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[
[
"Demographics of Guinea"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Demographics of Guinea describes the condition and overview of Guinea's peoples.",
"Demographic topics include basic education, health, and population statistics as well as identified racial and religious affiliations."
],
[
"Population",
"Guinea's total population, from 1961 to 2003.Guinea's population came close to tripling in forty years.Population, fertility rate and net reproduction rate, United Nations estimatesAccording to the total population was in , compared to only 3 094 000 in 1950.The proportion of children below the age of 15 in 2010 was 42.9%, 53.8% was between 15 and 65 years of age, while 3.3% was 65 years or older.Total populationPopulation aged 0–14 (%)Population aged 15–64 (%)Population aged 65+ (%) 19503 094 00037.157.65.3 19553 300 00038.657.04.4 19603 541 00040.056.23.8 19653 823 00041.854.93.4 19704 154 00042.254.63.2 19754 287 00042.654.33.1 19804 407 00043.353.53.2 19854 924 00043.952.83.3 19905 759 00044.452.33.3 19957 565 00044.652.13.3 20008 344 00044.252.43.3 20059 041 00043.653.03.3 20109 982 00042.953.83.3Population Estimates by Sex and Age Group (01.VII.2020) (Population in households only.",
"Post-censal estimates.",
"):Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 6 091 847 6 467 776 12 559 623 100 0–4 1 037 280 1 022 153 2 059 433 16.40 5–9 959 509 929 185 1 888 694 15.04 10–14 822 307 806 488 1 628 795 12.97 15–19 657 907 666 443 1 324 350 10.54 20–24 528 044 567 632 1 095 676 8.72 25–29 417 642 512 403 930 045 7.41 30–34 339 033 443 928 782 962 6.23 35–39 275 317 357 350 632 667 5.04 40–44 228 609 289 300 517 909 4.12 45–49 192 971 228 709 421 680 3.36 50–54 162 513 181 040 343 553 2.74 55–59 135 604 137 422 273 025 2.17 60–64 110 535 105 633 216 168 1.72 65-69 85 963 81 143 167 106 1.33 70-74 62 168 59 044 121 212 0.97 75-79 39 993 39 338 79 331 0.63 80+ 36 453 40 565 77 018 0.61Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent 0–14 2 819 096 2 757 826 5 576 922 44.40 15–64 3 048 174 3 489 860 6 538 034 52.06 65+ 224 577 220 090 444 667 3.54"
],
[
"Vital statistics",
"Registration of vital events is in Guinea not complete.",
"The website Our World in Data prepared the following estimates based on statistics from the Population Department of the United Nations.Mid-year population (thousands)Live births (thousands)Deaths (thousands)Natural change (thousands)Crude birth rate (per 1000)Crude death rate (per 1000)Natural change (per 1000)Total fertility rate (TFR)Infant mortality (per 1000 live births)Life expectancy (in years)19502 984 135 85 4945.028.616.45.97202.735.551951 3 032 137 88 4945.129.116.15.98202.735.551952 3 081 139 90 4945.229.216.05.99202.635.591953 3 131 142 92 5045.329.316.06.01202.335.671954 3 182 145 93 5145.429.316.16.02201.935.731955 3 234 147 94 5345.529.116.36.04201.535.901956 3 288 150 96 5445.529.116.56.05200.935.971957 3 342 152 97 5645.629.016.66.07200.236.061958 3 399 155 98 5745.628.816.96.08199.336.251959 3 457 158 99 5945.628.617.06.10198.336.361960 3 517 161 100 6145.728.417.36.11197.336.551961 3 579 164 101 6345.728.117.56.13196.136.751962 3 642 166 102 6545.727.917.76.14194.936.911963 3 708 169 102 6745.627.618.06.15193.737.161964 3 776 172 103 6845.527.418.16.17192.437.341965 3 845 175 104 7145.527.118.46.18191.137.601966 3 917 178 105 7345.426.818.66.19189.737.841967 3 991 181 106 7545.326.518.86.20188.238.121968 4 067 184 106 7845.326.119.36.21186.838.561969 4 145 188 107 8145.325.919.46.23185.338.721970 4 222 192 108 8445.425.619.86.24183.939.011971 4 298 195 109 8645.425.320.16.26182.339.311972 4 372 199 110 8945.425.020.46.28180.739.671973 4 445 202 111 9245.424.920.66.31179.039.891974 4 517 205 112 9445.424.620.76.34177.240.141975 4 588 209 112 9745.324.321.16.37175.340.591976 4 659 212 112 10045.323.921.46.40173.241.021977 4 730 216 112 10445.423.621.86.43170.941.411978 4 805 220 112 10845.523.222.36.47168.641.901979 4 885 225 112 11345.922.923.06.54166.242.391980 4 973 229 112 11645.922.523.36.54163.842.881981 5 067 233 113 12045.922.223.76.56161.443.321982 5 171 239 113 12646.121.824.36.58159.143.931983 5 282 244 114 13146.121.524.76.59156.844.381984 5 402 250 114 13646.221.125.16.60154.444.951985 5 532 256 114 14246.320.725.66.61152.045.521986 5 671 263 116 14846.420.426.06.64149.745.921987 5 821 271 117 15446.620.026.56.67147.446.421988 5 977 278 119 15946.519.926.76.66145.046.591989 6 136 285 121 16446.519.726.86.66142.446.851990 6 354 292 123 16946.319.526.86.63139.647.001991 6 616 305 126 18046.419.127.36.59136.647.551992 6 832 316 126 19046.218.527.86.55133.448.361993 7 046 322 126 19645.918.027.96.49129.948.961994 7 262 328 129 19945.217.727.46.41126.649.171995 7 468 331 128 20444.417.127.36.34123.049.871996 7 683 340 127 21344.216.627.76.25119.150.541997 7 843 345 126 21943.715.927.86.16115.551.361998 7 993 342 123 21942.715.427.36.08111.952.051999 8 175 346 123 22342.215.027.26.01108.152.362000 8 337 349 124 22541.614.826.85.94104.452.482001 8 446 349 124 22641.014.526.55.85100.852.662002 8 578 348 121 22740.514.126.55.7997.353.282003 8 772 353 121 23240.113.726.45.7494.053.682004 8 961 359 120 23939.913.426.55.7291.054.122005 9 140 366 120 24739.913.026.95.7088.454.632006 9 331 373 119 25439.812.727.15.6686.055.112007 9 547 381 119 26239.812.427.45.6284.055.552008 9 780 390 119 27139.812.127.65.5682.056.042009 10 021 399 120 27939.711.927.85.5180.456.352010 10 271 405 120 28539.411.727.75.4078.856.722011 10 528 410 121 28938.911.527.55.3077.457.022012 10 789 415 121 29438.411.227.25.2076.157.412013 11 055 422 121 30138.110.927.25.1274.857.792014 11 333 430 123 30737.910.927.05.0573.957.892015 11 626 441 125 31637.910.727.25.0272.758.132016 11 931 446 124 32337.410.427.04.9371.258.762017 12 241 449 124 32536.610.126.54.7970.159.112018 12 555 451 125 32635.99.926.04.6768.859.352019 12 878 456 125 33135.49.725.74.5867.459.722020 13 205 462 130 33234.99.825.14.4966.059.332021 13 532 466 135 33134.410.024.44.4064.458.89===Fertility and Births===Total Fertility Rate (TFR) (Wanted Fertility Rate) and Crude Birth Rate (CBR): Year CBR (Total) TFR (Total) CBR (Urban) TFR (Urban) CBR (Rural) TFR (Rural) 1992 41 5.67 (5.1) 37 5.18 (4.5) 42 5.89 (5.3) 1999 36.9 5.5 (5.0) 32.9 4.4 (3.8) 38.4 6.1 (5.6) 2005 38.4 5.7 (5.1) 31.8 4.4 (3.9) 40.8 6.3 (5.7) 2012 34 5.1 (4.6) 29.4 3.8 36.1 5.8 2018 33.6 4.8 (4.3) 29.4 3.8 (3.4) 35.8 5.5 (4.9)202132.54.128.53.134.34.7Fertility data as of 2012 and 2018 (DHS Program): Administrative region Total fertility rate (2012) Total fertility rate (2018) Percentage of women age 15-49 currently pregnant (2012) Percentage of women age 15-49 currently pregnant (2018) Mean number of children ever born to women age 40-49 (2012) Mean number of children ever born to women age 40-49 (2018)Boké 4.7 4.8 14.4 9.7 5.65.2Conakry 3.6 3.2 6.2 5.8 4.84.1Faranah 5.8 5.8 11.6 10.5 6.75.8Kankan 6.9 6.5 14.4 13.6 6.96.9Kindia 5.2 5.0 12.4 10.2 6.25.5Labé 5.3 5.6 8.9 7.6 6.55.0Mamou 5.4 4.1 8.4 7.9 6.14.8N'Zérékoré 5.1 4.5 11.0 6.3 5.64.2=== Life expectancy ===PeriodLife expectancy in Years1950–195533.07 1955–1960 34.33 1960–1965 35.38 1965–1970 36.14 1970–1975 37.43 1975–1980 39.87 1980–1985 43.05 1985–1990 47.92 1990–1995 51.28 1995–2000 51.61 2000–2005 51.31 2005–2010 55.45 2010–2015 57.93"
],
[
"Ethnic groups",
"*Fulɓe (singular Pullo).",
"Called Peuhl or Peul in French, Fula or Fulani in English, who are chiefly found in the mountainous region of Fouta Djallon;*Maninka.",
"Malinke in French, Mandingo in English, mostly inhabiting the savanna of Upper Guinea and the Forest region;*Susus or Soussous.",
"Susu is not a lingua franca in Guinea.",
"Although it is commonly spoken in the coastal areas, including the capital, Conakry, it is not largely understood in the interior of the country.",
"*Several small groups (Gerzé or Kpelle, Toma, Kissis, etc.)",
"in the forest region and Bagas (including Landoumas), Koniaguis etc.",
"), In the coastal area.West Africans make up the largest non-Guinean population.",
"Non-Africans total about 30,000 (mostly French, other Europeans, and Lebanese).",
"Seven national languages are used extensively; the major written languages are French, Pular (; ), and Arabic.Other languages have established Latin orthographies that are used somewhat, notably for Susu and Maninka.",
"The N'Ko script is increasingly used on a grassroots level for the Maninka language."
],
[
"Other demographic statistics",
"Demographic statistics according to the World Population Review in 2022.",
"*One birth every 1 minutes\t*One death every 5 minutes\t*One net migrant every 131 minutes\t*Net gain of one person every 1 minutesThe following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook.===Population===:13,237,832 (2022 est.",
"):11,855,411 (July 2018 est.",
")===Religions===Muslim 86.8%, Christian 3.52%, Indigenous beliefs 9.42%, Buddhist 0.5%, no religious beliefs 0.1% (2020).===Age structure===Population pyramid of Guinea in 2020:''0-14 years:'' 41.2% (male 2,601,221/female 2,559,918):''15-24 years:'' 19.32% (male 1,215,654/female 1,204,366):''25-54 years:'' 30.85% (male 1,933,141/female 1,930,977):''55-64 years:'' 4.73% (male 287,448/female 305,420):''65 years and over:'' 3.91% (male 218,803/female 270,492) (2020 est.",
"):''0-14 years:'' 41.4% (male 2,473,486 /female 2,435,139):''15-24 years:'' 19.23% (male 1,145,488 /female 1,134,103):''25-54 years:'' 30.8% (male 1,827,246 /female 1,824,162):''55-64 years:'' 4.72% (male 269,995 /female 289,164):''65 years and over:'' 3.85% (male 203,754 /female 252,874) (2018 est.",
")===Median age===:total: 19.1 years.",
"Country comparison to the world: 205th:male: 18.9 years:female: 19.4 years (2020 est.",
"):total: 19 years.",
"Country comparison to the world: 204th:male: 18.8 years :female: 19.3 years (2018 est.",
"):Total: 18.9 years:Male: 18.7 years:Female: 19.1 years (2017 est.",
")===Population growth rate===:2.76% (2022 est.)",
"Country comparison to the world: 14th:2.75% (2018 est.)",
"Country comparison to the world: 13th:2.61% (2017 est.",
")===Birth rate===:35.67 births/1,000 population (2022 est.)",
"Country comparison to the world: 13th:36.4 births/1,000 population (2018 est.)",
"Country comparison to the world: 16th===Death rate===:8.12 deaths/1,000 population (2022 est.)",
"Country comparison to the world: 82nd:8.9 deaths/1,000 population (2018 est.)",
"Country comparison to the world: 64th===Total fertility rate===:4.85 children born/woman (2022 est.)",
"Country comparison to the world: 11st:4.98 children born/woman (2018 est.)",
"Country comparison to the world: 14th===Mother's mean age at first birth===:19.9 years (2018 est.",
"):note: median age at first birth among women 20-49:18.9 years (2012 est.",
"):note: median age at first birth among women 25-29===Contraceptive prevalence rate===:10.9% (2018):8.7% (2016)===Net migration rate===:0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2022 est.)",
"Country comparison to the world: 89th===Dependency ratios===:total dependency ratio: 84.2 (2015 est.",
"):youth dependency ratio: 78.6 (2015 est.",
"):elderly dependency ratio: 5.6 (2015 est.",
"):potential support ratio: 17.8 (2015 est.",
")===Life expectancy at birth===:total population: 63.9 years.",
"Country comparison to the world: 205th:male: 62.04 years:female: 65.82 years (2022 est.",
"):total population: 62.1 years (2018 est.",
"):male: 60.4 years (2018 est.",
"):female: 64 years (2018 est.",
"):''total population'': 61 years:''male'': 59.5 years:''female'': 62.6 years (2017 est.",
")===Urbanization===:urban population: 37.7% of total population (2022):rate of urbanization: 3.64% annual rate of change (2020-25 est.",
"):urban population: 36.1% of total population (2018):rate of urbanization: 3.54% annual rate of change (2015-20 est.",
")===Sex ratio===''at birth''1.03 male(s)/female''under 15 years''1.02 male(s)/female''15-64 years''1 male(s)/female''65 years and over''0.78 male(s)/female''total population''1 male(s)/female (2011 est.",
")===HIV/AIDS===Adult prevalence rate: 1.5% (2017 est.",
")People living with HIV/AIDS: 120,000 (2017 est.",
")Deaths: 5,100 (2017 est.",
")===Nationality===''noun''Guinean(s)''adjective''Guinean===Ethnic groups===*Fulani (Peul) 33,4%*Malinke 29,4%*Soussou 21.2%*Guerze 7.8%*Kissi 6.2%*Toma 1.6%*Other/No Answer 4% (2018 est.",
")===Languages===French (official), each ethnic group has its own language.===Literacy===definition: age 15 and over can read and write (2015 est.",
"):total population: 39.6%:male: 54.4%:female: 27.7% (2018):total population: 30.4% (2015 est.",
"):male: 38.1% (2015 est.",
"):female: 22.8% (2015 est.",
")===School life expectancy (primary to tertiary education)===:total: 9 years:male: 10 years:female: 8 years (2014)===Major infectious diseases===:degree of risk: very high (2020):food or waterborne diseases: bacterial and protozoal diarrhea, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever:vectorborne diseases: malaria, dengue fever, and yellow fever:water contact diseases: schistosomiasis:animal contact diseases: rabies:aerosolized dust or soil contact diseases: Lassa fever (2016)note: on 21 March 2022, the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) issued a Travel Alert for polio in Africa; Guinea is currently considered a high risk to travelers for circulating vaccine-derived polioviruses (cVDPV); vaccine-derived poliovirus (VDPV) is a strain of the weakened poliovirus that was initially included in oral polio vaccine (OPV) and that has changed over time and behaves more like the wild or naturally occurring virus; this means it can be spread more easily to people who are unvaccinated against polio and who come in contact with the stool or respiratory secretions, such as from a sneeze, of an “infected” person who received oral polio vaccine; the CDC recommends that before any international travel, anyone unvaccinated, incompletely vaccinated, or with an unknown polio vaccination status should complete the routine polio vaccine series; before travel to any high-risk destination, CDC recommends that adults who previously completed the full, routine polio vaccine series receive a single, lifetime booster dose of polio vaccine===Unemployment, youth ages 15-24===:total: 1% (2012 est.",
"):male: 1.5% (2012 est.",
"):female: 0.6% (2012 est.)"
],
[
"References"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Politics of Guinea"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Politics of Guinea''' takes place in a framework of a presidential representative democratic republic, whereby the President of Guinea is both head of state and head of government of Guinea.",
"Executive power is exercised by the government.",
"Legislative power is vested in both the government and the National Assembly."
],
[
"Political history",
"=== Conté era (1984–2008) === A military dictatorship, led by then-Lt. Col. Lansana Conté and styling itself the Military Committee of National Recovery (CMRN), took control of Guinea in April 1984, shortly after the death of independent Guinea's first president, Sékou Touré.",
"With Conté as president, the CMRN set about dismantling Touré's oppressive regime, abolishing the authoritarian constitution, dissolving the sole political party and its mass youth and women's organizations, and announcing the establishment of the Second Republic.",
"The new government released all political prisoners and committed itself to the protection of human rights.",
"In order to reverse the steady economic decline under Touré's rule, the CMRN reorganized the judicial system, decentralized the administration, promoted private enterprise, and encouraged foreign investment.In 1990, Guineans approved by referendum a new constitution that inaugurated the Third Republic, and established a Supreme Court.",
"In 1991, the CMRN was replaced by a mixed military and civilian body, the Transitional Council for National Recovery (CTRN), with Conté as president and a mandate to manage a five-year transition to full civilian rule.",
"The CTRN drafted laws to create republican institutions and to provide for independent political parties, national elections, and freedom of the press.",
"Political party activity was legalized in 1992, when more than 40 political parties were officially recognized for the first time.In December 1993, Conté was elected to a 5-year term as president in the country's first multi-party elections, which were marred by irregularities and lack of transparency on the part of the government.",
"In 1995, Conté's ruling PUP party won 76 of 114 seats in elections for the National Assembly amid opposition claims of irregularities and government tampering.",
"In 1996, President Conté reorganized the government, appointing Sidya Touré to the revived post of Prime Minister and charging him with special responsibility for leading the government's economic reform program.",
"In the early hours of 23 December 2008, Aboubacar Somparé, the President of the National Assembly, announced on television that Conté had died at 6:45pm local time on 22 December \"after a long illness\", without specifying the cause of death.According to Somparé, Conté \"hid his physical suffering\" for years \"in order to give happiness to Guinea.\"",
"Conté had left the country for medical treatment on numerous occasions in the years preceding his death, and speculation about his health had long been widespread.",
"Contrary to his usual practice, Conté did not appear on television to mark Tabaski earlier in December 2008, and this sparked renewed speculation, as well as concern about the possibility of violence in the event of his death.",
"At around the same time, a newspaper published a photograph suggesting that Conté was in poor physical condition and having difficulty standing up.",
"The editor of that newspaper was arrested and the newspaper was required to print a photograph in which Conté looked healthy.According to the constitution, the President of the National Assembly was to assume the Presidency of the Republic in the event of a vacancy, and a new presidential election was to be held within 60 days.",
"Somparé requested that the President of the Supreme Court, Lamine Sidimé, declare a vacancy in the Presidency and apply the constitution.",
"Prime Minister Souaré and Diarra Camara, the head of the army, stood alongside Somparé during his announcement.",
"The government declared 40 days of national mourning and Camara called on soldiers to remain calm.=== 2008 coup and following ===a military coup d'état on December 2008Six hours after Somparé announced Conté's death, a statement was read on television announcing a military ''coup d'état''.",
"This statement, read by Captain Moussa Dadis Camara on behalf of a group called National Council for Democracy, said that \"the government and the institutions of the Republic have been dissolved\".",
"The statement also announced the suspension of the constitution \"as well as political and union activity\".",
"In its place, the military said it had established a consultative council composed of civilian and military leaders.On 27 September 2009, the day before planned demonstrations in the capital city Conakry, the government declared demonstrations illegal.",
"Thousands of protestors defied the ban, assembling in a soccer stadium.",
"157 were left dead after the level of violence used by security forces escalated.",
"Captain Moussa (Dadis) Camara told Radio France International on 28 September the shootings by members of his presidential guard were beyond his control.",
"\"Those people who committed those atrocities were uncontrollable elements in the military,\" he said.",
"\"Even I, as head of state in this very tense situation, cannot claim to be able to control those elements in the military.",
"\"On 3 December 2009 Captain Moussa Dadis Camara suffered a head wound in an attempted assassination in Conakry led by his aide-de-camp, Lieutenant Aboubacar Sidiki Diakité, who is known as Toumba.",
"Captain Camara underwent surgery at a hospital in Morocco.",
"Reports say Toumba's men opened fire on Captain Camara late Thursday at an army camp in the city of Conakry.",
"In a document released in 2010, an unknown source spoke with a U.S. diplomat and described the \"ethnicization\" of Guinea and the risk of conflict and violence like in Rwanda.",
"He stated that Dadis Camara has recruited mercenaries from South Africa and Israel and assembled them, along with some of his own men, in Forecariah, in the ethnically Sussu region in the west of the country, while Dadis was from the Forest region to the east.",
"His militia numbered 2,000-3,000 and was armed with weapons from Ukraine.",
"The risk of conflict and destabilization threatened the entire region, he said.After a meeting in Ouagadougou on 13 and 14 January, Camara, Konaté and Blaise Compaoré, President of Burkina Faso, produced a formal statement of twelve principles promising a return of Guinea to civilian rule within six months.",
"It was agreed that the military would not contest the forthcoming elections.",
"On 21 January 2010 the military junta appointed Jean-Marie Doré as Prime Minister of a six-month transition government, leading up to elections.===2010 elections===Alpha Conde became the first freely elected president in the country's history in 2010The presidential election was set to take place on 27 June and 18 July 2010, it was held as being the first free and fair election since independence in 1958.The first round took place normally on 27 June 2010 with ex Prime Minister Cellou Dalein Diallo and his rival Alpha Condé emerging as the two runners-up for the second round.However, due to allegations of electoral fraud, the second round of the election was postponed until 19 September 2010.A delay until 10 October was announced by the electoral commission (CENI), subject to approval by Sékouba Konaté.",
"Yet another delay until 24 October was announced in early October.",
"Elections were finally held on 7 November.",
"Voter turnout was high, and the elections went relatively smoothly.16 November 2010, Alpha Condé, the leader of the opposition party Rally of the Guinean People (RGP), was officially declared the winner of a 7 November run-off in Guinea's presidential election.",
"He had promised to reform the security sector and review mining contracts if elected.===2013 violence===In February 2013, the Guinean opposition party announced it would be stepping down from the electoral process due to a lack of transparency over the company used in registering voters.",
"Calling on citizens to protest nationwide, the ensuing week saw multiple clashes between police and protesters, resulting in at least nine deaths, some of those due to live fire from security forces.The protests were also a result of the previous months' political wrangling between Condé's administration and the opposition; minor protests were quelled on the street, and opposition supporters were arbitrarily arrested, prompting the resignation of two Guinean opposition ministers in September 2012.This month also saw the opposition parties announce their stepping down from the National Transitional Council, which is effectively an interim parliament, and that they would also boycott the national electoral commission.",
"The president of the national electoral commission, Louceny Camara, also stepped down due to pressure from the opposition over his relationship with President Condé; Camara was rumoured to be his ally and a key figure in the president's rumoured attempts to pre-rig the legislative polls.The week after the protest saw another minor clash between protesters and security forces after a march to mark the funerals of the deceased was dispersed by tear gas and gunfire.On 7 March 2013, the government postponed the 12 May election date indefinitely until the political tension eased and preparations for free and fair elections could be established.Despite the election postponement, President Condé ordered a crackdown on those responsible for the violence, and on 10 March, a Guinean court ordered opposition leaders to appear at a hearing scheduled for 14 March, in which they would be questioned for their role in organising the protests.",
"Former Prime Minister Sidya Toure branded the summons as an \"illegal procedure for what was an authorised march\" and a \"manipulation of justice for political ends\".=== 2020 controversial elections ===In October 2020, president Alpha Condé won presidential elections.",
"Condé had been in power since 2010 and he won the third term.",
"Opposition did not accept the results because of allegations of fraud.",
"The president said a constitutional referendum in March 2020 allowed him to run despite a two-term limit.",
"After the election there were violent protests across the country.=== 2021 coup ===Following a military coup on 5 September 2021 the government was dissolved, borders closed, constitution suspended and President Condé was arrested.",
"On 1 October 2021 Mamady Doumbouya was sworn in as Guinea's interim president after leading the coup."
],
[
"Ethnic politics",
"President Alpha Condé derives support from Guinea's second-largest ethnic group, the Malinke.",
"Guinea's opposition is backed by some of the Fula ethnic group (; ), who account for around 33.4 percent of the population."
],
[
"Executive branch",
"The president of Guinea is normally elected by popular vote for a five-year term; candidate must receive a majority of the votes cast to be elected president.",
"The president governs Guinea, assisted by a Cabinet of 25 civilian ministers appointed by him.",
"The government administers the country through eight regions, 33 prefectures, over 100 subprefectures, and many districts (known as communes in Conakry and other large cities and villages or \"quartiers\" in the interior).",
"District-level leaders are elected; the president appoints officials to all other levels of the highly centralized administration.Between the 2010 Presidential Elections and 2021 coup the head of state was Alpha Condé.",
"Following the 2021 coup he was replaced by Colonel Mamady Doumbouya acting as Chairman of the National Committee of Reconciliation and Development, a transitional military junta."
],
[
"Legislative branch",
"The National Assembly of Guinea, the country's legislative body, had not met for a long period of time since 2008 when it was dissolved after the military coup in December of that year.",
"Elections have been postponed many times since 2007.In April 2012, President Condé postponed the elections indefinitely, citing the need to ensure that they were \"transparent and democratic\".The legislative elections took place on 28 September 2013 and President Alpha Conde's party, the Rally of the Guinean People, won with 53 seats.In February 2022, five months after the 2021 military coup, a National Transitional Council headed by former lawmaker Dansa Kurouma and consisting of 81 members was established as a transitional parliament."
],
[
"Administrative divisions of Guinea",
"Guinea is divided into seven administrative regions and subdivided into thirty-three prefectures.",
"The national capital, Conakry, ranks as a special zone.",
"The regions are Boké, Faranah, Kankan, Kindia, Labé, Mamou, Nzérékoré and Conakry."
],
[
"Political parties and elections",
"===Presidential elections======Parliamentary elections==="
],
[
"International organization participation",
"Guinea's membership in the African Union was suspended after the coup.",
"*Agency for the French-Speaking Community,*African, Caribbean, and Pacific Group of States,*African Development Bank,*Customs Cooperation Council,*Economic Commission for Africa,*Economic Community of West African States,*Food and Agriculture Organization,*Group of 77,*International Bank for Reconstruction and Development,*International Civil Aviation Organization,*International Criminal Court,*International Confederation of Free Trade Unions,*International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement,*International Development Association,*Islamic Development Bank,*International Fund for Agricultural Development,*International Finance Corporation,*International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies,*International Labour Organization,*International Monetary Fund,*International Maritime Organization,*International Telecommunications Satellite Organization,*International Criminal Police Organization,*International Olympic Committee,*International Organization for Migration (observer),*International Organization for Standardization (correspondent),*International Telecommunication Union,*United Nations Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara,*Non-Aligned Movement,*Organization of African Unity,*Organisation of Islamic Cooperation,*Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons,*United Nations,*United Nations Conference on Trade and Development,*United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization,*United Nations Industrial Development Organization,*Universal Postal Union,*World Confederation of Labour,*World Federation of Trade Unions,*World Health Organization,*World Intellectual Property Organization,*World Meteorological Organization,*World Tourism Organization,*World Trade Organization"
],
[
"See also",
"* Moussa Dadis Camara#Christmas coup* Komara government"
],
[
"References"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Economy of Guinea"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''economy of Guinea''' is dependent largely on agriculture and other rural activities.",
"Guinea is richly endowed with good minerals, possessing an estimated quarter of the world's proven reserves of bauxite, more than of high-grade iron ore, significant diamond and gold deposits, and undetermined quantities of uranium.",
"In 2021, Guinea was the world's biggest exporter of Aluminium Ore ($3.2B/ Gold $5.5B) 2021 trade surplus was $4.3B.Guinea also has considerable potential for growth in the agricultural and fishing sectors.",
"Land, water, and climatic conditions provide opportunities for large-scale irrigated farming and agroindustry.",
"Remittances from Guineans living and working abroad and coffee exports account for the rest of Guinea's foreign exchanges industry."
],
[
"Economic history",
"GDP per capita development in GuineaGuinea was part of the franc zone countries that included most of the former French Colonies.",
"After Independence, these countries did not become completely economical free.",
"France decided against monetary autonomy hence they could not use a freely convertible currency.",
"The state intervention of the new governments was characterized by stops of quotas on imports and internal price controls.",
"In the time up to c. 1980, the franc-zone countries had on average a lower inflation and a higher economic growth compared to the Anglophone counterparts, who could use their own currencies.",
"But regarding the time after c. 1980 and the economic liberalism, characterized by Structural Adjustments, the franc zone countries could not outperform the rest.Since 1985, the Guinean Government has adopted policies to return commercial activity to the private sector, promote investment, reduce the role of the state in the economy, and improve the administrative and judicial framework.",
"The government has eliminated restrictions on agricultural enterprise and foreign trade, liquidated many parastatals, increased spending on education, and vastly downsized the civil service.",
"The government also has made major strides in restructuring the public finances.The IMF and the World Bank are heavily involved in the development of Guinea's economy, as are many bilateral donor nations, including the United States.",
"Guinea's economic reforms have had recent notable success, improving the rate of economic to 5% and reducing the rate of inflation to about 99%, as well as increasing government revenues while restraining official expenditures.",
"Although Guinea's external debt burden remains high, the country is now current on external debt payments.Current GDP per capita of Guinea shrank by 16% in the 1990s.The government revised the private investment code in 1998 to stimulate economic activity in the spirit of a free enterprise.",
"The code does not discriminate between foreigners and nationals and provides for repatriation of profits.",
"Foreign investments outside Conakry are entitled to especially favorable conditions.",
"A national investment commission has been formed to review all investment proposals.",
"The United States and Guinea have signed an investment guarantee agreement that offers political risk insurance to American investors through OPIC.",
"Guinea plans to inaugurate an arbitration court system to allow for the quick resolution of commercial disputes.Mean wages were $0.45 per man-hour in 2009.In 2002, the IMF suspended Guinea's Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility (PRGF) because the government failed to meet key performance criteria.",
"In reviews of the PRGF, the World Bank noted that Guinea had met its spending goals in targeted social priority sectors.",
"However, spending in other areas, primarily defense, contributed to a significant fiscal deficit.",
"The loss of IMF funds forced the government to finance its debts through central bank advances.",
"The pursuit of unsound economic policies has resulted in imbalances that are proving hard to correct.Under then-Prime Minister Diallo, the government began a rigorous reform agenda in December 2004 designed to return Guinea to a PRGF with the IMF.",
"Exchange rates have been allowed to float, price controls on gasoline have been loosened, and government spending has been reduced while tax collection has been improved.",
"These reforms have not reduced inflation, which hit 27% in 2004 and 30% in 2005.Currency depreciation is also a concern.",
"The Guinea franc was trading at 2550 to the dollar in January 2005.It hit 5554 to the dollar by October 2006.In August 2016 that number had reached 9089.Despite the opening in 2005 of a new road connecting Guinea and Mali, most major roadways remain in poor repair, slowing the delivery of goods to local markets.",
"Electricity and water shortages are frequent and sustained, and many businesses are forced to use expensive power generators and fuel to stay open.Even though there are many problems plaguing Guinea's economy, not all foreign investors are reluctant to come to Guinea.",
"Global Alumina's proposed alumina refinery has a price tag above $2 billion.",
"Alcoa and Alcan are proposing a slightly smaller refinery worth about $1.5 billion.",
"Taken together, they represent the largest private investment in sub-Saharan Africa since the Chad-Cameroon oil pipeline.",
"Also, Hyperdynamics Corporation, an American oil company, signed an agreement in 2006 to develop Guinea's offshore Senegal Basin oil deposits in a concession of ; it is pursuing seismic exploration.On 13 October 2009, Guinean Mines Minister Mahmoud Thiam announced that the China International Fund would invest more than $7bn (£4.5bn) in infrastructure.",
"In return, he said the firm would be a \"strategic partner\" in all mining projects in the mineral-rich nation.",
"He said the firm would help build ports, railway lines, power plants, low-cost housing and even a new administrative centre in the capital, Conakry.",
"In September 2011, Mohamed Lamine Fofana, the Mines Minister following the 2010 election, said that the government had overturned the agreement by the ex-military junta.Youth unemployment remains a large problem.",
"Guinea needs an adequate policy to address the concerns of urban youth.",
"One problem is the disparity between their life and what they see on television.",
"For youth who cannot find jobs, seeing the economic power and consumerism of richer countries only serves to frustrate them further."
],
[
"Economic sectors",
"===Mining===In 2019, the country was the world's 3rd largest producer of bauxite.Bauxite mining and alumina production provide about 80% of Guinea's foreign exchange.",
"Several U.S. companies are active in this sector.",
"Diamonds and gold also are mined and exported on a large scale, providing additional foreign exchange.",
"Concession agreements have been signed for future exploitation of Guinea's extensive iron ore deposits.Guinea is richly endowed with minerals, possessing an estimated one-third of the world's proven reserves of bauxite, more than 1.8 billion metric tons (MT) (2.0 billion short tons) of high-grade iron ore, significant diamond and gold deposits, and undetermined quantities of uranium.Lately, with the increase of alumina demand from the booming economy of China, there is a renew interest in Guinea riches.",
"The consortium Alcan and Alcoa, partner with the Guinean government in the CBG mining in north western Guinea, have announced the feasibility study for the construction of a 1 million TPa alumina smelter.",
"This comes with a similar project from Canadian start-up Global Alumina trying to come with a 2 billion dollar alumina plant in the same region.",
"As of April 2005, the National Assembly of Guinea has not ratified Global's project.Revenue from bauxite mining is expected to fall significantly in 2010 due mainly to the world economic situation.===Mining controversies===Guinea has large reserves of the steel-making raw material, iron ore. Rio Tinto Group was the majority owner of the $6 billion Simandou iron ore project, which it had called the world's best unexploited resource.",
"This project is said to be of the same magnitude as the Pilbara in Western Australia.In 2017, Och-Ziff Capital Management Group pled guilty to a multi-year bribery scheme, after an investigation by the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) led to a trial in the United States and a fine of $412 million.",
"Following this, the SEC also filed a lawsuit in the US against head of Och-Ziff European operations, Michael Cohen, for his role in a bribery scheme in the region.In 2009 the government of Guinea gave the northern half of Simandou to BSGR for an $165 million investment in the project and a pledge to spend $1 billion on railways, saying that Rio Tinto wasn't moving into production fast enough.",
"The US Justice Department investigated allegations that BSGR had bribed President Conté's wife to get him the concession, and so did the Federal Bureau of Investigation, the next elected President of Guinea, Alpha Condé, and an assortment of other national and international entities.In April 2014 the Guinean government cancelled the company's mining rights in Simandou.",
"BSGR has denied any wrongdoing, and in May 2014 sought arbitration over the government of Guinea's decision to expropriate its mining rights.",
"In February 2019, BSGR and Guinean President Alpha Condé agreed to drop all allegations of wrongdoing as well as the pending arbitration case.",
"Under the agreement, BSGR would relinquish rights to Simandou while being allowed to maintain an interest in the smaller Zogota deposit that would be developed by Niron Metals head Mick Davis.In 2010 Rio Tinto signed a binding agreement with Aluminum Corporation of China Limited to establish a joint venture for the Simandou iron ore project.",
"In November 2016, Rio Tinto admitted paying $10.5 million to a close adviser of President Alpha Condé to obtain rights on Simandou.",
"Conde said he knew nothing about the bribe and denied any wrongdoing.",
"However, according to recordings obtained by FRANCE 24, Guinean authorities were aware of the Simandou briberies.In July 2017, the UK-based anti-fraud regulator, the Serious Fraud Office (SFO) and the Australian Federal Police launched an investigation into Rio Tinto's business practices in Guinea.Further, In November 2016, the former mining minister of Guinea, Mahmoud Thiam, accused head of Rio Tinto's Guinea operation department of offering him a bribe in 2010 to regain Rio Tinto's control over half of the undeveloped Simandou project.In September 2011, Guinea adopted a new mining code.",
"The law set up a commission to review government deals struck during the chaotic days between the end of dictatorship in 2008 and Condé coming to power.In September 2015, the French Financial Public Prosecutor's Office launched an investigation into President Alpha Conde's son, Mohamed Alpha Condé.",
"He was charged with embezzlement of public funds and receiving financial and other benefits from French companies that were interested in the Guinean mining industry.In August 2016, son of a former Prime Minister of Gabon, who worked for Och-Ziff's Africa Management Ltd, a subsidiary of the U.S. hedge fund Och-Ziff, was arrested in the US and charged with bribing officials in Guinea, Chad and Niger on behalf of the company to secure mining concessions and gain access to relevant confidential information.",
"The investigation also revealed that he was involved in rewriting Guinea's mining law during President Conde's rule.",
"In December 2016, the US Department of Justice announced that the man pleaded guilty to conspiring to make corrupt payments to government officials in Africa.According to a Global Witness report, Sable Mining sought iron ore explorations rights to Mount Nimba in Guinea by getting close to Conde towards the 2010 elections, backing his campaign for presidency and bribing his son.",
"These allegations have not been verified yet but in March 2016 Guinean authorities ordered an investigation into the matter.The Conde government investigated two other contracts as well, one which left Hyperdynamic with a third of Guinea's offshore lease allocations as well as Rusal's purchase of the Friguia Aluminum refinery, in which it said that Rusal greatly underpaid.===Agriculture===Guinea also has considerable potential for growth in the agricultural and fishing sectors.",
"Land, water, and climatic conditions provide opportunities for large-scale irrigated farming and agroindustry.",
"Possibilities for investment and commercial activities exist in all these areas, but Guinea's poorly developed infrastructure continues to present obstacles to investment projects.=== Energy ===Three primary energy sources make up the energy mix in Guinea – biomass, oil and hydropower.",
"With 78%, biomass (mostly charcoal) makes the largest contribution in primary energy consumption in Guinea.",
"It is locally produced, while Guinea imports all petroleum products.=== Communications ===The people of Guinea are among the poorest in West Africa and this reality is reflected in the development of the country's telecommunications environment.",
"Radio is the most important source of information for the public in Guinea, and the only one to reach the entire country.There is a single government-owned radio network, a growing number of private radio stations, and one government TV station.",
"The fixed telephone system is inadequate, with just 18,000 lines to serve the country's 10.5 million inhabitants in 2012.The mobile cellular system is growing rapidly and had an estimated 4.8 million lines in 2012.Internet usage is very low, reaching just 1.5% of the population in 2012."
