six-minute documentary produced by Off Book (web series)* GifCities (The GeoCities Animated GIF Search Engine)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Greg Egan" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Greg Egan''' (born 20 August 1961) is an Australian science fiction writer and mathematician, best known for his works of hard science fiction.", "Egan has won multiple awards including the John W. Campbell Memorial Award, the Hugo Award, and the Locus Award." ], [ "Life and work", "Egan holds a Bachelor of Science degree in Mathematics from the University of Western Australia.He published his first work in 1983.He specialises in hard science fiction stories with mathematical and quantum ontology themes, including the nature of consciousness.", "Other themes include genetics, simulated reality, posthumanism, mind uploading, sexuality, artificial intelligence, and the superiority of rational naturalism to religion.", "He often deals with complex technical material, like new physics and epistemology.", "He is a Hugo Award winner (with eight other works shortlisted for the Hugos) and has also won the John W. Campbell Memorial Award for Best Science Fiction Novel.", "His early stories feature strong elements of supernatural horror.Egan's short stories have been published in a variety of genre magazines, including regular appearances in ''Interzone'' and ''Asimov's Science Fiction''.===Mathematics===In 2014, Egan conjectured a generalization of the Grace–Danielsson Inequality about the relation of the radii of two spheres and the distance of their respective centres to fit a simplex between them to also hold in higher dimensions, which later became known as the Egan conjecture.", "A proof of the inequality being sufficient was published by him on 16 April 2018 under a blog post of John Baez.", "A proof of the inequality also being necessary was published by Sergei Drozdov on 16 October 2023 on ArXiv.In 2018, Egan described a construction of superpermutations, thus giving an upper bound to their length.", "On 27 February 2019, using ideas developed by Robin Houston and others, Egan produced a superpermutation of ''n'' = 7 symbols of length 5906, breaking previous records." ], [ "Personal life", "As of 2015, Egan lives in Perth.", "He is a vegetarian and an atheist.Egan does not attend science fiction conventions, does not sign books, and has stated that he appears in no photographs on the web, though both SF fan sites and Google Search have at times mistakenly represented photos of other people with the same name as those of the writer." ], [ "Awards", "* ''Permutation City'': John W. Campbell Memorial Award (1995)* ''Oceanic'': Hugo Award, Locus Award, Asimov's Readers' Award (1999)* ''Distress'': Kurd-Laßwitz-Preis as Best Foreign Fiction (2000)Egan's work has won the Japanese Seiun Award for best translated fiction seven times.", "''Teranesia'' was named the winner of the 2000 Ditmar Award for best novel, but Egan declined the award." ], [ "Works", "===Novels===* ''An Unusual Angle'' (1983), * ''Quarantine'' (1992), * ''Permutation City'' (1994), * ''Distress'' (1995), * ''Diaspora'' (1997), * ''Teranesia'' (1999), * ''Schild's Ladder'' (2002), * ''Incandescence'' (2008), * ''Zendegi'' (2010), * ''Dichronauts'' (2017), * ''The Book of All Skies'' (2021), * ''Scale'' (2023), * ''Morphotrophic'' (2024)====Orthogonal trilogy====* ''The Clockwork Rocket'' (2011), * ''The Eternal Flame'' (2012), * ''The Arrows of Time'' (2013), ===Collections==='''Axiomatic''' (1995), '''Our Lady of Chernobyl''' (1995), '''Luminous''' (1998), '''Dark Integers and Other Stories''' (2008), '''Crystal Nights and Other Stories''' (2009), '''Oceanic''' (2009), '''The Best of Greg Egan''' (2019), '''Instantiation''' (2020)'''Sleep and The Soul''' (2023)'''Phoresis and Other Journeys''' (2023)===Other short fiction======Excerpted===* ''Diaspora'':** \"Orphanogenesis\" in ''Interzone'' issue 123, September 1997===Academic papers===* ''An Efficient Algorithm for the Riemannian 10j Symbols'' by Dan Christensen and Greg Egan* ''Asymptotics of 10j Symbols'' by John Baez, Dan Christensen and Greg Egan* ''Conic-Helical Orbits of Planets around Binary Stars do not Exist'' by Greg Egan" ], [ "Short movies", "The production of a short film inspired by the story \"Axiomatic\" commenced in 2015, and the film was released online in October 2017." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * Greg Egan at Library of Congress Authorities — with 11 catalogue records* Stories currently online at ''Free Speculative Fiction Online''" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Guy Fawkes" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Guy Fawkes''' (; 13 April 1570 – 31 January 1606), also known as '''Guido Fawkes''' while fighting for the Spanish, was a member of a group of provincial English Catholics involved in the failed Gunpowder Plot of 1605.He was born and educated in York; his father died when Fawkes was eight years old, after which his mother married a recusant Catholic.Fawkes converted to Catholicism and left for mainland Europe, where he fought for Catholic Spain in the Eighty Years' War against Protestant Dutch reformers in the Low Countries.", "He travelled to Spain to seek support for a Catholic rebellion in England without success.", "He later met Thomas Wintour, with whom he returned to England.", "Wintour introduced him to Robert Catesby, who planned to assassinate and restore a Catholic monarch to the throne.", "The plotters leased an undercroft beneath the House of Lords; Fawkes was placed in charge of the gunpowder that they stockpiled there.", "The authorities were prompted by an anonymous letter to search Westminster Palace during the early hours of 5 November, and they found Fawkes guarding the explosives.", "He was questioned and tortured over the next few days and confessed to wanting to blow up the House of Lords.Fawkes was sentenced to be hanged, drawn and quartered.", "However, at his execution on 31 January, he died when his neck was broken as he was hanged, with some sources claiming that he deliberately jumped to make this happen; he thus avoided the agony of his sentence.", "He became synonymous with the Gunpowder Plot, the failure of which has been commemorated in the UK as Guy Fawkes Night since 5 November 1605, when his effigy is traditionally burned on a bonfire, commonly accompanied by fireworks." ], [ "Early life", "===Childhood===Fawkes was baptised on 16 April 1570 at the church of St Michael le Belfrey, York, next to York Minster (seen at left).Guy Fawkes was born in 1570 in Stonegate, York.", "He was the second of four children born to Edward Fawkes, a proctor and an advocate of the consistory court at York, and his wife, Edith.", "Guy's parents were regular communicants of the Church of England, as were his paternal grandparents; his grandmother, born Ellen Harrington, was the daughter of a prominent merchant, who served as Lord Mayor of York in 1536.Guy's mother's family were recusant Catholics, and his cousin, Richard Cowling, became a Jesuit priest.", "''Guy'' was an uncommon name in England, but may have been popular in York on account of a local notable, Sir Guy Fairfax of Steeton.The date of Fawkes's birth is unknown, but he was baptised in the church of St Michael le Belfrey, York on 16 April.", "As the customary gap between birth and baptism was three days, he was probably born about 13 April.", "In 1568, Edith had given birth to a daughter named Anne, but the child died aged about seven weeks, in November that year.", "She bore two more children after Guy: Anne (b.", "1572), and Elizabeth (b. 1575).", "Both were married, in 1599 and 1594 respectively.In 1579, when Guy was eight years old, his father died.", "His mother remarried several years later, to the Catholic Dionis Baynbrigge (or Denis Bainbridge) of Scotton, Harrogate.", "Fawkes may have become a Catholic through the Baynbrigge family's recusant tendencies, and also the Catholic branches of the Pulleyn and Percy families of Scotton, but also from his time at St. Peter's School in York.", "A governor of the school had spent about 20 years in prison for recusancy, and its headmaster, John Pulleyn, came from a family of noted Yorkshire recusants, the Pulleyns of Blubberhouses.", "In her 1915 work ''The Pulleynes of Yorkshire'', author Catharine Pullein suggested that Fawkes's Catholic education came from his Harrington relatives, who were known for harbouring priests, one of whom later accompanied Fawkes to Flanders in 1592–1593.Fawkes's fellow students included John Wright and his brother Christopher (both later involved with Fawkes in the Gunpowder Plot) and Oswald Tesimond, Edward Oldcorne and Robert Middleton, who became priests (the latter executed in 1601).After leaving school Fawkes entered the service of Anthony Browne, 1st Viscount Montagu.", "The Viscount took a dislike to Fawkes and after a short time dismissed him; he was subsequently employed by Anthony-Maria Browne, 2nd Viscount Montagu, who succeeded his grandfather at the age of 18.At least one source claims that Fawkes married and had a son, but no known contemporary accounts confirm this.===Military career===In October 1591 Fawkes sold the estate in Clifton in York that he had inherited from his father.", "He travelled to the continent to fight in the Eighty Years War for Catholic Spain against the new Dutch Republic and, from 1595 until the Peace of Vervins in 1598, France.", "Although England was not by then engaged in land operations against Spain, the two countries were still at war, and the attempted invasion of England, led by the Spanish Armada in 1588, was only five years in the past.", "He joined Sir William Stanley, an English Catholic and veteran commander in his mid-forties who had raised an army in Ireland to fight in Leicester's expedition to the Netherlands.", "Stanley had been held in high regard by Elizabeth I, but following his surrender of Deventer to the Spanish in 1587 he, and most of his troops, had switched sides to serve Spain.", "Fawkes became an alférez or junior officer, fought well at the siege of Calais in 1596, and by 1603 had been recommended for a captaincy.", "That year, he travelled to Spain to seek support for a Catholic rebellion in England.", "He used the occasion to adopt the Italian version of his name, Guido, and in his memorandum described James I (who became king of England that year) as \"a heretic\", who intended \"to have all of the Papist sect driven out of England.\"", "He denounced Scotland, and the King's favourites among the Scottish nobles, writing \"it will not be possible to reconcile these two nations, as they are, for very long\".", "Although he was received politely, the court of Philip III was unwilling to offer him any support." ], [ "Gunpowder Plot", "A contemporary engraving of eight of the thirteen conspirators, by Crispijn van de Passe.", "Fawkes is third from the right.In 1604 Fawkes became involved with a small group of English Catholics, led by Robert Catesby, who planned to assassinate the Protestant King James and replace him with his daughter, third in the line of succession, Princess Elizabeth.", "Fawkes was described by the Jesuit priest and former school friend Oswald Tesimond as \"pleasant of approach and cheerful of manner, opposed to quarrels and strife ... loyal to his friends\".", "Tesimond also claimed Fawkes was \"a man highly skilled in matters of war\", and that it was this mixture of piety and professionalism that endeared him to his fellow conspirators.", "The author Antonia Fraser describes Fawkes as \"a tall, powerfully built man, with thick reddish-brown hair, a flowing moustache in the tradition of the time, and a bushy reddish-brown beard\", and that he was \"a man of action ... capable of intelligent argument as well as physical endurance, somewhat to the surprise of his enemies.", "\"The first meeting of the five central conspirators took place on Sunday 20 May 1604, at an inn called the Duck and Drake, in the fashionable Strand district of London.", "Catesby had already proposed at an earlier meeting with Thomas Wintour and John Wright to kill the King and his government by blowing up \"the Parliament House with gunpowder\".", "Wintour, who at first objected to the plan, was convinced by Catesby to travel to the continent to seek help.", "Wintour met with the Constable of Castile, the exiled Welsh spy Hugh Owen, and Sir William Stanley, who said that Catesby would receive no support from Spain.", "Owen did, however, introduce Wintour to Fawkes, who had by then been away from England for many years, and thus was largely unknown in the country.", "Wintour and Fawkes were contemporaries; each was militant, and had first-hand experience of the unwillingness of the Spaniards to help.", "Wintour told Fawkes of their plan to \"doe some whatt in Ingland if the pece with Spaine healped us nott\", and thus in April 1604 the two men returned to England.", "Wintour's news did not surprise Catesby; despite positive noises from the Spanish authorities, he feared that \"the deeds would nott answere\".One of the conspirators, Thomas Percy, was appointed a Gentleman Pensioner in June 1604, gaining access to a house in London that belonged to John Whynniard, Keeper of the King's Wardrobe.", "Fawkes was installed as a caretaker and began using the pseudonym John Johnson, servant to Percy.", "The contemporaneous account of the prosecution (taken from Thomas Wintour's confession) claimed that the conspirators attempted to dig a tunnel from beneath Whynniard's house to Parliament, although this story may have been a government fabrication; no evidence for the existence of a tunnel was presented by the prosecution, and no trace of one has ever been found; Fawkes himself did not admit the existence of such a scheme until his fifth interrogation, but even then he could not locate the tunnel.", "If the story is true, however, by December 1604 the conspirators were busy tunnelling from their rented house to the House of Lords.", "They ceased their efforts when, during tunnelling, they heard a noise from above.", "Fawkes was sent out to investigate, and returned with the news that the tenant's widow was clearing out a nearby undercroft, directly beneath the House of Lords.The plotters purchased the lease to the room, which also belonged to John Whynniard.", "Unused and filthy, it was considered an ideal hiding place for the gunpowder the plotters planned to store.", "According to Fawkes, 20 barrels of gunpowder were brought in at first, followed by 16 more on 20 July.", "On 28 July however, the ever-present threat of the plague delayed the opening of Parliament until Tuesday, 5 November.===Overseas===In an attempt to gain foreign support, in May 1605 Fawkes travelled overseas and informed Hugh Owen of the plotters' plan.", "At some point during this trip his name made its way into the files of Robert Cecil, 1st Earl of Salisbury, who employed a network of spies across Europe.", "One of these spies, Captain William Turner, may have been responsible.", "Although the information he provided to Salisbury usually amounted to no more than a vague pattern of invasion reports, and included nothing which regarded the Gunpowder Plot, on 21 April he told how Fawkes was to be brought by Tesimond to England.", "Fawkes was a well-known Flemish mercenary, and would be introduced to \"Mr Catesby\" and \"honourable friends of the nobility and others who would have arms and horses in readiness\".", "Turner's report did not, however, mention Fawkes's pseudonym in England, John Johnson, and did not reach Cecil until late in November, well after the plot had been discovered.It is uncertain when Fawkes returned to England, but he was back in London by late August 1605, when he and Wintour discovered that the gunpowder stored in the undercroft had decayed.", "More gunpowder was brought into the room, along with firewood to conceal it.", "Fawkes's final role in the plot was settled during a series of meetings in October.", "He was to light the fuse and then escape across the Thames.", "Simultaneously, a revolt in the Midlands would help to ensure the capture of Princess Elizabeth.", "Acts of regicide were frowned upon, and Fawkes would therefore head to the continent, where he would explain to the Catholic powers his holy duty to kill the King and his retinue.===Discovery===''Discovery of the Gunpowder Plot'' (c. 1823), by Henry Perronet BriggsA few of the conspirators were concerned about fellow Catholics who would be present at Parliament during the opening.", "On the evening of 26 October, Lord Monteagle received an anonymous letter warning him to stay away, and to \"retyre youre self into yowre contee whence yow maye expect the event in safti for ... they shall receyve a terrible blowe this parleament\".", "Despite quickly becoming aware of the letterinformed by one of Monteagle's servantsthe conspirators resolved to continue with their plans, as it appeared that it \"was clearly thought to be a hoax\".", "Fawkes checked the undercroft on 30 October, and reported that nothing had been disturbed.", "Monteagle's suspicions had been aroused, however, and the letter was shown to King James.", "The King ordered Sir Thomas Knyvet to conduct a search of the cellars underneath Parliament, which he did in the early hours of 5 November.", "Fawkes had taken up his station late on the previous night, armed with a slow match and a watch given to him by Percy \"becaus he should knowe howe the time went away\".", "He was found leaving the cellar, shortly after midnight, and arrested.", "Inside, the barrels of gunpowder were discovered hidden under piles of firewood and coal.===Torture===Fawkes gave his name as John Johnson and was first interrogated by members of the King's Privy chamber, where he remained defiant.", "When asked by one of the lords what he was doing in possession of so much gunpowder, Fawkes answered that his intention was \"to blow you Scotch beggars back to your native mountains.\"", "He identified himself as a 36-year-old Catholic from Netherdale in Yorkshire, and gave his father's name as Thomas and his mother's as Edith Jackson.", "Wounds on his body noted by his questioners he explained as the effects of pleurisy.", "Fawkes admitted his intention to blow up the House of Lords, and expressed regret at his failure to do so.", "His steadfast manner earned him the admiration of King James, who described Fawkes as possessing \"a Roman resolution\".James's admiration did not, however, prevent him from ordering on 6 November that \"John Johnson\" be tortured, to reveal the names of his co-conspirators.", "He directed that the torture be light at first, referring to the use of manacles, but more severe if necessary, authorising the use of the rack: \"the gentler Tortures are to be first used unto him ''et sic per gradus ad ima tenditur'' and so by degrees proceeding to the worst\".", "Fawkes was transferred to the Tower of London.", "The King composed a list of questions to be put to \"Johnson\", such as \"''as to what he is'', For I can never yet hear of any man that knows him\", \"When and where he learned to speak French?", "\", and \"If he was a Papist, who brought him up in it?\"", "The room in which Fawkes was interrogated subsequently became known as the Guy Fawkes Room.Fawkes's signature of \"Guido\", made soon after his torture, is a barely evident scrawl compared to a later instance 8 days after the torture.Sir William Waad, Lieutenant of the Tower, supervised the torture and obtained Fawkes's confession.", "He searched his prisoner, and found a letter addressed to Guy Fawkes.", "To Waad's surprise, \"Johnson\" remained silent, revealing nothing about the plot or its authors.", "On the night of 6 November he spoke with Waad, who reported to Salisbury \"He Johnson told us that since he undertook this action he did every day pray to God he might perform that which might be for the advancement of the Catholic Faith and saving his own soul\".", "According to Waad, Fawkes managed to rest through the night, despite his being warned that he would be interrogated until \"I had gotton the inwards secret of his thoughts and all his complices\".", "His composure was broken at some point during the following day.The observer Sir Edward Hoby remarked \"Since Johnson's being in the Tower, he beginneth to speak English\".", "Fawkes revealed his true identity on 7 November, and told his interrogators that there were five people involved in the plot to kill the King.", "He began to reveal their names on 8 November, and told how they intended to place Princess Elizabeth on the throne.", "His third confession, on 9 November, implicated Francis Tresham.", "Following the Ridolfi plot of 1571, prisoners were made to dictate their confessions, before copying and signing them, if they still could.", "Although it is uncertain if he was tortured on the rack, Fawkes's scrawled signature suggests the suffering he endured at the hands of his interrogators." ], [ "Trial and execution", "The trial of eight of the plotters began on Monday 27 January 1606.Fawkes shared the barge from the Tower to Westminster Hall with seven of his co-conspirators.", "They were kept in the Star Chamber before being taken to Westminster Hall, where they were displayed on a purpose-built scaffold.", "The King and his close family, watching in secret, were among the spectators as the Lords Commissioners read out the list of charges.", "Fawkes was identified as Guido Fawkes, \"otherwise called Guido Johnson\".", "He pleaded not guilty, despite his apparent acceptance of guilt from the moment he was captured.Claes (Nicolaes) Jansz Visscher, depicting Fawkes's public execution in WestminsterThe jury found all the defendants guilty, and the Lord Chief Justice Sir John Popham pronounced them guilty of high treason.", "The Attorney General Sir Edward Coke told the court that each of the condemned would be drawn backwards to his death, by a horse, his head near the ground.", "They were to be \"put to death halfway between heaven and earth as unworthy of both\".", "Their genitals would be cut off and burnt before their eyes, and their bowels and hearts removed.", "They would then be decapitated, and the dismembered parts of their bodies displayed so that they might become \"prey for the fowls of the air\".", "Fawkes's and Tresham's testimony regarding the Spanish treason was read aloud, as well as confessions related specifically to the Gunpowder Plot.", "The last piece of evidence offered was a conversation between Fawkes and Wintour, who had been kept in adjacent cells.", "The two men apparently thought they had been speaking in private, but their conversation was intercepted by a government spy.", "When the prisoners were allowed to speak, Fawkes explained his not guilty plea as ignorance of certain aspects of the indictment.On 31 January 1606, Fawkes and three others – Thomas Wintour, Ambrose Rookwood, and Robert Keyes – were dragged from the Tower on wattled hurdles to the Old Palace Yard at Westminster, opposite the building they had attempted to destroy.", "His fellow plotters were then hanged and quartered.", "Fawkes was the last to stand on the scaffold.", "He asked for forgiveness of the King and state, while keeping up his \"crosses and idle ceremonies\" (Catholic practices).", "Weakened by torture and aided by the hangman, Fawkes began to climb the ladder to the noose, but either through jumping to his death or climbing too high so the rope was incorrectly set, he managed to avoid the agony of the latter part of his execution by breaking his neck.", "His lifeless body was nevertheless quartered and, as was the custom, his body parts were then distributed to \"the four corners of the kingdom\", to be displayed as a warning to other would-be traitors." ], [ "Legacy", "''Procession of a Guy'' (1864)Children preparing for Guy Fawkes night celebrations (1954)On 5 November 1605, Londoners were encouraged to celebrate the King's escape from assassination by lighting bonfires, provided that \"this testemonye of joy be carefull done without any danger or disorder\".", "An Act of Parliament designated each 5 November as a day of thanksgiving for \"the joyful day of deliverance\", and remained in force until 1859.Fawkes was one of 13 conspirators, but he is the individual most associated with the plot.In Britain, 5 November has variously been called Guy Fawkes Night, Guy Fawkes Day, Plot Night, and Bonfire Night (which can be traced directly back to the original celebration of 5 November 1605).", "Bonfires were accompanied by fireworks from the 1650s onwards, and it became the custom after 1673 to burn an effigy (usually of the pope) when heir presumptive James, Duke of York, converted to Catholicism.", "Effigies of other notable figures have found their way onto the bonfires, such as Paul Kruger, Margaret Thatcher, Liz Truss, Rishi Sunak and Vladimir Putin.", "The \"guy\" is normally created by children from old clothes, newspapers, and a mask.", "During the 19th century, \"guy\" came to mean an oddly dressed person, while in many places it has lost any pejorative connotation and instead refers to any male person and the plural form can refer to people of any gender (as in \"you guys\").James Sharpe, professor of history at the University of York, has described how Guy Fawkes came to be toasted as \"the last man to enter Parliament with honest intentions\".", "William Harrison Ainsworth's 1841 historical romance ''Guy Fawkes; or, The Gunpowder Treason'' portrays Fawkes in a generally sympathetic light, and his novel transformed Fawkes in the public perception into an \"acceptable fictional character\".", "Fawkes subsequently appeared as \"essentially an action hero\" in children's books and penny dreadfuls such as ''The Boyhood Days of Guy Fawkes; or, The Conspirators of Old London'', published around 1905.According to historian Lewis Call, Fawkes is now \"a major icon in modern political culture\" whose face has become \"a potentially powerful instrument for the articulation of postmodern anarchism\" in the late 20th century.", "Fawkes is regarded by some as a martyr, political rebel or freedom-fighter, especially amongst a minority of Catholics in the United Kingdom." ], [ "References", "'''Footnotes''''''Citations''''''Bibliography'''* ** * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Guy Fawkes story from the BBC, including archive video clips* * The Trials of Robert Winter, Thomas Winter, Guy Fawkes, John Grant, Ambrose Rookwood, Robert Keyes, Thomas Bates, and Sir Everard Digby* Guy Fawkes Attainder from the Parliamentary Archives" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Goodtimes virus" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Goodtimes virus''', also styled as '''Good Times virus''', was a computer virus hoax that spread during the early years of the Internet's popularity.", "Warnings about a computer virus named \"Good Times\" began being passed around among Internet users in 1994.The Goodtimes virus was supposedly transmitted via an email bearing the subject header \"Good Times\" or \"Goodtimes\", hence the virus's name, and the warning recommended deleting any such email unread.", "The virus described in the warnings did not exist, but the warnings themselves were, in effect, virus-like.", "In 1997 the Cult of the Dead Cow hacker collective announced that they had been responsible for the perpetration of the \"Good Times\" virus hoax as an exercise to \"prove the gullibility of self-proclaimed 'experts' on the Internet\"." ], [ "History", "The first recorded email warnings about the Good Times virus showed up on 15 November 1994.The first message was brief, a simple five sentence email with a Christmas greeting, advising recipients not to open email messages with the subject \"GOOD TIMES\", as doing so would \"ruin\" their files.", "Later messages became more intricate.", "The most common versions—the \"Infinite loop\" and \"ASCII buffer\" editions—were much longer, containing descriptions of what exactly Good Times would do to the computer of someone who opened it, as well as comparisons to other viruses of the time, and references to a U.S. Federal Communications Commission warning.", "The warning emails themselves usually contained the very subject line warned against." ], [ "Sample email" ], [ "Purported effects", "The longer version of the Good Times warning contained descriptions of what Good Times was supposedly capable of doing to computers.", "In addition to sending itself to every email address in a recipient's received or sent mail, the Good Times virus caused a wide variety of other effects.", "For example, one version said that if an infected computer contained a hard drive, it could be destroyed.", "If Good Times was not stopped in time, an infected computer would enter an \"nth-complexity infinite binary loop\" (a meaningless term), damaging the processor.", "The \"ASCII\" buffer email described the mechanism of Good Times as a buffer overflow." ], [ "Hoaxes similar to Good Times", "A number of computer virus hoaxes appeared after the Good Times hoax had begun to be widely shared.", "These messages were similar in form to Good Times, warning users not to open messages bearing particular subject lines.", "Subject lines mentioned in these emails include \"Penpal greetings\", \"Free Money\", \"Deeyenda\", \"Invitation\", and \"Win a Holiday\".The Bad Times computer virus warning is generally considered to be a spoof of the Good Times warning." ], [ "Viruses that function like Good Times", "Developments in mail systems, such as Microsoft Outlook, without sufficient thought for security implications, made viruses that indeed propagate themselves via email possible.", "Notable examples include the Melissa worm, the ILOVEYOU virus, and the Anna Kournikova virus.", "In some cases, a user must open a document or program contained in an email message in order to spread the virus; in others, notably the Kak worm, merely opening or previewing an email message itself will trigger the virus.Some e-mail viruses written after the Good Times scare contained text announcing that \"This virus is called 'Good Times, presumably hoping to gain kudos amongst other virus writers by appearing to have created a worldwide scare.", "In general, virus researchers avoided naming these viruses as \"Good Times\", but an obvious potential for confusion exists, and some anti-virus tools may well detect a real virus they identify as \"Good Times\", though this will not be the cause of the original scare." ], [ "Spoofs", "Weird Al Yankovic made a song parody of the virus titled \"Virus Alert\".The Bad Times virus hoax was created years later." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gary Snyder" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Gary Snyder''' (born May 8, 1930) is an American poet, essayist, lecturer, and environmental activist.", "His early poetry has been associated with the Beat Generation and the San Francisco Renaissance and he has been described as the \"poet laureate of Deep Ecology\".Snyder is a winner of a Pulitzer Prize for Poetry and the American Book Award.", "His work, in his various roles, reflects an immersion in both Buddhist spirituality and nature.", "He has translated literature into English from ancient Chinese and modern Japanese.", "For many years, Snyder was an academic at the University of California, Davis, and for a time served as a member of the California Arts Council." ], [ "Life and career", "===Early life===Snyder was born in San Francisco, California, to Harold and Lois Hennessy Snyder.", "Snyder is of German, Scottish, Irish and English ancestry.", "His family, impoverished by the Great Depression, moved to King County, Washington, when he was two years old.", "There, they tended dairy-cows, kept laying-hens, had a small orchard, and made cedar-wood shingles.", "At the age of seven, Snyder was laid up for four months by an accident.", "\"So my folks brought me piles of books from the Seattle Public Library,\" he recalled in an interview, \"and it was then I really learned to read and from that time on was voracious — I figure that accident changed my life.", "At the end of four months, I had read more than most kids do by the time they're eighteen.", "And I didn't stop.\"", "Also during his ten childhood years in Washington, Snyder became aware of the presence of the Coast Salish people and developed an interest in the Native American peoples in general and their traditional relationship with nature.In 1942, following his parents' divorce, Snyder moved to Portland, Oregon, with his mother and his younger sister, Anthea.", "Their mother, Lois Snyder Hennessy (born Wilkey), worked during this period as a reporter for ''The Oregonian''.", "One of his boyhood jobs was as a newspaper copy-boy at the ''Oregonian''.", "During his teen years, he attended Lincoln High School, worked as a camp counselor, and went mountain-climbing with the Mazamas youth-group.", "Climbing remained an interest of his, especially during his twenties and thirties.", "In 1947, he started attending Reed College on a scholarship.", "Here, he met, and, for a time, roomed with the writer Carl Proujan, and became acquainted with the young poets Philip Whalen and Lew Welch.", "During his time at Reed, Snyder published his first poems in a student journal.", "In 1948 he spent the summer working as a seaman.", "To get this job, he joined the now-defunct Marine Cooks and Stewards union, and would later work as a seaman in the mid-1950s to gain experience of other cultures in port cities.", "Snyder married Alison Gass in 1950; they separated after seven months, and divorced in 1952.While attending Reed, Snyder conducted folklore research on the Warm Springs Indian Reservation in central Oregon.", "He graduated with a dual degree in anthropology and literature in 1951.Snyder's senior thesis, entitled ''The Dimensions of a Myth'', employed perspectives from anthropology, folklore, psychology, and literature to examine a myth of the Pacific Northwest's Haida people.", "He spent the following few summers working as a timber scaler at Warm Springs, developing relationships with its people that were rooted less in academia.", "This experience formed the basis for some of his earliest published poems (including \"A Berry Feast\"), later collected in the book ''The Back Country''.", "He also encountered the basic ideas of Buddhism and, through its arts, some East Asian traditional attitudes toward nature.", "He went to Indiana University with a graduate fellowship to study anthropology.", "(Snyder also began practicing self-taught Zen meditation.)", "He left after a single semester to return to San Francisco and to 'sink or swim as a poet'.", "Snyder worked for two summers in the North Cascades in Washington as a fire lookout, on Crater Mountain in 1952 and Sourdough Mountain in 1953 (both locations on the upper Skagit River).", "His attempts to get another lookout stint in 1954 (at the peak of McCarthyism), however, failed.", "He found himself barred from working for the government due to his association with the Marine Cooks and Stewards.", "Instead, he went back to Warm Springs to work in logging as a choker setter.", "This experience contributed to his ''Myths and Texts'' and the essay ''Ancient Forests of the Far West''.===The Beats===Back in San Francisco, Snyder lived with Whalen, who shared his growing interest in Zen.", "Snyder's reading of the writings of D. T. Suzuki had in fact been a factor in his decision not to continue as a graduate student in anthropology, and in 1953 he enrolled at the University of California, Berkeley, to study Asian culture and languages.", "He studied ink and wash painting under Chiura Obata and Tang dynasty poetry under Ch'en Shih-hsiang.", "Snyder continued to spend summers working in the forests, including one summer as a trail-builder in Yosemite.", "He spent some months in 1955 and 1956 living in a cabin (which he dubbed \"Marin-an\") outside Mill Valley, California with Jack Kerouac.", "It was also at this time that Snyder was an occasional student at the American Academy of Asian Studies, where Saburo Hasegawa and Alan Watts, among others, were teaching.", "Hasegawa introduced Snyder to the treatment of landscape painting as a meditative practice.", "This inspired Snyder to attempt something equivalent in poetry, and with Hasegawa's encouragement, he began work on ''Mountains and Rivers Without End'', which would be completed and published 40 years later.", "During these years, Snyder was writing and collecting his own work, as well as embarking on the translation of the \"Cold Mountain\" poems by the 8th-century Chinese recluse Han Shan; this work appeared in chapbook form in 1959, under the title ''Riprap & Cold Mountain Poems''.Snyder met Allen Ginsberg when the latter sought Snyder out on the recommendation of Kenneth Rexroth.", "Then, through Ginsberg, Snyder and Kerouac came to know each other.", "This period provided the materials for Kerouac's novel ''The Dharma Bums'', and Snyder was the inspiration for the novel's main character, Japhy Ryder, in the same way Neal Cassady had inspired Dean Moriarty in ''On the Road''.", "As the large majority of people in the Beat movement had urban backgrounds, writers like Ginsberg and Kerouac found Snyder, with his backcountry and manual-labor experience and interest in things rural, a refreshing and almost exotic individual.", "Lawrence Ferlinghetti later referred to Snyder as 'the Thoreau of the Beat Generation'.Snyder read his poem \"A Berry Feast\" at the poetry reading at the Six Gallery in San Francisco (October 7, 1955) that heard the first reading of Ginsberg's poem \"Howl\" and marked the emergence into mainstream publicity of the Beats.", "This also marked Snyder's first involvement with the Beats, although he was not a member of the original New York circle, having entered the scene through his association with Whalen and Welch.", "As recounted in Kerouac's ''Dharma Bums'', even at age 25 Snyder felt he could have a role in the fateful future meeting of West and East.", "Snyder's first book, ''Riprap'', which drew on his experiences as a forest lookout and on the trail crew in Yosemite, was published in 1959.===Japan and India===Independently, some of the Beats, including Whalen, had become interested in Zen, but Snyder was one of the more serious scholars of the subject among them, preparing in every way he could think of for eventual study in Japan.", "In 1955, the First Zen Institute of America offered him a scholarship for a year of Zen training in Japan, but the State Department refused to issue him a passport, informing him that \"it has been alleged you are a Communist.\"", "A subsequent District of Columbia Court of Appeals ruling forced a change in policy, and Snyder got his passport.", "In the end, his expenses were paid by Ruth Fuller Sasaki, for whom he was supposed to work; but initially he served as personal attendant and English tutor to Zen abbot Miura Isshu, at Rinko-in, a temple in Shokoku-ji in Kyoto, where American Buddhist popularizer Dwight Goddard and British author and Japanese culture devotee R. H. Blyth had preceded him.", "Mornings, after ''zazen'', ''sutta'' chanting, and chores for the abbot, he took Japanese classes, bringing his spoken Japanese up to a level sufficient for ''kōan'' study.", "He developed a friendship with Philip Yampolsky an eminent translator and scholar of Zen Buddhism, who took him around Kyoto.", "In early July 1955, he took refuge and requested to become Miura's disciple, thus formally becoming a Buddhist.In 1958, he returned to California via the Persian Gulf, Turkey, Sri Lanka and various Pacific Islands, voyaging as a crewman in the engine room on the oil tanker ''Sappa Creek'', and took up residence at Marin-an again.", "He turned one room into a ''zendo'', with about six regular participants.", "In early June, he met the poet Joanne Kyger.", "She became his girlfriend, and eventually his wife.", "In 1959, he shipped for Japan again, where he rented a cottage outside Kyoto.", "He became the first foreign disciple of Rinzai ''Rōshi'' Oda Sesso, the new abbot of Daitoku-ji.", "He married Kyger on February 28, 1960, immediately after her arrival in Japan, which Fuller Sasaki insisted they do, if they were to live together and be associated with the Nichibei Daiichi Zen Kyokai,.", "Snyder and Kyger were married from 1960 to 1965.During the period between 1956 and 1969, Snyder went back and forth between California and Japan, studying Zen, working on translations with Fuller Sasaki, and finally living for a while with a group of other people on the small, volcanic island of Suwanosejima.", "His previous study of written Chinese assisted his immersion in the Zen tradition, which has its roots in Tang dynasty China, and enabled him to support himself while he was living in Japan.", "Snyder received the Zen precepts and his dharma name of ''Chofu'' (\"Listen to the Wind\"), and lived occasionally as a ''de facto'' monk, but never registered to become a priest, planning eventually to return to the United States to \"turn the wheel of the dharma\".", "During this time, he published two collections of his poems from the early to mid 1950s, ''Myths & Texts'' (1960), and ''Six Sections from Mountains and Rivers Without End'' (1965).", "This last was the beginning of a project that he was to continue working on until the late 1990s.", "Much of Snyder's poetry expresses experiences, environments, and insights involved with the work he has done for a living: logger, fire-lookout, steam-freighter crew, translator, carpenter, and itinerant poet, among other things.", "During his years in Japan, Snyder was also initiated into ''Shugendo'', a highly syncretic ascetic religious cult.In the early 1960s he traveled for six months through India with Kyger, Ginsberg, and Ginsberg's partner, the poet and actor Peter Orlovsky.", "Their sojourn took them to Sri Lanka, then to south India, and eventually travelling up into the north.", "They observed the folkways of the various peoples, went on hikes, stopped at landmarks, temples, burning ghats, monastic caves, and ashrams.", "As they went, they learned in part through conversations with many Indians and Europeans who could speak English.", "They visited numerous cities, including Madras, Calcutta, Mumbai, Banaras, Old Delhi and New Delhi, as well as Rishikesh and Hardwar, and Bodh Gaya (where Shakyamuni, the historical Buddha, attained enlightenment).", "Especially important to Snyder and Ginsberg, in Dharamashala the Dalai Lama met with them and they discussed Buddhist principles and practices.Snyder and Kyger separated soon after their trip to India, and divorced in 1965.===Dharma Bums===In the 1950s, Snyder took part in the rise of a strand of Buddhist anarchism emerging from the Beat movement.", "Snyder was the inspiration for the Japhy Ryder character in Kerouac's novel ''The Dharma Bums'' (1958).", "Snyder had spent considerable time in Japan studying Zen Buddhism, and in 1961 published an essay, \"Buddhist Anarchism\", where he described the connection he saw between these two traditions, originating in different parts of the world: \"The mercy of the West has been social revolution; the mercy of the East has been individual insight into the basic self/void.\"", "He advocated \"using such means as civil disobedience, outspoken criticism, protest, pacifism, voluntary poverty and even gentle violence\" and defended \"the right of individuals to smoke ganja, eat peyote, be polygynous, polyandrous or homosexual\" which he saw as being banned by \"the Judaeo-Capitalist-Christian-Marxist West\".===Kitkitdizze===In 1966, Snyder joined Allen Ginsberg, Richard Baker, future Roshi of the San Francisco Zen Center, and Kriyananda aka Donald J Walters, to buy in the San Juan Ridge area of the Sierra-Nevada foothills, north of Nevada City, Northern California.", "In 1967 Snyder's book ''The Back Country'' appeared, again mainly a collection of poems stretching back over about fifteen years.", "Snyder devoted a section at the end of the book to his translations of eighteen poems by Kenji Miyazawa.", "In 1970, Kitkitdizze (as he named his portion of the San Juan Ridge property) would become his home.", "By that point, Snyder had already spent the summers of 1967 and 1968 with a group of Japanese back-to-the-land drop-outs known as \"the Tribe\" on Suwanosejima (a small Japanese island in the East China Sea), where they combed the beaches, gathered edible plants, and fished.", "On the island, on August 6, 1967, he married Masa Uehara, whom he had met in Osaka a year earlier.", "In 1968, they moved to California with their infant son, Kai (born April 1968).", "Their second son, Gen, was born a year later.", "They were shortly able to move onto the San Juan Ridge property, near the South Yuba River, where they and friends built a house that drew on rural-Japanese and Native-American architectural ideas.===Later life and writings===''Regarding Wave'' appeared in January 1970, a stylistic departure offering poems that were more emotional, metaphoric, and lyrical.", "From the late 1960s, the content of Snyder's poetry increasingly had to do with family, friends, and community.", "He continued to publish poetry throughout the 1970s, much of it reflecting his re-immersion in life on the American continent and his involvement in the back-to-the-land movement in the Sierra foothills.", "His 1974 book ''Turtle Island'', titled after a Native American name for the North American continent, won a Pulitzer Prize.", "It also influenced numerous West Coast Generation X writers, including Alex Steffen, Bruce Barcott and Mark Morford.", "His 1983 book ''Axe Handles'', won an American Book Award.", "Snyder wrote numerous essays setting forth his views on poetry, culture, social experimentation, and the environment.", "Many of these were collected in ''Earth House Hold'' (1969), ''The Old Ways'' (1977), ''The Real Work'' (1980), ''The Practice of the Wild'' (1990), ''A Place in Space'' (1995), and ''The Gary Snyder Reader'' (1999).", "In 1979, Snyder published ''He Who Hunted Birds in His Father's Village: The Dimensions of a Haida Myth'', based on his Reed thesis.", "Snyder's journals from his travel in India in the mid-1960s appeared in 1983 under the title ''Passage Through India''.", "In these, his wide-ranging interests in cultures, natural history, religions, social critique, contemporary America, and hands-on aspects of rural life, as well as his ideas on literature, were given full-blown articulation.In 1986, Snyder became a professor in the writing program at the University of California, Davis.", "Snyder is now professor emeritus of English.Snyder was married to Uehara for twenty-two years; the couple divorced in 1989.Snyder married Carole Lynn Koda (October 3, 1947 – June 29, 2006), who would write ''Homegrown: Thirteen brothers and sisters, a century in America'', in 1991, and remained married to her until her death of cancer.", "She had been born in the third generation of a successful Japanese-American farming family, noted for its excellent rice.", "She shared Buddhism, extensive travels, and work with Snyder, and performed independent work as a naturalist.As Snyder's involvement in environmental issues and his teaching grew, he seemed to move away from poetry for much of the 1980s and early 1990s.", "However, in 1996 he published the complete ''Mountains and Rivers Without End'', a mixture of the lyrical and epic modes celebrating the act of inhabitation on a specific place on the planet.", "This work was written over a 40-year period.", "It has been translated into Japanese, French and Russian.", "In 2004 Snyder published ''Danger on Peaks'', his first collection of new poems in twenty years.Snyder was awarded the Levinson Prize from the journal ''Poetry'', the American Poetry Society Shelley Memorial Award (1986), was inducted into the American Academy of Arts and Letters (1987), and won the 1997 Bollingen Prize for Poetry and, that same year, the John Hay Award for Nature Writing.", "Snyder also has the distinction of being the first American to receive the Buddhism Transmission Award (for 1998) from the Japan-based Bukkyo Dendo Kyokai Foundation.", "For his ecological and social activism, Snyder was named as one of the 100 visionaries selected in 1995 by ''Utne Reader''.Snyder's life and work was celebrated in John J. Healy's 2010 documentary ''The Practice of the Wild.''", "The film, which debuted at the 53rd San Francisco International Film Festival, features wide-ranging, running conversations between Snyder and poet, writer and longtime colleague Jim Harrison, filmed mostly on the Hearst Ranch in San Simeon, California.", "The film also shows archival photographs and film of Snyder's life." ], [ "Work", "===Poetics===Snyder uses mainly common speech-patterns as the basis for his lines, though his style has been noted for its \"flexibility\" and the variety of different forms his poems have taken.", "He typically uses neither conventional meters nor intentional rhyme.", "\"Love and respect for the primitive tribe, honour accorded the Earth, the escape from city and industry into both the past and the possible, contemplation, the communal\", such, according to Glyn Maxwell, is the awareness and commitment behind the specific poems.The author and editor Stewart Brand once wrote: \"Gary Snyder's poetry addresses the life-planet identification with unusual simplicity of style and complexity of effect.\"", "According to Jody Norton, this simplicity and complexity derives from Snyder's use of natural imagery (geographical formations, flora, and fauna) in his poems.", "Such imagery can be both sensual at a personal level yet universal and generic in nature.", "In the 1968 poem \"Beneath My Hand and Eye the Distant Hills, Your Body,\" the author compares the intimate experience of a lover's caress with the mountains, hills, cinder cones, and craters of the Uintah Mountains.", "Readers become explorers on both a very private level as well as a very public and grand level.", "A simplistic touch becoming a very complex interaction occurring at multiple levels.", "This is the effect Snyder intended.", "In an interview with Faas, he states, \"There is a direction which is very beautiful, and that's the direction of the organism being less and less locked into itself, less and less locked into its own body structure and its relatively inadequate sense organs, towards a state where the organism can actually go out from itself and share itself with others.", "\"Snyder has always maintained that his personal sensibility arose from his interest in Native Americans and their involvement with nature and knowledge of it; indeed, their ways seemed to resonate with his own.", "And he has sought something akin to this through Buddhist practices, Yamabushi initiation, and other experiences and involvements.", "However, since his youth he has been quite literate, and he has written about his appreciation of writers of similar sensibilities, like D. H. Lawrence, William Butler Yeats, and some of the great ancient Chinese poets.", "William Carlos Williams was another influence, especially on Snyder's earliest published work.", "Starting in high school, Snyder read and loved the work of Robinson Jeffers, his predecessor in poetry of the landscape of the American West; but, whereas Jeffers valued nature over humankind, Snyder saw humankind as part of nature.", "Snyder commented in interviews, \"I have some concerns that I'm continually investigating that tie together biology, mysticism, prehistory, general systems theory\".", "Snyder argues that poets, and humans in general, need to adjust to very long timescales, especially when judging the consequences of their actions.", "His poetry examines the gap between nature and culture so as to point to ways in which the two can be more closely integrated.In 2004, receiving the Masaoka Shiki International Haiku Awards Grand Prize, Snyder highlighted traditional ballads and folk songs, Native American songs and poems, William Blake, Walt Whitman, Jeffers, Ezra Pound, Noh drama, Zen aphorisms, Federico García Lorca, and Robert Duncan as significant influences on his poetry, but added, \"the influence from haiku and from the Chinese is, I think, the deepest.", "\"=== Romanticism ===Snyder is among those writers who have sought to dis-entrench conventional thinking about primitive peoples that has viewed them as simple-minded, ignorantly superstitious, brutish, and prone to violent emotionalism.", "In the 1960s Snyder developed a \"neo-tribalist\" view akin to the \"post-modernist\" theory of French Sociologist Michel Maffesoli.", "The \"re-tribalization\" of the modern, mass-society world envisioned by Marshall McLuhan, with all of the ominous, dystopian possibilities that McLuhan warned of, subsequently accepted by many modern intellectuals, is not the future that Snyder expects or works toward.", "Snyder's is a positive interpretation of the tribe and of the possible future.Todd Ensign describes Snyder's interpretation as blending ancient tribal beliefs and traditions, philosophy, physicality, and nature with politics to create his own form of Postmodern environmentalism.", "Snyder rejects the perspective which portrays nature and humanity in direct opposition to one another.", "Instead, he chooses to write from multiple viewpoints.", "He purposely sets out to bring about change on the emotional, physical, and political levels by emphasizing the ecological problems faced by today's society.===Beat===Snyder is widely regarded as a member of the Beat Generation circle of writers: he was one of the poets that read at the famous ''Six Gallery'' event, and was written about in one of Kerouac's most popular novels, ''The Dharma Bums''.", "Some critics argue that Snyder's connection with the Beats is exaggerated and that he might better be regarded as a part of the San Francisco Renaissance, which developed independently.", "Snyder himself has some reservations about the label \"Beat\", but does not appear to have any strong objection to being included in the group.", "He often talks about the Beats in the first person plural, referring to the group as \"we\" and \"us\".A quotation from a 1974 interview at the University of North Dakota Writers Conference (published in ''The Beat Vision''):I never did know exactly what was meant by the term 'The Beats', but let's say that the original meeting, association, comradeship of Allen Ginsberg, myself, Michael McClure|Michael McClure, Lawrence Ferlinghetti, Philip Whalen, who's not here, Lew Welch, who's dead, Gregory Corso, for me, to a somewhat lesser extent (I never knew Gregory as well as the others) did embody a criticism and a vision which we shared in various ways, and then went our own ways for many years.", "Where we began to come really close together again, in the late '60s, and gradually working toward this point, it seems to me, was when Allen began to take a deep interest in Oriental thought and then in Buddhism which added another dimension to our levels of agreement; and later through Allen's influence, Lawrence began to draw toward that; and from another angle, Michael and I after the lapse of some years of contact, found our heads very much in the same place, and it's very curious and interesting now; and Lawrence went off in a very political direction for a while, which none of us had any objection with, except that wasn't my main focus.", "It's very interesting that we find ourselves so much on the same ground again, after having explored divergent paths; and find ourselves united on this position of powerful environmental concern, critique of the future of the individual state, and an essentially shared poetics, and only half-stated but in the background very powerfully there, a basic agreement on some Buddhist type psychological views of human nature and human possibilities.Snyder has also commented \"The term Beat is better used for a smaller group of writers ... the immediate group around Allen Ginsberg and Jack Kerouac, plus Gregory Corso and a few others.", "Many of us ... belong together in the category of the San Francisco Renaissance.", "...", "Still, beat can also be defined as a particular state of mind ... and I was in that mind for a while\"." ], [ "Bibliography", "*''Riprap and Cold Mountain Poems'' (1959)*''Myths & Texts'' (1960)*''Six Sections from Mountains and Rivers Without End'' (1965)*''The Back Country'' (Fulcrum, 1967)*''Regarding Wave'' (1969)*''Earth House Hold'' (1969)*''Smokey the Bear Sutra'' (1969)*''Turtle Island'' (1974)*''The Old Ways'' (1977)*''He Who Hunted Birds in His Father's Village: The Dimensions of a Haida Myth'' (1979)*''The Real Work: Interviews & Talks 1964-1979'' (1980)*''Axe Handles'' (1983)*''Passage Through India'' (1983)*''Left Out in the Rain'' (1988)*''The Practice of the Wild'' (1990)*''No Nature: New and Selected Poems'' (1992)*''A Place in Space'' (1995)*narrator of the audio book version of Kazuaki Tanahashi's ''Moon in a Dewdrop'' from Dōgen's ''Shōbōgenzō''*''Mountains and Rivers Without End'' (1996)*''The Geography Of Home'' (Poetry book)(1999)*''The Gary Snyder Reader: Prose, Poetry, and Translations'' (1999)*''The High Sierra of California'', with Tom Killion (2002)*''Look Out: a Selection of Writings'' (November 2002)*''Danger on Peaks'' (2005)*''Back on the Fire: Essays'' (2007)*''The Selected Letters of Allen Ginsberg and Gary Snyder, 1956-1991'' (2009)*''Tamalpais Walking'', with Tom Killion (2009)*''The Etiquette of Freedom'', with Jim Harrison (2010): film by Will Hearst with book edited by Paul Ebenkamp*''Nobody Home: Writing, Buddhism, and Living in Places'', with Julia Martin, Trinity University Press (2014)*''This Present Moment'' (April 2015)*''Distant Neighbors: The Selected Letters of Wendell Berry and Gary Snyder'' (May 2015)*''The Great Clod: Notes and Memories on Nature and History in East Asia'' (March 2016)*''Dooby Lane: Also Known as Guru Road, A Testament Inscribed in Stone Tablets by DeWayne Williams'', with Peter Goin (October 2016)*''Collected Poems'' (The Library of America, 2022) ISBN 9781598537215" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "General sources", "* Charters, Ann (ed.).", "''The Portable Beat Reader''.", "Penguin Books.", "New York.", "1992.", "(hc); (pbk)* Hunt, Anthony.", "\"Genesis, Structure, and Meaning in Gary Snyder's Mountains and Rivers Without End\" Univ.", "of Nevada Press.", "2004.", "* Knight, Arthur Winfield.", "Ed.", "''The Beat Vision'' (1987) Paragon House.", "; (pbk)* Kyger, Joanne.", "''Strange Big Moon: The Japan and India Journals: 1960–1964'' (2000) North Atlantic Books.", "* Smith, Eric Todd.", "''Reading Gary Snyder's Mountains and Rivers Without End'' (1999) Boise State University.", "* Snyder, Gary.", "''The Politics of Ethnopoetics'' (1975) Snyder essay ''A Place in Space'' * Snyder, Gary.", "1980.", "''The Real Work: Interviews & Talks 1964–1979''.", "New Directions, New York.", "(hbk); (pbk)* Stirling, Isabel.", "''Zen Pioneer: The Life & Works of Ruth Fuller Sasaki'' (2006) Shoemaker & Hoard.", "* Suiter, John.", "''Poets on the Peaks'' (2002) Counterpoint.", "; (pbk)* Western Literature Association.", "''Updating the Literary West'' (1997) Texas Christian University Press." ], [ "Further reading", "* Sherlock, John.", "(2010).", "Gary Snyder: a bibliography of works by and about Gary Snyder .", "UC Davis Library." ], [ "External links", "* * Profile at Poetry Foundation* Profile at Poets.org* Snyder talk \"Mountains and Rivers without End\" at the Smithsonian Museums of Asian art (Audio 1 hr) at 12 July 2008.Talk programme* \"The Wild Mind Of Gary Snyder\" by Trevor Carolan and \"Writers and the War Against Nature\" by Gary Snyder in ''Shambhala Sun'' magazine* 2007 Public Access TV interview (Nevada County TeleVision), 61 minutes * \"Gary Snyder\" by Bert Almon from the Western Writers Series Digital Editions at Boise State University* ''New York Times'' profile \"A Poem, 40 Years Long\" 6 October 1996* Gary Snyder on Art, Anarchy and the Environment (2010 San Francisco Film Society interview)* Gary Snyder Papers at Special Collections Dept., University Library, University of California, Davis* Gary Snyder.", "Letters to Shandel Parks MSS 719.Special Collections & Archives, UC San Diego Library.", "* Records of Gary Snyder are held by Simon Fraser University's Special Collections and Rare Books* Western American Literature Journal: Gary Snyder" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gonzo journalism" ], [ "Introduction", "The \"Gonzo fist\", characterized by two thumbs and four fingers holding a peyote button, was originally used in Hunter S. Thompson's 1970 campaign for sheriff of Pitkin County, Colorado.", "It has since evolved into a symbol for gonzo journalism.", "'''Gonzo journalism''' is a style of journalism that is written without claims of objectivity, often including the reporter as part of the story using a first-person narrative.", "The word \"gonzo\" is believed to have been first used in 1970 to describe an article about the Kentucky Derby by Hunter S. Thompson, who popularized the style.", "It is an energetic first-person participatory writing style in which the author is a protagonist, and it draws its power from a combination of social critique and self-satire.", "It has since been applied to other subjective artistic endeavors.Gonzo journalism involves an approach to accuracy that concerns the reporting of personal experiences and emotions, in contrast to traditional journalism, which favors a detached style and relies on facts or quotations that can be verified by third parties.", "Gonzo journalism disregards the strictly edited product once favored by newspaper media and strives for a more personal approach; the personality of a piece is as important as the event or actual subject of the piece.", "Use of sarcasm, humour, exaggeration, and profanity is common.Thompson, who was among the forefathers of the New Journalism movement, said in the February 15, 1973, issue of ''Rolling Stone'', \"If I'd written the truth I knew for the past ten years, about 600 people—including me—would be rotting in prison cells from Rio to Seattle today.", "Absolute truth is a very rare and dangerous commodity in the context of professional journalism.\"" ], [ "Etymology", "The term \"gonzo\" was first used in connection with Hunter S. Thompson by ''The Boston Globe'' magazine editor Bill Cardoso in 1970.He described Thompson's article \"The Kentucky Derby Is Decadent and Depraved\", which was written for the June 1970 edition of ''Scanlan's Monthly'', as \"pure Gonzo journalism\".", "This predates the December 1970 debut of the Muppet of that name in ''The Great Santa Claus Switch''.", "Cardoso said \"gonzo\" was South Boston Irish slang describing the last man standing after an all-night drinking marathon.", "He also said it was a corruption of the French Canadian word ''gonzeaux'', which means \"shining path\", although this is disputed.Another speculation is that the word may have been inspired by the 1960 hit song \"Gonzo\" by New Orleans rhythm and blues pianist James Booker.", "This possibility is supported by a 2007 oral biography of Thompson, which states that the term is taken from a song by Booker but does not explain why Thompson or Cardoso would have chosen the term to describe Thompson's journalism.", "The 2013 documentary ''Bayou Maharaja: The Tragic Genius of James Booker'' quotes Thompson's literary executor as saying that the song was the origin of the term.", "According to a Greg Johnson biographical note on Booker, the song title \"Gonzo\" comes from a character in a movie called ''The Pusher'', which in turn may have been inspired by a 1956 Evan Hunter novel of the same title.Thompson himself first used the term referring to his own work on page 12 of the counterculture classic ''Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas''.", "He wrote, \"But what ''was'' the story?", "Nobody had bothered to say.", "So we would have to drum it up on our own.", "Free Enterprise.", "The American Dream.", "Horatio Alger gone mad on drugs in Las Vegas.", "Do it ''now'': pure Gonzo journalism.", "\"Lexico proposes etymology from (simpleton, dolt) and/or (dolt, goose)." ], [ "Hunter S. Thompson", "Thompson based his style on William Faulkner's notion that \"fiction is often the best fact\".", "While the things that Thompson wrote about are basically true, he used satirical devices to drive his points home.", "He often wrote about recreational drugs and alcohol use, which added subjective flair to his reporting.", "The term \"gonzo\" has also come into (sometimes pejorative) use to describe journalism in Thompson's style, characterized by a drug-fueled stream of consciousness writing technique.", "''Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas'' followed the Mint 400 piece in 1971 and included a main character by the name of Raoul Duke, accompanied by his attorney, Dr. Gonzo, with defining art by Ralph Steadman.", "Although this book is considered a prime example of gonzo journalism, Thompson regarded it as a failed experiment.", "He had intended it to be an unedited record of everything he did as it happened, but he edited the book five times before publication.Thompson would instigate events himself, often in a prankish or belligerent manner, and then document both his actions and those of others.", "Notoriously neglectful of deadlines, Thompson often annoyed his editors because he submitted articles late, \"too late to be edited, yet still in time for the printer\".", "Thompson wanted his work to be read as he wrote it, in its \"true Gonzo\" form.", "Historian Douglas Brinkley said gonzo journalism requires virtually no rewriting and frequently uses transcribed interviews and verbatim telephone conversations.", "\"I don't get any satisfaction out of the old traditional journalist's view: 'I just covered the story.", "I just gave it a balanced view, Thompson said in an interview for the online edition of ''The Atlantic''.", "\"Objective journalism is one of the main reasons American politics has been allowed to be so corrupt for so long.", "You can't be objective about Nixon.", "\"The Gonzo Studies Society proposes eleven features that, to varying degrees, are included in Hunter S. Thompson's Gonzo journalism:* Subjectivity* Immediacy (using notes, transcripts, etc)* A blend of fact and fiction* Dark comedy* A peculiar lexis* Some kind of sidekick figure* Hyperbole and/or fantasy* Drug use* Violence* Digressions* Conspiratorial tone" ], [ "Influence and legacy", "Thompson felt that objectivity in journalism was a myth.", "Gonzo journalism has now become a ''bona fide'' style of writing that is similar to the New Journalism of the 1960s, led primarily by Tom Wolfe and also championed by Lester Bangs, George Plimpton, Terry Southern, and John Birmingham, and is considered a subgenre of New Journalism.", "When asked whether there was a difference between the two, Thompson answered, \"Yeah, I think so.", "Unlike Tom Wolfe or Gay Talese, for instance, I almost never try to reconstruct a story.", "They're both much better reporters than I am, but then I don't really think of myself as a reporter.", "\"In 1998, Christopher Locke asserted that the webzine genre is descended from gonzo journalism, a claim that has since been extended to social media.", "Thompson's gonzo journalism influence is reflected in the current website ''Gonzo Today'' which features a top banner by Thompson's longtime illustrator Ralph Steadman, with rotating contributions by others including Thompson associate, poet Ron Whitehead.It has been claimed that Thai writer Rong Wongsawan wrote in a style that was Gonzo, beginning in the 1960s when he reported from San Francisco.", "However he wrote in Thai, and he probably developed the style independently of Hunter S. Thompson.", "He also used the style in his books Sattahip and Takli which describe American soldiers and Thai bar girls during the Vietnam War.", "His book \"The Man from Bangkok: San Francisco Culture in the 60s\" is an English translation of a book published in Thai in 1978." ], [ "See also", "* Citizen journalism* Creative nonfiction* Embedded journalism* Gonzo pornography* Immersion journalism* New Games Journalism* New Journalism* Nonfiction novel* Reportage* Roman à clef* ''Transmetropolitan''" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "General sources", "* * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * ''Gonzo Today'' – Independent gonzo journalism website with some contributions from Thompson illustrator Ralph Steadman" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Giant panda" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''giant panda''' ('''''Ailuropoda melanoleuca'''''), sometimes called a '''panda bear''' or simply '''panda''', is a bear species endemic to China.", "It is characterised by its bold black-and-white coat and rotund body.", "The name \"giant panda\" is sometimes used to distinguish it from the red panda, a neighboring musteloid.", "Though it belongs to the order Carnivora, the giant panda is a folivore, with bamboo shoots and leaves making up more than 99% of its diet.", "Giant pandas in the wild occasionally eat other grasses, wild tubers, or even meat in the form of birds, rodents, or carrion.", "In captivity, they may receive honey, eggs, fish, yams, shrub leaves, oranges, or bananas along with specially prepared food.The giant panda lives in a few mountain ranges in central China, mainly in Sichuan, and also in neighbouring Shaanxi and Gansu.", "As a result of farming, deforestation, and other development, the giant panda has been driven out of the lowland areas where it once lived, and it is a conservation-reliant vulnerable species.", "A 2007 report showed 239 pandas living in captivity inside China and another 27 outside the country.", "By December 2014, 49 giant pandas lived in captivity outside China, living in 18 zoos in 13 countries.", "Wild population estimates vary; one estimate shows that there are about 1,590 individuals living in the wild, while a 2006 study via DNA analysis estimated that this figure could be as high as 2,000 to 3,000.Some reports also show that the number of giant pandas in the wild is on the rise.", "By March 2015, the wild giant panda population had increased to 1,864 individuals.", "In 2016, it was reclassified on the IUCN Red List from \"endangered\" to \"vulnerable\", affirming decade-long efforts to save the panda.", "In July 2021, Chinese authorities also reclassified the giant panda as vulnerable.The giant panda has often served as China's national symbol, appeared on Chinese Gold Panda coins since 1982 and as one of the five Fuwa mascots of the 2008 Summer Olympics held in Beijing." ], [ "Taxonomy", "===Classification===For many decades, the precise taxonomic classification of the giant panda was under debate because it shares characteristics with both bears and raccoons.", "However in 1985, molecular studies indicate the giant panda is a true bear, part of the family Ursidae.", "These studies show it diverged about from the common ancestor of the Ursidae; it is the most basal member of this family and equidistant from all other extant bear species.", "The giant panda has been referred to as a living fossil.===Etymology===Panda cubsThe word ''panda'' was borrowed into English from French, but no conclusive explanation of the origin of the French word ''panda'' has been found.", "The closest candidate is the Nepali word ''ponya,'' possibly referring to the adapted wrist bone of the red panda, which is native to Nepal.", "In many older sources, the name \"panda\" or \"common panda\" refers to the red panda (''Ailurus fulgens''), which was described some 40 years earlier and over that period was the only animal known as a panda.", "Since the earliest collection of Chinese writings, the Chinese language has given the bear many different names, including ''mò'' (, ancient Chinese name for giant panda), ''huāxióng'' (; \"spotted bear\") and ''zhúxióng'' (; \"bamboo bear\").", "The most popular names in China today are ''dàxióngmāo'' (; ), or simply ''xióngmāo'' (; ).", "As with the word panda in English, ''xióngmāo'' () was originally used to describe just the red panda, but ''dàxióngmāo'' () and ''xiǎoxióngmāo'' (; ) were coined to differentiate between the species.", "In Taiwan, another popular name for panda is the inverted ''dàmāoxióng'' (; ), though many encyclopedias and dictionaries in Taiwan still use the \"bear cat\" form as the correct name.", "Some linguists argue, in this construction, \"bear\" instead of \"cat\" is the base noun, making the name more grammatically and logically correct, which may have led to the popular choice despite official writings.", "This name did not gain its popularity until 1988, when a private zoo in Tainan painted a sun bear black and white and created the Tainan fake panda incident.===Subspecies===The Qinling panda has a light brown and white patternTwo subspecies of giant panda have been recognized on the basis of distinct cranial measurements, colour patterns, and population genetics.", "* The nominate subspecies, ''A.", "m. melanoleuca'', consists of most extant populations of the giant panda.", "These animals are principally found in Sichuan and display the typical stark black and white contrasting colours.", "* The Qinling panda, ''A.", "m. qinlingensis'', is restricted to the Qinling Mountains in Shaanxi at elevations of .", "The typical black and white pattern of Sichuan giant pandas is replaced with a light brown and white pattern.", "The skull of ''A.", "m. qinlingensis'' is smaller than its relatives, and it has larger molars.A detailed study of the giant panda's genetic history from 2012 confirms that the separation of the Qinlin population occurred about 300,000 years ago, and reveals that the non-Qinlin population further diverged into two groups, named the Minshan and the Qionglai-Daxiangling-Xiaoxiangling-Liangshan group respectively, about 2,800 years ago.===Phylogeny===Of the eight extant species in the bear family Ursidae, the giant panda's lineage branched off the earliest." ], [ "Description", "Adults measure around long, including a tail of about , and tall at the shoulder.", "Males can weigh up to .", "Females (generally 10–20% smaller than males) can weigh as little as , but can also weigh up to .", "The average weight for adults is .The giant panda has a body shape typical of bears.", "It has black fur on its ears, eye patches, limbs and shoulders.", "The rest of the animal's coat is white.", "The bear's distinctive coat appears to serve as camouflage in both winter and summer environments.", "The white areas may serve as camouflage in snow, while the black shoulders and legs provide crypsis in shade.", "Studies in the wild have found that when viewed from a distance, the panda displays disruptive coloration while close up, they rely more on blending in.", "The black ears may signal aggressive intent, while the eye patches might facilitate them identifying one another.", "The giant panda's thick, woolly coat keeps it warm in the cool forests of its habitat.", "The panda's skull shape is typical of durophagous carnivorans.", "It has evolved from previous ancestors to exhibit larger molars with increased complexity and expanded temporal fossa.", "A giant panda has a 3D canine teeth bite force of 2603.47 newtons (265kg ) and bite force quotient of 292.Another study had a giant panda bite of 1298.9 newtons (BFQ 151.4) at canine teeth and 1815.9 newtons (BFQ 141.8) at carnassial teeth.Bones of the left forelimbThe giant panda's paw has a \"thumb\" and five fingers; the \"thumb\" – actually a modified sesamoid bone – helps it to hold bamboo while eating.", "Stephen Jay Gould discusses this feature in his book of essays on evolution and biology, ''The Panda's Thumb''.The giant panda's tail, measuring , is the second-longest in the bear family, behind the sloth bear.The giant panda typically lives around 20 years in the wild and up to 30 years in captivity.", "A female named Jia Jia was the oldest giant panda ever in captivity; she was born in 1978 and died at an age of 38 on 16 October 2016.===Pathology===A seven-year-old female named Jin Yi died in 2014 in a zoo in Zhengzhou, China, after showing symptoms of gastroenteritis and respiratory disease.", "It was found that the cause of death was toxoplasmosis, a disease caused by an obligate intracellular parasitic protozoan known as ''Toxoplasma gondii'' that infects most warm-blooded animals, including humans." ], [ "Ecology", "===Diet===Pandas eating bambooPandas eating, standing, and playingDespite its taxonomic classification as a carnivoran, the giant panda's diet is primarily herbivorous, consisting almost exclusively of bamboo.", "However, the giant panda still has the digestive system of a carnivore, as well as carnivore-specific genes, and thus derives little energy and little protein from consumption of bamboo.", "The ability to break down cellulose and lignin is very weak, and their main source of nutrients comes from starch and hemicelluloses.", "The most important part of their bamboo diet is the shoots, that are rich in starch and have up to 32% protein content.", "Accordingly, pandas have evolved a higher capability to digest starches than strict carnivores.", "During the shoot season, which lasts from April to August, they put on a lot of weight, which allows them to get through the nutrient-scarce period from late August to April, when they feed mostly on bamboo leaves.", "Pandas are born with sterile intestines and require bacteria obtained from their mother's feces to digest vegetation.", "The giant panda is a highly specialised animal with unique adaptations, and has lived in bamboo forests for millions of years.The average giant panda eats as much as of bamboo shoots a day to compensate for the limited energy content of its diet.", "Ingestion of such a large quantity of material is possible and necessary because of the rapid passage of large amounts of indigestible plant material through the short, straight digestive tract.", "It is also noted, however, that such rapid passage of digesta limits the potential of microbial digestion in the gastrointestinal tract, limiting alternative forms of digestion.", "Given this voluminous diet, the giant panda defecates up to 40 times a day.", "The limited energy input imposed on it by its diet has affected the panda's behavior.", "The giant panda tends to limit its social interactions and avoids steeply sloping terrain to limit its energy expenditures.It has been estimated that an adult panda absorbs of cyanide a day through its diet.", "To prevent poisoning, they have evolved anti-toxic mechanisms to protect themselves.", "About 80% of the cyanide is metabolized to less toxic thiocyanate and discharged in urine, while the remaining 20% is detoxified by other minor pathways.Two of the panda's most distinctive features, its large size and round face, are adaptations to its bamboo diet.", "Anthropologist Russell Ciochon observed: \"much like the vegetarian gorilla, the low body surface area to body volume of the giant panda is indicative of a lower metabolic rate.", "This lower metabolic rate and a more sedentary lifestyle allows the giant panda to subsist on nutrient poor resources such as bamboo.\"", "Similarly, the giant panda's round face is the result of powerful jaw muscles, which attach from the top of the head to the jaw.", "Large molars crush and grind fibrous plant material.The morphological characteristics of extinct relatives of the giant panda suggest that while the ancient giant panda was omnivorous 7 million years ago (mya), it only became herbivorous some 2–2.4 mya with the emergence of ''A.", "microta''.", "Genome sequencing of the giant panda suggests that the dietary switch could have initiated from the loss of the sole umami taste receptor, encoded by the genes TAS1R1 and TAS1R3 (also known as T1R1 and T1R3), resulting from two frameshift mutations within the T1R1 exons.", "Umami taste corresponds to high levels of glutamate as found in meat and may have thus altered the food choice of the giant panda.", "Although the pseudogenisation (conversion into a pseudogene) of the umami taste receptor in ''Ailuropoda'' coincides with the dietary switch to herbivory, it is likely a result of, and not the reason for, the dietary change.", "The mutation time for the T1R1 gene in the giant panda is estimated to 4.2 mya while fossil evidence indicates bamboo consumption in the giant panda species at least 7 mya, signifying that although complete herbivory occurred around 2 mya, the dietary switch was initiated prior to T1R1 loss-of-function.Pandas eat any of 25 bamboo species in the wild, such as ''Fargesia dracocephala'' and ''Fargesia rufa''.", "Only a few bamboo species are widespread at the high altitudes pandas now inhabit.", "Bamboo leaves contain the highest protein levels; stems have less.Because of the synchronous flowering, death, and regeneration of all bamboo within a species, the giant panda must have at least two different species available in its range to avoid starvation.", "While primarily herbivorous, the giant panda still retains decidedly ursine teeth and will eat meat, fish, and eggs when available.", "In captivity, zoos typically maintain the giant panda's bamboo diet, though some will provide specially formulated biscuits or other dietary supplements.Pandas will travel between different habitats if they need to, so they can get the nutrients that they need and to balance their diet for reproduction.", "For six years, scientists studied six pandas tagged with GPS collars at the Foping Reserve in the Qinling Mountains.", "They took note of their foraging and mating habits and analyzed samples of their food and feces.", "The pandas would move from the valleys into the Qinling Mountains and would only return to the valleys in autumn.", "During the summer months, bamboo shoots rich in protein are only available at higher altitudes which causes low calcium rates in the pandas.", "During breeding season, the pandas would return to lower altitudes to eat bamboo leaves rich in calcium.===Predators===Although adult giant pandas have few natural predators other than humans, young cubs are vulnerable to attacks by snow leopards, yellow-throated martens, eagles, feral dogs, and the Asian black bear.", "Sub-adults weighing up to may be vulnerable to predation by leopards." ], [ "Behavior", "The giant panda is a terrestrial animal and primarily spends its life roaming and feeding in the bamboo forests of the Qinling Mountains and in the hilly province of Sichuan.", "Giant pandas are generally solitary.", "Each adult has a defined territory and a female is not tolerant of other females in her range.", "Social encounters occur primarily during the brief breeding season in which pandas in proximity to one another will gather.", "After mating, the male leaves the female alone to raise the cub.Pandas were thought to fall into the crepuscular category, those who are active twice a day, at dawn and dusk; however, pandas may belong to a category all of their own, with activity peaks in the morning, afternoon and midnight.", "The low nutrition quality of bamboo means pandas need to eat more frequently, and due to their lack of major predators they can be active at any time of the day.", "Activity is highest in June and decreases in late summer to autumn with an increase from November through the following March.", "Activity is also directly related to the amount of sunlight during colder days.Pandas communicate through vocalisation and scent marking such as clawing trees or spraying urine.", "They are able to climb and take shelter in hollow trees or rock crevices, but do not establish permanent dens.", "For this reason, pandas do not hibernate, which is similar to other subtropical mammals, and will instead move to elevations with warmer temperatures.", "Pandas rely primarily on spatial memory rather than visual memory.Though the panda is often assumed to be docile, it has been known to attack humans.Pandas have been known to cover themselves in horse manure to protect themselves against cold temperatures.=== Olfactory communication ===Giant pandas heavily rely on olfactory communication to communicate with one another.", "Scent marks are used to spread these chemical cues and are placed on landmarks like rocks or trees.", "Chemical communication in giant pandas plays many roles in their social situations.", "Scent marks and odors are used to spread information about sexual status, whether a female is in estrus or not, age, gender, individuality, dominance over territory, and choice of settlement.Giant pandas communicate by excreting volatile compounds, or scent marks, through the anogenital gland.", "These volatile compounds are found in urine and vaginal and anal secretions from the anogenital gland.", "The anogenital gland secretes short chain fatty acids (SCFA) and aromatics, which are present in the scent marks of giant pandas.", "Giant pandas have unique positions in which they will scent mark.", "Males deposit scent marks or urine by lifting their hind leg, rubbing their backside, or standing in order to rub the anogenital gland onto a landmark.", "Females, however, exercise squatting or simply rubbing their genitals onto a landmark.The season plays a major role in mediating chemical communication.", "Depending on the season, mainly whether it is breeding season or not, may influence which odors are prioritized.", "Chemical signals can have different functions in different seasons.", "During the non-breeding season, females prefer the odors of other females because reproduction is not their primary motivation.", "However, during breeding season, odors from the opposite sex will be more attractive.Because they are solitary mammals and their breeding season is so brief, female pandas secrete chemical cues in order to let males know their sexual status.", "The chemical cues female pandas secrete can be considered to be pheromones for sexual reproduction.", "Females deposit scent marks through their urine which induces an increase in androgen levels in males.", "Androgen is a sex hormone found in both males and females; testosterone is the major androgen produced by males.", "Civetone and decanoic acid are chemicals found in female urine which promote behavioral responses in males; both chemicals are considered giant panda pheromones.", "Male pandas also secrete chemical signals that include information about their sexual reproductivity and age, which is beneficial for a female when choosing a mate.", "For example, age can be useful for a female to determine sexual maturity and sperm quality.", "Pandas are also able to determine when the signal was placed, further aiding in the quest to find a potential mate.", "However, chemical cues are not just used for communication between males and females, pandas can determine individuality from chemical signals.", "This allows them to be able to differentiate between a potential partner or someone of the same sex, which could be a potential competitor.Chemical cues, or odors, play an important role in how a panda chooses their habitat.", "Pandas look for odors that tell them not only the identity of another panda, but if they should avoid them or not.", "Pandas tend to avoid their species for most of the year, breeding season being the brief time of major interaction.", "Chemical signaling allows for avoidance and competition.", "Pandas whose habitats are in similar locations will collectively leave scent marks in a unique location which is termed \"scent stations.\"", "When pandas come across these scent stations, they are able to identify a specific panda and the scope of their habitat.", "This allows pandas to be able to pursue a potential mate or avoid a potential competitor.Pandas can assess an individual's dominance status, including their age and size, via odor cues and may choose to avoid a scent mark if the signaler's competitive ability outweighs their own.", "A pandas size can be conveyed through the height of the scent mark.", "Since larger animals can place higher scent marks, an elevated scent mark advertises a higher competitive ability.", "Age must also be taken into consideration when assessing a competitor's fighting ability.", "For example, a mature panda will be larger than a younger, immature panda and possess an advantage during a fight.===Reproduction===A giant panda cub.", "At birth, the giant panda typically weighs and measures long.Initially, the primary method of breeding giant pandas in captivity was by artificial insemination, as they seemed to lose their interest in mating once they were captured.", "This led some scientists to try extreme methods, such as showing them videos of giant pandas mating and giving the males sildenafil (commonly known as Viagra).", "Only recently have researchers started having success with captive breeding programs, and they have now determined giant pandas have comparable breeding to some populations of the American black bear, a thriving bear species.", "The normal reproductive rate is considered to be one young every two years.Panda Research and Breeding Center in Chengdu.Giant pandas reach sexual maturity between the ages of four and eight, and may be reproductive until age 20.The mating season is between March and May, when a female goes into estrus, which lasts for two or three days and only occurs once a year.", "When mating, the female is in a crouching, head-down position as the male mounts her from behind.", "Copulation time ranges from 30 seconds to five minutes, but the male may mount her repeatedly to ensure successful fertilisation.", "The gestation period is somewhere between 95 and 160 days - the variability is due to the fact that the fertilized egg may linger in the reproductive system for a while before implanting on the uterine wall.Giant pandas give birth to twins in about half of pregnancies.", "If twins are born, usually only one survives in the wild.", "The mother will select the stronger of the cubs, and the weaker cub will die due to starvation.", "The mother is thought to be unable to produce enough milk for two cubs since she does not store fat.", "The father has no part in helping raise the cub.When the cub is first born, it is pink, blind, and toothless, weighing only , or about of the mother's weight, proportionally the smallest baby of any placental mammal.", "It nurses from its mother's breast six to 14 times a day for up to 30 minutes at a time.", "For three to four hours, the mother may leave the den to feed, which leaves the cub defenseless.", "One to two weeks after birth, the cub's skin turns grey where its hair will eventually become black.", "Slight pink colour may appear on the cub's fur, as a result of a chemical reaction between the fur and its mother's saliva.", "A month after birth, the colour pattern of the cub's fur is fully developed.", "Its fur is very soft and coarsens with age.", "The cub begins to crawl at 75 to 80 days; mothers play with their cubs by rolling and wrestling with them.", "The cubs can eat small quantities of bamboo after six months, though mother's milk remains the primary food source for most of the first year.", "Giant panda cubs weigh 45 kg (100 pounds) at one year and live with their mothers until they are 18 months to two years old.", "The interval between births in the wild is generally two years.In July 2009, Chinese scientists confirmed the birth of the first cub to be successfully conceived through artificial insemination using frozen sperm.", "The cub was born at 07:41 on 23 July that year in Sichuan as the third cub of You You, an 11-year-old.", "The technique for freezing the sperm in liquid nitrogen was first developed in 1980 and the first birth was hailed as a solution to the dwindling availability of giant panda semen, which had led to inbreeding.", "Panda semen, which can be frozen for decades, could be shared between different zoos to save the species.", "It is expected that zoos in destinations such as San Diego in the United States and Mexico City will now be able to provide their own semen to inseminate more giant pandas.", "In August 2014, a rare birth of panda triplets was announced in China; it was the fourth of such births ever reported.Attempts have also been made to reproduce giant pandas by interspecific pregnancy where cloned panda embryos were implanted into the uterus of an animal of another species.", "This has resulted in panda fetuses, but no live births." ], [ "Human interaction", "===Early references===In the past, pandas were thought to be rare and noble creatures – the Empress Dowager Bo was buried with a panda skull in her vault.", "The grandson of Emperor Taizong of Tang is said to have given Japan two pandas and a sheet of panda skin as a sign of goodwill.", "Unlike many other animals in Ancient China, pandas were rarely thought to have medical uses.", "The few known uses include the Sichuan tribal peoples' use of panda urine to melt accidentally swallowed needles, and the use of panda pelts to control menstruation as described in the Qin dynasty encyclopedia ''Erya''.The creature named ''mo'' (貘) mentioned in some ancient books has been interpreted as giant panda.", "The dictionary ''Shuowen Jiezi'' (Eastern Han Dynasty) says that the ''mo'', from Shu (Sichuan), is bear-like, but yellow-and-black, although the older ''Erya'' describes ''mo'' simply as a \"white leopard\".", "The interpretation of the legendary fierce creature ''pixiu'' (貔貅) as referring to the giant panda is also common.During the reign of the Yongle Emperor (early 15th century), his relative from Kaifeng sent him a captured ''zouyu'' (騶虞), and another ''zouyu'' was sighted in Shandong.", "''Zouyu'' is a legendary \"righteous\" animal, which, similarly to a ''qilin'', only appears during the rule of a benevolent and sincere monarch.", "It is said to be fierce as a tiger, but gentle and strictly vegetarian, and described in some books as a white tiger with black spots.", "Puzzled about the real zoological identity of the creature captured during the Yongle era, Dutch Sinologist J. J. L. Duyvendak exclaimed, \"Can it possibly have been a Pandah?", "\"===Western discovery===The West first learned of the giant panda on 11 March 1869, when the French missionary Armand David received a skin from a hunter.", "The first Westerner known to have seen a living giant panda is the German zoologist Hugo Weigold, who purchased a cub in 1916.Kermit and Theodore Roosevelt Jr., became the first Westerners to shoot a panda, on an expedition funded by the Field Museum of Natural History in the 1920s.", "In 1936, Ruth Harkness became the first Westerner to bring back a live giant panda, a cub named Su Lin who went to live at the Brookfield Zoo in Chicago.", "In 1938, Floyd Tangier Smith captured and delivered five giant pandas to London, they arrived on 23 December aboard the SS ''Antenor''.", "These five were the first on British soil and were transferred to London Zoo.", "One, named Grandma, only lasted a few days.", "She was taxidermized by E. Gerrard and Sons and sold to Leeds City Museum where she is currently on display to the public.", "Another, Ming, became London Zoo's first Giant Panda.", "Her skull is held by the Royal College of Surgeons of England.===Panda diplomacy===Adult male giant panda at the San Diego Zoo in 2004In the 1970s, gifts of giant pandas to American and Japanese zoos formed an important part of the diplomacy of the People's Republic of China (PRC), as it marked some of the first cultural exchanges between China and the West.", "This practice has been termed \"panda diplomacy\".By 1984, however, pandas were no longer given as gifts.", "Instead, China began to offer pandas to other nations only on 10-year loans for a fee of up to US$1,000,000 per year and with the provision that any cubs born during the loan are the property of China.", "As a result of this change in policy, nearly all the pandas in the world are owned by China, and pandas leased to foreign zoos and all cubs are eventually returned to China.", "As of 2022, Xin Xin at the Chapultepec Zoo in Mexico City, was the last living descendant of the gifted pandas.Since 1998, because of a WWF lawsuit, the United States Fish and Wildlife Service only allows US zoos to import a panda if the zoo can ensure China channels more than half of its loan fee into conservation efforts for giant pandas and their habitat.In May 2005, China offered a breeding pair to Taiwan.", "The issue became embroiled in cross-Strait relations – due to both the underlying symbolism and technical issues such as whether the transfer would be considered \"domestic\" or \"international\" or whether any true conservation purpose would be served by the exchange.", "A contest in 2006 to name the pandas was held in the mainland, resulting in the politically charged names Tuan Tuan and Yuan Yuan (from , implying reunification).", "China's offer was initially rejected by Chen Shui-bian, then President of Taiwan.", "However, when Ma Ying-jeou assumed the presidency in 2008, the offer was accepted and the pandas arrived in December of that year.===Zoos===Pandas have been kept in zoos as early as the Western Han Dynasty in China, where the writer Sima Xiangru noted that the panda was the most treasured animal in the emperor's garden of exotic animals in the capital Chang'an (present Xi'an).", "Not until the 1950s were pandas again recorded to have been exhibited in China's zoos.Chi Chi at the London Zoo became very popular.", "This influenced the World Wildlife Fund to use a panda as its symbol.A 2006 ''New York Times'' article outlined the economics of keeping pandas, which costs five times more than keeping the next most expensive animal, an elephant.", "American zoos generally pay the Chinese government $1 million a year in fees, as part of a typical ten-year contract.", "San Diego's contract with China was to expire in 2008, but got a five-year extension at about half of the previous yearly cost.", "The last contract, with the Memphis Zoo in Memphis, Tennessee, ended in 2013.===Conservation===The giant panda is a vulnerable species, threatened by continued habitat loss and habitat fragmentation, and by a very low birthrate, both in the wild and in captivity.", "Its range is currently confined to a small portion on the western edge of its historical range, which stretched through southern and eastern China, northern Myanmar, and northern Vietnam.The giant panda has been a target of poaching by locals since ancient times and by foreigners since it was introduced to the West.", "Starting in the 1930s, foreigners were unable to poach giant pandas in China because of the Second Sino-Japanese War and the Chinese Civil War, but pandas remained a source of soft furs for the locals.", "The population boom in China after 1949 created stress on the pandas' habitat and the subsequent famines led to the increased hunting of wildlife, including pandas.", "During the Cultural Revolution, all studies and conservation activities on the pandas were stopped.", "After the Chinese economic reform, demand for panda skins from Hong Kong and Japan led to illegal poaching for the black market, acts generally ignored by the local officials at the time.Closeup of a seven-month-old panda cubIn 1963, the PRC government set up Wolong National Nature Reserve to save the declining panda population.In 2006, scientists reported that the number of pandas living in the wild may have been underestimated at about 1,000.Previous population surveys had used conventional methods to estimate the size of the wild panda population, but using a new method that analyzes DNA from panda droppings, scientists believe the wild population may be as large as 3,000.In 2006, there were 40 panda reserves in China, compared to just 13 reserves in 1998.As the species has been reclassified to \"vulnerable\" since 2016, the conservation efforts are thought to be working.", "Furthermore, in response to this reclassification, the State Forestry Administration of China announced that they would not accordingly lower the conservation level for panda, and would instead reinforce the conservation efforts.The giant panda is among the world's most adored and protected rare animals, and is one of the few in the world whose natural inhabitant status was able to gain a UNESCO World Heritage Site designation.", "The Sichuan Giant Panda Sanctuaries, located in the southwest province of Sichuan and covering seven natural reserves, were inscribed onto the World Heritage List in 2006.Not all conservationists agree that the money spent on conserving pandas is well spent.", "Chris Packham has argued that the breeding of pandas in captivity is \"pointless\" because \"there is not enough habitat left to sustain them\".", "Packham argues that the money spent on pandas would be better spent elsewhere, and has said he would \"eat the last panda if I could have all the money we have spent on panda conservation put back on the table for me to do more sensible things with\".", "He also quoted, \"The panda is possibly one of the grossest wastes of conservation money in the last half century\", though he has apologised for upsetting people who like pandas.", "However, a 2015 paper found that the giant panda can serve as an umbrella species as the preservation of their habitat also helps other endemic species in China, including 70% of the country's forest birds, 70% of mammals and 31% of amphibians.In 2012, Earthwatch Institute, a global nonprofit that teams volunteers with scientists to conduct important environmental research, launched a program called \"On the Trail of Giant Panda\".", "This program, based in the Wolong National Nature Reserve, allows volunteers to work up close with pandas cared for in captivity, and help them adapt to life in the wild, so that they may breed, and live longer and healthier lives.", "Efforts to preserve the panda bear populations in China have come at the expense of other animals in the region, including snow leopards, wolves, and dholes.In order to improve living and mating conditions for the fragmented populations of pandas, nearly 70 natural reserves have been combined to form the Giant Panda National Park in 2020.With a size of 10,500 square miles, the park is roughly three times as large as Yellowstone National Park and incorporates the Wolong National Nature Reserve.", "The state-owned Bank of China helped to enable the project with US$1.5 billion.One major aim is to permanently keep the panda population stable enough to avoid a relapse to its former IUCN Red List \"endangered\" status.", "Especially small, isolated populations run the risk of inbreeding and smaller genetic variety makes the individuals more vulnerable to various defects and genetic mutation.", "Allowing a larger group of individuals to roam through a larger area freely and choose from a greater variety of mates, helps to enrich genetic diversity of their offspring.In 2020, the panda population of the new national park was already above 1,800 individuals, which is roughly 80 percent of the entire panda population in China.", "Establishing the new protected area in the Sichuan Province also gives various other endangered or threatened species, like the Siberian tiger, the possibility to improve their living conditions by offering them a habitat.", "Other species who benefit from the protection of their habitat include the snow leopard, the golden snub-nosed monkey, the red panda and the complex-toothed flying squirrel.In July 2021, Chinese conservation authorities announced that giant pandas are no longer endangered in the wild following years of conservation efforts, with a population in the wild exceeding 1,800.China has received international praise for its conservation of the species, which has also helped the country establish itself as a leader in endangered species conservation.=== Population chart ===YearWildChangeCaptivityChangeTotalChange19761,000n/an/an/an/an/a1985800–1,200n/an/an/an/an/a1987>1,000n/an/an/an/an/a19941,200n/an/an/an/an/a19951,000 −200n/an/an/an/a20031,596 +596164n/a1,760n/a2012n/an/a341 +178n/an/a20131,864 +268375 +342,239 +479" ], [ "See also", "*Giant pandas around the world*List of giant pandas*Panda tea*Pygmy giant panda*Wildlife of China*List of endangered and protected species of China" ], [ "References", ";Notes;Bibliography* AFP (via Discovery Channel) (20 June 2006).", "Panda Numbers Exceed Expectations.", "* Associated Press (via CNN) (2006).", "Article link.", "* Catton, Chris (1990).", "''Pandas''.", "Christopher Helm.", "* Friends of the National Zoo (2006).", "''Panda Cam: A Nation Watches Tai Shan the Panda Cub Grow''.", "New York: Fireside Books.", "* Goodman, Brenda (12 February 2006).", "Pandas Eat Up Much of Zoos' Budgets.", "''The New York Times''.", "* (An earlier edition is available as ''The Smithsonian Book of Giant Pandas'', Smithsonian Institution Press, 2002, .", ")* Panda Facts At a Glance (N.d.).", "''www.wwfchina.org''.", "WWF China.", "* Ryder, Joanne (2001).", "''Little panda: The World Welcomes Hua Mei at the San Diego Zoo''.", "New York: Simon & Schuster.", "* (There are also several later reprints)* * Warren, Lynne (July 2006).", "\"Panda, Inc.\" ''National Geographic''.", "(About Mei Xiang, Tai Shan and the Wolong Panda Research Facility in Chengdu China)." ], [ "External links", "* BBC Nature: Giant panda news, and video clips from BBC programmes past and present.", "* Panda Pioneer: the release of the first captive-bred panda 'Xiang Xiang' in 2006* WWF – environmental conservation organization* Pandas International – panda conservation group* National Zoo Live Panda Cams – Baby Panda Tai Shan and mother Mei Xiang* Information from Animal Diversity* NPR News 2007/08/20 – Panda Romance Stems From Bamboo* View the panda genome on Ensembl.", "* Texts and pictures of the Panda exhibition at the Museum für Naturkunde Berlin * iPanda-50: annotated image dataset for fine-grained panda identification on Github" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Glissando" ], [ "Introduction", "In music, a '''glissando''' (; plural: ''glissandi'', abbreviated ''gliss.'')", "is a glide from one pitch to another ().", "It is an Italianized musical term derived from the French ''glisser'', \"to glide\".", "In some contexts, it is equivalent to portamento, which is a continuous, seamless glide between notes.", "In other contexts, it refers to discrete, stepped glides across notes, such as on a piano.", "Some terms that are similar or equivalent in some contexts are '''slide''', '''sweep''' '''bend''', '''smear''', '''rip''' (for a loud, violent glissando to the beginning of a note), '''lip''' (in jazz terminology, when executed by changing one's embouchure on a wind instrument), '''plop''', or '''falling hail''' (a glissando on a harp using the back of the fingernails).", "On wind instruments, a '''scoop''' is a glissando ascending to the onset of a note achieved entirely with the embouchure, except on instruments that have a slide (such as a trombone)." ], [ "Notation", "Several examples of the musical notation of glissandoThe glissando is indicated by following the initial note with a line, sometimes wavy, in the desired direction, often accompanied by the abbreviation ''gliss.''.", "Occasionally, the desired notes are notated in the standard method (i.e.", "semiquavers) accompanied by the word 'glissando'." ], [ "Discrete glissando", "On some instruments (e.g., piano, harp, xylophone), discrete tones are clearly audible when sliding.", "For example, on a keyboard, a player's fingernails can be made to slide across the white keys or over the black keys, producing either a C major scale or an F major pentatonic scale, or their relative modes; by performing both at once, it is possible to produce a full chromatic scale.", "Maurice Ravel used glissandi in many of his piano compositions, and \"Alborada del Gracioso\" contains notable piano glissando passages in thirds executed by the right hand.", "Rachmaninoff, Prokofiev, Liszt and Gershwin have all used glissandi for piano in notable compositions.Organ players—particularly in contemporary music—sometimes employ an effect known as the palm glissando, where over the course of the glissando the flat of the hand is used to depress a wide area of keys simultaneously, resulting in a dramatic atonal sweep.", "A similar device on the piano are cluster-glissandos, used extensively by Karlheinz Stockhausen in ''Klavierstück X'', and which \"more than anything else, lend the work its unique aural flavour\".", "On a harp, the player can slide their finger across the strings, quickly playing the scale (or on pedal harp even arpeggios such as C-D-E-F-G-A-B).", "Wind, brass, and fretted-stringed-instrument players can perform an extremely rapid chromatic scale (e.g., sliding up or down a string quickly on a fretted instrument).Arpeggio effects (likewise named glissando) are also obtained by bowed strings (playing harmonics) and brass, especially the horn." ], [ "Continuous glissando", "A trombone playing a glissandoMusical instruments with continuously variable pitch are capable of continuous glissando, sometimes called portamento, over a substantial range.", "These include unfretted chordophones (such as the violin, viola, cello and double bass, and fretless guitars), stringed instruments with a way of stretching the strings (such as the guitar, veena, or sitar), a fretted guitar or lap steel guitar when accompanied with the use of a slide, wind instruments without valves or stops (such as the trombone or slide whistle), timpani (kettledrums), electronic instruments (such as the theremin, the ondes Martenot, synthesizers and keytars), the water organ, and the human voice.Wind instruments can effect a similar limited slide by altering the lip pressure (on trumpet, for example) or a combination of embouchure and rolling the head joint (as on the flute), while others such as the clarinet can achieve this by slowly dragging fingers off tone holes or changing the oral cavity's resonance by manipulating tongue position, embouchure, and throat shaping.Many electric guitars are fitted with a tremolo arm which can produce either a portamento, a vibrato, or a combination of both (but not a true tremolo despite the name).Prescriptive attempts to distinguish the glissando from the portamento by limiting the former to discrete, stepped glides conflict with established usage of the term for instruments like the trombone and timpani.", "The clarinet gesture that opens ''Rhapsody in Blue'' was originally notated as a stepped glissando (Gershwin's score labels each individual note) but is in practice played as a portamento." ], [ "Bent note", "A '''bent note''' is a musical note that is varied in pitch.", "With unfretted strings or other continuous-pitch instruments such as the trombone, or with the human voice, such variation is more properly described in terms of intonation.", "A note is commonly bent to a higher pitch on fretted instruments literally by bending the string with excess finger pressure, and to a lower pitch on harmonica (a free-reed aerophone) by altering the vocal tract to shift the resonance of the reed.", "On brass instruments such as the trumpet, the note is bent by using the lip.", "\"Indeterminately pitched instruments such as unpitched percussion instruments and friction drum rolls...produce a pitch or pitch spectrum that becomes higher with an increase of dynamic and lower with a decrease of dynamic.", "\"The bent note is commonly found in various forms of jazz, blues, and rock." ], [ "See also", "*String bending*Bend (guitar)*Blue note*Blues scale*List of ornaments*Meend*Octave glissando*Portamento*Shepard tone (cf.", "''Shepard-Risset glissando'')*Staccato*Vibrato" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Boyden, David D., and Robin Stowell.", "2001.\"Glissando\".", "''The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians'', second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell.", "London: Macmillan Publishers.", "* Harris, Ellen T.", "2001.