],
[
"Economic statistics",
"The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1990–2017.Year GDP (in bil.",
"US$ PPP) GDP per capita (in US$ PPP)GDP(in bil.",
"US$ nominal) GDP growth(real) Inflation(in Percent) Government debt(Percentage of GDP) 1990 5.51 9163.7 3.7% 25.7% 72% 1995 7.53 9615.1 5.1% 5.6% 67% 2000 9.92 1,1344.0 4.0% 6.8% 91% 2005 12.96 1,3544.5 4.5% 31.4% 98% 2006 13.70 1,3984.2 4.2% 34.7% 95% 2007 14.98 1,4906.3 6.3% 22.9% 61% 2008 15.90 1,5427.0 7.0% 18.4% 58% 2009 15.78 1,4896.8 −0.6% 4.7% 61% 2010 16.64 1,5306.9 6.9% 15.5% 69% 2011 17.94 1,6076.8 6.0% 21.4% 58% 2012 19.35 1,6907.4 7.3% 15.2% 27% 2013 20.44 1,7408.4 8.4% 11.9% 34% 2014 21.57 1,7918.8 8.8% 9.7% 35% 2015 22.57 1,8288.8 8.8% 8.2% 42% 2016 24.37 1,9268.6 8.2% 8.2% 43% 2017 26.47 2,04110.3 9.7% 8.9% 40%Guinea's export destinations in 2006.",
"'''GDP:'''purchasing power parity – $26.5 billion (2017 est.",
")'''GDP – real growth rate:'''6.7% (2017 est.",
")'''GDP – per capita:'''purchasing power parity – $2,000 (2017 est.",
")'''GDP – composition by sector:'''''agriculture:''19.5%''industry:''38.4%''services:''42.1% (2017 est.",
")'''Population below poverty line:'''47% (2006 est.",
")'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''''lowest 10%:''2.7% (2007)''highest 10%:''30.3% (2007)'''Inflation rate (consumer prices):'''8.9% (2017 est.",
")'''Labor force:'''5.558 million (2017)'''Labor force – by occupation:'''agriculture 76%, industry and services 24% (2006 est.",
")'''Unemployment rate:'''2.8% (2017 est.",
")'''Ease of Doing Business Rank'''179th'''Budget:'''''revenues:''$382.7 million''expenditures:''$711.4 million, including capital expenditures of NA (2004 est.",
")'''Industries:'''bauxite, gold, diamonds; alumina refining; light manufacturing and agricultural processing industries'''Industrial production growth rate:'''8% (2017 est.",
")'''Electricity – production:'''1 billion kWh (2015 est.",
")'''Electricity – production by source:'''''fossil fuel:''63.55%''hydro:''36.45%''nuclear:''0%''other:''0% (1998)'''Electricity – consumption:'''930 million kWh (2015 est.",
")'''Electricity – exports:'''0 kWh (2016)'''Electricity – imports:'''0 kWh (2016)'''Agriculture – products:'''rice, coffee, pineapples, palm kernels, cassava (tapioca), bananas, sweet potatoes; cattle, sheep, goats; timber'''Exports:'''$2.115 billion (2017 est.",
")'''Exports – commodities:'''bauxite, alumina, gold, diamonds, coffee, fish, agricultural products'''Exports – partners:'''China 35.8%, Ghana 20.1%, UAE 11.6%, India 4.3% (2017)'''Imports:'''$2.475 billion (2017 est.",
")'''Imports – commodities:'''petroleum products, metals, machinery, transport equipment, textiles, grain and other foodstuffs (1997)'''Imports – partners:'''Netherlands 17.2%, China 13.2%, India 11.8%, Belgium 10%, France 6.9%, UAE 4.5% (2017)'''Debt – external:'''$1.53 billion (31 December 2017 est.",
")'''Economic aid – recipient:'''$359.2 million (1998)'''Currency:'''1 Guinean franc (GNF) = 100 centimes"
],
[
"See also",
"* Trade unions in Guinea* Central Bank of the Republic of Guinea* Guinean franc* United Nations Economic Commission for Africa"
],
[
"Further reading",
"*"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* * (ECOWAS) Economic Community of West African States * Guinea economic analysis.",
"* West African Agricultural Market Observer/Observatoire du Marché Agricole (RESIMAO), a project of the West-African Market Information Network (WAMIS-NET), provides live market and commodity prices from fifty seven regional and local public agricultural markets across Benin, Burkina Faso, Côte d'Ivoire, Guinea, Niger, Mali, Senegal, Togo, and Nigeria.",
"Sixty commodities are tracked weekly.",
"The project is run by the Benin Ministry of Agriculture, and a number of European, African, and United Nations agencies.",
"* ''Encyclopedia of the Nations'' article on \"Guinea – Mining\"* Guinea latest trade data on ITC Trade Map"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Telecommunications in Guinea"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Telecommunications in Guinea''' include radio, television, fixed and mobile radio, and the Internet.The people of Guinea are among the poorest in West Africa and this reality is reflected in the development of the country's telecommunications environment.",
"Radio is the most important source of information for the public in Guinea, and the only one to reach the entire country.There is a single government-owned radio network, a growing number of private radio stations, and one government TV station.",
"The fixed telephone system is inadequate, with just 18,000 lines to serve the country's 10.5 million inhabitants in 2012.Internet usage is very low, reaching just 1.5% of the population in 2012."
],
[
"Radio and television",
"Radio remains the most important source of information for the public, and the only one to reach the entire country.",
"The government licensed the country's first private broadcasters in 2006.",
"* Radio stations:** one state-run radio broadcast station, Radio Télévision Guinéenne (RTG); RTG also operates several stations in rural areas; there are a steadily increasing number of privately owned radio stations, nearly all in the capital, Conakry; and about a dozen community radio stations (2011);** 4 AM, 8 FM, and 3 shortwave (1998).",
"* Radios: 357,000 (1997).",
"* Television stations:** one state-run TV station, Radio Télévision Guinéenne (RTG); foreign TV programming is available via satellite and cable subscription services (2011);** 6 TV stations (1997).",
"* Television sets: 85,000 (1997).=== State censorship ===The government maintains marginal control over broadcast media, the media laws promulgated following the 2010 democratic transition have not been implemented, and there are reports of state censorship through journalist harassment and station closures.",
"For example:* On 26 August 2012, the National Communication Council (CNC) suspended private radio station Liberte FM, based in the Forest Region city of N’Zerekore.",
"The closure prevented Liberte FM from covering protests announced by opposition leaders for the following day.",
"The national government allowed Liberty FM to reopen 48 hours later, after the protests concluded.",
"* On 1 October 2012, Electricity of Guinea cut service to Espace FM, host of the investigative reporting radio program \"The Big Mouths.\"",
"The utility company claimed that Espace FM and its sister station, Sweet FM, collectively owed nearly 150 million GNF ($21,521) for electricity bills, despite the station's possession of payment receipts.",
"Both stations were forced to operate on expensive generator power.",
"* The government has been accused of penalizing stations and journalists who broadcast items criticizing government officials and their actions.",
"Some journalists accuse government officials of attempting to influence the tone of their reporting with inappropriate pressure and bribes.",
"Some journalists also hire bodyguards, and many practice self-censorship."
],
[
"Telephones",
"* Calling code: +224* International call prefix: 00* Main lines: ** 18,000 lines in use, 115th in the world (2012);** 11,000 lines in use (1995).",
"* Mobile cellular: ** 12,394 million lines,(2019).",
"** 790,000 lines (2007).",
"* Telephone system: inadequate system of open-wire lines, small radiotelephone communication stations, and a new microwave radio relay system; Conakry reasonably well-served; coverage elsewhere remains inadequate and large companies tend to rely on their own systems for nationwide links; fixed-line teledensity less than 1 per 100 persons; mobile-cellular subscribership is expanding and exceeds 40 per 100 persons (2011).",
"* Satellite earth stations: 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) (2011).",
"* Communications cables: African Coast to Europe (ACE) submarine communications cable, which has a landing point in Conakry, links 23 countries along the west coast of Africa and on to Portugal and France."
],
[
"Internet",
"* Top-level domain: .gn* Internet users: ** 4,563 million users; 38% of the population (2019),** 3,131 million users; 27% of the population (2017) ** 2,147 million users; 20% of the population (2014)* Fixed broadband: 762 subscriptions, 183rd in the world; less than 0.05% of population, 189th in the world (2012).",
"* Wireless broadband: Unknown (2012).",
"* Internet hosts: 15 hosts, 223rd in the world (2012).",
"* IPv4: 4,096 addresses allocated, less than 0.05% of the world total, 0.4 addresses per 1000 people (2012).",
"* Internet Service Providers: several ISPs including SKYVISON, ETI Bull, and Vizocom.===Internet censorship and surveillance===There are no government restrictions on access to the Internet or credible reports that the government monitors e-mail or Internet chat rooms without judicial oversight.The constitution and law provide for freedom of speech and of the press, but the government, nevertheless, restricts these freedoms.",
"Libel against the head of state, slander, and false reporting are subject to heavy fines.",
"Some journalists accuse government officials of attempting to influence the tone of their reporting with inappropriate pressure and bribes.",
"Some journalists hire bodyguards, and many practice self-censorship.",
"Although the constitution and law provide for the inviolability of the home and legal searches require judicial search warrants, police reportedly ignore legal procedures in the pursuit of criminal suspects or when it serves their personal interests."
],
[
"See also",
"* Radio Télévision Guinéenne (RTG), the national broadcaster of Guinea."
],
[
"References",
"* *"
],
[
"External links",
"* .gn domain registration website."
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Transport in Guinea"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Three men hold on to the back of a moving matatu, Guinea, 2014.",
"'''Transport in Guinea''' is composed by a variety of systems that people in the country use to get around as well as to and from domestic and international destinations.",
"The railway from Conakry to Kankan ceased operating in the mid-1980s.",
"Most vehicles in Guinea are 20+ years old, and cabs are any four-door vehicle which the owner has designated as being for hire.",
"Domestic air services are intermittent.",
"Conakry International Airport is the largest airport in the country, with flights to other cities in Africa as well as to Europe.Locals, nearly entirely without vehicles of their own, rely upon these taxis (which charge per seat) and small buses to take them around town and across the country.",
"There is some river traffic on the Niger and Milo rivers.",
"Horses and donkeys pull carts, primarily to transport construction materials.Iron mining at Simandou (South) in the southeast beginning in 2007 and at Kalia in the east is likely to result in the construction of a new heavy-duty standard gauge railway and deep-water port.",
"Iron mining at Simandou (North) will load to a new port near Buchanan, Liberia, in exchange for which rehabilitation of the Conakry to Kankan line will occur."
],
[
"Railways",
"''total:''1,086 km''standard gauge:''279 km gauge''metre gauge:''807 km gauge (includes 662 km in common carrier service from Kankan to Conakry)The lines do not all connect.=== Cities served by rail === ==== Santou - Dapilo ====This 125 km long Standard Gauge railway connects bauxite mines at Boffa with a new port at Boké, both places in the north of Guinea.A Joint Venture has already launched the $US 3bn Boffa – Boké Project which a 125km line from the Dapilon River Terminal to new mining areas of Santou II and Houda.",
"There are 2 tunnels.This line opened in 28-06-2021.See: Boffa-Boke Railway==== Northern line ====This line is gauge (standard gauge) and carries about per annum.",
"* Port Kamsar - port* Boké* Crossing with proposed B B line.",
"Both 1435mm gauge.",
"By bridge or by level crossing.",
"* Rail Sangarédi - bauxite mine==== Central line ====This line is gauge and head off in a northwestern direction.",
"* Conakry - capital and port.",
"* Dubréka* Fria - bauxite mine==== Southern line ====This line is gauge.",
"Conversion to gauge has been proposed.",
"* Conakry - capital and port.",
"* Kindia - provincial capital.",
"* Kolèntèn* Konkouré - several km north of railway* Mamou - provincial capital* Kégnégo* Dabola - junction and break of gauge* Bissikrima* Cisséla -* Kouroussa - bridge over Niger River* Kankan - terminus and provincial capital.This line is .",
"* Dabola - junction and break of gauge* Tougué - bauxite ==== South Western line ====This line is and parallels the Southern line.",
"* Conakry - capital and port.",
"Rail Map (red dots) Rail Map (gray lines)* Kindia - bauxite mine.==== Proposed South Trans-Guinean Railway ====The heavy duty Transguinean Railways is about 650 km long and would be (standard gauge).",
"It goes from iron ore mines in the south east and bauxite mines in the north to a new port a Matakong.",
"* Matakong - Deep water port* Forécariah* Madina Woula - way station* Bambafouga - junction* Marela - way station* Faranah* Tiro* Kissidougou - way station* Macenta* Koule* Nzerekore* Lola* Simandou iron ore deposit near Diéké* Nimba - iron ore* Pontiola - bauxite* Tougué - branch terminus - bauxite=== Timeline ======= 2019 ====* Télimélé - Boffa==== 2008 ====* July 2008 - wobbles over Simandou leases * four ex-Croatian locomotives refurbished and regauged in Russia ==== 1994 ====* Progress === Statistics ===* Length"
],
[
"Highways",
"''total:''30,500 km''paved:''5,033 km''unpaved:''25,467 km (1996 est.",
")The Trans–West African Coastal Highway crosses Guinea, connecting it to Bissau (Guinea-Bissau), and when construction in Sierra Leone and Liberia is complete, to a total of 13 other nations of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS)."
],
[
"Waterways",
"1,295 km navigable by shallow-draft native craft"
],
[
"Ports and harbors",
"* Boké, Conakry, Kamsar"
],
[
"Merchant marine",
"none (1999 est.)"
],
[
"Airports",
"15 (1999 est.",
")=== Airports - with paved runways ===''total:''5''over 3,047 m:''1''2,438 to 3,047 m:''1''1,524 to 2,437 m:''3 (1999 est.",
")The airport code for the capital, Conakry, is CKY.=== Airports - with unpaved runways ===''total:''10''1,524 to 2,437 m:''5''914 to 1,523 m:''4''under 914 m:''1 (1999 est.)"
],
[
"See also",
"* Economy of Guinea"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* Google maps Conakry International Airport, Conakry, Guinea* Aviation Safety CKY Guinea* AZ World Airports Guinea"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Republic of Guinea Armed Forces"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The ''' Guinean Armed Forces''' () are the armed forces of Guinea.",
"They are responsible for the territorial security of Guinea's border and the defence of the country against external attack and aggression.Guinea's armed forces are divided into five branches – army, navy, air force, the paramilitary National Gendarmerie and the Republican Guard – whose chiefs report to the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, who is subordinate to the Minister of Defense.",
"In addition, regime security forces include the National Police Force (Sûreté National).",
"The Gendarmerie, responsible for internal security, has a strength of several thousand, and is armed with military equipment.",
"It is aided by the Republican Guard, which provides protection for government officials."
],
[
"History",
"Upon independence in 1958, France cut all ties and immediately began to repatriate Guinean soldiers serving in the French Army.",
"Of the about 22,000 Guinean soldiers in French service, about 10,000 decided to remain with France.",
"The other 12,000 were demobilised and returned to Guinea.",
"The new armed forces were formed by incorporating some of the former French soldiers, after a careful screening process to determine political reliability, with members of the former territorial Gendarmie to form the '''People's Army of Guinea''' (''L'Armee Populaire de Guinee'').",
"By the end of January 1959 the new army had reached a strength of around 2,000 officers and soldiers.In February 1969, the Guinean government moved against the armed forces after alleging that a plot centred in Labé, the centre of the Fula (; ) homeland was planning to assassinate then-president Ahmed Sékou Touré and seize power, or, failing that, force the secession of Middle Guinea.",
"This followed military dissatisfaction over the creation of a PDG control element in each army unit.",
"Later the alleged Fula connection was dropped, the accusations widened to other groups, and over 1,000 Guineans arrested.",
"After the plot, the army was regarded by the government as a centre of potential subversion, and the militia was developed as a counterforce to any military threat to the government.The army resisted the Portuguese invasion of Guinea in November 1970.Purges that followed the 1970 invasion decimated the upper ranks of the army, with eight officers sentenced to death and 900 officers and men who had reached a certain age retired from active duty.",
"General Noumandian Keita, chief of the Combined Arms General Staff, was convicted and replaced by the army's chief of staff, Namory Kieta, who was promoted to general.In March 1971 elements of the Guinean military were deployed to Freetown in Sierra Leone after the Sierra Leonean President, Siaka Stevens, appeared to start losing his control of the Sierra Leonean military.",
"Stevens visited Conakry on 19 March 1971, and soon afterwards, around 200 Guinean soldiers were despatched to Freetown.",
"Two Guinean MiGs made a low flyover of Freetown and Touré placed the Guinean military on alert 'because of the serious troubles affecting the fraternal peoples of Sierra Leone.'",
"The force, also reported as numbering 300, protected Stevens, though it was shortly reduced to 100 and then to fifty, plus a helicopter.",
"The last Guinean troops were withdrawn in 1974.In early 1975 the Guinean military consisted of an army of around 5,000, an air force of 300, and a naval component of around 200.The army comprised four infantry battalions, one armoured battalion, and one engineer battalion.",
"In the early 1970s the armed forces were organised into four military zones, corresponding to the four geographical regions (Lower Guinea, Middle Guinea, Upper Guinea, and Guinée forestière).",
"One of the four infantry battalions was assigned to each of the military zones.",
"The zone headquarters also doubled as battalion headquarters, and acted as a supervisory element for elements of company and platoon size assigned to each of the country's twenty-nine administrative regions.The only concentration of troops in Conakry appeared to be the armoured battalion, with a modest number of Soviet medium tanks manufactured in the late 1940s, as well as Soviet APCs, and elements of the engineer battalion.",
"The armed forces, though formally responsible for defending the country's territorial integrity, were really during that period focused upon national development tasks, including agricultural, industrial, and construction tasks.",
"The engineer battalion had companies in Conakry, Kankan, and Boké, and was engaged in constructing and repairing buildings and roads.===The Militia===A Guinean soldier translates for other soldiers during a joint U.S.-Guinean exercise, 2005.Increasing mistrust of the regular armed forces after the Labé plot led to the militia assuming greater importance.",
"The militia had grown out of a 1961 Democratic Party of Guinea (PDG) decision to create workplace 'committees for the defence of the revolution.'",
"These committees were encouraged by party officials to report dishonest practices such as theft and embezzlement of funds which might 'endanger the achievements of the revolution.",
"'The PDG youth arm, the Youth of the African Democratic Revolution (JRDA) was especially exhorted to report irregularities and crime to party or police authorities.",
"Units of volunteers, formed in response to this call, assumed limited policing functions.",
"Following government praise for these units' efforts, the militia's role expanded, especially as black-market activity and smuggling grew worse.",
"The force was formalized as the Popular Militia (Milices Populaires) in the early 1960s, given distinctive uniforms, and linked to the developing civic service, which was engaged on national development tasks.",
"After 1966 it was consciously modeled after the Chinese Red Guards.In 1969, the militia was officially granted a role equivalent to the army, as a counterbalance in any military coup d'état.",
"The elements in the Conakry area were issued small arms and given military training.",
"Touré had heralded this policy in 1967 when he wrote: 'thanks to their special political, physical, and social training, the people's militia will become the indisputable mainspring of our security system, of which the conventional armed forces constitute but a fundamental section.",
"'The militia was re-titled the National and Popular Militia in 1974 and its regular section scaled down, as the President announced that the country could not afford the large standing force that he believed was necessary to deter what he saw as the constant threat of invasion.",
"The militia was re-organised in multiple tiers, with a staff in Conakry, some combat units, and the remainder of the permanent element serving as a cadre for reserve militia units in villages, industrial sites, and schools.The permanent cadre was to circulate among the villages, spending three months in each one, to train the local militia.",
"President Touré announced that the ultimate goal was to have a 100-strong paramilitary unit in each of the country's 4,000 villages.",
"Infantry weapons of Soviet manufacture imported from the USSR, Czechoslovakia and the PRC were to be issued as they became available.With much focus on the militia, Touré kept much of the armed forces in poverty.",
"The International Crisis Group said that '..conditions of service were deplorable, even for officers.",
"The senior officer corps lived on meagre rations and saw its privileges and family allowances curtailed over time.",
"Soldiers of all ranks had to find ways to supplement their rations and were often reduced to working either on state farms or in small agricultural projects.'",
"'...All regular military activity, for example exercises, was considered potentially subversive.",
"'===Command appointments under Sékou Touré, March 1984===Source: Mamadou Kaly Bah, Regard Rétrospectif sur l'Armée Guinéenne, 1 November 1993 * Joint Headquarters (Chef : Général Toya Condé)* Army Headquarters (Chef : Général Soma; Adjoint : Colonel Lansana Conté)* Zone militaire de Kindia (Commandant : Capitaine Babacar N'Diaye)* Zone militaire de Boké (Commandant : Cdt.",
"Finando Tiani)* Zone militaire de Labé (Commandant : Cdt.",
"Lancei Camara)* Zone militaire de Kankan (Commandant : Cdt.",
"Mory Traoré)* Zone militaire de Faranah (Commandant : Cdt.",
"Noumoukè Keita)* Zone militaire de Nzérékoré (Commandant : Idrissa Condé)* Bataillon du Quartier Général (Camp Almamy Samory Touré) (Commandant : Capitaine Kerfalla Camara)* Conakry Spécial Battalion (Camp Alfa Yaya Diallo) (Commandant : Cdt.",
"Sidiki Condé)* Tank Battalion (Commandant : Capitaine Baourou Condé)* Bataillon des Troupes aéroportées (Parachutistes) (Commandant : Capitaine Lanciné Fangama Kéita)* Air Force Headquarters (Chef : Cdt.",
"Abdourahmane Kéita)* Navy Headquarters (Chef : Capitaine Mohamed Lamine Sacko)* National Gendarmerie Headquarters (Chef : Cdt.",
"Makan Camara)* Popular Militia Headquarters (Chef : Capitaine Mamadi Bayo )===The 1980s and Conté===Guinean Special Forces soldiers.On 3 April 1984, following Touré's death, Lansana Conté, assistant chief of staff of the army, led a coup d'état which toppled the interim head of state.",
"A military junta, the CMRN, was installed, which started to feud within itself, and quickly, as had occurred under the Touré regime, the paramount national security concern became the preservation of the president's power.",
"Conté had to suppress his first revolt in July 1985, by his immediate deputy, Colonel Diarra Traoré.Regional conflicts in the 1990s and 2000–2001 attacks along the southern border by rebels acting as proxies for Liberia's Charles Taylor had important effects on the security forces.",
"The Conté government was deeply involved in the First Liberian Civil War as it supported ULIMO, the major grouping opposing Taylor in Liberia.",
"Yet on the other side of the border the Guinean government also contributed troops to the ill-fated ECOWAS peacekeeping force ECOMOG in Liberia.",
"After ECOMOG departed in 1997–98, the Guinean government began supporting the new Liberian rebel movement LURD.",
"Attacks by Taylor-backed rebels in 2000–01 were partially an attempt to stop this support.More serious was a 1996 attempted coup that originated as a military mutiny caused by the armed forces' poor living conditions.",
"Conté, 'civilianised' since a rigged election in 1993, had to make significant concessions in order to save his regime.",
"Conté appointed his first civilian Minister of Defense in 1997.The military was used three times in 2006–2007 to suppress popular protest: in June 2006, resulting in 16 deaths, on 22 January 2007, when it fired on protesters at the 9 November Bridge in Conakry, killing over 100, and on 9 February 2007, when it killed several more protesters.The military suffered serious unrest in 2008.Among measures taken by Conte to try and shore up his support within the military after 2007 was the transfer of the 'popular Sékouba Konaté to Conakry to head the parachute Autonomous Battalion of Airborne Troops (French acronym BATA) in an attempt to calm the troops.'",
"However, these and other measures failed to stop the coup d'état led by Moussa Dadis Camara in late December 2008.In January 2009 a CNDD ordonnance combined four elite units of the Guinean armed forces – the presidential guards, the Bataillon Autonome des Troupes Aéroportées (BATA), the Battaillon des Commandos de Kindia (popularly known as the 'Commandos Chinois') and the Battaillon des Rangers – into a combined commando regiment.On 28 September 2009, in what became known as the 'Bloody Monday' massacre/2009 Guinea protest, Amnesty International said that Guinea security forces killed more than 150 people and raped over 40 women during and following the protests.",
"More than 1,500 people were wounded and many people went missing or were detained.",
"As of early 2010, AI said that at least two senior military officers named by the United Nations as potentially having individual criminal responsibility for events constituting crimes against humanity, remain in positions of influence in the Guinean Presidential Cabinet, despite the formation of a new transitional government.The International Crisis Group said in September 2010 that from 2001 to 2009 the size of the armed forces has risen dramatically from 10,000 in 2001 to a reported 45,000 in 2010 (though the latter figure needs to be treated with great caution.)",
"'This rapid growth has resulted from both formal and informal recruitment.",
"Erratic mass promotions have created an inverted structure, with more officers than simple soldiers, eroding professionalism and straining the defence budget.",
"Indiscipline, criminality and impunity are rife, while working and living conditions for rank-and-file soldiers are deplorable.'"
],
[
"Composition",
"===Air Force===After achieving independence from France in 1958, the Force Aerienne de Guinea was formed with Soviet assistance in the delivery of 10 MiG-17F fighters and two MiG-15UTI trainers.",
"In the same era an An-2, An-12, An-14, Il-14 and Il-18V transports were delivered, Mil Mi-4 helicopters also entered service.",
"Other eastern bloc deliveries included three Aero L-29 jet trainers, six Yak-11s and Romania contributed licensed built IAR-316 Alouette III and two IAR-330L Puma transport helicopters.",
"Further Soviet aid was requested when Conakry Airport was opened for use by Soviet Naval Aviation maritime reconnaissance aircraft.",
"This resulted in the delivery of eight MiG-21PFMs and a MiG-21U in 1986 to replace the remaining MiG-17s.====Inventory====Roundel of GuineaAircraftOriginTypeVariantIn serviceNotes Combat MiG-21 Soviet Union fighter 3 HelicoptersMil Mi-17 Russia transport 2 Mil Mi-24 Russia attack Mi-25 3 SA 330 Puma France transport 2===Army===There are four military regions – the 1st RM: Kindia; 2nd RM: Labé; 3rd RM: Kankan; 4ème RM: Nzérékoré, plus the Conakry special zone.Equipment reportedly includes 30 T-34 tanks, 8 T-54 tanks (IISS 2012), and PT-76 light tanks (15 reported in service by International Institute for Strategic Studies (IISS) Military Balance 2012).The IISS ''Military Balance 2020'' listed the Army as comprising 8,500 personnel, with one armoured battalion, one special forces battalion, five infantry battalions, one ranger battalion, one commando battalion, one air mobile battalion, and the Presidential Guard battalion.====Equipment========Small arms==== Name Image Caliber Type Origin Notes Pistols TT-33 150px 7.62×25mm Semi-automatic pistol Submachine guns Sa 23 150px 9×19mm Submachine gun MAT-49 150px 9×19mm Submachine gun Sterling 150px 9×19mm Submachine gun Rifles SKS 150px 7.62×39mm Semi-automatic rifle AKM 150px 7.62×39mm Assault rifle Vz.",
"58 150px 7.62×39mm Assault rifle Type 81 150px 7.62×39mm Assault rifle Heckler & Koch G3 150px 7.62×51mm Battle rifle MAS-36 150px 7.5×54mm Bolt-action rifle Machine guns RPD 150px 7.62×39mm Squad automatic weapon PKM 150px 7.62×54mmR General-purpose machine gun KPV 150px 14.5×114mm Heavy machine gun DShK 150px 12.7×108mm Heavy machine gun Rocket propelled grenade launchers RPG-2 150px 40mm Rocket-propelled grenade RPG-7 150px 40mm Rocket-propelled grenade ====Anti-tank weapons==== Name Image Type Origin Caliber Notes 9M14 Malyutka 150px Anti-tank weapon ====Tanks==== Name Image Type Origin Quantity Status Notes PT-76 150px Amphibious Light tank 15 INS T-34-85 150px Medium tank 30 INS T-54 150px Medium tank 8 INS ====Scout cars==== Name Image Type Origin Quantity Status Notes BRDM-1 150px Amphibious armored scout car 25 INS BRDM-2 150px Amphibious armored scout car INS ====Infantry fighting vehicles==== Name Image Type Origin Quantity Status Notes BMP-1 150px Infantry fighting vehicle 2 INS ====Armored personnel carriers==== Name Image Type Origin Quantity Status Notes BTR-152 150px Armored personnel carrier 6 INS BTR-40 150px Armored personnel carrier 16 INS BTR-50 150px Amphibious Armored personnel carrier 10 INS BTR-60 150px Armored personnel carrier 8 INS Mamba 150px Armored personnel carrier 10 INS GAZ Tigr 150px Infantry mobility vehicle 4 INS ====Reconnaissance==== Name Image Type Origin Quantity Status Notes Panhard AML-90 150px Armored car 2 INS ====Mine-Resistant Ambush Protected==== Name Image Type Origin Quantity Status Notes PUMA M26-15 150px MRAP 32 INS PUMA M36 MRAP 9 INS ====Artillery==== Name Image Type Origin Quantity Status Notes Rocket artillery BM-27 Uragan 150px Multiple rocket launcher 3 INS Mortars PM-38 150px Mortar 20 INS MT-13 150px Mortar INS Field artillery ZiS-2 150px Anti-tank gun 2 INS A-19 150px Field gun 12 INS D-44 150px Field gun 6 INS M-46 150px Field gun 12 INS====Air defence systems==== Name Image Type Origin Quantity Status Notes 61-K 150px Autocannon 8 INS Type 59 150px Autocannon 12 INS KS-19 150px Anti-aircraft gun 4 INS===Navy===The navy has about 900 personnel and operates several small patrol craft and barges."
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* International Crisis Group, 'Guinee: Incertitudes autour d'une fin de regne', ICG ''Africa Report'' No.",
"74, 19 December 2003.",
"* Dominique Bangoura, La Guinée, in Alan Bryden, Boubacar N'Diaye, ''Security Sector Governance in Francophone West Africa: Realities and Opportunities'', DCAF/Lit Verlag, 2011.Probably the most recent definitive account on the security sector.",
"* * Mohamed Tétémadi Bangoura, Dominique Bangoura, Gouvernance et réforme du secteur de la sécurité en Guinée: Défis démocratiques et de refondation, Editions L'Harmattan, 2010, , 9782296255449."
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Foreign relations of Guinea"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Nations with which Guinea has diplomatic relations.The '''foreign relations of Guinea''', including those with its West African neighbors, have improved steadily since 1985."
],
[
"Diplomatic history",
"Guinea re-established relations with France and West Germany in 1975, and with neighboring Ivory Coast and Senegal in 1978.Guinea has been active in efforts toward regional integration and cooperation, especially regarding the Organisation of African Unity and the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS).Guinea has participated in both diplomatic and military efforts to resolve conflicts in Liberia, Sierra Leone, and Guinea-Bissau, and contributed contingents of troops to peacekeeping operations in all three countries as part of ECOMOG, the Military Observer Group of ECOWAS.",
"In the 1990s, Guinea hosted almost a million refugees fleeing the civil wars in Sierra Leone and Liberia.",
"As of 2004, Guinea maintained a policy of unrestricted admission to refugees.Guinea is also a member of the International Criminal Court with a Bilateral Immunity Agreement of protection for the United States military (as covered under Article 98).=== 2009 ambassador recall ===On 5 May 2009, President Moussa Dadis Camara, who seized power in a bloodless coup which followed the 22 December 2008 death of President Lansana Conté, announced the recall of 30 of Guinea's ambassadors to other countries.",
"The order was made by a presidential decree on state television and was the first major diplomatic move made by the new leader.The decision affected ambassadors to the United States, South Korea, the People's Republic of China, France, the United Kingdom, Russia, Egypt, South Africa, Italy, Japan, Brazil, Cuba, Switzerland, Serbia, Malaysia, Iran, the United Arab Emirates, Senegal, Nigeria, Libya, Ghana, Algeria, Morocco, Gabon, Liberia, Sierra Leone and Guinea-Bissau, comprising almost all of Guinea's foreign embassies.",
"The Guinean representatives to the European Union, the United Nations and the African Union were also affected.No reason was stated for the recall.",
"The ''Tocqueville Connection'' states: \"Most of the ambassadors were appointed by former prime minister Lansana Kouyaté, in office from February 2007 until May 2008,\" raising the possibility that the recall was an attempt on the part of Camara to distance himself from the previous government.In late March 2009, the Guinean ambassador to Serbia faced expulsion for personal involvement in cigarette smuggling (1,000 packs of cigarettes were found in his BMW) but avoided arrest due to diplomatic immunity (although he was declared as persona non grata).===2021 coup d'etat===The September 5, 2021 coup d'etat brought swift condemnation and threats of sanctions from the United Nations, the African Union, the West African regional bloc ECOWAS (which suspended Guinea), and close allies of Guinea—as well as the United States—among others.",
"China, uncharacteristically, also openly opposed the coup.===Bilateral relations=== Country Formal Relations BeganNotes8 September 1964Both countries established diplomatic relations on 8 September 196427 August 1992Both countries established diplomatic relations on 27 August 1992* Australia and Guinea share close interests in the mining sector.",
"They are the two largest bauxite producers in the world (see List of countries by bauxite production) and were founding signatories in the 1970s of the (now defunct) International Bauxite Agreement.",
"Australian companies are involved in developing the Guinean mining sector.",
"* Guinea is accredited to Australia, through its embassy in Tokyo.",
"* Australia is accredited to Guinea, through its embassy in Accra, Ghana.11 March 1992Both countries established diplomatic relations on 11 March 1992.5 January 1974Both countries established diplomatic relations on 5 January 197427 February 1985Both countries established diplomatic relations on 27 February 19854 April 1992Both countries established diplomatic relations on 4 April 199228 January 1960Both countries established diplomatic relations on 28 January 1960 when has been accredited Mr. G. Walravens as Ambassador of Belgium to Guinea with residence in Accra (Ghana).26 February 1962Both countries established diplomatic relations on 26 February 1962 when first Ambassador of Guinea to Dahomey Mr. Leon Maka presented his credentials to President Maga.9 April 1996Both countries established diplomatic relations on 9 April 199620 April 2007Both countries established diplomatic relations on 20 April 20072 January 1959Both countries established diplomatic relations on 2 January 195928 March 1962Both countries established diplomatic relations on 28 March 1962* Canada is accredited to Guinea from its embassy in Dakar, Senegal.",
"* Guinea has an embassy in Ottawa.8 July 1975Both countries established diplomatic relations on 29 August 1968Both countries established diplomatic relations on 29 August 1968 when Guinea's first Ambassador to Chad, Mr. Filly Cissoko, presented his credentials to President Tombolbaye26 August 1963Both countries established diplomatic relations on 26 August 196314 October 1959See China–Guinea relationsThe People's Republic of China and the Republic of Guinea established diplomatic relations on October 14, 1959, making Guinea the first country in Sub-Saharan Africa to establish formal relations with China.",
"China has become heavily dependent upon Guinea for bauxite (aluminum ore) -- Guinea's principal export—consuming half of it.30 September 1988Both countries established diplomatic relations on 30 September 198811 August 1981Both countries established diplomatic relations on 11 August 1981 when Ambassador of Guinea M. Moussa Doumbouya, has presented his credentials to President of Comoros M. Ahmed Abdallah Abderemane.1 July 1968Both countries established diplomatic relations on 1 July 1968 when Guinea's Ambassador to the Congo Republic, M. Fily Sissoko, presented his credentials to President Massamba-Debat.1 October 2007Both countries established diplomatic relations on 1 October 200721 March 1961Both countries established diplomatic relations on 21 March 1961,was were broken in September 1973 and re-established on 14 April 19788 December 1997Both countries established diplomatic relations on 8 December 199730 August 1960Both countries established diplomatic relations on 30 August 196014 February 1959Both countries established diplomatic relations on 14 February 19591 December 1961Both countries established diplomatic relations on 1 December 19617 August 1978Both countries established diplomatic relations on 7 August 1978 when Ambassador of Guinea Mr. Iebel Combassa, presented his credentials to President of Djibouti Mr. Hassan Gouled Aptidon.28 September 2007Both countries established diplomatic relations on 28 September 20078 February 2019Both countries established diplomatic relations on 8 February 2019 when Ambassador of Guinea Mr. Soriba Camara presented his letters of credentials.10 February 1992Both countries established diplomatic relations on 10 February 199222 June 1962Both countries established diplomatic relations on 22 June 1962 when Guinea Ambassador to United Arab Republic (Egypt) Mr. Seydou Diallo was received by Emperor Haile Selassie as Ambassador also to Ethiopia27 January 2011Both countries established diplomatic relations on 27 January 201119 July 1961Both countries established diplomatic relations on 19 July 196121 January 1959Both countries established diplomatic relations on 21 January 1959 and appointed M. Nobi Youla as first ambassador of Guinea to France and M. Francis Hure appointed as charge d'affaires of France to Guinea* France has an embassy in Conakry.",
"* Guinea has an embassy in Paris.31 July 1998Both countries established diplomatic relations on 31 July 199830 July 1959Both countries established diplomatic relations on 30 July 1959See Germany–Guinea relations* Germany has an embassy in Conakry.",
"* Guinea has an embassy in Berlin.1958* Guinea has an embassy in Accra, which was opened in 1958.",
"* Ghana has an embassy in Conakry which is also accredited to Guinea-Bissau.12 February 1993Both countries established diplomatic relations on 12 February 199312 February 1974Both countries established diplomatic relations on 12 February 1974 when Guinea-Bissau's first ambassador presented his credentials to President Toure8 June 1970Both countries established diplomatic relations on 8 June 197010 January 1983Both countries established diplomatic relations on 10 January 1983 when first Ambassador of Guinea to Haiti (resident in New York) Mr. Alpha Ibrahima Diallo presented his credentials to President Jean Claude Duvalier26 February 1959Both countries established diplomatic relations on 26 February 195914 May 2004Both countries established diplomatic relations on 14 May 20048 July 1960Both countries established diplomatic relations on 8 July 19601963Both countries established diplomatic relations in 1963.",
"* Indonesia's embassy in Dakar, Senegal is accredited to Guinea.",
"* Guinea's embassy in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia is accredited to Indonesia.30 June 2008Both countries established diplomatic relations on 30 June 200812 January 1959See Guinea–Israel relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 12 January 1959.Guinea broke off diplomatic relations with Israel on 12 June 1967 They resumed diplomatic relations on 20 July 201630 January 1975Both countries established diplomatic relations on 30 January 197517 May 1966Both countries established diplomatic relations on 17 May 19664 April 1992Both countries established diplomatic relations on 4 April 199212 March 1964Both countries established diplomatic relations on 12 March 1964 when Guinea's first Ambassador to Kuwait presented his credentials to the Amir Sheikh Sabah Al-Salem Al-Sabah.8 September 2015Both countries established diplomatic relations on 8 September 201515 October 1981Both countries established diplomatic relations on 15 October 198117 January 1997Both countries established diplomatic relations on 17 January 19973 June 1960Both countries established diplomatic relations on 3 June 1960 when Lebanese Government appointed its Minister to Liberia to be Minister to Guinea as well.6 March 1959Both countries established diplomatic relations on 6 March 1959 when Mr. Edward Peal, the Liberian Ambassador to the Republic of Guinea, presented his credentials to President S.",
"Toure.",
"* Guinea has an embassy in Monrovia, which was opened in 1959.",
"* Liberia has an embassy in Conakry.26 March 1968Both countries established diplomatic relations on 26 March 196811 December 2015Both countries established diplomatic relations on 11 December 201527 April 1992Both countries established diplomatic relations on 27 April 199212 September 1962Both countries established diplomatic relations on 12 September 196226 December 1972Both countries established diplomatic relations on 26 December 19721993Both countries established diplomatic relations in 1993.",
"* Malaysia has an embassy in Conakry.",
"* Guinea has an embassy in Kuala Lumpur.8 April 1983Both countries established diplomatic relations on 8 April 19837 March 1962Both countries established diplomatic relations on 7 March 1962 when M. Thiemoko Compah has been appointed as Minister Resident of Mali to Republic of Guinea.30 March 1980Both countries established diplomatic relations on 30 March 198029 October 1973Both countries established diplomatic relations on 29 October 197325 January 1962Both countries established diplomatic relations on 25 January 1962* Guinea is accredited to Mexico from its embassy in Havana, Cuba.",
"* Mexico is accredited to Guinea from its embassy in Abuja, Nigeria.16 February 1992Both countries established diplomatic relations on 16 February 199222 April 1960Both countries established diplomatic relations on 22 April 196017 November 2006Both countries established diplomatic relations on 17 November 200625 June 1975Both countries established diplomatic relations on 25 June 19756 June 2017Both countries established diplomatic relations on 6 June 201718 September 2002Both countries established diplomatic relations on 18 September 2002 when has been accredited non-resident Ambassador of Guinea to Namibia Mr. Alexandre CeCe Loua.12 May 2016Both countries established diplomatic relations on 12 May 201620 April 2016Both countries established diplomatic relations on 20 April 20168 October 1958Both countries established diplomatic relations on 8 October 1958* North Korea has an embassy in Conakry.28 November 1997Both countries established diplomatic relations on 28 November 199721 July 1961Both countries established diplomatic relations on 21 July 196117 February 1981Both countries established diplomatic relations on 17 February 198129 March 1973Both countries established diplomatic relations on 29 March 19738 January 1975Both countries established diplomatic relations on 8 January 19758 October 1982Both countries established diplomatic relations on 8 October 198229 June 1959Both countries established diplomatic relations on 29 June 19592 January 1979Both countries established diplomatic relations on 2 January 19791 January 1988Both countries established diplomatic relations on 1 January 198814 November 1958Both countries established diplomatic relations on 14 November 19584 October 1958Both countries established diplomatic relations on 4 October 195828 June 1967Both countries established diplomatic relations on 28 June 1967 when Guinean ambassador to Rwanda M. Fily Cissoko, has presented his credentials to President Kiyibanda.15 May 1961Both countries established diplomatic relations on 15 May 196110 November 1959Both countries established diplomatic relations on 10 November 1959* Serbia is accredited to Guinea, through its embassy in Algiers, Algeria.",
"* Guinea has an embassy in Belgrade.20 October 1961Both countries established diplomatic relations on 20 October 1961 when Mr. Abdoul Karim , Ambassador of Sierra Leone to Guinea presented his credentials to President Sekou Toure.24 February 2016Both countries established diplomatic relations on 24 February 201616 March 1993Both countries established diplomatic relations on 16 March 199311 December 1996Both countries established diplomatic relations on 11 December 199611 August 2011Both countries established diplomatic relations on 11 August 201128 August 2006* Diplomatic relations between the Republic of Korea and Guinea were established on 28 August 2006.The number of South Koreans living in Guinea in 2011 was 70.",
"* Guinea is accredited to South Korea, through its embassy in Tokyo.",
"* South Korea is accredited to Guinea, through its embassy in Dakar, Senegal.",
"* In 2019, Somalia suspended diplomatic relations with Guinea after President Alpha Conde invited Somaliland President Muse Bihi Abdi to visit Guinea.6 August 1991Both countries established diplomatic relations on 6 August 1991 when has been accredited Ambassador of Guinea to Sri Lanka ( Resident in New Delhi ) Mr. Hadj Boubacar Barry.24 August 1961Both countries established diplomatic relations on 24 August 1961 when first Guinean Ambassador to Sudan (resident in Cairo) Mr. Seydou Diallo, presented his credentials to Presidenr Abbud28 August 2006Both countries established diplomatic relations on 28 August 200619 July 1960Both countries established diplomatic relations on 19 July 196027 December 1993Both countries established diplomatic relations on 27 December 199322 December 1966Both countries established diplomatic relations on 22 December 1966 when has been accredited Ambassador of Guinea to Tanzania with residence in Dar es Salaam Mr. Fily Cissoko.15 April 1983Both countries established diplomatic relations on 15 April 198330 June 1962Both countries established diplomatic relations on 30 June 19621960* Guinea has an embassy in Ankara.",
"*Turkey has an embassy in Conakry.",
"*Trade volume between the two countries was 136.7 million USD in 2019.",
"*There are direct flights from Istanbul to Conakry since January 30, 2017.22 July 1966Both countries established diplomatic relations on 22 July 1966 when the Guinean Ambassador to Uganda, M. B. Biro, presented his credentials to President Obote.4 April 1992Both countries established diplomatic relations on 4 April 19922 June 1995Both countries established diplomatic relations on 2 June 1995* Guinea has an embassy in Abu Dhabi.",
"* The UAE has an embassy in Conakry.28 May 1959Both countries established diplomatic relations on 28 May 195913 February 1959Both countries established diplomatic relations on 13 February 1959See Guinea – United States relationsGuinea became the first French African colony to gain independence, on 2 October 1958, at the cost of the immediate cessation of all French assistance.After a temporary suspension due to nationwide political unrest in early 2007, the Peace Corps program in Guinea resumed operations at the end of July.",
"Prior to the suspension, Peace Corps had more than 100 volunteers throughout the country, and the program is gradually increasing its numbers again.",
"Volunteers work in four project areas: secondary education, environment/agro-forestry, public health and HIV/AIDS prevention, and small enterprise development.",
"Guinea has also had a strong Crisis Corps program through the last few years.The U.S. \"condemned\" Guinea's \"2008 military coup d'etat,\"—but had \"close relations\" with Guinea before the coup, and after \"Guinea's presidential elections in 2010\"—in support of \"democratic reform.\"",
"However, the U.S. State Department immediately condemned the September 5, 2021 coup d'etat, warning against \"violence and any extra-constitutional measures, which could limit the ability of the United States and Guinea's other international partners to support the country...\"* Guinea has an embassy in Washington, D.C.* United States has an embassy in Conakry.19 June 2007Both countries established diplomatic relations on 19 June 200724 June 1993Both countries established diplomatic relations on 24 June 199316 March 1965Both countries established diplomatic relations on 16 March 19659 October 1958Both countries established diplomatic relations on 9 October 1958* Guinea is the first country in Africa to establish formal diplomatic relations with Vietnam.",
"* Vietnam's embassy in Rabat, Morocco is accredited to Guinea.",
"* Guinea's embassy in Beijing, China is accredited to Vietnam.10 November 1967Both countries established diplomatic relations on 10 November 1967 when the first Guinean Ambassador to Zambia , Mr. Fily Cissoko , presented his credentials to President Kaunda30 April 1980Both countries established diplomatic relations on 30 April 1980 when first Ambassador of Guinea to Zimbabwe presented his credentials."