\"Portamento\".", "''The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians'', second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell.", "London: Macmillan Publishers.", "* Hoppe, Ulrich, Frank Rosanowski, Michael Döllinger, Jörg Lohscheller, Maria Schuster, and Ulrich Eysholdt.", "2003.", "\"Glissando: Laryngeal Motorics and Acoustics\".", "''Journal of Voice'' 17, no.", "3 (September): 370–76.", "* Piston, Walter.", "1955.''Orchestration''.", "New York: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Giraffe" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''giraffe''' is a large African hoofed mammal belonging to the genus '''''Giraffa'''''.", "It is the tallest living terrestrial animal and the largest ruminant on Earth.", "Traditionally, giraffes have been thought of as one species, ''Giraffa camelopardalis'', with nine subspecies.", "Most recently, researchers proposed dividing them into up to eight extant species due to new research into their mitochondrial and nuclear DNA, as well as morphological measurements.", "Seven other extinct species of ''Giraffa'' are known from the fossil record.The giraffe's chief distinguishing characteristics are its extremely long neck and legs, its horn-like ossicones, and its spotted coat patterns.", "It is classified under the family Giraffidae, along with its closest extant relative, the okapi.", "Its scattered range extends from Chad in the north to South Africa in the south, and from Niger in the west to Somalia in the east.", "Giraffes usually inhabit savannahs and woodlands.", "Their food source is leaves, fruits, and flowers of woody plants, primarily acacia species, which they browse at heights most other herbivores cannot reach.Lions, leopards, spotted hyenas, and African wild dogs may prey upon giraffes.", "Giraffes live in herds of related females and their offspring or bachelor herds of unrelated adult males, but are gregarious and may gather in large aggregations.", "Males establish social hierarchies through \"necking\", combat bouts where the neck is used as a weapon.", "Dominant males gain mating access to females, which bear sole responsibility for rearing the young.The giraffe has intrigued various ancient and modern cultures for its peculiar appearance, and has often been featured in paintings, books, and cartoons.", "It is classified by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) as vulnerable to extinction and has been extirpated from many parts of its former range.", "Giraffes are still found in numerous national parks and game reserves, but estimates as of 2016 indicate there are approximately 97,500 members of ''Giraffa'' in the wild.", "More than 1,600 were kept in zoos in 2010." ], [ "Etymology", "The name \"giraffe\" has its earliest known origins in the Arabic word (), ultimately from Persian زُرنَاپَا‎ (''zurnāpā''), a compound of زُرنَا‎ (''zurnā'', “flute, zurna”) and پَا‎ (''pā'', “leg”).", "In early Modern English the spellings and were used, probably directly from the Arabic, and in Middle English and , .", "The Italian form arose in the 1590s.", "The modern English form developed around 1600 from the French .", "\"Camelopard\" is an archaic English name for the giraffe; it derives from the Ancient Greek καμηλοπάρδαλις (''kamēlopárdalis''), from κάμηλος (''kámēlos''), \"camel\", and πάρδαλις (''párdalis''), \"leopard\", referring to its camel-like shape and leopard-like colouration." ], [ "Taxonomy", "===Evolution===The giraffe is one of only two living genera of the family Giraffidae in the order Artiodactyla, the other being the okapi.", "They are ruminants of the clade Pecora, along with Antilocapridae (pronghorns), Cervidae (deer), Bovidae (cattle, antelope, goats and sheep) and Moschidae (musk deer).", "A 2019 genome study (cladogram below) finds that Giraffidae are a sister taxon to Antilocapridae, with an estimated split of over 20 million years ago.The family Giraffidae was once much more extensive, with over 10 fossil genera described.", "The elongation of the neck appears to have started early in the giraffe lineage.", "Comparisons between giraffes and their ancient relatives suggest vertebrae close to the skull lengthened earlier, followed by lengthening of vertebrae further down.", "One early giraffid ancestor was ''Canthumeryx'', which has been dated variously to have lived , 17–15 mya or 18–14.3 mya and whose deposits have been found in Libya.", "This animal resembled an antelope and had a medium-sized, lightly built body.", "''Giraffokeryx'' appeared 15–12 mya on the Indian subcontinent and resembled an okapi or a small giraffe, and had a longer neck and similar ossicones.", "''Giraffokeryx'' may have shared a clade with more massively built giraffids like ''Sivatherium'' and ''Bramatherium''.The extinct giraffid ''Samotherium'' (middle) in comparison with the okapi (below) and giraffe.", "The anatomy of ''Samotherium'' appears to have shown a transition to a giraffe-like neck.Giraffids like ''Palaeotragus'', ''Shansitherium'' and ''Samotherium'' appeared 14 mya and lived throughout Africa and Eurasia.", "These animals had broader skulls with reduced frontal cavities.", "''Paleotragus'' resembled the okapi and may have been its ancestor.", "Others find that the okapi lineage diverged earlier, before ''Giraffokeryx''.", "''Samotherium'' was a particularly important transitional fossil in the giraffe lineage, as the length and structure of its cervical vertebrae were between those of a modern giraffe and an okapi, and its neck posture was likely similar to the former's.", "''Bohlinia'', which first appeared in southeastern Europe and lived 9–7 mya, was likely a direct ancestor of the giraffe.", "''Bohlinia'' closely resembled modern giraffes, having a long neck and legs and similar ossicones and dentition.", "''Bohlinia'' colonised China and northern India and produced the ''Giraffa'', which, around , reached Africa.", "Climate changes led to the extinction of the Asian giraffes, while the African giraffes survived and radiated into new species.", "Living giraffes appear to have arisen around in eastern Africa during the Pleistocene.", "Some biologists suggest the modern giraffes descended from ''G.", "jumae''; others find ''G.", "gracilis'' a more likely candidate.", "''G.", "jumae'' was larger and more robust, while ''G.", "gracilis'' was smaller and more slender.The changes from extensive forests to more open habitats, which began 8 mya, are believed to be the main driver for the evolution of giraffes.", "During this time, tropical plants disappeared and were replaced by arid C4 plants, and a dry savannah emerged across eastern and northern Africa and western India.", "Some researchers have hypothesised that this new habitat, coupled with a different diet, including acacia species, may have exposed giraffe ancestors to toxins that caused higher mutation rates and a higher rate of evolution.", "The coat patterns of modern giraffes may also have coincided with these habitat changes.", "Asian giraffes are hypothesised to have had more okapi-like colourations.The giraffe genome is around 2.9 billion base pairs in length, compared to the 3.3 billion base pairs of the okapi.", "Of the proteins in giraffe and okapi genes, 19.4% are identical.", "The divergence of giraffe and okapi lineages dates to around 11.5 mya.", "A small group of regulatory genes in the giraffe appear to be responsible for the animal's height and associated circulatory adaptations.===Species and subspecies===phylogenetic relationships between some giraffe subspecies based on mitochondrial DNA sequences.", "Colored dots on the map represent sampling localities.", "The phylogenetic tree is a maximum-likelihood phylogram based on samples from 266 giraffes.", "Asterisks along branches correspond to node values of more than 90% bootstrap support.", "Stars at branch tips identify paraphyletic haplotypes found in Maasai and reticulated giraffes\".The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) currently recognises only one species of giraffe with nine subspecies.Carl Linnaeus originally classified living giraffes as one species in 1758.He gave it the binomial name ''Cervus camelopardalis''.", "Mathurin Jacques Brisson coined the generic name ''Giraffa'' in 1762.During the 1900s, various taxonomies with two or three species were proposed.", "A 2007 study on the genetics of giraffes using mitochondrial DNA suggested at least six lineages could be recognised as species.", "A 2011 study using detailed analyses of the morphology of giraffes, and application of the phylogenetic species concept, described eight species of living giraffes.", "A 2016 study also concluded that living giraffes consist of multiple species.", "The researchers suggested the existence of four species, which have not exchanged genetic information between each other for 1 to 2 million years.A 2020 study showed that depending on the method chosen, different taxonomic hypotheses recognizing from two to six species can be considered for the genus ''Giraffa''.", "That study also found that multi-species coalescent methods can lead to taxonomic over-splitting, as those methods delimit geographic structures rather than species.", "The three-species hypothesis, which recognises ''G''.", "''camelopardalis'', ''G''.", "''giraffa'', and ''G''.", "''tippelskirchi'', is highly supported by phylogenetic analyses and also corroborated by most population genetic and multi-species coalescent analyses.", "A 2021 whole genome sequencing study suggests the existence of four distinct species and seven subspecies.The cladogram below shows the phylogenetic relationship between the four proposed species and seven subspecies based on the genome analysis.", "Note the eight lineages correspond to eight of the traditional subspecies in the one species hypothesis.", "The Rothschild giraffe is subsumed into ''G.", "camelopardalis camelopardalis''.The following table compares the different hypotheses for giraffe species.", "The description column shows the traditional nine subspecies in the one species hypothesis.+ Species and subspecies of giraffe Description Image Eight species taxonomy Four species taxonomy Three species taxonomy The '''Kordofan giraffe''' (''G.", "c. antiquorum'') has a distribution which includes southern Chad, the Central African Republic, northern Cameroon, and the northeastern Democratic Republic of the Congo.", "Populations in Cameroon were formerly included in ''G.", "c. peralta'', but this was incorrect.", "Compared to the Nubian giraffe, this subspecies has smaller and more irregular spotting patterns.", "Its spots may be found below the hocks and the insides of the legs.", "A median lump is present in males.", "Some 2,000 are believed to remain in the wild.", "Considerable confusion has existed over the status of this subspecies and ''G.", "c. peralta'' in zoos.", "In 2007, all alleged ''G.", "c. peralta'' in European zoos were shown to be, in fact, ''G.", "c. antiquorum''.", "With this correction, about 65 are living in zoos.150px'''Kordofan giraffe''' (''G.", "antiquorum'') '''Northern giraffe''' (''G.", "camelopardalis'') The '''Nubian giraffe''' (''G.", "c. camelopardalis''), is found in eastern South Sudan and southwestern Ethiopia, in addition to Kenya and Uganda.", "It has sharply defined chestnut-coloured spots surrounded by mostly white lines, while undersides lack spotting.", "The median lump is particularly developed in the male.", "Around 2,150 are thought to remain in the wild, with another 1,500 individuals belonging to the Rothschild's ecotype.", "With the addition of Rothschild's giraffe to the Nubian subspecies, the Nubian giraffe is very common in captivity, although the original phenotype is rare — a group is kept at Al Ain Zoo in the United Arab Emirates.", "In 2003, this group numbered 14.150px'''Nubian giraffe''' (''G.", "camelopardalis'')Also known as '''Baringo giraffe''' or '''Ugandan giraffe''''''Rothschild's giraffe''' (''G.", "c. rothschildi'') may be an ecotype of ''G.", "camelopardalis''.", "Its range includes parts of Uganda and Kenya.", "Its presence in South Sudan is uncertain.", "This giraffe has large dark patches that usually have complete margins, but may also have sharp edges.", "The dark spots may also have paler radiating lines or streaks within them.", "Spotting rarely reaches below the hocks and almost never to the hooves.", "This ecotype may also develop five \"horns\".", "Around 1,500 individuals are believed to remain in the wild, and more than 450 are living in zoos.", "According to genetic analysis circa September 2016, it is conspecific with the Nubian giraffe (''G.", "c. camelopardalis'').150px The '''West African giraffe''' (''G.", "c. peralta'') is endemic to southwestern Niger.", "This animal has a lighter pelage (fur) than other subspecies, with red lobe-shaped blotches that reach below the hocks.", "The ossicones are more erect than in other subspecies and males have well-developed median lumps.", "It is the most endangered subspecies within ''Giraffa'', with 400 individuals remaining in the wild.", "Giraffes in Cameroon were formerly believed to belong to this species, but are actually ''G.", "c. antiquorum''.", "This error resulted in some confusion over its status in zoos, but in 2007, it was established that all \"''G.", "c. peralta''\" kept in European zoos are actually ''G.", "c. antiquorum''.", "The same 2007 study found that the West African giraffe was more closely related to Rothschild's giraffe than the Kordofan, and its ancestor may have migrated from eastern to northern Africa and then west as the Sahara Desert spread.", "At its largest, Lake Chad may have acted as a boundary between the West African and Kordofan giraffes during the Holocene (before 5000 BC).150px'''West African giraffe''' (''G.", "peralta''),Also known as '''Niger giraffe''' or '''Nigerian giraffe''' The '''reticulated giraffe''' (''G.", "c. reticulata'') is native to northeastern Kenya, southern Ethiopia, and Somalia.", "Its distinctive coat pattern consists of sharp-edged, reddish-brown polygonal patches divided by a network of thin white lines.", "Spots may or may not extend below the hocks, and a median lump is present in males.", "An estimated 8,660 individuals remain in the wild, and based on International Species Information System records, more than 450 are living in zoos.150px '''Reticulated giraffe''' (''G.", "reticulata''),Also known as '''Somali giraffe''' The '''Angolan giraffe''' (''G.", "c. angolensis'') occurs in northern Namibia, southwestern Zambia, central Botswana, western Zimbabwe, southern Zimbabwe and, since mid-2023 again in Angola.", "A 2009 genetic study on this subspecies suggested the northern Namib Desert and Etosha National Park populations form a separate subspecies.", "This subspecies has large brown blotches with notched edges or angular extensions.", "The spotting pattern extends throughout the legs but not the upper part of the face.", "The neck and rump patches tend to be fairly small.", "The subspecies also has a white ear patch.", "About 13,000 animals are estimated to remain in the wild, and about 20 are living in zoos.150px'''Angolan giraffe''' (''G.", "angolensis'')Also known as '''Namibian giraffe''' '''Southern giraffe''' (''G.", "giraffa'') The '''South African giraffe''' (''G.", "c. giraffa'') is found in northern South Africa, southern Botswana, northern Botswana and southwestern Mozambique.", "It has dark, somewhat rounded patches \"with some fine projections\" on a tawny background colour.", "The spots extend down the legs, growing smaller as they do.", "The median lump of males is poorly developed.", "A maximum of 31,500 are estimated to remain in the wild, and around 45 are living in zoos.150px'''South African giraffe''' (''G.", "giraffa'')Also known as '''Cape giraffe''' The '''Masai giraffe''' (''G.", "c. tippelskirchi'') can be found in central and southern Kenya and in Tanzania.", "Its coat patterns are highly diverse, with spots ranging from mostly rounded and smooth edged to oval shaped and incised or loped edged.", "A median lump is usually present in males.", "A total of 32,550 are thought to remain in the wild, and about 100 are living in zoos.150px'''Masai giraffe''' (''G.", "tippelskirchi'')Also known as '''Kilimanjaro giraffe''' '''Masai giraffe''' (''G.", "tippelskirchi'') '''Thornicroft's giraffe''' (''G.", "c. thornicrofti'') is restricted to the Luangwa Valley in eastern Zambia.", "The patches are notched and somewhat star-shaped, and may or may not extend across the legs.", "The median lump of males is underdeveloped.", "No more than 550 remain in the wild, with none in zoos.", "It was named after Harry Scott Thornicroft.", "150px'''Thornicroft's giraffe''' (\"''G.", "thornicrofti''\")Also known as '''Luangwa giraffe''' or '''Rhodesian giraffe'''The first extinct species to be described was ''Giraffa sivalensis'' Falconer and Cautley 1843, a reevaluation of a vertebra that was initially described as a fossil of the living giraffe.", "While taxonomic opinion may be lacking on some names, the extinct species that have been published include:*''Giraffa gracilis''*''Giraffa jumae''*''Giraffa pomeli''*''Giraffa priscilla''*''Giraffa punjabiensis''*''Giraffa pygmaea''*''Giraffa sivalensis''*''Giraffa stillei''" ], [ "Anatomy", "Giraffe skeleton on display at the Museum of Osteology, Oklahoma City, OklahomaFully grown giraffes stand tall, with males taller than females.", "The average weight is for an adult male and for an adult female.", "Despite its long neck and legs, its body is relatively short.", "The skin is mostly gray, or tan, and can reach a thickness of .", "The long tail ends in a long, dark tuft of hair and is used as a defense against insects.The coat has dark blotches or patches, which can be orange, chestnut, brown, or nearly black, surrounded by light hair, usually white or cream coloured.", "Male giraffes become darker as they grow old.", "The coat pattern has been claimed to serve as camouflage in the light and shade patterns of savannah woodlands.", "When standing among trees and bushes, they are hard to see at even a few metres distance.", "However, adult giraffes move about to gain the best view of an approaching predator, relying on their size and ability to defend themselves rather than on camouflage, which may be more important for calves.", "Each giraffe has a unique coat pattern.", "Calves inherit some coat pattern traits from their mothers, and variation in some spot traits is correlated with calf survival.", "The skin under the blotches may regulate the animal's body temperature, being sites for complex blood vessel systems and large sweat glands.The fur may give the animal chemical defense, as its parasite repellents give it a characteristic scent.", "At least 11 main aromatic chemicals are in the fur, although indole and 3-methylindole are responsible for most of the smell.", "Because males have a stronger odour than females, it may also have a sexual function.===Head===Closeup of the head of a northern giraffeBoth sexes have prominent horn-like structures called ossicones, which can reach .", "They are formed from ossified cartilage, covered in skin and fused to the skull at the parietal bones.", "Being vascularised, the ossicones may have a role in thermoregulation, and are used in combat between males.", "Appearance is a reliable guide to the sex or age of a giraffe: the ossicones of females and young are thin and display tufts of hair on top, whereas those of adult males tend to be bald and knobbed on top.", "A lump, which is more prominent in males, emerges in the middle of the skull.", "Males develop calcium deposits that form bumps on their skulls as they age.", "Multiple sinuses lighten a giraffe's skull.", "However, as males age, their skulls become heavier and more club-like, helping them become more dominant in combat.", "The occipital condyles at the bottom of the skull allow the animal to tip its head over 90 degrees and grab food on the branches directly above them with the tongue.With eyes located on the sides of the head, the giraffe has a broad visual field from its great height.", "Compared to other ungulates, giraffe vision is more binocular and the eyes are larger with a greater retinal surface area.", "Giraffes may see in colour and their senses of hearing and smell are sharp.", "The ears are movable and the nostrils are slit-shaped, possibly to withstand blowing sand.", "The giraffe's tongue is about long.", "It is black, perhaps to protect against sunburn, and can grasp foliage and delicately pick off leaves.", "The upper lip is flexible and hairy to protect against sharp prickles.", "The upper jaw has a hard palate instead of front teeth.", "The molars and premolars are wide with low crowns on the surface.===Neck===The giraffe has an extremely elongated neck, which can be up to in length.", "Along the neck is a mane made of short, erect hairs.", "The neck typically rests at an angle of 50–60 degrees, though juveniles are closer to 70 degrees.", "The long neck results from a disproportionate lengthening of the cervical vertebrae, not from the addition of more vertebrae.", "Each cervical vertebra is over long.", "They comprise 52–54 per cent of the length of the giraffe's vertebral column, compared with the 27–33 percent typical of similar large ungulates, including the giraffe's closest living relative, the okapi.", "This elongation largely takes place after birth, perhaps because giraffe mothers would have a difficult time giving birth to young with the same neck proportions as adults.", "The giraffe's head and neck are held up by large muscles and a nuchal ligament, which are anchored by long thoracic vertebrae spines, giving them a hump.Adult male reticulated giraffe feeding high on an acacia, in KenyaThe giraffe's neck vertebrae have ball and socket joints.", "The point of articulation between the cervical and thoracic vertebrae of giraffes is shifted to lie between the first and second thoracic vertebrae (T1 and T2), unlike in most other ruminants, where the articulation is between the seventh cervical vertebra (C7) and T1.This allows C7 to contribute directly to increased neck length and has given rise to the suggestion that T1 is actually C8, and that giraffes have added an extra cervical vertebra.", "However, this proposition is not generally accepted, as T1 has other morphological features, such as an articulating rib, deemed diagnostic of thoracic vertebrae, and because exceptions to the mammalian limit of seven cervical vertebrae are generally characterised by increased neurological anomalies and maladies.There are several hypotheses regarding the evolutionary origin and maintenance of elongation in giraffe necks.", "Charles Darwin originally suggested the \"competing browsers hypothesis\", which has been challenged only recently.", "It suggests that competitive pressure from smaller browsers, like kudu, steenbok and impala, encouraged the elongation of the neck, as it enabled giraffes to reach food that competitors could not.", "This advantage is real, as giraffes can and do feed up to high, while even quite large competitors, such as kudu, can feed up to only about high.", "There is also research suggesting that browsing competition is intense at lower levels, and giraffes feed more efficiently (gaining more leaf biomass with each mouthful) high in the canopy.", "However, scientists disagree about just how much time giraffes spend feeding at levels beyond the reach of other browsers,and a 2010 study found that adult giraffes with longer necks actually suffered higher mortality rates under drought conditions than their shorter-necked counterparts.", "This study suggests that maintaining a longer neck requires more nutrients, which puts longer-necked giraffes at risk during a food shortage.Another theory, the sexual selection hypothesis, proposes the long necks evolved as a secondary sexual characteristic, giving males an advantage in \"necking\" contests (see below) to establish dominance and obtain access to sexually receptive females.", "In support of this theory, necks are longer and heavier for males than females of the same age, and males do not employ other forms of combat.", "However, one objection is it fails to explain why female giraffes also have long necks.", "It has also been proposed that the neck serves to give the animal greater vigilance.===Legs, locomotion and posture===Right hind leg of a Masai giraffe at San Diego ZooA giraffe's front and back legs are about the same length.", "The radius and ulna of the front legs are articulated by the carpus, which, while structurally equivalent to the human wrist, functions as a knee.", "It appears that a suspensory ligament allows the lanky legs to support the animal's great weight.", "The hooves of large male giraffes reach in diameter.", "The fetlock of the leg is low to the ground, allowing the hoof to better support the animal's weight.", "Giraffes lack dewclaws and interdigital glands.", "While the pelvis is relatively short, the ilium has stretched out crests.A giraffe has only two gaits: walking and galloping.", "Walking is done by moving the legs on one side of the body, then doing the same on the other side.", "When galloping, the hind legs move around the front legs before the latter move forward, and the tail will curl up.", "The movements of the head and neck provide balance and control momentum while galloping.", "The giraffe can reach a sprint speed of up to , and can sustain for several kilometres.", "Giraffes would probably not be competent swimmers as their long legs would be highly cumbersome in the water, although they might be able to float.", "When swimming, the thorax would be weighed down by the front legs, making it difficult for the animal to move its neck and legs in harmony or keep its head above the water's surface.A juvenile giraffe walking in Malawi.A giraffe rests by lying with its body on top of its folded legs.", "To lie down, the animal kneels on its front legs and then lowers the rest of its body.", "To get back up, it first gets on its front knees and positions its backside on top of its hindlegs.", "It then pulls up the backside upwards and the front legs stand straight up again.", "At each stage, the animal swings its head for balance.", "If the giraffe wants to reach down to drink, it either spreads its front legs or bends its knees.", "Studies in captivity found the giraffe sleeps intermittently around 4.6 hours per day, mostly at night.", "It usually sleeps lying down; however, standing sleeps have been recorded, particularly in older individuals.", "Intermittent short \"deep sleep\" phases while lying are characterised by the giraffe bending its neck backwards and resting its head on the hip or thigh, a position believed to indicate paradoxical sleep.===Internal systems=== Scheme of path of the recurrent laryngeal nerve in giraffeIn mammals, the left recurrent laryngeal nerve is longer than the right; in the giraffe, it is over longer.", "These nerves are longer in the giraffe than in any other living animal; the left nerve is over long.", "Each nerve cell in this path begins in the brainstem and passes down the neck along the vagus nerve, then branches off into the recurrent laryngeal nerve which passes back up the neck to the larynx.", "Thus, these nerve cells have a length of nearly in the largest giraffes.", "Despite its long neck and large skull, the brain of the giraffe is typical for an ungulate.", "Evaporative heat loss in the nasal passages keep the giraffe's brain cool.", "The shape of the skeleton gives the giraffe a small lung volume relative to its mass.", "Its long neck gives it a large amount of dead space, in spite of its narrow windpipe.", "The giraffe also has a high tidal volume so the balance of dead space and tidal volume is much the same as other mammals.", "The animal can still provide enough oxygen for its tissues, and it can increase its respiratory rate and oxygen diffusion when running.Reticulated giraffe bending down to drink in Kenya.", "The circulatory system is adapted to deal with blood flow rushing down its neck.|alt=Photograph of a giraffe bending down to drinkThe giraffe's circulatory system has several adaptations to compensate for its great height.", "Its and heart must generate approximately double the blood pressure required for a human to maintain blood flow to the brain.", "As such, the wall of the heart can be as thick as .", "Giraffes have relatively high heart rates for their size, at 150 beats per minute.", "When the animal lowers its head, the blood rushes down fairly unopposed and a rete mirabile in the upper neck, with its large cross-sectional area, prevents excess blood flow to the brain.", "When it raises again, the blood vessels constrict and push blood into the brain so the animal does not faint.", "The jugular veins contain several (most commonly seven) valves to prevent blood flowing back into the head from the inferior vena cava and right atrium while the head is lowered.", "Conversely, the blood vessels in the lower legs are under great pressure because of the weight of fluid pressing down on them.", "To solve this problem, the skin of the lower legs is thick and tight, preventing too much blood from pouring into them.Giraffes have oesophageal muscles that are strong enough to allow regurgitation of food from the stomach up the neck and into the mouth for rumination.", "They have four chambered stomachs, which are adapted to their specialized diet.", "The intestines of an adult giraffe measure more than in length and have a relatively small ratio of small to large intestine.", "The giraffe has a small, compact liver.", "In fetuses there may be a small gallbladder that vanishes before birth." ], [ "Behaviour and ecology", "===Habitat and feeding===Giraffes usually inhabit savannahs and open woodlands.", "They prefer areas dominated by Acacieae, ''Commiphora'', ''Combretum'' and ''Terminalia'' tree over ''Brachystegia'' which are more densely spaced.", "The Angolan giraffe can be found in desert environments.", "Giraffes browse on the twigs of trees, preferring those of the subfamily Acacieae and the genera ''Commiphora'' and ''Terminalia'', which are important sources of calcium and protein to sustain the giraffe's growth rate.", "They also feed on shrubs, grass and fruit.", "A giraffe eats around of plant matter daily.", "When stressed, giraffes may chew on large branches, stripping them of bark.", "Giraffes are also recorded to chew old bones.During the wet season, food is abundant and giraffes are more spread out, while during the dry season, they gather around the remaining evergreen trees and bushes.", "Mothers tend to feed in open areas, presumably to make it easier to detect predators, although this may reduce their feeding efficiency.", "As a ruminant, the giraffe first chews its food, then swallows it for processing and then visibly passes the half-digested cud up the neck and back into the mouth to chew again.", "The giraffe requires less food than many other herbivores because the foliage it eats has more concentrated nutrients and it has a more efficient digestive system.", "The animal's faeces come in the form of small pellets.", "When it has access to water, a giraffe will go no more than three days without drinking.Giraffes have a great effect on the trees that they feed on, delaying the growth of young trees for some years and giving \"waistlines\" to too tall trees.", "Feeding is at its highest during the first and last hours of daytime.", "Between these hours, giraffes mostly stand and ruminate.", "Rumination is the dominant activity during the night, when it is mostly done lying down.===Social life===Gathering of female South African giraffes in Tswalu Kalahari Reserve, South Africa.", "These animals commonly gather in herds.Giraffes usually form groups that vary in size and composition according to ecological, anthropogenic, temporal, and social factors.", "Traditionally, the composition of these groups had been described as open and ever-changing.", "For research purposes, a \"group\" has been defined as \"a collection of individuals that are less than a kilometre apart and moving in the same general direction\".", "More recent studies have found that giraffes have long lasting social groups or cliques based on kinship, sex or other factors, and these groups regularly associate with other groups in larger communities or sub-communities within a fission–fusion society.", "Proximity to humans can disrupt social arrangements.", "Masai giraffes in Tanzania sort themselves into different subpopulations of 60–90 adult females with overlapping ranges, each of which differ in reproductive rates and calf mortality.", "Dispersal is male biased, and can include spatial and/or social dispersal.", "Adult female subpopulations are connected by males into supercommunities of around 300 animals.The number of giraffes in a group can range from one up to 66 individuals.", "Giraffe groups tend to be sex-segregated although mixed-sex groups made of adult females and young males also occur.", "Female groups may be matrilineally related.", "Generally females are more selective than males in who they associate with regarding individuals of the same sex.", "Particularly stable giraffe groups are those made of mothers and their young, which can last weeks or months.", "Young males also form groups and will engage in playfights.", "However, as they get older, males become more solitary but may also associate in pairs or with female groups.", "Giraffes are not territorial, but they have home ranges that vary according to rainfall and proximity to human settlements.", "Male giraffes occasionally roam far from areas that they normally frequent.Early biologists suggested giraffes were mute and unable to create enough air flow to vibrate their vocal folds.", "To the contrary; they have been recorded to communicate using snorts, sneezes, coughs, snores, hisses, bursts, moans, grunts, growls and flute-like sounds.", "During courtship, males emit loud coughs.", "Females call their young by bellowing.", "Calves will emit bleats, mooing and mewing sounds.", "Snorting and hissing is associated with vigilance.", "During nighttime, giraffes appear to hum to each other.", "There is some evidence that giraffes use Helmholtz resonance to create infrasound.", "They also communicate with body language.", "Dominant males display to other males with an erect posture; holding the chin and head up while walking stiffly and displaying their side.", "The less dominant show submissiveness by dropping the head and ears, lowering the chin and fleeing.===Reproduction and parental care===Angolan giraffes mating in NamibiaReproduction in giraffes is broadly polygamous: a few older males mate with the fertile females.", "Females can reproduce throughout the year and experience oestrus cycling approximately every 15 days.", "Female giraffes in oestrous are dispersed over space and time, so reproductive adult males adopt a strategy of roaming among female groups to seek mating opportunities, with periodic hormone-induced rutting behaviour approximately every two weeks.", "Males prefer young adult females over juveniles and older adults.Male giraffes assess female fertility by tasting the female's urine to detect oestrus, in a multi-step process known as the flehmen response.", "Once an oestrous female is detected, the male will attempt to court her.", "When courting, dominant males will keep subordinate ones at bay.", "A courting male may lick a female's tail, lay his head and neck on her body or nudge her with his ossicones.", "During copulation, the male stands on his hind legs with his head held up and his front legs resting on the female's sides.Giraffe gestation lasts 400–460 days, after which a single calf is normally born, although twins occur on rare occasions.", "The mother gives birth standing up.", "The calf emerges head and front legs first, having broken through the fetal membranes, and falls to the ground, severing the umbilical cord.", "A newborn giraffe is tall.", "Within a few hours of birth, the calf can run around and is almost indistinguishable from a one-week-old.", "However, for the first one to three weeks, it spends most of its time hiding, its coat pattern providing camouflage.", "The ossicones, which have lain flat in the womb, raise up in a few days.Female Angolan giraffe with calfMothers with calves will gather in nursery herds, moving or browsing together.", "Mothers in such a group may sometimes leave their calves with one female while they forage and drink elsewhere.", "This is known as a \"calving pool\".", "Calves are at risk of predation, and a mother giraffe will stand over them and kick at an approaching predator.", "Females watching calving pools will only alert their own young if they detect a disturbance, although the others will take notice and follow.", "Allo-sucking, where a calf will suckle a female other than its mother, has been recorded in both wild and captive giraffes.", "Calves first ruminate at four to six months and stop nursing at six to eight months.", "Young may not reach independence until they are 14 months old.", "Females are able to reproduce at four years of age, while spermatogenesis in males begins at three to four years of age.", "Males must wait until they are at least seven years old to gain the opportunity to mate.===Necking===Here, male South African giraffes engage in low intensity necking to establish dominance, in Ithala Game Reserve, Kwa-Zulu-Natal, South Africa.Male giraffes use their necks as weapons in combat, a behaviour known as \"necking\".", "Necking is used to establish dominance and males that win necking bouts have greater reproductive success.", "This behaviour occurs at low or high intensity.", "In low-intensity necking, the combatants rub and lean on each other.", "The male that can keep itself more upright wins the bout.", "In high-intensity necking, the combatants will spread their front legs and swing their necks at each other, attempting to land blows with their ossicones.", "The contestants will try to dodge each other's blows and then prepare to counter.", "The power of a blow depends on the weight of the skull and the arc of the swing.", "A necking duel can last more than half an hour, depending on how well matched the combatants are.", "Although most fights do not lead to serious injury, there have been records of broken jaws, broken necks, and even deaths.After a duel, it is common for two male giraffes to caress and court each other.", "Such interactions between males have been found to be more frequent than heterosexual coupling.", "In one study, up to 94 percent of observed mounting incidents took place between males.", "The proportion of same-sex activities varied from 30 to 75 percent.", "Only one percent of same-sex mounting incidents occurred between females.===Mortality and health===Lioness seen with an adult Masai giraffe killGiraffes have high adult survival probability, and an unusually long lifespan compared to other ruminants, up to 38 years.", "Adult female survival is significantly correlated with the number of social associations.", "Because of their size, eyesight and powerful kicks, adult giraffes are mostly safe from predation, with lions being their only major threats.", "Calves are much more vulnerable than adults and are also preyed on by leopards, spotted hyenas and wild dogs.", "A quarter to a half of giraffe calves reach adulthood.", "Calf survival varies according to the season of birth, with calves born during the dry season having higher survival rates.The local, seasonal presence of large herds of migratory wildebeests and zebras reduces predation pressure on giraffe calves and increases their survival probability.", "In turn, it has been suggested that other ungulates may benefit from associating with giraffes, as their height allows them to spot predators from further away.", "Zebras were found to assess predation risk by watching giraffes and spend less time looking around when giraffes are present.Red-billed oxpeckers on a giraffe, ZambiaSome parasites feed on giraffes.", "They are often hosts for ticks, especially in the area around the genitals, which have thinner skin than other areas.", "Tick species that commonly feed on giraffes are those of genera ''Hyalomma'', ''Amblyomma'' and ''Rhipicephalus''.", "Giraffes may rely on red-billed and yellow-billed oxpeckers to clean them of ticks and alert them to danger.", "Giraffes host numerous species of internal parasites and are susceptible to various diseases.", "They were victims of the (now eradicated) viral illness rinderpest.", "Giraffes can also suffer from a skin disorder, which comes in the form of wrinkles, lesions or raw fissures.", "As much as 79% of giraffes have symptoms of the disease in Ruaha National Park, but it did not cause mortality in Tarangire and is less prevalent in areas with fertile soils." ], [ "Human relations", "===Cultural significance===With its lanky build and spotted coat, the giraffe has been a source of fascination throughout human history, and its image is widespread in culture.", "It has represented flexibility, far-sightedness, femininity, fragility, passivity, grace, beauty and the continent of Africa itself.San rock art in Namibia depicting a giraffeGiraffes were depicted in art throughout the African continent, including that of the Kiffians, Egyptians, and Kushites.", "The Kiffians were responsible for a life-size rock engraving of two giraffes, dated 8,000 years ago, that has been called the \"world's largest rock art petroglyph\".", "How the giraffe got its height has been the subject of various African folktales.", "The Tugen people of modern Kenya used the giraffe to depict their god Mda.", "The Egyptians gave the giraffe its own hieroglyph; 'sr' in Old Egyptian and 'mmy' in later periods.Giraffes have a presence in modern Western culture.", "Salvador Dalí depicted them with burning manes in some of his surrealist paintings.", "Dali considered the giraffe to be a masculine symbol, and a flaming giraffe was meant to be a \"masculine cosmic apocalyptic monster\".", "Several children's books feature the giraffe, including David A. Ufer's ''The Giraffe Who Was Afraid of Heights'', Giles Andreae's ''Giraffes Can't Dance'' and Roald Dahl's ''The Giraffe and the Pelly and Me''.", "Giraffes have appeared in animated films, as minor characters in Disney's ''The Lion King'' and ''Dumbo'', and in more prominent roles in ''The Wild'' and the ''Madagascar'' films.", "Sophie the Giraffe has been a popular teether since 1961.Another famous fictional giraffe is the Toys \"R\" Us mascot Geoffrey the Giraffe.The giraffe has also been used for some scientific experiments and discoveries.", "Scientists have used the properties of giraffe skin as a model for astronaut and fighter pilot suits because the people in these professions are in danger of passing out if blood rushes to their legs.", "Computer scientists have modeled the coat patterns of several subspecies using reaction–diffusion mechanisms.", "The constellation of Camelopardalis, introduced in the seventeenth century, depicts a giraffe.", "The Tswana people of Botswana traditionally see the constellation Crux as two giraffes—Acrux and Mimosa forming a male, and Gacrux and Delta Crucis forming the female.Painting of a giraffe imported to China during the Ming dynasty===Captivity===The Egyptians were among the earliest people to keep giraffes in captivity and shipped them around the Mediterranean.", "The giraffe was among the many animals collected and displayed by the Romans.", "The first one in Rome was brought in by Julius Caesar in 46 BC.", "With the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the housing of giraffes in Europe declined.", "During the Middle Ages, giraffes were known to Europeans through contact with the Arabs, who revered the giraffe for its peculiar appearance.Individual captive giraffes were given celebrity status throughout history.", "In 1414, a giraffe from Malindi was taken to China by explorer Zheng He and placed in a Ming dynasty zoo.", "The animal was a source of fascination for the Chinese people, who associated it with the mythical Qilin.", "The Medici giraffe was a giraffe presented to Lorenzo de' Medici in 1486.It caused a great stir on its arrival in Florence.", "Zarafa, another famous giraffe, was brought from Egypt to Paris in the early 19th century as a gift for Charles X of France.", "A sensation, the giraffe was the subject of numerous memorabilia or \"giraffanalia\".Giraffes have become popular attractions in modern zoos, though keeping them healthy is difficult as they require vast areas and need to eat large amounts of browse.", "Captive giraffes in North America and Europe appear to have a higher mortality rate than in the wild; the most common causes being poor husbandry, nutrition and management.", "Giraffes in zoos display stereotypical behaviours, particularly the licking of inanimate objects and pacing.", "Zookeepers may offer various activities to stimulate giraffes, including training them to take food from visitors.", "Stables for giraffes are built particularly high to accommodate their height.===Exploitation===Giraffes were probably common targets for hunters throughout Africa.", "Different parts of their bodies were used for different purposes.", "Their meat was used for food.", "The tail hairs served as flyswatters, bracelets, necklaces, and threads.", "Shields, sandals, and drums were made using the skin, and the strings of musical instruments were from the tendons.", "In Buganda, the smoke of burning giraffe skin was traditionally used to treat nose bleeds.", "The Humr people of Kordofan consume the drink Umm Nyolokh, which is prepared from the liver and bone marrow of giraffes.", "Richard Rudgley hypothesised that Umm Nyolokh might contain DMT.", "The drink is said to cause hallucinations of giraffes, believed to be the giraffes' ghosts, by the Humr." ], [ "Conservation status", "In 2016, giraffes were assessed as Vulnerable from a conservation perspective by the IUCN.", "In 1985, it was estimated there were 155,000 giraffes in the wild.", "This declined to over 140,000 in 1999.Estimates as of 2016 indicate there are approximately 97,500 members of ''Giraffa'' in the wild.", "The Masai and reticulated subspecies are endangered, and the Rothschild subspecies is near threatened.", "The Nubian subspecies is critically endangered.", "Endangered West African giraffe near Koure, NigerThe primary causes for giraffe population declines are habitat loss and direct killing for bushmeat markets.", "Giraffes have been extirpated from much of their historic range, including Eritrea, Guinea, Mauritania and Senegal.", "They may also have disappeared from Angola, Mali, and Nigeria, but have been introduced to Rwanda and Eswatini.", ", there were more than 1,600 in captivity at Species360-registered zoos.", "Habitat destruction has hurt the giraffe.", "In the Sahel, the need for firewood and grazing room for livestock has led to deforestation.", "Normally, giraffes can coexist with livestock, since they avoid direct competition by feeding above them.", "In 2017, severe droughts in northern Kenya led to increased tensions over land and the killing of wildlife by herders, with giraffe populations being particularly hit.Protected areas like national parks provide important habitat and anti-poaching protection to giraffe populations.", "Community-based conservation efforts outside national parks are also effective at protecting giraffes and their habitats.", "Private game reserves have contributed to the preservation of giraffe populations in eastern and southern Africa.", "The giraffe is a protected species in most of its range.", "It is the national animal of Tanzania, and is protected by law, and unauthorised killing can result in imprisonment.", "The UN backed Convention of Migratory Species selected giraffes for protection in 2017.In 2019, giraffes were listed under Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), which means international trade including in parts/derivatives is regulated.Translocations are sometimes used to augment or re-establish diminished or extirpated populations, but these activities are risky and difficult to undertake using the best practices of extensive pre- and post-translocation studies and ensuring a viable founding population.", "Aerial survey is the most common method of monitoring giraffe population trends in the vast roadless tracts of African landscapes, but aerial methods are known to undercount giraffes.", "Ground-based survey methods are more accurate and can be used in conjunction with aerial surveys to make accurate estimates of population sizes and trends." ], [ "See also", "*Fauna of Africa*Giraffe Centre *Giraffe Manor - hotel in Nairobi with giraffes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* of the Giraffe Conservation Foundation" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Griffith's experiment" ], [ "Introduction", "Streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumococcal) bacteria.", "'''Griffith's experiment''', performed by Frederick Griffith and reported in 1928, was the first experiment suggesting that bacteria are capable of transferring genetic information through a process known as transformation.", "Griffith's findings were followed by research in the late 1930s and early 40s that isolated DNA as the material that communicated this genetic information.Pneumonia was a serious cause of death in the wake of the post-WWI Spanish influenza pandemic, and Griffith was studying the possibility of creating a vaccine.", "Griffith used two strains of pneumococcus (''Diplococcus pneumoniae'') bacteria which infect mice – a type III-S (smooth) which was virulent, and a type II-R (rough) strain which was nonvirulent.", "The III-S strain synthesized a polysaccharide capsule that protected itself from the host's immune system, resulting in the death of the host, while the II-R strain did not have that protective capsule and was defeated by the host's immune system.", "A German bacteriologist, Fred Neufeld, had discovered the three pneumococcal types (Types I, II, and III) and discovered the quellung reaction to identify them ''in vitro''.", "Until Griffith's experiment, bacteriologists believed that the types were fixed and unchangeable, from one generation to another.In this experiment, bacteria from the III-S strain were killed by heat, and their remains were added to II-R strain bacteria.", "While neither alone harmed the mice, the combination was able to kill its host.", "Griffith was also able to isolate both live II-R and live III-S strains of pneumococcus from the blood of these dead mice.", "Griffith concluded that the type II-R had been \"transformed\" into the lethal III-S strain by a \"transforming principle\" that was somehow part of the dead III-S strain bacteria.Today, we know that the \"transforming principle\" Griffith observed was the DNA of the III-s strain bacteria.", "While the bacteria had been killed, the DNA had survived the heating process and was taken up by the II-R strain bacteria.", "The III-S strain DNA contains the genes that form the smooth protective polysaccharide capsule.", "Equipped with this gene, the former II-R strain bacteria were now protected from the host's immune system and could kill the host.", "The exact nature of the transforming principle (DNA) was verified in the experiments done by Avery, McLeod and McCarty and by Hershey and Chase." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "*::(References the original experiment by Griffith.", "Original article and 35th anniversary reprint available.'')" ], [ "Further reading", "* 854 pages.", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gustave de Molinari" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Gustave de Molinari''' (; 3 March 1819 – 28 January 1912) was a Belgian political economist and French Liberal School theorist associated with French ''laissez-faire'' economists such as Frédéric Bastiat and Hippolyte Castille." ], [ "Biography", "Born in Liège, Wallonia, Molinari's critique of the state sometimes resulted in his opposing causes and events which might seemingly be aligned with his overall critique of power and privilege.", "An example of this was the American Civil War which Molinari believed to be far more about the trade interests of Northern industrialists than about slavery, although he did not deny that abolitionism was a part of the picture.", "According to Ralph Raico, Molinari never relented in his last work published a year before his death in 1912, writing:The American Civil War had not been simply a humanitarian crusade to free the slaves.", "The war \"ruined the conquered provinces,\" but the Northern plutocrats pulling the strings achieved their aim: the imposition of a vicious protectionism that led ultimately \"to the regime of trusts and produced the billionaires.", "\"Molinari supported his liberal views by citing evolutionary concepts, claiming that the \"economic state\" (an international commercial system) would have a complete laissez-faire.", "He argued this was the ultimate stage of social evolution, caused by a struggle for existence between competing commercial actors.", "War has been the driver of early social systems, he felt, which encouraged invention as a result.", "After industry developed, however, wars grew detrimental rather than beneficial, replaced with economic competition.", "Molinari felt this would be better, since it applied to all classes in society.", "As the less fit were eliminated by competition, the entire society would be raised over time.", "He argued competition like this would never end, but continue forever.", "Molinari opposed both monarchy and socialism as a result of being detrimental to this process.", "Acknowledging that great poverty had risen in tandem with wealth, he argued it would be eliminated through moral evolution occurring alongside the economic progress, which was necessary for it." ], [ "Influence", "Some anarcho-capitalists consider Molinari to be the first proponent of anarcho-capitalism.", "In the preface to the 1977 English translation by Murray Rothbard called ''The Production of Security'' the \"first presentation anywhere in human history of what is now called anarcho-capitalism\", although admitting that \"Molinari did not use the terminology, and probably would have balked at the name\".", "Austrian School economist Hans-Hermann Hoppe said that \"the 1849 article 'The Production of Security' is probably the single most important contribution to the modern theory of anarcho-capitalism\".", "In the past, Molinari influenced some of the political thoughts of individualist anarchist Benjamin Tucker and the ''Liberty'' circle.", "The Molinari Institute directed by philosopher Roderick T. Long is named after him, whom it terms the \"originator of the theory of Market Anarchism\"." ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "* Molinari Institute*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Guerrilla warfare" ], [ "Introduction", "Roque Gameiro, depicting a Portuguese guerrilla ambush against French forces'''Guerrilla warfare''' is a form of unconventional warfare in which small groups of irregular military, such as rebels, partisans, paramilitary personnel or armed civilians including recruited children, use ambushes, sabotage, terrorism, raids, petty warfare or hit-and-run tactics in a rebellion, in a violent conflict, in a war or in a civil war to fight against regular military, police or rival insurgent forces.Although the term \"guerrilla warfare\" was coined in the context of the Peninsular War in the 19th century, the tactical methods of guerrilla warfare have long been in use.", "In the 6th century BC, Sun Tzu proposed the use of guerrilla-style tactics in ''The Art of War''.", "The 3rd century BC Roman general Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus is also credited with inventing many of the tactics of guerrilla warfare through what is today called the Fabian strategy.", "Guerrilla warfare has been used by various factions throughout history and is particularly associated with revolutionary movements and popular resistance against invading or occupying armies.Guerrilla tactics focus on avoiding head-on confrontations with enemy armies, typically due to inferior arms or forces, and instead engage in limited skirmishes with the goal of exhausting adversaries and forcing them to withdraw, see also attrition warfare.", "Organized guerrilla groups often depend on the support of either the local population or foreign backers who sympathize with the guerrilla group's efforts." ], [ "Etymology", "Spanish guerrilla resistance to the Napoleonic French invasion of Spain at the Battle of ValdepeñasThe Spanish word is the diminutive form of ('war'); hence, 'little war'.", "The term became popular during the early-19th century Peninsular War, when, after the defeat of their regular armies, the Spanish and Portuguese people successfully rose against the Napoleonic troops and defeated a highly superior army using the guerrilla strategy in combination with a scorched earth policy and people's war (see also attrition warfare against Napoleon).", "In correct Spanish usage, a person who is a member of a unit is a () if male, or a (Help:IPA/Spanish|geriˈʎeɾa) if female.", "Arthur Wellesley adopted the term \"guerrilla\" into English from Spanish usage in 1809, to refer to the individual ''fighters'' (e.g., \"I have recommended to set the Guerrillas to work\"), and also (as in Spanish) to denote ''a group or band'' of such fighters.", "However, in most languages ''guerrilla'' still denotes a specific style of warfare.", "The use of the diminutive evokes the differences in number, scale, and scope between the guerrilla army and the formal, professional army of the state." ], [ "History", "Soviet partisans on the road in Belarus, 1944 counter-offensivePrehistoric tribal warriors presumably employed guerrilla-style tactics against enemy tribes:Evidence of conventional warfare, on the other hand, did not emerge until 3100 BC in Egypt and Mesopotamia.", "The Chinese general and strategist Sun Tzu, in his ''The Art of War'' (6th century BC), became one of the earliest to propose the use of guerrilla warfare.", "This inspired developments in modern guerrilla warfare.In the 3rd century BC, Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus, used elements of guerrilla warfare, such as the evasion of battle, the attempt to wear down the enemy, to attack small detachments in an ambush and devised the Fabian strategy, which the Roman Republic used to great effect against Hannibal's army, see also ''His Excellency : George Washington'': the Fabian choice.In the medieval Roman Empire, guerrilla warfare was frequently practiced between the eighth through tenth centuries along the eastern frontier with the Umayyad and then Abbasid caliphates.", "Tactics involved a heavy emphasis on reconnaissance and intelligence, shadowing the enemy, evacuating threatened population centres, and attacking when the enemy dispersed to raid.", "In the later tenth century this form of warfare was codified in a military manual known by its later Latin name as ''De velitatione bellica'' ('On Skirmishing') so it would not be forgotten in the future.The Normans often made many forays into Wales, where the Welsh used the mountainous region, which the Normans were unfamiliar with, to spring surprise attacks upon them.Since the Enlightenment, ideologies such as nationalism, liberalism, socialism, and religious fundamentalism have played an important role in shaping insurgencies and guerrilla warfare.In the 17th century, Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj, founder of the Maratha Empire, pioneered the ''Shiva sutra'' or ''Ganimi Kava'' (Guerrilla Tactics) to defeat the many times larger and more powerful armies of the Mughal Empire.Kerala Varma (Pazhassi Raja) (1753-1805) used guerrilla techniques chiefly centred in mountain forests in the Cotiote War against the British East India Company in India between 1793 and 1806.Arthur Wellesley (in India 1797–1805) had commanded forces assigned to defeat Pazhassi's techniques but failed.", "It was the longest war waged by East India Company during their military campaigns on the Indian subcontinent.", "It was one of the bloodiest and hardest wars waged by East India Company in India with Presidency army regiments that suffered losses as high as eighty percent in 10 years of warfare.Siege of the Fortaleza San Luis by the Dominican rebels by Melanio GuzmánThe Dominican Restoration War was a guerrilla war between 1863 and 1865 in the Dominican Republic between nationalists and Spain, the latter of which had recolonized the country 17 years after its independence.", "The war resulted in the withdrawal of Spanish forces and the establishment of a second republic in the Dominican Republic.Seán Hogan's flying column of the IRA's 3rd Tipperary Brigade, during the Irish War of IndependenceThe Moroccan military leader Abd el-Krim ( – 1963) and his father unified the Moroccan tribes under their control and took up arms against the Spanish and French occupiers during the Rif War in 1920.For the first time in history, tunnel warfare was used alongside modern guerrilla tactics, which caused considerable damage to both the colonial armies in Morocco.In the early 20th century Michael Collins and Tom Barry both developed many tactical features of guerrilla warfare during the guerrilla phase of the 1919–1921 Irish War of Independence.", "Collins developed mainly urban guerrilla-warfare tactics in Dublin City (the Irish capital).", "Operations in which small Irish Republican Army (IRA) units (3 to 6 guerrillas) quickly attacked a target and then disappeared into civilian crowds frustrated the British enemy.", "The best example of this occurred on Bloody Sunday (21 November 1920), when Collins's assassination unit, known as \"The Squad\", wiped out a group of British intelligence agents (\"the Cairo Gang\") early in the morning (14 were killed, six were wounded) – some regular officers were also killed in the purge.", "That afternoon, a Royal Irish Constabulary force consisting of both regular RIC personnel and the Auxiliary Division took revenge, shooting into a crowd at a football match in Croke Park, killing fourteen civilians and injuring 60 others.In West County Cork, Tom Barry was the commander of the IRA West Cork brigade.", "Fighting in west Cork was rural, and the IRA fought in much larger units than their fellows in urban areas.", "These units, called \"flying columns\", engaged British forces in large battles, usually for between 10 – 30 minutes.", "The Kilmichael Ambush in November 1920 and the Crossbarry Ambush in March 1921 are the most famous examples of Barry's flying columns causing large casualties to enemy forces.Algerian War of Independence, .The Algerian Revolution of 1954 started with a handful of Algerian guerrillas.", "Primitively armed, the guerrillas fought the French for over eight years.", "This remains a prototype for modern insurgency and counterinsurgency, terrorism, torture, and asymmetric warfare prevalent throughout the world today.", "In South Africa, African National Congress (ANC) members studied the Algerian War, prior to the release and apotheosis of Nelson Mandela; in their intifada against Israel, Palestinian fighters have sought to emulate it.", "Additionally, the tactics of Al-Qaeda closely resemble those of the Algerians.The Mukti Bahini (Bengali: মুক্তিবাহিনী, translates as 'freedom fighters', or liberation army), also known as the Bangladesh Forces, was the guerrilla resistance movement consisting of the Bangladeshi military, paramilitary and civilians during the Bangladesh Liberation War that transformed East Pakistan into Bangladesh in 1971.An earlier name Mukti Fauj was also used." ], [ "Theoretical works", "The growth of guerrilla warfare was inspired in part by theoretical works on guerrilla warfare, starting with the ''Manual de Guerra de Guerrillas'' by Matías Ramón Mella written in the 19th century:More recently, Mao Zedong's ''On Guerrilla Warfare'', Che Guevara's ''Guerrilla Warfare'', and Lenin's ''Guerrilla warfare'', were all written after the successful revolutions carried by them in China, Cuba and Russia, respectively.", "Those texts characterized the tactic of guerrilla warfare as, according to Che Guevara's text, being \"used by the side which is supported by a majority but which possesses a much smaller number of arms for use in defense against oppression\".=== Foco theory ===Tuareg rebel fighter with a DShK on a technical in northern Niger, 2008In the 1960s, the Marxist revolutionary Che Guevara developed the ''foco'' () theory of revolution in his book ''Guerrilla Warfare'', based on his experiences during the 1959 Cuban Revolution.", "This theory was later formalised as \"focal-ism\" by Régis Debray.", "Its central principle is that vanguardism by cadres of small, fast-moving paramilitary groups can provide a focus for popular discontent against a sitting regime, and thereby lead a general insurrection.", "Although the original approach was to mobilize and launch attacks from rural areas, many ''foco'' ideas were adapted into urban guerrilla warfare movements." ], [ "Strategy, tactics and methods", "Boer guerrillas during the Second Boer War in South AfricaThe Estonian Forest Brothers relaxing and cleaning their guns after a shooting exercise in Veskiaru, Järva County, Estonian SSR, in 1953=== Strategy ===Guerrilla warfare is a type of asymmetric warfare: competition between opponents of unequal strength.", "It is also a type of irregular warfare: that is, it aims not simply to defeat an invading enemy, but to win popular support and political influence, to the enemy's cost.", "Accordingly, guerrilla strategy aims to magnify the impact of a small, mobile force on a larger, more cumbersome one.", "If successful, guerrillas weaken their enemy by attrition, eventually forcing them to withdraw.=== Tactics ===Tactically, guerrillas usually avoid confrontation with large units and formations of enemy troops but seek and attack small groups of enemy personnel and resources to gradually deplete the opposing force while minimizing their own losses.", "The guerrilla prizes mobility, secrecy, and surprise, organizing in small units and taking advantage of terrain that is difficult for larger units to use.", "For example, Mao Zedong summarized basic guerrilla tactics at the beginning of the Chinese Civil War as:\"The enemy advances, we retreat; the enemy camps, we harass; the enemy tires, we attack; the enemy retreats, we pursue.\"", "At least one author credits the ancient Chinese work ''The Art of War'' with inspiring Mao's tactics.", "In the 20th century, other communist leaders, including North Vietnamese Ho Chi Minh, often used and developed guerrilla warfare tactics, which provided a model for their use elsewhere, leading to the Cuban \"foco\" theory and the anti-Soviet Mujahadeen in Afghanistan.=== Unconventional methods ===Guerrilla groups may use improvised explosive devices and logistical support by the local population.", "The opposing army may come at last to suspect all civilians as potential guerrilla backers.", "The guerrillas might get political support from foreign backers and many guerrilla groups are adept at public persuasion through propaganda and use of force.", "Some guerrilla movements today also rely heavily on children as combatants, scouts, porters, spies, informants, and in other roles.", "Many governments and states also recruit children within their armed forces.=== Comparison of guerrilla warfare and terrorism ===No commonly accepted definition of \"terrorism\" has attained clear consensus.", "The term \"terrorism\" is often used as political propaganda by belligerents (most often by governments in power) to denounce opponents whose status as terrorists is disputed.While the primary concern of guerrillas is the enemy's active military units, actual terrorists largely are concerned with non-military agents and target mostly civilians." ], [ "See also", "* Counter-insurgency* Free War* Freedom Fighters (disambiguation)* \"Yank\" Levy* List of guerrilla movements* List of guerrillas* List of revolutions and rebellions* Militia* New generation warfare* Partisan (military)* Resistance during World War II* Special forces * Violent non-state actor* Viet Cong* TM 31-210 Improvised Munitions Handbook" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * '''Attribution:'''*" ], [ "Further reading", "* Asprey, Robert.", "''War in the Shadows: The Guerrilla in History''* * Derradji Abder-Rahmane, The Algerian Guerrilla Campaign Strategy & Tactics, Lewiston, New York: Edwin Mellen Press, 1997.", "* Hinckle, Warren (with Steven Chain and David Goldstein): ''Guerrilla-Krieg in USA'' (''Guerrilla war in the USA''), Stuttgart (Deutsche Verlagsanstalt) 1971.", "* Keats, John (1990).", "''They Fought Alone''.", "Time Life.", "* Kreiman, Guillermo (2024).", "\"Revolutionary days: Introducing the Latin American Guerrillas Dataset\".", "''Journal of Peace Research''.", "* MacDonald, Peter.", "''Giap: The Victor in Vietnam''* * Oller, John.", "''The Swamp Fox: How Francis Marion Saved the American Revolution''.", "Boston: Da Capo Press, 2016..* Peers, William R.; Brelis, Dean.", "''Behind the Burma Road: The Story of America's Most Successful Guerrilla Force''.", "Boston: Little, Brown & Co., 1963.", "* Polack, Peter.", "''Guerrilla Warfare; Kings of Revolution'' Casemate,.", "* Thomas Powers, \"The War without End\" (review of Steve Coll, ''Directorate S: The CIA and America's Secret Wars in Afghanistan and Pakistan'', Penguin, 2018, 757 pp.", "), ''The New York Review of Books'', vol.", "LXV, no.", "7 (19 April 2018), pp. 42–43.", "\"Forty-plus years after our failure in Vietnam, the United States is again fighting an endless war in a faraway place against a culture and a people we don't understand for political reasons that make sense in Washington, but nowhere else.\"", "(p. 43.", ")* Schmidt, LS.", "1982.", "\"American Involvement in the Filipino Resistance on Mindanao During the Japanese Occupation, 1942–1945\" .", "M.S.", "Thesis.", "U.S. Army Command and General Staff College.", "274 pp.", "* Sutherland, Daniel E. \"Sideshow No Longer: A Historiographical Review of the Guerrilla War.\"", "''Civil War History'' 46.1 (2000): 5–23; American Civil War, 1861–65* Sutherland, Daniel E. ''A Savage Conflict: The Decisive Role of Guerrillas in the American Civil War'' (U of North Carolina Press, 2009).", "online* Weber, Olivier, ''Afghan Eternity'', 2002" ], [ "External links", "* – Pakistani militants conduct raids in Iran* abcNEWS Exclusive: The Secret War – Deadly guerrilla raids in Iran* Insurgency Research Group – Multi-expert blog dedicated to the study of insurgency and the development of counter-insurgency policy.", "* Guerrilla warfare on Spartacus Educational* Encyclopædia Britannica, Guerrilla warfare* Relearning Counterinsurgency Warfare* Casebook on Insurgency and Revolutionary Warfare United States Army Special Operations Command* Counter Insurgency Jungle Warfare School (CIJWS)India" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Original proof of Gödel's completeness theorem" ], [ "Introduction", "Kurt Gödel (1925)The proof of Gödel's completeness theorem given by Kurt Gödel in his doctoral dissertation of 1929 (and a shorter version of the proof, published as an article in 1930, titled \"The completeness of the axioms of the functional calculus of logic\" (in German)) is not easy to read today; it uses concepts and formalisms that are no longer used and terminology that is often obscure.", "The version given below attempts to represent all the steps in the proof and all the important ideas faithfully, while restating the proof in the modern language of mathematical logic.", "This outline should not be considered a rigorous proof of the theorem." ], [ "Assumptions", "We work with first-order predicate calculus.", "Our languages allow constant, function and relation symbols.", "Structures consist of (non-empty) domains and interpretations of the relevant symbols as constant members, functions or relations over that domain.We assume classical logic (as opposed to intuitionistic logic for example).We fix some axiomatization (i.e.", "a syntax-based, machine-manageable proof system) of the predicate calculus: logical axioms and rules of inference.", "Any of the several well-known equivalent axiomatizations will do.", "Gödel's original proof assumed the Hilbert-Ackermann proof system.We assume without proof all the basic well-known results about our formalism that we need, such as the normal form theorem or the soundness theorem.We axiomatize predicate calculus ''without equality'' (sometimes confusingly called ''without identity''), i.e.", "there are no special axioms expressing the properties of (object) equality as a special relation symbol.", "After the basic form of the theorem has been proved, it will be easy to extend it to the case of predicate calculus ''with equality''." ], [ "Statement of the theorem and its proof", "In the following, we state two equivalent forms of the theorem, and show their equivalence.Later, we prove the theorem.", "This is done in the following steps:# Reducing the theorem to sentences (formulas with no free variables) in prenex form, i.e.", "with all quantifiers ( and ) at the beginning.", "Furthermore, we reduce it to formulas whose first quantifier is .", "This is possible because for every sentence, there is an equivalent one in prenex form whose first quantifier is .# Reducing the theorem to sentences of the form .", "While we cannot do this by simply rearranging the quantifiers, we show that it is yet enough to prove the theorem for sentences of that form.# Finally we prove the theorem for sentences of that form.#* This is done by first noting that a sentence such as is either refutable (its negation is always true) or satisfiable, i.e.", "there is some model in which it holds (it might even be always true, i.e.", "a tautology); this model is simply assigning truth values to the subpropositions from which B is built.", "The reason for that is the completeness of propositional logic, with the existential quantifiers playing no role.#* We extend this result to more and more complex and lengthy sentences, ''D''''n'' (''n'' = 1,2...), built out from ''B'', so that either any of them is refutable and therefore so is ''φ'', or all of them are not refutable and therefore each holds in some model.#* We finally use the models in which the ''D''''n'' hold (in case all are not refutable) in order to build a model in which ''φ'' holds.===Theorem 1.Every valid formula (true in all structures) is provable.===This is the most basic form of the completeness theorem.", "We immediately restate it in a form more convenient for our purposes:When we say \"all structures\", it is important to specify that the structures involved are classical (Tarskian) interpretations I, where I =  (U is a non-empty (possibly infinite) set of objects, whereas F is a set of functions from expressions of the interpreted symbolism into U).", "By contrast, so-called \"free logics\" allow possibly empty sets for U.", "For more regarding free logics, see the work of Karel Lambert.===Theorem 2.Every formula φ is either refutable or satisfiable in some structure.===\"''φ'' is refutable\" means ''by definition'' \"¬''φ'' is provable\".===Equivalence of both theorems===If '''Theorem 1''' holds, and φ is not satisfiable in any structure, then ¬φ is valid in all structures and therefore provable, thus φ is refutable and '''Theorem 2''' holds.", "If on the other hand '''Theorem 2''' holds and φ is valid in all structures, then ¬φ is not satisfiable in any structure and therefore refutable; then ¬¬φ is provable and then so is φ, thus '''Theorem 1''' holds.===Proof of theorem 2: first step===We approach the proof of '''Theorem 2''' by successively restricting the class of all formulas φ for which we need to prove \"φ is either refutable or satisfiable\".", "At the beginning we need to prove this for all possible formulas φ in our language.", "However, suppose that for every formula φ there is some formula ψ taken from a more restricted class of formulas '''C''', such that \"ψ is either refutable or satisfiable\" → \"φ is either refutable or satisfiable\".", "Then, once this claim (expressed in the previous sentence) is proved, it will suffice to prove \"φ is either refutable or satisfiable\" only for φ's belonging to the class '''C'''.", "If φ is provably equivalent to ψ (''i.e.", "'', (''φ'' ≡ ''ψ'') is provable), then it is indeed the case that \"ψ is either refutable or satisfiable\" → \"''φ'' is either refutable or satisfiable\" (the soundness theorem is needed to show this).There are standard techniques for rewriting an arbitrary formula into one that does not use function or constant symbols, at the cost of introducing additional quantifiers; we will therefore assume that all formulas are free of such symbols.", "Gödel's paper uses a version of first-order predicate calculus that has no function or constant symbols to begin with.Next we consider a generic formula ''φ'' (which no longer uses function or constant symbols) and apply the prenex form theorem to find a formula ''ψ'' in ''normal form'' such that ''φ'' ≡ ''ψ'' (''ψ'' being in ''normal form'' means that all the quantifiers in ''ψ'', if there are any, are found at the very beginning of ''ψ'').", "It follows now that we need only prove '''Theorem 2''' for formulas ''φ'' in normal form.Next, we eliminate all free variables from ''φ'' by quantifying them existentially: if, say, ''x''1...''x''''n'' are free in ''φ'', we form .", "If ''ψ'' is satisfiable in a structure ''M'', then certainly so is ''φ'' and if ''ψ'' is refutable, then is provable, and then so is ¬''φ'', thus ''φ'' is refutable.", "We see that we can restrict ''φ'' to be a ''sentence'', that is, a formula with no free variables.Finally, we would like, for reasons of technical convenience, that the ''prefix'' of ''φ'' (that is, the string of quantifiers at the beginning of ''φ'', which is in normal form) begin with a universal quantifier and end with an existential quantifier.", "To achieve this for a generic ''φ'' (subject to restrictions we have already proved), we take some one-place relation symbol '''F''' unused in ''φ'', and two new variables '''y''' and '''z'''..", "If ''φ'' = '''(P)Φ''', where (P) stands for the prefix of ''φ'' and Φ for the ''matrix'' (the remaining, quantifier-free part of ''φ'') we form .", "Since is clearly provable, it is easy to see that is provable.===Reducing the theorem to formulas of degree 1===Our generic formula φ now is a sentence, in normal form, and its prefix starts with a universal quantifier and ends with an existential quantifier.", "Let us call the class of all such formulas '''R'''.", "We are faced with proving that every formula in '''R''' is either refutable or satisfiable.", "Given our formula φ, we group strings of quantifiers of one kind together in blocks::We define the '''degree''' of to be the number of universal quantifier blocks, separated by existential quantifier blocks as shown above, in the prefix of .", "The following lemma, which Gödel adapted from Skolem's proof of the Löwenheim–Skolem theorem, lets us sharply reduce the complexity of the generic formula we need to prove the theorem for:'''Lemma'''.", "Let ''k'' ≥ 1.If every formula in '''R''' of degree ''k'' is either refutable or satisfiable, then so is every formula in '''R''' of degree ''k'' + 1.:'''Comment''': Take a formula ''φ'' of degree ''k'' + 1 of the form , where is the remainder of (it is thus of degree ''k'' − 1).", "φ states that for every x there is a y such that... (something).", "It would have been nice to have a predicate ''Q' '' so that for every x, ''Q''′(''x'',''y'') would be true if and only if ''y'' is the required one to make (something) true.", "Then we could have written a formula of degree ''k'', which is equivalent to φ, namely .", "This formula is indeed equivalent to φ because it states that for every x, if there is a y that satisfies Q'(x,y), then (something) holds, and furthermore, we know that there is such a y, because for every x', there is a y' that satisfies Q'(x',y').", "Therefore φ follows from this formula.", "It is also easy to show that if the formula is false, then so is φ.", "'''Unfortunately''', in general there is no such predicate Q'.", "However, this idea can be understood as a basis for the following proof of the Lemma.'''Proof.'''", "Let φ be a formula of degree ''k'' + 1; then we can write it as:where '''(P)''' is the remainder of the prefix of (it is thus of degree ''k'' – 1) and is the quantifier-free matrix of .", "'''x''', '''y''', '''u''' and '''v''' denote here ''tuples'' of variables rather than single variables; ''e.g.''", "really stands for where are some distinct variables.Let now '''x'''' and '''y'''' be tuples of previously unused variables of the same length as '''x''' and '''y''' respectively, and let '''Q''' be a previously unused relation symbol that takes as many arguments as the sum of lengths of '''x''' and '''y'''; we consider the formula:Clearly, is provable.Now since the string of quantifiers does not contain variables from '''x''' or '''y''', the following equivalence is easily provable with the help of whatever formalism we're using::And since these two formulas are equivalent, if we replace the first with the second inside Φ, we obtain the formula Φ' such that Φ≡Φ'::Now Φ' has the form , where '''(S)''' and '''(S')''' are some quantifier strings, ρ and ρ' are quantifier-free, and, '''furthermore''', no variable of '''(S)''' occurs in ρ' and no variable of '''(S')''' occurs in ρ.", "Under such conditions every formula of the form , where '''(T)''' is a string of quantifiers containing all quantifiers in (S) and (S') interleaved among themselves in any fashion, but maintaining the relative order inside (S) and (S'), will be equivalent to the original formula Φ'(this is yet another basic result in first-order predicate calculus that we rely on).", "To wit, we form Ψ as follows::and we have .", "Now is a formula of degree ''k'' and therefore by assumption either refutable or satisfiable.If is satisfiable in a structure '''M''', then, considering , we see that is satisfiable as well.If is refutable, then so is , which is equivalent to it; thus is provable.In this particular case, we replace Q(x',y') in with the formula .", "Here (x,y | x',y') means that instead of ψ we are writing a different formula, in which x and y are replaced with x' and y'.", "Q(x,y) is simply replaced by .", "then becomes:and this formula is provable; since the part under negation and after the sign is obviously provable, and the part under negation and before the sign is obviously φ, just with '''x''' and '''y''' replaced by '''x'''' and '''y'''', we see that is provable, and φ is refutable.", "We have proved that φ is either satisfiable or refutable, and this concludes the proof of the '''Lemma'''.Notice that we could not have used instead of Q(x',y') from the beginning, because would not have been a well-formed formula in that case.", "This is why we cannot naively use the argument appearing at the comment that precedes the proof.===Proving the theorem for formulas of degree 1===As shown by the '''Lemma''' above, we only need to prove our theorem for formulas φ in '''R''' of degree 1.φ cannot be of degree 0, since formulas in R have no free variables and don't use constant symbols.", "So the formula φ has the general form::Now we define an ordering of the ''k''-tuples of natural numbers as follows: should hold if either , or , and precedes in lexicographic order.", "Here denotes the sum of the terms of the tuple.", "Denote the nth tuple in this order by .Set the formula as .", "Then put as :'''Lemma''': For every ''n'', .", "'''Proof''': By induction on ''n''; we have , where the latter implication holds by variable substitution, since the ordering of the tuples is such that .", "But the last formula is equivalent to φ.For the base case, is obviously a corollary of φ as well.", "So the '''Lemma''' is proven.Now if is refutable for some ''n'', it follows that φ is refutable.", "On the other hand, suppose that is not refutable for any ''n''.", "Then for each ''n'' there is some way of assigning truth values to the distinct subpropositions (ordered by their first appearance in ; \"distinct\" here means either distinct predicates, or distinct bound variables) in , such that will be true when each proposition is evaluated in this fashion.", "This follows from the completeness of the underlying propositional logic.We will now show that there is such an assignment of truth values to , so that all will be true: The appear in the same order in every ; we will inductively define a general assignment to them by a sort of \"majority vote\": Since there are infinitely many assignments (one for each ) affecting , either infinitely many make true, or infinitely many make it false and only finitely many make it true.", "In the former case, we choose to be true in general; in the latter we take it to be false in general.", "Then from the infinitely many ''n'' for which through are assigned the same truth value as in the general assignment, we pick a general assignment to in the same fashion.This general assignment must lead to every one of the and being true, since if one of the were false under the general assignment, would also be false for every ''n > k''.", "But this contradicts the fact that for the finite collection of general assignments appearing in , there are infinitely many ''n'' where the assignment making true matches the general assignment.From this general assignment, which makes all of the true, we construct an interpretation of the language's predicates that makes φ true.", "The universe of the model will be the natural numbers.", "Each i-ary predicate should be true of the naturals precisely when the proposition is either true in the general assignment, or not assigned by it (because it never appears in any of the ).In this model, each of the formulas is true by construction.", "But this implies that φ itself is true in the model, since the range over all possible k-tuples of natural numbers.", "So φ is satisfiable, and we are done.====Intuitive explanation====We may write each ''B''''i'' as Φ(''x''1...''x''''k'',''y''1...''y''''m'') for some ''x''s, which we may call \"first arguments\" and ''y''s that we may call \"last arguments\".Take ''B''1 for example.", "Its \"last arguments\" are ''z''2,''z''3...''z''''m''+1, and for every possible combination of ''k'' of these variables there is some ''j'' so that they appear as \"first arguments\" in ''B''''j''.", "Thus for large enough ''n''1, ''D''''n''1 has the property that the \"last arguments\" of ''B''1 appear, in every possible combinations of ''k'' of them, as \"first arguments\" in other ''B''''j''s within ''D''''n''.", "For every Bi there is a Dni with the corresponding property.Therefore in a model that satisfies all the ''D''''n''s, there are objects corresponding to ''z''1, ''z''2... and each combination of ''k'' of these appear as \"first arguments\" in some ''B''''j'', meaning that for every ''k'' of these objects ''z''''p''1...''z''''p''''k'' there are ''z''''q''1...''z''''q''''m'', which makes Φ(''z''''p''1...''z''''p''''k'',''z''''q''1...''z''''q''''m'') satisfied.", "By taking a submodel with only these ''z''1, ''z''2... objects, we have a model satisfying ''φ''." ], [ "Extensions", "===Extension to first-order predicate calculus with equality===Gödel reduced a formula containing instances of the equality predicate to ones without it in an extended language.", "His method involves replacing a formula φ containing some instances of equality with the formula: : : : : : : Here denote the predicates appearing in φ (with their respective arities), and φ' is the formula φ with all occurrences of equality replaced with the new predicate ''Eq''.", "If this new formula is refutable, the original φ was as well; the same is true of satisfiability, since we may take a quotient of satisfying model of the new formula by the equivalence relation representing ''Eq''.", "This quotient is well-defined with respect to the other predicates, and therefore will satisfy the original formula φ.===Extension to countable sets of formulas===Gödel also considered the case where there are a countably infinite collection of formulas.", "Using the same reductions as above, he was able to consider only those cases where each formula is of degree 1 and contains no uses of equality.", "For a countable collection of formulas of degree 1, we may define as above; then define to be the closure of .", "The remainder of the proof then went through as before.===Extension to arbitrary sets of formulas===When there is an uncountably infinite collection of formulas, the Axiom of Choice (or at least some weak form of it) is needed.", "Using the full AC, one can well-order the formulas, and prove the uncountable case with the same argument as the countable one, except with transfinite induction.", "Other approaches can be used to prove that the completeness theorem in this case is equivalent to the Boolean prime ideal theorem, a weak form of AC." ], [ "References", "* The first proof of the completeness theorem.", "* The same material as the dissertation, except with briefer proofs, more succinct explanations, and omitting the lengthy introduction." ], [ "External links", "*Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: \" Kurt Gödel\"—by Juliette Kennedy.", "*MacTutor biography: Kurt Gödel." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Grits" ], [ "Introduction", "Grits with cheese, bacon, green onion and a basted egg'''Grits''' are a type of porridge made from coarsely ground dried maize or hominy, the latter being maize that has been treated with an alkali in a process called nixtamalization, with the pericarp (ovary wall) removed.", "Grits are cooked in warm salted water or milk.", "They are often served with flavorings as a breakfast dish.", "Grits can be savory or sweet, with savory seasonings being more common.", "Grits are similar to other thick maize-based porridges from around the world, such as polenta and mieliepap.", "The dish originated in the Southern United States but is now available nationwide.", "Grits are often part of a dinner entrée shrimp and grits, served primarily in the South.The word \"grits\" is derived from the Old English word , meaning \"coarse meal\".", "In the Charleston, South Carolina area, cooked hominy grits were primarily referred to as \"hominy\" until the 1980s." ], [ "Origin", "The dish originated with the Native American Muscogee tribe using maize.", "American colonists learned to make the dish from the Native Americans, and it quickly became an American staple.At that time, maize or hominy for grits was ground on a stone mill.", "The ground material was passed through screens, the finer sifted material used as grit meal, and the coarser as grits.Three-quarters of the grits sold in the U.S. are bought in the South, in an area stretching from Lower Texas to Washington, D.C., that is sometimes called the \"grits belt\".", "The state of Georgia declared grits to be its official prepared food in 2002.A similar bill was introduced in South Carolina to name it the official state food, but it did not advance.", "Nevertheless, South Carolina still has an entire chapter of legislation dealing exclusively with corn meal and grits.", "State law in South Carolina requires grits and rice meal to be enriched, similar to the requirement for flour.Grits may be either yellow or white, depending on the color of the maize used.", "The most common version in supermarkets is \"quick\" grits, which are made from non-hominy maize and have the germ and hull removed.", "Whole kernel grits are sometimes called \"speckled\"." ], [ "Preparation", "Prepared gritsGrits are prepared by mixing water or milk and the dry grits and stirring them over heat, if one uses cornmeal, the food is called mush.", "Whole grain grits require much longer to become soft than \"quick grits\"." ], [ "Dishes", "Creamy bowl of gritsGrits are eaten with a wide variety of foods, such as eggs and bacon, fried catfish, shrimp, salmon croquettes, or country ham.Shrimp and grits is a traditional dish in the coastal communities in the South Carolina Lowcountry and Georgia's Lower Coastal Plain.", "Solidified cooked grits can be sliced and fried in vegetable oil, butter, or bacon grease, or they can first be breaded in beaten egg and bread crumbs." ], [ "See also", "* Creamed corn* Cuisine of the Southern United States* Cuisine of the United States* Farina (food)* Groats* Hasty pudding* List of porridges* Mush (cornmeal)* Polenta* Three Sisters (agriculture)" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "General Electric" ], [ "Introduction", "'''General Electric Company''' ('''GE''') is an American multinational conglomerate founded in 1892 and incorporated in the state of New York and headquartered in Boston.", "The company has several divisions, including aerospace, power, renewable energy, digital industry, additive manufacturing, and venture capital and finance.In 2020, GE ranked among the ''Fortune'' 500 as the 33rd largest firm in the United States by gross revenue.", "In 2011, GE ranked among the Fortune 20 as the 14th most profitable company, but later very severely underperformed the market (by about 75%) as its profitability collapsed.", "Two employees of GE – Irving Langmuir (1932) and Ivar Giaever (1973) – have been awarded the Nobel Prize.On November 9, 2021, the company announced it would divide itself into three public companies.", "On July 18, 2022, GE unveiled the brand names of the companies it will create through its planned separation: GE Aerospace, GE HealthCare and '''GE Vernova'''.", "The new companies will be focused on aerospace, healthcare, and energy (renewable energy, power, and digital).", "The first spin-off of GE HealthCare was finalized on January 4, 2023; GE continues to hold 13.5% of shares and intends to sell the remaining over time.", "This will be followed by the spin-off of GE's portfolio of energy businesses which plan to become GE Vernova in 2024.Following these transactions, GE will be an aviation-focused company; GE Aerospace will be the legal successor of the original GE." ], [ "History", "===Formation===General Electric in Schenectady, New York, aerial view, 1896Plan of Schenectady plant, 1896General Electric Building at 570 Lexington Avenue, New YorkDuring 1889, Thomas Edison (1847–1931) had business interests in many electricity-related companies, including Edison Lamp Company, a lamp manufacturer in East Newark, New Jersey; Edison Machine Works, a manufacturer of dynamos and large electric motors in Schenectady, New York; Bergmann & Company, a manufacturer of electric lighting fixtures, sockets, and other electric lighting devices; and Edison Electric Light Company, the patent-holding company and financial arm for Edison's lighting experiments, backed by J. P. Morgan (1837–1913) and the Vanderbilt family.In 1889, Drexel, Morgan & Co., a company founded by J.P. Morgan and Anthony J. Drexel financed Edison's research and helped merge several of Edison's separate companies under one corporation forming Edison General Electric Company, which was incorporated in New York on April 24, 1889.The new company acquired Sprague Electric Railway & Motor Company in the same year.", "The consolidation did not involve all of the companies established by Edison; notably, the Edison Illuminating Company, which would later become Consolidated Edison, was not part of the merger.In 1880, Gerald Waldo Hart formed the American Electric Company of New Britain, Connecticut, which merged a few years later with Thomson-Houston Electric Company, led by Charles Coffin.", "In 1887, Hart left to become superintendent of the Edison Electric Company.", "General Electric was formed through the 1892 merger of Edison General Electric Company and Thomson-Houston Electric Company with the support of Drexel, Morgan & Co.", "The original plants of both companies continue to operate under the GE banner to this day.The General Electric business was incorporated in New York, with the Schenectady plant used as headquarters for many years thereafter.", "Around the same time, General Electric's Canadian counterpart, Canadian General Electric, was formed.In 1893, General Electric bought the business of Rudolf Eickemeyer in Yonkers, New York, along with all of its patents and designs.", "Eickemeyer's firm had developed transformers for use in the transmission of electrical power.===Public company===In 1896, General Electric was one of the original 12 companies listed on the newly formed Dow Jones Industrial Average, where it remained a part of the index for 122 years, though not continuously.Carmen Miranda in a 1945 advertisement for a General Electric FM radio in ''The Saturday Evening Post''In 1911, General Electric absorbed the National Electric Lamp Association (NELA) into its lighting business.", "GE established its lighting division headquarters at Nela Park in East Cleveland, Ohio.", "The lighting division has since remained in the same location.===RCA and NBC===Owen D. Young, through GE, founded the Radio Corporation of America (RCA) in 1919, after purchasing the Marconi Wireless Telegraph Company of America.", "He aimed to expand international radio communications.", "GE used RCA as its retail arm for radio sales.", "In 1926, RCA co-founded the National Broadcasting Company (NBC), which built two radio broadcasting networks.", "In 1930, General Electric was charged with antitrust violations and was ordered to divest itself of RCA.===Television===In 1927, Ernst Alexanderson of GE made the first demonstration of television broadcast reception at his General Electric Realty Plot home at 1132 Adams Road in Schenectady, New York.", "On January 13, 1928, he made what was said to be the first broadcast to the public in the United States on GE's W2XAD: the pictures were picked up on 1.5 square inch (9.7 square centimeter) screens in the homes of four GE executives.", "The sound was broadcast on GE's WGY (AM).Experimental television station W2XAD evolved into the station WRGB which, along with WGY and WGFM (now WRVE), was owned and operated by General Electric until 1983.In 1965, the company expanded into cable with the launch of a franchise, which was awarded to a non-exclusive franchise in Schenectady through subsidiary General Electric Cablevision Corporation.", "On February 15, 1965, General Electric expanded its holdings in order to acquire more television stations to meet the maximum limit of the FCC, and more cable holdings through subsidiaries General Electric Broadcasting Company and General Electric Cablevision Corporation.The company also owned television stations such as KOA-TV (now KCNC-TV) in Denver and WSIX-TV (later WNGE-TV, now WKRN) in Nashville, but like WRGB, General Electric sold off most of its broadcasting holdings, but held on to the Denver television station until in 1986, when General Electric bought out RCA and made it into an owned-and-operated station by NBC.", "It even stayed on until 1995 when it was transferred to a joint venture between CBS and Group W in a swap deal, alongside KUTV in Salt Lake City for longtime CBS O&O in Philadelphia, WCAU-TV.====Former General Electric-owned stations====Stations are arranged in alphabetical order by state and city of license.", "City of license / Market Station ChannelTV (RF) Years owned Current ownership status Denver, Colorado '''KCNC-TV''' 4 (35) 1968–1986 '''CBS''' owned-and-operated station, owned by CBS News and Stations Albany, New York '''WRGB''' 6 (35) 1942–1983'''CBS''' affiliate owned by Sinclair Broadcast Group Nashville, Tennessee '''WKRN-TV''' 2 (27) 1966–1983'''ABC''' affiliate owned by Nexstar Media Group===Radio stations=== '''AM Station''' '''FM Station''' City of license / Market Station Years owned Current ownership status San Francisco KGO 810 1924–1945 owned by Cumulus Media KFOG 104.5 1974–1986 '''KNBR-FM''', owned by Cumulus Media Denver KOA 850 owned by iHeartMedia KOAQ 103.5 1968–1983 '''KRFX''', owned by iHeartMedia Boston WJIB 96.9 1972–1983 '''WBQT''', owned by Beasley Broadcast Group Albany - Schenectady - Troy, N.Y. WGY 810 1922–1983 owned by iHeartMedia WGFM 99.5 1939–1983 '''WRVE''', owned by iHeartMedia Nashville WSIX 980 1966–1983 '''WYFN''', owned by Bible Broadcasting Network WSIX-FM 97.9 1966–1983 owned by iHeartMedia===Power generation===Led by Sanford Alexander Moss, GE moved into the new field of aircraft turbo superchargers.", "This technology also led to the development of industrial gas turbine engines used for power production.", "GE introduced the first set of superchargers during World War I, and continued to develop them during the interwar period.", "Superchargers became indispensable in the years immediately prior to World War II.", "GE supplied 300,000 turbo superchargers for use in fighter and bomber engines.", "This work led the U.S. Army Air Corps to select GE to develop the nation's first jet engine during the war.", "This experience, in turn, made GE a natural selection to develop the Whittle W.1 jet engine that was demonstrated in the United States in 1941.GE was ranked ninth among United States corporations in the value of wartime production contracts.", "Although, their early work with Whittle's designs was later handed to Allison Engine Company.", "GE Aviation then emerged as one of the world's largest engine manufacturers, bypassing the British company, Rolls-Royce plc.Some consumers boycotted GE light bulbs, refrigerators and other products during the 1980s and 1990s.", "The purpose of the boycott was to protest against GE's role in nuclear weapons production.In 2002, GE acquired the wind power assets of Enron during its bankruptcy proceedings.", "Enron Wind was the only surviving U.S. manufacturer of large wind turbines at the time, and GE increased engineering and supplies for the Wind Division and doubled the annual sales to $1.2 billion in 2003.It acquired ScanWind in 2009.In 2018, GE Power garnered press attention when a model 7HA gas turbine in Texas was shut down for two months due to the break of a turbine blade.", "This model uses similar blade technology to GE's newest and most efficient model, the 9HA.", "After the break, GE developed new protective coatings and heat treatment methods.", "Gas turbines represent a significant portion of GE Power's revenue, and also represent a significant portion of the power generation fleet of several utility companies in the United States.", "Chubu Electric of Japan and Électricité de France also had units that were impacted.", "Initially, GE did not realize the turbine blade issue of the 9FB unit would impact the new HA units.===Computing===GE was one of the eight major computer companies of the 1960s along with IBM, Burroughs, NCR, Control Data Corporation, Honeywell, RCA, and UNIVAC.", "GE had a line of general purpose and special purpose computers, including the GE 200, GE 400, and GE 600 series general purpose computers, the GE 4010, GE 4020, and GE 4060 real-time process control computers, and the DATANET-30 and Datanet 355 message switching computers (DATANET-30 and 355 were also used as front end processors for GE mainframe computers).", "A Datanet 500 computer was designed, but never sold.In 1956 Homer Oldfield had been promoted to General Manager of GE's Computer Department.", "He facilitated the invention and construction of the Bank of America ERMA system, the first computerized system designed to read magnetized numbers on checks.", "But he was fired from GE in 1958 by Ralph J. Cordiner for overstepping his bounds and successfully gaining the ERMA contract.", "Cordiner was strongly against GE entering the computer business because he did not see the potential in it.", "In 1962, GE started developing its GECOS (later renamed GCOS) operating system, originally for batch processing, but later extended to time-sharing and transaction processing.", "Versions of GCOS are still in use today.", "From 1964 to 1969, GE and Bell Laboratories (which soon dropped out) joined with MIT to develop the Multics operating system on the GE 645 mainframe computer.", "The project took longer than expected and was not a major commercial success, but it demonstrated concepts such as single-level storage, dynamic linking, hierarchical file system, and ring-oriented security.", "Active development of Multics continued until 1985.GE got into computer manufacturing because in the 1950s they were the largest user of computers outside the United States federal government, aside from being the first business in the world to own a computer.", "Its major appliance manufacturing plant \"Appliance Park\" was the first non-governmental site to host one.", "However, in 1970, GE sold its computer division to Honeywell, exiting the computer manufacturing industry, though it retained its timesharing operations for some years afterwards.", "GE was a major provider of computer time-sharing services, through General Electric Information Services (GEIS, now GXS), offering online computing services that included GEnie.In 2000, when United Technologies Corp. planned to buy Honeywell, GE made a counter-offer that was approved by Honeywell.", "On July 3, 2001, the European Union issued a statement that \"prohibit the proposed acquisition by General Electric Co. of Honeywell Inc.\".", "The reasons given were it \"would create or strengthen dominant positions on several markets and that the remedies proposed by GE were insufficient to resolve the competition concerns resulting from the proposed acquisition of Honeywell\".On June 27, 2014, GE partnered with collaborative design company Quirky to announce its connected LED bulb called Link.", "The Link bulb is designed to communicate with smartphones and tablets using a mobile app called Wink.GE Global Operations Center in Downtown Cincinnati, Ohio===Acquisitions and divestments===In December 1985, GE reacquired the RCA Corporation, primarily to gain ownership of the NBC television network (also parent of Telemundo Communications Group) for $6.28 billion; this merger surpassed the Capital Cities/ABC merger that happened earlier that year as the largest non-oil merger in world business history.", "The remainder of RCA was sold to various companies, including Bertelsmann which absorbed RCA Records and Thomson SA, which licensed the manufacture of RCA branded electronics, traced its roots to Thomson-Houston, one of the original components of GE.", "Also in 1986, Kidder, Peabody & Co., a U.S.-based securities firm, was sold to GE and following heavy losses was sold to PaineWebber in 1994.In 2002, Francisco Partners and Norwest Venture Partners acquired a division of GE called GE Information Systems (GEIS).", "The new company, named GXS, is based in Gaithersburg, Maryland.", "GXS is a provider of business-to-business e-commerce solutions.", "GE maintains a minority stake in GXS.", "Also in 2002, GE Wind Energy was formed when GE bought the wind turbine manufacturing assets of Enron Wind after the Enron scandals.In 2004, GE bought 80% of Vivendi Universal Entertainment, the parent of Universal Pictures from Vivendi.", "Vivendi bought 20% of NBC forming the company NBCUniversal.", "GE then owned 80% of NBCUniversal and Vivendi owned 20%.", "In 2004, GE completed the spin-off of most of its mortgage and life insurance assets into an independent company, Genworth Financial, based in Richmond, Virginia.Genpact formerly known as GE Capital International Services (GECIS) was established by GE in late 1997 as its captive India-based BPO.", "GE sold 60% stake in Genpact to General Atlantic and Oak Hill Capital Partners in 2005 and hived off Genpact into an independent business.", "GE is still a major client to Genpact today, for services in customer service, finance, information technology, and analytics.In May 2007, GE acquired Smiths Aerospace for $4.8 billion.", "Also in 2007, GE Oil & Gas acquired Vetco Gray for $1.9 billion, followed by the acquisition of Hydril Pressure & Control in 2008 for $1.1 billion.GE Plastics was sold in 2008 to SABIC (Saudi Arabia Basic Industries Corporation).", "In May 2008, GE announced it was exploring options for divesting the bulk of its consumer and industrial business.On December 3, 2009, it was announced that NBCUniversal would become a joint venture between GE and cable television operator Comcast.", "Comcast would hold a controlling interest in the company, while GE would retain a 49% stake and would buy out shares owned by Vivendi.Vivendi would sell its 20% stake in NBCUniversal to GE for US$5.8 billion.", "Vivendi would sell 7.66% of NBCUniversal to GE for US$2 billion if the GE/Comcast deal was not completed by September 2010 and then sell the remaining 12.34% stake of NBCUniversal to GE for US$3.8 billion when the deal was completed or to the public via an IPO if the deal was not completed.On March 1, 2010, GE announced plans to sell its 20.85% stake in Turkey-based Garanti Bank.", "In August 2010, GE Healthcare signed a strategic partnership to bring cardiovascular Computed Tomography (CT) technology from start-up Arineta Ltd. of Israel to the hospital market.", "In October 2010, GE acquired gas engines manufacturer Dresser Industries in a $3 billion deal and also bought a $1.6 billion portfolio of retail credit cards from Citigroup Inc. On October 14, 2010, GE announced the acquisition of data migration & SCADA simulation specialists Opal Software.", "In December 2010, for the second time that year (after the Dresser acquisition), GE bought the oil sector company Wellstream, an oil pipe maker, for 800 million pounds ($1.3 billion).In March 2011, GE announced that it had completed the acquisition of privately held Lineage Power Holdings from The Gores Group.", "In April 2011, GE announced it had completed its purchase of John Wood plc's Well Support Division for $2.8 billion.In 2011, GE Capital sold its $2 billion Mexican assets to Santander for $162 million and exited the business in Mexico.", "Santander additionally assumed the portfolio debts of GE Capital in the country.", "Following this, GE Capital focused in its core business and shed its non-core assets.In June 2012, CEO and President of GE Jeff Immelt said that the company would invest ₹3 billion to accelerate its businesses in Karnataka.", "In October 2012, GE acquired $7 billion worth of bank deposits from MetLife Inc.On March 19, 2013, Comcast bought GE's shares in NBCU for $16.7 billion, ending the company's longtime stake in television and film media.In April 2013, GE acquired oilfield pump maker Lufkin Industries for $2.98 billion.In April 2014, it was announced that GE was in talks to acquire the global power division of French engineering group Alstom for a figure of around $13 billion.", "A rival joint bid was submitted in June 2014 by Siemens and Mitsubishi Heavy Industries (MHI) with Siemens seeking to acquire Alstom's gas turbine business for €3.9 billion, and MHI proposing a joint venture in steam turbines, plus a €3.1 billion cash investment.", "In June 2014 a formal offer from GE worth $17 billion was agreed by the Alstom board.", "Part of the transaction involved the French government taking a 20% stake in Alstom to help secure France's energy and transport interests and French jobs.", "A rival offer from Siemens-Mitsubishi Heavy Industries was rejected.", "The acquisition was expected to be completed in 2015.In October 2014, GE announced it was considering the sale of its Polish banking business Bank BPH.Later in 2014, General Electric announced plans to open its global operations center in Cincinnati, Ohio.", "The Global Operations Center opened in October 2016 as home to GE's multifunctional shared services organization.", "It supports the company's finance/accounting, human resources, information technology, supply chain, legal and commercial operations, and is one of GE's four multifunctional shared services centers worldwide in Pudong, China; Budapest, Hungary; and Monterrey, Mexico.In April 2015, GE announced its intention to sell off its property portfolio, worth $26.5 billion, to Wells Fargo and The Blackstone Group.", "It was announced in April 2015 that GE would sell most of its finance unit and return around $90 billion to shareholders as the firm looked to trim down on its holdings and rid itself of its image of a \"hybrid\" company, working in both banking and manufacturing.", "In August 2015, GE Capital agreed to sell its Healthcare Financial Services business to Capital One for US$9 billion.", "The transaction involved US$8.5 billion of loans made to a wide array of sectors including senior housing, hospitals, medical offices, outpatient services, pharmaceuticals and medical devices.", "Also in August 2015, GE Capital agreed to sell GE Capital Bank's on-line deposit platform to Goldman Sachs.", "Terms of the transaction were not disclosed, but the sale included US$8 billion of on-line deposits and another US$8 billion of brokered certificates of deposit.", "The sale was part of GE's strategic plan to exit the U.S. banking sector and to free itself from tightening banking regulations.", "GE also aimed to shed its status as a \"systematically important financial institution\".In September 2015, GE Capital agreed to sell its transportation-finance unit to Canada's Bank of Montreal.", "The unit sold had US$8.7 billion (CA$11.5 billion) of assets, 600 employees and 15 offices in the U.S. and Canada.", "Exact terms of the sale were not disclosed, but the final price would be based on the value of the assets at closing, plus a premium according to the parties.", "In October 2015, activist investor Nelson Peltz's fund Trian bought a $2.5 billion stake in the company.In January 2016, Haier acquired GE's appliance division for $5.4 billion.", "In October 2016, GE Renewable Energy agreed to pay €1.5 billion to Doughty Hanson & Co for LM Wind Power during 2017.At the end of October 2016, it was announced that GE was under negotiations for a deal valued at about $30 billion to combine GE Oil & Gas with Baker Hughes.", "The transaction would create a publicly traded entity controlled by GE.", "It was announced that GE Oil & Gas would sell off its water treatment business, GE Water & Process Technologies, as part of its divestment agreement with Baker Hughes.", "The deal was cleared by the EU in May 2017, and by the United States Department of Justice in June 2017.The merger agreement was approved by shareholders at the end of June 2017.On July 3, 2017, the transaction was completed and Baker Hughes became a GE company and was renamed Baker Hughes, a GE Company (BHGE).", "In November 2018, GE reduced its stake in Baker Hughes to 50.4%.", "On October 18, 2019, GE reduced its stake to 36.8% and the company was renamed back to Baker Hughes.In May 2017, GE had signed $15 billion of business deals with Saudi Arabia.", "Saudi Arabia is one of GE's largest customers.", "In September 2017, GE announced the sale of its Industrial Solutions Business to ABB.", "The deal closed on June 30, 2018.===Fraud allegations and notice of possible SEC civil action===On August 15, 2019, Harry Markopolos, a financial fraud investigator known for his discovery of a Ponzi Scheme run by Bernard Madoff, accused General Electric of being a \"bigger fraud than Enron\", alleging $38 billion in accounting fraud.", "GE denied wrongdoing.On October 6, 2020, General Electric reported it received a Wells notice from the Securities and Exchange Commission stating the SEC may take civil action for possible violations of securities laws.====Insufficient reserves for long-term care policies====It is alleged that GE is \"hiding\" (i.e.", "under-reserved) $29 billion in losses related to its long-term care business.According to an August 2019 Fitch Ratings report, there are concerns that GE has not set aside enough money to cover its long-term care liabilities.In 2018, a lawsuit (the Bezio case) was filed in New York state court on behalf of participants in GE's 401(k) plan and shareowners alleging violations of Section 11 of the Securities Act of 1933 based on alleged misstatements and omissions related to insurance reserves and performance of GE's business segments.The Kansas Insurance Department (KID) is requiring General Electric to make $14.5 billion of capital contributions for its insurance contracts during the 7-year period ending in 2024.GE reported the total liability related to its insurance contracts increased significantly from 2016 to 2019::December 31, 2016 $26.1 billion:December 31, 2017 $38.6 billion:December 31, 2018 $35.6 billion :December 31, 2019 $39.6 billionIn 2018, GE announced the issuance of the new standard by the Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) regarding Financial Services - Insurance (Topic 944) will materially affect its financial statements.", "Mr. Markopolos estimated there will be a $US 10.5 billion charge when the new accounting standard is adopted in the first quarter of 2021.====Anticipated $8 billion loss upon disposition of Baker Hughes====In 2017, GE acquired a 62.5% interest in Baker Hughes (BHGE) when it combined its oil & gas business with Baker Hughes Incorporated.In 2018, GE reduced its interest to 50.4%, resulting in the realization of a $2.1 billion loss.", "GE is planning to divest its remaining interest and has warned that the divestment will result in an additional loss of $8.4 billion (assuming a BHGE share price of $23.57 per share).", "In response to the fraud allegations, GE noted the amount of the loss would be $7.4 billion if the divestment occurred on July 26, 2019.Mr.", "Markopolos noted that BHGE is an asset available for sale and therefore mark-to-market accounting is required.Markopolos noted GE's current ratio was only 0.67.He expressed concerns that GE may file for bankruptcy if there is a recession.====Other====In 2018, the GE Pension Plan reported losses of US$3.3 billion on plan assets.In 2018, General Electric changed the discount rate used to calculate the actuarial liabilities of its pension plans.", "The rate was increased from 3.64% to 4.34%.", "Consequently, the reported liability for the underfunded pension plans decreased by $7 billion year-over-year, from $34.2 billion in 2017 to $27.2 billion in 2018.In October 2018, General Electric announced it would \"freeze pensions\" for about 20,000 salaried U.S. employees.", "The employees will be moved to a defined-contribution retirement plan in 2021.On March 30, 2020, General Electric factory workers protested to convert jet engine factories to make ventilators during the COVID-19 crisis.In June 2020, GE made an agreement to sell its Lighting business to Savant Systems, Inc. Financial details of the transaction were not disclosed.In November 2020, General Electric warned it would be cutting jobs waiting for a recovery due to the COVID-19 pandemic." ], [ "Financial performance", "YearRevenuein mil.", "US$Net incomein mil.", "US$Total assetsin mil.", "US$Price per sharein US$Employees2005136,58016,720673,32122.352006151,56820,742696,68322.432007172,48822,208795,68325.442008181,58117,335797,76919.442009154,43810,725781,9019.962010149,56711,344747,79312.682011146,54213,120718,18914.322012146,68413,641684,99916.562013113,24513,057656,56020.32307,0002014117,18415,233654,95422.72305,0002015117,386−6,145493,07124.28333,0002016123,6938,176365,18328.36295,0002017122,092−6,222377,94525.02313,0002018121,615−22,802309,12912.71283,000=== Dividends ===General Electric was a longtime \"dividend aristocrat\" (a company with a long history of maintaining dividend payments to shareholders).", "Until 2017, the company had never cut dividends for 119 years before a 50% dividend reduction from 24 cents per share to 12 cents per share.", "In 2018, GE further reduced its quarterly dividend from 12 cents to 1 cent per share." ], [ "Stock", "As a publicly traded company on the New York Stock Exchange, GE stock was one of the 30 components of the Dow Jones Industrial Average from 1907 to 2018, the longest continuous presence of any company on the index, and during this time the only company which was part of the original Dow Jones Industrial Index created in 1896.In August 2000, the company had a market capitalization of $601 billion, and was the most valuable company in the world.", "On June 26, 2018, the stock was removed from the index and replaced with Walgreens Boots Alliance.", "In the years leading to its removal, GE was the worst performing stock in the Dow, falling more than 55 percent year on year and more than 25 percent year to date.", "The company continued to lose value after being removed from the index.File:Linear GE Stock Price Graph 1962-2013.png|Linear GE stock price graph 1962–2013File:GE Trading Volume Graph.png|GE trading volume graphGeneral Electric Co. announced on July 30, 2021 (the completion of) a reverse stock split of GE common stock at a ratio of 1-for-8 and trading on a split-adjusted basis with a new ISIN number (US3696043013) starting on August 2, 2021." ], [ "Corporate affairs", "A General Electric neon signIn 1959, General Electric was accused of promoting the largest illegal cartel in the United States since the adoption of the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890 in order to maintain artificially high prices.", "In total, 29 companies and 45 executives would be convicted.", "Subsequent parliamentary inquiries revealed that \"white-collar crime\" was by far the most costly form of crime for the United States' finances.GE is a multinational conglomerate headquartered in Boston, Massachusetts.", "However its main offices are located at 30 Rockefeller Plaza at Rockefeller Center in New York City, known now as the Comcast Building.", "It was formerly known as the GE Building for the prominent GE logo on the roof; NBC's headquarters and main studios are also located in the building.", "Through its RCA subsidiary, it has been associated with the center since its construction in the 1930s.", "GE moved its corporate headquarters from the GE Building on Lexington Avenue to Fairfield, Connecticut in 1974.In 2016, GE announced a move to the South Boston Waterfront neighborhood of Boston, Massachusetts, partly as a result of an incentive package provide by state and city governments.", "The first group of workers arrived in the summer of 2016, and the full move will be completed by 2018.Due to poor financial performance and corporate downsizing, GE sold the land it planned to build its new headquarters building on, instead choosing to occupy neighboring leased buildings.GE's tax return is the largest return filed in the United States; the 2005 return was approximately 24,000 pages when printed out, and 237 megabytes when submitted electronically.", "As of 2011, the company spent more on U.S. lobbying than any other company.In 2005, GE launched its \"''Ecomagination''\" initiative in an attempt to position itself as a \"green\" company.GE is one of the biggest players in the wind power industry and is developing environment-friendly products such as hybrid locomotives, desalination and water reuse solutions, and photovoltaic cells.", "The company \"plans to build the largest solar-panel-making factory in the U.S.\", and has set goals for its subsidiaries to lower their greenhouse gas emissions.On May 21, 2007, GE announced it would sell its GE Plastics division to petrochemicals manufacturer SABIC for net proceeds of $11.6 billion.", "The transaction took place on August 31, 2007, and the company name changed to SABIC Innovative Plastics, with Brian Gladden as CEO.In July 2010, GE agreed to pay $23.4 million to settle an SEC complaint without admitting or denying the allegations that two of its subsidiaries bribed Iraqi government officials to win contracts under the U.N. oil-for-food program between 2002 and 2003.In February 2017, GE announced that the company intends to close the gender gap by promising to hire and place 20,000 women in technical roles by 2020.The company is also seeking to have a 50:50 male to female gender representation in all entry-level technical programs.In October 2017, GE announced they would be closing research and development centers in Shanghai, Munich and Rio de Janeiro.", "The company spent $5 billion on R&D in the last year.On February 25, 2019, GE sold its diesel locomotive business to Wabtec.===CEO===, John L. Flannery was replaced by H. Lawrence Culp Jr. as chairman and CEO in a unanimous vote of the GE Board of Directors.", "* Charles A. Coffin (1913–1922)* Owen D. Young (1922–1939, 1942–1945)* Philip D. Reed (1940–1942, 1945–1958)* Ralph J. Cordiner (1958–1963)* Gerald L. Phillippe (1963–1972)* Fred J. Borch (1967–1972)* Reginald H. Jones (1972–1981)* Jack Welch (1981–2001)* Jeff Immelt (2001–2017)* John L. Flannery (2017–2018)* H. Lawrence Culp Jr. (2018–present)===Corporate recognition and rankings===In 2011, ''Fortune'' ranked GE the sixth-largest firm in the U.S., and the 14th-most profitable.", "Other rankings for 2011–2012 include the following:* 18 company for leaders (''Fortune'')* 82 green company (''Newsweek'')* 91 most admired company (''Fortune'')* 19 most innovative company (''Fast Company'').In 2012, GE's brand was valued at $28.8 billion.", "CEO Jeff Immelt had a set of changes in the presentation of the brand commissioned in 2004, after he took the reins as chairman, to unify the diversified businesses of GE.Tom Geismar later stated that looking back at the logos of the 1910s, 1920s, and 1930s, one can clearly judge that they are old-fashioned.", "Chermayeff & Geismar, along with colleagues Bill Brown and Ivan Chermaev, created the modern 1980 logo.", "They, in turn, argued that even now the old logos look out of date, earlier they were good.", "The changes included a new corporate color palette, small modifications to the GE logo, a new customized font (GE Inspira) and a new slogan, \"Imagination at work\", composed by David Lucas, to replace the slogan \"We Bring Good Things to Life\" used since 1979.The standard requires many headlines to be lowercased and adds visual \"white space\" to documents and advertising.", "The changes were designed by Wolff Olins and are used on GE's marketing, literature, and website.", "In 2014, a second typeface family was introduced: GE Sans and Serif by Bold Monday created under art direction by Wolff Olins., GE had appeared on the Fortune 500 list for 22 years and held the 11th rank.", "GE was removed from the Dow Jones Industrial Average on June 28, 2018, after the value had dropped below 1% of the index's weight." ], [ "Businesses", "+ Ranking in Fortune 500 Year Rank 1996 7 1997 5 1998 5 1999 5 2000 6 2001 5 2002 6 2003 5 2004 5 2005 5 2006 7 2007 6 2008 6 2009 5 2010 4 2011 6 2012 6 2013 8 2014 9 2015 8 2016 11201713201818201921202033202138GE's primary business divisions are:* GE Additive* GE Aerospace* GE Capital* GE Digital* GE Healthcare* GE Power* GE Renewable Energy* GE ResearchThrough these businesses, GE participates in markets that include the generation, transmission and distribution of electricity (e.g.", "nuclear, gas and solar), industrial automation, medical imaging equipment, motors, aircraft jet engines, and aviation services.", "Through GE Commercial Finance, GE Consumer Finance, GE Equipment Services, and GE Insurance it offers a range of financial services.", "It has a presence in over 100 countries.GE gauges to control a railway locomotive at a museum near Saskatoon, CanadaGeneral Imaging manufacturers GE digital cameras.Even though the first wave of conglomerates (such as ITT Corporation, Ling-Temco-Vought, Tenneco, etc.)", "fell by the wayside by the mid-1980s, in the late 1990s, another wave (consisting of Westinghouse, Tyco, and others) tried and failed to emulate GE's success.", "GE is planning to set up a silicon carbide chip packaging R&D center in coalition with SUNY Polytechnic Institute in Utica, New York.", "The project will create 470 jobs with the potential to grow to 820 jobs within 10 years.On September 14, 2015, GE announced the creation of a new unit: GE Digital, which will bring together its software and IT capabilities.", "The new business unit will be headed by Bill Ruh, who joined GE in 2011 from Cisco Systems and has since worked on GE's software efforts.===Former divisions==='''GE Industrial''' was a division providing appliances, lighting and industrial products; factory automation systems; plastics, silicones and quartz products; security and sensors technology, and equipment financing, management and operating services.", "As of 2007 it had 70,000 employees generating $17.7 billion in revenue.", "After some major realignments in late 2007, GE Industrial was organized in two main sub businesses:* GE Consumer & Industrial** Appliances** Electrical Distribution** Lighting* GE Enterprise Solutions** Digital Energy** GE Fanuc Intelligent Platforms** Security** Sensing & Inspection TechnologiesThe former GE Plastics division was sold in August 2007 and is now SABIC Innovative Plastics.On May 4, 2008, it was announced that GE would auction off its appliances business for an expected sale of $5–8 billion.", "However, this plan fell through as a result of the recession.The former GE Appliances and Lighting segment was dissolved in 2014 when GE's appliance division was attempted to be sold to Electrolux for $5.4 billion, but eventually sold it to Haier in June 2016 due to antitrust filing against Electrolux.", "GE Lighting (consumer lighting) and the newly created Current, powered by GE, which deals in commercial LED, solar, EV, and energy storage, became stand-alone businesses within the company, until the sale of the latter to American Industrial Partners in April 2019.The former GE Transportation division merged with Wabtec on February 25, 2019, leaving GE with a 24.9% holding in Wabtec.On July 1, 2020, GE Lighting was acquired by Savant Systems and remains headquartered at Nela Park in East Cleveland, Ohio." ], [ "Environmental record", "===Carbon footprint===General Electric Company reported Total CO2e emissions (Direct + Indirect) for the twelve months ending 31 December 2020 at 2,080 Kt (-310 /-13% y-o-y).", "There has been a consistent declining trend in reported emissions since 2016.+ General Electric Company's annual Total CO2e emissions (Direct + Indirect) (in kilotonnes) Dec 2016 Dec 2017 Dec 2018 Dec 2019 Dec 2020 3,830 3,780 2,800 2,390 2,080===Pollution===Some of GE's activities have given rise to large-scale air and water pollution.", "Based on data from 2000, researchers at the Political Economy Research Institute listed the corporation as the fourth-largest corporate producer of air pollution in the United States (behind only E. I.", "Du Pont de Nemours & Co., United States Steel Corp., and ConocoPhillips), with more than 4.4 million pounds per year (2,000 tons) of toxic chemicals released into the air.", "GE has also been implicated in the creation of toxic waste.", "According to United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) documents, only the United States Government, Honeywell, and Chevron Corporation are responsible for producing more Superfund toxic waste sites.In 1983, New York State Attorney General Robert Abrams filed suit in the United States District Court for the Northern District of New York to compel GE to pay for the clean-up of what was claimed to be more than 100,000 tons of chemicals dumped from their plant in Waterford, New York, which polluted nearby groundwater and the Hudson River.", "In 1999, the company agreed to pay a $250 million settlement in connection with claims it polluted the Housatonic River (at Pittsfield, Massachusetts) and other sites with polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and other hazardous substances.In 2003, acting on concerns that the plan proposed by GE did not \"provide for adequate protection of public health and the environment\", EPA issued an administrative order for the company to \"address cleanup at the GE site\" in Rome, Georgia, also contaminated with PCBs.The nuclear reactors involved in the 2011 crisis at Fukushima I in Japan were GE designs, and the architectural designs were done by Ebasco, formerly owned by GE.", "Concerns over the design and safety of these reactors were raised as early as 1972, but tsunami danger was not discussed at that time.", ", the same model nuclear reactors designed by GE are operating in the US; however, as of May 31, 2019, the controversial Pilgrim Nuclear Generating Station, in Plymouth, Massachusetts, has been shut down and is in the process of decommission.====Pollution of the Hudson River====GE heavily contaminated the Hudson River with PCBs between 1947 and 1977.This pollution caused a range of harmful effects to wildlife and people who eat fish from the river.", "In 1983 EPA declared a 200-mile (320 km) stretch of the river, from Hudson Falls to New York City, to be a Superfund site requiring cleanup.", "This Superfund site is considered to be one of the largest in the nation.", "In addition to receiving extensive fines, GE is continuing its sediment removal operations, pursuant to the Superfund orders, in the 21st century.====Pollution of the Housatonic River====From until 1977, GE polluted the Housatonic River with PCB discharges from its plant at Pittsfield, Massachusetts.", "EPA designated the Pittsfield plant and several miles of the Housatonic to be a Superfund site in 1997, and ordered GE to remediate the site.", "Aroclor 1254 and Aroclor 1260, products manufactured by Monsanto, were the principal contaminants that were discharged to the river.", "The highest concentrations of PCBs in the Housatonic River are found in Woods Pond in Lenox, Massachusetts, just south of Pittsfield, where they have been measured up to 110 mg/kg in the sediment.", "About 50% of all the PCBs currently in the river are estimated to be retained in the sediment behind Woods Pond dam.", "This is estimated to be about of PCBs.", "Former filled oxbows are also polluted.", "Waterfowl and fish who live in and around the river contain significant levels of PCBs and can present health risks if consumed.", "In 2020 GE completed remediation and restoration of its 10 manufacturing plant areas within the city of Pittsfield.", "plans for cleanup of the river south of the city are not finalized." ], [ "Social responsibility", "=== Environmental initiatives ===GE facility in Schenectady, New YorkA General Electric EV charging station in North AmericaThe environmental work and research of GE can be seen as early as 1968 with the experimental Delta electric car built by the GE Research and Development Center led by Bruce Laumeister.", "The electric car led to the production shortly after of the cutting-edge technology of the first commercially produced all-electric Elec-Trak garden tractor, which was manufactured from around 1969 until 1975.On June 6, 2011, GE announced that it has licensed solar thermal technology from California-based eSolar for use in power plants that use both solar and natural gas.On May 26, 2011, GE unveiled its EV Solar Carport, a carport that incorporates solar panels on its roof, with electric vehicle charging stations under its cover.In May 2005, GE announced the launch of a program called \"Ecomagination\", intended, in the words of CEO Jeff Immelt, \"to develop tomorrow's solutions such as solar energy, hybrid locomotives, fuel cells, lower-emission aircraft engines, lighter and stronger durable materials, efficient lighting, and water purification technology\".", "The announcement prompted an op-ed piece in ''The New York Times'' to observe that, \"while General Electric's increased emphasis on clean technology will probably result in improved products and benefit its bottom line, Mr. Immelt's credibility as a spokesman on national environmental policy is fatally flawed because of his company's intransigence in cleaning up its own toxic legacy.", "\"GE has said that it will invest $1.4 billion in clean technology research and development in 2008 as part of its Ecomagination initiative.", "As of October 2008, the scheme had resulted in 70 green products being brought to market, ranging from halogen lamps to biogas engines.", "In 2007, GE raised the annual revenue target for its Ecomagination initiative from $20 billion in 2010 to $25 billion following positive market response to its new product lines.", "In 2010, GE continued to raise its investment by adding $10 billion into Ecomagination over the next five years.GE Energy's renewable energy business has expanded greatly, to keep up with growing U.S. and global demand for clean energy.", "Since entering the renewable energy industry in 2002, GE has invested more than $850 million in renewable energy commercialization.", "In August 2008, it acquired Kelman Ltd, a Northern Ireland-based company specializing in advanced monitoring and diagnostics technologies for transformers used in renewable energy generation and announced an expansion of its business in Northern Ireland in May 2010.In 2009, GE's renewable energy initiatives, which include solar power, wind power and GE Jenbacher gas engines using renewable and non-renewable methane-based gases, employ more than 4,900 people globally and have created more than 10,000 supporting jobs.GE Energy and Orion New Zealand (Orion) have announced the implementation of the first phase of a GE network management system to help improve power reliability for customers.", "GE's ENMAC Distribution Management System is the foundation of Orion's initiative.", "The system of smart grid technologies will significantly improve the network company's ability to manage big network emergencies and help it to restore power faster when outages occur.In June 2018, GE Volunteers, an internal group of GE employees, along with Malaysian Nature Society, transplanted more than 270 plants from the Taman Tugu forest reserve so that they may be replanted in a forest trail which is under construction.===Educational initiatives===GE Healthcare is collaborating with the Wayne State University School of Medicine and the Medical University of South Carolina to offer an integrated radiology curriculum during their respective MD Programs led by investigators of the Advanced Diagnostic Ultrasound in Microgravity study.", "GE has donated over one million dollars of Logiq E Ultrasound equipment to these two institutions.===Marketing initiatives===Between September 2011 and April 2013, GE ran a content marketing campaign dedicated to telling the stories of \"innovators—people who are reshaping the world through act or invention\".", "The initiative included 30 3-minute films from leading documentary film directors (Albert Maysles, Jessica Yu, Leslie Iwerks, Steve James, Alex Gibney, Lixin Fan, Gary Hustwit and others), and a user-generated competition that received over 600 submissions, out of which 20 finalists were chosen.", "''Short Films, Big Ideas'' was launched at the 2011 Toronto International Film Festival in partnership with cinelan.", "Stories included breakthroughs in Slingshot (water vapor distillation system), cancer research, energy production, pain management and food access.", "Each of the 30 films received world premiere screenings at a major international film festival, including the Sundance Film Festival and the Tribeca Film Festival.", "The winning amateur director film, ''The Cyborg Foundation'', was awarded a prize at the 2013 Sundance Film Festival.", "According to GE, the campaign garnered more than 1.5 billion total media impressions, 14 million online views, and was seen in 156 countries.In January 2017, GE signed an estimated $7 million deal with the Boston Celtics to have its corporate logo put on the NBA team's jersey.=== Charity ===On March 3, 2022, GE published an international memo pledging to donate $4.5 million to Ukraine amid Russian invasion.", "According to the memo, $4 million will be used for medical equipment, $400,000 for emergency cash for refugees and $100,000 will go to Airlink, a NGO that helps communities in crisis." ], [ "Political affiliation", "In the 1950s, GE sponsored Ronald Reagan's TV career and launched him on the lecture circuit.", "GE has also designed social programs, supported civil rights organizations, and funded minority education programs." ], [ "Notable appearances in media", "In the early 1950s, Kurt Vonnegut was a writer for GE.", "A number of his novels and stories (notably ''Cat's Cradle'' and ''Player Piano'') refer to the fictional city of Ilium, which appears to be loosely based on Schenectady, New York.", "The Ilium Works is the setting for the short story \"Deer in the Works\".In 1981, GE won a Clio award for its :30 Soft White Light Bulbs commercial, We Bring Good Things to Life.", "The slogan \"We Bring Good Things to Life\" was created by Phil Dusenberry at the ad agency BBDO.GE was the primary focus of a 1991 short subject Academy Award-winning documentary, ''Deadly Deception: General Electric, Nuclear Weapons, and Our Environment'', that juxtaposed GE's \"We Bring Good Things To Life\" commercials with the true stories of workers and neighbors whose lives have been affected by the company's activities involving nuclear weapons.GE was frequently mentioned and parodied in the NBC comedy sitcom ''30 Rock'' from 2006 to 2013.Former General Electric CEO Jack Welch even cameoed as himself appearing in the season four episode \"Future Husband\".", "The episode is a satirical reference to the real-world acquisition of NBC Universal from General Electric by Comcast in November 2009.In 2013, GE received a National Jefferson Award for Outstanding Service by a Major Corporation." ], [ "Branding", "The General Electric logo has a blue circle with a white outline.", "It has four white lines which \"suggest the blades of a midcentury tabletop fan\".", "In the center of the circle is the letters \"GE.\"", "Its design has changed little through the company's history.", "The logo is officially known as the Monogram, but is also known by some as \"the meatball\"." ], [ "See also", "* GE Technology Infrastructure* Knolls Atomic Power Laboratory* List of assets owned by General Electric* Phoebus cartel* Top 100 US Federal Contractors" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Carlson, W. Bernard.", "''Innovation as a Social Process: Elihu Thomson and the Rise of General Electric, 1870–1900'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991).", "* Woodbury, David O.", "''Elihu Thomson, Beloved Scientist'' (Boston: Museum of Science, 1944)* Haney, John L. ''The Elihu Thomson Collection'' American Philosophical Society Yearbook 1944.", "* Hammond, John W. ''Men and Volts: The Story of General Electric'', published 1941, 436 pages.", "* Mill, John M. ''Men and Volts at War: The Story of General Electric in World War II'', published 1947.", "* Irmer, Thomas.", "''Gerard Swope.''", "In Immigrant Entrepreneurship: German-American Business Biographies, 1720 to the Present, vol.", "4, edited by Jeffrey Fear.", "German Historical Institute." ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "George Harrison" ], [ "Introduction", "'''George Harrison''' (25 February 1943 – 29 November 2001) was an English musician, singer and songwriter who achieved international fame as the lead guitarist of the Beatles.", "Sometimes called \"the quiet Beatle\", Harrison embraced Indian culture and helped broaden the scope of popular music through his incorporation of Indian instrumentation and Hindu-aligned spirituality in the Beatles' work.", "Although the majority of the band's songs were written by John Lennon and Paul McCartney, most Beatles albums from 1965 onwards contained at least two Harrison compositions.", "His songs for the group include \"Taxman\", \"Within You Without You\", \"While My Guitar Gently Weeps\", \"Here Comes the Sun\" and \"Something\".", "Harrison's earliest musical influences included George Formby and Django Reinhardt; subsequent influences were Carl Perkins, Chet Atkins and Chuck Berry.By 1965, he had begun to lead the Beatles into folk rock through his interest in Bob Dylan and the Byrds, and towards Indian classical music through his use of Indian instruments, such as the sitar, which he had become acquainted with on the set of the film ''Help!''", "He played sitar on numerous Beatles songs, starting with \"Norwegian Wood (This Bird Has Flown)\".", "Having initiated the band's embrace of Transcendental Meditation in 1967, he subsequently developed an association with the Hare Krishna movement.", "After the band's break-up in 1970, Harrison released the triple album ''All Things Must Pass'', a critically acclaimed work that produced his most successful hit single, \"My Sweet Lord\", and introduced his signature sound as a solo artist, the slide guitar.", "He also organised the 1971 Concert for Bangladesh with Indian musician Ravi Shankar, a precursor to later benefit concerts such as Live Aid.", "In his role as a music and film producer, Harrison produced acts signed to the Beatles' Apple record label before founding Dark Horse Records in 1974.He co-founded HandMade Films in 1978, initially to produce the Monty Python troupe's comedy film ''The Life of Brian'' (1979).Harrison released several best-selling singles and albums as a solo performer.", "In 1988, he co-founded the platinum-selling supergroup the Traveling Wilburys.", "A prolific recording artist, he was featured as a guest guitarist on tracks by Badfinger, Ronnie Wood, and Billy Preston, and collaborated on songs and music with Dylan, Eric Clapton, Ringo Starr, and Tom Petty.", "''Rolling Stone'' magazine ranked him number 31 in their 2023 list of greatest guitarists of all time.", "He is a two-time Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inductee – as a member of the Beatles in 1988, and posthumously for his solo career in 2004.Harrison's first marriage to model Pattie Boyd in 1966 ended in divorce in 1977.In the following year he married Olivia Arias, with whom he had a son, Dhani.", "A lifelong cigarette smoker, Harrison died of numerous cancers in 2001 at the age of 58, two years after surviving a knife attack by an intruder at his home, Friar Park.", "His remains were cremated, and the ashes were scattered according to Hindu tradition in a private ceremony in the Ganges and Yamuna rivers in India.", "He left an estate of almost £100 million." ], [ "{{Anchor|Early years}} Early years: 1943–1958", "Harrison's place of birth and first home – 12 Arnold GroveHarrison was born at 12 Arnold Grove in Wavertree, Liverpool, on 25 February 1943.He was the youngest of four children of Harold Hargreaves (or Hargrove) Harrison (1909–1978) and Louise (née French; 1911–1970).", "Harold was a bus conductor who had worked as a ship's steward on the White Star Line, and Louise was a shop assistant of Irish Catholic descent.", "He had one sister, Louise (16 August 1931 – 29 January 2023), and two brothers, Harold (born 1934) and Peter (20 July 1940 – 1 June 2007).According to Boyd, Harrison's mother was particularly supportive: \"All she wanted for her children is that they should be happy, and she recognised that nothing made George quite as happy as making music.\"", "Louise was an enthusiastic music fan, and she was known among friends for her loud singing voice, which at times startled visitors by rattling the Harrisons' windows.", "When Louise was pregnant with George, she often listened to the weekly broadcast ''Radio India''.", "Harrison's biographer Joshua Greene wrote, \"Every Sunday she tuned in to mystical sounds evoked by sitars and tablas, hoping that the exotic music would bring peace and calm to the baby in the womb.", "\"For the first four years of his life, Harrison lived at 12 Arnold Grove, a terraced house on a cul-de-sac.", "The home had an outdoor toilet and its only heat came from a single coal fire.", "In 1949, the family was offered a council house and moved to 25 Upton Green, Speke.", "In 1948, at the age of five, Harrison enrolled at Dovedale Primary School.", "He passed the eleven-plus exam and attended Liverpool Institute High School for Boys from 1954 to 1959.Though the institute did offer a music course, Harrison was disappointed with the absence of guitars, and felt the school \"moulded students into being frightened\".Harrison's earliest musical influences included George Formby, Cab Calloway, Django Reinhardt and Hoagy Carmichael; by the 1950s, Carl Perkins and Lonnie Donegan were significant influences.", "In early 1956, he had an epiphany: while riding his bicycle, he heard Elvis Presley's \"Heartbreak Hotel\" playing from a nearby house, and the song piqued his interest in rock and roll.", "He often sat at the back of the class drawing guitars in his schoolbooks, and later commented, \"I was totally into guitars.\"", "Harrison cited Slim Whitman as another early influence: \"The first person I ever saw playing a guitar was Slim Whitman, either a photo of him in a magazine or live on television.", "Guitars were definitely coming in.", "\"At first, Harold Harrison was apprehensive about his son's interest in pursuing a music career.", "However, in 1956, he bought George a Dutch Egmond flat-top acoustic guitar, which according to Harold, cost £3.10s.– (equivalent to £ in ).", "One of his father's friends taught Harrison how to play \"Whispering\", \"Sweet Sue\" and \"Dinah\".", "Inspired by Donegan's music, Harrison formed a skiffle group, the Rebels, with his brother Peter and a friend, Arthur Kelly.", "On the bus to school, Harrison met Paul McCartney, who also attended the Liverpool Institute, and the pair bonded over their shared love of music." ], [ "The Beatles: 1958–1970", "McCartney and his friend John Lennon were in a skiffle group called the Quarrymen.", "In March 1958, at McCartney's urging, Harrison auditioned for the Quarrymen at Rory Storm's Morgue Skiffle Club, playing Arthur \"Guitar Boogie\" Smith's \"Guitar Boogie Shuffle\", but Lennon felt that Harrison, having just turned 15, was too young to join the band.", "McCartney arranged a second meeting, on the upper deck of a Liverpool bus, during which Harrison impressed Lennon by performing the lead guitar part for the instrumental \"Raunchy\".", "He began socialising with the group, filling in on guitar as needed, and then became accepted as a member.", "Although his father wanted him to continue his education, Harrison left school at 16 and worked for several months as an apprentice electrician at Blacklers, a local department store.", "During the group's first tour of Scotland, in 1960, Harrison used the pseudonym \"Carl Harrison\", in reference to Carl Perkins.Harrison at a Beatles press conference in Amsterdam in 1964In 1960, promoter Allan Williams arranged for the band, now calling themselves the Beatles, to play at the Indra and Kaiserkeller clubs in Hamburg, both owned by Bruno Koschmider.", "Their first residency in Hamburg ended prematurely when Harrison was deported for being too young to work in nightclubs.", "When Brian Epstein became their manager in December 1961, he polished up their image and later secured them a recording contract with EMI.", "The group's first single, \"Love Me Do\", peaked at number 17 on the ''Record Retailer'' chart, and by the time their debut album, ''Please Please Me'', was released in early 1963, Beatlemania had arrived.", "Often serious and focused while on stage with the band, Harrison was known as \"the quiet Beatle\".", "That moniker arose when the Beatles arrived in the United States in early 1964, and Harrison was ill with a case of Strep throat and a fever and was medically advised to limit speaking as much as possible until he performed on ''The Ed Sullivan Show'' as scheduled.", "As such, the press noticed Harrison's apparent laconic nature in public appearances on that tour and the subsequent nickname stuck, much to Harrison's amusement.", "He had two lead vocal credits on the LP, including the Lennon–McCartney song \"Do You Want to Know a Secret?", "\", and three on their second album, ''With the Beatles'' (1963).", "The latter included \"Don't Bother Me\", Harrison's first solo writing credit.Harrison (left) and Ringo Starr (right) performing at the King's Hall in Belfast, 1964Harrison served as the Beatles' scout for new American releases, being especially knowledgeable about soul music.", "By 1965's ''Rubber Soul'', he had begun to lead the other Beatles into folk rock through his interest in the Byrds and Bob Dylan, and towards Indian classical music through his use of the sitar on \"Norwegian Wood (This Bird Has Flown)\".", "He later called ''Rubber Soul'' his \"favourite Beatles album\".", "''Revolver'' (1966) included three of his compositions: \"Taxman\", selected as the album's opening track, \"Love You To\" and \"I Want to Tell You\".", "His drone-like tambura part on Lennon's \"Tomorrow Never Knows\" exemplified the band's ongoing exploration of non-Western instruments, while the sitar- and tabla-based \"Love You To\" represented the Beatles' first genuine foray into Indian music.", "According to the ethnomusicologist David Reck, the latter song set a precedent in popular music as an example of Asian culture being represented by Westerners respectfully and without parody.", "Author Nicholas Schaffner wrote in 1978 that following Harrison's increased association with the sitar after \"Norwegian Wood\", he became known as \"the maharaja of raga-rock\".", "Harrison continued to develop his interest in non-Western instrumentation, playing swarmandal on \"Strawberry Fields Forever\".By late 1966, Harrison's interests had moved away from the Beatles.", "This was reflected in his choice of Eastern gurus and religious leaders for inclusion on the album cover for ''Sgt.", "Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band'' in 1967.His sole composition on the album was the Indian-inspired \"Within You Without You\", to which no other Beatle contributed.", "He played sitar and tambura on the track, backed by musicians from the London Asian Music Circle on dilruba, swarmandal and tabla.", "He later commented on the ''Sgt.", "Pepper'' album: \"It was a millstone and a milestone in the music industry ...", "There's about half the songs I like and the other half I can't stand.", "\"In January 1968, he recorded the basic track for his song \"The Inner Light\" at EMI's studio in Bombay, using a group of local musicians playing traditional Indian instruments.", "Released as the B-side to McCartney's \"Lady Madonna\", it was the first Harrison composition to appear on a Beatles single.", "Derived from a quotation from the ''Tao Te Ching'', the song's lyric reflected Harrison's deepening interest in Hinduism and meditation.", "During the recording of ''The Beatles'' that same year, tensions within the group ran high, and drummer Ringo Starr quit briefly.", "Harrison's four songwriting contributions to the double album included \"While My Guitar Gently Weeps\", which featured Eric Clapton on lead guitar, and the horn-driven \"Savoy Truffle\".Dylan and the Band were a major musical influence on Harrison at the end of his career with the Beatles.", "While on a visit to Woodstock in late 1968, he established a friendship with Dylan and found himself drawn to the Band's sense of communal music-making and to the creative equality among the band members, which contrasted with Lennon and McCartney's domination of the Beatles' songwriting and creative direction.", "This coincided with a prolific period in his songwriting and a growing desire to assert his independence from the Beatles.", "Tensions among the group surfaced again in January 1969, at Twickenham Studios, during the filmed rehearsals that became the 1970 documentary ''Let It Be''.", "Frustrated by the cold and sterile film studio, by Lennon's creative disengagement from the Beatles, and by what he perceived as a domineering attitude from McCartney, Harrison quit the group on 10 January.", "He returned 12 days later, after his bandmates had agreed to move the film project to their own Apple Studio and to abandon McCartney's plan for making a return to public performance.Relations among the Beatles were more cordial, though still strained, when the band recorded their 1969 album ''Abbey Road''.", "The LP included what Lavezzoli describes as \"two classic contributions\" from Harrison – \"Here Comes the Sun\" and \"Something\" – that saw him \"finally achieve equal songwriting status\" with Lennon and McCartney.", "During the album's recording, Harrison asserted more creative control than before, rejecting suggestions for changes to his music, particularly from McCartney.", "\"Something\" became his first A-side when issued on a double A-side single with \"Come Together\"; the song was number one in Canada, Australia, New Zealand and West Germany, and the combined sides topped the ''Billboard'' Hot 100 chart in the United States.", "In the 1970s Frank Sinatra recorded \"Something\" twice (1970 and 1979) and later dubbed it \"the greatest love song of the past fifty years\".", "Lennon considered it the best song on ''Abbey Road'', and it became the Beatles' second most covered song after \"Yesterday\".In May 1970, Harrison's song \"For You Blue\" was coupled on a US single with McCartney's \"The Long and Winding Road\" and became Harrison's second chart-topper when the sides were listed together at number one on the Hot 100.His increased productivity meant that by the time of their break-up he had amassed a stockpile of unreleased compositions.", "While Harrison grew as a songwriter, his compositional presence on Beatles albums remained limited to two or three songs, increasing his frustration, and significantly contributing to the band's break-up.", "Harrison's last recording session with the Beatles was on 4 January 1970, when he, McCartney and Starr recorded overdubs to the song \"Let It Be\" for the soundtrack album of the same name." ], [ "Solo career: 1968–1987", "===Early solo work: 1968–1969===Trade ad for ''Wonderwall Music''Before the Beatles' break-up, Harrison had already recorded and released two solo albums: ''Wonderwall Music'' and ''Electronic Sound'', both of which contain mainly instrumental compositions.", "''Wonderwall Music'', a soundtrack to the 1968 film ''Wonderwall'', blends Indian and Western instrumentation, while ''Electronic Sound'' is an experimental album that prominently features a Moog synthesizer.", "Released in November 1968, ''Wonderwall Music'' was the first solo album by a Beatle and the first LP released by Apple Records.", "Indian musicians Aashish Khan and Shivkumar Sharma performed on the album, which contains the experimental sound collage \"Dream Scene\", recorded several months before Lennon's \"Revolution 9\".In December 1969, Harrison participated in a brief tour of Europe with the American group Delaney & Bonnie and Friends.", "During the tour, which included Clapton, Bobby Whitlock, drummer Jim Gordon and band leaders Delaney and Bonnie Bramlett, Harrison began to play slide guitar, and also began to write \"My Sweet Lord\", which became his first single as a solo artist.===''All Things Must Pass'': 1970===For many years, Harrison was restricted in his songwriting contributions to the Beatles' albums, but he released ''All Things Must Pass'', a triple album with two discs of his songs and the third of recordings of Harrison jamming with friends.", "The album was regarded by many as his best work, and it topped the charts on both sides of the Atlantic.", "The number-one hit single \"My Sweet Lord\" and the top-ten single \"What Is Life\" were taken from the album, which was co-produced by Phil Spector using his \"Wall of Sound\" approach; the musicians included Starr, Clapton, Gary Wright, Billy Preston, Klaus Voormann, the whole of Delaney and Bonnie's Friends band, and the Apple group Badfinger.", "On its release, ''All Things Must Pass'' was received with critical acclaim; Ben Gerson of ''Rolling Stone'' described it as being \"of classic Spectorian proportions, Wagnerian, Brucknerian, the music of mountain tops and vast horizons\".", "Author and musicologist Ian Inglis considers the lyrics of the album's title track \"a recognition of the impermanence of human existence ... a simple and poignant conclusion\" to Harrison's former band.", "In 1971, Bright Tunes sued Harrison for copyright infringement over \"My Sweet Lord\", owing to its similarity to the 1963 Chiffons hit \"He's So Fine\".", "When the case was heard in the United States district court in 1976, he denied deliberately plagiarising the song, but lost the case, as the judge ruled that he had done so subconsciously.In 2000, Apple Records released a thirtieth-anniversary edition of the album, and Harrison actively participated in its promotion.", "In an interview, he reflected on the work: \"It's just something that was like my continuation from the Beatles, really.", "It was me sort of getting out of the Beatles and just going my own way ... it was a very happy occasion.\"", "He commented on the production: \"Well, in those days it was like the reverb was kind of used a bit more than what I would do now.", "In fact, I don't use reverb at all.", "I can't stand it ... You know, it's hard to go back to anything thirty years later and expect it to be how you would want it now.", "\"===The Concert for Bangladesh: 1971===Bangla Desh\" singleHarrison responded to a request from Ravi Shankar by organising a charity event, the Concert for Bangladesh, which took place on 1 August 1971.The event drew over 40,000 people to two shows in New York's Madison Square Garden.", "The goal of the event was to raise money to aid starving refugees during the Bangladesh Liberation War.", "Shankar opened the show, which featured popular musicians such as Dylan, Clapton, Leon Russell, Badfinger, Preston and Starr.A triple album, ''The Concert for Bangladesh'', was released by Apple in December, followed by a concert film in 1972.Credited to \"George Harrison and Friends\", the album topped the UK chart and peaked at number 2 in the US, and went on to win the Grammy Award for Album of the Year.", "Tax troubles and questionable expenses later tied up many of the proceeds, but Harrison commented: \"Mainly the concert was to attract attention to the situation ...", "The money we raised was secondary, and although we had some money problems ... they still got plenty ... even though it was a drop in the ocean.", "The main thing was, we spread the word and helped get the war ended.", "\"===''Living in the Material World'' to ''George Harrison'': 1973–1979===Harrison's 1973 album ''Living in the Material World'' held the number one spot on the ''Billboard'' albums chart for five weeks, and the album's single, \"Give Me Love (Give Me Peace on Earth)\", also reached number one in the US.", "In the UK, the LP peaked at number two and the single reached number 8.The album was lavishly produced and packaged, and its dominant message was Harrison's Hindu beliefs.", "In Greene's opinion it \"contained many of the strongest compositions of his career\".", "Stephen Holden, writing in ''Rolling Stone'', felt the album was \"vastly appealing\" and \"profoundly seductive\", and that it stood \"alone as an article of faith, miraculous in its radiance\".", "Other reviewers were less enthusiastic, describing the release as awkward, sanctimonious and overly sentimental.In November 1974, Harrison became the first ex-Beatle to tour North America when he began his 45-date Dark Horse Tour.", "The shows included guest spots by his band members Billy Preston and Tom Scott, and traditional and contemporary Indian music performed by \"Ravi Shankar, Family and Friends\".", "Despite numerous positive reviews, the consensus reaction to the tour was negative.", "Some fans found Shankar's significant presence to be a bizarre disappointment, and many were affronted by what Inglis described as Harrison's \"sermonizing\".", "Further, he reworked the lyrics to several Beatles songs, and his laryngitis-affected vocals led to some critics calling the tour \"dark hoarse\".", "The author Robert Rodriguez commented: \"While the Dark Horse tour might be considered a noble failure, there were a number of fans who were tuned-in to what was being attempted.", "They went away ecstatic, conscious that they had just witnessed something so uplifting that it could never be repeated.\"", "Simon Leng called the tour \"groundbreaking\" and \"revolutionary in its presentation of Indian Music\".On 16 November 1974, Harrison and several others involved in the tour visited the White House.", "They were invited by President Gerald Ford's son, Jack.In December, Harrison released ''Dark Horse'', which was an album that earned him the least favourable reviews of his career.", "''Rolling Stone'' called it \"the chronicle of a performer out of his element, working to a deadline, enfeebling his overtaxed talents by a rush to deliver a new 'LP product', rehearse a band, and assemble a cross-country tour, all within three weeks\".", "The album reached number 4 on the ''Billboard'' chart and the single \"Dark Horse\" reached number 15, but they failed to make an impact in the UK.", "The music critic Mikal Gilmore described ''Dark Horse'' as \"one of Harrison's most fascinating works – a record about change and loss\".Harrison leaving the Hilton Hotel in Amsterdam, and signing an album for a fan, February 1977Harrison's final studio album for EMI and Apple Records, the soul music-inspired ''Extra Texture (Read All About It)'' (1975), peaked at number 8 on the ''Billboard'' chart and number 16 in the UK.", "Harrison considered it the least satisfactory of the three albums he had recorded since ''All Things Must Pass''.", "Leng identified \"bitterness and dismay\" in many of the tracks; his long-time friend Klaus Voormann commented: \"He wasn't up for it ...", "It was a terrible time because I think there was a lot of cocaine going around, and that's when I got out of the picture ...", "I didn't like his frame of mind\".", "He released two singles from the LP: \"You\", which reached the ''Billboard'' top 20, and \"This Guitar (Can't Keep from Crying)\", Apple's final original single release.", "''Thirty Three & 1/3'' (1976), Harrison's first album release on his own Dark Horse Records label, produced the hit singles \"This Song\" and \"Crackerbox Palace\", both of which reached the top 25 in the US.", "The surreal humour of \"Crackerbox Palace\" reflected Harrison's association with Monty Python's Eric Idle, who directed a comical music video for the song.", "With an emphasis on melody and musicianship, and a more subtle subject matter than the pious message of his earlier works, ''Thirty Three & 1/3'' earned Harrison his most favourable critical notices in the US since ''All Things Must Pass''.", "The album peaked just outside the top ten there, but outsold his previous two LPs.", "As part of his promotion for the release, Harrison performed on ''Saturday Night Live'' with Paul Simon.In 1979, Harrison released ''George Harrison'', which followed his second marriage and the birth of his son Dhani.", "Co-produced by Russ Titelman, the album and the single \"Blow Away\" both made the ''Billboard'' top 20.The album marked the beginning of Harrison's gradual retreat from the music business, with several of the songs having been written in the tranquil setting of Maui in the Hawaiian archipelago.", "Leng described ''George Harrison'' as \"melodic and lush ... peaceful ... the work of a man who had lived the rock and roll dream twice over and was now embracing domestic as well as spiritual bliss\".===''Somewhere in England'' to ''Cloud Nine'': 1980–1987===The murder of John Lennon on 8 December 1980 disturbed Harrison and reinforced his decades-long concern about stalkers.", "The tragedy was also a deep personal loss, although Harrison and Lennon had little contact in the years before Lennon was killed.", "Following the murder, Harrison commented: \"After all we went through together I had and still have great love and respect for John Lennon.", "I am shocked and stunned.\"", "Harrison modified the lyrics of a song he had written for Starr to make the song a tribute to Lennon.", "\"All Those Years Ago\", which included vocal contributions from Paul and Linda McCartney, as well as Starr's original drum part, peaked at number two in the US charts.", "The single was included on the album ''Somewhere in England'' in 1981.Harrison did not release any new albums for five years after 1982's ''Gone Troppo'' received little notice from critics or the public.", "During this period he made several guest appearances, including a 1985 performance at a tribute to Carl Perkins titled ''Blue Suede Shoes: A Rockabilly Session''.", "In March 1986 he made a surprise appearance during the finale of the Birmingham Heart Beat Charity Concert, an event organised to raise money for the Birmingham Children's Hospital.", "The following year, he appeared at The Prince's Trust concert at London's Wembley Arena, performing \"While My Guitar Gently Weeps\" and \"Here Comes the Sun\".", "In February 1987 he joined Dylan, John Fogerty and Jesse Ed Davis on stage for a two-hour performance with the blues musician Taj Mahal.", "Harrison recalled: \"Bob rang me up and asked if I wanted to come out for the evening and see Taj Mahal ...", "So we went there and had a few of these Mexican beers – and had a few more ... Bob says, 'Hey, why don't we all get up and play, and you can sing?'", "But every time I got near the microphone, Dylan comes up and just starts singing this rubbish in my ear, trying to throw me.", "\"In November 1987, Harrison released the platinum album ''Cloud Nine''.", "Co-produced with Jeff Lynne of Electric Light Orchestra (ELO), the album included Harrison's rendition of James Ray's \"Got My Mind Set on You\", which went to number one in the US and number two in the UK.", "The accompanying music video received substantial airplay, and another single, \"When We Was Fab\", a retrospective of the Beatles' career, earned two MTV Music Video Awards nominations in 1988.Recorded at his estate in Friar Park, Harrison's slide guitar playing featured prominently on the album, which included several of his long-time musical collaborators, including Clapton, Jim Keltner and Jim Horn.", "''Cloud Nine'' reached number eight and number ten on the US and UK charts respectively, and several tracks from the album achieved placement on ''Billboard''s Mainstream Rock chart – \"Devil's Radio\", \"This Is Love\" and \"Cloud 9\"." ], [ "Later career: 1988–1996", "===The Traveling Wilburys and return to touring: 1988–1992===In 1988, Harrison formed the Traveling Wilburys with Jeff Lynne, Roy Orbison, Bob Dylan and Tom Petty.", "The band had gathered in Dylan's garage to record a song for a Harrison European single release.", "Harrison's record company decided the track, \"Handle with Care\", was too good for its original purpose as a B-side and asked for a full album.", "The LP, ''Traveling Wilburys Vol.", "1'', was released in October 1988 and recorded under pseudonyms as half-brothers, supposed sons of Charles Truscott Wilbury Sr.", "It reached number 16 in the UK and number 3 in the US, where it was certified triple platinum.", "Harrison's pseudonym on the album was \"Nelson Wilbury\"; he used the name \"Spike Wilbury\" for their second album.In 1989, Harrison and Starr appeared in the music video for Petty's song \"I Won't Back Down\".", "In October that year, Harrison assembled and released ''Best of Dark Horse 1976–1989'', a compilation of his later solo work.", "The album included three new songs, including \"Cheer Down\", which Harrison had recently contributed to the ''Lethal Weapon 2'' film soundtrack.Following Orbison's death in December 1988, the Wilburys recorded as a four-piece.", "Their second album, issued in October 1990, was mischievously titled ''Traveling Wilburys Vol.", "3''.", "According to Lynne, \"That was George's idea.", "He said, 'Let's confuse the buggers.", "It peaked at number 14 in the UK and number 11 in the US, where it was certified platinum.", "The Wilburys never performed live, and the group did not record together again following the release of their second album.In December 1991, Harrison joined Clapton for a tour of Japan.", "It was Harrison's first since 1974 and no others followed.", "On 6 April 1992, Harrison held a benefit concert for the Natural Law Party at the Royal Albert Hall, his first London performance since the Beatles' 1969 rooftop concert.", "In October 1992, he performed at a Bob Dylan tribute concert at Madison Square Garden in New York City, playing alongside Dylan, Clapton, McGuinn, Petty and Neil Young.