],
[
"See also",
"*List of diplomatic missions in Guinea*List of diplomatic missions of Guinea"
],
[
"References"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Guinea-Bissau"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Guinea-Bissau''' ( ; ; ; Mandinka: ''Gine-Bisawo''), officially the '''Republic of Guinea-Bissau''' ( ), is a country in West Africa that covers with an estimated population of 2,026,778.It borders Senegal to its north and Guinea to its southeast.Guinea-Bissau was once part of the kingdom of Kaabu, as well as part of the Mali Empire.",
"Parts of this kingdom persisted until the 18th century, while a few others were under some rule by the Portuguese Empire since the 16th century.",
"In the 19th century, it was colonised as Portuguese Guinea.",
"Portuguese control was restricted and weak until the early 20th century when pacification campaigns solidified Portuguese sovereignty in the area.",
"The final Portuguese victory over the last remaining bastion of mainland resistance came in 1915 with the conquest of the Papel-ruled Kingdom of Bissau by the Portuguese military officer Teixeira Pinto and the Wolof mercenary Abdul Injai.",
"The Bissagos, islands off the coast of Guinea-Bissau, were officially conquered in 1936, ensuring Portuguese control of both the mainland and islands of the region.",
"Upon independence, declared in 1973 and recognised in 1974, the name of its capital, Bissau, was added to the country's name to prevent confusion with Guinea (formerly French Guinea).",
"Guinea-Bissau has a history of political instability since independence.",
"The current president is Umaro Sissoco Embaló, who was elected on 29 December 2019.Only about 2% of the population speaks Portuguese, the official language, as a first language, and 33% speak it as a second language.",
"However, Guinea-Bissau Creole, a Portuguese-based creole, is the national language and also considered the language of unity.",
"According to a 2012 study, 54% of the population speak Creole as a first language and about 40% speak it as a second language.",
"The remainder speak a variety of native African languages.",
"The nation is home to numerous followers of Islam, Christianity and traditional faiths, though no single religious group represents a majority of the population.",
"The country's per-capita gross domestic product is one of the lowest in the world.Guinea-Bissau is a member of the United Nations, African Union, Economic Community of West African States, Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, Community of Portuguese Language Countries, Organisation internationale de la Francophonie, and the South Atlantic Peace and Cooperation Zone, and was a member of the now-defunct Latin Union."
],
[
"History",
"=== Pre-European contact ===The deep history of what is now Guinea-Bissau is poorly understood by historians.",
"The earliest inhabitants were the Jolas, Papels, Manjaks, Balantas, and Biafadas.",
"Later the Mandinka and Fulani migrated into the region in the 13th and 15th centuries respectively, pushing the earlier inhabitants towards the coast and onto the Bijagos islands.The Balanta and Jola had weak or non-existent institutions of kingship but instead put an emphasis on heads of villages and families.",
"The Mandinka, Fula, Papel, Manjak, and Biafada chiefs were vassals to kings.",
"The customs, rites, and ceremonies varied, but nobles commanded all the major positions, including the judicial system.",
"Social stratification was seen in the clothing and accessories of the people, in housing materials, and in transportation options.Trade was widespread between ethnic groups.",
"Items traded included pepper and kola nuts from the southern forests; kola nuts, iron, and iron utensils from the savannah-forest zone; salt and dried fish from the coast; and Mandinka cotton cloth.==== Kingdom of Bissau ====According to oral tradition, the Kingdom of Bissau was founded by the son of the king of Quinara (Guinala) who moved to the area with his pregnant sister, six wives, and subjects of his father's kingdom.",
"Relations between the kingdom and the Portuguese were initially warm, but deteriorated over time.The kingdom strongly defended its sovereignty against the Portuguese 'Pacification Campaigns', defeating them in 1891, 1894, and 1904.However, in 1915 the Portuguese under the command of Officer Teixeira Pinto and warlord Abdul Injai fully absorbed the kingdom.==== Biafada kingdoms ====The Biafada people inhabited the area around the Rio Grande de Buba in three kingdoms: Biguba, Guinala, and Bissege.",
"The former two were important ports with significant lancado communities.",
"They were subjects of the Mandinka mansa of Kaabu.==== The Bijagos ====In the Bijagos Islands, different islands were populated by people of different ethnic origins, leading to great cultural diversity in the archipelago.Bijago society was warlike.",
"Men were dedicated to boatbuilding and raiding the mainland, attacking the coastal peoples as well as other islands, believing that on the sea they had no king.",
"Women cultivated land, constructed houses, and gathered food, and could choose their husbands, generally warriors with the best reputation.",
"Successful warriors could have many wives and boats, and were entitled to 1/3 of the spoils of the boat from any expedition.Bijago night raids on coastal settlements had significant impact on the societies attacked.",
"Portuguese traders on the mainland tried to stop the raids, as they hurt the local economy, but the islanders also sold considerable numbers of slaves to the Europeans, who frequently pushed for more captives.",
"The Bijagos themselves were mostly safe from enslavement, out of reach of mainland slave raiders.",
"Europeans avoided having them as slaves.",
"Portuguese sources say the children made good slaves but not the adults, whom were likely to commit suicide, lead rebellions aboard slave ships, or escape once reaching the New World.==== Kaabu ====States in medieval AfricaKaabu was established first as a province of Mali through the conquest of the Senegambia by a general of Sundiata Keita named Tiramakhan Traore, in the 13th century.",
"By the 14th century much of Guinea Bissau was under the administration of Mali and ruled by a ''farim kaabu'' (commander of Kaabu).Mali declined gradually, beginning in the 14th century.",
"Formerly secure possessions in what is now Senegal, the Gambia, and Guinea-Bissau were cut off by the expanding power of Koli Tenguella in the early 16th century.",
"Kaabu therefore became an independent federation of kingdoms.",
"The ruling classes were composed of elite warriors known as the ''Nyancho'' (Ñaanco) who traced their patrilineal lineage to Tiramakhan Troare.",
"The Nyancho were a warrior culture, reputed to be excellent cavalry men and raiders.",
"The Kaabu Mansaba was seated in Kansala, today known as Gabu, in the eastern Geba region.The slave trade dominated the economy, enriching the warrior classes with imported cloth, beads, metalware, and firearms.",
"Trade networks to North Africa were dominant up to the 14th century, with coastal trade with the Europeans increasing beginning in the 15th century.",
"In the 17th and 18th centuries an estimated 700 slaves left the region annually, many of them from Kaabu.In the late 18th century, the rise of the Imamate of Futa Jallon to the east posed a powerful challenge to animist Kaabu.",
"During the first half of the 19th century civil war erupted as local Fula people sought independence.",
"This long-running conflict in the 1867 Battle of Kansala that marked the end of the Kaabu and the rise of Fuladu, though some smaller Mandinka kingdoms survived until their absorption by the Portuguese.=== European contact ===Lesser coat of arms of Portuguese Guinea-Bissau==== 15th–16th centuries ====The first Europeans to reach Guinea-Bissau were the Venetian explorer Alvise Cadamosto in 1455, Portuguese explorer Diogo Gomes in 1456, Portuguese explorer Duarte Pacheco Pareira in the 1480s, and Flemish explorer Eustache de la Fosse in 1479–1480.Although the Portuguese authorities initially discouraged white settlement on the mainland, this prohibition was ignored by ''lançados'' and ''tangomãos'' who assimilated into indigenous culture and customs.",
"They ignored Portuguese trade regulations banning entering the region or trading without a royal licence, shipping out of unauthorised ports, or assimilating into the native community.",
"After 1520 trade and settlements increased on the mainland populated by the Portuguese and native traders, as well some Spanish, Genoese, English, French, and Dutch.",
"The main ports were Cacheu, Bissau, and Guinala, and each river also sported trading centers such as Toubaboudougou at their furthest navigable point that traded directly with the interior for resources such as gum arabic, ivory, hides, civet, dyes, slaves, and gold.",
"Local African rulers generally refused to allow Europeans into the interior, to ensure their control of trade routes.Disputes became increasingly frequent and serious in the late 1500s as the foreign traders sought to influence the host societies to their benefit.",
"Meanwhile, the Portuguese monopoly, always leaky, was being increasingly challenged.",
"In 1580 the Iberian Union unified the crowns of Portugal and Spain, leading to the attack of Portuguese possessions in Guinea Bissau and Cape Verde by Spain's enemies.",
"French, Dutch, and English ships increasingly came to trade with the natives and the independent-minded ''lançados.",
"''.==== 17th–18th centuries ====In the early 17th century the government attempted to force all Guinean trade to go through Santiago and to promote trade and settlement on the mainland while restricting the sale of weapons to the locals.",
"These efforts were largely unsuccessful.",
"With the end of the Iberian Union in 1640, King João IV attempted to restrict the Spanish trade in Guinea that had flourished for the previous 60 years.",
"The Afro-Portuguese, however, were not in a position to deny the free trade that the African kings, who now saw European products as necessities, demanded.",
"The Portuguese were never able to impose their monopolistic vision on the local and Afro-European traders, as the economic interests of the native leaders and Afro-European merchants never aligned with theirs.",
"During this period the power of the Mali Empire in the region was dissipating, and the ''farim'' of Kaabu, the king of Kassa and other local rulers began to assert their independence.Flag of the Portuguese Company of GuineaIn the early 1700s the Portuguese abandoned Bissau and retreated to Cacheu after the captain-major was captured and killed by the local king.",
"They would not return until the 1750s.",
"Meanwhile, the Cacheu and Cape Verde Company shut down in 1706.For a brief period in the 1790s, the British tried to establish a foothold on Bolama.==== Slave trade ====Guinea-Bissau was among the first regions touched by the Atlantic slave trade and, while it did not produce the same number of enslaved people as other regions, the impact was still significant.",
"In Cape Verde Guinean slaves were instrumental in developing the plantation economy, growing indigo and cotton and weaving ''panos'' cloth that became a standard currency in West Africa.",
"The 17th and 18th centuries saw thousands of people taken from the region every year by Portuguese, French, and British companies, with an average of 3000 shipped every year from Guinala alone.",
"The Fula jihads and specifically the wars between the Imamate of Futa Jallon and Kaabu provided many of these.Most wars were waged for the sole purpose of capturing slaves to sell to the Europeans in exchange for imported goods, such that they resembled man-hunts more than conflicts over territory or political power.",
"The nobles and kings benefited, while the common people bore the brunt of the raiding and insecurity.",
"If a noble was captured they were likely to be released, as the captors, whoever they were, would generally accept a ransom in exchange for their freedom.",
"The relationship between kings and European traders was a partnership, with the two regularly making deals on how the trade was to be conducted, who was to be enslaved and who was not, and the prices of the slaves.",
"Contemporary chroniclers questioned multiple kings on their part in the slave trade, noting that they recognised the trade as evil but participated because the Europeans would buy no other goods from them.Beginning in the late 18th century, European countries gradually began slowing and/or abolishing the slave trade.",
"Portugal abandoned slavery in 1869 and Brazil in 1888, but a system of contract labor replaced it that was only barely better for the workers.===Colonialism===Comparison of Africa in the years 1880 and 1913Up until the late 1800s, Portuguese control of their 'colony' outside of their forts and trading posts was a fiction.",
"Guinea-Bissau became the scene of increased European colonial competition beginning in the 1860s.",
"The dispute over the status of Bolama was resolved in Portugal's favor through the mediation of U.S. President Ulysses S. Grant in 1870, but French encroachment on Portuguese claims continued.",
"In 1886 the Casamance region of what is now Senegal was ceded to them.===Struggle for Independence===Portuguese Colonial War in Portuguese Guinea, 1968The African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde (PAIGC) was founded in 1956 under the leadership of Amílcar Cabral.",
"Initially committed to peaceful methods, the 1959 Pidjiguiti massacre pushed the party towards more militarized tactics, leaning heavily on the political mobilization of the peasantry in the countryside.",
"After years of planning and preparing from their base in Conakry, the PAIGC launched the Guinea-Bissau War of Independence on 23 January 1963.Unlike guerrilla movements in other Portuguese colonies, the PAIGC rapidly extended its control over large portions of the territory.",
"Aided by the jungle-like terrain, it had easy access to borders with neighbouring allies and large quantities of arms from Cuba, China, the Soviet Union, and left-leaning African countries.",
"The PAIGC even managed to acquire a significant anti-aircraft capability in order to defend itself against aerial attack.",
"By 1973, the PAIGC was in control of many parts of Guinea, although the movement suffered a setback in January 1973 when its founder and leader Amilcar Cabral was assassinated.",
"After Cabral's death, party leadership fell to Aristides Pereira, who would later become the first president of the Republic of Cape Verde.Portuguese-held (green), disputed (yellow) and rebel-held areas (red) in Portuguese-Guinea and other colonies 1970===Independence (1973)===PAIGC forces raise the flag of Guinea-Bissau in 1974.Independence was unilaterally declared on 24 September 1973, which is now celebrated as the country's Independence Day, a public holiday.",
"The country was formally recognized as independent on 10 September 1974.Nicolae Ceaușescu's Romania was the first country to formally recognise Guinea-Bissau and the first to sign agreements with the African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde.Upon the nation's independence, it declared ''Esta É a Nossa Pátria Bem Amada'' as its national anthem.",
"Until 1996, this was shared with Cape Verde, which later adopted its own official national anthem ''Cântico da Liberdade''.Luís Cabral, brother of Amílcar and co-founder of PAIGC, was appointed the first president of Guinea-Bissau.",
"Independence had begun under the best of auspices.",
"The Bissau-Guinean diaspora had returned to the country en masse.",
"A system of access to school for all had been created.",
"Books were free and schools seemed to have a sufficient number of teachers.",
"The education of girls, previously neglected, was encouraged and a new school calendar, more adapted to the rural world, was adopted.",
"In 1980, economic conditions deteriorated significantly, leading to general discontent with the government in power.",
"On 14 November 1980, João Bernardo Vieira, known as \"Nino Vieira,\" overthrew President Luís Cabral.",
"The constitution was suspended and a nine-member military council of the revolution, chaired by Vieira, was established.",
"Since then, the country has moved toward a liberal economy.",
"Budget cuts have been made at the expense of the social sector and education.The country was controlled by a revolutionary council until 1984.The first multi-party elections were held in 1994.An army uprising in May 1998 led to the Guinea-Bissau Civil War and the president's ousting in June 1999.Elections were held again in 2000, and Kumba Ialá was elected president.In September 2003, a military coup was conducted.",
"The military arrested Ialá on the charge of being \"unable to solve the problems\".",
"After being delayed several times, legislative elections were held in March 2004.A mutiny in October 2004 over pay arrears resulted in the death of the head of the armed forces.===From Vieira years to present===In June 2005, presidential elections were held for the first time since the coup that deposed Ialá.",
"Ialá returned as the candidate for the PRS, claiming to be the legitimate president of the country, but the election was won by former president João Bernardo Vieira, deposed in the 1999 coup.",
"Vieira beat Malam Bacai Sanhá in a run-off election.",
"Sanhá initially refused to concede, claiming that tampering and electoral fraud occurred in two constituencies including the capital, Bissau.Despite reports of arms entering the country prior to the election and some \"disturbances during campaigning\", including attacks on government offices by unidentified gunmen, foreign election monitors described the 2005 election overall as \"calm and organized\".Three years later, PAIGC won a strong parliamentary majority, with 67 of 100 seats, in the parliamentary election held in November 2008.In November 2008, President Vieira's official residence was attacked by members of the armed forces, killing a guard but leaving the president unharmed.On 2 March 2009, however, Vieira was assassinated by what preliminary reports indicated to be a group of soldiers avenging the death of the head of joint chiefs of staff, General Batista Tagme Na Wai, who had been killed in an explosion the day before.",
"Vieira's death did not trigger widespread violence, but there were signs of turmoil in the country, according to the advocacy group Swisspeace.",
"Military leaders in the country pledged to respect the constitutional order of succession.",
"National Assembly Speaker Raimundo Pereira was appointed as an interim president until a nationwide election on 28 June 2009.It was won by Malam Bacai Sanhá of the PAIGC, against Kumba Ialá as the presidential candidate of the PRS.Guinea-Bissau President Umaro Sissoco Embaló with Russian President Vladimir Putin in Moscow, Russia, 25 October 2022On 9 January 2012, President Sanhá died of complications from diabetes, and Pereira was again appointed as an interim president.",
"On the evening of 12 April 2012, members of the country's military staged a ''coup d'état'' and arrested the interim president and a leading presidential candidate.",
"Former vice chief of staff, General Mamadu Ture Kuruma, assumed control of the country in the transitional period and started negotiations with opposition parties.José Mário Vaz was the President of Guinea-Bissau from 2014 until 2019 presidential elections.",
"At the end of his term, Vaz became the first elected president to complete his five-year mandate.",
"He lost the 2019 election, however, to Umaro Sissoco Embaló, who took office in February 2020.Embaló is the first president to be elected without the backing of the PAIGC.On 1 February 2022, there was an attempted coup d'état to overthrow President Umaro Sissoco Embaló.",
"On 2 February 2022, state radio announced that four assailants and two members of the presidential guard had been killed in the incident.",
"The African Union and ECOWAS both condemned the coup.",
"Six days after the attempted coup d'état, on 7 February 2022, there was an attack on the building of Rádio Capital FM, a radio station critical of the Bissau-Guinean government; this was the second time the radio station suffered an attack of this nature in less than two years.",
"A journalist working for the station recalled, while wishing to stay anonymous, that one of their colleagues had recognized one of the cars carrying the attackers as belonging to the presidency.In 2022, President of Ukraine Volodymyr Zelensky met with his counterpart Umaro Sissoco Embaló in a press conference.",
"Embaló became the first African ruler to visit Ukraine after the beginning of the war."
],
[
"Politics",
"The Presidential Palace of Guinea-BissauPublic Order Police officer during a parade in Guinea-BissauGuinea-Bissau is a republic.",
"In the past, the government had been highly centralized.",
"Multi-party governance was not established until mid-1991.The president is the head of state and the prime minister is the head of government.",
"From independence in 1974, until Jose Mario Vaz ended his five-year term as president on 24 June 2019, no president successfully served a full five-year term.At the legislative level, a unicameral ''Assembleia Nacional Popular'' (National People's Assembly) is made up of 100 members.",
"They are popularly elected from multi-member constituencies to serve a four-year term.",
"The judicial system is headed by a ''Tribunal Supremo da Justiça'' (Supreme Court), made up of nine justices appointed by the president; they serve at the pleasure of the president.The two main political parties are the PAIGC (African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde) and the PRS (Party for Social Renewal).",
"There are more than 20 minor parties.===Foreign relations===Guinea-Bissau is a founding member state of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP), also known as the Lusophone Commonwealth, and international organisation and political association of Lusophone nations across four continents, where Portuguese is an official language.===Military===A 2019 estimate put the size of the Guinea-Bissau Armed Forces at around 4,400 personnel and military spending is less than 2% of GDP.In 2018, Guinea-Bissau signed the UN treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.===Administrative divisions===Guinea-Bissau is divided into eight regions () and one autonomous sector ().",
"These, in turn, are subdivided into 37 Sectors.",
"The regions are:"
],
[
"Geography",
"Rare salt water hippopotamuses on Orango IslandCaravela, Bissagos IslandsTypical scenery in Guinea-BissauGuinea-Bissau is bordered by Senegal to the north and Guinea to the south and east, with the Atlantic Ocean to its west.",
"It lies mostly between latitudes 11° and 13°N (a small area is south of 11°), and longitudes 11° and 15°W.At , the country is larger in size than Taiwan or Belgium.",
"The highest point is Monte Torin with an elevation of .",
"Its terrain is mostly low coastal plains with swamps of the Guinean mangroves rising to the Guinean forest–savanna mosaic in the east.",
"Its monsoon-like rainy season alternates with periods of hot, dry harmattan winds blowing from the Sahara.",
"The Bijagos Archipelago lies off of the mainland.",
"The country is home to two ecoregions: Guinean forest–savanna mosaic and Guinean mangroves.===Climate===Guinea-Bissau is warm all year round with mild temperature fluctuations; it averages .",
"The average rainfall for Bissau is , although this is almost entirely accounted for during the rainy season which falls between June and September/October.",
"From December through April, the country experiences drought.600px===Environmental problems===Severe environmental problems include deforestation, soil erosion, overgrazing, and overfishing.",
"Guinea-Bissau had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 5.7/10, ranking it 97th globally out of 172 countries.===Wildlife==="
],
[
"Economy",
"A proportional representation of Guinea-Bissau exports, 2019Seat of the Central Bank of Guinea-BissauSão DomingosGuinea-Bissau's GDP per capita is one of the lowest in the world, and its Human Development Index is one of the lowest on earth.",
"More than two-thirds of the population lives below the poverty line.",
"The economy depends mainly on agriculture; fish, cashew nuts, and ground nuts are its major exports.A long period of political instability has resulted in depressed economic activity, deteriorating social conditions, and increased macroeconomic imbalances.",
"It takes longer on average to register a new business in Guinea-Bissau (233 days or about 33 weeks) than in any other country in the world except Suriname.Guinea-Bissau has started to show some economic advances after a pact of stability was signed by the main political parties of the country, leading to an IMF-backed structural reform program.After several years of economic downturn and political instability, in 1997, Guinea-Bissau entered the CFA franc monetary system, bringing about some internal monetary stability.",
"The civil war that took place in 1998 and 1999, and a military coup in September 2003 again disrupted economic activity, leaving a substantial part of the economic and social infrastructure in ruins and intensifying the already widespread poverty.",
"Following the parliamentary elections in March 2004 and presidential elections in July 2005, the country is trying to recover from the long period of instability, despite a still-fragile political situation.Beginning around 2005, drug traffickers based in Latin America began to use Guinea-Bissau, along with several neighbouring West African nations, as a transshipment point to Europe for cocaine.",
"The nation was described by a United Nations official as being at risk for becoming a \"narco-state\".",
"The government and the military have done little to stop drug trafficking, which increased after the 2012 coup d'état.The government of Guinea-Bissau continues to be ravaged by illegal drug distribution, according to ''The Economist''.Guinea-Bissau is a member of the Organization for the Harmonisation of Business Law in Africa (OHADA)."
],
[
"Society",
"===Demographics===According to , Guinea-Bissau's population was in , compared to 518,000 in 1950.The proportion of the population below the age of 15 in 2010 was 41.3%, 55.4% were aged between 15 and 65 years of age, while 3.3% were aged 65 years or older.===Ethnic groups===Guinea-Bissau present-day settlement pattern of the ethnic groupsThe population of Guinea-Bissau is ethnically diverse and has many distinct languages, customs, and social structures.Bissau-Guineans can be divided into the following ethnic groups:*Fula and the Mandinka-speaking people, who constitute the largest portion of the population and are concentrated in the north and northeast;*Balanta and Papel people, who live in the southern coastal regions; and*Manjaco and Mancanha, who occupy the central and northern coastal areas.Most of the remainder are ''mestiços'' of mixed Portuguese and African descent.Portuguese natives are a very small percentage of Bissau-Guineans.",
"After Guinea-Bissau gained independence, most of the Portuguese nationals left the country.",
"The country has a tiny Chinese population.",
"These include traders and merchants of mixed Portuguese and Cantonese ancestry from the former Asian Portuguese colony of Macau.===Major cities===Main cities in Guinea-Bissau include: Rank City Population2015 estimate Region 1 Bissau 492,004 Bissau 2 Gabú 48,670 Gabú 3 Bafatá 37,985 Bafatá 4 Bissorã 29,468 Oio 5 Bolama 16,216 Bolama 6 Cacheu 14,320 Cacheu 7 Bubaque 12,922 Bolama 8 Catió 11,498 Tombali 9 Mansôa 9,198 Oio 10 Buba 8,993 Quinara===Languages===Kriol for Guinea-Bissau legislative election, 2008, Biombo RegionThough a small country, Guinea-Bissau has several ethnic groups which are very distinct from each other, with their own cultures and languages.",
"This is due to Guinea-Bissau being a refugee and migration territory within Africa.",
"Colonisation and racial intermixing brought Portuguese and the Portuguese creole known as Kriol or ''crioulo''.The sole official language of Guinea-Bissau since independence, Standard Portuguese is spoken mostly as a second language, with few native speakers and its use is often confined to the intellectual and political elites.",
"It is the language of government and national communication as a legacy of colonial rule.",
"Schooling from the primary to tertiary levels is conducted in Portuguese, although only 67% of children have access to any formal education.",
"Data suggests that the number of Portuguese speakers ranges from 11 to 15%.",
"In the latest census (2009) 27.1% of the population claimed to speak non-creole Portuguese (46.3% of city dwellers and 14.7% of the rural population, respectively).",
"Portuguese creole is spoken by 44% of the population and is effectively the lingua franca among distinct groups for most of the population.",
"Creole's usage is still expanding, and it is understood by the vast majority of the population.",
"However, decreolisation processes are occurring, due to undergoing interference from Standard Portuguese and the creole forms a continuum of varieties with the standard language, the most distant are basilects and the closer ones, acrolects.",
"A post-creole continuum exists in Guinea-Bissau and crioulo 'leve' ('soft' creole) variety being closer to the Portuguese-language norm.The remaining rural population speaks a variety of native African languages unique to each ethnicity: Fula (16%), Balanta (14%), Mandinka (7%), Manjak (5%), Papel (3%), Felupe (1%), Beafada (0.7%), Bijagó (0.3%), and Nalu (0.1%), which form the ethnic African languages spoken by the population.",
"Most Portuguese and Mestiços speakers also have one of the African languages and Kriol as additional languages.",
"Ethnic African languages are not discouraged, in any situation, despite their lower prestige.",
"These languages are the link between individuals of the same ethnic background and daily used in villages, between neighbours or friends, traditional and religious ceremonies, and also used in contact between the urban and rural populations.",
"However, none of these languages are dominant in Guinea-Bissau.French is taught as a foreign language in schools, because Guinea-Bissau is surrounded by French-speaking nations.",
"Guinea-Bissau is a full member of the Francophonie.===Religion===Various studies suggest that slightly less than half of the population of Guinea-Bissau is Muslim, while substantial minorities follow folk religions or Christianity.",
"The CIA World Factbook's 2020 estimate stated that the population was 46.1% Muslim, 30.6% following folk religions, 18.9% Christian, 4.4% other or unaffiliated.",
"In 2010, a Pew Research survey determined that the population was 45.1% Muslim and 19.7% Christian, with 30.9% practicing folk religion and 4.3 other faiths.",
"A 2015 Pew-Templeton study found that the population was 45.1% Muslim, 30.9% practicing folk religions, 19.7% Christian, and 4.3% unaffiliated.",
"The ARDA projected in 2020 the share of the Muslim population to be 44.7%.",
"It also estimated 41.2% of the population to be practitioners of ethnic religions and 13% to be Christians.Men in Islamic garb, Bafatá, Guinea-BissauConcerning religious identity among Muslims, a Pew report determined that in Guinea-Bissau there is no prevailing sectarian identity.",
"Guinea-Bissau shared this distinction with other Sub-Saharan countries like Tanzania, Uganda, Liberia, Nigeria and Cameroon.",
"This Pew research also stated that countries in this specific study that declared to not have any clear dominant sectarian identity were mostly concentrated in Sub-Saharan Africa.",
"Another Pew report, ''The Future of World Religions'', predicts that from 2010 to 2050, practitioners of Islam will increase their share of the population in Guinea-Bissau.Many residents practice syncretic forms of Islamic and Christian faiths, combining their practices with traditional African beliefs.",
"Muslims dominate the north and east, while Christians dominate the south and coastal regions.",
"The Roman Catholic Church claims most of the Christian community.The 2021 US Department of State Report on International Religious Freedom mentions the fact that leaders of different religious communities believe that the existing communities are essentially tolerant, but express some concerns about rising religious fundamentalism in the country.",
"An incident in July 2022, when a Catholic church in the overwhelmingly Muslim region of Gabú was vandalised, raised concern amongst the Christian community that Islamic extremism might be infiltrating the country.",
"However, there have been no further similar incidents, and no direct links to Islamic extremists have surfaced.===Health======Education===Education is compulsory from the age of 7 to 13.Pre-school education for children between three and six years of age is optional and in its early stages.",
"There are five levels of education: pre-school, elemental and complementary basic education, general and complementary secondary education, general secondary education, technical and professional teaching, and higher education (university and non-universities).",
"Basic education is under reform, and now forms a single cycle, comprising six years of education.",
"Secondary education is widely available and there are two cycles (7th to 9th ''classe'' and 10th to 11th ''classe'').",
"Professional education in public institutions is nonoperational, however private school offerings opened, including the ''Centro de Formação São João Bosco'' (since 2004) and the ''Centro de Formação Luís Inácio Lula da Silva'' (since 2011).Higher education is limited and most prefer to be educated abroad, with students preferring to enroll in Portugal.",
"A number of universities, to which an institutionally autonomous Faculty of Law as well as a Faculty of Medicine that is maintained by Cuba and functions in different cities.Child labor is very common.",
"The enrollment of boys is higher than that of girls.",
"In 1998, the gross primary enrollment rate was 53.5%, with higher enrollment ratio for males (67.7%) compared to females (40%).Non-formal education is centered on community schools and the teaching of adults.",
"In 2011, the literacy rate was estimated at 55.3% (68.9% male, and 42.1% female).===Conflicts===Usually, the many different ethnic groups in Guinea-Bissau coexist peacefully, but when conflicts do erupt, they tend to revolve around access to land."
],
[
"Culture",
"Gabú is Guinea-Bissau's second largest cityPort of BissauSão Vicente, CacheuHotels at Bissagos IslandsCarnival in BissauNational singer Manecas Costa===Media======Music===The music of Guinea-Bissau is usually associated with the polyrhythmic gumbe genre, the country's primary musical export.",
"However, civil unrest and other factors have combined over the years to keep gumbe, and other genres, out of mainstream audiences, even in generally syncretist African countries.The cabasa is the primary musical instrument of Guinea-Bissau, and is used in extremely swift and rhythmically complex dance music.",
"Lyrics are almost always in Guinea-Bissau Creole, a Portuguese-based creole language, and are often humorous and topical, revolving around current events and controversies.The word ''gumbe'' is sometimes used generically, to refer to any music of the country, although it most specifically refers to a unique style that fuses about ten of the country's folk music traditions.",
"Tina and tinga are other popular genres, while extent folk traditions include ceremonial music used in funerals, initiations, and other rituals, as well as Balanta brosca and kussundé, Mandinga djambadon, and the kundere sound of the Bissagos Islands.===Cuisine===Common dishes include soups and stews.",
"Common ingredients include yams, sweet potato, cassava, onion, tomato, and plantain.",
"Spices, peppers, and chilis are used in cooking, including ''Aframomum melegueta'' seeds (Guinea pepper).===Film===Flora Gomes is an internationally renowned film director; his most famous film is ''Nha Fala'' ().",
"Gomes's ''Mortu Nega'' (''Death Denied'') (1988) was the first fiction film and the second feature film ever made in Guinea-Bissau.",
"(The first feature film was ''N’tturudu'', by director in 1987.)",
"At FESPACO 1989, ''Mortu Nega'' won the prestigious Oumarou Ganda Prize.",
"In 1992, Gomes directed ''Udju Azul di Yonta'', which was screened in the Un Certain Regard section at the 1992 Cannes Film Festival.",
"Gomes has also served on the boards of many Africa-centric film festivals.",
"The actress Babetida Sadjo was born in Bafatá, Guinea-Bissau.===Sports===Football is the most popular sport in Guinea-Bissau.",
"The Guinea-Bissau national football team is under the authority of the Federação de Futebol da Guiné-Bissau.",
"They are a member of the Confederation of African Football (CAF) and FIFA."
],
[
"See also",
"*Outline of Guinea-Bissau*Index of Guinea-Bissau-related articles"
],
[
"References",
"===Sources===*****"
],
[
"Further reading",
"*Abdel Malek, K.,\"Le processus d'accès à l'indépendance de la Guinée-Bissau\", In : Bulletin de l'Association des Anciens Elèves de l'Institut National de Langues et de Cultures Orientales, N°1, Avril 1998.– pp.",
"53–60*Forrest, Joshua B., ''Lineages of State Fragility.",
"Rural Civil Society in Guinea-Bissau'' (Ohio University Press/James Currey Ltd., 2003)*Galli, Rosemary E, ''Guinea Bissau: Politics, Economics and Society'', (Pinter Pub Ltd., 1987)*Lobban Jr., Richard Andrew and Mendy, Peter Karibe, ''Historical Dictionary of the Republic of Guinea-Bissau'', third edition (Scarecrow Press, 1997)*Vigh, Henrik, ''Navigating Terrains of War: Youth And Soldiering in Guinea-Bissau'', (Berghahn Books, 2006)"
],
[
"External links",
"* Exploring the Challenges and Richness of Guinea-Bissau: A Small West African Nation from ''GB1''* Country Profile from BBC News* Guinea-Bissau.",
"''The World Factbook''.",
"Central Intelligence Agency.",
"* Guinea-Bissau from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''* Guinea-Bissau at ''Encyclopædia Britannica''*** Key Development Forecasts for Guinea-Bissau from International Futures'''Government'''** Constitution of the Republic of Guinea-Bissau* Guinea-Bissau: Prime Minister's fate unknown after apparent military coup – West Africa – Portuguese American Journal* Guinea-Bissau Holds First Post-Coup Election'''Trade'''* Guinea-Bissau 2005 Summary Trade Statistics'''News media'''* news headline links from AllAfrica.com'''Tourism'''**Guinea-Bissau Turismo – RIOS AND LAGOONS'''Health'''*The State of the World's Midwifery – Guinea-Bissau Country Profile'''GIS information'''* Master Thesis about the developing Geographical Information for Guinea-Bissau"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"History of Guinea-Bissau"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The region now known as Guinea-Bissau has been inhabited for thousands of years.",
"In the 13th century, it became a province of the Mali Empire that later became independent as the Empire of Kaabu.",
"The region was claimed by Portugal beginning in the 1450s.",
"During most of this period, Portuguese control of the region was limited to a number of forts along the coast.",
"Portugal gained full control of the mainland after the pacification campaigns of 1912–15.The offshore Bijago islands were not colonised until 1936.After independence in 1974, the country was controlled by a single-party system until 1991.The introduction of multi-party politics in 1991, brought the first multi-party elections in 1994.A civil war broke out from 1998 to 1999."
],
[
"Peoples",
"The history of the region has not been extensively documented in the archaeological records.",
"It had a population of hunter-gatherers by 1000AD.",
"Agriculturists using iron tools shortly followed.The oldest inhabitants were the Jola, Papels, Manjaks, Balanta, and Biafada.",
"Later, the Mandinka and Fulani migrated into the region, pushing the earlier inhabitants towards the coast.",
"A small number of Mandinka had been present in the region as early as the 11th century, but they migrated en masse in the 13th century as Senegambia was incorporated into the Mali Empire by General Tiramakhan Troare, who founded Kaabu.",
"A process of 'Mandinkization' ensued.",
"The Fulani began arriving as early as the 12th century as semi-nomadic herders, but did not have a large presence until the 15th century.The Balanta and Jola had weak or nonexistent institutions of kingship and instead put an emphasis on heads of villages and families.",
"The Mandinka, Fula, Papel, Manjak, and Biafada chiefs were vassals to kings.",
"The customs, rites, and ceremonies varied, but nobles commanded all the major positions, including the judicial system.",
"Social stratification was seen in the clothing and accessories of the people, in housing materials, and in transportation options.Trade was widespread between ethnic groups.",
"Items traded included pepper and kola nuts from the southern forests.",
"In addition, kola nuts, iron, and iron utensils from the savannah-forest zone, salt and dried fish from the coast, and Mandinka cotton cloth were also traded.",
"The products were commonly sold at markets and fairs held weekly or every eight days, which could be attended by several thousand buyers and sellers from as far as 60 miles away.",
"Weapons were prohibited in the marketplace, and soldiers were positioned around the area to keep order throughout the day.",
"Sections of the market were allocated for specific products, except for wine, which was sold anywhere."
],
[
"Pre-Colonial Kingdoms",
"=== Kaabu ======= Origins ====Kaabu was first established in the 13th century.",
"It existed as a province of Mali through the conquest of Senegambia by a general of Sundiata Keita named Tiramakhan Traore.",
"According to oral tradition, Tiramakhan Traore invaded the region to punish the Wolof king for having insulted Sundiata, and followed by going south of the Gambia River and into the Casamance.",
"This initiated a migration of Mandinka into the region.",
"By the 14th century, much of Guinea Bissau was under the administration of Mali and ruled by a ''farim kaabu'' (commander of Kaabu).Mali declined gradually, beginning in the 14th century.",
"Formerly secure possessions in what is now Senegal, the Gambia, and Guinea-Bissau, were cut off by the expanding power of Koli Tenguella in the early 16th century.",
"Kaabu became an independent federation of kingdoms, the most powerful western Mandinka state of the period..==== Society ====Kaabu's ruling classes were composed of elite warriors known as the Nyancho who traced their patrilineal lineage to Tiramakhan Troare.",
"The Nyancho were a warrior culture, reputed to be excellent cavalry men and raiders.",
"The Kaabu ''Mansaba'' was seated in Kansala, today known as Gabu, in the eastern Geba region.",
"Malian imperial history was central to Kaabu culture, maintaining its major institutions and the lingua franca of Mandinka.",
"Individuals from other ethnic backgrounds often became assimilated into this dominant culture, and frequent inter-ethnic marriages assisted the process.",
"The slave trade dominated the economy, enriching the warrior classes with imported cloth, beads, metalware, and firearms.",
"Trade networks to North Africa were dominant up to the 14th century, with coastal trade with the Europeans increasing beginning in the 15th century.",
"In the 17th and 18th centuries an estimated 700 slaves left the region annually, many of them from Kaabu.",
"==== Decline ====In the late 18th century, the rise of the Imamate of Futa Jallon to the east posed a powerful challenge to animist Kaabu.",
"During the first half of the 19th century, civil war erupted as local Fula people sought independence.",
"This long-running conflict led to the 1867 Battle of Kansala.",
"A Fula army led by laid siege to the earthen walls of Kansala for 11 days.",
"The Mandinka kept the Fulani from climbing the walls for a time, but the walls were overwhelmed.",
"The ''Mansaba'' Dianke Walli, seeing that he would lose, ordered his troops to set the city's gunpowder on fire, killing the Mandinka defenders alongside most of the invading army.",
"The loss of Kansala marked the end of the Kaabu and the rise of Fuladu, though some smaller Mandinka kingdoms survived until their absorption by the Portuguese.=== Biafada kingdoms ===The Biafada people inhabited the area around the Rio Grande de Buba in three kingdoms: Biguba, Guinala, and Bissege.",
"The former two were important ports with significant lançado communities.",
"They were subjects of the Mandinka mansa of Kaabu.=== Kingdom of Bissau ===According to oral tradition, the Kingdom of Bissau was founded by the son of the king of Quinara (Guinala) who moved to the area with his pregnant sister, six wives, and subjects of his father's kingdom.",
"Relations between the kingdom and the Portuguese were initially warm, but deteriorated over time.The kingdom strongly defended its sovereignty against the Portuguese 'Pacification Campaigns,' defeating them in 1891, 1894, and 1904.In 1915, the Portuguese, under the command of Officer Teixeira Pinto and warlord Abdul Injai, fully absorbed the kingdom.=== Bijagos ===In the Bijagos Islands, different islands were populated by people of different ethnic origins, leading to great cultural diversity in the archipelago.Bijago society was warlike.",
"Men were dedicated to boat building and raiding the mainland, attacking the coastal peoples as well as other islands, believing that on the sea they had no king.",
"Women cultivated land, constructed houses, and gathered food, and could choose their husbands, generally warriors with the best reputation.",
"Successful warriors could have many wives and boats, and were entitled to one-third of the spoils of the boat from any expedition.Bijago night raids on coastal settlements had significant impact on the societies attacked.",
"Portuguese traders on the mainland tried to stop the raids, as they hurt the local economy, but the islanders also sold considerable numbers of slaves to the Europeans, who frequently pushed for more captives.",
"The Bijagos themselves were mostly safe from enslavement, out of reach of mainland slave raiders.",
"Europeans avoided having them as slaves.",
"Portuguese sources say the children made good slaves but not the adults, who were likely to commit suicide, lead rebellions aboard slave ships, or escape upon reaching the New World."
],
[
"European Contact",
"Lesser coat of arms of Portuguese Guinea-Bissau=== 15th–16th centuries ===The first Europeans to reach Guinea-Bissau were the Venetian explorer Alvise Cadamosto in 1455, Portuguese explorer Diogo Gomes in 1456, Portuguese explorer Duarte Pacheco Pareira in the 1480s, and Flemish explorer Eustache de la Fosse in 1479–1480.The region was known to the Portuguese as 'The Guinea of Cape Verde', and Santiago was the administrative capital and the source of most of its white settlers.",
"Although the Portuguese authorities initially discouraged white settlement on the mainland, this prohibition was ignored by lançados and ''tangomãos'' who assimilated into indigenous culture and customs.",
"They were mainly from impoverished backgrounds, traders from Cape Verde or people exiled from Portugal, often of Jewish and/or New Christian background.",
"They ignored Portuguese trade regulations banning entering the region or trading without a royal licence, shipping out of unauthorised ports, or assimilating into the native community.",
"In 1520 they reduced measures against the ''lançados'', and trade and settlements increased on the mainland populated by the Portuguese and native traders, as well some Spanish, Genoese, English, French, and Dutch.With the regions rivers possessing no natural harbours, the ''lançados'' and native traders navigated riverways and creeks in small boats purchased from European ships or manufactured locally by trained ''grumetes'' (native African sailors, both slave and free).",
"The main ports were Cacheu, Bissau, and Guinala, and each river also sported trading centers such as Toubaboudougou at their furthest navigable point that traded directly with the interior for resources such as gum arabic, ivory, hides, civet, dyes, slaves, and gold.",
"A small number of European settlers established isolated farms along the rivers.",
"Meanwhile, local African rulers generally refused to allow Europeans into the interior, to ensure their control of trade routes.Europeans were not accepted in all communities, with the Jolas, Balantas, and Bijagos initially hostile.",
"The other ethnicities of the region all harboured communities of lançados, who were subject to taxation and the laws and customs of the community they lived in, including the local courts.",
"Disputes became increasingly frequent and serious in the late 1500s as the foreign traders sought to influence the host societies to their benefit.",
"Under pressure from hostile locals, the Portuguese abandoned the settlement of Buguendo near Cacheu in 1580 and Guinala in 1583, where they retreated to a fort.",
"In 1590 they built a fort at Cacheu, which the local Manjaks unsuccessfully stormed shortly after its construction.",
"These forts, poorly manned and provisioned, were unable to completely free the ''lançados'' from their responsibilities to the native monarchs, their hosts, who themselves could not kick the traders out as goods that they brought in were in high demand with the upper class.Meanwhile, the Portuguese monopoly, always leaky, was being increasingly challenged.",
"In 1580 the Iberian Union unified the crowns of Portugal and Spain, leading to the attack of Portuguese possessions in Guinea Bissau and Cape Verde by Spain's enemies.",
"French, Dutch, and English ships increasingly came to trade with the natives and the independent-minded ''lançados.",
"''.=== 17th–18th centuries ===In the early 17th century the government attempted to force all Guinean trade to go through Santiago and to promote trade and settlement on the mainland while restricting the sale of weapons to the locals.",
"These efforts were largely unsuccessful.",
"With the end of the Iberian Union in 1640, King João IV attempted to restrict the Spanish trade in Guinea that had flourished for the previous 60 years.",
"The Afro-Portuguese in Bissau, Guinala, Geba, and Cacheu swore allegiance to the Portuguese king, but were not in a position to deny the free trade that the African kings, who now saw European products as necessities, demanded.",
"In Cacheu famine had wiped out the slave troops in charge of defending the fort, the water supply remained in Manjak hands, and the lançados (and their Africanized descendants) were no more enthused about losing customers than the locals, so Captain-Major Luis de Magalhães had no choice but to lift the embargo.Flag of the Portuguese Company of GuineaIn 1641 the replaced de Magalhães with Gonçalo de Gamboa de Ayala.",
"He had some success winning over local leaders and stopping Spanish ships at Cacheu.",
"In Bissau, however, two Spanish ships entered and were afforded full protection by the King of Bissau.",
"Ayala threatened violent repercussions, but nothing came of it.",
"He did successfully resettle the Afro-European community of Geba to Farim northeast of Cacheu.",
"The Portuguese were never able to impose their monopolistic vision on the local and Afro-European traders, as the economic interests of the native leaders and Afro-European merchants never fully aligned with theirs.",
"During this period the power of the Mali Empire in the region was dissipating, and the ''farim'' of Kaabu, the king of Kassa and other local rulers began to assert their independence.In the early 1700s the Portuguese abandoned Bissau and retreated to Cacheu after the captain-major was captured and killed by the local king.",
"They would not return until the 1750s.",
"Meanwhile, the Cacheu and Cape Verde Company shut down in 1706.For a brief period in the 1790s, the British tried to establish a foothold on Bolama.",
"=== Slave trade ===Guinea-Bissau was among the first regions touched by the Atlantic slave trade and, while it did not produce the same number of enslaved people as other regions, the impact was still significant.",
"At first slaves were mainly sent to Cape Verde and the Iberian Peninsula, with the Madeira and the Canary Islands seeing an influx at lower volumes.",
"In Cape Verde especially they were instrumental in developing the plantation economy, growing indigo and cotton and weaving ''panos'' cloth that became a standard currency in West Africa.",
"From 1580 to 1640 many slaves from Guinea-Bissau were destined for the Spanish West Indies, with an average of 3000 shipped every year from Guinala alone.",
"The 17th and 18th centuries saw thousands of people taken from the region every year by Portuguese, French, and British companies.",
"The Fula jihads and specifically the wars between the Imamate of Futa Jallon and Kaabu provided many of these.There were four main ways in which people were enslaved: as punishment for law breaking, selling themselves or relatives during famines, kidnapped by native marauders or European raiders, or as prisoners of war.",
"Most slaves were bought by Europeans from local rulers or traders.",
"Every ethnicity in the region participated in the trade with the exception of the Balantas and Jolas.",
"Most wars were waged for the sole purpose of capturing slaves to sell to the Europeans in exchange for imported goods, such that they resembled man-hunts more than conflicts over territory or political power.",
"The nobles and kings benefited, while the common people bore the brunt of the raiding and insecurity.",
"If a noble was captured they were likely to be released, as the captors, whoever they were, would generally accept a ransom in exchange for their freedom.",
"The relationship between kings and European traders was a partnership, with the two regularly making deals on how the trade was to be conducted, who was to be enslaved and who was not, and the prices of the slaves.",
"Contemporary chroniclers Fernão Guerreiro and Mateo de Anguiano questioned multiple kings on their part in the slave trade, noting that they recognised the trade as evil but participated because the Europeans would buy no other goods from them.",
"Beginning in the late 18th century, European countries gradually began slowing and/or abolishing the slave trade.",
"The British navy and, to a more half-hearted extent, the U.S. Navy attempted to intercept slavers off the coast of Guinea in the first half of the 19th century.",
"This restriction of supply, however, only increased prices and intensified illegal slave-trading activity.",
"Portugal abandoned slavery in 1869 and Brazil in 1888, but a system of contract labor replaced it that was only barely better for the workers.===Colonialism===Comparison of Africa in the years 1880 and 1913Up until the late 1800s, Portuguese control of their 'colony' outside of their forts and trading posts was a fiction.",
"African rulers held power in the countryside, and frequent attacks and assassinations against the Portuguese marked the middle decades of the century.",
"Guinea-Bissau became the scene of increased European colonial competition beginning in the 1860s.",
"The dispute over the status of Bolama was resolved in Portugal's favor through the mediation of U.S. President Ulysses S. Grant in 1870, but French encroachment on Portuguese claims continued.",
"In 1886 the Casamance region of what is now Senegal was ceded to them.\\Attempting to shore up domestic finances and strengthen the grip on the colony, in 1891 António José Enes, Minister of Marine and Colonies, reformed tax laws and granted concessions in Guinea, mainly to foreign companies, to increase exports.",
"The modest increase in government income, however, did not defray the cost of the troops used to impose the taxes.",
"Resistance continued throughout the area, but these reforms laid the groundwork for future military expansion.To meet the Berlin Congress standard of 'effective occupation', the Portuguese colonial government embarked on a series of 'pacification campaigns' that were mostly military failures up until the arrival of Capt.",
"João Teixeira Pinto in 1912.Supported by a large mercenary army commanded by Senegalese fugitive Abdul Injai, he quickly and brutally crushed local resistance on the mainland.",
"Three more bloody campaigns in 1917, 1925, and 1936 were required to 'pacify' the Bissagos Islands.",
"Portuguese Guinea remained a neglected backwater, however, with administration expenses exceeding revenue.",
"In 1951, responding to anti-colonial criticism in the United Nations, the Portuguese government rebranded all of their colonies, including Portuguese Guinea, as overseas provinces (''Províncias Ultramarines'').===Struggle for independence===Portuguese Colonial War in Portuguese Guinea, 1968The African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde (PAIGC) was founded in 1956 under the leadership of Amílcar Cabral.",
"Initially committed to peaceful methods, the 1959 Pidjiguiti massacre pushed the party towards more militarized tactics, leaning heavily on the political mobilization of the peasantry in the countryside.",
"After years of planning and preparing from their base in Conakry, the PAIGC launched the Guinea-Bissau War of Independence on 23 January 1963.Unlike guerrilla movements in other Portuguese colonies, the PAIGC rapidly extended its control over large portions of the territory.",
"Aided by the jungle-like terrain, it had easy access to borders with neighbouring allies and large quantities of arms from Cuba, China, the Soviet Union, and left-leaning African countries.",
"Cuba also agreed to supply artillery experts, doctors, and technicians.",
"The PAIGC even managed to acquire a significant anti-aircraft capability in order to defend itself against aerial attack.",
"By 1973, the PAIGC was in control of many parts of Guinea, although the movement suffered a setback in January 1973 when its founder and leader Amilcar Cabral was assassinated.Portuguese-held (green), disputed (yellow) and rebel-held areas (red) in Portuguese-Guinea and other colonies 1970After Cabral's death, party leadership fell to Aristides Pereira, who would later become the first president of the Republic of Cape Verde.",
"The PAIGC National Assembly met at Boe in the southeastern region and declared the independence of Guinea-Bissau on 24 September 1973.This was recognized by a 93–7 UN General Assembly vote in November."
],
[
"Independence",
"Following Portugal's April 1974 Carnation Revolution, it granted independence to Guinea-Bissau on 10 September 1974.Luís Cabral, Amílcar Cabral's half-brother, became President.",
"The United States recognised Guinea Bissau's independence on 10 September 1974.In late 1980, the government was overthrown in a coup led by Prime Minister and former armed forces commander João Bernardo Vieira."
],
[
"Democracy",
"In 1994, 20 years after independence from Portugal, the country's first multiparty legislative and presidential elections were held.",
"An army uprising that triggered the Guinea-Bissau Civil War in 1998, created hundreds of thousands of displaced persons.",
"The president was ousted by a military junta on 7 May 1999.An interim government turned over power in February 2000 when opposition leader Kumba Ialá took office following two rounds of transparent presidential elections.",
"Guinea-Bissau's transition back to democracy has been complicated by a crippled economy devastated by civil war and the military's predilection for governmental meddling.",
"Presidential palace in Bissau damaged during the civil war of 1998-99 in 2007===Presidency of Kumba Ialá===Despite reports that there had been an influx of arms in the weeks leading up to the election and reports of some 'disturbances during campaigning' – including attacks on the presidential palace and the Interior Ministry by as-yet-unidentified gunmen – European monitors labelled the election as \"calm and organized\".In January 2000, the second round of a general election took place.",
"The presidential election resulted in a victory for opposition leader Kumba Ialá of the Party for Social Renewal (PRS), who defeated Malam Bacai Sanhá of the ruling PAIGC.",
"The PRS were also victorious in the National People's Assembly election, winning 38 of the 102 seats.===2003 coup===In September 2003, a military coup was conducted.",
"The military arrested Ialá on the charge of being \"unable to solve the problems\".",
"After being delayed several times, legislative elections were held in March 2004.A mutiny of military factions in October 2004 resulted in the death of the head of the armed forces and caused widespread unrest.===Second presidency of João Bernardo Vieira===In June 2005, presidential elections were held for the first time since the coup that deposed Ialá.",
"Ialá returned as the candidate for the PRS, claiming to be the legitimate president of the country.",
"The election was won by former president João Bernardo Vieira, deposed in the 1999 coup.",
"Vieira beat Malam Bacai Sanhá in a run-off election.",
"Sanhá initially refused to concede, claiming that tampering and electoral fraud occurred in two constituencies including the capital, Bissau.Despite reports of arms entering the country prior to the election and some \"disturbances during campaigning\", including attacks on government offices by unidentified gunmen, foreign election monitors described the 2005 election overall as \"calm and organized\".Three years later, PAIGC won a strong parliamentary majority, with 67 of 100 seats, in the parliamentary election held in November 2008.In November 2008, President Vieira's official residence was attacked by members of the armed forces, killing a guard but leaving the president unharmed.On 2 March 2009, Vieira was assassinated by what preliminary reports indicated to be a group of soldiers avenging the death of the head of joint chiefs of staff, General Batista Tagme Na Wai, who had been killed in an explosion the day before.",
"Vieira's death did not trigger widespread violence, but there were signs of turmoil in the country, according to the advocacy group Swisspeace.",
"Military leaders in the country pledged to respect the constitutional order of succession.",
"National Assembly Speaker Raimundo Pereira was appointed as an interim president until a nationwide election on 28 June 2009.It was won by Malam Bacai Sanhá of the PAIGC, against Kumba Ialá as the presidential candidate of the PRS.===2012 coup===On 9 January 2012, President Sanhá died of complications from diabetes, and Pereira was again appointed as an interim president.",
"On the evening of 12 April 2012, members of the country's military staged a coup d'état and arrested the interim president and a leading presidential candidate.",
"Former vice chief of staff, General Mamadu Ture Kuruma, assumed control of the country in the transitional period and started negotiations with opposition parties.===Presidencies of José Mário Vaz and Umaro Sissoco Embaló===José Mário Vaz was the President of Guinea-Bissau from 2014 until 2019 presidential elections.",
"At the end of his term, Vaz became the first elected president to complete his five-year mandate.",
"He lost the 2019 election to Umaro Sissoco Embaló, who took office in February 2020.Embaló is the first president to be elected without the backing of the PAIGC.In February 2022, there was a failed coup attempt against President Embaló.",
"According to Embaló, the coup attempt was linked to drug trafficking.",
"Another coup attempt in 2023 resulted in clashes between government forces and the National Guard."
],
[
"See also",
"* Politics of Guinea-Bissau* United Nations Peacebuilding Support Office in Guinea-Bissau (UNOGBIS)* City of Bissau history and timeline"
],
[
"References",
"===Bibliography===*******"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Geography of Guinea-Bissau"
],
[
"Introduction",
"A map of Guinea Bissau\tLocation of Guinea BissauThe '''geography of Guinea-Bissau''' is that of low coastal plains bordering the Atlantic Ocean.",
"The country borders Senegal in the north and Guinea in the southeast."
],
[
"Terrain and ecology",
"Guinea-Bissau's topography.",
"The terrain of Guinea-Bissau is mostly low coastal plain with swamps of Guinean mangroves rising to Guinean forest-savanna mosaic in the east.",
"A recent global remote sensing analysis suggested that there were 1,203km² of tidal flats in Guinea-Bissau, making it the 28th ranked country in terms of tidal flat area.",
"The lowest point on Guinea-Bissau is at sea level at the Atlantic Ocean.",
"The highest point in Guinea-Bissau is Monte Torin with an elevation of .Natural resources found in Guinea-Bissau include fish, timber, phosphates, bauxite, clay, granite, limestone and unexploited deposits of petroleum.",
"10.67% of the land is arable and 235.6 square kilometres are irrigated.Natural hazards include a hot, dry, dusty harmattan haze that may reduce visibility during the dry season and brush fires.",
"Severe environmental issues include deforestation; soil erosion; overgrazing and overfishing.Near the Senegal border there have been historic sightings of the painted hunting dog, ''Lycaon pictus'', but that endangered canid may now be extirpated in that locale."
],
[
"Climate",
"Guinea-Bissau's climate is tropical.",
"This means it is generally hot and humid.",
"It has a monsoonal-type rainy season (June to November) with southwesterly winds and a dry season (December to May) with northeasterly harmattan winds.Guinea-Bissau is warm all year around and there is little temperature fluctuation; it averages .",
"The average rainfall for the capital city Bissau is although this is almost entirely accounted for during the rainy season which falls between June and September/October.",
"From December through April, the country receives very little rainfall.600px"
],
[
"Bissagos Islands"
],
[
"Information from the CIA World Factbook",
"Typical scenery in Guinea-Bissau.High plain mountains near the border with GuineaBijagós Islands, Guinea-Bissau; Location: Western Africa, bordering the North Atlantic Ocean, between Guinea and Senegal; Geographic coordinates: ; Map references; Area::* Total: 36,125 km2:* Land: 28,120 km2:* Water: 8,005 km2; Area—comparative: Slightly less than three times the size of Connecticut; Land boundaries;* Total: 762 km;* Border countries: Guinea 421 km, Senegal 341 km; Coastline: 350 km; Maritime claims;* Territorial sea: ;* Exclusive economic zone: ; Terrain: Mostly low coastal plain rising to savanna in east; Elevation extremes::* Lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m:* Highest point: Unnamed location in the northeast corner of the country 300 m; Natural resources: Fish, timber, phosphates, bauxite, unexploited deposits of petroleum; Land use::* Arable land: 10.67%:* Permanent crops: 8.89%:* Other: 80.44% (2012 est.",
"); Irrigated land: 223.6 km2 (2003); Total renewable water resources: 31 km3; Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural)::* Total: 0.18 km3/yr (18%/6%/76%):* Per capita: 135.7 m3/yr (2005); Natural hazards: Hot, dry, dusty harmattan haze may reduce visibility during dry season; brush fires; Environment—current issues:: Deforestation; soil erosion; overgrazing; overfishing; Environment—international agreements::* Party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands:* Signed, but not ratified: None of the selected agreements"
],
[
"Extreme points",
"This is a list of the extreme points of Guinea-Bissau, the points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location.",
"* Northernmost point – the northern section of the border with Senegal** Easternmost point – unnamed location on the border with Guinea immediately south-west of the Guinean village of Sofan, Gabú Region* Southernmost point – unnamed headland on Ilha Cataque, Tombali Region* Westernmost point - Cape Roxo at the point where the border with Senegal enters the Atlantic Ocean, Cacheu Region* *''Note: Guinea-Bissau does not have a northernmost point, the border here being formed by a straight horizontal line''"
],
[
"See also",
"*Guinea-Bissau"
],
[
"Line notes"
],
[
"References",
"* C. Michael Hogan.",
"2009.",
"''Painted Hunting Dog: Lycaon pictus'', GlobalTwitcher.com, ed.",
"N. Stromberg* U.S. Central Intelligence Agency."
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Demographics of Guinea-Bissau"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Guinea-Bissau's population between 1960 and 2017.This is a demography of the population of Guinea-Bissau including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population."
],
[
"Ethnic groups",
"The population of Guinea-Bissau is ethnically diverse with distinct languages, customs, and social structures.",
"Most Guineans, 99%, are Black people — mostly Fula and Mandinka-speakers concentrated in the north and northeast, the Balanta and Papel, living in the southern coastal regions, and the Manjaco and Mancanha, occupying the central and northern coastal areas.Most of the rest, 1% of its total population, are ''mestiços'' of mixed Portuguese and black descent, including Cape Verdean minority.",
"Due to the exodus of most Portuguese settlers after independence, less than 1% of Guinea-Bissauans are pure Portuguese.",
"The country also has a Chinese minority, including Macanese people of mixed Portuguese and Cantonese blood from Macau.Most people are farmers.",
"38%-45% are Muslims - this makes Guinea-Bissau the only Portuguese-speaking nation with a sizable Muslim population.",
"Most Muslims are Sunnis.",
"The rest of the population are pagans, principally the Balanta, and Christians, mostly Roman Catholics."
],
[
"Population",
"Guinea-Bissau's population between 1960 and 2017.According to the 2022 revision of the world factbook the total population was 2,026,778 in 2022.The proportion of children below the age of 14 in 2020 was 43.17%, 53.75% was between 15 and 65 years of age, while 3.08% was 65 years or older.",
"The proportion of the population below the age of 15 in 2010 was 41.3%, 55.4% were aged between 15 and 65 years of age, while 3.3% were aged 65 years or older.Total populationPopulation aged 0–14 (%)Population aged 15–64 (%)Population aged 65+ (%) 1950 518 00038.857.63.6 1955 566 00041.954.93.2 1960 593 00041.355.73.0 1965 598 00041.355.63.1 1970 603 00037.059.73.3 1975 694 00041.055.73.3 1980 835 00042.154.43.5 1985 922 00045.451.13.5 19901 017 00043.852.83.5 19951 125 00044.152.63.4 20001 241 00043.153.63.3 20051 368 00042.454.43.2 20101 515 00041.355.43.3 20201 927 10443.253.83.1Population Estimates by Sex and Age Group (01.VII.2019) (Data refer to national projections.",
"):Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 790 873 813 688 1 604 561 100 0–4 137 507 131 104 268 611 16.74 5–9 125 195 118 976 244 171 15.22 10–14 91 543 90 827 182 370 11.37 15–19 85 443 84 441 169 884 10.59 20–24 72 130 70 537 142 667 8.89 25–29 67 422 69 259 136 681 8.52 30–34 54 779 60 638 115 417 7.19 35–39 46 871 55 153 102 024 6.36 40–44 30 186 34 773 64 959 4.05 45–49 25 238 30 395 55 633 3.47 50–54 17 056 20 282 37 338 2.33 55–59 15 067 18 335 33 402 2.08 60–64 9 076 11 570 20 646 1.29 65-69 6 482 6 899 13 381 0.83 70-74 3 823 5 014 8 837 0.55 75-79 1 806 2 881 4 687 0.29 80+ 1 249 2 604 3 853 0.24Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent 0–14 354 245 340 907 695 152 43.32 15–64 423 268 455 383 878 651 54.76 65+ 13 360 17 398 30 758 1.92"
],
[
"Vital statistics",
"Registration of vital events is in Guinea-Bissau not complete.",
"The Population Departement of the United Nations prepared the following estimates.PeriodLive births per yearDeaths per yearNatural change per yearCBR*CDR*NC*TFR*IMR* 1950-1955 30 000 18 000 12 00054.933.521.47.41211 1955-1960 25 000 17 000 7 00042.329.512.85.88201 1960-1965 25 000 16 000 9 00042.327.414.95.88191 1965-1970 21 000 15 000 6 00035.624.810.84.78182 1970-1975 36 000 18 000 18 00055.727.328.47.34174 1975-1980 35 000 19 000 15 00045.525.320.36.11165 1980-1985 42 000 21 000 21 00047.923.524.46.70153 1985-1990 44 000 21 000 23 00045.822.123.76.68145 1990-1995 48 000 23 000 26 00045.221.224.06.54141 1995-2000 51 000 24 000 27 00042.819.922.96.05134 2000-2005 54 000 24 000 29 00041.118.522.55.66126 2005-2010 57 000 25 000 32 00039.317.521.95.27119 * CBR = crude birth rate (per 1000); CDR = crude death rate (per 1000); NC = natural change (per 1000); IMR = infant mortality rate per 1000 births; TFR = total fertility rate (number of children per woman)=== Life expectancy ===PeriodLife expectancy in Years1950–195535.88 1955–1960 37.19 1960–1965 38.63 1965–1970 40.60 1970–1975 42.48 1975–1980 44.49 1980–1985 46.60 1985–1990 48.18 1990–1995 49.99 1995–2000 51.81 2000–2005 52.68 2005–2010 54.18 2010–2015 56.00"
],
[
"Other demographic statistics",
"Demographic statistics according to the World Population Review in 2022.",
"*One birth every 8 minutes\t*One death every 28 minutes\t*One net migrant every 360 minutes\t*Net gain of one person every 11 minutesThe following demographic are from the independent Guinea-Bissau Statistical Service and from the CIA World Factbook unless otherwise indicated.===Population===:2,026,778 (2022 est.",
"):1,833,247 (July 2018 est.",
"):1,596,677 (July 2011 est.",
")===Religions===Muslim 46.1%, folk religions 30.6%, Christian 18.9%, other or unaffiliated 4.4% (2020 est.",
")===Age structure===Population pyramid of Guinea-Bissau in 2020:''0-14 years:'' 43.17% (male 417,810/female 414,105):''15-24 years:'' 20.38% (male 192,451/female 200,370):''25-54 years:'' 30.24% (male 275,416/female 307,387):''55-64 years:'' 3.12% (male 29,549/female 30,661):''65 years and over:'' 3.08% (male 25,291/female 34,064) (2020 est.",
"):''0-14 years:'' 43.55% (male 400,666 /female 397,704):''15-24 years:'' 20.23% (male 181,286 /female 189,515):''25-54 years:'' 29.9% (male 259,762 /female 288,300):''55-64 years:'' 3.29% (male 27,621 /female 32,611):''65 years and over:'' 3.04% (male 24,331 /female 31,451) (2018 est.",
")===Birth rate===:36.45 births/1,000 population (2022 est.)",
"Country comparison to the world: 12nd:37.3 births/1,000 population (2018 est.)",
"Country comparison to the world: 13th===Death rate===:7.5 deaths/1,000 population (2022 est.)",
"Country comparison to the world: 106th:8.5 deaths/1,000 population (2018 est.)",
"Country comparison to the world: 79th===Total fertility rate===:4.69 children born/woman (2022 est.)",
"Country comparison to the world: 14th:4.81 children born/woman (2018 est.)",
"Country comparison to the world: 18th===Population growth rate===:2.53% (2022 est.)",
"Country comparison to the world: 21st:2.48% (2018 est.)",
"Country comparison to the world: 23rd:1.988% (2011 est.",
")===Median age===:total: 18 years.",
"Country comparison to the world: 214th:male: 17.4 years:female: 18.6 years (2020 est.",
"):total: 17.8 years.",
"Country comparison to the world: 216th:male: 17.2 years :female: 18.5 years (2018 est.",
")===Contraceptive prevalence rate===:20.6% (2018):16% (2014)===Net migration rate===:-3.63 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2022 est.)",
"Country comparison to the world: 188th:-3.72 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2021 est.)",
"Country comparison to the world: 189th===Life expectancy at birth===:total population: 63.68 years.",
"Country comparison to the world: 207th:male: 61.45 years:female: 65.99 years (2022 est.",
"):total population: 61.4 years (2018 est.",
"):male: 59.2 years (2018 est.",
"):female: 63.6 years (2018 est.",
"):total population: 50.23 years:male: 48.21 years:female: 52.31 years (2015 est.",
")===Dependency ratios===:total dependency ratio: 80.4 (2015 est.",
"):youth dependency ratio: 75.2 (2015 est.",
"):elderly dependency ratio: 5.2 (2015 est.",
"):potential support ratio: 19.3 (2015 est.",
")===Urbanization===:urban population: 45% of total population (2022):rate of urbanization: 3.22% annual rate of change (2020-25 est.",
"):urban population: 43.4% of total population (2018):rate of urbanization: 3.41% annual rate of change (2015-20 est.",
")===Sex ratio===*at birth: 1.03 male(s)/female*0–14 years: 1 male(s)/female*15–24 years: 0.98 male(s)/female*25–54 years: 0.99 male(s)/female*55–64 years: 0.6 male(s)/female*65 years and over: 0.6 male(s)/female*total population: 0.95 male(s)/female (2015 est.",
")===Nationality===:noun:Guinean (s):adjective:Guinean===Ethnic groups===*Fulani 28.5%*Balanta 22.5%*Mandinga 14.7%*Papel 9.1%*Manjaco 8.3%*Beafada 3.5%*Mancanha 3.1%*Bijago 2.1%*Felupe 1.7%*Mansoanca 1.4%*Balanta Mane 1%*Other 1.8%*None 2.2%===Languages===*Crioulo 90.4%*Portuguese 27.1% (official)*French 5.1%*English 2.9%*Other 2.4%===Education expenditures===:2.9% of GDP (2019) Country comparison to the world: 155th===Literacy===definition: age 15 and over can read and write:total population: 59.9%:male: 71.8%:female: 48.3% (2015 est.",
")===Major infectious diseases===:degree of risk: very high (2020):food or waterborne diseases: bacterial and protozoal diarrhea, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever:vectorborne diseases: malaria, dengue fever, and yellow fever:water contact diseases: schistosomiasis:animal contact diseases: rabiesnote: on 21 March 2022, the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) issued a Travel Alert for polio in Africa; Guinea-Bissau is currently considered a high risk to travelers for circulating vaccine-derived polioviruses (cVDPV); vaccine-derived poliovirus (VDPV) is a strain of the weakened poliovirus that was initially included in oral polio vaccine (OPV) and that has changed over time and behaves more like the wild or naturally occurring virus; this means it can be spread more easily to people who are unvaccinated against polio and who come in contact with the stool or respiratory secretions, such as from a sneeze, of an \"infected\" person who received oral polio vaccine; the CDC recommends that before any international travel, anyone unvaccinated, incompletely vaccinated, or with an unknown polio vaccination status should complete the routine polio vaccine series; before travel to any high-risk destination, CDC recommends that adults who previously completed the full, routine polio vaccine series receive a single, lifetime booster dose of polio vaccine."
],
[
"References"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Politics of Guinea-Bissau"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''politics of Guinea-Bissau''' take place in a framework of a semi-presidential representative democratic republic, with a multi-party system, wherein the President is head of state and the Prime Minister is head of government.",
"Executive power is exercised by the government.",
"Legislative power is vested in both the government and the National People's Assembly.Since 1994, the Bissau-Guinean party system has been dominated by the socialist African Independence Party of Guinea and Cape Verde and the Party for Social Renewal.",
"The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature.Despite the democratic, constitutional framework, the military has exercised substantial power, and has interfered repeatedly in civilian leadership since multi-party elections were instituted in 1994.In the past 16 years, Guinea-Bissau has experienced two coups, a civil war, an attempted coup, and a presidential assassination by the military.",
"Since the country's independence in 1974, only one president successfully completed his five-year term, José Mário Vaz."