===''The Beatles Anthology'': 1994–1996===In 1994, Harrison began a collaboration with McCartney, Starr and producer Jeff Lynne for the ''Beatles Anthology'' project.", "This included the recording of two new Beatles songs built around solo vocal and piano tapes recorded by Lennon as well as lengthy interviews about the Beatles' career.", "Released in December 1995, \"Free as a Bird\" was the first new Beatles single since 1970.In March 1996, they released a second single, \"Real Love\".", "They also attempted to finish a third single, \"Now and Then\", but did not finish it because the audio quality of the cassette was, according to Harrison, \"fucking rubbish.\"", "The song was later finished by McCartney and Starr and released in 2023.He later commented on the project: \"I hope somebody does this to all my crap demos when I'm dead, make them into hit songs.\"" ], [ "Later life and death: 1997–2001", "After the ''Anthology'' project, Harrison collaborated with Ravi Shankar on the latter's ''Chants of India''.", "Harrison's final television appearance was a VH-1 special to promote the album, taped in May 1997.Soon afterwards, Harrison was diagnosed with throat cancer; he was treated with radiotherapy, which was thought at the time to be successful.", "He publicly blamed years of smoking for the illness.In January 1998, Harrison attended Carl Perkins' funeral in Jackson, Tennessee, where he performed a brief rendition of Perkins' song \"Your True Love\".", "In May, he represented the Beatles at London's High Court in their successful bid to gain control of unauthorised recordings made of a 1962 performance by the band at the Star-Club in Hamburg.", "The following year, he was the most active of the former Beatles in promoting the reissue of their 1968 animated film ''Yellow Submarine''.The entrance and gatehouse at Harrison's Friar Park estate in Henley-on-Thames.", "In December 1999, he and his wife Olivia were the victims of a knife attack by an intruder.On 30 December 1999, Harrison and his wife Olivia were attacked at their home, Friar Park.", "Michael Abram, a 34-year-old paranoid schizophrenic, broke in and attacked Harrison with a kitchen knife, puncturing a lung and causing head injuries before his wife incapacitated the assailant by striking him repeatedly with a fireplace poker and a lamp.", "Harrison later commented, \"I felt exhausted and could feel the strength draining from me.", "I vividly remember a deliberate thrust to my chest.", "I could hear my lung exhaling and had blood in my mouth.", "I believed I had been fatally stabbed.\"", "Following the attack, Harrison was hospitalised with more than 40 stab wounds, and part of his punctured lung was removed.", "He released a statement soon afterwards regarding his assailant: \"He wasn't a burglar, and he certainly wasn't auditioning for the Traveling Wilburys.", "Adi Shankara, an Indian historical, spiritual and groovy-type person, once said, 'Life is fragile like a raindrop on a lotus leaf.'", "And you'd better believe it.\"", "Upon being released from a mental hospital in 2002, Abram said: \"If I could turn back the clock, I would give anything not to have done what I did in attacking George Harrison, but looking back on it now, I have come to understand that I was at the time not in control of my actions.", "I can only hope the Harrison family might somehow find it in their hearts to accept my apologies.", "\"The injuries inflicted on Harrison during the home invasion were downplayed by his family in their comments to the press.", "Having seen Harrison looking so healthy beforehand, those in his social circle believed that the attack brought about a change in him and was the cause for his cancer's return.", "In May 2001, it was revealed that Harrison had undergone an operation to remove a cancerous growth from one of his lungs, and in July, it was reported that he was being treated for a brain tumour at a clinic in Switzerland.", "While in Switzerland, Starr visited him but had to cut short his stay to travel to Boston, where his daughter was undergoing emergency brain surgery.", "Harrison, who was very weak, quipped: \"Do you want me to come with you?\"", "In November 2001, he began radiotherapy at Staten Island University Hospital in New York City for non–small cell lung cancer that had spread to his brain.", "When the news was made public, Harrison bemoaned his physician's breach of privacy, and his estate later claimed damages.On 29 November 2001, Harrison died at a property belonging to McCartney, on Heather Road in Beverly Hills, Los Angeles.", "He was 58 years old.", "He died in the company of Olivia, Dhani, Shankar and the latter's wife Sukanya and daughter Anoushka, and Hare Krishna devotees Shyamasundar Das and Mukunda Goswami, who chanted verses from the ''Bhagavad Gita''.", "His final message to the world, as relayed in a statement by Olivia and Dhani, was: \"Everything else can wait, but the search for God cannot wait, and love one another.\"", "He was cremated at Hollywood Forever Cemetery, and his funeral was held at the Self-Realization Fellowship Lake Shrine in Pacific Palisades, California.", "His close family scattered his ashes according to Hindu tradition in a private ceremony in the Ganges and Yamuna rivers near Varanasi, India.", "He left almost £100 million in his will.Harrison's final studio album, ''Brainwashed'' (2002), was released posthumously after it was completed by his son Dhani and Jeff Lynne.", "A quotation from the ''Bhagavad Gita'' is included in the album's liner notes: \"There never was a time when you or I did not exist.", "Nor will there be any future when we shall cease to be.\"", "A media-only single, \"Stuck Inside a Cloud\", which Leng describes as \"a uniquely candid reaction to illness and mortality\", achieved number 27 on ''Billboard''s Adult Contemporary chart.", "The single \"Any Road\", released in May 2003, peaked at number 37 on the UK Singles Chart.", "\"Marwa Blues\" went on to receive the 2004 Grammy Award for Best Pop Instrumental Performance, while \"Any Road\" was nominated for Best Male Pop Vocal Performance." ], [ "Musicianship", "===Guitar work===Harrison's burgundy Les PaulHarrison's guitar work with the Beatles was varied and flexible.", "Although not fast or flashy, his lead guitar playing was solid and typified the more subdued lead guitar style of the early 1960s.", "His rhythm guitar playing was innovative, for example when he used a capo to shorten the strings on an acoustic guitar, as on the ''Rubber Soul'' (1965) album and \"Here Comes the Sun\", to create a bright, sweet sound.", "Eric Clapton felt that Harrison was \"clearly an innovator\" as he was \"taking certain elements of R&B and rock and rockabilly and creating something unique\".", "''Rolling Stone'' founder Jann Wenner described Harrison as \"a guitarist who was never showy but who had an innate, eloquent melodic sense.", "He played exquisitely in the service of the song\".", "The guitar picking style of Chet Atkins and Carl Perkins influenced Harrison, giving a country music feel to many of the Beatles' recordings.", "He identified Chuck Berry as another early influence.In 1961, the Beatles recorded \"Cry for a Shadow\", a blues-inspired instrumental co-written by Lennon and Harrison, who is credited with composing the song's lead guitar part, building on unusual chord voicings and imitating the style of other English groups such as the Shadows.", "Harrison's liberal use of the diatonic scale in his guitar playing reveals the influence of Buddy Holly, and his interest in Berry inspired him to compose songs based on the blues scale while incorporating a rockabilly feel in the style of Perkins.", "Another of Harrison's musical techniques was the use of guitar lines written in octaves, as on \"I'll Be on My Way\".By 1964, he had begun to develop a distinctive personal style as a guitarist, writing parts that featured the use of nonresolving tones, as with the ending chord arpeggios on \"A Hard Day's Night\".", "On this and other songs from the period, he used a Rickenbacker 360/12 – an electric guitar with twelve strings, the low eight of which are tuned in pairs, one octave apart, with the higher four being pairs tuned in unison.", "His use of the Rickenbacker on ''A Hard Day's Night'' helped to popularise the model, and the jangly sound became so prominent that ''Melody Maker'' termed it the Beatles' \"secret weapon\".", "In 1965, Harrison used an expression pedal to control his guitar's volume on \"I Need You\", creating a syncopated flautando effect with the melody resolving its dissonance through tonal displacements.", "He used the same volume-swell technique on \"Yes It Is\", applying what Everett described as \"ghostly articulation\" to the song's natural harmonics.In 1966, Harrison contributed innovative musical ideas to ''Revolver''.", "He played backwards guitar on Lennon's composition \"I'm Only Sleeping\" and a guitar counter-melody on \"And Your Bird Can Sing\" that moved in parallel octaves above McCartney's bass downbeats.", "His guitar playing on \"I Want to Tell You\" exemplified the pairing of altered chordal colours with descending chromatic lines and his guitar part for ''Sgt Pepper''s \"Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds\" mirrors Lennon's vocal line in much the same way that a sarangi player accompanies a khyal singer in a Hindu devotional song.Everett described Harrison's guitar solo from \"Old Brown Shoe\" as \"stinging and highly Claptonesque\".", "He identified two of the composition's significant motifs: a bluesy trichord and a diminished triad with roots in A and E. Huntley called the song \"a sizzling rocker with a ferocious ... solo\".", "In Greene's opinion, Harrison's demo for \"Old Brown Shoe\" contains \"one of the most complex lead guitar solos on any Beatles song\".Harrison's playing on ''Abbey Road'', and in particular on \"Something\", marked a significant moment in his development as a guitarist.", "The song's guitar solo shows a varied range of influences, incorporating the blues guitar style of Clapton and the styles of Indian gamakas.", "According to author and musicologist Kenneth Womack: Something' meanders toward the most unforgettable of Harrison's guitar solos ... A masterpiece in simplicity, it reaches toward the sublime\".After Delaney Bramlett inspired him to learn slide guitar, Harrison began to incorporate it into his solo work, which allowed him to mimic many traditional Indian instruments, including the sarangi and the dilruba.", "Leng described Harrison's slide guitar solo on Lennon's \"How Do You Sleep?\"", "as a departure for \"the sweet soloist of 'Something, calling his playing \"rightly famed ... one of Harrison's greatest guitar statements\".", "Lennon commented: \"That's the best he's ever fucking played in his life.", "\"A Hawaiian influence is notable in much of Harrison's music, ranging from his slide guitar work on ''Gone Troppo'' (1982) to his televised performance of the Cab Calloway standard \"Between the Devil and the Deep Blue Sea\" on ukulele in 1992.Lavezzoli described Harrison's slide playing on the Grammy-winning instrumental \"Marwa Blues\" (2002) as demonstrating Hawaiian influences while comparing the melody to an Indian sarod or veena, calling it \"yet another demonstration of Harrison's unique slide approach\".", "Harrison was an admirer of George Formby and a member of the Ukulele Society of Great Britain, and played a ukulele solo in the style of Formby at the end of \"Free as a Bird\".", "He performed at a Formby convention in 1991, and served as the honorary president of the George Formby Appreciation Society.", "Harrison played bass guitar on a few tracks, including the Beatles songs \"She Said She Said\", \"Golden Slumbers\", \"Birthday\" and \"Honey Pie\".", "He also played bass on several solo recordings, including \"Faster\", \"Wake Up My Love\" and \"Bye Bye Love\".===Sitar and Indian music===Ravi Shankar, who taught Harrison the sitar (pictured in 1969)During the Beatles' American tour in August 1965, Harrison's friend David Crosby of the Byrds introduced him to Indian classical music and the work of sitar maestro Ravi Shankar.", "Harrison described Shankar as \"the first person who ever impressed me in my life ... and he was the only person who didn't try to impress me.\"", "Harrison became fascinated with the sitar and immersed himself in Indian music.", "According to Lavezzoli, Harrison's introduction of the instrument on the Beatles' song \"Norwegian Wood\" \"opened the floodgates for Indian instrumentation in rock music, triggering what Shankar would call 'The Great Sitar Explosion' of 1966–67\".", "Lavezzoli recognises Harrison as \"the man most responsible for this phenomenon\".In June 1966, Harrison met Shankar at the home of Mrs Angadi of the Asian Music Circle, asked to be his student, and was accepted.", "Before this meeting, Harrison had recorded his ''Revolver'' track \"Love You To\", contributing a sitar part that Lavezzoli describes as an \"astonishing improvement\" over \"Norwegian Wood\" and \"the most accomplished performance on sitar by any rock musician\".", "On 6 July, Harrison travelled to India to buy a sitar from Rikhi Ram & Sons in New Delhi.", "In September, following the Beatles' final tour, he returned to India to study sitar for six weeks with Shankar.", "He initially stayed in Bombay until fans learned of his arrival, then moved to a houseboat on a remote lake in Kashmir.", "During this visit, he also received tutelage from Shambhu Das, Shankar's protégé.Harrison studied the instrument until 1968, when, following a discussion with Shankar about the need to find his \"roots\", an encounter with Clapton and Jimi Hendrix at a hotel in New York convinced him to return to guitar playing.", "Harrison commented: \"I decided ...", "I'm not going to be a great sitar player ... because I should have started at least fifteen years earlier.\"", "Harrison continued to use Indian instrumentation occasionally on his solo albums and remained strongly associated with the genre.", "Lavezzoli groups him with Paul Simon and Peter Gabriel as the three rock musicians who have given the most \"mainstream exposure to non-Western musics, or the concept of 'world music.===Songwriting===Harrison wrote his first song, \"Don't Bother Me\", while sick in a hotel bed in Bournemouth during August 1963, as \"an exercise to see if I ''could'' write a song\", as he remembered.", "His songwriting ability improved throughout the Beatles' career, but his material did not earn full respect from Lennon, McCartney and producer George Martin until near the group's break-up.", "In 1969, McCartney told Lennon: \"Until this year, our songs have been better than George's.", "Now this year his songs are at least as good as ours\".", "Harrison often had difficulty getting the band to record his songs.", "Most Beatles albums from 1965 onwards contain at least two Harrison compositions; three of his songs appear on ''Revolver'', \"the album on which Harrison came of age as a songwriter\", according to Inglis.Harrison wrote the chord progression of \"Don't Bother Me\" almost exclusively in the Dorian mode, demonstrating an interest in exotic tones that eventually culminated in his embrace of Indian music.", "The latter proved a strong influence on his songwriting and contributed to his innovation within the Beatles.", "According to Mikal Gilmore of ''Rolling Stone'', \"Harrison's openness to new sounds and textures cleared new paths for his rock and roll compositions.", "His use of dissonance on ... 'Taxman' and 'I Want to Tell You' was revolutionary in popular music – and perhaps more originally creative than the avant-garde mannerisms that Lennon and McCartney borrowed from the music of Karlheinz Stockhausen, Luciano Berio, Edgard Varèse and Igor Stravinsky ...\"Of the 1967 Harrison song \"Within You Without You\", author Gerry Farrell said that Harrison had created a \"new form\", calling the composition \"a quintessential fusion of pop and Indian music\".", "Lennon called the song one of Harrison's best: \"His mind and his music are clear.", "There is his innate talent, he brought that sound together.\"", "In his next fully Indian-styled song, \"The Inner Light\", Harrison embraced the Karnatak discipline of Indian music, rather than the Hindustani style he had used in \"Love You To\" and \"Within You Without You\".", "Writing in 1997, Farrell commented: \"It is a mark of Harrison's sincere involvement with Indian music that, nearly thirty years on, the Beatles' 'Indian' songs remain the most imaginative and successful examples of this type of fusion – for example, 'Blue Jay Way' and 'The Inner Light'.", "\"Beatles biographer Bob Spitz described \"Something\" as a masterpiece, and \"an intensely stirring romantic ballad that would challenge 'Yesterday' and 'Michelle' as one of the most recognizable songs they ever produced\".", "Inglis considered ''Abbey Road'' a turning point in Harrison's development as a songwriter and musician.", "He described Harrison's two contributions to the LP, \"Here Comes the Sun\" and \"Something\", as \"exquisite\", declaring them equal to any previous Beatles songs.===Collaborations===From 1968 onwards, Harrison collaborated with other musicians; he brought in Eric Clapton to play lead guitar on \"While My Guitar Gently Weeps\" for the 1968 Beatles' White Album, and collaborated with John Barham on his 1968 debut solo album, ''Wonderwall Music'', which included contributions from Clapton again, as well as Peter Tork from the Monkees.", "He played on tracks by Dave Mason, Nicky Hopkins, Alvin Lee, Ronnie Wood, Billy Preston and Tom Scott.", "Harrison co-wrote songs and music with Dylan, Clapton, Preston, Doris Troy, David Bromberg, Gary Wright, Wood, Jeff Lynne and Tom Petty, among others.", "Harrison's music projects during the final years of the Beatles included producing Apple Records artists Doris Troy, Jackie Lomax and Billy Preston.Harrison co-wrote the song \"Badge\" with Clapton, which was included on Cream's 1969 album, ''Goodbye''.", "Harrison played rhythm guitar on the track, using the pseudonym \"L'Angelo Misterioso\" for contractual reasons.", "In May 1970, he played guitar on several songs during a recording session for Dylan's album ''New Morning''.", "Between 1971 and 1973, he co-wrote and/or produced three top ten hits for Starr: \"It Don't Come Easy\", \"Back Off Boogaloo\" and \"Photograph\".", "Aside from \"How Do You Sleep?", "\", his contributions to Lennon's 1971 album ''Imagine'' included a slide guitar solo on \"Gimme Some Truth\" and dobro on \"Crippled Inside\".", "Also that year, he produced and played slide guitar on Badfinger's top ten hit \"Day After Day\", and a dobro on Preston's \"I Wrote a Simple Song\".", "He worked with Harry Nilsson on \"You're Breakin' My Heart\" (1972) and with Cheech & Chong on \"Basketball Jones\" (1973).In 1974, Harrison founded Dark Horse Records as an avenue for collaboration with other musicians.", "He wanted Dark Horse to serve as a creative outlet for artists, as Apple Records had for the Beatles.", "Eric Idle commented: \"He's extremely generous, and he backs and supports all sorts of people that you'll never, ever hear of.\"", "The first acts signed to the new label were Ravi Shankar and the duo Splinter.", "Harrison produced and made multiple musical contributions to Splinter's debut album, ''The Place I Love'', which provided Dark Horse with its first hit, \"Costafine Town\".", "He also produced and played guitar and autoharp on Shankar's ''Shankar Family & Friends'', the label's other inaugural release.", "Other artists signed by Dark Horse include Attitudes, Henry McCullough, Jiva and Stairsteps.Harrison collaborated with Tom Scott on Scott's 1975 album ''New York Connection'', and in 1981 he played guitar on \"Walk a Thin Line\", from Mick Fleetwood's ''The Visitor''.", "His contributions to Starr's solo career continued with \"Wrack My Brain\", a 1981 US top 40 hit written and produced by Harrison, and guitar overdubs to two tracks on ''Vertical Man'' (1998).", "In 1996, Harrison recorded \"Distance Makes No Difference With Love\" with Carl Perkins for the latter's album ''Go Cat Go!", "'', and, in 1990, he played slide guitar on the title track of Dylan's ''Under the Red Sky'' album.", "In 2001, he performed as a guest musician on Jeff Lynne and Electric Light Orchestra's comeback album ''Zoom'', and on the song \"Love Letters\" for Bill Wyman's Rhythm Kings.", "He also co-wrote a new song with his son Dhani, \"Horse to the Water\", which was recorded on 2 October, eight weeks before his death.", "It appeared on Jools Holland's album ''Small World, Big Band''.===Guitars===Harrison's Harptone L-6 acoustic guitar, which he played at the Concert for BangladeshWhen Harrison joined the Quarrymen in 1958, his main guitar was a Höfner President Acoustic, which he soon traded for a Höfner Club 40 model.", "His first solid-body electric guitar was a Czech-built Jolana Futurama/Grazioso.", "The guitars he used on early recordings were mainly Gretsch models, played through a Vox amplifier, including a Gretsch Duo Jet that he bought secondhand in 1961 and posed with on the album cover for ''Cloud Nine'' (1987).", "He also bought a Gretsch Tennessean and a Gretsch Country Gentleman, which he played on \"She Loves You\", and during the Beatles' 1964 appearance on ''The Ed Sullivan Show''.", "In 1963, he bought a Rickenbacker 425 Fireglo, and in 1964 he acquired a Rickenbacker 360/12 guitar, which was the second of its kind to be manufactured.", "Harrison obtained his first Fender Stratocaster in 1965 and first used it during the recording of the ''Help!''", "album that February; he also used it when recording ''Rubber Soul'' later that year, most notably on the song \"Nowhere Man\".In early 1966, Harrison and Lennon each purchased Epiphone Casinos, which they used on ''Revolver''.", "Harrison also used a Gibson J-160E and a Gibson SG Standard while recording the album.", "He later painted his Stratocaster in a psychedelic design that included the word \"Bebopalula\" above the pickguard and the guitar's nickname, \"Rocky\", on the headstock.", "He played this guitar in the ''Magical Mystery Tour'' (1967) film and throughout his solo career.", "In July 1968, Clapton gave him a Gibson Les Paul that had been stripped of its original finish and stained cherry red, which Harrison nicknamed \"Lucy\".", "Around this time, he obtained a Gibson Jumbo J-200 acoustic guitar, which he subsequently gave to Dylan to use at the 1969 Isle of Wight Festival.", "In late 1968, Fender Musical Instruments Corporation gave Harrison a custom-made Fender Telecaster Rosewood prototype, made especially for him by Philip Kubicki.", "In August 2017, Fender released a \"Limited Edition George Harrison Rosewood Telecaster\" modelled after a Telecaster that Roger Rossmeisl originally created for Harrison." ], [ "Film production and HandMade films", "Harrison helped finance Ravi Shankar's documentary ''Raga'' and released it through Apple Films in 1971.He also produced, with Apple manager Allen Klein, the ''Concert for Bangladesh'' film.", "In 1973, he produced the feature film ''Little Malcolm'', but the project was lost amid the litigation surrounding the former Beatles ending their business ties with Klein.In 1973, Peter Sellers introduced Harrison to Denis O'Brien.", "Soon after, the two went into business together.", "In 1978, to produce ''Monty Python's Life of Brian'', they formed the film production and distribution company HandMade Films.", "Their opportunity for investment came after EMI Films withdrew funding at the demand of their chief executive, Bernard Delfont.", "Harrison financed the production of ''Life of Brian'' in part by mortgaging his home, which Idle later called \"the most anybody's ever paid for a cinema ticket in history\".", "The film grossed $21 million at the box office in the US.", "The first film distributed by HandMade Films was ''The Long Good Friday'' (1980), and the first they produced was ''Time Bandits'' (1981), a co-scripted project by Monty Pythons Terry Gilliam and Michael Palin.", "The film featured a new song by Harrison, \"Dream Away\", in the closing credits.", "''Time Bandits'' became one of HandMade's most successful and acclaimed efforts; with a budget of $5 million, it earned $35 million in the US within ten weeks of its release.Harrison served as executive producer for 23 films with HandMade, including ''A Private Function'' (1984), ''Mona Lisa'' (1986), ''Shanghai Surprise'' (1986), ''Withnail and I'' (1987) and ''How to Get Ahead in Advertising'' (1989).", "He made cameo appearances in several of these films, including a role as a nightclub singer in ''Shanghai Surprise'', for which he recorded five new songs.", "According to Ian Inglis, \"Harrison's executive role in HandMade Films helped to sustain British cinema at a time of crisis, producing some of the country's most memorable movies of the 1980s.\"", "Following a series of box office bombs in the late 1980s, and excessive debt incurred by O'Brien which was guaranteed by Harrison, HandMade's financial situation became precarious.", "The company ceased operations in 1991 and was sold three years later to Paragon Entertainment, a Canadian corporation.", "Afterwards, Harrison sued O'Brien for $25 million for fraud and negligence, resulting in an $11.6 million judgement in 1996." ], [ "Humanitarian work", "George Harrison sculpture in Dhaka, BangladeshHarrison was involved in humanitarian and political activism throughout his life.", "In the 1960s, the Beatles supported the civil rights movement and protested against the Vietnam War.", "In early 1971, Ravi Shankar consulted Harrison about how to provide aid to the people of Bangladesh after the 1970 Bhola cyclone and the Bangladesh Liberation War.", "Harrison hastily wrote and recorded the song \"Bangla Desh\", which became pop music's first charity single when issued by Apple Records in late July.", "He also pushed Apple to release Shankar's ''Joi Bangla'' EP in an effort to raise further awareness for the cause.", "Shankar asked for Harrison's advice about planning a small charity event in the US.", "Harrison responded by organising the Concert for Bangladesh, which raised more than $240,000.Around $13.5 million was generated through the album and film releases, although most of the funds were frozen in an Internal Revenue Service audit for ten years, due to Klein's failure to register the event as a UNICEF benefit beforehand.", "In June 1972, UNICEF honoured Harrison and Shankar, and Klein, with the \"Child Is the Father of Man\" award at an annual ceremony in recognition of their fundraising efforts for Bangladesh.From 1980, Harrison became a vocal supporter of Greenpeace and CND.", "He also protested against the use of nuclear energy with Friends of the Earth, and helped finance ''Vole'', a green magazine launched by Monty Python member Terry Jones.", "In 1990, he helped promote his wife Olivia's Romanian Angel Appeal on behalf of the thousands of Romanian orphans left abandoned by the state following the fall of Communism in Eastern Europe.", "Harrison recorded a benefit single, \"Nobody's Child\", with the Traveling Wilburys, and assembled a fundraising album with contributions from other artists including Clapton, Starr, Elton John, Stevie Wonder, Donovan and Van Morrison.The Concert for Bangladesh has been described as an innovative precursor for the large-scale charity rock shows that followed, including Live Aid.", "The George Harrison Humanitarian Fund for UNICEF, a joint effort between the Harrison family and the US Fund for UNICEF, aims to support programmes that help children caught in humanitarian emergencies.", "In December 2007, they donated $450,000 to help the victims of Cyclone Sidr in Bangladesh.", "On 13 October 2009, the first George Harrison Humanitarian Award went to Ravi Shankar for his efforts in saving the lives of children, and his involvement with the Concert for Bangladesh." ], [ "Personal life", "===Hinduism===Hare Krishna devotees Shyamasundar Das and Mukunda Goswami, in Vrindavan, India, in 1996By the mid-1960s, Harrison had become an admirer of Indian culture and mysticism, introducing it to the other Beatles.", "During the filming of ''Help!''", "in the Bahamas, they met the founder of Sivananda Yoga, Swami Vishnu-devananda, who gave each of them a signed copy of his book, ''The Complete Illustrated Book of Yoga''.", "Between the end of the last Beatles tour in 1966 and the beginning of the ''Sgt Pepper'' recording sessions, he made a pilgrimage to India with his first wife, Pattie Boyd; there, he studied sitar with Ravi Shankar, met several gurus, and visited various holy places.", "In 1968, he travelled with the other Beatles to Rishikesh in northern India to study meditation with Maharishi Mahesh Yogi.Harrison's experiences with LSD in the mid-1960s served as a catalyst for his early pursuance of Hinduism.", "In a 1977 interview, George recalled:However, Harrison stopped using LSD after a disenchanting experience in San Francisco's Haight-Ashbury neighborhood.", "He recounted in ''The Beatles Anthology'':In line with the Hindu yoga tradition, Harrison became a vegetarian in the late 1960s.", "After being given various religious texts by Shankar in 1966, he remained a lifelong advocate of the teachings of Swami Vivekananda and Paramahansa Yogananda – yogis and authors, respectively, of ''Raja Yoga'' and ''Autobiography of a Yogi''.", "In mid-1969, he produced the single \"Hare Krishna Mantra\", performed by members of the London Radha Krishna Temple.", "Having also helped the Temple devotees become established in Britain, Harrison then met their leader, A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, whom he described as \"my friend ... my master\" and \"a perfect example of everything he preached\".", "Harrison embraced the Hare Krishna tradition, particularly ''japa-yoga'' chanting with beads, and became a lifelong devotee.", "In 1972 he donated his Letchmore Heath mansion north of London to the devotees.", "It was later converted to a temple and renamed Bhaktivedanta Manor.Regarding other faiths, he once remarked: \"All religions are branches of one big tree.", "It doesn't matter what you call Him just as long as you call.\"", "He commented on his beliefs:Inglis comments that, in contrast to Cliff Richard's conversion to Christianity in 1966: \"Harrison's spiritual journey was seen as a serious and important development that reflected popular music's increasing maturity ... what he, and the Beatles, had managed to overturn was the paternalistic assumption that popular musicians had no role other than to stand on stage and sing their hit songs.", "\"===Family and interests=== Harrison and Pattie Boyd lived in Kinfauns in Surrey from 1964 to 1970.Harrison married model Pattie Boyd on 21 January 1966, with McCartney serving as best man.", "Harrison and Boyd had met on set in 1964 during the production of the film ''A Hard Day's Night'', in which the 19-year-old Boyd had been cast as a schoolgirl.", "During a lunch break, George 'playfully' proposed to her.", "They separated in 1974 and their divorce was finalised in 1977.Boyd said her decision to end the marriage was due largely to George's repeated infidelities.", "The last infidelity culminated in an affair with Ringo's wife Maureen, which Boyd called \"the final straw\".", "She characterised the last year of their marriage as \"fuelled by alcohol and cocaine\", and she stated: \"George used coke excessively, and I think it changed him ... it froze his emotions and hardened his heart.\"", "She subsequently moved in with Eric Clapton, and they married in 1979.On 2 September 1978, Harrison married Olivia Trinidad Arias, who was a marketing executive for A&M Records, and later Dark Horse Records.", "As Dark Horse was a subsidiary of A&M, the couple had first met over the phone working on record company business, and then in person at the A&M Records offices in Los Angeles in 1974.Together they had one son, Dhani Harrison, born on 1 August 1978.Harrison restored the English manor house and grounds of Friar Park, his home in Henley-on-Thames, where several of his music videos, including \"Crackerbox Palace\", were filmed; the grounds also served as the background for the cover of ''All Things Must Pass''.", "He employed ten workers to maintain the garden.", "Harrison commented on gardening as a form of escapism: \"Sometimes I feel like I'm actually on the wrong planet, and it's great when I'm in my garden, but the minute I go out the gate I think: 'What the hell am I doing here?", "His autobiography, ''I, Me, Mine'', is dedicated \"to gardeners everywhere\".", "The former Beatles publicist Derek Taylor helped Harrison write the book, which said little about the Beatles, focusing instead on Harrison's hobbies, music and lyrics.", "Taylor commented: \"George is not disowning the Beatles ... but it was a long time ago and actually a short part of his life.", "\"Harrison had an interest in sports cars and motor racing; he was one of the 100 people who purchased the McLaren F1 road car.", "He had collected photos of racing drivers and their cars since he was young; at 12, he had attended his first race, the 1955 British Grand Prix at Aintree.", "He wrote \"Faster\" as a tribute to the Formula One racing drivers Jackie Stewart and Ronnie Peterson.", "Proceeds from its release went to the Gunnar Nilsson cancer charity, set up after the Swedish driver's death from the disease in 1978.Harrison's first extravagant car, a 1964 Aston Martin DB5, was sold at auction on 7 December 2011 in London.", "An anonymous Beatles collector paid £350,000 for the vehicle that Harrison had bought new in January 1965.===Relationships with the other Beatles===Lennon, McCartney, Harrison and Starr on arrival in New York City at the height of Beatlemania, February 1964For most of the Beatles' career, the relationships in the group were close.", "According to Hunter Davies, \"the Beatles spent their lives not living a communal life, but communally living the same life.", "They were each other's greatest friends.\"", "Harrison's ex-wife Pattie Boyd described how the Beatles \"all belonged to each other\" and admitted, \"George has a lot with the others that I can never know about.", "Nobody, not even the wives, can break through or even comprehend it.\"", "Starr said, \"We really looked out for each other and we had so many laughs together.", "In the old days we'd have the biggest hotel suites, the whole floor of the hotel, and the four of us would end up in the bathroom, just to be with each other.\"", "He added, \"there were some really loving, caring moments between four people: a hotel room here and there – a really amazing closeness.", "Just four guys who loved each other.", "It was pretty sensational.", "\"Lennon stated that his relationship with Harrison was \"one of young follower and older guy ... he was like a disciple of mine when we started.\"", "The two later bonded over their LSD experiences, finding common ground as seekers of spirituality.", "They took radically different paths thereafter, with, according to biographer Gary Tillery, Harrison finding God and Lennon coming to the conclusion that people are the creators of their own lives.", "In 1974, Harrison said of his former bandmate: \"John Lennon is a saint and he's heavy-duty, and he's great and I love him.", "But at the same time, he's such a ''bastard'' – but that's the great thing about him, you see?", "\"Harrison and McCartney were the first of the Beatles to meet, having shared a school bus, and often learned and rehearsed new guitar chords together.", "McCartney said that he and Harrison usually shared a bedroom while touring.", "McCartney has referred to Harrison as his \"baby brother\".", "In a 1974 BBC radio interview with Alan Freeman, Harrison stated: \"McCartney ruined me as a guitar player\".", "In the same interview, however, Harrison stated that \"I just know that whatever we've been through, there's always been something that's tied us together.\"", "Perhaps the most significant obstacle to a Beatles reunion after the death of Lennon was Harrison and McCartney's personal relationship, as both men admitted that they often got on each other's nerves.", "Rodriguez commented: \"Even to the end of George's days, theirs was a volatile relationship\".", "When, in a Yahoo!", "online chat in February 2001, he was asked if Paul \"pisses you off\", Harrison replied \"Scan not a friend with a microscopic glass -- You know his faults -- Then let his foibles pass.", "Old Victorian Proverb.", "I'm sure there's enough about me that pisses him off, but I think we have now grown old enough to realize that we're both pretty damn cute!\"" ], [ "Legacy", "Close-up of Harrison from the Beatles statue at Pier Head, LiverpoolIn June 1965, Harrison and the other Beatles were appointed Members of the Order of the British Empire (MBE).", "They received their insignia from the Queen at an investiture at Buckingham Palace on 26 October.", "In 1971, the Beatles received an Academy Award for the best Original Song Score for the film ''Let It Be''.", "The minor planet 4149 Harrison, discovered in 1984, was named after him, as was a variety of Dahlia flower.", "In December 1992, he became the first recipient of the Billboard Century Award, an honour presented to music artists for significant bodies of work.", "The award recognised Harrison's \"critical role in laying the groundwork for the modern concept of world music\" and for his having \"advanced society's comprehension of the spiritual and altruistic power of popular music\".", "''Rolling Stone'' magazine ranked him number 11 in their list of the \"100 Greatest Guitarists of All Time\".", "He is also in number 65 in the list of \"100 greatest songwriters of all time\" by the same magazine.In 2002, on the first anniversary of his death, the Concert for George was held at the Royal Albert Hall.", "Eric Clapton organised the event, which included performances by many of Harrison's friends and musical collaborators, including McCartney and Starr.", "Eric Idle, who described Harrison as \"one of the few morally good people that rock and roll has produced\", was among the performers of Monty Python's \"Lumberjack Song\".", "The profits from the concert went to Harrison's charity, the Material World Charitable Foundation.", "\"George Harrison\" Star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in Los AngelesIn 2004, Harrison was posthumously inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a solo artist by his former bandmates Lynne and Petty, and into the Madison Square Garden Walk of Fame in 2006 for the Concert for Bangladesh.", "On 14 April 2009, the Hollywood Chamber of Commerce awarded Harrison a star on the Walk of Fame in front of the Capitol Records Building.", "McCartney, Lynne and Petty were present when the star was unveiled.", "Harrison's widow Olivia, the actor Tom Hanks and Idle made speeches at the ceremony, and Harrison's son Dhani spoke the Hare Krishna mantra.A documentary film titled ''George Harrison: Living in the Material World'', directed by Martin Scorsese, was released in October 2011.The film features interviews with Olivia and Dhani Harrison, Klaus Voormann, Terry Gilliam, Starr, Clapton, McCartney, Keltner and Astrid Kirchherr.Harrison was posthumously honoured with The Recording Academy's Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award at the Grammy Awards in February 2015.An Illinois State Historical Society marker in Benton, Illinois, commemorates Harrison's visit in the town in 1963 to see his sister, making him the first Beatle to visit the United States.", "In 2017, a mural instillation was unveiled in the town of Harrison painted by artist John Cerney.", "Statues of Harrison can be found around the world, including several across his native Liverpool and a bust in the Shadhinotar Shagram Triangle Sculpture Garden in Dhaka, Bangladesh, commemorating Harrison's contributions to Bangladeshi culture." ], [ "Discography", "* ''Wonderwall Music'' (1968)* ''Electronic Sound'' (1969)* ''All Things Must Pass'' (1970)* ''Living in the Material World'' (1973)* ''Dark Horse'' (1974)* ''Extra Texture (Read All About It)'' (1975)* ''Thirty Three & 1/3'' (1976)* ''George Harrison'' (1979)* ''Somewhere in England'' (1981)* ''Gone Troppo'' (1982)* ''Cloud Nine'' (1987)* ''Brainwashed'' (2002)" ], [ "See also", "* Outline of the Beatles* The Beatles timeline* List of peace activists" ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ======General and cited sources===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * ===Documentaries===*" ], [ "External links", " * George Harrison 1974 concert in Fort Worth from Texas Archive of the Moving Image* * \"George Harrison's Greatest Musical Moments\"  – ''Rolling Stone''* * \"George Harrison\" – ''Daily Telegraph'' obituary* * * * BBC News:** \"George Harrison dies\"** \"George Harrison: Life in pictures\"** \"George Harrison: The quiet Beatle\"" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Giant planet" ], [ "Introduction", "The four giant planets, which are shown to scale with the Sun, stand out as the largest objects of the Solar System.Relative masses of the giant planets of the outer Solar SystemA '''giant planet''' is a diverse type of planet much larger than Earth.", "They are usually primarily composed of low-boiling point materials (volatiles), rather than rock or other solid matter, but massive solid planets can also exist.", "There are four known giant planets in the Solar System: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune.", "Many extrasolar giant planets have been identified as orbiting other stars.They are also sometimes called '''jovian planets''', after Jupiter (''Jove'' being another name for the Roman god Jupiter).", "They are also sometimes known as gas giants.", "However, many astronomers now apply the latter term only to Jupiter and Saturn, classifying Uranus and Neptune, which have different compositions, as ice giants.", "Both names are potentially misleading: all of the giant planets consist primarily of fluids above their critical points, where distinct gas and liquid phases do not exist.", "The principal components are hydrogen and helium in the case of Jupiter and Saturn, and water, ammonia, and methane in the case of Uranus and Neptune.The defining differences between a very low-mass brown dwarf and a massive gas giant () are debated.", "One school of thought is based on formation; the other, on the physics of the interior.", "Part of the debate concerns whether brown dwarfs must, by definition, have experienced nuclear fusion at some point in their history." ], [ "Terminology", "The term ''gas giant'' was coined in 1952 by science fiction writer James Blish and was originally used to refer to all giant planets.", "Arguably it is something of a misnomer, because throughout most of the volume of these planets the pressure is so high that matter is not in gaseous form.", "Other than the upper layers of the atmosphere, all matter is likely beyond the critical point, where there is no distinction between liquids and gases.", "''Fluid planet'' would be a more accurate term.", "Jupiter also has metallic hydrogen near its center, but much of its volume is hydrogen, helium, and traces of other gases above their critical points.", "The observable atmospheres of all these planets (at less than a unit optical depth) are quite thin compared to their radii, only extending perhaps one percent of the way to the center.", "Thus, the observable parts are gaseous (in contrast to Mars and Earth, which have gaseous atmospheres through which the crust can be seen).The rather misleading term has caught on because planetary scientists typically use ''rock'', ''gas'', and ''ice'' as shorthands for classes of elements and compounds commonly found as planetary constituents, irrespective of the matter's phase.", "In the outer Solar System, hydrogen and helium are referred to as ''gas''; water, methane, and ammonia as ''ice''; and silicates and metals as ''rock''.", "When deep planetary interiors are considered, it may not be far off to say that, by ''ice'' astronomers mean oxygen and carbon, by ''rock'' they mean silicon, and by ''gas'' they mean hydrogen and helium.", "The many ways in which Uranus and Neptune differ from Jupiter and Saturn have led some to use the term only for planets similar to the latter two.", "With this terminology in mind, some astronomers have started referring to Uranus and Neptune as ice giants to indicate the predominance of the ''ices'' (in fluid form) in their interior composition.The alternative term ''jovian planet'' refers to the Roman god Jupiter—the genitive form of which is ''Jovis'', hence ''Jovian''—and was intended to indicate that all of these planets were similar to Jupiter.Objects large enough to start deuterium fusion (above 13 Jupiter masses for solar composition) are called brown dwarfs, and these occupy the mass range between that of large giant planets and the lowest-mass stars.", "The 13-Jupiter-mass () cutoff is a rule of thumb rather than something of precise physical significance.", "Larger objects will burn most of their deuterium and smaller ones will burn only a little, and the value is somewhere in between.", "The amount of deuterium burnt depends not only on the mass but also on the composition of the planet, especially on the amount of helium and deuterium present.", "The Extrasolar Planets Encyclopaedia includes objects up to 60 Jupiter masses, and the Exoplanet Data Explorer up to 24 Jupiter masses." ], [ "Description", "These cut-aways illustrate interior models of the giant planets.", "Jupiter is shown with a rocky core overlaid by a deep layer of metallic hydrogen.A giant planet is a massive planet and has a thick atmosphere of hydrogen and helium.", "They may have a dense molten core of rocky elements, or the core may have completely dissolved and dispersed throughout the planet if the planet is hot enough.", "In \"traditional\" giant planets such as Jupiter and Saturn (the gas giants) hydrogen and helium make up most of the mass of the planet, whereas they only make up an outer envelope on Uranus and Neptune, which are instead mostly composed of water, ammonia, and methane and therefore increasingly referred to as \"ice giants\".Extrasolar giant planets that orbit very close to their stars are the exoplanets that are easiest to detect.", "These are called hot Jupiters and hot Neptunes because they have very high surface temperatures.", "Hot Jupiters were, until the advent of space-borne telescopes, the most common form of exoplanet known, due to the relative ease of detecting them with ground-based instruments.Giant planets are commonly said to lack solid surfaces, but it is more accurate to say that they lack surfaces altogether since the gases that form them simply become thinner and thinner with increasing distance from the planets' centers, eventually becoming indistinguishable from the interplanetary medium.", "Therefore, landing on a giant planet may or may not be possible, depending on the size and composition of its core." ], [ "Subtypes", "===Gas giants===Saturn's north polar vortexGas giants consist mostly of hydrogen and helium.", "The Solar System's gas giants, Jupiter and Saturn, have heavier elements making up between 3 and 13 percent of their mass.", "Gas giants are thought to consist of an outer layer of molecular hydrogen, surrounding a layer of liquid metallic hydrogen, with a probable molten core with a rocky composition.Jupiter and Saturn's outermost portion of the hydrogen atmosphere has many layers of visible clouds that are mostly composed of water and ammonia.", "The layer of metallic hydrogen makes up the bulk of each planet, and is referred to as \"metallic\" because the very high pressure turns hydrogen into an electrical conductor.", "The core is thought to consist of heavier elements at such high temperatures (20,000 K) and pressures that their properties are poorly understood.===Ice giants===Ice giants have distinctly different interior compositions from gas giants.", "The Solar System's ice giants, Uranus and Neptune, have a hydrogen-rich atmosphere that extends from the cloud tops down to about 80% (Uranus) or 85% (Neptune) of their radius.", "Below this, they are predominantly \"icy\", i.e.", "consisting mostly of water, methane, and ammonia.", "There is also some rock and gas, but various proportions of ice–rock–gas could mimic pure ice, so that the exact proportions are unknown.Uranus and Neptune have very hazy atmospheric layers with small amounts of methane, giving them aquamarine colors; light blue and ultramarine respectively.", "Both have magnetic fields that are sharply inclined to their axes of rotation.Unlike the other giant planets, Uranus has an extreme tilt that causes its seasons to be severely pronounced.", "The two planets also have other subtle but important differences.", "Uranus has more hydrogen and helium than Neptune despite being less massive overall.", "Neptune is therefore denser and has much more internal heat and a more active atmosphere.", "The Nice model, in fact, suggests that Neptune formed closer to the Sun than Uranus did, and should therefore have more heavy elements.===Massive solid planets===Massive solid planets can also exist.", "Solid planets up to thousands of Earth masses may be able to form around massive stars (B-type and O-type stars; 5–120 solar masses), where the protoplanetary disk would contain enough heavy elements.", "Also, these stars have high UV radiation and winds that could photoevaporate the gas in the disk, leaving just the heavy elements.", "For comparison, Neptune's mass equals 17 Earth masses, Jupiter has 318 Earth masses, and the 13 Jupiter-mass limit used in the IAU's working definition of an exoplanet equals approximately 4000 Earth masses.===Super-Puffs===A '''super-puff''' is a type of exoplanet with a mass only a few times larger thanEarth’s but a radius larger than Neptune, giving it a very low mean density.", "They are cooler and less massive than the inflated low-density hot-Jupiters.", "The most extreme examples known are the three planets around Kepler-51 which are all Jupiter-sized but with densities below 0.1 g/cm3." ], [ "Extrasolar giant planets", "An artist's conception of 79 Ceti b, the first extrasolar giant planet found with a minimum mass less than Saturn.Comparison of sizes of planets of a given mass with different compositionsBecause of the limited techniques currently available to detect exoplanets, many of those found to date have been of a size associated, in the Solar System, with giant planets.", "Because these large planets are inferred to share more in common with Jupiter than with the other giant planets, some have claimed that \"jovian planet\" is a more accurate term for them.", "Many of the exoplanets are much closer to their parent stars and hence much hotter than the giant planets in the Solar System, making it possible that some of those planets are a type not observed in the Solar System.", "Considering the relative abundances of the elements in the universe (approximately 98% hydrogen and helium) it would be surprising to find a predominantly rocky planet more massive than Jupiter.", "On the other hand, models of planetary-system formation have suggested that giant planets would be inhibited from forming as close to their stars as many of the extrasolar giant planets have been observed to orbit." ], [ "Atmospheres", "The bands seen in the atmosphere of Jupiter are due to counter-circulating streams of material called zones and belts, encircling the planet parallel to its equator.", "The zones are the lighter bands, and are at higher altitudes in the atmosphere.", "They have an internal updraft and are high-pressure regions.", "The belts are the darker bands, are lower in the atmosphere, and have an internal downdraft.", "They are low-pressure regions.", "These structures are somewhat analogous to the high and low-pressure cells in Earth's atmosphere, but they have a very different structure—latitudinal bands that circle the entire planet, as opposed to small confined cells of pressure.", "This appears to be a result of the rapid rotation and underlying symmetry of the planet.", "There are no oceans or landmasses to cause local heating and the rotation speed is much higher than that of Earth.There are smaller structures as well: spots of different sizes and colors.", "On Jupiter, the most noticeable of these features is the Great Red Spot, which has been present for at least 300 years.", "These structures are huge storms.", "Some such spots are thunderheads as well." ], [ "See also" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* SPACE.com: Q&A: The IAU's Proposed Planet Definition, 16 August 2006, 2:00 AM ET* BBC News: Q&A New planets proposal Wednesday, 16 August 2006, 13:36 GMT 14:36 UK" ], [ "External links", "* SPACE.com: Q&A: The IAU's Proposed Planet Definition 16 August 2006 2:00 am ET* BBC News: Q&A New planets proposal Wednesday, 16 August 2006, 13:36 GMT 14:36 UK* Gas Giants in Science Fiction: * Episode \"Giants\" on The Science Channel TV show ''Planets''" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Goddess" ], [ "Introduction", "Queen Nefertari being led by Isis, the Ancient Egyptian mother goddess of magic|312x312pxA '''goddess''' is a female deity.", "In many known cultures, goddesses are often linked with literal or metaphorical pregnancy or imagined feminine roles associated with how women and girls are perceived or expected to behave.", "This includes themes of spinning, weaving, beauty, love, sexuality, motherhood, domesticity, creativity, and fertility (exemplified by the ancient mother goddess cult).", "Many major goddesses are also associated with magic, war, strategy, hunting, farming, wisdom, fate, earth, sky, power, laws, justice, and more.", "Some themes, such as discord or disease, which are considered negative within their cultural contexts also are found associated with some goddesses.", "There are as many differently described and understood goddesses as there are male, shapeshifting, or neuter gods.In some faiths, a sacred female figure holds a central place in religious prayer and worship.", "For example, Shaktism (one of the three major Hindu sects), holds that the ultimate deity, the source of all reality, is Mahadevi (Supreme Goddess) and in some forms of Tantric Shaivism, the pair of Shiva and Shakti are the ultimate principle (with the goddess representing the active, creative power of God).", "Meanwhile, in Vajrayana Buddhism, ultimate reality is often seen as being composed of two principles depicted as two deities in union (yab yum, \"father-mother\") symbolizing the non-duality of the two principles of perfect wisdom (female) and skillful compassion (male).", "Polytheist religions, including Polytheistic reconstructionists, honor multiple goddesses and gods, and usually view them as discrete, separate beings.", "These deities may be part of a pantheon, or different regions may have tutelary deities." ], [ "Etymology", "The noun ''goddess'' is a secondary formation, combining the Germanic ''god'' with the Latinate ''-ess'' suffix.", "It first appeared in Middle English, from about 1350.The English word follows the linguistic precedent of a number of languages—including Egyptian, Classical Greek, and several Semitic languages—that add a feminine ending to the language's word for ''god''." ], [ "Historical polytheism", "===Ancient Near East=======Mesopotamia====Inanna was the most worshipped goddess in ancient Sumer.", "She was later syncretised with the East Semitic goddess Ishtar.", "Other Mesopotamian goddesses include Ninhursag, Ninlil, Antu and Gaga.==== Ancient Africa (Egypt) ====* Goddesses of the Ennead of Heliopolis: Tefnut, Nut, Nephthys, Isis* Goddesses of the Ogdoad of Hermopolis: Naunet, Amaunet, Kauket, Hauhet; originally a cult of Hathor* Satis and Anuket of the triad of Elephantine====Canaan====Goddesses of the Canaanite religion: Ba`alat Gebal, Astarte, Anat.