],
[
"Political developments",
"Presidential Palace in the capital Bissau.In 1989, the ruling African Independence Party of Guinea and Cape Verde (PAIGC), under the direction of President João Bernardo \"Nino\" Vieira, began to outline a political liberalization program which the People's National Assembly approved in 1991.Reforms that paved the way for multi-party democracy included the repeal of articles of the constitution, which had enshrined the leading role of the PAIGC.",
"Laws were ratified to allow the formation of other political parties, a free press, and independent trade unions with the right to strike.Guinea-Bissau's first multi-party elections for president and parliament were held in 1994.Following the 1998-99 civil war, presidential and legislative elections were again held, bringing opposition leader Kumba Ialá and his Party for Social Renewal to power.",
"Ialá was ousted in a bloodless coup in September 2003, and Henrique Rosa was sworn in as president.Former president Viera was once again elected as president in July 2005.The government of Prime Minister Carlos Gomes Júnior was elected in March 2004 in a free and fair election, but was replaced by the government of Prime Minister Aristides Gomes, which took office in November 2005.Gomes lost a no-confidence vote and submitted his resignation in March 2007.Martinho Ndafa Kabi was then nominated as prime minister by a coalition composed of the PAIGC, the Social Renewal Party (PRS), and the United Social Democratic Party (PUSD).",
"On April 9, 2007, it was announced that President João Bernardo Vieira had rejected the choice of Kabi, but the coalition said that they maintained him as their choice.",
"Later that day, Vieira appointed Kabi as the new prime minister.",
"Kabi took office on April 13, and his government, composed of 20 ministers (including eight from the PAIGC, eight from the PRS, and two from the PUSD) was named on April 17.===2009 assassination===President Viera was killed on March 2, 2009, by soldiers as retaliation for the killing of the head of the joint chiefs of staff, General Tagme Na Waie, who was murdered the previous day.===2010 military unrest===Prior to the 2008 election, a decision to change the electoral date and extend the parliamentary mandate resulted in major controversy when Assembly deputies snubbed the president and chose to extend their mandate.",
"After the Supreme Court annulled that law, President Vieira dissolved the Assembly, thus allowing the standing committee to continue working, and appointed a new government composed of loyalists.Rear Admiral Bubo Na Tchuto tried to organize a coup on August 7, 2008, but the attempt was put down.",
"Na Tchuto managed to escape the country.",
"The attempted coup added to instability ahead of parliamentary elections.",
"Gambia subsequently arrested Na Tchuto.",
"He later returned to Guinea-Bissau disguised as a fisherman, and took refuge at a UN compound.",
"Although the UN agreed to surrender him to the government, Na Tchuto continued to reside in the compound.",
"As a result of his return, security in the country was tightened, contributing to uncertainty and instability.On April 1, 2010, soldiers entered UN offices and arrested Na Tchuto.",
"The same day, more soldiers entered Prime Minister Carlos Gomes Júnior's residence and detained him on the premises.",
"Simultaneously, forty military officers, including Zamora Induta, head of Guinea-Bissau's armed forces, were confined at an army base.",
"Hundreds of the PM's supporters demanded his release.",
"In response, the deputy army chief, Antonio Indjai, said: \"If the people continue to go out into the streets to show their support for Carlos Gomes Junior, then I will kill Carlos Gomes Junior ... or I will send someone to kill him.",
"\"The following day, the prime minister was taken to meet with the president where the president said: \"I will not resign because I was democratically elected.",
"I consider what happened on Thursday as an incident.",
"The situation is now stable.",
"I can assure you that institutions will return to their normal functions.\"",
"The UN secretary general and other international powers condemned the move, while government ministers issued a statement saying \"Members of government expressed their support and their attachment to the prime minister, and firmly condemned the use of force as a means to resolve problems.\"",
"Tensions seemingly calmed, with President Sanha saying the coup attempt was \"a confusion between soldiers that reached the government\", and the UN Secretary General spoke about the PM's \"detention and subsequent release.\"",
"Nevertheless, while members of the cabinet and the international community condemned the attempted coup and talked about the PM's release, reports still indicated that \"renegade soldiers\" had the prime minister \"under guard.",
"\"===2011 attempted coup===After Army chief of staff General Antonio Indjai was reported arrested by the orders of navy chief Rear Admiral Jose Americo Bubo Na Tchuto, his troops freed him as Prime Minister Carlos Gomes Júnior sought political asylum at the Angolan embassy.",
"Indjai then said that his naval counterpart had been arrested.",
"These events occurred while President Sanha had been in Paris, France for medical care.===2012 coup===On 12 April 2012, the military took over the central district of the capital.",
"On 16 April, military leaders and a coalition of political parties announced the formation of a Transitional National Council, under international pressure.=== 2019 Disputed Election ===Presidential elections were held in Guinea-Bissau on 24 November 2019.In the first round of voting, Domingos Simões Pereira led the field, with 40.13% of the vote.",
"Incumbent president José Mário Vaz finished fourth in the first round of voting, failing to progress to the runoff.",
"According to the preliminary and final results published by the national commission of elections, Umaro Sissoco Embaló won the runoff vote against Simões Pereira, 54% to 46%.",
"Simões Pereira continues to dispute the results.",
"Although neither the supreme court of Guinea-Bissau nor the parliament had given its approval for the official swearing-in ceremony, Sissoco Embaló had organized an alternative swearing-in ceremony in a hotel in Bissau to announce himself as legal president of Guinea-Bissau.",
"Several politicians in Guinea-Bissau, including prime minister Aristides Gomes, accused Sissoco Embaló of arranging a Coup d'état, although outgoing president Mário Vaz stepped down to allow Embaló to take power.Jose Mario Vaz was the President of Guinea-Bissau from 2014 until the 2019 presidential elections.",
"For two decades Jose Mario Vaz was the first elected president who finished his five-year mandate.",
"Umaro Sissoco Embaló was the winner of the election and he took office in February 2020.However he faced a last-minute stand-off with parliament before taking office.",
"Embaló is the first president to be elected without the backing of the PAIGC."
],
[
"Executive branch",
"|PresidentUmaro Sissoco EmbalóMadem G1527 February 2020Prime MinisterGeraldo MartinsIndependent politician8 August 2023The president is elected by popular vote for a five-year term.",
"The prime minister is appointed by the president after consultation with party leaders in the legislature."
],
[
"Legislative branch",
"National People's Assembly.The National People's Assembly ('''') has 102 members, elected for four-year terms in multi-member constituencies."
],
[
"Political parties and elections",
"===Presidential elections======Parliamentary elections==="
],
[
"Judicial branch",
"The Supreme Court ('''') consists of nine justices, who are appointed by the president and serve at his pleasure.",
"It is the final court of appeals in criminal and civil cases.",
"Regional courts, one in each of the country's nine regions, are the first courts of appeal for sectoral court decisions, and hear all felony cases, as well as civil cases concerning more than $1,000.Below these are 24 sectoral Courts, presided over by judges who are not necessarily trained in the law, which hear civil cases under $1,000 and misdemeanor criminal cases."
],
[
"Administrative divisions",
"Guinea-Bissau is divided in 9 regions ('''', singular - ''''): Bafata, Biombo, Bissau, Bolama, Cacheu, Gabu, Oio, Quinara, and Tombali."
],
[
"International organization participation",
"ACCT (associate),ACP,AfDB,ECA,ECOWAS,FAO,FZ,G-77,IBRD,ICAO,ICFTU,ICRM,IDA,IDB,IFAD,IFC,IFRCS,ILO,IMF,IMO,Intelsat,Interpol,IOC,IOM,ITU,NAM,OAU,OIC,OPCW,UN,UNCTAD,UNESCO,UNIDO,UPU,WADB (regional),WAEMU,WFTU,WHO,WIPO,WMO,WToO,WTrO"
],
[
"References"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Economy of Guinea-Bissau"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''economy of Guinea-Bissau''' comprises a mixture of state-owned and private companies.",
"Guinea-Bissau is among the world's least developed nations and one of the 10 poorest countries in the world, and depends mainly on agriculture and fishing.",
"Cashew crops have increased remarkably in recent years, and the country ranked ninth in cashew production for the year 2019.Guinea-Bissau exports to Asia non-fillet frozen fish and seafood, peanuts, palm kernels, and timber.",
"License fees for fishing in their sea-zone (Gulf of Guinea) provide the government with some small revenue.",
"Rice is the major crop and staple food.",
"Due to European regulations, fish and cashew-nuts exports to Europe are totally prohibited as well as agriculture products in general."
],
[
"Economic history",
"===Early colonialism===Guinea Company, a Portuguese company that traded in several commodities and slaves around the Guinea coast from the 15th century.From a European viewpoint, the economic history of the Guinea Coast is largely associated with slavery.",
"Indeed, one of the alternative names for the region was the Slave Coast.",
"When the Portuguese first sailed down the Atlantic coast of Africa in the 1430s, they were interested in gold.",
"Ever since Mansa Musa, king of the Mali Empire, made his pilgrimage to Mecca in 1325, with 500 slaves and 100 camels (each carrying gold) the region had become synonymous with such wealth.",
"The trade from sub-Saharan Africa was controlled by the Islamic Empire which stretched along Africa's northern coast.",
"Muslim trade routes across the Sahara, which had existed for centuries, involved salt, kola, textiles, fish, grain and slaves.As the Portuguese extended their influence around the coast, Mauritania, Senegambia (by 1445) and Guinea, they created trading posts.",
"Rather than becoming direct competitors to the Muslim merchants, the expanding market opportunities in Europe and the Mediterranean resulted in increased trade across the Sahara.",
"In addition, the Portuguese merchants gained access to the interior via the Sénégal and Gambia rivers which bisected long-standing trans-Saharan routes.The Portuguese brought in copper ware, cloth, tools, wine and horses.",
"Trade goods soon also included arms and ammunition.",
"In exchange, the Portuguese received gold (transported from mines of the Akan deposits), pepper (a trade which lasted until Vasco da Gama reached India in 1498) and ivory.There was a very small market for African slaves as domestic workers in Europe, and as workers on the sugar plantations of the Mediterranean.",
"The Portuguese found they could make considerable amounts of gold transporting slaves from one trading post to another, along the Atlantic coast of Africa.",
"Muslim merchants had a high demand for slaves, which were used as porters on the trans-Saharan routes, and for sale in the Islamic Empire.",
"The Portuguese found Muslim merchants entrenched along the African coast as far as the Bight of Benin.Before the arrival of the Europeans, the African slave trade, centuries old in Africa, was not yet the major feature of the coastal economy of Guinea.",
"The expansion of trade occurs after the Portuguese reach this region in 1446, bringing great wealth to several local slave trading tribes.",
"The Portuguese used slave labour to colonize and develop the previously uninhabited Cape Verde islands where they founded settlements and grew cotton and indigo.",
"They then traded these goods, in the estuary of the Geba River, for black slaves captured by other black peoples in local African wars and raids.The slaves were sold in Europe and, from the 16th century, in the Americas.",
"The Company of Guinea was a Portuguese governative institution whose task was to deal with the spices and to fix the prices of the goods.",
"It was called ''Casa da Guiné'', ''Casa da Guiné e Mina'' from 1482 to 1483 and ''Casa da Índia e da Guiné'' in 1499.The local African rulers in Guinea, who prosper greatly from the slave trade, have no interest in allowing the Europeans any further inland than the fortified coastal settlements where the trading takes place.",
"The Portuguese presence in Guinea was therefore largely limited to the port of Bissau.===Colonial era===As with the other Portuguese territories in mainland Africa (Portuguese Angola and Portuguese Mozambique), Portugal exercised control over the coastal areas of Portuguese Guinea when first laying claim to the whole region as a colony.",
"For three decades there are costly and continuous campaigns to suppress the local African rulers.",
"By 1915 this process was complete, enabling Portuguese colonial rule to progress in a relatively unruffled state - until the emergence of nationalist movements all over Africa in the 1950s.For a brief period in the 1790s the British attempted to establish a rival foothold on an offshore island, at Bolama, but by the 19th century the Portuguese were sufficiently secure in Bissau to regard the neighbouring coastline as their own special territory.",
"It was therefore natural for Portugal to lay claim to this region, soon to be known as Portuguese Guinea, when the European scramble for Africa began in the 1880s.",
"Britain's interest in the region declined since the end of the British slave trade in 1807.After the abolition of slavery in the Portuguese overseas territories in the 1830s, the slave trade went into serious decline.Portugal's main rivals were the French, their colonial neighbours along the coast on both sides - in Senegal and in the region which became French Guinea.",
"The Portuguese presence in Guinea was not disputed by the French.",
"The only point at issue was the precise line of the borders.",
"This was established by agreement between the two colonial powers in two series of negotiations, in 1886 and 1902–5.Until the end of the 19th century, rubber was the main export.===As an overseas province===In 1951, when the Portuguese government overhauled the entire colonial system, all Portugal's colonies, including Portuguese Guinea, were renamed Overseas Provinces (''Províncias Ultramarinas'').",
"New infrastructures were built for education, health, agriculture, transportation, commerce, services, and administration.Cashew, peanut, rice, timber, livestock and fish were the main economic productions.",
"The port of Bissau was one of the main employers and a very important source of taxes for the province's authorities.====Independence war====The fight for independence began in 1956, when Amílcar Cabral founded the ''Partido Africano da Independência da Guiné e Cabo Verde'' (), the PAIGC.",
"In 1961, when a purely political campaign for independence had made predictably little progress, the PAIGC adopted guerrilla tactics.",
"Although heavily outnumbered by Portuguese troops (approximately 30,000 Portuguese to some 10,000 guerrillas), the PAIGe had the great advantage of safe havens over the border in Senegal and Guinea, both recently independent of French rule.Several communist countries supported the guerrillas with weapons and military training.",
"The conflict in Portuguese Guinea involving the PAIGC guerrillas and the Portuguese Army was the most intense and damaging of all Portuguese Colonial War.",
"Thus, during the 1960s and early 1970s, Portuguese development plans promoting strong economic growth and effective socioeconomic policies, like those applied by the Portuguese in the other two theaters of war (Portuguese Angola and Portuguese Mozambique), were not possible.",
"In 1972 Cabral set up a government in exile in Conakry, the capital of neighbouring Guinea.",
"It was there, in 1973, that he was assassinated outside his house - just a year before a left-wing military coup in Portugal dramatically altered the political situation.By 1973 the PAIGC controlled most of the interior of the country, while the coastal and estuary towns, including the main population and economic centres, remained under Portuguese control.",
"The village of Madina do Boé in the southeasternmost area of the territory, close to the border with neighbouring Guinea, was the location where PAIGC guerrillas declared the independence of Guinea-Bissau on September 24, 1973.The war in the colonies was increasingly unpopular in Portugal itself, as the people got weary of war and balked at its ever-rising expense.",
"Following the coup d'état in Portugal in 1974, the new left-wing revolutionary government of Portugal began to negotiate with the PAIGC and decided to offer independence to all the overseas territories.===After independence===As his brother Amílcar Cabral had been assassinated in 1973, Luís Cabral became the first president of independent Guinea-Bissau in the time after independence was granted on September 10, 1974.Already as the President of Guinea-Bissau, Luís Cabral tried to impose a planned economy in the country, and supported a socialist model that left the economy of Guinea-Bissau itself ruined.",
"Similarly, the repression imposed on the population by his authoritarian single-party regime, and severe food shortages, also left marks.",
"Luís Cabral served from 1974 to 1980, when a military ''coup d'état'' led by João Bernardo \"Nino\" Vieira deposed him.",
"Despite having always denied it, Luís Cabral was accused of being responsible for the death of a large number of black Guinea-Bissauan soldiers who had fought along with the Portuguese Army against the PAIGC guerrillas during the Portuguese Colonial War.",
"After the military coup, in 1980 PAIGC admitted in its official newspaper \"Nó Pintcha\" (dated November 29, 1980) that many were executed and buried in unmarked collective graves in the woods of Cumerá, Portogole and Mansabá.",
"All these events did not help the new country to reach the level of prosperity, economic growth and development the new rulers had promised to its population.In 1985 the first Chinese oversees fishing fleet to go abroad was sent to Guinea-Bissau, 13 trawlers from the China National Fisheries Corporation.In May 1997 Guinea-Bissau joined the francophone West African Monetary Union.",
"Consequently, National Bank of Guinea-Bissau was converted as a national branch of Central Bank of West African States, and the national currency Guinea Bissau peso was replaced by West African CFA franc."
],
[
"Present day",
"===Macro-economic trend===Following the April 2012 coup d'État growth plunged to reach -1.5% of GDP.",
"In 2013, the country's GDP grew only by 0.9%.",
"This low growth level during a period of democratic transition is explained by a combination of low administrative efficiency, low investments on account of the political instability and a bad cashew export season.",
"Key macroeconomic indicators estimated by the African Development Bank are presented in the chart below:Real GDP growth20132014 (estimate)2015 (projection)2016 (projection)Real GDP per capita growth0.92.63.93.7Real GDP per capita growth -1.50.21.61.3Budget balance % GDP -1.4 -2.1 -3.9 -3.4Current account balance % GDP -4.1 -0.5 -0.8 -1.2Intermittent fighting between Senegalese-backed government troops and a military junta destroyed much of the country's infrastructure and caused widespread damage to the economy in 1998; the civil war led to a 28% drop in GDP that year, with partial recovery in 1999.Agricultural production is estimated to have fallen by 17% during the conflict.",
"Cashew nut output, the main export crop, declined in 1998 by an estimated 30%.",
"World cashew prices dropped by more than 50% in 2000, compounding the economic devastation caused by the conflict.Before the war, trade reform and price liberalization were the most successful part of the country's structural adjustment program under IMF sponsorship.",
"The tightening of monetary policy and the development of the private sector had also begun to reinvigorate the economy.",
"Under the government's post-conflict economic and financial program, implemented with IMF and World Bank input, real GDP recovered in 1999 by almost 8%.",
"In December 2000 Guinea-Bissau qualified for almost $800 million in debt-service relief under the first phase of the enhanced HIPC initiative and is scheduled to submit its Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper in March 2002.Guinea-Bissau will receive the bulk of its assistance under the enhanced HIPC initiative when it satisfies a number of conditions, including implementation of its Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper.Because of high costs, the development of petroleum, phosphate, and other mineral resources is not a near-term prospect.",
"The country produces 400,000 barrels/day of petrol.Mean wages were $0.52 per man-hour in 2009.In 2019 the minimal monthly wage was around 35000 CFA = US$60.The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1980–2017.Year GDP(in bil.",
"US$ PPP) GDP per capita(in US$ PPP)GDP(in bil.",
"US$ nominal) GDP growth(real) Inflation(in Percent) Government debt(Percentage of GDP) 1980 0.44 5620.29 4.9 % 65.8 % ... 1985 0.62 7190.49 4.3 % 112.7 % ... 1990 0.84 8720.55 4.6 % 33.0 % ... 1995 1.14 1,0660.78 4.0 % 45.1 % ... 2000 1.37 1,1500.39 9.0 % 8.6 % 234 % 2005 1.65 1,2420.64 7.1 % 3.4 % 222 % 2006 1.73 1,2790.64 2.0 % 2.0 % 204 % 2007 1.84 1,3270.75 3.3 % 4.6 % 177 % 2008 1.94 1,3660.95 3.2 % 10.4 % 163 % 2009 2.02 1,3910.89 3.4 % −1.6 % 159 % 2010 2.14 1,4610.94 4.6 % 1.0 % 68 % 2011 2.36 1,5781.16 8.0 % 5.0 % 50 % 2012 2.36 1,5461.05 −1.7 % 2.1 % 53 % 2013 2.47 1,5861.11 3.3 % 0.8 % 54 % 2014 2.54 1,5961.14 1.0 % −1.0 % 55 % 2015 2.73 1,6751.15 6.1 % 1.5 % 50 % 2016 2.92 1,7551.25 5.8 % 1.5 % 49 % 2017 3.14 1,8451.47 5.5 % 1.1 % 42 %=== Financial sector ===The financial sector of Guinea-Bissau is relatively underdeveloped: in 2013, financial intermediation accounted for 4% of GDP, banking penetration is below 1% of the population (IMF 2013.Article IV Consultations – Guinea-Bissau, IMF Country Report No 13/197) and access to finance is cited as the second most important constraint for businesses.",
"As of 2015, only four banks were operating in the country.",
"According to the IMF, regional private foreign banks held about 65% of shares in the Bissau-Guinean banking system (IMF 2013).",
"Banks are regulated by the WAEMU authorities.",
"In the aftermath of the civil war (1998/1999), private sector credit had fallen below 1% of GDP.",
"In 2003 the balance sheets of banks amounted to EUR 21.3 million.",
"Since then credit to the economy has risen to nearly 13.8% of GDP.=== \"Terra Ranka\" (A fresh start): a new economic plan ===On March 25, 2015, the Government of Guinea-Bissau convened an international donor conference in Brussels.",
"Hosted by the European Union with support from the UNDP and other partners including the African Development Bank and the World Bank, the country's major partners joined in welcoming the country's new vision up to 2025, and to put pledges forth for its strategic and operational plan dubbed \"Terra Ranka\" (A fresh start).",
"Pledges totalled EUR 1.3 billion.The strategic and operational plan is composed of six pillars: (i) peace and governance, (ii) infrastructure, (iii) industrialisation, (iv) urban development, (v) human development and (vi) biodiversity.",
"Each of the pillars is composed of a series of structuring projects to be financed either through direct donor support or through the mobilisation of private funding."
],
[
"Income from waste dumping",
"In the 1980s Guinea-Bissau was part of a trend in the African continent toward the dumping of waste as a source of income.",
"Plans to import toxic waste from Europe were cancelled after an international campaign to halt the trade.",
"The government was offered a contract to dispose of 15 million tons of toxic waste over a 15-year period.",
"The income from it was equivalent to twice the value of its external debt.",
"After strong pressure from other African countries and environmental groups the Guinea-Bissau government renounced the deal."
],
[
"Drug trafficking",
"Over the last decade European consumption of cocaine is believed to have tripled, and West Africa has become a primary transit point for trafficking the drug from Colombia to Europe.",
"Guinea-Bissau is the leading West African country in this regard, with smugglers taking advantage of government corruption and disorder to operate unimpeded.The army and police are alleged to be complicit, and a lack of boats or planes to patrol or control the vast sea-zone further brings them to turn a blind eye to cocaine shipments from Latin America.",
"The local population does not have access to the drug.",
"Planes fly in, and use Guinea-Bissau's 88 remote islands, the majority of which are uninhabited."
],
[
"Energy",
"As of 2019, only 28% of the total population had access to electricity, with only 7% of rural population and 56% of urban population having access to electricity.In 2016, 99% of electricity generation capacity came from fossil sources and 1% from renewable sources."
],
[
"See also",
"* Minister of Finance (Guinea-Bissau)* Transport in Guinea-Bissau* Telecommunications in Guinea-Bissau* Agriculture in Guinea-Bissau* Mining industry of Guinea-Bissau* United Nations Economic Commission for Africa"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* Resources on Guinea-Bissau by the African Development Bank* * Mineral resources of Guinea-Bissau* Guinea-Bissau latest trade data on ITC Trade Map* Africa's New Narcostate - photo essay by ''The Global Post''"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Telecommunications in Guinea-Bissau"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Telecommunications in Guinea-Bissau''' include radio, television, fixed and mobile telephones, and the Internet.Guinea-Bissau is one of the poorest countries in the world.",
"This reality is reflected in the state of the country's telecommunications development.",
"It is estimated that in 2012 there were only 5000 fixed telephone lines serving the country's 1.6 million inhabitants and that only 2.9% of the population had access to and were regular users of the Internet."
],
[
"Radio and television",
"* Radio stations: ** One state-owned radio station (Guinea-Bissau National Radio), several private radio stations, and some community radio stations; multiple international broadcasters are available (2007);** One AM, four FM, and no shortwave (2001).",
"* Radios: 49,000 (1997).",
"* Television stations: One state-owned TV station (Guinea-Bissau Television) and a second station, Radio e Televisao de Portugal África (RTP África), operated by Portuguese public broadcaster (RTP) (2007).Private radio stations operate alongside the state-run broadcaster.",
"Broadcasters face many challenges, not least the lack of a reliable power supply.",
"The media experience \"harsh treatment\" from the authorities, security forces, and individuals with connections to the military and drug traffickers.",
"A climate of fear has led to self-censorship among the media, which particularly affects reporting on drug trafficking.Following the 12 April 2012 coup, the junta shut down all private radio stations and the national television station.",
"They allowed only the national broadcaster, Guinea-Bissau National Radio, to broadcast intermittent military communiqués.",
"On 15 April, the junta allowed the stations to reopen, but on 16 April warned them not to criticize the military or the coup or report on protests.",
"These threats continued until 25 May when the civilian government was installed."
],
[
"Telephones",
"* Calling code: +245* International call prefix: 00* Main lines:** 5,000 lines in use, 210th in the world (2012); ** 4,600 lines in use, 214th in the world (2008).",
"* Mobile cellular:** 1.1 million lines, 156th in the world (2012); ** 500,200 lines, 155th in the world (2008).",
"* Telephone system: small system including a combination of microwave radio relay, open-wire lines, radiotelephone, and mobile-cellular communications; fixed-line teledensity is less than 1 per 100 persons; mobile-cellular teledensity approached 50 per 100 persons (2011)."
],
[
"Internet",
"* Top-level domain: .gw* Internet users: ** 47,132 users, 181st in the world; 2.9% of the population, 196th in the world (2012); ** 37,100 users, 177th in the world (2009).",
"* Fixed broadband: Unknown (2012).",
"* Wireless broadband: Unknown (2012).",
"* Internet hosts:** 90 hosts, 211th in the world (2012); ** 82 hosts, 202nd in the world (2009).",
"* IPv4: 5,120 addresses allocated, less than 0.05% of the world total, 3.1 addresses per 1000 people (2012).===Internet censorship and surveillance===There are no government restrictions on access to the Internet or reports that the government monitors e-mail or Internet chat rooms without judicial oversight.The constitution and law provide for freedom of speech and press; however, there are reports that the government does not always respect these rights.",
"The constitution and law prohibit arbitrary interference with privacy, family, home, or correspondence, but the government does not always respect these prohibitions in practice.",
"Police routinely ignore privacy rights and protections against unreasonable search and seizure."
],
[
"See also",
"* Guinea-Bissau National Radio, national broadcaster.",
"* Guinea-Bissau Television, national television* Media of Guinea-Bissau"
],
[
"References",
"* *"
],
[
"External links",
"* RTP África , web site."
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Transport in Guinea-Bissau"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Trucks on a rural road in Guinea-Bissau.Transport infrastructure in Guinea-Bissau is basic, with most roads outside the capital Bissau being unpaved."
],
[
"Railways",
"There are no railways in Guinea-Bissau.",
"At the Port of Bissau, there was a small cargo railway working from the late 19th century into the 1940s.In 1998 an agreement was signed between Portugal and Guinea-Bissau for construction of a railway to Guinea, but the outbreak of the Guinea-Bissau Civil War in 1998 made these plans impossible."
],
[
"Roads",
"* '''Total:''' 4,400 km* '''Paved:''' 453 km* '''Unpaved:''' 3,947 km (1996 est.",
")The Trans–West African Coastal Highway crosses Guinea-Bissau, connecting it to Banjul (the Gambia), Conakry (Guinea), and eventually to 11 other nations of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS)."
],
[
"Waterways",
"Several rivers are accessible to coastal shipping in Guinea-Bissau."
],
[
"Seaports and harbours",
"*Port of Bissau*Buba*Cacheu*Farim=== Merchant Marine ===In 1999 no merchant vessels were operating."
],
[
"Airports",
"The main airport serving the country, and the only one with scheduled commercial service, is Osvaldo Vieira International Airport in Bissau.",
"* 30 (1999 est.",
")'''Paved runways:'''* 3 (Osvaldo Vieira International Airport, Cufar Airport, and Bubaque Airport)'' Over 3, 047 m:''* 1''1,524 to 2,437 m:''* 1''914 to 1,523 m:''* 1'''Unpaved runways:'''* 27''1,524 to 2,437 m:''*1''914 to 1,523 m:''* 4''under 914 m:''* 22 (1999 est.)"
],
[
"See also",
"* Guinea-Bissau*Air Bissau*Guine Bissau Airlines (2002)*Guine Bissau Airlines"
],
[
"References"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Military of Guinea-Bissau"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Soldiers of the PAIGC raise the flag of Guinea-Bissau in 1974.The Revolutionary Armed Forces of the People (, abbr.",
"FARP) is the national military of Guinea-Bissau.",
"It consists of an army, a navy, an air force, and paramilitary forces.",
"The World Bank estimated that there were around 4,000 personnel in the armed forces.",
"The estimated military expenditure are $23.3 million, and military spending as a percentage of GDP is 1.7%.The World Fact Book reports that the military service age is 18–25 years of age for selective compulsory military service, and 16 years of age or younger for voluntary service, with parental consent."
],
[
"Internal culture",
"===2010 Guinea-Bissau military unrest===Major General Batista Tagme Na Waie was chief of staff of the Guinea-Bissau armed forces until his assassination in 2009.Military unrest occurred in Guinea-Bissau on 1 April 2010.Prime Minister Carlos Gomes Júnior was placed under house arrest by soldiers, who also detained Army Chief of Staff Zamora Induta.",
"Supporters of Gomes and his party, PAIGC, reacted to the move by demonstrating in the capital, Bissau; Antonio Indjai, the Deputy Chief of Staff, then warned that he would have Gomes killed if the protests continued.The EU ended its mission to reform the country's security forces, EU SSR Guinea-Bissau, on 4 August 2010, a risk that may further embolden powerful generals and drug traffickers in the army and elsewhere.",
"The EU mission's spokesman in Guinea-Bissau said the EU had to suspend its programme when the mastermind of the mutiny, General Antonio Indjai, became army chief of staff.",
"\"The EU mission thinks this is a breach in the constitutional order.",
"We can't work with him\".=== International drug trade ===The multitude of small offshore islands and a military able to sidestep government with impunity has made it a favourite trans-shipment point for drugs to Europe.",
"Aircraft drop payloads on or near the islands, and speedboats pick up bales to go direct to Europe or onshore.",
"UN chief Ban Ki-moon has called for sanctions against those involved in Guinea-Bissau's drugs trade.Air Force head Ibraima Papa Camara and former navy chief Jose Americo Bubo Na Tchuto have been named \"drug kingpins\".=== Angolan assistance ===Angola, at the presidency of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP) since 2010, has since 2011 participated in a military mission in Guinea-Bissau (MISSANG) to assist in the reform of defence and security.MISSANG had a strength of 249 Angolan men (both soldiers and police officers), following an agreement signed between the defence ministers of both countries, as a complement to a Governmental accord ratified by both parliaments.The Angolan assistance mission included a programme of technical and military cooperation focused on a reform of the Guinean armed forces and police, including the repair of barracks and police stations, organisation of administrative services and technical and military training locally and in Angolan institutions.",
"The mission was halted by the Angolan Government, following a politico-military crisis that led to the ousting of the interim president of Guinea-Bissau, Raimundo Pereira, and the prime minister, Gomes Júnior.",
"By 22 June 2012, the Angolan vessel ''Rio M'bridge'', carrying the mission's equipment, had arrived back in Luanda."
],
[
"Army equipment",
"===Small arms=== Name Image Caliber Type Origin Notes Pistols TT-33 150px 7.62×25mm Semi-automatic pistol Submachine guns PPS-43 150px 7.62×25mm Submachine gun Sa 23 150px 9×19mm Submachine gun MP-40 150px 9×19mm Submachine gun MAT-49 150px 9×19mm Submachine gun Rifles Vz.",
"52 150px 7.62×45mm Semi-automatic rifle SKS 150px 7.62×39mm Semi-automatic rifle AKM 150px 7.62×39mm Assault rifle FN FAL 150px 7.62×51mm Battle rifle MAS-36 150px 7.5×54mm Bolt-action rifle Machine guns RPK 7.62×39mm Squad automatic weapon PKM 150px 7.62×54mmR General-purpose machine gun KPV 150px 14.5×114mm Heavy machine gun DShK 150px 12.7×108mm Heavy machine gun Rocket propelled grenade launchers RPG-7 150px 40mm Rocket-propelled grenade M20 Super bazooka 150px 60mm Rocket-propelled grenade ===Anti-tank weapons=== Name Image Type Origin Caliber Notes B-10 150px Recoilless rifle 82mm Type 52 150px Recoilless rifle 75mm ===Tanks=== Name Image Type Origin Quantity Status Notes PT-76 150px Amphibious light tank 15 INS T-34-85 150px Medium tank 10 INS ===Scout cars=== Name Image Type Origin Quantity Status Notes BRDM-2 150px Amphibious armored scout car 10 INS ===Armored personnel carriers=== Name Image Type Origin Quantity Status Notes Type 56 150px Armored personnel carrier 20 INS Acquired from China in 1984.BTR-40 150px Armored personnel carrier 15 INS BTR-60 150px Armored personnel carrier 15 INS ===Artillery=== Name Image Type Origin Quantity Status Notes Mortars PM-41 150px Mortar 8 INS PM-43 150px Mortar 8 INS Field artillery D-44 150px Field gun 8 INS M-30 150px Howitzer 18 INS D-30 150px Howitzer INS ===Air defence systems=== Name Image Type Origin Quantity Status Notes 61-K 150px Autocannon 6 INS S-60 150px Autocannon 10 INS ZU-23-2 150px Autocannon 18 INS 9K32 Strela-2 150px MANPADS INS"
],
[
"Air Force",
"After achieving independence from Portugal, the air force was formed by officers returning from training in Cuba and the USSR.",
"The FAGB was re-equipped by the Soviet Union with a limited aid package in which its first combat aircraft were introduced."
],
[
"Navy",
"In September 2010, Rear-Admiral Jose Americo Bubo Na Tchuto attempted a coup, but was arrested after failing to gain support.",
"\"Guinea-Bissau's navy chief, who was arrested last week and accused of trying to stage a coup, has escaped custody and fled to nearby Gambia, the armed forces said on Tuesday.\""
],
[
"References",
"* The Two Faces of War* ''World Aircraft Information Files.",
"Brightstar Publishing, London.",
"File 338 Sheet 02*"
],
[
"Further reading",
"*B Embaló, Civil–military relations and political order in Guinea-Bissau, The Journal of Modern African Studies, 2012*Shaw, Mark, Drug trafficking in Guinea-Bissau, 1998-2014: the evolution of an elite protection network, The Journal of Modern African Studies, Vol.",
"53.3 (Sep 2015): 339–364."
],
[
"External links",
"*http://africansecuritysector.blogspot.com/2010/09/guinee-bissau-restructuration-de-larmee.html, September 2010*United Nations, Report of the Secretary-General on UNIOGBIS, S/2010/550, 25 October 2010.UNIOGBIS is the former United Nations Peacebuilding Support Office in Guinea-Bissau (UNOGBIS) and is closely involved in reform of the armed forces.",
"*http://www.slateafrique.com/85917/secrets-de-la-crise-bissau-guineenne"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Politics of Guyana"
],
[
"Introduction",
" The '''politics of Guyana''' takes place in a framework of a representative democratic assembly-independent republic, whereby the President of Guyana is the head of government and of a multi-party system.",
"Executive power is exercised by the President, advised by a cabinet.",
"Legislative power is vested in both the President and the National Assembly of Guyana.",
"The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature."
],
[
"Executive branch",
"Arms of the president of GuyanaPresidentIrfaan AliPeople's Progressive Party2 August 2020First vice president and prime ministerMark PhillipsPeople's Progressive Party2 August 2020Executive authority is exercised by the president, who appoints and supervises the prime minister and other ministers.",
"The president is not directly elected; each party presenting a slate of candidates for the assembly must designate in advance a leader who will become president if that party receives the largest number of votes.",
"The president has the authority to dissolve the parliament, but in contrast to a parliamentary regime, the Constitution of Guyana does not provide any mechanism for parliament to replace the president during his or her term of office, except in case of mental incapacity or gross constitutional violations.",
"This makes Guyana an \"assembly-independent\" system, much like Switzerland.Only the prime minister is required to be a member of the assembly.",
"In practice, most other ministers also are members.",
"Those who are not serve as non-elected members, which permits them to debate but not to vote.",
"The president is not a member of the National Assembly but may Address it at any time or have his address read by any member he may designate at convenient time for the Assembly.",
"Under Guyana's constitution the President is both the head of state and head of government of the Co-operative Republic of Guyana.===Cabinet===The Cabinet consists of the President, the Prime Minister, the Vice Presidents (if any are appointed), and the Ministers appointed by the President.",
"The Cabinet is tasked with aiding and advising the President as it relates to the general control and direction of the government.",
"While the Cabinet is appointed by the President, it is also collectively responsible to National Assembly."
],
[
"Legislative branch",
"Parliament of Guyana in Georgetown.Legislative power of Guyana rests in a unicameral National Assembly.",
"In 2001 the makeup of the National Assembly was reformed.",
"Now 25 members are elected via proportional representation from 10 Geographic Constituencies.",
"Additionally 40 members are chosen also on the basis of proportional representation from National lists named by the political parties.The president may dissolve the assembly and call new elections at any time, but no later than 5 years from its first sitting."
],
[
"Political parties and elections"
],
[
"Judicial branch",
"The highest judicial body is the Court of Appeal, headed by a chancellor of the judiciary.",
"The second level is the High Court, presided over by Chief Justice of Guyana.",
"The chancellor and the chief justice are appointed by the president.",
"The Audit Office of Guyana (AOG) is the country's Supreme Audit Institution (SAI)."
],
[
"Administrative divisions",
"For administrative purposes, Guyana is divided into 10 regions, each headed by a chairman who presides over a regional democratic council.",
"Local communities are administered by village or city councils.",
"The regions are Barima-Waini, Cuyuni-Mazaruni, Demerara-Mahaica, East Berbice-Corentyne, Essequibo Islands-West Demerara, Mahaica-Berbice, Pomeroon-Supenaam, Potaro-Siparuni, Upper Demerara-Berbice and Upper Takutu-Upper Essequibo."
],
[
"Political conditions",
"Race and ideology have been the dominant political influences in Guyana.",
"Since the split of the multiracial People's Progressive Party (PPP) in 1955, politics has been based more on ethnicity than on ideology.",
"From 1964 to 1992, the pro-African People's National Congress (PNC) party dominated Guyana's politics.The overwhelming majority of Guyanese of East Indian extraction traditionally have backed the People's Progressive Party, headed by the Jagans.",
"Rice farmers and sugar workers in the rural areas form the bulk of PPP's support, but Indo-Guyanese who dominate the country's urban business community also have provided important support.Following independence, and with the help of substantial foreign aid, social benefits were provided to a broader section of the population, specifically in health, education, housing, road and bridge building, agriculture, and rural development.",
"However, during Forbes Burnham's last years, the government's attempts to build a socialist society caused a massive emigration of skilled workers, and, along with other economic factors, led to a significant decline in the overall quality of life in Guyana.After Burnham's death in 1985, President Hoyte took steps to stem the economic decline, including strengthening financial controls over the parastatal corporations and supporting the private sector.",
"In August 1987, at a PNC Congress, Hoyte announced that the PNC rejected orthodox communism and the one-party state.As the elections scheduled for 1990 approached, Hoyte, under increasing pressure from inside and outside Guyana, gradually opened the political system.",
"After a visit to Guyana by former U.S. President Jimmy Carter in 1990, Hoyte made changes in the electoral rules, appointed a new chairman of the Elections Commission, and endorsed putting together new voters' lists, thus delaying the election.",
"The elections, which finally took place in 1992, were witnessed by 100 international observers, including a group headed by Carter and another from the Commonwealth of Nations.",
"Both groups issued reports saying that the elections had been free and fair, despite violent attacks on the Elections Commission building on election day and other irregularities.Cheddi Jagan served as Premier (1957–1964) and then minority leader in Parliament until his election as president in 1992.One of the Caribbean's most charismatic and famous leaders, Jagan was a founder of the PPP which led Guyana's struggle for independence.",
"Over the years, he moderated his Marxist-Leninist ideology.",
"After his election as president, Jagan demonstrated a commitment to democracy, followed a pro-Western foreign policy, adopted free market policies, and pursued sustainable development for Guyana's environment.",
"Nonetheless, he continued to press for debt relief and a new global human order in which developed countries would increase assistance to less developed nations.",
"Jagan died on 6 March 1997, and was succeeded by Sam Hinds, whom he had appointed Prime Minister.",
"President Hinds then appointed Janet Jagan, widow of the late President, to serve as Prime Minister.In national elections on 15 December 1997, Janet Jagan was elected president, and her PPP party won a 55% majority of seats in Parliament.",
"She was sworn in on 19 December.",
"Jagan was a founding member of the PPP and was very active in party politics.",
"She was Guyana's first female prime minister and vice president, two roles she performed concurrently before being elected to the presidency.",
"She was also unique in being white, Jewish and a naturalized citizen (born in the United States).The PNC, which won just under 40% of the vote, disputed the results of the 1997 elections, alleging electoral fraud.",
"Public demonstrations and some violence followed, until a CARICOM team came to Georgetown to broker an accord between the two parties, calling for an international audit of the election results, a redrafting of the constitution, and elections under the constitution within 3 years.",
"Jagan resigned in August 1999 due to ill health and was succeeded by Finance Minister Bharrat Jagdeo, who had been named Prime Minister a day earlier.",
"National elections were held on March 19, 2001, three months later than planned as the election committees said they were unprepared.",
"Fears that the violence that marred the previous election led to monitoring by foreign bodies, including Jimmy Carter.",
"In March incumbent President Jagdeo won the election with a voter turnout of over 90%.",
"Over 150 international observers representing six international missions witnessed the polling.",
"The observers pronounced the elections fair and open although marred by some administrative problems.Meanwhile, tensions with Suriname were seriously strained by a dispute over their shared maritime border after Guyana had allowed oil-prospectors licence to explore the areas.In December 2002, Hoyte died, with Robert Corbin replacing him as leader of the PNC.",
"He agreed to engage in 'constructive engagement' with Jagdeo and the PPP.Severe flooding following torrential rainfall wreaked havoc in Guyana beginning in January 2005.The downpour, which lasted about six weeks, inundated the coastal belt, caused the deaths of 34 people, and destroyed large parts of the rice and sugarcane crops.",
"The UN Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean estimated in March that the country would need $415 million for recovery and rehabilitation.",
"About 275,000 people—37% of the population—were affected in some way by the floods.",
"In 2013, the Hope Canal was completed to address the flooding.",
"In May 2008, President Bharrat Jagdeo was a signatory to The UNASUR Constitutive Treaty of the Union of South American Nations.",
"On 12th February 2010, Guyana ratified its membership in the Union of South American Nations (UNASUR).In December 2011, President Bharrat Jagdeo was succeeded by Donald Ramotar of the governing People's Progressive Party (PPP/C).",
"However, the ruling party, mainly supported by Guyana's ethnic-Indians, lost its parliamentary majority for the first time in 19 years.In May 2015, David Granger of A Partnership for National Unity and Alliance for Change (APNU+AFC) narrowly won the elections.",
"He represented the alliance of Afro-Guyanese parties.",
"In May 2015, David Granger was sworn is as the new President of Guyana.In August 2020, the 75-year-old incumbent David Granger lost narrowly and he did not accept the result.",
"Irfaan Ali of the People's Progressive Party/Civic was sworn in as the new president five months after the election because of allegations of fraud and irregularities.",
"The Economist Intelligence Unit rated Guyana as \"flawed democracy\" in 2016."
],
[
"Territorial disputes",
"All of the area west of the Essequibo River is claimed by Venezuela, preventing any discussion of a maritime boundary; Guyana has expressed its intention to join Barbados in asserting claims before UNCLOS that Trinidad and Tobago's maritime boundary with Venezuela extends into their waters; Suriname claims a triangle of land between the New and Kutari/Koetari rivers in a historic dispute over the headwaters of the Corentyne; the long-standing dispute with Suriname over the axis of the territorial sea boundary in potentially oil-rich waters has been resolved by UNCLOS with Guyana awarded 93% of the disputed territory."
],
[
"International organization participation",
"Guyana is a full and participating founder-member of the Caribbean Community (CARICOM), the headquarters of which is located in Georgetown.",
"The CARICOM Single Market & Economy (CSME) will, by necessity, bring Caribbean-wide legislation into force and a Caribbean Court of Justice (CCJ).International affiliations include: ACP, C, Caricom, CCC, CDB, ECLAC, FAO, G-77, IADB, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO (subscriber), ITU, ITUC, LAES, NAM, OAS, OPANAL, OPCW, PCA, UN, UNASUR, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO."
],
[
"See also",
"* The Official Gazette of Guyana"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* Office of the President - Official website* Government Information Agency (GINA)"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Transport in Guyana"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''transport''' sector comprises the physical infrastructure, docks and vehicle, terminals, fleets, ancillary equipment and service delivery of all the various modes of transport operating in '''Guyana'''.",
"The transport services, transport agencies providing these services, the organizations and people who plan, build, maintain, and operate the system, and the policies that mold its development."
],
[
"City transportation",
"Private transportation in GeorgetownPublic transport around Guyana's capital Georgetown is provided by privately owned mini buses which operate in allocated zones for which there is a well-regulated fare structure.",
"This arrangement extends to all mini bus routes throughout the country.",
"There are designated bus stops for mini buses for most routes but some buses still pick up passengers at virtually any point on their routes.",
"This practice often poses a serious inconvenience to other vehicles by disrupting the normal flow of traffic.Taxis have freer movement around the city and into rural areas.",
"Their fare, while generally standard, is less regulated.",
"Starting in 2010, all taxis must be painted yellow, a regulation designed to protect consumers and to distinguish the vehicles from others that are often used in committing crimes.",
"All taxis are registered under the term \"Hackney Carriage\" and carry the letter H at the beginning of their number plates.",
"There are scores of taxi services operating in Georgetown but its equally easy to \"flag a ride\" in the central business district.The network of routes has a number of identifiable starting points which are concentrated in the Stabroek area and along the Avenue of the Republic between Croal and Robb Streets.Road conditions vary immensely, and maintenance is sometimes deficient.",
"In 2006 there was one operational set of traffic lights but in July 2007, a modern system was installed by Indian firm CMS Traffic Systems Limited, through a US$2.1 million line of credit to the government from India's EXIM Bank, providing signals for both vehicular and pedestrian traffic at all major intersections in Georgetown.===Minibuses in Guyana===As of February 2016, there were 19 minibus routes in Guyana and most of them begin or are fully contained in Georgetown, Guyana.",
"+ Minibus routes in Guyana Route Number Service Area 21 Charity/Supernaam 31 Patentia 32 Parika 33 Leguan 40 Kitty/Campbellville 41 South Ruimveldt 42 Timehri 43 Linden 44 Mahaica 45 Central Georgetown 46 Lodge 47 East & West Ruimveldt 48 Sophia 50 New Amsterdam 56 Rosignol/New Amsterdam 63 Corentyne 72 Mahdia 73 Bartica 94 LethemIn 2015, the Ministry of Public Works estimated that 60 percent of Guyana’s productive labour force used public transportation daily, which is widely available and fairly reliable.",
"They also stated that the eight major bus routes, 31, 32, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44 and 45, accounted for 67 percent of the total public bus fleet in Guyana.",
"Their survey found that 41% of commuters on the major routes were satisfied."
],
[
"Long distance transportation",
"===Roads===The Soesdyke-Linden Highway tends to serve the mining and forestry sectors.In 2004, Guyana's road network was approximately long, 24 percent or 940 kilometers of which comprised primary roads in the coastal and riverine areas serving the agricultural sector, while the road to Linden serves the mining and forestry sectors.",
"21 percent (820 kilometers) is made up of feeder roads that link the agricultural areas along the coast to the primary road network.",
"The remaining 56 percent (2,235 kilometers) is composed of interior roads and trails.",
"Most access roads are in poor condition.",
"However, the Central Government has targeted several roads for complete rehabilitation, and already many have been rehabilitated.The main coastal roads are, from west to east, the Essequibo Coast Road, the Parika to Vreed en Hoop Road, the East Coast Demerara and West Coast Berbice Roads, and the Corentyne Highway from New Amsterdam to Moleson Creek (86 kilometers).",
"All these roads are paved and their speed limit vary between 50 and 100 km/h.South of Georgetown the primary road is the East Bank Demerara Road, a four-lane road from Rumiveldt to Providence and two-lane from Providence to Timehri Georgetown to Timehri, where the Cheddi Jagan International Airport - Timehri (CJIAT) is located.Between 1966 and 1968, Soesdyke, located on the East Bank Demerara Road, was connected to Mackenzie by a modern two lane highway, called the Soesdyke-Linden Highway.",
"This road was constructed as a section of a highway connecting Georgetown with Lethem.",
"In 1968 a bridge was built across the Demerara River at Linden, and, in 1974, it was decided that the route to Lethem would cross the Demerara River at Linden and go south, along the watershed of the Demerara and Essequibo Rivers, through Mabura, to Kurupukari.",
"From Kurupukari it would run parallel to the old cattle trail to Annai, and from Annai it would follow an already existing road to Lethem.Mabura Road south of LindenIn the early 1970s a two-lane road with modern geometry and surfaced with laterite was built between Linden and Rockstone.",
"This road was later connected to Mabura and Kurupukari.",
"In 1990-91 a two-lane laterite road was constructed between Kurupukari and Annai and a vehicle ferry installed at Kurupukari.",
"Since there was already an existing road between Mabura and Kurupukari, and between Annai and Lethem, it was now possible for vehicles to travel between Georgetown and Lethem.In the period 1974 to 1978, an attempt was made to build a road between Rockstone and Kurupung to facilitate the construction of a large hydroelectric station.",
"From Rockstone it headed north to Suribanna, where a pontoon ferry was installed across the Essequibo River to Sherima.",
"From Sherima the road went westward, intersecting the Bartica - Mahdia Road at Allsopp Point from Bartica.",
"From Allsopp Point the road followed the existing road towards Bartica and branched off from Bartica going to Teperu in the lower reaches on the Mazaruni River.",
"At Teperu a pontoon ferry was installed across the Mazaruni River to Itaballi.",
"From Itaballi the road went westward to Peter's Mine on the Puruni River.",
"From Peter's Mine the road continued as a penetration road to Kurupung.",
"This road is referred to as the UMDA Road.There is in addition a hinterland east-west main road system that extends from Kwakwani in the east, through Ituni, Linden, Rockstone, Sherima to Bartica in the west.",
"Linden is therefore one of the main hubs for road transportation in the hinterland.Outside the existing main roads there are several other interior roads or trails that comprise approximately 1,570 kilometers.",
"Most of those roads are unpaved, and will deteriorate if maintenance remains inadequate.",
"They are found mostly in the hinterland and riverain areas and provide linkages with a number of important mining and forestry activities thus facilitating transportation between the mining and forestry communities and the more developed coastal areas.",
"Parts of this road/trail network can be developed into an arterial road system linking the hinterland communities with each other and to the main road network.",
"It is estimated that roads carry 80 percent of Guyana's passenger traffic and about 33 percent of its freight.Commuters to West Demerara have a choice of road transport via the Demerara Harbour Bridge or by the Demerara River ferry from the Stabroek Stelling to Vreed en Hoop, which is obliquely opposite.Mahaicony bridgeThe highway that begins on the West Coast of Demerara is heavily trafficked since it provides a link to Parika on the East Bank of the Essequibo River, which has become an important center of economic activity in the Essequibo region.It is now possible to travel overland to Suriname by taking the ferry on the Guyana side at Moleson Creek and crossing the Corentyne River over to Suriname at South Drain.",
"While travel to Brazil is via the old cattle trail it has been upgraded into a fair weather track that passes through the bauxite-producing town of Linden and ending at Lethem.===Bridges===The Demerara Harbour Bridge crosses mouth of the Demerara River.",
"It is a floating bridge.",
"The coastal main road system is not continuous.",
"There are gaps whenever it intersects the Essequibo, Demerara and Berbice Rivers.",
"People and goods move across these gaps by ferry systems as well as the Demerara Harbour Bridge (DHB) and the Berbice Bridge.The Demerara Harbour Bridge is a two-lane floating toll bridge, long, near the mouth of the Demerara River.",
"It is primarily a low-level bridge which possesses an elevated span with a vertical clearance of in the middle of the river to permit small craft to pass.",
"In addition, across the shipping channel, there are two spans which retract to permit the passage of ocean-going vessels.",
"From mid-1998 toll revenue has been credited to the account of the DHB and not to the Government of Guyana, as it was until then.",
"This is a step towards the establishment of the DHB as an autonomous statutory authority.",
"At present the toll revenue does not meet the operational and maintenance costs of the bridge; the government of Guyana provides considerable subsidy for its upkeep.",
"The bridge has been in existence since 1978 and currently notwithstanding the rigorous maintenance regime, sits at the end of its useful life.Construction continues on a bridge linking Guyana and Brazil at Lethem.In 2007, construction resumed on the Takutu River Bridge to link Guyana and Brazil in the southwest region of Guyana near Lethem.",
"The bridge was officially opened on September 14, 2009, enabling economic interests in northern Brazil to link by road to the port at Georgetown.",
"Unprecedented construction and population growth in Lethem since the bridge's opening reflects the significantly increased traffic and movement of goods facilitated by the bridge.",
"The Takutu Bridge is seen as the first of several joint projects between Guyana and Brazil intended to facilitate cargo traffic: Brazil is expected to subsidize the paving of the Lethem-to-Georgetown road, a development that would have profound impacts on the area's economy and environment.",
"Dredging of the Georgetown port to accommodate deeper-draft cargo vessels is also being planned.===Rail transport===Commercial railway services for both passengers and cargo were operated until 1974.Two lines operated - the Demerara-Essequibo Railway, from Vreed en Hoop to Parika () and the Demerara-Berbice Railway, from Georgetown to Rosignol ().",
"With the upgrading of the West Coast Demerara/East Bank Essequibo and the East Coast Demerara/West Coast Berbice roadways, the Government decided in the mid-1970s to cease operating the railway services, which were being run at a loss.",
"In the Matthew's Ridge area, there is a railway service.A railway service was once operated in Linden for the movement of bauxite ore.",
"However trucks are now used to transport the bauxite ore."
],
[
"Water transport",
"It is generally agreed that, for the movement of bulky low-value goods over great distances, water transport is cheapest.",
"This is especially true in Guyana, where the road infrastructure is poorly advanced.",
"Moreover, with the widespread decentralization of economic activity that is being proposed by the government, and with the corresponding development of the interior regions of the country, the demand for water transport might, perhaps paradoxically, increase rather than diminish.The infrastructure that supports water transport in Guyana is located along the banks of the navigable rivers, namely, the Essequibo River, Demerara River and Berbice River.",
"In addition to the wharves and stellings that provide coastal and inland linkages, there are facilities that handle both the country's overseas and local shipping requirements.Virtually all exports and imports are transported by sea.",
"The main port of Georgetown, located at the mouth of the Demerara River, comprises several wharves, most of which are privately owned.",
"In addition, three berths are available for oceangoing vessels at Linden.Draught constraints limit the size of vessels using Georgetown's harbour to .",
"However, recent improvements in the channel in the Berbice River have made it possible for ships of up to to dock there.Guyana's foreign trade is handled by foreign shipping companies.",
"The largest bulk exports are bauxite and sugar, and the largest volume imports are petroleum and wheat flour.",
"Other important break-bulk exports include rice and timber.Containers are used but because they are not part of the internal transport system, they are loaded and unloaded at the ports.Internal barge transport is important for bauxite, sugar, rice and aggregates.",
"In the case of sugar, for example, 98 percent of exports is delivered by barge to the port of Georgetown for export.",
"Rivers are used for moving logs and account also for a significant share of those persons who travel to the interior.It is estimated that about 1,000 kilometers of waterways in Guyana are utilized for commerce in Guyana.",
"In addition, drainage canals are important transport channels for collecting sugar on the estates and for personal travel."
],
[
"Ferries",
"Pontoon ferry crossing the Essequibo RiverFerry services link the primary roads in the coastal area, and Guyana with Suriname.",
"The Government's Transport an hid Harbour Department provides scheduled ferry services in the Essequibo and Demerara rivers.",
"Small privately owned river-craft supplement these services.",
"Since the opening of the Berbice River Bridge in December 2008 the Transport and Harbour Department has reduced its service to only one round trip daily between Rosignol and New Amsterdam.Currently the only ferry service consistently showing profit is The Parika-Adventure.",
"Service for the remainder, in particular The North West services, the Government provides a cross-subsidy funded out of the profits that are always realized by the Harbor Branch of the Transport and Harbors Department.",
"Nevertheless, ferry operations have the potential to be profitable, provided that capital investments are made to improve their physical assets.",
"With the establishment of a Maritime Administration and subsequently a National Sea Ports Authority the ferry operations may be privatized or operated as a commercially viable autonomous agency.There is also a ferry linking Guyana and Suriname crossing the Corentyne River from Springlands (at Corriverton in Guyana) to Nieuw Nickerie, a town in Suriname.",
"Leaving Rosignol at 8:00hrs and now at 14:30hrs respectively.",
"This service is primarily geared at offsetting the high cost for crossing the Berbice Bridge for school children, public servants and the elderly.Ultimately, key ferry links were to be replaced with bridges, starting with one from Rosignol to New Amsterdam across the Berbice River.At the end of 1999 the fleet of ferry vessels owned by the Transport and Harbors Department comprised nine motor vessels, six of which ranged in age from 15 to 55 years.",
"Indeed, two of the vessels were over fifty years of age, and three over 30 years, with an average age of thirty-five.",
"They are in almost continuous need of repair."
],
[
"Air transportation",
"Air transportation for business and pleasure is readily available for traveling to many parts of the hinterland.",
"Several local airlines depart from both Ogle Airport on the East Coast Demerara, south-east of Georgetown and from Cheddi Jagan International Airport, at Timehri, south-west of Georgetown.Air transport plays a vital role in the development of Guyana.",
"Within the country, it provides a link between the coastal areas and communities in the hinterland, many of which are inaccessible by any other means of transportation.",
"Thus, the economic and social well being of these areas and their integration into the fabric of the nation are critically dependent on the availability of air transport.",
"Externally, passengers are moved to and from the country almost entirely by air.",
"In addition, the potential of this mode of transport for the carriage of cargo, especially exports, continues to increase.The first airplane flight took place in Guyana in March 1913 when George Schmidt, a German, flew a machine over Georgetown, taking off from the Bel Air Park Race Course.In September 1929, the first airmail service to Guyana began.The famous American flier, Colonel Charles Lindbergh, arrived in the Demerara River with his flying boat (an amphibian craft) on September 22, 1929.The first regular flights to the interior started in 1939.Although air transport in Guyana had its beginnings in the 1920s when the first \"bush\" services were introduced, Government's earnest participation can be dated from 1947 when a Director of Civil Aviation was appointed to regulate the industry.",
"Regular shipments of beef from the Rupununi to Georgetown by air began on 9 July 1948.Amphibian aircraft have been vital to the development of the country as they are able land both on airstrips and on water.The development of air transport in Guyana owes much to Arthur \"Art\" James Williams, a pilot and mechanic from the United States.",
"He arrived in British Guiana in August 1934, and returned to the United States in October 1955.Over this period, except for the war years, during which he served with the United States Air Force, he developed British Guiana Airways Ltd. (registered 27 May 1938) and operating regular internal services since 1939.On 15 July 1955, the Government purchased British Guiana Airways.",
"However, external services continued to be supplied almost exclusively by foreign airlines until Guyana Airways Corporation commenced regional air services in 1979.Subsequently, restrictions on the repatriation of profits in foreign exchange and other circumstances contributed to the withdrawal of services to Guyana by foreign airlines, with the exception of BWIA.",
"Guyana Airways Corporation was therefore obliged to fill the breach by commencing jet operations to Miami and New York in the US and Toronto, Ontario in Canada.In the 1980s Guyana Airways Corporation's domestic operations started to deteriorate for a number of reasons, not least among them the unrealistically low fares it was required to charge and the lack of access to foreign exchange for imported aircraft parts and other requirements.",
"The private sector therefore began to fill the gap and by 1991 three major domestic charter operators had emerged.",
"In the meantime, Guyana Airways Corporation's domestic service continued to deteriorate and, by 1993, possessed only one Twin Otter DHC-6 to service the entire country.",
"Under new management it was revitalized and saw a partial return to its original domestic role with the reintroduction of several domestic scheduled routes, because of the addition of two Shorts Skyvan SC7 aircraft, and a second Twin Otter DHC-6 aircraft.In 2010, the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) conferred \"international\" status to the air terminal at Ogle (IATA: OGL, ICAO: SYGO), a former sugarcane airstrip just a few kilometres south of Georgetown's center.",
"In anticipation of increased regional air traffic to the facility, an EU-subsidized construction project began in January of that year, intended to upgrade the terminal building and extend the primary paved runway to a usable length of 4000 feet.",
"Ogle is the hub for domestic flights to Guyana's interior and offers once-daily service to the in-town airstrip in Paramaribo, capital of neighboring Suriname."
],
[
"Challenges and future development",
"The gross inadequacy of Guyana's transportation system militates against its social and economic development in several ways.",
"First, it increases production costs and, therefore, reduces competitiveness, particularly in the mining and forestry sectors.",
"Second, it inhibits the capacity to fully utilise those natural resources (gold, timber, diamonds, soils suitable for agriculture) that are not located on the coastland.",
"Third, by severely limiting communication between those who live on the coast and those who inhabit the hinterland, it effectively divides the country into two almost unbridgeable cultures.",
"Fourth, it acts as a barrier to the unity of the country in both a physical and spiritual sense: because they are not unified physically, Guyanese seem to find it difficult to think as Guyanese, to act as if they are one nation.",
"Fifth, it restricts the coastal population's penetration of the interior, and forces coastlanders to live in a cramped and crowded manner on the coast, struggling and competing for land-space and other amenities, while more suitable areas are available farther south.",
"And sixth, failure to occupy the greater part of the country, might tend to bolster some of the claims of Guyana's neighbours to its territory.The government of Guyana and Brazil signed a Memorandum of Understanding in 2012 to explore the development of Hydro Power, Linden-Lethem Road and Deep Water Harbour to boost bilateral trade and cooperation.",
"This network would have enabled easy access by road to the neighbouring countries of Brazil, Venezuela and Surinam; reduced the costs of utilising the country's timber and natural resources, thus making them more competitive in international markets; diversified agricultural development by making more easily available suitable areas in the hinterland, particularly in the Intermediate and Rupununi savannahs; relieved the over-crowded coastland of a significant proportion of its population, thus improving the quality of life of the inhabitants of both the coastal and interior areas; and made more feasible the equitable distribution of economic activity, not only in the agricultural but also in the manufacturing and small- industries sector.A high-span fixed bridge is currently being studied to replace the existing DHB; a series of bridges and causeways linking the islands in the mouth of the Essequibo River to Morasi on the East Bank and Supenaam on the West Bank; and another high-span bridge across the Essequibo River at Monkey Jump.Construction of a bridge across the Berbice River at Crab Island and D'Edwards on the East and West banks of Berbice River was completed in 2008.In 2012, The Government of Guyana signed a contract with CHEC of China for the expansion of the runway at the CJIA and the construction of a modern terminal building at an estimated cost of 131Million US Dollars.",
"Moreover, the airstrip at Timehri Airport would have been extended, and the entire Airport refurbished to accommodate an increasing number of passengers.",
"The airport at Ogle would have been privatised, and much improved and extended."
],
[
"Statistics",
"===Railways===''Total:''187 km (all dedicated to ore transport)''Standard gauge:''139 km; ''Narrow gauge:''48 km; gauge===Highways===''Total:''7,970 km''Paved:''590 km''Unpaved:''7,380 km (1996 est.",
")* Driving is on the left, a practice inherited from United Kingdom colonial authorities.",
"Guyana and Suriname are the only two countries on the (in-land) American continent who still drive on the left.===Waterways===Guyana has total of navigable waterways; Berbice River, Demerara River, and Essequibo River are navigable by oceangoing vessels for respectively.===Seaports and harbors===* Bartica* Georgetown* Linden* New Amsterdam* Parika===Merchant marine===''total:''1 ship ( or over) totaling /''ships by type:'' (1999 est.",
")* cargo ship 1===Airports===51 (1999 est.",
")'''International Airport:''' Cheddi Jagan International Airport'''Other Major Airport/s:''' Eugene F. Correia International Airport'''Airports - with paved runways:'''''total:''9''1,524 to 2,437 m:''2''914 to 1,523 m:''1''under 914 m:''2 (1999 est.",
")'''Airports - with unpaved runways:'''''total:''84''1,524 to 2,437 m:''2''914 to 1,523 m:''7''under 914 m:''37 (1999 est.)"
],
[
"See also",
"* Rail transport by country* Proposed high-speed rail by country"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References",
"*''50 Years of Flying in Guyana'' by H.S.",
"Burrowes.",
"*''Railways of the Caribbean'' by David Rollinson (2001, Macmillan, Oxford England)"
],
[
"External links"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Foreign relations of Guyana"
],
[
"Introduction",
"After independence in 1966, Guyana sought an influential role in international affairs, particularly among Third World and non-aligned nations.",
"It served twice on the UN Security Council (1975–76 and 1982–83).",
"Former Vice President, Deputy Prime Minister, and Attorney General Mohamed Shahabuddeen served a 9-year term on the International Court of Justice (1987–96).",
"In June 2023, Guyana was elected as a non-permanent member to the UN Security Council.",
"The country will serve on the Council for a period of two years, beginning in January 2024.Guyana has diplomatic relations with a wide range of nations, and these are managed primarily through its Ministry of Foreign Affairs.",
"The European Union (EU), the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB), the UN Development Programme (UNDP), the World Health Organization (WHO), and the Organization of American States (OAS) have offices in Georgetown."
],
[
"Regional relations",
"Guyana strongly supports the concept of regional integration.",
"It played an important role in the founding of the Caribbean Community and Common Market (CARICOM), but its status as the organization's poorest member limits its ability to exert leadership in regional activities.",
"Guyana has sought to keep foreign policy in close alignment with the consensus of CARICOM members, especially in voting in the UN, OAS, and other international organizations."
],
[
"International disputes",
"All of the area west of the Essequibo River has at one point been under dispute, namely by Venezuela and Brazil.",
"In 1899, the government in Caracas reluctantly accepted the Venezuelan-Guyanese border but later revived its claim to the Essequibo in 1962.Suriname has an ongoing dispute with Guyana and this pertains to the area east of the Upper Courantyne.Currently, two neighbours have longstanding territorial disputes with Guyana.",
"Since the 19th century, Venezuela has claimed the majority or all of Guyana situated west of the Essequibo River – 62% of Guyana's territory.",
"At a meeting in Geneva in 1966, the two countries agreed to receive recommendations from a representative of the UN Secretary General on ways to settle the dispute peacefully.",
"Diplomatic contacts between the two countries and the Secretary General's representative continue.",
"In December 2023 president Nicolás Maduro called for a public referendum which resulted in the government of Venezuela officially claiming ownership of the Essequibo, claim that resulted in the 2023 Guyana-Venezula crisis.Neighbouring Suriname also claims the territory east of Guyana's New River, a largely uninhabited area of some in southeast Guyana.",
"Guyana and Suriname also disputed their offshore maritime boundaries.",
"This dispute flared up in June 2000 in response to an effort by a Canadian company to drill for oil under a Guyanese concession.",
"Guyana regards its legal title to all of its territory as sound.",
"However, the dispute with Suriname was arbitrated by the United Nations Convention on Law of the Sea and a ruling in favor of Guyana was announced in September 2007."
],
[
"Crime",
"In 1993, Guyana ratified the 1988 Vienna Convention on illicit traffic in narcotic drugs and cooperates with US law enforcement agencies on counter-narcotics efforts.",
"Guyana is also a member of the International Criminal Court with a Bilateral Immunity Agreement of protection for the US-military (as covered under Article 98).Guyana has been considered a transshipment point for narcotics from South America, primarily Venezuela, to Europe and the United States and producer of cannabis."
],
[
"Relations by country",
"List of countries which Guyana has diplomatic relations with:425x425px#CountryDate1Unknown2Unknown3456789101112131415161718192021222324252627282930313233343536373839404142434445464748495051525354555657585960616263646566676869707172737475767778798081828384858687888990919293949596979899100101102103104105106107108109110111112113114115116116—118119120—121122123124125126127128129130131132133134135136137138139140141142—143—144145146147148149150151=== Africa === Country Formal Relations BeganNotes1975*Both countries have established diplomatic relations on 28 October 1975.",
"*Guyana is covered through the Botswana Mission in New York City.",
"*Both countries are full members of Commonwealth of Nations.",
"1994*Both countries have established diplomatic relations on 13 December 1994.",
"*Both countries are full members of Commonwealth of Nations.",
"* Guyana is accredited to Namibia from its high commission in Pretoria, South Africa.",
"* Namibia is accredited to Guyana from its Permanent Mission to the United Nations in New York City.4 November 1994*Both countries established diplomatic relations on 4 November 1994.",
"*South Africa is represented in Guyana through its High Commission in Kingston, Jamaica.=== Americas === Country Formal Relations BeganNotes6 October 1972*Both countries have established diplomatic relations on 6 October 1972.",
"*Argentina has an embassy in Georgetown, Guyana.",
"*Both countries are full members of Organization of American States and Union of South American Nations.See Barbados–Guyana relationsThe relations between Guyana and Barbados had its genesis to a time when both Guyana (then British Guiana) and Barbados were both British colonies.",
"Shortly after Great Britain secured British Guiana from the Dutch, waves of migrants were encouraged to move and settle in Guyana.",
"Barbados was one such location where large numbers of migrants came from.",
"Through time Barbados and Guyana have both supported each other.",
"With the move towards independence in the region Guyana was seen as the breadbasket of the wider Caribbean which led to yet more waves of Barbadians seeking to move to Guyana for better opportunities.Relations have been rocky, during the 1990s, immigration became contentious for Guyanese persons to Barbados.",
"Such terms as the \"Guyanese bench\" in the immigration area of the Barbados Sir Grantley Adams International Airport have tested both states at times.",
"The two nations continue their cooperation through the Caribbean Community (CARICOM) and work towards building and maintaining good relations between their nationals.",
"Both nations also attempt to maintain open communications at high levels of both Governments.More recently the Guyanese Government has extended an offer to Barbadians.",
"The Guyanese government has offered to put in place an economically favourable regime towards any Barbadians that wish to relocate to Guyana and contribute towards that nation's goals in agricultural investment.",
"The announcement was made in the final days of the Owen Arthur administration by MP member Mia Mottley.In the early 1990s the Prime Minister of Trinidad and Tobago, Patrick Manning pitched an initiative for Barbados, Guyana and Trinidad and Tobago to enter into some form of political union or political association.",
"This initiative was short lived and didn't proceed following the Democratic Labour Party's defeat during the 1994 elections.",
"* Belize has a high commission in Georgetown.",
"* Guyana has an honorary consulate in Belize.See Brazil–Guyana relationsBrazil–Guyana relations have traditionally been close.",
"Brazil has provided military assistance to Guyana in the form of war fare training and logistics.",
"Bilateral relations between the countries have recently increased, as a result of Brazil's new ''South-South'' foreign policy aimed to strengthen South American integration.During a state visit by Brazilian President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva to Georgetown on 2 March 2007, the governments of Guyana and Brazil signed several cooperation agreements and announced plans to boost trade between the two countries.Canada started relations with Guyana in 1964 with the construction of the Commission of Canada in Georgetown.",
"In 1966 it became a Canadian High Commission.",
"There is a Guyanese High Commission in Ottawa and a Guyanese Consulate in Toronto.Canada and Guyana have strong ties through the Commonwealth of Nations.",
"There is an estimated 200,000 Guyanese living in Canada.",
"The Royal Canadian Mounted Police and the Guyanese police work closely to help with drug, and human smuggling.Guyana's largest import from Canada is machinery (CAD $13 mil), and export is precious metals (CAD$482 mil).",
"Food exports generally cater to Canada's Guyanese diaspora population.3 November 1978Dominica and Guyana have established diplomatic relations on 3 November 1978.",
"*Guyana has a High Commission in Roseau.1 March 1973See Guyana–Mexico relations* Guyana is accredited to Mexico from its embassy in Washington, D.C., United States.",
"* Mexico has an embassy in Georgetown.25 November 1975See Guyana–Suriname relations*Both countries established diplomatic relations on 25 November 1975.",
"*Both countries are full members of the Organization of American States, and of the Caribbean Community.",
"*There is an ongoing territorial dispute between Guyana and Suriname regarding the Tigri Area.26 May 1966See Guyana-Trinidad and Tobago relationsGuyana and Trinidad and Tobago have had historically close ties due to their shared culture, history, dominion under the British empire, demographics and religion.",
"Both Countries have a substantial population of Hindus from indentured servitude from India along with a large African population from Africa.",
"Both countries are a part of the Commonwealth of Nations and CARICOM.",
"Trinidad was the largest forgiver of debt in the 1990s Paris Club Agreement to Guyana, forgiving Hundred of Millions of Debt.",
"A substantial number of Guyanese people live in Trinidad and Tobago.",
"In recent years, relations between the two countries warmed with Guyana establishing its First Diplomatic Mission in Port of Spain in 2017.In 2018, they signed a Memorandum of Understanding on Energy Cooperation.See Guyana–United States relationsU.S.",
"policy toward The Co-operative Republic of Guyana seeks to develop robust, sustainable democratic institutions, laws, and political practices; support economic growth and development; and promote stability and security.",
"During the last years of his administration, President Hoyte sought to improve relations with the United States as part of a decision to move his country toward genuine political nonalignment.",
"Relations also were improved by Hoyte's efforts to respect human rights, invite international observers for the 1992 elections, and reform electoral laws.",
"The United States also welcomed the Hoyte government's economic reform and efforts, which stimulated investment and growth.",
"The 1992 democratic elections and Guyana's reaffirmation of sound economic policies and respect for human rights have placed U.S.-Guyanese relations on an excellent footing.",
"Under successive PPP governments, the United States and Guyana continued to improve relations.",
"President Cheddi Jagan was committed to democracy, adopted more free market policies, and pursued sustainable development for Guyana's environment.",
"* Guyana has an embassy in Washington, DC and a consulate-general in New York City.",
"* United States has an embassy in Georgetown.1985*Both countries established diplomatic relations on 3 June 1985.",
"*Both countries are full members of Organization of American States and Union of South American Nations.See Guyana–Venezuela relationsVenezuela claimed more than half of the territory of the British colony of Guyana at the time of the Latin American wars of independence, a dispute that was settled by arbitration in 1899.In 1962 Venezuela declared that it would no longer abide by the arbitration decision, which ceded mineral-rich territory in the Orinoco basin to Guyana.",
"The area is called \"Guayana Esequiba\" by Venezuela.",
"A border commission was set up in 1966 with representatives from Guyana, Venezuela and Great Britain, but failed to reach agreement.",
"Venezuela vetoed Guyana's bid to become a member of the Organization of American States (OAS) in 1967.In 1969 Venezuela backed an abortive uprising in the disputed area.Under intense diplomatic pressure, Venezuela agreed in 1970 to a 12-year moratorium on the dispute with the Protocol of Port-of-Spain.",
"In 1981, Venezuela refused to renew the protocol.",
"However, with changes to the governments of both countries relations improved, to the extent that in 1990 Venezuela sponsored Guyana's bid for OAS membership in 1990.=== Asia === Country Formal Relations BeganNotesBilateral relations are good and progress on the economic side.",
"In 2022 exports from Guyana to China reached sum $1 billion dollars.",
"Currently Chinese state owned companies are working to construct the largest bridge in Guyana which will span the Demerara River.See Guyana–India relationsRelations between India and Guyana ever since the independence of Guyana in May 1966 have been cordial.",
"The cordiality in the relation remains unaffected with changes in governments either in India or in Guyana.",
"Late Shrimati Indira Gandhi, the then Prime Minister of India, visited Guyana in 1968, late Dr. Shankar Dayal Sharma, the then Vice President of India visited Guyana in 1988 and Shri Bhairon Singh Shekhawat, the then Vice President of India came on a state visit to Guyana in 2006.The cooperation between the two countries in sharing developmental experience is mainly routed through Indian Technical & Economic Cooperation (ITEC) under which forty scholarships are granted every year in various courses.",
"Besides, some experts are also deputed to Guyana from time to time on request in specified areas of activity.",
"Several other scholarships are also available to Guyanese to pursue long-term courses, to get acquainted with India and to learn Hindi language in India.India has offered credit facilities to Guyana for use in mutually accepted designated fields, agriculture and information technology, being two of these.",
"Indian companies have also expressed interest in bio fuel, energy, minerals and pharmaceuticals.",
"Total trade turn over remains low, though the trend is positive.Indian Cultural Centre in Georgetown was established in 1972 with the objective of strengthening cultural relations and mutual understanding between India and Guyana and their peoples.",
"The Centre runs regular classes in Yoga and Dance (Kathak).",
"The centre has a well equipped Auditorium where cultural events are organised on a regular basis.",
"The teachers and students of ICC participate in events by the local community on various occasions round the year.",
"The centre has a library with books/publications on history, literature, art, culture, mythology and works of eminent scholars and authors.An important cultural connection between India and Guyana is cricket.",
"With the advent of the Indian Premier League, many Guyanese players were contracted to play in India.",
"* Guyana has an embassy in Doha.",
"* Qatar has an embassy in Georgetown.June 13, 1968The Republic of Guyana and The Republic of Korea established diplomatic relations on 1968-06-13.=== Europe === Country Formal Relations BeganNotes25 February 2003*Both countries established diplomatic relations on 25 February 2003.",
"*Croatia is represented in Guyana through its Permanent Mission in New York City.11 May 2011*Both countries established diplomatic relation on 11 May 2011.",
"*Cyprus is represented in Guyana by its embassy in Brasília, Brazil.",
"*Both countries are full members of Commonwealth of Nations.16 November 1979*Both countries established diplomatic relations on 16 November 1979.",
"*Denmark is represented in Guyana, through its embassy in Brasília.",
"*Guyana is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in Brussels.1979*Both countries established diplomatic relations on 2 April 1979.",
"* Guyana is represented in Finland by their embassy in Brussels, Belgium.",
"* Finland also has an honorary consulate general in Georgetown.1967*Both countries established diplomatic relations on 22 June 1967.",
"*France is represented in Guyana through its embassy in Paramaribo, Suriname.",
"*France has an honorary consulate in Guyana.",
"*Both countries have passed a number of bilateral treaties.1966See: Germany–Guyana relations*Both countries established diplomatic relations in 1966.",
"*Germany is represented in Guyana through its embassy in Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago.23 April 2012*Both countries established diplomatic relations on 23 April 2012.",
"*Bilateral political consultations between the Foreign Agencies cooperation is ongoing between both countries in political, legal, cultural, trade and economic relations.",
"Cooperation concerning the academic exchanges is successfully implemented.14 May 1979*Both countries established diplomatic relations on 14 May 1979.",
"*Greece is represented in Guyana by its embassy in Caracas, Venezuela.",
"*Greece has provided Guyana with development aid in the past.17 December 1970See Guyana–Russia relations*Both countries established diplomatic relations on 17 December 1970.",
"*Guyana is represented in Russia by its High Commission in( London, United Kingdom.",
"*Russia is represented in Guyana by its embassy in Georgetown, Guyana.5 November 1968*Both countries established diplomatic relations on 5 November 1968.",
"*Serbia is represented in Guyana through its embassy in Washington, D.C.* Guyana has a high commission in London.",
"* United Kingdom has a high commission in Georgetown.=== Oceania === Country Formal Relations BeganNotes*Australia is represented in Guyana through its embassy in Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago.",
"*Both countries are members of the Commonwealth of Nations."