====Anatolia====* Cybele: Her Hittite name was Kubaba, but her name changed to Cybele in Phrygian and Roman culture.", "Her effect can be also seen on Artemis as the Lady of Ephesus.", "* Hebat: Mother Goddess of the Hittite pantheon and wife of the leader sky god, Teshub.", "She was the origin of the Hurrian cult.", "* Arinniti: Hittite Goddess of the sun.", "She became patron of the Hittite Empire and monarchy.", "* Leto: A mother Goddess figure in Lykia.", "She was also the main goddess of the capital city of Lykia League (Letoon)====Pre-Islamic Arabia====In pre-Islamic Mecca the goddesses Uzza, Manāt and al-Lāt were known as \"the daughters of god\".", "Uzzā was worshipped by the Nabataeans, who equated her with the Graeco-Roman goddesses Aphrodite, Urania, Venus and Caelestis.", "Each of the three goddesses had a separate shrine near Mecca.", "Uzzā, was called upon for protection by the pre-Islamic Quraysh.", "\"In 624 at the battle called \"Uhud\", the war cry of the Qurayshites was, \"O people of Uzzā, people of Hubal!\"", "(Tawil 1993).According to Ibn Ishaq's controversial account of the Satanic Verses (''q.v.", "''), these verses had previously endorsed them as intercessors for Muslims, but were abrogated.", "Most Muslim scholars have regarded the story as historically implausible, while opinion is divided among western scholars such as Leone Caetani and John Burton, who argue against, and William Muir and William Montgomery Watt, who argue for its plausibility.The Quran (Q53:19-31) warns of the vanity of trusting to the intercession of female deities, in particular \"the daughters of god\".===Indo-European traditions===Pre-Christian and pre-Islamic goddesses in cultures that spoke Indo-European languages.====Indian====* Ushas: is the main goddess of the Rigveda and is the goddess of the dawn.", "* Prithivi: the Earth, also appears as a goddess.", "Rivers are also deified as goddesses.", "* Agneya: or Aagneya is the Hindu Goddess of Fire.", "* Varuni: is the Hindu Goddess of Water.", "Bhumi, Janani, Buvana, and Prithvi are names of the Hindu Goddess of Earth.====Iranian====* Anahita: or Anahit, or Nahid, or Arədvī Sūrā Anāhitā, or Aban: the divinity of \"the Waters\" and hence associated with fertility, healing, beauty and wisdom.", "* Daena: a divinity, counted among the yazatas, representing insight and revelation, hence \"conscience\" or \"religion\".", "* Spenta Armaiti: or Sandaramet, one of the Amesha Spentas, a female divinity associated with earth and Mother Nature.", "She is also associated with the female virtue of devotion (to family, husband, and child).", "In the Iranian calendar, her name is on the twelfth month and also the fifth day of the month.", "* Ashi: a divinity of fertility and fortune in the Zoroastrian hierarchy of yazatas.====Greco-Roman====Ceres, Roman goddess of agriculture and motherly relationships* Eleusinian Mysteries: Baubo (goddess of mirth), Demeter (goddess of the harvest) and Persephone (goddess of spring, queen of the Underworld as the wife of Hades).", "* Greek muses: Calliope (goddess of epic poetry), Clio (history), Erato (love poetry), Euterpe (music, song, and lyric poetry), Melpomene (tragedy), Polyhymnia (sacred poetry), Terpsichore (dance), Thalia (comedy and pastoral poetry), and Urania (astronomy).", "* Aphrodite: Goddess of love and beauty.", "* Artemis: Virgin goddess of the wilderness and the hunt.", "* Athena: Virgin goddess of strategy, warfare, and crafts.", "* Eris: Goddess of chaos.", "* Gaia: Primordial goddess of the Earth.", "Most gods descend from her.", "* Hecate: Goddess of sorcery and crossroads.", "Often considered a chthonic or lunar goddess.", "She is either portrayed as a single goddess or a triple goddess (maiden, mother, crone).", "* Hera: Goddess of womanhood, marriage and childbirth, queen of Olympus as the wife of Zeus.", "* Hestia: Virgin goddess of the hearth, domesticity and family.", "* Iris: Goddess of rainbows.", "* Leto: Titan goddess of childhood.", "* Nike: Goddess of victory.", "She is predominantly pictured with Zeus or Athena and sometimes Ares.", "* Selene: Titan goddess of the Moon.", "* Rhea: Titan goddess of motherhood.====Celtic====Goddesses and Otherworldly Women in Celtic polytheism include:* Celtic antiquity: Brigantia* Gallo-Roman goddesses: Epona, Dea Matrona* Irish mythology: Áine, Boann, Brigid, The Cailleach, Danu, Ériu, Fand and The Morrígan (Nemain, Macha, and Badb) among others.", "The Celts honoured goddesses of nature and natural forces, as well as those connected with skills and professions such as healing, warfare and poetry.", "The Celtic goddesses have diverse qualities such as abundance, creation and beauty, as well as harshness, slaughter and vengeance.", "They have been depicted as beautiful or hideous, old hags or young women, and at times may transform their appearance from one state to another, or into their associated creatures such as crows, cows, wolves or eels, to name but a few.", "In Irish mythology in particular, tutelary goddesses are often associated with sovereignty and various features of the land, notably mountains, rivers, forests and holy wells.====Germanic====The goddess Freyja is nuzzled by the boar Hildisvíni while gesturing to Hyndla (1895) by Lorenz Frølich.Surviving accounts of Germanic mythology and Norse mythology contain numerous tales of female goddesses, giantesses, and divine female figures in their scriptures.", "The Germanic peoples had altars erected to the \"Mothers and Matrons\" and held celebrations specific to these goddesses (such as the Anglo-Saxon \"Mothers-night\").", "Various other female deities are attested among the Germanic peoples, such as Nerthus attested in an early account of the Germanic peoples, Ēostre attested among the pagan Anglo-Saxons, and Sinthgunt attested among the pagan continental Germanic peoples.", "Examples of goddesses attested in Norse mythology include Frigg (wife of Odin, and the Anglo-Saxon version of whom is namesake of the modern English weekday Friday), Skaði (one time wife of Njörðr), Njerda (Scandinavian name of Nerthus), that also was married to Njörðr during Bronze Age, Freyja (wife of Óðr), Sif (wife of Thor), Gerðr (wife of Freyr), and personifications such as Jörð (earth), Sól (the sun), and Nótt (night).", "Female deities also play heavily into the Norse concept of death, where half of those slain in battle enter Freyja's field Fólkvangr, Hel's realm of the same name, and Rán who receives those who die at sea.", "Other female deities such as the valkyries, the norns, and the dísir are associated with a Germanic concept of fate (Old Norse ''Ørlög'', Old English ''Wyrd''), and celebrations were held in their honour, such as the Dísablót and Disting.===Pre-Columbian America=======Aztec====Xochiquetzal (left) and Chalchiuhtlicue (right) as depicted in the Tovar Codex.", "* Chalchiuhtlicue: goddess of water (rivers, seas, storms, etc.", ")* Chantico: goddess of the hearth, flames* Coyolxauhqui: warrior goddess associated with the moon* Duality Earth Goddesses: Cihuacoatl (childbirth and maternal death), Coatlicue (earth as the womb and grave), Tlazolteotl (filth and purification)* Itzpapalotl: monstrous ruler of Tamoanchan (a paradise realm)* Mictecacihuatl: queen of Mictlan (the underworld)* Xochiquetzal: goddess of fertility, beauty, and female sexuality====Maya====*Ixchel: mother goddess*Maya moon goddess*Goddess I: eroticism, human procreation, and marriage====Inca====* Pachamama: the supreme Mother Earth* Mama Killa: moon goddess* Mama Ocllo: fertility goddess* Mama Cocha: goddess of the sea and lakes====Native North America====Goddesses of various Native North American peoples include:* Spider Grandmother: Creator goddess of the Southwestern United States* Atahensic: Iroquois sky goddess* Atira: Pawnee earth and corn goddess* Tia: Haida goddess of peaceful death* Sedna: Inuit goddess of the sea and underworld* Atabey: Taino mother goddess" ], [ "Folk religion and animism", "===African religions===In African and African diasporic religions, goddesses are often syncretised with Marian devotion, as in Ezili Dantor (Black Madonna of Częstochowa) and Erzulie Freda (Mater Dolorosa).", "There is also Buk, a Sudanese and Ethiopian goddess still worshipped in the southern regions.", "She represents the fertile aspect of women.", "She is related to the deity of a similar name, Abuk.", "Another Ethiopian goddess is Atete, the goddess of spring and fertility.", "Farmers traditionally leave some of their products at the end of each harvesting season as an offering while women sing traditional songs.A rare example of henotheism focused on a single Goddess is found among the Southern Nuba of Sudan.", "The Nuba conceive of the creator Goddess as the \"Great Mother\" who gave birth to earth and to mankind.===Chinese folk religion===* Mazu is the goddess of the sea who protects fishermen and sailors, widely worshipped in the south-eastern coastal areas of China and neighbouring areas in Southeast Asia.", "* The Goddess Weaver Zhinü, daughter of the Celestial Mother, wove the stars and their light, known as \"the Silver River\" (what Westerners call \"The Milky Way Galaxy\"), for heaven and earth.", "She was identified with the star Westerners know as Vega.===Shinto===Amaterasu, goddess of the sun, emerges from the Heavenly Rock Cave, triptych by Utagawa KunisadaGoddess Amaterasu is the chief among the Shinto gods (''kami''), while there are important female deities Ame-no-Uzume-no-Mikoto, Inari and Konohanasakuya-hime." ], [ "Dharmic Religions", "In the Dharmic religions (mainly Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism), there are many goddesses that are widely venerated.", "The earliest source for several of these goddesses is the Vedas.", "However, goddesses can also be found in the art of the even more ancient Indus Valley civilisation.", "===Hinduism===The Goddess Trinity (tridevi, \"tri-goddess\") of Shaktism, Lakshmi (left), Parvati (middle) and Saraswati (right).Hinduism is a diverse complex of many belief systems which includes numerous gods and goddesses.", "The earliest Hindu source, the ''Rigveda'', contains many goddesses such as Prithvi (earth), Aditi (cosmic moral order), Vāc (sound), Nirṛti (destruction) and Saraswati.", "The ''Devīsūktam'' is an important source for the goddess idea in Vedic religion.", "Important Hindu goddesses today include Lakshmi, Saraswati, Durga, Kali, Tripurasundari, Parvati, and Radha.", "There is much diversity in the theology of the various traditions of Hinduism.", "Some theologies (e.g.", "Advaita) see all gods and goddesses as emanations of a single formless impersonal source called Brahman.", "Other theologies are more personal regarding the ultimate deity.", "Some traditions posit a dual deity in the form of Lakshmi-Vishnu, Radha-Krishna, Brahma-Saraswati, or Shiva-Parvati.", "These are presented as a pair with a male god (Shaktiman, \"possessor of power\") and his consort, a female \"power\" (Shakti), and their relationship is interpreted in different ways depending on the tradition's theology.In Shaktism, the supreme deity is the Great Goddess (Mahadevi), called by different names such as Shakti or Adi Parashakti (Primordial Supreme Power).", "Shaktas consider the Goddess to be the ultimate source of all things and the mother of all gods and goddesses.", "She is considered to have ten main avatars called the ten mahavidyas in some traditions.", "Another important concept is the Shakta trinity, the tridevi, which sees Mahadevi as manifesting in three main goddesses: Mahasaraswati, Mahalakshmi, and Mahakali.The Hindu warrior goddess Durga killing the buffalo-demon Mahishasura.In the great Shakta scripture known as the ''Devi Mahatmya'' (Glory of the Goddess), all the goddesses are aspects of one presiding female force—one in truth and many in expression, which also is the creative power of the cosmos.", "It expresses through philosophical tracts and metaphor, that the potentiality of masculine being is actuated by the feminine divine.Local deities of different village regions in India were often identified with \"mainstream\" Hindu deities, a process that has been called ''Sanskritisation''.", "Others attribute it to the influence of monism or ''Advaita'', which discounts polytheist or monotheist categorisation.", "While the monist forces have led to a fusion between some of the goddesses (108 names are common for many goddesses), centrifugal forces have also resulted in new goddesses and rituals gaining ascendance among the laity in different parts of Hindu world.", "Thus, the immensely popular goddess Durga was a pre-Vedic goddess who was later fused with Parvati, a process that can be traced through texts such as Kalika Purana (10th century), Durgabhaktitarangini (Vidyapati 15th century), Chandimangal (16th century) etc.Widely celebrated Hindu festival Navaratri is in the honour of the divine feminine Devi (Durga) and spans nine nights of prayer in the autumn, also referred as Sharada Navratri.=== Buddhism ===Cundī Buddha Mother (also known as Cundā), Ming Dynasty (1368-1644).Tara, Urgyen Sanag Choling Gompa near Kulu, Himchal PradeshThere are numerous female deities in the various Buddhist traditions.", "Buddhist goddesses are widely depicted in Buddhist art.", "Early Buddhism in India venerated various female goddesses.", "These were mostly considered to be devas or spirits (such as yakshinis).", "They include Prthivi (earth goddess), Hariti, Lakshmi and Mayadevi (the mother of the Buddha).", "Some of these figures remain important in Theravada Buddhism today, including Maya and Prthivi (known as Phra Mae Thorani in Southeast Asia).Indian Mahayana Buddhism revered several female deities, including Prajñāpāramitā Devi, Cunda, Marici, Sitātapatra, Tārā, Uṣṇīṣavijayā and Vasudhārā.", "In the Mahayana, female deities grew in importance, becoming powerful bodhisattva savior figures, liberators associated with powerful mantras (which are also termed ''vidyās'' when a mantra is seen as a feminine power) and dharanis.", "In some cases, such as with Prajñāpāramitā Devi, these goddesses were even called \"mother of Buddhas\" (Sanskrit: buddhamatr) and bhagavati, indicating they were seen as fully awakened Buddhas themselves.", "In the Mahayana traditions, some are considered to be bodhisattvas (beings advancing on the path to Buddhahood) or full Buddhas, while others are just devas (worldly deities).", "The most important Buddhist female deities in East Asian Buddhism are the bodhisattva Guanyin and the \"mother of Buddhas\" Cundi.", "In Tibetan Buddhism, Tara is the most important female deity (often considered to be a full Buddha).", "The tantric ''dakini'' Vajrayogini is an important tantric meditation deity (yidam) in Tibetan Vajrayana, and is also considered to be a female Buddha in her own right.", "Tantric Buddhist goddesses were often considered to be fully awakened Buddhas and sometimes are depicted with unique tantric elements, such as skullcups and flaying knives.", "These tantric deities include Simhamukha, Mahamaya, Vajrayogini, Chinnamunda and Kurukulla.", "Mahayana goddesses are often termed \"devis\" (Sanskrit: devi, \"female deity\", \"goddess\", Tibetan: lhamo) or even bhagavani (the female version of bhagavan, indicating Buddhahood)." ], [ "Abrahamic religions", "===Judaism===According to Zohar, Lilith is the name of Adam's first wife, who was created at the same time as Adam.", "She left Adam and refused to return to the Garden of Eden after she mated with archangel Samael.", "Her story was greatly developed during the Middle Ages in the tradition of Aggadic midrashim, the Zohar and Jewish mysticism.The Zohar tradition has influenced Jewish folklore, which postulates God created Adam to marry a woman named Lilith.", "Outside of Jewish tradition, Lilith was associated with the Mother Goddess, Inanna – later known as both Ishtar and Asherah.", "In The Epic of Gilgamesh, Gilgamesh was said to have destroyed a tree that was in a sacred grove dedicated to the goddess Ishtar/Inanna/Asherah.", "Lilith ran into the wilderness in despair.", "She then is depicted in the Talmud and Kabbalah as first wife to God's first creation of man, Adam.", "In time, as stated in the Old Testament, the Hebrew followers continued to worship \"False Idols\", like Asherah, as being as powerful as God.", "Jeremiah speaks of his (and God's) displeasure at this behavior to the Hebrew people about the worship of the goddess in the Old Testament.", "Lilith is banished from Adam and God's presence when she is discovered to be a \"demon\" and Eve becomes Adam's wife.The following female deities are mentioned in prominent Hebrew texts:* Agrat bat Mahlat* Anath* Asherah* Ashima* Astarte* EishethMore commonly, modern Judaism acknowledges ''Shekhinah'' as the feminine aspect of God.", "''Shekhinah'' is considered to be the presence of God on Earth and/or the spirit of the Jewish people, forever trying to reunite with the other elements of God through ''tikkun olam''.", "She is also associated with the moon, the earth, David, and Rachel.===Christianity===Virgin Sophia design on a Harmony Society doorway in Harmony, Pennsylvania, carved by Frederick Reichert Rapp (1775–1834).The veneration of Mary, the mother of Jesus, as an especially privileged saint has continued since the beginning of the Catholic faith.", "Mary is venerated as the Mother of God, Queen of Heaven, Mother of the Church, the Blessed Virgin Mary, Star of the Sea, and other lofty titles.Marian devotion similar to this kind is also found in Eastern Orthodoxy and sometimes in Anglicanism, although not in the majority of denominations of Protestantism.In some Christian traditions (like the Orthodox tradition), Sophia is the personification of either divine wisdom (or of an archangel) that takes female form.", "She is mentioned in the first chapter of the Book of Proverbs.", "Sophia is identified by some as the wisdom imparting Holy Spirit of the Christian Trinity, whose names in Hebrew—Ruach and Shekhinah—are both feminine, and whose symbol of the dove was commonly associated in the Ancient Near East with the figure of the Mother Goddess.In mysticism, Gnosticism, as well as some Hellenistic religions, there is a female spirit or goddess named Sophia who is said to embody wisdom and who is sometimes described as a virgin.", "In Roman Catholic mysticism, Saint Hildegard celebrated Sophia as a cosmic figure both in her writing and art.", "Within the Protestant tradition in England, the 17th-century mystic universalist and founder of the Philadelphian Society Jane Leade wrote copious descriptions of her visions and dialogues with the \"Virgin Sophia\" who, she said, revealed to her the spiritual workings of the universe.", "Leade was hugely influenced by the theosophical writings of 16th-century German Christian mystic Jakob Böhme, who also speaks of Sophia in works such as ''The Way to Christ''.", "Jakob Böhme was very influential to a number of Christian mystics and religious leaders, including George Rapp and the Harmony Society.==== Latter Day Saint movement ====The members of most denominations in the Latter Day Saint movement believe in, although they do not directly worship, a Heavenly Mother who is the female counterpart of the Heavenly Father.", "Together they are referred to as Heavenly Parents.", "Adherents also believe that all humans, both women and men, have the potential to become gods through a process known as exaltation." ], [ "Neopaganism", "Most Modern Pagan traditions honour one or more goddesses.", "While some who follow Wicca believe in a duotheistic belief system, consisting of a single goddess and a single god, who in hieros gamos represent a united whole, others recognise only one or more goddesses.===Wicca===Triple Goddess symbol.In Wicca \"the Goddess\" is the deity of prime importance, along with her consort the Horned God.Within many forms of Wicca the Goddess has come to be considered as a universal deity, more in line with her description in the Charge of the Goddess, a key Wiccan text.", "In this guise she is the \"Queen of Heaven\", similar to Isis.", "She also encompasses and conceives (creates) all life, much like Gaia.", "Similarly to Isis and certain late Classical conceptions of Selene, she is the summation of all other goddesses, who represent her different names and aspects across the different cultures.", "The Goddess is often portrayed with strong lunar symbolism, drawing on various cultures and deities such as Diana, Hecate, and Isis, and is often depicted as the Maiden, Mother, and Crone triad popularised by Robert Graves (see Triple Goddess below).", "Many depictions of her also draw strongly on Celtic goddesses.", "Some Wiccans, or Witches, believe there are many goddesses, and in some forms of Wicca, notably Dianic Wicca, the Goddess alone is worshipped, and the God plays very little (or no) part in their worship and ritual.", "The first history of Wiccans or Witches (nature based religion) appear on cave paintings that show early humans worshipping a feminine nature deity for luck and harvest (BCE).", "Later Celtics form a more formal form of Witches (Wiccans) with the triquetra (maiden mother crone),pentagram etc.", "They have evolved into the strong, nature based, animal rights loving and women rights religion of today.Goddesses or demi-goddesses appear in sets of three in a number of ancient European pagan mythologies; these include the Greek ''Erinyes'' (Furies) and ''Moirai'' (Fates); the Norse ''Norns''; Brighid and her two sisters, also called Brighid, from Irish or Celtic mythology.Robert Graves popularised the triad of \"Maiden\" (or \"Virgin\"), \"Mother\" and \"Crone\", and while this idea did not rest on sound scholarship, his poetic inspiration has gained a tenacious hold.", "Considerable variation in the precise conceptions of these figures exists, as typically occurs in Neopaganism and indeed in pagan religions in general.", "Some choose to interpret them as three stages in a woman's life, separated by menarche and menopause.", "Others find this too biologically based and rigid, and prefer a freer interpretation, with the Maiden as birth (independent, self-centred, seeking), the Mother as giving birth (interrelated, compassionate nurturing, creating), and the Crone as death and renewal (holistic, remote, unknowable) — and all three erotic and wise." ], [ "Feminism", "Hadrianic period, statue of Isis in marble from the Musei Capitolini===Goddess movement===At least since first-wave feminism in the United States, there has been interest in analyzing religion to see if and how doctrines and practices treat women unfairly, as in Elizabeth Cady Stanton's ''The Woman's Bible''.", "Again in second-wave feminism in the U.S., as well as in many European and other countries, religion became the focus of some feminist analysis in Judaism, Christianity, and other religions, and some women turned to ancient goddess religions as an alternative to Abrahamic religions (''Womanspirit Rising'' 1979; ''Weaving the Visions'' 1989).", "Today both women and men continue to be involved in the Goddess movement (Christ 1997).", "The popularity of organisations such as the Fellowship of Isis attest to the continuing growth of the religion of the Goddess throughout the world.While much of the attempt at gender equity in mainstream Christianity (Judaism never recognised any gender for God) is aimed at reinterpreting scripture and degenderising language used to name and describe the divine (Ruether, 1984; Plaskow, 1991), there are a growing number of people who identify as Christians or Jews who are trying to integrate goddess imagery into their religions (Kien, 2000; Kidd 1996,\"Goddess Christians Yahoo Group\").===Sacred feminine===The term \"sacred feminine\" was first coined in the 1970s, in New Age popularisations of the Hindu Shakti.", "Hinduism also worships multitude of goddesses that have their important role and thus in all came to interest for the New Age, feminist, and lesbian feminist movements." ], [ "Metaphorical use", "The term \"goddess\" has also been adapted to poetic and secular use as a complimentary description of a non-mythological woman.", "The OED notes 1579 as the date of the earliest attestation of such figurative use, in ''Lauretta the diuine Petrarches Goddesse''.Shakespeare had several of his male characters address female characters as goddesses, including Demetrius to Helena in ''A Midsummer Night's Dream'' (\"O Helen, goddess, nymph, perfect, divine!", "\"), Berowne to Rosaline in ''Love's Labour's Lost'' (\"A woman I forswore; but I will prove, Thou being a goddess, I forswore not thee\"), and Bertram to Diana in ''All's Well That Ends Well''.", "Pisanio also compares Imogen to a goddess to describe her composure under duress in ''Cymbeline''." ], [ "See also", "* Anima (Jung)* Gavari* Gender of God* Goddess movement* Heavenly Mother* List of goddesses* Matriarchy* Mother goddess* Ochre* Oshun* Sophia* ''The Myth of Matriarchal Prehistory''* ''The White Goddess''* Tree deity* Venus figurines" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*Beavis, Mary Ann and Helen Hye-Sook Hwang (eds).", "''Goddesses in Myth, History and Culture'', Mago Books, 2018.", "* Dexter, Miriam Robbins, and Victor Mair (2010).", "''Sacred Display: Divine and Magical Female Figures of Eurasia''.", "Cambria Press.", "* Barnhart, Robert K (1995).", "''The Barnhart Concise Dictionary of Etymology: the Origins of American English Words''.", "HarperCollins.", "* Gorshunova .", "Olga V.(2008), ''Svjashennye derevja Khodzhi Barora…'', ('' Sacred Trees of Khodzhi Baror: Phytolatry and the Cult of Female Deity in Central Asia'') in Etnoragraficheskoe Obozrenie, n° 1, pp. 71–82..", ".", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "List of German-language poets" ], [ "Introduction", "This list contains the names of individuals (of any ethnicity or nationality) who wrote poetry in the German language.", "Most are identified as \"German poets\", but some are not German.==A==*Abraham a Sancta Clara*Friedrich Achleitner*Dietmar von Aist*Heinrich Albert (composer)*Der wilde Alexander*Hermann Allmers*Peter Paul Althaus*Günther Anders*Alfred Andersch*Ernst Moritz Arndt*Achim von Arnim*Bettina von Arnim*Hans Arp*H. C. Artmann*Hans Erasmus Aßmann*Hartmann von Aue*Count Anton Alexander von Auersperg*Rose Ausländer==B==*Ingeborg Bachmann*Hugo Ball*Wolfgang Bauer*Konrad Bayer*Johannes Robert Becher*Richard Beer-Hofmann*Gottfried Benn*Michael Beheim*Werner Bergengruen*Thomas Bernhard*F.W.", "Bernstein*Marcel Beyer*Horst Bienek*Otto Julius Bierbaum*Wolf Biermann*Johannes Bobrowski*Paul Boldt*Wolfgang Borchert*Nicolas Born*Thomas Brasch*Volker Braun*Bertolt Brecht *Helene Brehm*Clemens von Brentano*Theo Breuer*Rolf Dieter Brinkmann*Georg Britting*Hermann Broch*Barthold Heinrich Brockes*August Buchner*Georg Büchner*Gottfried August Bürger*Hermann Burger*Erika Burkart*Wilhelm Busch==C==*Paul-Henri Campbell*Hans Carossa*Daniel Casper von Lohenstein*Paul Celan*Conrad Celtes*Adelbert von Chamisso*Hanns Cibulka*Matthias Claudius*Heinz Czechowski*Daniel Czepko von Reigersfeld==D==*Simon Dach*Theodor Däubler*Georg Friedrich Daumer*Max Dauthendey*Franz Josef Degenhardt*Richard Dehmel*Friedrich Christian Delius*Franz von Dingelstedt*Hugo Dittberner*Reinhard Döhl*Tankred Dorst*Lebrecht Blücher Dreves*Annette von Droste-Hülshoff==E==*Albert Ehrenstein*Günter Eich*Joseph von Eichendorff*Adolf Endler*Hans Magnus Enzensberger*Heinz Erhardt*Wolfram von Eschenbach==F==*Gustav Falke*August Heinrich Hoffmann von Fallersleben*Fereydoun Farrokhzad*Jörg Fauser*Ernst, Baron von Feuchtersleben*Frank Findeiß*Johann Fischart*Cäsar Flaischlen*Paul Fleming*Walter Flex*Hans Folz*Theodor Fontane*Friedrich de la Motte Fouqué*Franzobel*Heinrich Frauenlob*Ferdinand Freiligrath*Erich Fried*Max Frisch*Gerhard Fritsch*Franz Fühmann*Louis Fürnberg==G==*Emanuel Geibel*Christian Fürchtegott Gellert*Stefan George*Paul Gerhardt*Robert Gernhardt*Heinrich Wilhelm von Gerstenberg*Adolf Glassbrenner*Johann Wilhelm Ludwig Gleim*Leopold Friedrich Günther von Goeckingk*Albrecht Goes*Johann Wolfgang von Goethe*Johann Nikolaus Götz*Yvan Goll*Eugen Gomringer*Peter Gosse*Friedrich Wilhelm Gotter*Günter Grass*Fritz Grasshoff*Martin Greif*Franz Grillparzer*Hans Jakob Christoffel von Grimmelshausen*Klaus Groth*Durs Grünbein*Andreas Gryphius*Johann Christian Günther==H==*Peter Hacks*Johannes Hadlaub*Friedrich von Hagedorn*Reinmar von Hagenau*Peter Handke*Georg Philipp Harsdörffer*Otto Erich Hartleben*Peter Härtling*Walter Hasenclever*Wilhelm Hauff*Gerhart Hauptmann*Friedrich von Hausen*Albrecht Haushofer*Christian Friedrich Hebbel*Johann Peter Hebel*Johann Heermann*Heinrich Heine*Hans-Jürgen Heise*Helmut Heißenbüttel*Karl Friedrich Henckell*Johann Gottfried Herder*Nikolaus Herman*Stephan Hermlin*Georg Herwegh*Hermann Hesse*Georg Heym*Paul Heyse*Wolfgang Hilbig*Jakob van Hoddis*Sophie Hoechstetter*Christian Hoffmann von Hoffmannswaldau*Michael Hofmann*Hugo von Hofmannsthal*Friedrich Hölderlin*Walter Höllerer*Ludwig Christoph Heinrich Hölty*Arno Holz*Peter Huchel*Richard Huelsenbeck*Norbert Hummelt*Christian Friedrich Hunold*Ulrich von Hutten==I==*Karl Leberecht Immermann*Hans Irrigmann==J==*Johann Georg Jacobi*Ernst Jandl*Elfriede Jelinek*Albrecht von Johansdorf*Ernst Jünger*Friedrich Georg Jünger==K==*Georg Kaiser*Franz Xaver Kappus*Anna Louisa Karsch*Yaak Karsunke*Hermann Kasack*Abraham Gotthelf Kästner*Erich Kästner*Marie Luise Kaschnitz*Gottfried Keller*Hans Peter Keller*Justinus Kerner*Hermann Kesten*Gottfried Kinkel*Sarah Kirsch*Wulf Kirsten*Karin Kiwus*Klabund*Johann Klaj*Paul Klee*Paul Alfred Kleinert*Ewald Christian von Kleist*Heinrich von Kleist*Thomas Kling*Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock*Christian Knorr von Rosenroth*Michael Kongehl*August Kopisch*Theodor Körner*Theodor Kramer*Karl Kraus*Helmut Krausser*Karl Krolow*Michael Krüger*James Krüss*Quirinus Kuhlmann*Günter Kunert*Reiner Kunze*Der von Kürenberg==L==*Else Lasker-Schüler*Christine Lavant*Hans Leip*Anton G. Leitner*Nikolaus Lenau*Michael Lentz*Hermann Lenz*Jakob Michael Reinhold Lenz*Rudolf Leonhard*Gotthold Ephraim Lessing*Heinrich Leuthold*Thorsten Libotte*Alfred Lichtenstein*Magnus Gottfried Lichtwer*Ulrich von Liechtenstein*Detlev von Liliencron*Till Lindemann*Hermann Lingg*Angela Litschev*Otto Heinrich von Loeben*Friedrich von Logau*Hermann Löns*Iwar von Lücken*Martin Luther==M==*Andreas Mand*Itzik Manger*Thomas Mann*Heinrich Mann*Uwe Martens*Kurt Marti*Friedrich von Matthisson*Georg Maurer*Karl May*Karl Mayer*Friederike Mayröcker*Christoph Meckel*Walter Mehring*Ernst Meister*Conrad Ferdinand Meyer*Johann Martin Miller*Alfred Mombert*Christian Morgenstern*Eduard Mörike*Heinrich von Morungen*Johann Michael Moscherosch*Erich Mühsam*Heiner Müller*Inge Müller*Wilhelm Müller*Börries Freiherr von Münchhausen==N==*Joachim Neander*Johann Nestroy*Georg Neumark*Friedrich Nietzsche*Philipp Nicolai*Helga M. Novak*Novalis (Friedrich von Hardenberg)==O==*Andreas Okopenko*Martin Opitz*Ernst Ortlepp==P==*Bert Papenfuß*Oskar Pastior*Ludwig Pfau*Gottlieb Konrad Pfeffel*Heinz Piontek*August von Platen-Hallermünde*Johannes Plavius*Steffen Popp*Robert Prutz==R==*Wilhelm Raabe*Ferdinand Raimund*Karl Wilhelm Ramler*Lutz Rathenow*Jacob Regnart*Robert Reinick*Neidhart von Reuental*Fritz Reuter*Johann Rietsch*Karl Riha*Rainer Maria Rilke*Joachim Ringelnatz*Johann Rist*Eugen Roth*Ralf Rothmann*Friedrich Rückert*Gerhard Rühm*Peter Rühmkorf==S==*Hans Sachs*Nelly Sachs*Alexios Schandermani (born 1953)*Johannes Scheffler, named Angelus Silesius*Friedrich Schiller*Sibylla Schwarz*Kurt Schwitters*Moriz Seeler*Lutz Seiler*Friedrich Leopold zu Stolberg-Stolberg*Moritz von Strachwitz*Gottfried von Strassburg*Botho Strauss*Der Stricker==T==*Georg Thurmair*Maria Luise Thurmair*Ludwig Tieck*Georg Trakl*Hugo von Trimberg*Süßkind von Trimberg*Kurt Tucholsky*Ulrich von Türheim*Heinrich von dem Türlin==U==*Ludwig Uhland*Anthony Ulrich, Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel==V==*Hendrik van Veldeke*Walther von der Vogelweide*Johann Heinrich Voß==W==*Robert Walser*Erich Weinert*Oswald von Wolkenstein*Konrad von Würzburg*Christa Wolf==Z==*Ulrich von Zatzikhoven" ], [ "See also", "* List of German-language philosophers* List of German-language authors* Poetry* German literature* List of German-language playwrights* List of German journalists* Liste deutschsprachiger Dichter" ], [ "External links", "* Projekt Gutenberg-DE: all authors* List of authors* German Poetry" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gunpowder" ], [ "Introduction", "muzzleloading firearms in granulation sizeAmerican Civil War re-enactors volley firing with black powderFlash pan starter dispenser'''Gunpowder''', also commonly known as '''black powder''' to distinguish it from modern smokeless powder, is the earliest known chemical explosive.", "It consists of a mixture of sulfur, carbon (in the form of charcoal), and potassium nitrate (saltpeter).", "The sulfur and carbon act as fuels while the saltpeter is an oxidizer.", "Gunpowder has been widely used as a propellant in firearms, artillery, rocketry, and pyrotechnics, including use as a blasting agent for explosives in quarrying, mining, building pipelines, tunnels, and roads.Gunpowder is classified as a low explosive because of its relatively slow decomposition rate and consequently low brisance.", "Low explosives deflagrate (i.e., burn at subsonic speeds), whereas high explosives detonate, producing a supersonic shockwave.", "Ignition of gunpowder packed behind a projectile generates enough pressure to force the shot from the muzzle at high speed, but usually not enough force to rupture the gun barrel.", "It thus makes a good propellant but is less suitable for shattering rock or fortifications with its low-yield explosive power.", "Nonetheless, it was widely used to fill fused artillery shells (and used in mining and civil engineering projects) until the second half of the 19th century, when the first high explosives were put into use.Gunpowder is one of the Four Great Inventions of China.", "Originally developed by Taoists for medicinal purposes, it was first used for warfare around AD 904.Its use in weapons has declined due to smokeless powder replacing it, and it is no longer used for industrial purposes due to its relative inefficiency compared to newer alternatives such as dynamite and ammonium nitrate/fuel oil." ], [ "Effect", "Gunpowder is a low explosive: it does not detonate, but rather deflagrates (burns quickly).", "This is an advantage in a propellant device, where one does not desire a shock that would shatter the gun and potentially harm the operator; however, it is a drawback when an explosion is desired.", "In that case, the propellant (and most importantly, gases produced by its burning) must be confined.", "Since it contains its own oxidizer and additionally burns faster under pressure, its combustion is capable of bursting containers such as a shell, grenade, or improvised \"pipe bomb\" or \"pressure cooker\" casings to form shrapnel.In quarrying, high explosives are generally preferred for shattering rock.", "However, because of its low brisance, gunpowder causes fewer fractures and results in more usable stone compared to other explosives, making it useful for blasting slate, which is fragile, or monumental stone such as granite and marble.", "Gunpowder is well suited for blank rounds, signal flares, burst charges, and rescue-line launches.", "It is also used in fireworks for lifting shells, in rockets as fuel, and in certain special effects.Combustion converts less than half the mass of gunpowder to gas; most of it turns into particulate matter.", "Some of it is ejected, wasting propelling power, fouling the air, and generally being a nuisance (giving away a soldier's position, generating fog that hinders vision, etc.).", "Some of it ends up as a thick layer of soot inside the barrel, where it also is a nuisance for subsequent shots, and a cause of jamming an automatic weapon.", "Moreover, this residue is hygroscopic, and with the addition of moisture absorbed from the air forms a corrosive substance.", "The soot contains potassium oxide or sodium oxide that turns into potassium hydroxide, or sodium hydroxide, which corrodes wrought iron or steel gun barrels.", "Gunpowder arms therefore require thorough and regular cleaning to remove the residue.Gunpowder loads can be used in modern firearms as long as they are not gas-operated.", "The most compatible modern guns are smoothbore-barreled shotguns that are long-recoil operated.", "Combined with chrome-plated essential parts such as barrels and bores, these elements heavily reduce fouling and corrosion; the combination of these factors makes the shotgun easier to clean." ], [ "History", "Earliest known written formula for gunpowder, from the ''Wujing Zongyao'' of 1044 AD.Stoneware bombs, known in Japanese as ''Tetsuhau'' (iron bomb), or in Chinese as ''Zhentianlei'' (thunder crash bomb), excavated from the Takashima shipwreck, October 2011, dated to the Mongol invasions of Japan (1274–1281 AD).=== China ===A 'flying-cloud thunderclap-eruptor' firing thunderclap bombs from the ''Huolongjing''The first confirmed reference to what can be considered gunpowder in China occurred in the 9th century AD during the Tang dynasty, first in a formula contained in the ''Taishang Shengzu Jindan Mijue'' (太上聖祖金丹秘訣) in 808, and then about 50 years later in a Taoist text known as the ''Zhenyuan miaodao yaolüe'' (真元妙道要略).", "The ''Taishang Shengzu Jindan Mijue'' mentions a formula composed of six parts sulfur to six parts saltpeter to one part birthwort herb.", "According to the ''Zhenyuan miaodao yaolüe'', \"Some have heated together sulfur, realgar and saltpeter with honey; smoke and flames result, so that their hands and faces have been burnt, and even the whole house where they were working burned down.\"", "Based on these Taoist texts, the invention of gunpowder by Chinese alchemists was likely an accidental byproduct from experiments seeking to create the elixir of life.", "This experimental medicine origin is reflected in its Chinese name ''huoyao'' (), which means \"fire medicine\".", "Saltpeter was known to the Chinese by the mid-1st century AD and was primarily produced in the provinces of Sichuan, Shanxi, and Shandong.", "There is strong evidence of the use of saltpeter and sulfur in various medicinal combinations.", "A Chinese alchemical text dated 492 noted saltpeter burnt with a purple flame, providing a practical and reliable means of distinguishing it from other inorganic salts, thus enabling alchemists to evaluate and compare purification techniques; the earliest Latin accounts of saltpeter purification are dated after 1200.The earliest chemical formula for gunpowder appeared in the 11th century Song dynasty text, ''Wujing Zongyao'' (''Complete Essentials from the Military Classics''), written by Zeng Gongliang between 1040 and 1044.The ''Wujing Zongyao'' provides encyclopedia references to a variety of mixtures that included petrochemicals—as well as garlic and honey.", "A slow match for flame-throwing mechanisms using the siphon principle and for fireworks and rockets is mentioned.", "The mixture formulas in this book contain at most 50% not enough to create an explosion, they produce an incendiary instead.", "The ''Essentials'' was written by a Song dynasty court bureaucrat and there is little evidence that it had any immediate impact on warfare; there is no mention of its use in the chronicles of the wars against the Tanguts in the 11th century, and China was otherwise mostly at peace during this century.", "However, it had already been used for fire arrows since at least the 10th century.", "Its first recorded military application dates its use to the year 904 in the form of incendiary projectiles.", "In the following centuries various gunpowder weapons such as bombs, fire lances, and the gun appeared in China.", "Explosive weapons such as bombs have been discovered in a shipwreck off the shore of Japan dated from 1281, during the Mongol invasions of Japan.By 1083 the Song court was producing hundreds of thousands of fire arrows for their garrisons.", "Bombs and the first proto-guns, known as \"fire lances\", became prominent during the 12th century and were used by the Song during the Jin-Song Wars.", "Fire lances were first recorded to have been used at the Siege of De'an in 1132 by Song forces against the Jin.", "In the early 13th century the Jin used iron-casing bombs.", "Projectiles were added to fire lances, and re-usable fire lance barrels were developed, first out of hardened paper, and then metal.", "By 1257 some fire lances were firing wads of bullets.", "In the late 13th-century metal fire lances became 'eruptors', proto-cannons firing co-viative projectiles (mixed with the propellant, rather than seated over it with a wad), and by 1287 at the latest, had become true guns, the hand cannon.=== Middle East ===According to Iqtidar Alam Khan, it was invading Mongols who introduced gunpowder to the Islamic world.", "The Muslims acquired knowledge of gunpowder sometime between 1240 and 1280, by which point the Syrian Hasan al-Rammah had written recipes, instructions for the purification of saltpeter, and descriptions of gunpowder incendiaries.", "It is implied by al-Rammah's usage of \"terms that suggested he derived his knowledge from Chinese sources\" and his references to saltpeter as \"Chinese snow\" ( ''''), fireworks as \"Chinese flowers\", and rockets as \"Chinese arrows\" that knowledge of gunpowder arrived from China.", "However, because al-Rammah attributes his material to \"his father and forefathers\", al-Hassan argues that gunpowder became prevalent in Syria and Egypt by \"the end of the twelfth century or the beginning of the thirteenth\".", "In Persia saltpeter was known as \"Chinese salt\" () ''namak-i chīnī'') or \"salt from Chinese salt marshes\" ( '''').Hasan al-Rammah included 107 gunpowder recipes in his text ''al-Furusiyyah wa al-Manasib al-Harbiyya'' (''The Book of Military Horsemanship and Ingenious War Devices''), 22 of which are for rockets.", "If one takes the median of 17 of these 22 compositions for rockets (75% nitrates, 9.06% sulfur, and 15.94% charcoal), it is nearly identical to the modern reported ideal recipe of 75% potassium nitrate, 10% sulfur, and 15% charcoal.", "The text also mentions fuses, incendiary bombs, naphtha pots, fire lances, and an illustration and description of the earliest torpedo.", "The torpedo was called the \"egg which moves itself and burns\".", "Two iron sheets were fastened together and tightened using felt.", "The flattened pear-shaped vessel was filled with gunpowder, metal filings, \"good mixtures\", two rods, and a large rocket for propulsion.", "Judging by the illustration, it was evidently supposed to glide across the water.", "Fire lances were used in battles between the Muslims and Mongols in 1299 and 1303.Al-Hassan claims that in the Battle of Ain Jalut of 1260, the Mamluks used against the Mongols, in \"the first cannon in history\", formula with near-identical ideal composition ratios for explosive gunpowder.", "Other historians urge caution regarding claims of Islamic firearms use in the 1204–1324 period as late medieval Arabic texts used the same word for gunpowder, ''naft'', that they used for an earlier incendiary, naphtha.The earliest surviving documentary evidence for cannons in the Islamic world is from an Arabic manuscript dated to the early 14th century.", "The author's name is uncertain but may have been Shams al-Din Muhammad, who died in 1350.Dating from around 1320-1350, the illustrations show gunpowder weapons such as gunpowder arrows, bombs, fire tubes, and fire lances or proto-guns.", "The manuscript describes a type of gunpowder weapon called a ''midfa'' which uses gunpowder to shoot projectiles out of a tube at the end of a stock.", "Some consider this to be a cannon while others do not.", "The problem with identifying cannons in early 14th century Arabic texts is the term ''midfa'', which appears from 1342 to 1352 but cannot be proven to be true hand-guns or bombards.", "Contemporary accounts of a metal-barrel cannon in the Islamic world do not occur until 1365.Needham believes that in its original form the term ''midfa'' refers to the tube or cylinder of a naphtha projector (flamethrower), then after the invention of gunpowder it meant the tube of fire lances, and eventually it applied to the cylinder of hand-gun and cannon.According to Paul E. J.", "Hammer, the Mamluks certainly used cannons by 1342.According to J. Lavin, cannons were used by Moors at the siege of Algeciras in 1343.A metal cannon firing an iron ball was described by Shihab al-Din Abu al-Abbas al-Qalqashandi between 1365 and 1376.The musket appeared in the Ottoman Empire by 1465.In 1598, Chinese writer Zhao Shizhen described Turkish muskets as being superior to European muskets.", "The Chinese military book ''Wu Pei Chih'' (1621) later described Turkish muskets that used a rack-and-pinion mechanism, which was not known to have been used in European or Chinese firearms at the time.The state-controlled manufacture of gunpowder by the Ottoman Empire through early supply chains to obtain nitre, sulfur and high-quality charcoal from oaks in Anatolia contributed significantly to its expansion between the 15th and 18th century.", "It was not until later in the 19th century when the syndicalist production of Turkish gunpowder was greatly reduced, which coincided with the decline of its military might.=== Europe ===Earliest depiction of a European cannon, \"De Nobilitatibus Sapientii Et Prudentiis Regum\", Walter de Milemete, 1326.", "''De la pirotechnia'', 1540The earliest Western accounts of gunpowder appears in texts written by English philosopher Roger Bacon in 1267 called and ''Opus Tertium''.", "The oldest written recipes in continental Europe were recorded under the name Marcus Graecus or Mark the Greek between 1280 and 1300 in the ''Liber Ignium'', or ''Book of Fires''.Some sources mention possible gunpowder weapons being deployed by the Mongols against European forces at the Battle of Mohi in 1241.Professor Kenneth Warren Chase credits the Mongols for introducing into Europe gunpowder and its associated weaponry.", "However, there is no clear route of transmission, and while the Mongols are often pointed to as the likeliest vector, Timothy May points out that \"there is no concrete evidence that the Mongols used gunpowder weapons on a regular basis outside of China.\"", "May also states, \"however , ... the Mongols used the gunpowder weapon in their wars against the Jin, the Song and in their invasions of Japan.", "\"Records show that, in England, gunpowder was being made in 1346 at the Tower of London; a powder house existed at the Tower in 1461, and in 1515 three King's gunpowder makers worked there.", "Gunpowder was also being made or stored at other royal castles, such as Portchester.", "The English Civil War (1642–1645) led to an expansion of the gunpowder industry, with the repeal of the Royal Patent in August 1641.In late 14th century Europe, gunpowder was improved by ''corning'', the practice of drying it into small clumps to improve combustion and consistency.", "During this time, European manufacturers also began regularly purifying saltpeter, using wood ashes containing potassium carbonate to precipitate calcium from their dung liquor, and using ox blood, alum, and slices of turnip to clarify the solution.During the Renaissance, two European schools of pyrotechnic thought emerged, one in Italy and the other at Nuremberg, Germany.", "In Italy, Vannoccio Biringuccio, born in 1480, was a member of the guild ''Fraternita di Santa Barbara'' but broke with the tradition of secrecy by setting down everything he knew in a book titled ''De la pirotechnia'', written in vernacular.", "It was published posthumously in 1540, with 9 editions over 138 years, and also reprinted by MIT Press in 1966.By the mid-17th century fireworks were used for entertainment on an unprecedented scale in Europe, being popular even at resorts and public gardens.", "With the publication of ''Deutliche Anweisung zur Feuerwerkerey'' (1748), methods for creating fireworks were sufficiently well-known and well-described that \"Firework making has become an exact science.\"", "In 1774 Louis XVI ascended to the throne of France at age 20.After he discovered that France was not self-sufficient in gunpowder, a Gunpowder Administration was established; to head it, the lawyer Antoine Lavoisier was appointed.", "Although from a bourgeois family, after his degree in law Lavoisier became wealthy from a company set up to collect taxes for the Crown; this allowed him to pursue experimental natural science as a hobby.Without access to cheap saltpeter (controlled by the British), for hundreds of years France had relied on saltpetremen with royal warrants, the ''droit de fouille'' or \"right to dig\", to seize nitrous-containing soil and demolish walls of barnyards, without compensation to the owners.", "This caused farmers, the wealthy, or entire villages to bribe the petermen and the associated bureaucracy to leave their buildings alone and the saltpeter uncollected.", "Lavoisier instituted a crash program to increase saltpeter production, revised (and later eliminated) the ''droit de fouille'', researched best refining and powder manufacturing methods, instituted management and record-keeping, and established pricing that encouraged private investment in works.", "Although saltpeter from new Prussian-style putrefaction works had not been produced yet (the process taking about 18 months), in only a year France had gunpowder to export.", "A chief beneficiary of this surplus was the American Revolution.", "By careful testing and adjusting the proportions and grinding time, powder from mills such as at Essonne outside Paris became the best in the world by 1788, and inexpensive.Two British physicists, Andrew Noble and Frederick Abel, worked to improve the properties of gunpowder during the late 19th century.", "This formed the basis for the Noble-Abel gas equation for internal ballistics.The introduction of smokeless powder in the late 19th century led to a contraction of the gunpowder industry.", "After the end of World War I, the majority of the British gunpowder manufacturers merged into a single company, \"Explosives Trades limited\", and a number of sites were closed down, including those in Ireland.", "This company became Nobel Industries Limited, and in 1926 became a founding member of Imperial Chemical Industries.", "The Home Office removed gunpowder from its list of ''Permitted Explosives''.", "Shortly afterwards, on 31 December 1931, the former Curtis & Harvey's Glynneath gunpowder factory at Pontneddfechan in Wales closed down.", "The factory was demolished by fire in 1932.The last remaining gunpowder mill at the Royal Gunpowder Factory, Waltham Abbey was damaged by a German parachute mine in 1941 and it never reopened.", "This was followed by the closure and demolition of the gunpowder section at the Royal Ordnance Factory, ROF Chorley, at the end of World War II, and of ICI Nobel's Roslin gunpowder factory which closed in 1954.This left ICI Nobel's Ardeer site in Scotland, which included a gunpowder factory, as the only factory in Great Britain producing gunpowder.", "The gunpowder area of the Ardeer site closed in October 1976.=== India ===British began to annex the territories of the Sultanate of Mysore, during the Second Anglo-Mysore War.", "The British battalion was defeated during the Battle of Guntur, by the forces of Hyder Ali, who effectively used Mysorean rockets and rocket artillery against the closely massed British forces.Gunpowder and gunpowder weapons were transmitted to India through the Mongol invasions of India.", "The Mongols were defeated by Alauddin Khalji of the Delhi Sultanate, and some of the Mongol soldiers remained in northern India after their conversion to Islam.", "It was written in the ''Tarikh-i Firishta'' (1606–1607) that Nasiruddin Mahmud the ruler of the Delhi Sultanate presented the envoy of the Mongol ruler Hulegu Khan with a dazzling pyrotechnics display upon his arrival in Delhi in 1258.Nasiruddin Mahmud tried to express his strength as a ruler and tried to ward off any Mongol attempt similar to the Siege of Baghdad (1258).", "Firearms known as ''top-o-tufak'' also existed in many Muslim kingdoms in India by as early as 1366.From then on the employment of gunpowder warfare in India was prevalent, with events such as the \"Siege of Belgaum\" in 1473 by Sultan Muhammad Shah Bahmani.The shipwrecked Ottoman Admiral Seydi Ali Reis is known to have introduced the earliest type of matchlock weapons, which the Ottomans used against the Portuguese during the Siege of Diu (1531).", "After that, a diverse variety of firearms, large guns in particular, became visible in Tanjore, Dacca, Bijapur, and Murshidabad.", "Guns made of bronze were recovered from Calicut (1504)- the former capital of the ZamorinsMughal Emperor Shah Jahan, hunting deer using a matchlockThe Mughal emperor Akbar mass-produced matchlocks for the Mughal Army.", "Akbar is personally known to have shot a leading Rajput commander during the Siege of Chittorgarh.", "The Mughals began to use bamboo rockets (mainly for signalling) and employ sappers: special units that undermined heavy stone fortifications to plant gunpowder charges.The Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan is known to have introduced much more advanced matchlocks, their designs were a combination of Ottoman and Mughal designs.", "Shah Jahan also countered the British and other Europeans in his province of Gujarāt, which supplied Europe saltpeter for use in gunpowder warfare during the 17th century.", "Bengal and Mālwa participated in saltpeter production.", "The Dutch, French, Portuguese, and English used Chhapra as a center of saltpeter refining.Ever since the founding of the Sultanate of Mysore by Hyder Ali, French military officers were employed to train the Mysore Army.", "Hyder Ali and his son Tipu Sultan were the first to introduce modern cannons and muskets, their army was also the first in India to have official uniforms.", "During the Second Anglo-Mysore War Hyder Ali and his son Tipu Sultan unleashed the Mysorean rockets at their British opponents effectively defeating them on various occasions.", "The Mysorean rockets inspired the development of the Congreve rocket, which the British widely used during the Napoleonic Wars and the War of 1812.=== Southeast Asia ===Javanese Nāga.Cannons were introduced to Majapahit when Kublai Khan's Chinese army under the leadership of Ike Mese sought to invade Java in 1293.History of Yuan mentioned that the Mongol used cannons (Chinese: 炮—''Pào'') against Daha forces.", "Cannons were used by the Ayutthaya Kingdom in 1352 during its invasion of the Khmer Empire.", "Within a decade large quantities of gunpowder could be found in the Khmer Empire.", "By the end of the century firearms were also used by the Trần dynasty.Even though the knowledge of making gunpowder-based weapon has been known after the failed Mongol invasion of Java, and the predecessor of firearms, the pole gun (bedil tombak), was recorded as being used by Java in 1413, the knowledge of making \"true\" firearms came much later, after the middle of the 15th century.", "It was brought by the Islamic nations of West Asia, most probably the Arabs.", "The precise year of introduction is unknown, but it may be safely concluded to be no earlier than 1460.Before the arrival of the Portuguese in Southeast Asia, the natives already possessed primitive firearms, the Java arquebus.", "Portuguese influence to local weaponry after the capture of Malacca (1511) resulted in a new type of hybrid tradition matchlock firearm, the istinggar.When the Portuguese came to the archipelago, they referred to the breech-loading swivel gun as ''berço'', while the Spaniards call it ''verso''.", "By the early 16th century, the Javanese already locally producing large guns, some of them still survived until the present day and dubbed as \"sacred cannon\" or \"holy cannon\".", "These cannons varied between 180- and 260-pounders, weighing anywhere between 3 and 8 tons, length of them between 3 and 6 m.Saltpeter harvesting was recorded by Dutch and German travelers as being common in even the smallest villages and was collected from the decomposition process of large dung hills specifically piled for the purpose.", "The Dutch punishment for possession of non-permitted gunpowder appears to have been amputation.", "Ownership and manufacture of gunpowder was later prohibited by the colonial Dutch occupiers.", "According to colonel McKenzie quoted in Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles', ''The History of Java'' (1817), the purest sulfur was supplied from a crater from a mountain near the straits of Bali.