],
[
"See also",
"*Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Guyana)*List of diplomatic missions in Guyana*List of diplomatic missions of Guyana"
],
[
"References and notes"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Geology"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Geology''' () is a branch of natural science concerned with the Earth and other astronomical objects, the rocks of which they are composed, and the processes by which they change over time.",
"Modern geology significantly overlaps all other Earth sciences, including hydrology.",
"It is integrated with Earth system science and planetary science.Geology describes the structure of the Earth on and beneath its surface and the processes that have shaped that structure.",
"Geologists study the mineralogical composition of rocks in order to get insight into their history of formation.",
"Geology determines the relative ages of rocks found at a given location; geochemistry (a branch of geology) determines their absolute ages.",
"By combining various petrological, crystallographic, and paleontological tools, geologists are able to chronicle the geological history of the Earth as a whole.",
"One aspect is to demonstrate the age of the Earth.",
"Geology provides evidence for plate tectonics, the evolutionary history of life, and the Earth's past climates.Geologists broadly study the properties and processes of Earth and other terrestrial planets.",
"Geologists use a wide variety of methods to understand the Earth's structure and evolution, including fieldwork, rock description, geophysical techniques, chemical analysis, physical experiments, and numerical modelling.",
"In practical terms, geology is important for mineral and hydrocarbon exploration and exploitation, evaluating water resources, understanding natural hazards, remediating environmental problems, and providing insights into past climate change.",
"Geology is a major academic discipline, and it is central to geological engineering and plays an important role in geotechnical engineering."
],
[
"Geological material",
"The majority of geological data comes from research on solid Earth materials.",
"Meteorites and other extraterrestrial natural materials are also studied by geological methods.===Mineral===Minerals are naturally occurring elements and compounds with a definite homogeneous chemical composition and ordered atomic composition.Each mineral has distinct physical properties, and there are many tests to determine each of them.",
"Minerals are often identified through these tests.",
"The specimens can be tested for:* Luster: Quality of light reflected from the surface of a mineral.",
"Examples are metallic, pearly, waxy, dull.",
"* Color: Minerals are grouped by their color.",
"Mostly diagnostic but impurities can change a mineral's color.",
"* Streak: Performed by scratching the sample on a porcelain plate.",
"The color of the streak can help name the mineral.",
"* Hardness: The resistance of a mineral to scratching.",
"* Breakage pattern: A mineral can either show fracture or cleavage, the former being breakage of uneven surfaces, and the latter a breakage along closely spaced parallel planes.",
"* Specific gravity: the weight of a specific volume of a mineral.",
"* Effervescence: Involves dripping hydrochloric acid on the mineral to test for fizzing.",
"* Magnetism: Involves using a magnet to test for magnetism.",
"* Taste: Minerals can have a distinctive taste such as halite (which tastes like table salt).===Rock===The rock cycle shows the relationship between igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks.A rock is any naturally occurring solid mass or aggregate of minerals or mineraloids.",
"Most research in geology is associated with the study of rocks, as they provide the primary record of the majority of the geological history of the Earth.",
"There are three major types of rock: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic.",
"The rock cycleillustrates the relationships among them (see diagram).When a rock solidifies or crystallizes from melt (magma or lava), it is an igneous rock.",
"This rock can be weathered and eroded, then redeposited and lithified into a sedimentary rock.",
"It can then be turned into a metamorphic rock by heat and pressure that change its mineral content, resulting in a characteristic fabric.",
"All three types may melt again, and when this happens, new magma is formed, from which an igneous rock may once again solidify.Organic matter, such as coal, bitumen, oil, and natural gas, is linked mainly to organic-rich sedimentary rocks.Native gold from VenezuelaQuartz from Tibet.",
"Quartz makes up more than 10% of the Earth's crust by mass.To study all three types of rock, geologists evaluate the minerals of which they are composed and their other physical properties, such as texture and fabric.===Unlithified material===Geologists also study unlithified materials (referred to as ''superficial deposits'') that lie above the bedrock.",
"This study is often known as Quaternary geology, after the Quaternary period of geologic history, which is the most recent period of geologic time.====Magma====Magma is the original unlithified source of all igneous rocks.",
"The active flow of molten rock is closely studied in volcanology, and igneous petrology aims to determine the history of igneous rocks from their original molten source to their final crystallization."
],
[
"Whole-Earth structure",
"===Plate tectonics===Oceanic-continental convergence resulting in subduction and volcanic arcs illustrates one effect of plate tectonics.The major tectonic plates of the EarthIn the 1960s, it was discovered that the Earth's lithosphere, which includes the crust and rigid uppermost portion of the upper mantle, is separated into tectonic plates that move across the plastically deforming, solid, upper mantle, which is called the asthenosphere.",
"This theory is supported by several types of observations, including seafloor spreading and the global distribution of mountain terrain and seismicity.There is an intimate coupling between the movement of the plates on the surface and the convection of the mantle (that is, the heat transfer caused by the slow movement of ductile mantle rock).",
"Thus, oceanic plates and the adjoining mantle convection currents always move in the same direction – because the oceanic lithosphere is actually the rigid upper thermal boundary layer of the convecting mantle.",
"This coupling between rigid plates moving on the surface of the Earth and the convecting mantle is called plate tectonics.In this diagram based on seismic tomography, subducting slabs are in blue and continental margins and a few plate boundaries are in red.",
"The blue blob in the cutaway section is the Farallon Plate, which is subducting beneath North America.",
"The remnants of this plate on the surface of the Earth are the Juan de Fuca Plate and Explorer Plate, both in the northwestern United States and southwestern Canada and the Cocos Plate on the west coast of Mexico.The development of plate tectonics has provided a physical basis for many observations of the solid Earth.",
"Long linear regions of geological features are explained as plate boundaries.For example:* Mid-ocean ridges, high regions on the seafloor where hydrothermal vents and volcanoes exist, are seen as divergent boundaries, where two plates move apart.",
"* Arcs of volcanoes and earthquakes are theorized as convergent boundaries, where one plate subducts, or moves, under another.Transform boundaries, such as the San Andreas Fault system, resulted in widespread powerful earthquakes.",
"Plate tectonics also has provided a mechanism for Alfred Wegener's theory of continental drift, in which the continents move across the surface of the Earth over geological time.",
"They also provided a driving force for crustal deformation, and a new setting for the observations of structural geology.",
"The power of the theory of plate tectonics lies in its ability to combine all of these observations into a single theory of how the lithosphere moves over the convecting mantle.===Earth structure===The Earth's layered structure.",
"(1) inner core; (2) outer core; (3) lower mantle; (4) upper mantle; (5) lithosphere; (6) crust (part of the lithosphere)Earth layered structure.",
"Typical wave paths from earthquakes like these gave early seismologists insights into the layered structure of the EarthAdvances in seismology, computer modeling, and mineralogy and crystallography at high temperatures and pressures give insights into the internal composition and structure of the Earth.Seismologists can use the arrival times of seismic waves to image the interior of the Earth.",
"Early advances in this field showed the existence of a liquid outer core (where shear waves were not able to propagate) and a dense solid inner core.",
"These advances led to the development of a layered model of the Earth, with a crust and lithosphere on top, the mantle below (separated within itself by seismic discontinuities at 410 and 660 kilometers), and the outer core and inner core below that.",
"More recently, seismologists have been able to create detailed images of wave speeds inside the earth in the same way a doctor images a body in a CT scan.",
"These images have led to a much more detailed view of the interior of the Earth, and have replaced the simplified layered model with a much more dynamic model.Mineralogists have been able to use the pressure and temperature data from the seismic and modeling studies alongside knowledge of the elemental composition of the Earth to reproduce these conditions in experimental settings and measure changes within the crystal structure.",
"These studies explain the chemical changes associated with the major seismic discontinuities in the mantle and show the crystallographic structures expected in the inner core of the Earth."
],
[
"Geological time",
"The geological time scale encompasses the history of the Earth.",
"It is bracketed at the earliest by the dates of the first Solar System material at 4.567 Ga (or 4.567 billion years ago) and the formation of the Earth at4.54 Ga(4.54 billion years), which is the beginning of the informally recognized Hadean eona division of geological time.",
"At the later end of the scale, it is marked by the present day (in the Holocene epoch).===Timescale of the Earth======Important milestones on Earth===Geological time in a diagram called a geological clock, showing the relative lengths of the eons and eras of the Earth's history* 4.567 Ga (gigaannum: billion years ago): Solar system formation* 4.54 Ga: Accretion, or formation, of Earth* c. 4 Ga: End of Late Heavy Bombardment, the first life* c. 3.5 Ga: Start of photosynthesis* c. 2.3 Ga: Oxygenated atmosphere, first snowball Earth* 730–635 Ma (megaannum: million years ago): second snowball Earth* 541 ± 0.3 Ma: Cambrian explosion – vast multiplication of hard-bodied life; first abundant fossils; start of the Paleozoic* c. 380 Ma: First vertebrate land animals* 250 Ma: Permian-Triassic extinction – 90% of all land animals die; end of Paleozoic and beginning of Mesozoic* 66 Ma: Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction – Dinosaurs die; end of Mesozoic and beginning of Cenozoic* c. 7 Ma: First hominins appear* 3.9 Ma: First Australopithecus, direct ancestor to modern Homo sapiens, appear* 200 ka (kiloannum: thousand years ago): First modern Homo sapiens appear in East Africa===Timescale of the Moon======Timescale of Mars==="
],
[
"Dating methods",
"===Relative dating===Cross-cutting relations can be used to determine the relative ages of rock strata and other geological structures.",
"Explanations: A – folded rock strata cut by a thrust fault; B – large intrusion (cutting through A); C – erosional angular unconformity (cutting off A & B) on which rock strata were deposited; D – volcanic dyke (cutting through A, B & C); E – even younger rock strata (overlying C & D); F – normal fault (cutting through A, B, C & E).Methods for relative dating were developed when geology first emerged as a natural science.",
"Geologists still use the following principles today as a means to provide information about geological history and the timing of geological events.The ''principle of uniformitarianism'' states that the geological processes observed in operation that modify the Earth's crust at present have worked in much the same way over geological time.",
"A fundamental principle of geology advanced by the 18th-century Scottish physician and geologist James Hutton is that \"the present is the key to the past.\"",
"In Hutton's words: \"the past history of our globe must be explained by what can be seen to be happening now.",
"\"The ''principle of intrusive relationships'' concerns crosscutting intrusions.",
"In geology, when an igneous intrusion cuts across a formation of sedimentary rock, it can be determined that the igneous intrusion is younger than the sedimentary rock.",
"Different types of intrusions include stocks, laccoliths, batholiths, sills and dikes.The ''principle of cross-cutting relationships'' pertains to the formation of faults and the age of the sequences through which they cut.",
"Faults are younger than the rocks they cut; accordingly, if a fault is found that penetrates some formations but not those on top of it, then the formations that were cut are older than the fault, and the ones that are not cut must be younger than the fault.",
"Finding the key bed in these situations may help determine whether the fault is a normal fault or a thrust fault.The ''principle of inclusions and components'' states that, with sedimentary rocks, if inclusions (or ''clasts'') are found in a formation, then the inclusions must be older than the formation that contains them.",
"For example, in sedimentary rocks, it is common for gravel from an older formation to be ripped up and included in a newer layer.",
"A similar situation with igneous rocks occurs when xenoliths are found.",
"These foreign bodies are picked up as magma or lava flows, and are incorporated, later to cool in the matrix.",
"As a result, xenoliths are older than the rock that contains them.The Permian through Jurassic stratigraphy of the Colorado Plateau area of southeastern Utah is an example of both original horizontality and the law of superposition.",
"These strata make up much of the famous prominent rock formations in widely spaced protected areas such as Capitol Reef National Park and Canyonlands National Park.",
"From top to bottom: Rounded tan domes of the Navajo Sandstone, layered red Kayenta Formation, cliff-forming, vertically jointed, red Wingate Sandstone, slope-forming, purplish Chinle Formation, layered, lighter-red Moenkopi Formation, and white, layered Cutler Formation sandstone.",
"Picture from Glen Canyon National Recreation Area, Utah.The ''principle of original horizontality'' states that the deposition of sediments occurs as essentially horizontal beds.",
"Observation of modern marine and non-marine sediments in a wide variety of environments supports this generalization (although cross-bedding is inclined, the overall orientation of cross-bedded units is horizontal).The ''principle of superposition'' states that a sedimentary rock layer in a tectonically undisturbed sequence is younger than the one beneath it and older than the one above it.",
"Logically a younger layer cannot slip beneath a layer previously deposited.",
"This principle allows sedimentary layers to be viewed as a form of the vertical timeline, a partial or complete record of the time elapsed from deposition of the lowest layer to deposition of the highest bed.The ''principle of faunal succession'' is based on the appearance of fossils in sedimentary rocks.",
"As organisms exist during the same period throughout the world, their presence or (sometimes) absence provides a relative age of the formations where they appear.",
"Based on principles that William Smith laid out almost a hundred years before the publication of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution, the principles of succession developed independently of evolutionary thought.",
"The principle becomes quite complex, however, given the uncertainties of fossilization, localization of fossil types due to lateral changes in habitat (facies change in sedimentary strata), and that not all fossils formed globally at the same time.===Absolute dating===The mineral zircon is often used in radiometric dating.Geologists also use methods to determine the absolute age of rock samples and geological events.",
"These dates are useful on their own and may also be used in conjunction with relative dating methods or to calibrate relative methods.At the beginning of the 20th century, advancement in geological science was facilitated by the ability to obtain accurate absolute dates to geological events using radioactive isotopes and other methods.",
"This changed the understanding of geological time.",
"Previously, geologists could only use fossils and stratigraphic correlation to date sections of rock relative to one another.",
"With isotopic dates, it became possible to assign absolute ages to rock units, and these absolute dates could be applied to fossil sequences in which there was datable material, converting the old relative ages into new absolute ages.For many geological applications, isotope ratios of radioactive elements are measured in minerals that give the amount of time that has passed since a rock passed through its particular closure temperature, the point at which different radiometric isotopes stop diffusing into and out of the crystal lattice.",
"These are used in geochronologic and thermochronologic studies.",
"Common methods include uranium–lead dating, potassium–argon dating, argon–argon dating and uranium–thorium dating.",
"These methods are used for a variety of applications.",
"Dating of lava and volcanic ash layers found within a stratigraphic sequence can provide absolute age data for sedimentary rock units that do not contain radioactive isotopes and calibrate relative dating techniques.",
"These methods can also be used to determine ages of pluton emplacement.Thermochemical techniques can be used to determine temperature profiles within the crust, the uplift of mountain ranges, and paleo-topography.Fractionation of the lanthanide series elements is used to compute ages since rocks were removed from the mantle.Other methods are used for more recent events.",
"Optically stimulated luminescence and cosmogenic radionuclide dating are used to date surfaces and/or erosion rates.",
"Dendrochronology can also be used for the dating of landscapes.",
"Radiocarbon dating is used for geologically young materials containing organic carbon."
],
[
"Geological development of an area",
"An originally horizontal sequence of sedimentary rocks (in shades of tan) are affected by igneous activity.",
"Deep below the surface is a magma chamber and large associated igneous bodies.",
"The magma chamber feeds the volcano, and sends offshoots of magma that will later crystallize into dikes and sills.",
"Magma also advances upwards to form intrusive igneous bodies.",
"The diagram illustrates both a cinder cone volcano, which releases ash, and a composite volcano, which releases both lava and ash.",
"An illustration of the three types of faults.A.",
"Strike-slip faults occur when rock units slide past one another.B.",
"Normal faults occur when rocks are undergoing horizontal extension.C.",
"Reverse (or thrust) faults occur when rocks are undergoing horizontal shortening.The San Andreas Fault in CaliforniaThe geology of an area changes through time as rock units are deposited and inserted, and deformational processes alter their shapes and locations.Rock units are first emplaced either by deposition onto the surface or intrusion into the overlying rock.",
"Deposition can occur when sediments settle onto the surface of the Earth and later lithify into sedimentary rock, or when as volcanic material such as volcanic ash or lava flows blanket the surface.",
"Igneous intrusions such as batholiths, laccoliths, dikes, and sills, push upwards into the overlying rock, and crystallize as they intrude.After the initial sequence of rocks has been deposited, the rock units can be deformed and/or metamorphosed.",
"Deformation typically occurs as a result of horizontal shortening, horizontal extension, or side-to-side (strike-slip) motion.",
"These structural regimes broadly relate to convergent boundaries, divergent boundaries, and transform boundaries, respectively, between tectonic plates.When rock units are placed under horizontal compression, they shorten and become thicker.",
"Because rock units, other than muds, do not significantly change in volume, this is accomplished in two primary ways: through faulting and folding.",
"In the shallow crust, where brittle deformation can occur, thrust faults form, which causes the deeper rock to move on top of the shallower rock.",
"Because deeper rock is often older, as noted by the principle of superposition, this can result in older rocks moving on top of younger ones.",
"Movement along faults can result in folding, either because the faults are not planar or because rock layers are dragged along, forming drag folds as slip occurs along the fault.",
"Deeper in the Earth, rocks behave plastically and fold instead of faulting.",
"These folds can either be those where the material in the center of the fold buckles upwards, creating \"antiforms\", or where it buckles downwards, creating \"synforms\".",
"If the tops of the rock units within the folds remain pointing upwards, they are called anticlines and synclines, respectively.",
"If some of the units in the fold are facing downward, the structure is called an overturned anticline or syncline, and if all of the rock units are overturned or the correct up-direction is unknown, they are simply called by the most general terms, antiforms, and synforms.A diagram of folds, indicating an anticline and a synclineEven higher pressures and temperatures during horizontal shortening can cause both folding and metamorphism of the rocks.",
"This metamorphism causes changes in the mineral composition of the rocks; creates a foliation, or planar surface, that is related to mineral growth under stress.",
"This can remove signs of the original textures of the rocks, such as bedding in sedimentary rocks, flow features of lavas, and crystal patterns in crystalline rocks.Extension causes the rock units as a whole to become longer and thinner.",
"This is primarily accomplished through normal faulting and through the ductile stretching and thinning.",
"Normal faults drop rock units that are higher below those that are lower.",
"This typically results in younger units ending up below older units.",
"Stretching of units can result in their thinning.",
"In fact, at one location within the Maria Fold and Thrust Belt, the entire sedimentary sequence of the Grand Canyon appears over a length of less than a meter.",
"Rocks at the depth to be ductilely stretched are often also metamorphosed.",
"These stretched rocks can also pinch into lenses, known as ''boudins'', after the French word for \"sausage\" because of their visual similarity.Where rock units slide past one another, strike-slip faults develop in shallow regions, and become shear zones at deeper depths where the rocks deform ductilely.cross section of Kittatinny Mountain.",
"This cross-section shows metamorphic rocks, overlain by younger sediments deposited after the metamorphic event.",
"These rock units were later folded and faulted during the uplift of the mountain.The addition of new rock units, both depositionally and intrusively, often occurs during deformation.",
"Faulting and other deformational processes result in the creation of topographic gradients, causing material on the rock unit that is increasing in elevation to be eroded by hillslopes and channels.",
"These sediments are deposited on the rock unit that is going down.",
"Continual motion along the fault maintains the topographic gradient in spite of the movement of sediment and continues to create accommodation space for the material to deposit.",
"Deformational events are often also associated with volcanism and igneous activity.",
"Volcanic ashes and lavas accumulate on the surface, and igneous intrusions enter from below.",
"Dikes, long, planar igneous intrusions, enter along cracks, and therefore often form in large numbers in areas that are being actively deformed.",
"This can result in the emplacement of dike swarms, such as those that are observable across the Canadian shield, or rings of dikes around the lava tube of a volcano.All of these processes do not necessarily occur in a single environment and do not necessarily occur in a single order.",
"The Hawaiian Islands, for example, consist almost entirely of layered basaltic lava flows.",
"The sedimentary sequences of the mid-continental United States and the Grand Canyon in the southwestern United States contain almost-undeformed stacks of sedimentary rocks that have remained in place since Cambrian time.",
"Other areas are much more geologically complex.",
"In the southwestern United States, sedimentary, volcanic, and intrusive rocks have been metamorphosed, faulted, foliated, and folded.",
"Even older rocks, such as the Acasta gneiss of the Slave craton in northwestern Canada, the oldest known rock in the world have been metamorphosed to the point where their origin is indiscernible without laboratory analysis.",
"In addition, these processes can occur in stages.",
"In many places, the Grand Canyon in the southwestern United States being a very visible example, the lower rock units were metamorphosed and deformed, and then deformation ended and the upper, undeformed units were deposited.",
"Although any amount of rock emplacement and rock deformation can occur, and they can occur any number of times, these concepts provide a guide to understanding the geological history of an area."
],
[
"Methods of geology",
"Brunton Pocket Transit, commonly used by geologists for mapping and surveyingGeologists use a number of fields, laboratory, and numerical modeling methods to decipher Earth history and to understand the processes that occur on and inside the Earth.",
"In typical geological investigations, geologists use primary information related to petrology (the study of rocks), stratigraphy (the study of sedimentary layers), and structural geology (the study of positions of rock units and their deformation).",
"In many cases, geologists also study modern soils, rivers, landscapes, and glaciers; investigate past and current life and biogeochemical pathways, and use geophysical methods to investigate the subsurface.",
"Sub-specialities of geology may distinguish '''endogenous''' and '''exogenous''' geology.===Field methods===A typical USGS field mapping camp in the 1950sToday, handheld computers with GPS and geographic information systems software are often used in geological field work (digital geological mapping).A petrified log in Petrified Forest National Park, Arizona, USGeological field work varies depending on the task at hand.",
"Typical fieldwork could consist of:* Geological mapping** Structural mapping: identifying the locations of major rock units and the faults and folds that led to their placement there.",
"** Stratigraphic mapping: pinpointing the locations of sedimentary facies (lithofacies and biofacies) or the mapping of isopachs of equal thickness of sedimentary rock** Surficial mapping: recording the locations of soils and surficial deposits* Surveying of topographic features** compilation of topographic maps** Work to understand change across landscapes, including:*** Patterns of erosion and deposition*** River-channel change through migration and avulsion*** Hillslope processes* Subsurface mapping through geophysical methods** These methods include:*** Shallow seismic surveys*** Ground-penetrating radar*** Aeromagnetic surveys*** Electrical resistivity tomography** They aid in:*** Hydrocarbon exploration*** Finding groundwater*** Locating buried archaeological artifacts* High-resolution stratigraphy** Measuring and describing stratigraphic sections on the surface** Well drilling and logging* Biogeochemistry and geomicrobiology** Collecting samples to:*** determine biochemical pathways*** identify new species of organisms*** identify new chemical compounds** and to use these discoveries to:*** understand early life on Earth and how it functioned and metabolized*** find important compounds for use in pharmaceuticals* Paleontology: excavation of fossil material** For research into past life and evolution** For museums and education* Collection of samples for geochronology and thermochronology* Glaciology: measurement of characteristics of glaciers and their motion ===Petrology===In addition to identifying rocks in the field (lithology), petrologists identify rock samples in the laboratory.",
"Two of the primary methods for identifying rocks in the laboratory are through optical microscopy and by using an electron microprobe.",
"In an optical mineralogy analysis, petrologists analyze thin sections of rock samples using a petrographic microscope, where the minerals can be identified through their different properties in plane-polarized and cross-polarized light, including their birefringence, pleochroism, twinning, and interference properties with a conoscopic lens.",
"In the electron microprobe, individual locations are analyzed for their exact chemical compositions and variation in composition within individual crystals.",
"Stable and radioactive isotope studies provide insight into the geochemical evolution of rock units.Petrologists can also use fluid inclusion data and perform high temperature and pressure physical experiments to understand the temperatures and pressures at which different mineral phases appear, and how they change through igneous and metamorphic processes.",
"This research can be extrapolated to the field to understand metamorphic processes and the conditions of crystallization of igneous rocks.",
"This work can also help to explain processes that occur within the Earth, such as subduction and magma chamber evolution.rock strata===Structural geology===décollement.",
"It builds its shape into a critical taper, in which the angles within the wedge remain the same as failures inside the material balance failures along the décollement.",
"It is analogous to a bulldozer pushing a pile of dirt, where the bulldozer is the overriding plate.Structural geologists use microscopic analysis of oriented thin sections of geological samples to observe the fabric within the rocks, which gives information about strain within the crystalline structure of the rocks.",
"They also plot and combine measurements of geological structures to better understand the orientations of faults and folds to reconstruct the history of rock deformation in the area.",
"In addition, they perform analog and numerical experiments of rock deformation in large and small settings.The analysis of structures is often accomplished by plotting the orientations of various features onto stereonets.",
"A stereonet is a stereographic projection of a sphere onto a plane, in which planes are projected as lines and lines are projected as points.",
"These can be used to find the locations of fold axes, relationships between faults, and relationships between other geological structures.Among the most well-known experiments in structural geology are those involving orogenic wedges, which are zones in which mountains are built along convergent tectonic plate boundaries.",
"In the analog versions of these experiments, horizontal layers of sand are pulled along a lower surface into a back stop, which results in realistic-looking patterns of faulting and the growth of a critically tapered (all angles remain the same) orogenic wedge.",
"Numerical models work in the same way as these analog models, though they are often more sophisticated and can include patterns of erosion and uplift in the mountain belt.",
"This helps to show the relationship between erosion and the shape of a mountain range.",
"These studies can also give useful information about pathways for metamorphism through pressure, temperature, space, and time.===Stratigraphy===Different colors show the different minerals composing the mount Ritagli di Lecca seen from Fondachelli-Fantina, SicilyIn the laboratory, stratigraphers analyze samples of stratigraphic sections that can be returned from the field, such as those from drill cores.",
"Stratigraphers also analyze data from geophysical surveys that show the locations of stratigraphic units in the subsurface.",
"Geophysical data and well logs can be combined to produce a better view of the subsurface, and stratigraphers often use computer programs to do this in three dimensions.",
"Stratigraphers can then use these data to reconstruct ancient processes occurring on the surface of the Earth, interpret past environments, and locate areas for water, coal, and hydrocarbon extraction.In the laboratory, biostratigraphers analyze rock samples from outcrop and drill cores for the fossils found in them.",
"These fossils help scientists to date the core and to understand the depositional environment in which the rock units formed.",
"Geochronologists precisely date rocks within the stratigraphic section to provide better absolute bounds on the timing and rates of deposition.Magnetic stratigraphers look for signs of magnetic reversals in igneous rock units within the drill cores.",
"Other scientists perform stable-isotope studies on the rocks to gain information about past climate."
],
[
"Planetary geology",
"Surface of Mars as photographed by the Viking 2 lander December 9, 1977With the advent of space exploration in the twentieth century, geologists have begun to look at other planetary bodies in the same ways that have been developed to study the Earth.",
"This new field of study is called planetary geology (sometimes known as astrogeology) and relies on known geological principles to study other bodies of the solar system.",
"This is a major aspect of planetary science, and largely focuses on the terrestrial planets, icy moons, asteroids, comets, and meteorites.",
"However, some planetary geophysicists study the giant planets and exoplanets.Although the Greek-language-origin prefix ''geo'' refers to Earth, \"geology\" is often used in conjunction with the names of other planetary bodies when describing their composition and internal processes: examples are \"the geology of Mars\" and \"Lunar geology\".",
"Specialized terms such as ''selenology'' (studies of the Moon), ''areology'' (of Mars), etc., are also in use.Although planetary geologists are interested in studying all aspects of other planets, a significant focus is to search for evidence of past or present life on other worlds.",
"This has led to many missions whose primary or ancillary purpose is to examine planetary bodies for evidence of life.",
"One of these is the Phoenix lander, which analyzed Martian polar soil for water, chemical, and mineralogical constituents related to biological processes."
],
[
"Applied geology",
"Man panning for gold on the Mokelumne.",
"Harper's Weekly: How We Got Gold in California.",
"1860 ===Economic geology===Economic geology is a branch of geology that deals with aspects of economic minerals that humankind uses to fulfill various needs.",
"Economic minerals are those extracted profitably for various practical uses.",
"Economic geologists help locate and manage the Earth's natural resources, such as petroleum and coal, as well as mineral resources, which include metals such as iron, copper, and uranium.====Mining geology====Mining geology consists of the extractions of mineral resources from the Earth.",
"Some resources of economic interests include gemstones, metals such as gold and copper, and many minerals such as asbestos, perlite, mica, phosphates, zeolites, clay, pumice, quartz, and silica, as well as elements such as sulfur, chlorine, and helium.====Petroleum geology====Mud log in process, a common way to study the lithology when drilling oil wellsPetroleum geologists study the locations of the subsurface of the Earth that can contain extractable hydrocarbons, especially petroleum and natural gas.",
"Because many of these reservoirs are found in sedimentary basins, they study the formation of these basins, as well as their sedimentary and tectonic evolution and the present-day positions of the rock units.===Engineering geology===Engineering geology is the application of geological principles to engineering practice for the purpose of assuring that the geological factors affecting the location, design, construction, operation, and maintenance of engineering works are properly addressed.",
"Engineering geology is distinct from geological engineering, particularly in North America.A child drinks water from a well built as part of a hydrogeological humanitarian project in KenyaIn the field of civil engineering, geological principles and analyses are used in order to ascertain the mechanical principles of the material on which structures are built.",
"This allows tunnels to be built without collapsing, bridges and skyscrapers to be built with sturdy foundations, and buildings to be built that will not settle in clay and mud.===Hydrology===Geology and geological principles can be applied to various environmental problems such as stream restoration, the restoration of brownfields, and the understanding of the interaction between natural habitat and the geological environment.",
"Groundwater hydrology, or hydrogeology, is used to locate groundwater, which can often provide a ready supply of uncontaminated water and is especially important in arid regions, and to monitor the spread of contaminants in groundwater wells.===Paleoclimatology===Geologists also obtain data through stratigraphy, boreholes, core samples, and ice cores.",
"Ice cores and sediment cores are used for paleoclimate reconstructions, which tell geologists about past and present temperature, precipitation, and sea level across the globe.",
"These datasets are our primary source of information on global climate change outside of instrumental data.===Natural hazards===Rockfall in the Grand CanyonGeologists and geophysicists study natural hazards in order to enact safe building codes and warning systems that are used to prevent loss of property and life.",
"Examples of important natural hazards that are pertinent to geology (as opposed those that are mainly or only pertinent to meteorology) are:"
],
[
"History",
"William Smith's geological map of England, Wales, and southern Scotland.",
"Completed in 1815, it was the second national-scale geologic map, and by far the most accurate of its time.The study of the physical material of the Earth dates back at least to ancient Greece when Theophrastus (372–287 BCE) wrote the work ''Peri Lithon'' (''On Stones'').",
"During the Roman period, Pliny the Elder wrote in detail of the many minerals and metals, then in practical use – even correctly noting the origin of amber.",
"Additionally, in the 4th century BCE Aristotle made critical observations of the slow rate of geological change.",
"He observed the composition of the land and formulated a theory where the Earth changes at a slow rate and that these changes cannot be observed during one person's lifetime.",
"Aristotle developed one of the first evidence-based concepts connected to the geological realm regarding the rate at which the Earth physically changes.Abu al-Rayhan al-Biruni (973–1048 CE) was one of the earliest Persian geologists, whose works included the earliest writings on the geology of India, hypothesizing that the Indian subcontinent was once a sea.",
"Drawing from Greek and Indian scientific literature that were not destroyed by the Muslim conquests, the Persian scholar Ibn Sina (Avicenna, 981–1037) proposed detailed explanations for the formation of mountains, the origin of earthquakes, and other topics central to modern geology, which provided an essential foundation for the later development of the science.",
"In China, the polymath Shen Kuo (1031–1095) formulated a hypothesis for the process of land formation: based on his observation of fossil animal shells in a geological stratum in a mountain hundreds of miles from the ocean, he inferred that the land was formed by the erosion of the mountains and by deposition of silt.Georgius Agricola (1494–1555) published his groundbreaking work ''De Natura Fossilium'' in 1546 and is seen as the founder of geology as a scientific discipline.Nicolas Steno (1638–1686) is credited with the law of superposition, the principle of original horizontality, and the principle of lateral continuity: three defining principles of stratigraphy.The word ''geology'' was first used by Ulisse Aldrovandi in 1603, then by Jean-André Deluc in 1778 and introduced as a fixed term by Horace-Bénédict de Saussure in 1779.The word is derived from the Greek γῆ, ''gê'', meaning \"earth\" and λόγος, ''logos'', meaning \"speech\".",
"But according to another source, the word \"geology\" comes from a Norwegian, Mikkel Pedersøn Escholt (1600–1669), who was a priest and scholar.",
"Escholt first used the definition in his book titled, ''Geologia Norvegica'' (1657).William Smith (1769–1839) drew some of the first geological maps and began the process of ordering rock strata (layers) by examining the fossils contained in them.In 1763, Mikhail Lomonosov published his treatise ''On the Strata of Earth''.",
"His work was the first narrative of modern geology, based on the unity of processes in time and explanation of the Earth's past from the present.James Hutton (1726–1797) is often viewed as the first modern geologist.",
"In 1785 he presented a paper entitled ''Theory of the Earth'' to the Royal Society of Edinburgh.",
"In his paper, he explained his theory that the Earth must be much older than had previously been supposed to allow enough time for mountains to be eroded and for sediments to form new rocks at the bottom of the sea, which in turn were raised up to become dry land.",
"Hutton published a two-volume version of his ideas in 1795.Followers of Hutton were known as ''Plutonists'' because they believed that some rocks were formed by ''vulcanism'', which is the deposition of lava from volcanoes, as opposed to the ''Neptunists'', led by Abraham Werner, who believed that all rocks had settled out of a large ocean whose level gradually dropped over time.The first geological map of the U.S. was produced in 1809 by William Maclure.",
"In 1807, Maclure commenced the self-imposed task of making a geological survey of the United States.",
"Almost every state in the Union was traversed and mapped by him, the Allegheny Mountains being crossed and recrossed some 50 times.",
"The results of his unaided labours were submitted to the American Philosophical Society in a memoir entitled ''Observations on the Geology of the United States explanatory of a Geological Map'', and published in the ''Society's Transactions'', together with the nation's first geological map.",
"This antedates William Smith's geological map of England by six years, although it was constructed using a different classification of rocks.Sir Charles Lyell (1797–1875) first published his famous book, ''Principles of Geology'', in 1830.This book, which influenced the thought of Charles Darwin, successfully promoted the doctrine of uniformitarianism.",
"This theory states that slow geological processes have occurred throughout the Earth's history and are still occurring today.",
"In contrast, catastrophism is the theory that Earth's features formed in single, catastrophic events and remained unchanged thereafter.",
"Though Hutton believed in uniformitarianism, the idea was not widely accepted at the time.Much of 19th-century geology revolved around the question of the Earth's exact age.",
"Estimates varied from a few hundred thousand to billions of years.",
"By the early 20th century, radiometric dating allowed the Earth's age to be estimated at two billion years.",
"The awareness of this vast amount of time opened the door to new theories about the processes that shaped the planet.Some of the most significant advances in 20th-century geology have been the development of the theory of plate tectonics in the 1960s and the refinement of estimates of the planet's age.",
"Plate tectonics theory arose from two separate geological observations: seafloor spreading and continental drift.",
"The theory revolutionized the Earth sciences.",
"Today the Earth is known to be approximately 4.5 billion years old.File:Georgius Agricola.jpg|Georgius Agricola, German mineralogist, founder of geology as a scientific field.File:M.V.",
"Lomonosov by L.Miropolskiy after G.C.Prenner (1787, RAN).jpg|Mikhail Lomonosov, Russian polymath, author of the first systematic treatise in scientific geology (1763)File:Hutton James portrait Raeburn.jpg|James Hutton, Scottish geologist and father of modern geologyFile:John Tuzo Wilson in 1992.jpg|John Tuzo Wilson, Canadian geophysicist and father of plate tectonicsFile:MSH80 david johnston at camp 05-17-80 med (cropped).jpg|The volcanologist David A. Johnston 13 hours before his death at the1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens"
],
[
"Fields or related disciplines",
"* Earth system science* Economic geology** Mining geology** Petroleum geology* Engineering geology* Environmental geology* Environmental science* Geoarchaeology* Geochemistry** Biogeochemistry** Isotope geochemistry* Geochronology* Geodetics* Geography** Physical geography** Technical geography* Geological engineering* Geological modelling* Geometallurgy* Geomicrobiology* Geomorphology* Geomythology* Geophysics* Glaciology* Historical geology* Hydrogeology* Meteorology* Mineralogy* Oceanography** Marine geology* Paleoclimatology* Paleontology** Micropaleontology** Palynology* Petrology* Petrophysics* Planetary geology* Plate tectonics* Regional geology* Sedimentology* Seismology* Soil science** Pedology (soil study)* Speleology* Stratigraphy** Biostratigraphy** Chronostratigraphy** Lithostratigraphy* Structural geology* Systems geology* Tectonics* Volcanology"
],
[
"See also",
"* Glossary of geology* Geoprofessions* Geotourism* Glossary of geology terms* Index of geology articles* International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS)* Outline of geology* Timeline of geology"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* One Geology: This interactive geological map of the world is an international initiative of the geological surveys around the globe.",
"This groundbreaking project was launched in 2007 and contributed to the 'International Year of Planet Earth', becoming one of their flagship projects.",
"* ''Earth Science News, Maps, Dictionary, Articles, Jobs''* American Geophysical Union* American Geosciences Institute* European Geosciences Union* Geological Society of America* Geological Society of London* Video-interviews with famous geologists* Geology OpenTextbook* Chronostratigraphy benchmarks"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Gene Kelly"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Eugene Curran Kelly''' (August 23, 1912 – February 2, 1996) was an American dancer, actor, singer, director and choreographer.",
"He was known for his energetic and athletic dancing style and sought to create a new form of American dance accessible to the general public, which he called \"dance for the common man\".",
"He starred in, choreographed, and co-directed with Stanley Donen some of the most well-regarded musical films of the 1940s and 1950s.Kelly is best known for his performances in ''An American in Paris'' (1951), which won the Academy Award for Best Picture, ''Singin' in the Rain'' (1952), which he and Donen directed and choreographed, and other musical films of that era such as ''Cover Girl'' (1944) and ''Anchors Aweigh'' (1945), for which he was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Actor.",
"''On the Town'' (1949), which he co-directed with Donen, was his directorial debut.",
"Later in the 1950s, as musicals waned in popularity, he starred in ''Brigadoon'' (1954) and ''It's Always Fair Weather'' (1955), the last film he directed with Donen.",
"His solo directorial debut was ''Invitation to the Dance'' (1956), one of the last MGM musicals, which was a commercial failure.Kelly made his film debut in ''For Me and My Gal'' (1942) with Judy Garland, with whom he also appeared in ''The Pirate'' (1948) and ''Summer Stock'' (1950).",
"He also appeared in the dramas ''Black Hand'' (1950) and ''Inherit the Wind'' (1960), for which he received critical praise.He continued as a director in the 1960s, with his credits including ''A Guide for the Married Man'' (1967) and ''Hello, Dolly!''",
"(1969), which received an Oscar nomination for Best Picture.",
"He co-hosted and appeared in ''Ziegfeld Follies'' (1946), ''That's Entertainment!''",
"(1974), ''That's Entertainment, Part II'' (1976), ''That's Dancing!''",
"(1985), and ''That's Entertainment, Part III'' (1994).His many innovations transformed the Hollywood musical, and he is credited with almost single-handedly making the ballet form commercially acceptable to film audiences.",
"According to dance and art historian Beth Genné, working with his co-director Donen in ''Singin' in the Rain'' and in films with director Vincent Minnelli, \"Kelly ... fundamentally affected the way movies are made and the way we look at them.",
"And he did it with a dancer's eye and from a dancer's perspective.\"",
"Kelly received an Academy Honorary Award in 1952 for his career achievements; the same year, ''An American in Paris'' won six Academy Awards, including Best Picture.",
"He later received lifetime achievement awards in the Kennedy Center Honors (1982) and from the Screen Actors Guild and American Film Institute.",
"In 1999, the American Film Institute also ranked him as the 15th greatest male screen legend of Classic Hollywood Cinema."