=== Historiography ===Gunner of Nguyễn dynasty, VietnamOn the origins of gunpowder technology, historian Tonio Andrade remarked, \"Scholars today overwhelmingly concur that the gun was invented in China.\"", "Gunpowder and the gun are widely believed by historians to have originated from China due to the large body of evidence that documents the evolution of gunpowder from a medicine to an incendiary and explosive, and the evolution of the gun from the fire lance to a metal gun, whereas similar records do not exist elsewhere.", "As Andrade explains, the large amount of variation in gunpowder recipes in China relative to Europe is \"evidence of experimentation in China, where gunpowder was at first used as an incendiary and only later became an explosive and a propellant... in contrast, formulas in Europe diverged only very slightly from the ideal proportions for use as an explosive and a propellant, suggesting that gunpowder was introduced as a mature technology.", "\"However, the history of gunpowder is not without controversy.", "A major problem confronting the study of early gunpowder history is ready access to sources close to the events described.", "Often the first records potentially describing use of gunpowder in warfare were written several centuries after the fact, and may well have been colored by the contemporary experiences of the chronicler.", "Translation difficulties have led to errors or loose interpretations bordering on artistic licence.", "Ambiguous language can make it difficult to distinguish gunpowder weapons from similar technologies that do not rely on gunpowder.", "A commonly cited example is a report of the Battle of Mohi in Eastern Europe that mentions a \"long lance\" sending forth \"evil-smelling vapors and smoke\", which has been variously interpreted by different historians as the \"first-gas attack upon European soil\" using gunpowder, \"the first use of cannon in Europe\", or merely a \"toxic gas\" with no evidence of gunpowder.", "It is difficult to accurately translate original Chinese alchemical texts, which tend to explain phenomena through metaphor, into modern scientific language with rigidly defined terminology in English.", "Early texts potentially mentioning gunpowder are sometimes marked by a linguistic process where semantic change occurred.", "For instance, the Arabic word ''naft'' transitioned from denoting naphtha to denoting gunpowder, and the Chinese word ''pào'' changed in meaning from trebuchet to a cannon.", "This has led to arguments on the exact origins of gunpowder based on etymological foundations.", "Science and technology historian Bert S. Hall makes the observation that, \"It goes without saying, however, that historians bent on special pleading, or simply with axes of their own to grind, can find rich material in these terminological thickets.", "\"Another major area of contention in modern studies of the history of gunpowder is regarding the transmission of gunpowder.", "While the literary and archaeological evidence supports a Chinese origin for gunpowder and guns, the manner in which gunpowder technology was transferred from China to the West is still under debate.", "It is unknown why the rapid spread of gunpowder technology across Eurasia took place over several decades whereas other technologies such as paper, the compass, and printing did not reach Europe until centuries after they were invented in China." ], [ "Components", "Gunpowder is a granular mixture of:* a nitrate, typically potassium nitrate (KNO3), which supplies oxygen for the reaction;* charcoal, which provides carbon and other fuel for the reaction, simplified as carbon (C);* sulfur (S), which, while also serving as a fuel, lowers the temperature required to ignite the mixture, thereby increasing the rate of combustion.Potassium nitrate is the most important ingredient in terms of both bulk and function because the combustion process releases oxygen from the potassium nitrate, promoting the rapid burning of the other ingredients.", "To reduce the likelihood of accidental ignition by static electricity, the granules of modern gunpowder are typically coated with graphite, which prevents the build-up of electrostatic charge.Charcoal does not consist of pure carbon; rather, it consists of partially pyrolyzed cellulose, in which the wood is not completely decomposed.", "Carbon differs from ordinary charcoal.", "Whereas charcoal's autoignition temperature is relatively low, carbon's is much greater.", "Thus, a gunpowder composition containing pure carbon would burn similarly to a match head, at best.The current standard composition for the gunpowder manufactured by pyrotechnicians was adopted as long ago as 1780.Proportions by weight are 75% potassium nitrate (known as saltpeter or saltpetre), 15% softwood charcoal, and 10% sulfur.", "These ratios have varied over the centuries and by country, and can be altered somewhat depending on the purpose of the powder.", "For instance, power grades of black powder, unsuitable for use in firearms but adequate for blasting rock in quarrying operations, are called blasting powder rather than gunpowder with standard proportions of 70% nitrate, 14% charcoal, and 16% sulfur; blasting powder may be made with the cheaper sodium nitrate substituted for potassium nitrate and proportions may be as low as 40% nitrate, 30% charcoal, and 30% sulfur.", "In 1857, Lammot du Pont solved the main problem of using cheaper sodium nitrate formulations when he patented DuPont \"B\" blasting powder.", "After manufacturing grains from press-cake in the usual way, his process tumbled the powder with graphite dust for 12 hours.", "This formed a graphite coating on each grain that reduced its ability to absorb moisture.Neither the use of graphite nor sodium nitrate was new.", "Glossing gunpowder corns with graphite was already an accepted technique in 1839, and sodium nitrate-based blasting powder had been made in Peru for many years using the sodium nitrate mined at Tarapacá (now in Chile).", "Also, in 1846, two plants were built in south-west England to make blasting powder using this sodium nitrate.", "The idea may well have been brought from Peru by Cornish miners returning home after completing their contracts.", "Another suggestion is that it was William Lobb, the plant collector, who recognised the possibilities of sodium nitrate during his travels in South America.", "Lammot du Pont would have known about the use of graphite and probably also knew about the plants in south-west England.", "In his patent he was careful to state that his claim was for the combination of graphite with sodium nitrate-based powder, rather than for either of the two individual technologies.French war powder in 1879 used the ratio 75% saltpeter, 12.5% charcoal, 12.5% sulfur.", "English war powder in 1879 used the ratio 75% saltpeter, 15% charcoal, 10% sulfur.", "The British Congreve rockets used 62.4% saltpeter, 23.2% charcoal and 14.4% sulfur, but the British Mark VII gunpowder was changed to 65% saltpeter, 20% charcoal and 15% sulfur.", "The explanation for the wide variety in formulation relates to usage.", "Powder used for rocketry can use a slower burn rate since it accelerates the projectile for a much longer time—whereas powders for weapons such as flintlocks, cap-locks, or matchlocks need a higher burn rate to accelerate the projectile in a much shorter distance.", "Cannons usually used lower burn-rate powders, because most would burst with higher burn-rate powders.=== Other compositions ===Besides black powder, there are other historically important types of gunpowder.", "\"Brown gunpowder\" is cited as composed of 79% nitre, 3% sulfur, and 18% charcoal per 100 of dry powder, with about 2% moisture.", "Prismatic Brown Powder is a large-grained product the Rottweil Company introduced in 1884 in Germany, which was adopted by the British Royal Navy shortly thereafter.", "The French navy adopted a fine, 3.1 millimeter, not prismatic grained product called ''Slow Burning Cocoa'' (SBC) or \"cocoa powder\".", "These brown powders reduced burning rate even further by using as little as 2 percent sulfur and using charcoal made from rye straw that had not been completely charred, hence the brown color.Lesmok powder was a product developed by DuPont in 1911, one of several semi-smokeless products in the industry containing a mixture of black and nitrocellulose powder.", "It was sold to Winchester and others primarily for .22 and .32 small calibers.", "Its advantage was that it was believed at the time to be less corrosive than smokeless powders then in use.", "It was not understood in the U.S. until the 1920s that the actual source of corrosion was the potassium chloride residue from potassium chlorate sensitized primers.", "The bulkier black powder fouling better disperses primer residue.", "Failure to mitigate primer corrosion by dispersion caused the false impression that nitrocellulose-based powder caused corrosion.", "Lesmok had some of the bulk of black powder for dispersing primer residue, but somewhat less total bulk than straight black powder, thus requiring less frequent bore cleaning.", "It was last sold by Winchester in 1947.=== Sulfur-free powders ===Burst barrel of a muzzle loader pistol replica, which was loaded with nitrocellulose powder instead of black powder and could not withstand the higher pressures of the modern propellantThe development of smokeless powders, such as cordite, in the late 19th century created the need for a spark-sensitive priming charge, such as gunpowder.", "However, the sulfur content of traditional gunpowders caused corrosion problems with Cordite Mk I and this led to the introduction of a range of sulfur-free gunpowders, of varying grain sizes.", "They typically contain 70.5 parts of saltpeter and 29.5 parts of charcoal.", "Like black powder, they were produced in different grain sizes.", "In the United Kingdom, the finest grain was known as ''sulfur-free mealed powder'' (''SMP'').", "Coarser grains were numbered as sulfur-free gunpowder (SFG n): 'SFG 12', 'SFG 20', 'SFG 40' and 'SFG 90', for example where the number represents the smallest BSS sieve mesh size, which retained no grains.Sulfur's main role in gunpowder is to decrease the ignition temperature.", "A sample reaction for sulfur-free gunpowder would be::6 KNO3 + C7H4O -> 3 K2CO3 + 4 CO2 + 2 H2O + 3 N2=== Smokeless powders ===The term ''black powder'' was coined in the late 19th century, primarily in the United States, to distinguish prior gunpowder formulations from the new smokeless powders and semi-smokeless powders.", "Semi-smokeless powders featured bulk volume properties that approximated black powder, but had significantly reduced amounts of smoke and combustion products.", "Smokeless powder has different burning properties (pressure vs. time) and can generate higher pressures and work per gram.", "This can rupture older weapons designed for black powder.", "Smokeless powders ranged in color from brownish tan to yellow to white.", "Most of the bulk semi-smokeless powders ceased to be manufactured in the 1920s." ], [ "Granularity", "=== Serpentine ===The original dry-compounded powder used in 15th-century Europe was known as \"Serpentine\", either a reference to Satan or to a common artillery piece that used it.", "The ingredients were groundtogether with a mortar and pestle, perhaps for 24 hours, resulting in a fine flour.", "Vibration during transportation could cause the components to separate again, requiring remixing in the field.", "Also if the quality of the saltpeter was low (for instance if it was contaminated with highly hygroscopic calcium nitrate), or if the powder was simply old (due to the mildly hygroscopic nature of potassium nitrate), in humid weather it would need to be re-dried.", "The dust from \"repairing\" powder in the field was a major hazard.Loading cannons or bombards before the powder-making advances of the Renaissance was a skilled art.", "Fine powder loaded haphazardly or too tightly would burn incompletely or too slowly.", "Typically, the breech-loading powder chamber in the rear of the piece was filled only about half full, the serpentine powder neither too compressed nor too loose, a wooden bung pounded in to seal the chamber from the barrel when assembled, and the projectile placed on.", "A carefully determined empty space was necessary for the charge to burn effectively.", "When the cannon was fired through the touchhole, turbulence from the initial surface combustion caused the rest of the powder to be rapidly exposed to the flame.The advent of much more powerful and easy to use ''corned'' powder changed this procedure, but serpentine was used with older guns into the 17th century.=== Corning ===For propellants to oxidize and burn rapidly and effectively, the combustible ingredients must be reduced to the smallest possible particle sizes, and be as thoroughly mixed as possible.", "Once mixed, however, for better results in a gun, makers discovered that the final product should be in the form of individual dense grains that spread the fire quickly from grain to grain, much as straw or twigs catch fire more quickly than a pile of sawdust.In late 14th century Europe and China, gunpowder was improved by wet grinding; liquid such as distilled spirits were added during the grinding-together of the ingredients and the moist paste dried afterwards.", "The principle of wet mixing to prevent the separation of dry ingredients, invented for gunpowder, is used today in the pharmaceutical industry.", "It was discovered that if the paste was rolled into balls before drying the resulting gunpowder absorbed less water from the air during storage and traveled better.", "The balls were then crushed in a mortar by the gunner immediately before use, with the old problem of uneven particle size and packing causing unpredictable results.", "If the right size particles were chosen, however, the result was a great improvement in power.", "Forming the damp paste into ''corn''-sized clumps by hand or with the use of a sieve instead of larger balls produced a product after drying that loaded much better, as each tiny piece provided its own surrounding air space that allowed much more rapid combustion than a fine powder.", "This \"corned\" gunpowder was from 30% to 300% more powerful.", "An example is cited where of serpentine was needed to shoot a ball, but only of corned powder.Because the dry powdered ingredients must be mixed and bonded together for extrusion and cut into grains to maintain the blend, size reduction and mixing is done while the ingredients are damp, usually with water.", "After 1800, instead of forming grains by hand or with sieves, the damp ''mill-cake'' was pressed in molds to increase its density and extract the liquid, forming ''press-cake''.", "The pressing took varying amounts of time, depending on conditions such as atmospheric humidity.", "The hard, dense product was broken again into tiny pieces, which were separated with sieves to produce a uniform product for each purpose: coarse powders for cannons, finer grained powders for muskets, and the finest for small hand guns and priming.", "Inappropriately fine-grained powder often caused cannons to burst before the projectile could move down the barrel, due to the high initial spike in pressure.", "''Mammoth'' powder with large grains, made for Rodman's 15-inch cannon, reduced the pressure to only 20 percent as high as ordinary cannon powder would have produced.In the mid-19th century, measurements were made determining that the burning rate within a grain of black powder (or a tightly packed mass) is about 6 cm/s (0.20 feet/s), while the rate of ignition propagation from grain to grain is around 9 m/s (30 feet/s), over two orders of magnitude faster.=== Modern types ===Hexagonal gunpowder for large artilleryModern corning first compresses the fine black powder meal into blocks with a fixed density (1.7 g/cm3).", "In the United States, gunpowder grains were designated F (for fine) or C (for coarse).", "Grain diameter decreased with a larger number of Fs and increased with a larger number of Cs, ranging from about for 7F to for 7C.", "Even larger grains were produced for artillery bore diameters greater than about .", "The standard DuPont ''Mammoth'' powder developed by Thomas Rodman and Lammot du Pont for use during the American Civil War had grains averaging in diameter with edges rounded in a glazing barrel.", "Other versions had grains the size of golf and tennis balls for use in Rodman guns.", "In 1875 DuPont introduced ''Hexagonal'' powder for large artillery, which was pressed using shaped plates with a small center core—about diameter, like a wagon wheel nut, the center hole widened as the grain burned.", "By 1882 German makers also produced hexagonal grained powders of a similar size for artillery.By the late 19th century manufacturing focused on standard grades of black powder from Fg used in large bore rifles and shotguns, through FFg (medium and small-bore arms such as muskets and fusils), FFFg (small-bore rifles and pistols), and FFFFg (extreme small bore, short pistols and most commonly for priming flintlocks).", "A coarser grade for use in military artillery blanks was designated A-1.These grades were sorted on a system of screens with oversize retained on a mesh of 6 wires per inch, A-1 retained on 10 wires per inch, Fg retained on 14, FFg on 24, FFFg on 46, and FFFFg on 60.Fines designated FFFFFg were usually reprocessed to minimize explosive dust hazards.", "In the United Kingdom, the main service gunpowders were classified RFG (rifle grained fine) with diameter of one or two millimeters and RLG (rifle grained large) for grain diameters between two and six millimeters.", "Gunpowder grains can alternatively be categorized by mesh size: the BSS sieve mesh size, being the smallest mesh size, which retains no grains.", "Recognized grain sizes are Gunpowder G 7, G 20, G 40, and G 90.Owing to the large market of antique and replica black-powder firearms in the US, modern black powder substitutes like Pyrodex, Triple Seven and Black Mag3 pellets have been developed since the 1970s.", "These products, which should not be confused with smokeless powders, aim to produce less fouling (solid residue), while maintaining the traditional volumetric measurement system for charges.", "Claims of less corrosiveness of these products have been controversial however.", "New cleaning products for black-powder guns have also been developed for this market." ], [ "Chemistry", "A simple, commonly cited, chemical equation for the combustion of gunpowder is:: 2 KNO3 + S + 3 C → K2S + N2 + 3 CO2.A balanced, but still simplified, equation is:: 10 KNO3 + 3 S + 8 C → 2 K2CO3 + 3 K2SO4 + 6 CO2 + 5 N2.The exact percentages of ingredients varied greatly through the medieval period as the recipes were developed by trial and error, and needed to be updated for changing military technology.Gunpowder does not burn as a single reaction, so the byproducts are not easily predicted.", "One study showed that it produced (in order of descending quantities) 55.91% solid products: potassium carbonate, potassium sulfate, potassium sulfide, sulfur, potassium nitrate, potassium thiocyanate, carbon, ammonium carbonate and 42.98% gaseous products: carbon dioxide, nitrogen, carbon monoxide, hydrogen sulfide, hydrogen, methane, 1.11% water.Gunpowder made with less-expensive and more plentiful sodium nitrate instead of potassium nitrate (in appropriate proportions) works just as well.", "However, it is more hygroscopic than powders made from potassium nitrate.", "Muzzleloaders have been known to fire after hanging on a wall for decades in a loaded state, provided they remained dry.", "By contrast, gunpowder made with sodium nitrate must be kept sealed to remain stable.Gunpowder releases 3 megajoules per kilogram and contains its own oxidant.", "This is less than TNT (4.7 megajoules per kilogram), or gasoline (47.2 megajoules per kilogram in combustion, but gasoline requires an oxidant; for instance, an optimized gasoline and O2 mixture releases 10.4 megajoules per kilogram, taking into account the mass of the oxygen).Gunpowder also has a low energy density compared to modern \"smokeless\" powders, and thus to achieve high energy loadings, large amounts are needed with heavy projectiles." ], [ "Production", "The Hagley MuseumCharles I. Irvine, North Ayrshire, ScotlandGunpowder storing barrels at the Martello tower in Point Pleasant Park, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada1840 drawing of a gunpowder magazine near Tehran, Persia.", "Gunpowder was extensively used in the Naderian Wars.For the most powerful black powder, meal powder, a wood charcoal, is used.", "The best wood for the purpose is Pacific willow, but others such as alder or buckthorn can be used.", "In Great Britain between the 15th and 19th centuries charcoal from alder buckthorn was greatly prized for gunpowder manufacture; cottonwood was used by the American Confederate States.", "The ingredients are reduced in particle size and mixed as intimately as possible.", "Originally, this was with a mortar-and-pestle or a similarly operating stamping-mill, using copper, bronze or other non-sparking materials, until supplanted by the rotating ball mill principle with non-sparking bronze or lead.", "Historically, a marble or limestone edge runner mill, running on a limestone bed, was used in Great Britain; however, by the mid 19th century this had changed to either an iron-shod stone wheel or a cast iron wheel running on an iron bed.", "The mix was dampened with alcohol or water during grinding to prevent accidental ignition.", "This also helps the extremely soluble saltpeter to mix into the microscopic pores of the very high surface-area charcoal.Around the late 14th century, European powdermakers first began adding liquid during grinding to improve mixing, reduce dust, and with it the risk of explosion.", "The powder-makers would then shape the resulting paste of dampened gunpowder, known as mill cake, into corns, or grains, to dry.", "Not only did corned powder keep better because of its reduced surface area, gunners also found that it was more powerful and easier to load into guns.", "Before long, powder-makers standardized the process by forcing mill cake through sieves instead of corning powder by hand.The improvement was based on reducing the surface area of a higher density composition.", "At the beginning of the 19th century, makers increased density further by static pressing.", "They shoveled damp mill cake into a two-foot square box, placed this beneath a screw press and reduced it to half its volume.", "\"Press cake\" had the hardness of slate.", "They broke the dried slabs with hammers or rollers, and sorted the granules with sieves into different grades.", "In the United States, Eleuthere Irenee du Pont, who had learned the trade from Lavoisier, tumbled the dried grains in rotating barrels to round the edges and increase durability during shipping and handling.", "(Sharp grains rounded off in transport, producing fine \"meal dust\" that changed the burning properties.", ")Another advance was the manufacture of kiln charcoal by distilling wood in heated iron retorts instead of burning it in earthen pits.", "Controlling the temperature influenced the power and consistency of the finished gunpowder.", "In 1863, in response to high prices for Indian saltpeter, DuPont chemists developed a process using potash or mined potassium chloride to convert plentiful Chilean sodium nitrate to potassium nitrate.The following year (1864) the Gatebeck Low Gunpowder Works in Cumbria (Great Britain) started a plant to manufacture potassium nitrate by essentially the same chemical process.", "This is nowadays called the 'Wakefield Process', after the owners of the company.", "It would have used potassium chloride from the Staßfurt mines, near Magdeburg, Germany, which had recently become available in industrial quantities.During the 18th century, gunpowder factories became increasingly dependent on mechanical energy.", "Despite mechanization, production difficulties related to humidity control, especially during the pressing, were still present in the late 19th century.", "A paper from 1885 laments that \"Gunpowder is such a nervous and sensitive spirit, that in almost every process of manufacture it changes under our hands as the weather changes.\"", "Pressing times to the desired density could vary by a factor of three depending on the atmospheric humidity." ], [ "Legal status", "The United Nations Model Regulations on the Transportation of Dangerous Goods and national transportation authorities, such as United States Department of Transportation, have classified gunpowder (black powder) as a ''Group A: Primary explosive substance'' for shipment because it ignites so easily.", "Complete manufactured devices containing black powder are usually classified as ''Group D: Secondary detonating substance, or black powder, or article containing secondary detonating substance'', such as firework, class D model rocket engine, etc., for shipment because they are harder to ignite than loose powder.", "As explosives, they all fall into the category of Class 1." ], [ "Other uses", "Besides its use as a propellant in firearms and artillery, black powder's other main use has been as a blasting powder in quarrying, mining, and road construction (including railroad construction).", "During the 19th century, outside of war emergencies such as the Crimean War or the American Civil War, more black powder was used in these industrial uses than in firearms and artillery.", "Dynamite gradually replaced it for those uses.", "Today, industrial explosives for such uses are still a huge market, but most of the market is in newer explosives rather than black powder.Beginning in the 1930s, gunpowder or smokeless powder was used in rivet guns, stun guns for animals, cable splicers and other industrial construction tools.", "The \"stud gun\", a powder-actuated tool, drove nails or screws into solid concrete, a function not possible with hydraulic tools, and today is still an important part of various industries, but the cartridges usually use smokeless powders.", "Industrial shotguns have been used to eliminate persistent material rings in operating rotary kilns (such as those for cement, lime, phosphate, etc.)", "and clinker in operating furnaces, and commercial tools make the method more reliable.Gunpowder has occasionally been employed for other purposes besides weapons, mining, fireworks and construction:* After the Battle of Aspern-Essling (1809), Dominique-Jean Larrey, the surgeon of the Napoleonic Army, lacking salt, seasoned a horse meat bouillon for the wounded under his care with gunpowder.", "It was also used for sterilization in ships when there was no alcohol.", "* British sailors used gunpowder to create tattoos when ink wasn't available, by pricking the skin and rubbing the powder into the wound in a method known as traumatic tattooing.", "* Christiaan Huygens experimented with gunpowder in 1673 in an early attempt to build an gunpowder engine, but he did not succeed.", "Modern attempts to recreate his invention were similarly unsuccessful.", "* Near London in 1853, Captain Shrapnel demonstrated a mineral processing use of black powder in a method for crushing gold-bearing ores by firing them from a cannon into an iron chamber, and \"much satisfaction was expressed by all present\".", "He hoped it would be useful on the goldfields of California and Australia.", "Nothing came of the invention, as continuously-operating crushing machines that achieved more reliable comminution were already coming into use.", "* Starting in 1967, Los Angeles-based artist Ed Ruscha began using gunpowder as an artistic medium for a series of works on paper." ], [ "See also", "* Ballistics* Berthold Schwarz* Black powder rocket motor* Black powder substitute* Bulk loaded liquid propellants* Faversham explosives industry* Gunpowder magazine* Gunpowder Plot* Gunpowder warfare* Technology of the Song dynasty" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* * .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* * .", "* .", "* .", "* Hadden, R. Lee.", "2005.", "\"Confederate Boys and Peter Monkeys.\"", "Armchair General.", "January 2005.Adapted from a talk given to the Geological Society of America on 25 March 2004.", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* * .", "* * .", "* .", "* * .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* * .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* Schmidtchen, Volker (1977a), \"Riesengeschütze des 15.Jahrhunderts.", "Technische Höchstleistungen ihrer Zeit\", ''Technikgeschichte'' '''44''' (2): 153–73 (153–57)* Schmidtchen, Volker (1977b), \"Riesengeschütze des 15.Jahrhunderts.", "Technische Höchstleistungen ihrer Zeit\", ''Technikgeschichte'' '''44''' (3): 213–37 (226–28).", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "*" ], [ "External links", "* Gun and Gunpowder* Cannons and Gunpowder* Oare Gunpowder Works, Kent, UK* Royal Gunpowder Mills* The DuPont Company on the Brandywine A digital exhibit produced by the Hagley Library that covers the founding and early history of the DuPont Company powder yards in Delaware* * Video Demonstration of the Medieval Siege Society's Guns, Including showing ignition of gunpowder* Black Powder Recipes*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Grampus" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Grampus''' may refer to:" ], [ "Animals", "*''Grampus'', the genus and another name for Risso's dolphin, ''Grampus griseus''*A synonym of the genus ''Orcinus''*Another name for ''Orcinus orca'', the killer whale or orca*Another name for the hellbender, a species of salamander*Another name for ''Mastigoproctus giganteus'', a species of whip scorpion" ], [ "Ships", "*CSS ''Grampus'', an American river steamer built in 1856 and used by the Confederate States Army during the American Civil War*, the name of a number of Royal Navy ships and submarines*, a fisheries research and fish-culture ship in commission with the United States Commission on Fish and Fisheries from 1886 to 1903 and as USFS ''Grampus'' with the United States Bureau of Fisheries from 1903 to 1917 *, the name of a number of ships of the United States Navy*''Grampus''-class submarines, a group of minelaying submarines built for the British Royal Navy in the late 1930s*A versatile attack, reconnaissance and research submarine used by the Blue Fleet in the anime series ''Blue Submarine No.", "6''" ], [ "Sports", "*Nagoya Grampus, an association football club based in Nagoya, Japan" ], [ "See also", "* Krampus, a mythical figure" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gary Kildall" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Gary Arlen Kildall''' (; May 19, 1942 – July 11, 1994) was an American computer scientist and microcomputer entrepreneur.", "During the 1970s, Kildall created the CP/M operating system among other operating systems and programming tools, and subsequently founded Digital Research, Inc. (or \"DRI\") to market and sell his software products.", "Kildall was among the earliest individuals to recognize microprocessors as fully capable computers (rather than simply as equipment controllers), and to organize a company around this concept.", "Due to his accomplishments during this era, Kildall is considered a pioneer of the personal computer revolution.During the 1980s, Kildall also appeared on PBS as co-host (with Stewart Cheifet) of ''Computer Chronicles'', a weekly informational program which covered the latest developments in personal computing.", "Although Kildall's entrepreneurial career in computing spanned more than two decades, he is mainly remembered in connection with his development of the CP/M operating system, an early multi-platform microcomputer OS, to which the later MS-DOS used on the IBM PC, has many parallels to." ], [ "Early life", "Gary Kildall was born and grew up in Seattle, Washington, where his family operated a seamanship school.", "His father, Joseph Kildall, was a captain of Norwegian heritage.", "His mother Emma was of half Swedish descent, as Kildall's grandmother was born in Långbäck, Sweden, in Skellefteå Municipality, but emigrated to Canada at 23 years of age.Kildall later attended the University of Washington (UW), hoping to become a mathematics teacher.", "During his studies, Kildall became increasingly interested in computer technology and received his degree in 1972.Gary fulfilled a draft obligation to the United States Navy by teaching at the Naval Postgraduate School (NPS) in Monterey, California.", "Being within an hour's drive of Silicon Valley, Kildall heard about the first commercially available microprocessor, the Intel 4004.He bought one of the processors and began writing experimental programs for it.", "To learn more about the processors, he worked at Intel as a consultant on his days off.Kildall briefly returned to UW and finished his doctorate in computer science in 1972, then resumed teaching at NPS.", "He published a paper that introduced the theory of data-flow analysis used today in optimizing compilers (sometimes known as Kildall's method), and he continued to experiment with microcomputers and the emerging technology of floppy disks.", "Intel lent him systems using the 8008 and 8080 processors, and in 1973, he developed the first high-level programming language for microprocessors, called PL/M.", "For Intel he also wrote 8008 and 8080 instruction set simulators named INTERP/8 and INTERP/80.He created CP/M the same year to enable the 8080 to control a floppy drive, combining for the first time all the essential components of a computer at the microcomputer scale.", "He demonstrated CP/M to Intel, but Intel had little interest and chose to market PL/M instead." ], [ "Business career", "=== CP/M ===Kildall and his wife Dorothy established a company, originally called \"Intergalactic Digital Research\" (later renamed as Digital Research, Inc.), to market CP/M through advertisements in hobbyist magazines.", "Digital Research licensed CP/M for the IMSAI 8080, a popular clone of the Altair 8800.As more manufacturers licensed CP/M, it became a de facto standard and had to support an increasing number of hardware variations.", "In response, Kildall pioneered the concept of a BIOS, a set of simple programs stored in the computer hardware (ROM or EPROM chip) that enabled CP/M to run on different systems without modification.CP/M's quick success took Kildall by surprise, and he was slow to update it for high density floppy disks and hard disk drives.", "After hardware manufacturers talked about creating a rival operating system, Kildall started a rush project to develop CP/M 2.By 1981, at the peak of its popularity, CP/M ran on different computer models and DRI had  million in yearly revenues.=== IBM dealings ===IBM approached Digital Research in 1980, at Bill Gates' suggestion, to negotiate the purchase of a forthcoming version of CP/M called CP/M-86 for the IBM PC.", "Gary had left initial negotiations to his wife, Dorothy, as he usually did, while he and colleague and developer of MP/M operating system Tom Rolander used Gary's private aeroplane to deliver software to manufacturer Bill Godbout.", "Before the IBM representatives would explain the purpose of their visit, they insisted that Dorothy sign a non-disclosure agreement.", "On the advice of DRI attorney Gerry Davis, Dorothy refused to sign the agreement without Gary's approval.", "Gary returned in the afternoon and tried to move the discussion with IBM forward, and accounts disagree on whether he signed the non-disclosure agreement, as well as whether he ever met with the IBM representatives.Various reasons have been given for the two companies failing to reach an agreement.", "DRI, which had only a few products, might have been unwilling to sell its main product to IBM for a one-time payment rather than its usual royalty-based plan.", "Dorothy might have believed that the company could not deliver CP/M-86 on IBM's proposed schedule, as the company was busy developing an implementation of the PL/I programming language for Data General.", "Also possible, the IBM representatives might have been annoyed that DRI had spent hours on what they considered a routine formality.", "According to Kildall, the IBM representatives took the same flight to Florida that night that he and Dorothy took for their vacation, and they negotiated further on the flight, reaching a handshake agreement.", "IBM lead negotiator Jack Sams insisted that he never met Gary, and one IBM colleague has confirmed that Sams said so at the time.", "He accepted that someone else in his group might have been on the same flight, and noted that he flew back to Seattle to talk with Microsoft again.Sams related the story to Gates, who had already agreed to provide a BASIC interpreter and several other programs for the PC.", "Gates' impression of the story was that Gary capriciously \"went flying\", as he would later tell reporters.", "Sams left Gates with the task of finding a usable operating system, and a few weeks later he proposed using the operating system 86-DOS—an independently developed operating system that implemented Kildall's CP/M API—from Seattle Computer Products (SCP).", "Paul Allen negotiated a licensing deal with SCP.", "Allen had 86-DOS adapted for IBM's hardware, and IBM shipped it as IBM PC DOS.Kildall obtained a copy of PC DOS, examined it, and concluded that it infringed on CP/M.", "When he asked Gerry Davis what legal options were available, Davis told him that intellectual property law for software was not clear enough to sue.", "Instead Kildall only threatened IBM with legal action, and IBM responded with a proposal to offer CP/M-86 as an option for the PC in return for a release of liability.", "Kildall accepted, believing that IBM's new system (like its previous personal computers) would not be a significant commercial success.", "When the IBM PC was introduced, IBM sold its operating system as an unbundled option.", "One of the operating system options was PC DOS, priced at .", "PC DOS was seen as a practically necessary option; most software titles required it and without it the IBM PC was limited to its built-in Cassette BASIC.", "CP/M-86 shipped a few months later six times more expensive at , and sold poorly against DOS and enjoyed far less software support.=== Multi-Programming Monitor Control Program (MP/M) ===With the loss of the IBM deal, Gary and Dorothy found themselves under pressure to bring in more experienced management, and Gary's influence over the company waned.", "He worked in various experimental and research projects, such as a version of CP/M with multitasking (MP/M), it was a multi-user and multi-tasking version of the CP/M operating system created by Digital Research developer Tom Rolander in 1979.Kildall also worked on an implementation of the Logo programming language.", "He hoped that Logo, an educational dialect of LISP, would supplant BASIC in education, but it did not.", "=== Graphics Environment Manager (GEM) ===After seeing a demonstration of the Apple Lisa, Kildall oversaw the creation of DRI's own graphical user interface, called GEM.", "Novell acquired DRI in 1991 in a deal that netted millions for Kildall.Kildall resigned as CEO of Digital Research on 28 June 1985, but remained chairman of the board.=== Computer Chronicles ===Kildall co-hosted a public television program produced by PBS called ''Computer Chronicles''.", "It followed trends in personal computing.", "Gary co-hosted the program for seven years during the first eight seasons from 1983 to 1990.After this time the program continued through its 19th season, with the last episode aired on June 25, 2002.=== Activenture ===In 1984 Gary started another company, ''Activenture'', which adapted optical disc technology for computer use.", "In early 1985 it was renamed ''KnowledgeSet'' and released the first computer encyclopedia in June 1985, a CD-ROM version of Grolier's ''Academic American Encyclopedia'' named ''The Electronic Encyclopedia'', later acquired by Banta Corporation.", "=== Prometheus Light and Sound (PLS) ===Kildall's final business venture, known as ''Prometheus Light and Sound'' (PLS) and based in Austin, Texas, developed a modular PBX communication system that integrated land-line telephones with mobile phones (called \"Intelliphone\") to reduce the then-high online costs and to remotely connect with home appliances.", "Prometheus Light and Sound system included a UUCP-based store and forward system to exchange emails and files between the various nodes and was planned to include TCP/IP support at a later point in time." ], [ "Personal life", "Kildall self-described as a \"greaser\" during high school, and his colleagues recall him as creative, easygoing, and adventurous.", "In addition to flying, he loved sports cars, auto racing, and boating, and had a lifelong love of the sea.Although Kildall preferred to leave the IBM affair in the past and to be known for his work before and afterward, he continually faced comparisons between himself and Bill Gates, as well as fading memories of his contributions.", "A legend grew around the fateful IBM-DRI meeting, encouraged by Gates and various journalists, suggesting that Kildall had irresponsibly taken the day off for a recreational flight.In later years, Kildall privately expressed bitter feelings about being overshadowed by Microsoft, and began suffering from alcoholism.Selling DRI to Novell had made Kildall a wealthy man, and he moved to the West Lake Hills suburb of Austin.", "His Austin house was a lakeside property, with stalls for several sports cars, and a video studio in the basement.", "Kildall owned and flew his own Learjet and had at least one boat on the lake.", "While in Austin he also participated in volunteer efforts to assist children with HIV/AIDS.", "He also owned a mansion with a panoramic ocean view in Pebble Beach, California, near the headquarters of DRI." ], [ "''Computer Connections''", "In 1992, Kildall was invited to the University of Washington computer science program's 25th anniversary event.", "As a distinguished graduate of the program, Kildall was disappointed when asked to attend simply as an audience member.", "He also took offense at the decision to give the keynote speech to Bill Gates, a Harvard dropout who had donated to UW, but had never attended.In response, Kildall began writing a memoir, entitled ''Computer Connections: People, Places, and Events in the Evolution of the Personal Computer Industry''.", "The memoir, which Kildall sought to publish, expressed his frustration that people did not seem to value elegance in computer software.", "Writing about Bill Gates, Kildall described him as \"more of an opportunist than a technical type, and severely opinionated, even when the opinion he holds is absurd.", "\"In an appendix, he called DOS \"plain and simple theft\" because its first 26 system calls worked the same as CP/M's.", "He accused IBM of contriving the price difference between PC DOS and CP/M-86 in order to marginalize CP/M.Kildall had completed a rough draft of the manuscript by the end of 1993, but the full text remains unpublished.", "Journalist Harold Evans used the memoir as a primary source for a chapter about Kildall in the 2004 book ''They Made America'', concluding that Microsoft had robbed Kildall of his inventions.", "IBM veterans from the PC project disputed the book's description of events, and Microsoft described it as \"one-sided and inaccurate.", "\"In August 2016, Kildall's family made the first seven chapters of ''Computer Connections'' available as a free public download." ], [ "Death", "On July 8, 1994, at the age of 52, Kildall sustained a head injury at the Franklin Street Bar & Grill, a biker bar in Monterey, California.", "The exact circumstances of the injury are unclear.", "Various sources have claimed he fell from a chair, fell down steps, or was assaulted because he had entered the establishment wearing Harley-Davidson leathers.", "Harold Evans, in ''They Made America'', states that Kildall \"stumbled and hit his head\" inside the premises, and \"was found on the floor.", "\"Following the injury, Kildall was discharged from the hospital twice.", "He was pronounced dead at the Community Hospital of the Monterey Peninsula, on July 11, 1994.An autopsy, conducted on July 12, did not conclusively determine the cause of death.", "Evans states that Kildall's head injury triggered a cerebral hemorrhage, causing a blood clot to form inside the skull.", "A CP/M Usenet FAQ states that Kildall was concussed due to his injury, and died of a heart attack; the connection between the two is unclear.Initial news reports and police investigation viewed Kildall's death as a possible homicide.", "According to the coroner's report, Kildall's fatal injury may have taken place \"as a result of foul play,\" and the case was referred to the Monterey Police Department.", "\"We're going to investigate it as a possible homicide,\" said police Sgt.", "Frank Sollecito.", "\"I'm not going to flat-out say it's a homicide\".Kildall's body was cremated.", "His remains were buried in Evergreen Washelli Memorial Park, in north Seattle." ], [ "Recognition", "Following the announcement of Kildall's death, Bill Gates commented that he was \"one of the original pioneers of the PC revolution\" and \"a very creative computer scientist who did excellent work.", "Although we were competitors, I always had tremendous respect for his contributions to the PC industry.", "His untimely death was very unfortunate and his work will be missed.", "\"In March 1995, Kildall was posthumously honored by the Software Publishers Association (SPA) for his contributions to the microcomputer industry:* The first programming language and first compiler specifically for microprocessors: PL/M.", "(1973)* The first microprocessor disk operating system, which eventually sold a quarter of a million copies: CP/M.", "(1974)* The first successful open system architecture by segregating system-specific hardware interfaces in a set of BIOS routines.", "(1975)* Creation of the first diskette track buffering schemes, read-ahead algorithms, file directory caches, and RAM drive emulators.", "* Introduction of operating systems with preemptive multitasking and windowing capabilities and menu-driven user interfaces (with Digital Research): MP/M, Concurrent CP/M, Concurrent DOS, DOS Plus, GEM.", "* Introduction of a binary recompiler: XLT86.", "(1981)* The first computer interface for video disks to allow automatic nonlinear playback, presaging today's interactive multimedia.", "(1984, with Activenture)* The file system and data structures for the first consumer CD-ROM.", "(1985, with KnowledgeSet)In April 2014, the city of Pacific Grove installed a commemorative plaque outside Kildall's former residence, which also served as the early headquarters of Digital Research." ], [ "See also", "* History of personal computers" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * (Part 2 not released due to family privacy reasons.", ")* * (18 pages)" ], [ "External links", "* * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gesta Danorum" ], [ "Introduction", " (Angers Fragment), page 1, front.''''''", "(\"Deeds of the Danes\") is a patriotic work of Danish history, by the 12th-century author Saxo Grammaticus (\"Saxo the Literate\", literally \"the Grammarian\").", "It is the most ambitious literary undertaking of medieval Denmark and is an essential source for the nation's early history.", "It is also one of the oldest known written documents about the history of Estonia and Latvia.Consisting of sixteen books written in Latin on the invitation of Archbishop Absalon, describes Danish history and to some degree Scandinavian history in general, from prehistory to the late 12th century.", "In addition, offers singular reflections on European affairs in the High Middle Ages from a unique Scandinavian perspective, supplementing what has been handed down by historians from Western and Southern Europe." ], [ "Books", "The sixteen books, in prose with an occasional excursion into poetry, can be categorized into two parts: Books 1–9, which deal with Norse mythology and semi-legendary Danish history, and Books 10–16, which deal with medieval history.", "Book 9 ends with Gorm the Old.", "The last three books (14–16), which describe Danish conquests on the south shore of the Baltic Sea and wars against Slavic peoples (the Northern Crusades), are very valuable for the history of West Slavic tribes (Polabian Slavs, Pomeranians) and Slavic paganism.", "Book 14 contains a unique description of the temple on the island of Rügen.=== Overview ======= Book 1 ====The first book is mostly Saxo's original work, sharing little with other primary works, but taking some inspiration from Ancient Greek epics.", "It very briefly covers the rule of the eponymous founder of the Danish nation, Dan, but also his brother Angul, his sons Humble and Lother, and Dan's grandson, Skiold, whose son, Gram is the first Danish king to be given some detail, his reign revolves around conquering Sweden and Finland, only to die in a battle.", "Most of the book deals with the adventures of Hading, the son of Gram and Finnish princess, Signe.", "Here the adventure concerns the loss of Denmark to the Swedes as well as Hading's attempts to reclaim it with the help of giants and Odin.", "The book concludes with Hading's suicide after hearing of his friend's death.==== Book 2 ====Follows adventures of Hading's descendants, who perform cunning raids across the Baltic Sea and far as England, while encountering many supernatural events and being forced to solve disputes via single combat.==== Book 3 ====Introduces Amleth as a grandson of a Danish king, whose father was murdered by his uncle, the governor of Jylland.", "Amleth pretends to be a fool in fear of his uncle who has married his mother.==== Book 4 ====Deals with Amleth securing his place as the king of the Danes, and return to Britain where he ends up marrying a Britanian princess, whose father plots the demise of Amleth, and the queen of Scotland who is famous for murdering all her suitors.==== Book 5 ====Focused on empire-building of Frotho III and his brilliant Norwegian advisor, Erick the Eloquent.", "Ultimately Frotho ends up ruling over Britain, Scandinavia, the Slavs, and the Huns.", "Saxo makes many parallels to Augustus.==== Book 6 ====Follows the adventurers of the legendary hero, Starkad who is disappointed in the decadent ways of Frothi III's descendants.==== Book 7 ====Is a collection of short and unrelated love stories, many of these ventures feature shieldmaidens.==== Book 8 ====Covers the famous Battle of Brávellir, between Harald Wartooth and Sigurd Ring.", "Danish involvement in the Saxon wars against Charlemagne, voyages to Biarmia, and the death of Starkad.==== Book 9 ====The book deals with Ragnar Lothbrok and his rising empire, he appoints many of his sons to govern parts of his empire all the way from Scotland to Scythia." ], [ "History", "=== Chronology ===When exactly was written is the subject of numerous works; however, it is generally agreed that was not finished before 1208.The last event described in the last book (Book 16) is King Canute VI of Denmark subduing Pomerania under Duke Bogislaw I, in 1186.However the preface of the work, dedicated to Archbishop Anders Sunesen, mentions the Danish conquest of the areas north of the Elbe in 1208.Book 14, comprising nearly one-quarter of the text of the entire work, ends with Absalon's appointment to archbishop in 1178.Since this book is so large and ''Absalon'' has greater importance than King Valdemar I, this book may have been written first and comprised a work on its own.", "It is possible that Saxo then enlarged it with Books 15 and 16, telling the story of King Valdemar I's last years and King Canute VI's first years.It is believed that Saxo then wrote Books 11, 12, and 13.Svend Aagesen's history of Denmark, ''Brevis Historia Regum Dacie'' (circa 1186), states that Saxo had decided to write about \"The king-father and his sons,\" which would be King Sweyn Estridson, in Books 11, 12, and 13.He would later add the first ten books.", "This would also explain the 22 years between the last event described in the last book (Book 16) and the 1208 event described in the preface.=== Manuscripts ===The original manuscripts of the work are lost, except for four fragments: the Angers Fragment, Lassen Fragment, Kall-Rasmussen Fragment and Plesner Fragment.", "The Angers Fragment is the biggest fragment, and the only one attested to be in Saxo's own handwriting.", "The other ones are copies from .", "All four fragments are in the collection of the Danish Royal Library in Copenhagen, Denmark.The text has, however, survived.", "In 1510–1512, Christiern Pedersen, a Danish translator working in Paris, searched Denmark high and low for an existing copy of Saxo's works, which by that time was nearly all but lost.", "By that time most knowledge of Saxo's work came from a summary located in ''Chronica Jutensis'', from around 1342, called ''Compendium Saxonis''.", "It is also in this summary that the name is found.", "The title Saxo himself used for his work is unknown.Christiern Pedersen finally found a copy in the collection of Archbishop Birger Gunnersen of Lund, Skåne (Skåne is now part of Sweden, but at the time was still part of Denmark), which he gladly lent him.", "With the help of printer Jodocus Badius, was refined and printed.=== Printing ===Front page of Christiern Pedersen's Saxo version, Paris 1514.The first printed press publication and the oldest known complete text of Saxo's works is Christiern Pedersen's Latin edition, printed and published by Jodocus Badius in Paris, France, on 15 March 1514 under the title of ''Danorum Regum heroumque Historiae'' (\"History of the Kings and heroes of the Danes\").", "The edition features the following colophon: ...''impressit in inclyta Parrhisorum academia Iodocus Badius Ascensius Idibus Martiis.", "MDXIIII.", "Supputatione Romana.''", "(the Ides of March, 1514).The full front page reads (with abbreviations expanded) in Latin:''Danorum Regum heroumque Historiae stilo eleganti a Saxone Grammatico natione Zialandico necnon Roskildensis ecclesiae praeposito, abhinc supra trecentos annos conscriptae et nunc primum literaria serie illustratae tersissimeque impressae.", "''English language:''Histories of the Kings and heroes of the Danes, composed in elegant style by Saxo Grammaticus, a Zealander and also provost of the church of Roskilde, over three hundred years ago, and now for the first time illustrated and printed correctly in a learned compilation.", "''==== Latin versions====The source of all existing translations and new editions is Christiern Pedersen's Latin ''Danorum Regum heroumque Historiae''.", "There exist a number of different translations today, some complete, some partial:* * * * * * * * * ==== Danish translations====* Christiern Pedersen, never published ca.", "1540, Lost* Jon Tursons, lost, never published ca.", "1555* * * * * * , 2 volumes==== English translations====* * (Volume 1: English text; volume 2: Commentary by Hilda Ellis Davidson)* * * (Volume 1: Books I-X; Volume 2: Books XI-XVI).==== Other translations====* * * * * Full translation on Russian by Andrey Dosaev in two vols.", "is also translated partially in other English, French and German releases." ], [ "Hamlet", "Certain aspects of formed the basis for William Shakespeare's play ''Hamlet''.", "Saxo's version, told of in Books 3 and 4, is very similar to that of Shakespeare's ''Hamlet''.", "In Saxo's version, two brothers, Orvendil and Fengi are given the rule over Jutland by King Rørik Slyngebond of the Danes.", "Soon after, Orvendil marries King Rørik's daughter, Geruth (Gertrude in ''Hamlet'').", "Amleth is their first and only child.Fengi becomes resentful of his brother's marriage, and also wants sole leadership of Jutland, so therefore murders Orvendil.", "After a very brief period of mourning, Fengi marries Geruth, and declares himself sole leader of Jutland.", "Eventually, Amleth avenges his father's murder and plans the murder of his uncle, making him the new and rightful King of Jutland.", "However, while Hamlet dies in Shakespeare's version just after his uncle's death, in Saxo's version Amleth survives and begins ruling his kingdom, going on to other adventures." ], [ "References", "===Sources===*** * **In two volumes : ; , e-text both volumes without appendixes or indices * , (table of contents in Danish).", "* * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "***" ] ]
wikipedia