],
[
"Early life",
"Kelly's senior picture from the 1933 yearbook of the University of PittsburghKelly was born in the East Liberty neighborhood of Pittsburgh.",
"He was middle of 5 children of James Patrick Joseph Kelly, a phonograph salesman, and his wife, Harriet Catherine Curran.",
"His father was born in Peterborough, Ontario, Canada, to an Irish Canadian family.",
"His maternal grandfather was an immigrant from Derry, Ireland, and his maternal grandmother was of German ancestry.",
"When he was eight, Kelly's mother enrolled him and his brother James in dance classes, along with their sisters.",
"As Kelly recalled, they both rebeled: \"We didn't like it much and were continually involved in fistfights with the neighborhood boys who called us sissies ...",
"I didn't dance again until I was 15.\"",
"At one time, his childhood dream was to play shortstop for the hometown Pittsburgh Pirates.By the time he decided to dance, he was an accomplished sportsman and able to defend himself.",
"He attended St. Raphael Elementary School in the Morningside neighborhood of Pittsburgh and graduated from Peabody High School at age 16.He entered the Pennsylvania State College as a journalism major, but after the 1929 crash he left school and found work in order to help his family financially.",
"He created dance routines with his younger brother Fred to earn prize money in local talent contests.",
"They also performed in local nightclubs.In 1931, Kelly enrolled at the University of Pittsburgh to study economics, joining the Theta Kappa Phi fraternity (later known as Phi Kappa Theta after merging with Phi Kappa).",
"He became involved in the university's Cap and Gown Club, which staged original musical productions.",
"After graduating in 1933, he continued to be active with the Cap and Gown Club, serving as the director from 1934 to 1938.Kelly was admitted to the University of Pittsburgh Law School.His family opened a dance studio in the Squirrel Hill neighborhood of Pittsburgh.",
"In 1932, they renamed it the Gene Kelly Studio of the Dance and opened a second location in Johnstown, Pennsylvania in 1933.Kelly served as a teacher at the studio during his undergraduate and law-student years at Pitt.",
"In 1931, he was approached by the Beth Shalom Synagogue in Pittsburgh to teach dance, and to stage the annual Kermesse.",
"The venture proved a success, Kelly being retained for seven years until his departure for New York.Kelly eventually decided to pursue a career as a dance teacher and full-time entertainer, so he dropped out of law school after two months.",
"He increased his focus on performing and later said: \"With time I became disenchanted with teaching because the ratio of girls to boys was more than ten to one, and once the girls reached 16, the dropout rate was very high.\"",
"In 1937, having successfully managed and developed the family's dance-school business, he moved to New York City in search of work as a choreographer.",
"Kelly returned to Pittsburgh, to his family home at 7514 Kensington Street, in 1940, and worked as a theatrical actor."
],
[
"Stage career",
"After a fruitless search for work in New York, Kelly returned to Pittsburgh to his first position as a choreographer with the Charles Gaynor musical revue ''Hold Your Hats'' at the Pittsburgh Playhouse in April 1938.Kelly appeared in six of the sketches, one of which, ''La cumparsita'', became the basis of an extended Spanish number in the film ''Anchors Aweigh'' eight years later.His first Broadway assignment, in November 1938, was as a dancer in Cole Porter's ''Leave It to Me!",
"''—as the American ambassador's secretary who supports Mary Martin while she sings \"My Heart Belongs to Daddy\".",
"He had been hired by Robert Alton, who had staged a show at the Pittsburgh Playhouse where he was impressed by Kelly's teaching skills.",
"When Alton moved on to choreograph the musical ''One for the Money'', he hired Kelly to act, sing, and dance in eight routines.",
"In 1939, he was selected for a musical revue, ''One for the Money'', produced by the actress Katharine Cornell, who was known for finding and hiring talented young actors.Kelly's first big breakthrough was in the Pulitzer Prize–winning ''The Time of Your Life'', which opened on October 25, 1939—in which, for the first time on Broadway, he danced to his own choreography.",
"In the same year, he received his first assignment as a Broadway choreographer, for ''Billy Rose's Diamond Horseshoe''.",
"He began dating a cast member, Betsy Blair, and they got married on October 16, 1941.In 1940, he got the lead role in Rodgers and Hart's ''Pal Joey'', again choreographed by Robert Alton.",
"This role propelled him to stardom.",
"During its run, he told reporters: \"I don't believe in conformity to any school of dancing.",
"I create what the drama and the music demand.",
"While I am a hundred percent for ballet technique, I use only what I can adapt to my own use.",
"I never let technique get in the way of mood or continuity.\"",
"His colleagues at this time noticed his great commitment to rehearsal and hard work.",
"Van Johnson—who also appeared in ''Pal Joey''—recalled: \"I watched him rehearsing, and it seemed to me that there was no possible room for improvement.",
"Yet he wasn't satisfied.",
"It was midnight and we had been rehearsing since 8 in the morning.",
"I was making my way sleepily down the long flight of stairs when I heard staccato steps coming from the stage ...",
"I could see just a single lamp burning.",
"Under it, a figure was dancing ...",
"Gene.",
"\"Offers from Hollywood began to arrive, but Kelly was in no hurry to leave New York.",
"Eventually, he signed with David O. Selznick, agreeing to go to Hollywood at the end of his commitment to ''Pal Joey'', in October 1941.Prior to his contract, he also managed to fit in choreographing the stage production of ''Best Foot Forward''."
],
[
"Film career",
"===1941–1945: Becoming established in Hollywood===Jerry of Tom and Jerry in ''Anchors Aweigh'' (1945), a performance which changed at least one critic's opinion of Kelly's skills.Selznick sold half of Kelly's contract to Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer for his first motion picture: ''For Me and My Gal'' (1942) starring Judy Garland.",
"Kelly said he was \"appalled at the sight of myself blown up 20 times.",
"I had an awful feeling that I was a tremendous flop.\"",
"''For Me and My Gal'' performed very well, and in the face of much internal resistance, Arthur Freed of MGM picked up the other half of Kelly's contract.",
"After appearing in a B movie drama, ''Pilot No.",
"5'' (1943) and in ''Christmas Holiday'' (1944), he took the male lead in Cole Porter's ''Du Barry Was a Lady'' (1943) with Lucille Ball (in a part originally intended for Ann Sothern).",
"His first opportunity to dance to his own choreography came in his next picture, ''Thousands Cheer'' (1943), in which he performed a mock-love dance with a mop.",
"Unusually, in ''Pilot No.",
"5'', Kelly played the antagonist.He achieved a significant breakthrough as a dancer on film when MGM lent him to Columbia to work with Rita Hayworth in ''Cover Girl'' (1944), a film that foreshadowed the best of his future work.",
"He created a memorable routine dancing to his own reflection.",
"Despite this, critic Manny Farber was moved to praise Kelly's \"attitude\", \"clarity\", and \"feeling\" as an actor while inauspiciously concluding, \"The two things he does least well—singing and dancing—are what he is given most consistently to do.",
"\"In Kelly's next film, ''Anchors Aweigh'' (1945), MGM gave him a free hand to devise a range of dance routines, including his duets with co-star Frank Sinatra and the celebrated animated dance with Jerry Mouse—the animation for which was supervised by William Hanna and Joseph Barbera.",
"That performance was enough for Farber to completely reverse his previous assessment of Kelly's skills.",
"Reviewing the film, Farber enthused, \"Kelly is the most exciting dancer to appear in Hollywood movies.\"",
"''Anchors Aweigh'' became one of the most successful films of 1945 and Kelly was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actor.",
"In ''Ziegfeld Follies'' (1946)—which was produced in 1944 but delayed for release—Kelly collaborated with Fred Astaire, for whom he had the greatest admiration, in \"The Babbitt and the Bromide\" challenge dance routine.==== Military service ====Kelly was deferred from the draft in 1940 by the U.S.",
"Selective Service System at the request of his employers, but was classified 1-A, eligible for induction, in October 1944 after an appeal to President Franklin Delano Roosevelt by the head of the Selective Service in New York City.",
"Roosevelt personally upheld the appeal.",
"He was inducted into the armed forces a month later, and at his request he was assigned to the U.S. Navy.",
"He served in the U.S.",
"Naval Air Service and was commissioned as lieutenant, junior grade.",
"He was stationed in the Photographic Section, Washington, D.C., where he helped write and direct a range of documentaries – this stimulated his interest in the production side of filmmaking.",
"He was discharged in 1946.===1946–1952: MGM===After Kelly returned from Naval service, MGM had nothing planned and used him in a routine black-and-white movie: ''Living in a Big Way'' (1947).",
"The film was considered so weak that the studio asked Kelly to design and insert a series of dance routines; they noticed his ability to carry out such assignments.",
"This led to a lead part in his next picture, with Judy Garland and director Vincente Minnelli—a musical film version of S.N.",
"Behrman's play, ''The Pirate'' (1948), with songs by Cole Porter.",
"''The Pirate'' gave full rein to Kelly's athleticism.",
"It features Kelly's work with the Nicholas Brothers—the leading black dancers of their day—in a virtuoso dance routine.",
"Now regarded as a classic, the film was ahead of its time, but flopped at the box office.Leslie Caron and Kelly in the trailer for ''An American in Paris'' (1951)MGM wanted Kelly to return to safer and more commercial vehicles, but he ceaselessly fought for an opportunity to direct his own musical film.",
"In the interim, he capitalized on his swashbuckling image as d'Artagnan in ''The Three Musketeers'' (also 1948)—and also appeared with Vera-Ellen in the ''Slaughter on Tenth Avenue'' ballet in ''Words and Music'' (1948 again).",
"He was due to play the male lead opposite Garland in ''Easter Parade'' (1948), but broke his ankle playing volleyball.",
"He withdrew from the film and persuaded Fred Astaire to come out of retirement to replace him.",
"There followed ''Take Me Out to the Ball Game'' (1949), his second film with Sinatra, where Kelly paid tribute to his Irish heritage in \"The Hat My Father Wore on St. Patrick's Day\" routine.",
"This musical film persuaded Arthur Freed to have Kelly make ''On the Town'' (also 1949), in which he partnered with Frank Sinatra for the third and final time.",
"A breakthrough in the musical film genre, it has been described as \"the most inventive and effervescent musical thus far produced in Hollywood.",
"\"Stanley Donen, brought to Hollywood by Kelly to be his assistant choreographer, received co-director credit for ''On the Town''.",
"According to Kelly: \"when you are involved in doing choreography for film, you must have expert assistants.",
"I needed one to watch my performance, and one to work with the cameraman on the timing ... without such people as Stanley, Carol Haney, and Jeanne Coyne I could never have done these things.",
"When we came to do ''On the Town'', I knew it was time for Stanley to get screen credit because we weren't boss–assistant anymore but co-creators.\"",
"Together, they opened up the musical form, taking the film musical out of the studio and into real locations, with Donen taking responsibility for the staging and Kelly handling the choreography.",
"Kelly went much further than before in introducing modern ballet into his dance sequences, going so far in the \"Day in New York\" routine as to substitute four leading ballet specialists for Sinatra, Munshin, Garrett, and Miller.Kelly asked the studio for a straight acting role, and he took the lead role in the early the Mafia melodrama ''Black Hand'' (1950).",
"This exposé of organized crime is set in New York's \"Little Italy\" during the late 19th century and focuses on the Black Hand, a group that extorts money upon threat of death.",
"In the real-life incidents upon which this film is based, it was the Mafia, not the Black Hand, who functioned as the villain.",
"Filmmakers had to tread gingerly whenever dealing with big-time crime, it being safer to go after a \"dead\" criminal organization than a \"live\" one.",
"There followed ''Summer Stock'' (1950)—Garland's last musical film for MGM—in which Kelly performed the \"You, You Wonderful You\" solo routine with a newspaper and a squeaky floorboard.",
"In his book ''Easy the Hard Way'', Joe Pasternak, head of another of MGM's musical units, singled out Kelly for his patience and willingness to spend as much time as necessary to enable the ailing Garland to complete her part.",
"''Singin' in the Rain'' trailer: Donald O'Connor, Debbie Reynolds and Kelly (1952)Then followed in quick succession two musicals that secured Kelly's reputation as a major figure in the American musical film.",
"First, ''An American in Paris'' (1951) and—probably the most admired of all film musicals—''Singin' in the Rain'' (1952).",
"As co-director, lead star, and choreographer, Kelly was the driving force in both of these films.",
"Johnny Green, the head of music at MGM at the time, said of him,Gene is easygoing as long as you know exactly what you are doing when you're working with him.",
"He's a hard taskmaster and he loves hard work.",
"If you want to play on his team you'd better like hard work, too.",
"He isn't cruel, but he is tough, and if Gene believed in something, he didn't care who he was talking to, whether it was Louis B. Mayer or the gatekeeper.",
"He wasn't awed by anybody, and he had a good record of getting what he wanted.",
"''An American in Paris'' won six Academy Awards, including Best Picture.",
"The film also marked the debut of 19-year-old ballerina Leslie Caron, whom Kelly had spotted in Paris and brought to Hollywood.",
"Its dream ballet sequence, lasting an unprecedented 17 minutes, was the most expensive production number ever filmed at that time.",
"Bosley Crowther described it as, \"whoop-de-doo ... one of the finest ever put on the screen.\"",
"Also in 1951, Kelly received an honorary Academy Award for his contribution to film musicals and the art of choreography.Donald O'Connor, Debbie Reynolds, and Gene Kelly from a lobby card for ''Singin' in the Rain''The following year, ''Singin' in the Rain'' featured Kelly's celebrated and much imitated solo dance routine to the title song, along with the \"Moses Supposes\" routine with Donald O'Connor and the \"Broadway Melody\" finale with Cyd Charisse.",
"Though the film did not initially generate the same enthusiasm ''An American in Paris'' created, it has subsequently overtaken the earlier film to occupy its current pre-eminent place in the esteem of critics.===1953–1957: Decline of Hollywood musicals===At the peak of his creative powers, Kelly made what in retrospect some see as a career mistake.",
"In December 1951, he signed a contract with MGM that sent him to Europe for 19 months to use MGM funds frozen in Europe to make three pictures while personally benefiting from tax exemptions.",
"''Invitation to the Dance'', a pet project of Kelly's to bring modern ballet to mainstream film audiences.",
"It was beset with delays and technical problems, and flopped when finally released in 1956.Michael Kidd, Kelly, and Dan Dailey in ''It's Always Fair Weather'' (1955), directed by Kelly and Stanley Donen, their last collaborationWhen Kelly returned to Hollywood in 1953, the film musical was beginning to feel the pressures from television, and MGM cut the budget for his next picture ''Brigadoon'' (1954), with Cyd Charisse, forcing him to make the film on studio backlots instead of on location in Scotland.",
"This year also had him appear as a guest star with his brother Fred in the \"I Love to Go Swimmin' with Wimmen\" routine in ''Deep in My Heart'' (1954).",
"MGM's refusal to lend him out for ''Guys and Dolls'' and ''Pal Joey'' put further strains on his relationship with the studio.",
"He negotiated an exit to his contract that involved making three further pictures for MGM.",
"The first of these, ''It's Always Fair Weather'' (1955), co-directed with Donen, was a musical satire on television and advertising, and includes his roller-skate dance routine to ''I Like Myself'', and a dance trio with Michael Kidd and Dan Dailey that Kelly used to experiment with the widescreen possibilities of Cinemascope.",
"MGM had lost faith in Kelly's box-office appeal, and as a result ''It's Always Fair Weather'' premiered at 17 drive-in theaters around the Los Angeles metroplex.",
"Next followed Kelly's last musical film for MGM, ''Les Girls'' (1957), in which he joined Mitzi Gaynor, Kay Kendall, and Taina Elg.",
"The third picture he completed was a co-production between MGM and himself, a B-film, ''The Happy Road'' (1957), set in his beloved France, his first foray in a new role as producer-director-actor.",
"After leaving MGM, Kelly returned to stage work.===1958–1996: After MGM===In 1958, Kelly directed Rodgers and Hammerstein's musical play ''Flower Drum Song''.",
"Early in 1960, Kelly, an ardent Francophile and fluent French speaker, was invited by A. M. Julien, the general administrator of the Paris Opéra and Opéra-Comique, to select his own material and create a modern ballet for the company, the first time an American had received such an assignment.",
"The result was ''Pas de Dieux'', based on Greek mythology, combined with the music of George Gershwin's ''Concerto in F''.",
"It was a major success, and it led to his being honored with the ''Chevalier'' de la Légion d'Honneur by the French Government.Inherit the Wind'' (1960)Kelly continued to make some film appearances, such as Hornbeck in the Hollywood production of ''Inherit the Wind'' (1960) and as himself in ''Let's Make Love'' (also 1960).",
"However, most of his efforts were now concentrated on film production and directing.",
"In Paris, he directed Jackie Gleason in ''Gigot'' (1962), but the film was drastically recut by Seven Arts Productions and flopped.",
"Another French effort, Jacques Demy's homage to the MGM musical, ''The Young Girls of Rochefort'' (''Les Demoiselles de Rochefort'', 1967), in which Kelly appeared, was a box-office success in France and nominated for Academy Awards for Best Music and Score of a Musical Picture (Original or Adaptation), but performed poorly elsewhere.He was asked to direct the film version of ''The Sound of Music'', which had already been turned down by Stanley Donen.",
"He escorted Ernest Lehman, the screenwriter, out of his house, saying, \"Go find someone else to direct this piece of shit.",
"\"His first foray into television was a documentary for NBC's ''Omnibus'', ''Dancing is a Man's Game'' (1958), in which he assembled a group of America's greatest sportsmen—including Mickey Mantle, Sugar Ray Robinson, and Bob Cousy—and reinterpreted their moves choreographically, as part of his lifelong quest to remove the effeminate stereotype of the art of dance, while articulating the philosophy behind his dance style.",
"It gained an Emmy nomination for choreography and now stands as the key document explaining Kelly's approach to modern dance.Kelly appeared frequently on television shows during the 1960s, including ''Going My Way'' (1962–63), which was based on the 1944 film of the same name.",
"It enjoyed great popularity in Roman Catholic countries outside the US.",
"He also appeared in three major TV specials: ''The Julie Andrews Show'' (1965), ''New York, New York'' (1966), and ''Jack and the Beanstalk'' (1967)—a show he produced and directed that again combined cartoon animation and live dance, winning him an Emmy Award for Outstanding Children's Program.Walter Matthau with Barbra Streisand in ''Hello, Dolly!''",
"(1969)In 1963, Kelly joined Universal Pictures for a two-year stint.",
"He joined 20th Century Fox in 1965, but had little to do—partly due to his decision to decline assignments away from Los Angeles for family reasons.",
"His perseverance finally paid off, with the major box-office hit ''A Guide for the Married Man'' (1967), in which he directed Walter Matthau.",
"Then, a major opportunity arose when Fox—buoyed by the returns from ''The Sound of Music'' (1965)—commissioned Kelly to direct ''Hello, Dolly!''",
"(1969), again directing Matthau along with Barbra Streisand.",
"The film was nominated for seven Academy Awards, winning three.In 1966, Kelly starred in a musical television special for CBS titled ''Gene Kelly in New York, New York''.",
"The special focuses on Gene Kelly in a musical tour around Manhattan, dancing along such landmarks as Rockefeller Center, the Plaza Hotel, and the Museum of Modern Art, which serve as backdrops for the show's entertaining production numbers.",
"The special was written by Woody Allen, who also stars alongside Kelly.",
"Guest stars included choreographer Gower Champion, British musical comedy star Tommy Steele, and singer Damita Jo DeBlanc.In 1970, he made another television special: ''Gene Kelly and 50 Girls'', and was invited to bring the show to Las Vegas, which he did for an eight-week stint on the condition he be paid more than any artist had ever been paid there.",
"He directed veteran actors James Stewart and Henry Fonda in the comedy Western ''The Cheyenne Social Club'' (1970), which performed poorly at the box office.",
"In 1973, he worked again with Frank Sinatra as part of Sinatra's Emmy-nominated TV special, ''Magnavox Presents Frank Sinatra''.",
"He appeared as one of many special narrators in the surprise hit ''That's Entertainment!''",
"(1974).",
"He directed and co-starred with his friend Fred Astaire in the sequel ''That's Entertainment, Part II'' (1976).",
"It was a measure of his powers of persuasion that he managed to coax the 77-year-old Astaire—who had insisted that his contract rule out any dancing, having long since retired—into performing a series of song-and-dance duets, evoking a powerful nostalgia for the glory days of the American musical film.Kelly was a guest on the 1975 television special starring Steve Lawrence and Eydie Gormé, \"Our Love Is Here to Stay,\" appearing with his son, Tim, and daughter, Bridget.",
"He starred in the poorly received action film ''Viva Knievel!''",
"(1977), with the then high-profile stuntman, Evel Knievel.",
"Kelly continued to make frequent TV appearances.",
"His final film role was in ''Xanadu'' (1980), a surprise flop despite a popular soundtrack that spawned five Top 20 hits by the Electric Light Orchestra, Cliff Richard, and Kelly's co-star Olivia Newton-John.",
"In Kelly's opinion, \"The concept was marvelous, but it just didn't come off.\"",
"In the same year, he was invited by Francis Ford Coppola to recruit a production staff for American Zoetrope's ''One from the Heart'' (1982).",
"Although Coppola's ambition was for him to establish a production unit to rival the Freed Unit at MGM, the film's failure put an end to this idea.",
"In November 1983 he made his first Royal Variety Performance before Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II, at London's Theatre Royal.",
"Kelly served as executive producer and co-host of ''That's Dancing!''",
"(1985), a celebration of the history of dance in the American musical.",
"Kelly's final on-screen appearance was to introduce ''That's Entertainment!",
"III'' (1994).",
"His final film project was the animated film ''Cats Don't Dance'', not released until 1997, for which Kelly acted as an uncredited choreographic consultant.",
"It was dedicated to his memory."
],
[
"Working methods and influence on filmed dance",
"When he began his collaborative film work, he was influenced by Robert Alton and John Murray Anderson, striving to create moods and character insight with his dances.",
"He choreographed his own movement, along with that of the ensemble, with the assistance of Jeanne Coyne, Stanley Donen, Carol Haney, and Alex Romero.",
"He experimented with lighting, camera techniques, and special effects to achieve true integration of dance with film, and was one of the first to use split screens, double images, and live action with animation, and is credited as the person who made the ballet form commercially acceptable to film audiences.A clear progression was evident in his development, from an early concentration on tap and musical comedy style to greater complexity using ballet and modern dance forms.",
"Kelly himself refused to categorize his style: \"I don't have a name for my style of dancing ...",
"It's certainly hybrid ...",
"I've borrowed from the modern dance, from the classical, and certainly from the American folk dance—tap-dancing, jitterbugging ...",
"But I have tried to develop a style which is indigenous to the environment in which I was reared.\"",
"He especially acknowledged the influence of George M. Cohan: \"I have a lot of Cohan in me.",
"It's an Irish quality, a jaw-jutting, up-on-the-toes cockiness—which is a good quality for a male dancer to have.\"",
"He was also heavily influenced by an African-American dancer, Robert Dotson, whom he saw perform at Loew's Penn Theatre around 1929.He was briefly taught by Frank Harrington, an African-American tap specialist from New York.",
"However, his main interest was in ballet, which he studied under Kotchetovsky in the early 1930s.",
"Biographer Clive Hirschhorn writes: \"As a child, he used to run for miles through parks and streets and woods—anywhere, just as long as he could feel the wind against his body and through his hair.",
"Ballet gave him the same feeling of exhilaration, and in 1933, he was convinced it was the most satisfying form of self-expression.\"",
"He also studied Spanish dancing under Angel Cansino, Rita Hayworth's uncle.",
"Generally speaking, he tended to use tap and other popular dance idioms to express joy and exuberance—as in the title song for ''Singin' in the Rain'' or \"I Got Rhythm\" in ''An American in Paris'', whereas pensive or romantic feelings were more often expressed via ballet or modern dance, as in \"Heather on the Hill\" from ''Brigadoon'' or \"Our Love Is Here to Stay\" from ''An American in Paris''.Kelly in rehearsal with Sugar Ray Robinson and assistant Jeanne Coyne (his future wife) in the NBC ''Omnibus'' television special ''Dancing is a Man's Game'' (1958)According to Delamater, Kelly's work \"seems to represent the fulfillment of dance–film integration in the 1940s and 1950s\".",
"While Fred Astaire had revolutionized the filming of dance in the 1930s by insisting on full-figure photography of dancers, while allowing only a modest degree of camera movement, Kelly freed up the camera, making greater use of space, camera movement, camera angles, and editing, creating a partnership between dance movement and camera movement without sacrificing full-figure framing.",
"Kelly's reasoning behind this was that he felt the kinetic force of live dance often evaporated when brought to film, and he sought to partially overcome this by involving the camera in movement and giving the dancer a greater number of directions in which to move.",
"Examples of this abound in Kelly's work and are well illustrated in the \"Prehistoric Man\" sequence from ''On the Town'' and \"The Hat My Father Wore on St. Patrick's Day\" from ''Take Me Out to the Ball Game''.",
"In 1951, he summed up his vision as: \"If the camera is to make a contribution at all to dance, this must be the focal point of its contribution; the fluid background, giving each spectator an undistorted and altogether similar view of dancer and background.",
"To accomplish this, the camera is made fluid, moving with the dancer, so that the lens becomes the eye of the spectator, ''your eye''\".Kelly's athleticism gave his moves a distinctive broad, muscular quality, and this was a deliberate choice on his part, as he explained: \"There's a strong link between sports and dancing, and my own dancing springs from my early days as an athlete ...",
"I think dancing is a man's game and if he does it well he does it better than a woman.\"",
"Caron said that while dancing with Astaire she felt like she was floating, Kelly danced close to the ground.",
"He railed against what he saw as the widespread effeminacy in male dancing, which, in his opinion, \"tragically\" stigmatized the genre, alienating boys from entering the field: Dancing ''does'' attract effeminate young men.",
"I don't object to that as long as they don't dance effeminately.",
"I just say that if a man dances effeminately, he dances badly—just as if a woman comes out on stage and starts to sing bass.",
"Unfortunately, people confuse gracefulness with softness.",
"John Wayne is a graceful man and so are some of the great ballplayers ... but, of course, they don't run the risk of being called sissies.",
"In his view, \"one of our problems is that so much dancing is taught by women.",
"You can spot many male dancers who have this tuition by their arm movements—they are soft, limp, and feminine.\"",
"He acknowledged that in spite of his efforts—in TV programs such as ''Dancing: A Man's Game'' (1958) for example—the situation changed little over the years.He also sought to break from the class-conscious conventions of the 1930s and early 40s, when top hat and tails or tuxedos were the norm, by dancing in casual or everyday work clothes, so as to make his dancing more relevant to the cinema-going public.",
"His first wife, actress and dancer Betsy Blair said: A sailor suit or his white socks and loafers, or the T-shirts on his muscular torso, gave everyone the feeling that he was a regular guy, and perhaps they, too, could express love and joy by dancing in the street or stomping through puddles ... he democratized the dance in movies.",
"In particular, he wanted to create a completely different image from that associated with Fred Astaire, not least because he believed his physique did not suit such refined elegance: \"I used to envy his cool, aristocratic style, so intimate and contained.",
"Fred wears top hat and tails to the Manor born—I put them on and look like a truck driver.\""
],
[
"Personal life",
"From the mid-1940s through the early 1950s, his wife Betsy Blair and he organized weekly parties at their Beverly Hills home, and they often played an intensely competitive and physical version of charades, known as \"The Game\".His papers are housed at the Howard Gotlieb Archival Research Center at Boston University.Late in life, Kelly was awarded Irish citizenship under Ireland's Citizenship by Foreign Birth program.",
"The application was initiated on his behalf by his wife Patricia Ward Kelly.On December 22, 1983, the actor's Beverly Hills mansion burned down.",
"Faulty Christmas tree wiring was blamed.",
"His family and pets escaped and he suffered a burned hand.===Marriages===Kelly, photographed by Allan Warren, in 1986Kelly married three times.",
"His first marriage was to actress Betsy Blair in 1941.They had one child, Kerry (b.",
"1942), and divorced in April 1957.In 1960, Kelly married his choreographic assistant Jeanne Coyne, who had previously been married to Stanley Donen between 1948 and 1951.Kelly and Coyne had two children, Timothy (b.",
"1962) and Bridget (b.",
"1964).",
"This marriage lasted until Coyne died in 1973.Kelly married Patricia Ward in 1990 (when he was 77 and she was 30).",
"Their marriage lasted until his death six years later and she has not remarried.===Political and religious views===Kelly was a lifelong supporter of the Democratic Party.",
"His period of greatest prominence coincided with the McCarthy era in the US.",
"In 1947, he was part of the Committee for the First Amendment, the Hollywood delegation that flew to Washington to protest at the first official hearings by the House Committee on Un-American Activities.",
"His first wife, Betsy Blair, was suspected of being a communist sympathizer, and when United Artists, which had offered Blair a part in ''Marty'' (1955), were considering withdrawing her under pressure from the American Legion, Kelly successfully threatened MGM's influence on United Artists with a pullout from ''It's Always Fair Weather'' unless his wife was restored to the part.",
"He used his position on the board of directors of the Writers Guild of America West on a number of occasions to mediate disputes between unions and the Hollywood studios.He was raised as a Roman Catholic and was a member of the Good Shepherd Parish and the Catholic Motion Picture Guild in Beverly Hills, California.",
"However, after becoming disenchanted by the Roman Catholic Church's support for Francisco Franco against the Second Spanish Republic during the Spanish Civil War, he officially severed his ties with the church in September 1939.This separation was prompted, in part, by a trip Kelly made to Mexico in which he became convinced that the church had failed to help the poor in that country.",
"After his departure from the Catholic Church, Kelly became an agnostic, as he had previously described himself."
],
[
"Illness and death",
"Kelly's health declined steadily in the late 1980s and early 1990s.",
"In July 1994, he suffered a stroke and stayed in Ronald Reagan UCLA Medical Center hospital for seven weeks.",
"In early 1995, he had another stroke which made him severely disabled.",
"Kelly died on February 2, 1996."
],
[
"Awards and honors",
"Plaque honoring Gene Kelly at his ''alma mater'', the University of Pittsburgh* 1942 – Best Actor award from the National Board of Review for his performance in ''For Me and My Gal''* 1946 – Academy Award nomination for Best Actor in ''Anchors Aweigh'' (1945)* 1951 – Nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Actor in a Motion Picture Musical or Comedy for ''An American in Paris''* 1952 – Honorary Academy Award \"in appreciation of his versatility as an actor, singer, director and dancer, and specifically for his brilliant achievements in the art of choreography on film.\"",
"This Oscar was lost in a fire in 1983 and replaced at the 1984 Academy Awards.",
"* 1953 – Nomination from the Directors Guild of America, Best Director for ''Singin' in the Rain'', 1952 (shared with Stanley Donen).",
"* 1956 – Golden Bear at the 6th Berlin International Film Festival for ''Invitation to the Dance''.",
"* 1958 – Nomination for Golden Laurel Award for Best Male Musical Performance in ''Les Girls''.",
"* 1958 – ''Dance Magazine'''s annual TV Award for ''Dancing: A Man's Game'' from the ''Omnibus'' television series.",
"It was also nominated for an Emmy for best singing.",
"* 1960 – In France, Kelly was made a ''Chevalier'' of the Legion of Honor.",
"* 1960 - Star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for motion pictures * 1962 – Gene Kelly Dance Film Festival staged by the Museum of Modern Art* 1964 – Best Actor Award for ''What a Way to Go!''",
"(1964) at the Locarno International Film Festival* 1967 – Emmy for Outstanding Children's Program for ''Jack and the Beanstalk''* 1970 – Nomination for Golden Globe, Best Director for ''Hello, Dolly!",
"'', 1969* 1970 – Nomination from the Directors Guild of America, Best Director for ''Hello, Dolly!",
"'', 1969* 1981 – Cecil B. DeMille Award at Golden Globes* 1981 – Kelly was the subject of a 2-week film festival in France* 1982 – Lifetime Achievement Award in the fifth annual Kennedy Center Honors* 1985 – Lifetime Achievement Award from the American Film Institute* 1989 – Life Achievement Award from Screen Actors Guild* 1991 – Pittsburgh Civic Light Opera inaugurated the Gene Kelly Awards, given annually to high-school musicals in Allegheny County, Pennsylvania.",
"* 1992 – Induction into the American Theater Hall of Fame* 1994 – National Medal of Arts awarded by United States President Bill Clinton* 1994 – The Three Tenors performed \"Singin' in the Rain\" in his presence during a concert at Dodger Stadium in Los Angeles.",
"* 1996 – Honorary César Award, the César is the main national film award in France.",
"* 1996 – At the Academy Awards ceremony, director Quincy Jones organized a tribute to the just-deceased Kelly, in which Savion Glover performed the dance to \"Singin' in the Rain\".",
"* 1997 – Ranked number 26 in ''Empire'' (UK) magazine's \"The Top 100 Movie Stars of All Time\" list* 1999 – Ranked number 15 in the American Film Institute's \"Greatest Male Legends\" of Classic Hollywood list* 2013 – \"Singin' in the Rain\" ranked number one in \"The Nation's Favorite Dance Moment\"."
],
[
"Work",
"On the Town (1949 poster) crop.jpg|''On the Town'' (1949)An American in Paris (1951 film poster).jpg|''An American in Paris'' (1951)Singin' in the Rain (1952 poster).jpg|''Singin' in the Rain'' (1952)===Musical films===Kelly appeared as actor, singer and dancer in musical films.",
"He always choreographed his own dance routines and often the dance routines of others and used assistants.",
"As was the practice at the time, he was rarely formally credited in the film titles.===Theatre=== Date Production Role Venue1938–1939''Leave It to Me!",
"''Secretary to Mr. Goodhue ChorusImperial Theatre, Broadway1939 ''One for the Money''Ensemble Booth Theatre, Broadway1939–1940''The Time of Your Life''Performer – Harry Choreographer 1940–1941''Pal Joey''Performer – Joey EvansEthel Barrymore Theatre, Broadway St. James Theatre, Broadway1941–1942''Best Foot Forward''ChoreographyEthel Barrymore Theatre, Broadway1958–1960''Flower Drum Song''DirectorSt.",
"James Theatre, Broadway1974''Take Me Along''Performer – Sid DavisThe Muny, Regional1979''Coquelico'' Producer 22 Steps, New York1985–1986''Singin' in the Rain''Original film choreography Gershwin Theatre, Broadway===Television=== Year Title Role Notes1957''Schlitz Playhouse of Stars''Tom T. TripletEpisode: \"The Life You Save\"1958''Omnibus''HimselfEpisode: \"Dancing: A Man's Game\"1962–1963''Going My Way''Father Chuck O'Malley30 episodes1965''Gene Kelly: New York, New York''HimselfDirected by Woody Allen 1965''The Julie Andrews Show''HimselfTelevision special1967''Jack and the Beanstalk''Jeremy Keen, Proprietor (Peddler)Television movie1971''The Funny Side''Himself (host)6 episodes1973''Magnavox Presents Frank Sinatra''HimselfTelevision special1977''Yabba Dabba Doo!",
"The Happy World of Hanna-Barbera''Himself (host)Television special1978''Gene Kelly: An American in Pasadena''HimselfTelevision special1979''The Mary Tyler Moore Hour''Himself (guest)Episode: #1.51981''The Muppet Show''HimselfEpisode: \"Gene Kelly\" 1984 ''The Love Boat'' Charles Dane Episode: \"Hong Kong Cruise: Polly's Poker Palace/Shop Ahoy/Double Date/The Hong Kong Affair/Two Tails of a City\"1985''North and South''Senator Charles EdwardsMiniseries1986''Sins''Eric HovlandMiniseries===Documentaries===* 1999 – ''Anatomy of a Dancer'', directed by Robert Trachtenberg, PBS, 2002* 2013 – ''Gene Kelly, to Live and Dance'', by Bertrand Tessier, France 5, 2017===Radio=== Year Program Episode Ref 1943 ''Suspense Mystery Radio Play'' ''Thieves Fall Out'' 1946 ''Hollywood Players'' ''The Glass Key'' 1949 ''Suspense Mystery Radio Play''''To Find Help''"
],
[
"References",
"===Further reading===*Wise, James.",
"''Stars in Blue: Movie Actors in America's Sea Services''.",
"Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 1997."
],
[
"External links",
"* * * * The Gene Kelly Awards – University of Pittsburgh* Naval Intelligence File on Gene Kelly* Gene Kelly – An American Life – PBS * Gene Kelly – Pittsburgh Music History* Site Français Gene Kelly"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Gangsta rap"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Gangsta rap''' or '''gangster rap''', initially called '''reality rap''', is a subgenre of hip-hop that conveys the culture and values typical of urban gangs and street hustlers.",
"Emerging in the late 1980s, gangsta rap's pioneers include Schoolly D of Philadelphia and Ice-T of Los Angeles, later expanding in California with artists such as N.W.A and Tupac Shakur.",
"In 1992, via record producer and rapper Dr. Dre, rapper Snoop Dogg, and their G-funk sound, gangster rap broadened to mainstream popularity.Gangsta rap has been recurrently accused of promoting disorderly conduct and broad criminality, especially assault, homicide, and drug dealing, as well as misogyny, promiscuity, and materialism.",
"Gangsta rap's defenders have variously characterized it as artistic depictions but not literal endorsements of real life in American ghettos, or suggested that some lyrics voice rage against social oppression or police brutality, and have often accused critics of hypocrisy and racial bias.",
"Still, gangsta rap has been assailed even by some black public figures, including Spike Lee, pastor Calvin Butts and activist C. Delores Tucker."
],
[
"1985–1988: early years",
"===Schoolly D and Ice-T===Philadelphia rapper Schoolly D is generally considered the first \"gangsta rapper\", significantly influencing the more popular early gangsta rap originator, Ice-T. Ice-T was born in Newark, New Jersey in 1958.As a teenager, he moved to Los Angeles where he rose to prominence in the West Coast hip hop scene.",
"In 1986, Ice-T released \"6 in the Mornin'\", which is regarded as the second gangsta rap song.",
"Ice-T had been MCing since the early 1980s, but first turned to gangsta rap themes after being influenced by Schoolly D's self-titled debut album, and especially the song \"P.S.K.",
"What Does It Mean?\"",
"(1985), which is regarded as the first gangsta rap song.",
"Schoolly D had \"Am I Black Enough For You\" album in 1989.In an interview with ''PROPS'' magazine, Ice-T said::Here's the exact chronological order of what really went down: The first record that came out along those lines was Schoolly D's \"P.S.K.\"",
"Then the syncopation of that rap was used by me when I made \"6 in the Mornin'\".",
"The vocal delivery was the same: ' ... P.S.K.",
"is makin' that green', ' ... six in the morning, police at my door'.",
"When I heard that record I was like \"Oh shit!\"",
"and call it a bite or what you will but I dug that record.",
"My record didn't sound like P.S.K., but I liked the way he was flowing with it.",
"P.S.K.",
"was talking about Park Side Killers but it was very vague.",
"That was the only difference, when Schoolly did it, it was \"... one by one, I'm knockin' em out.\"",
"All he did was represent a gang on his record.",
"I took that and wrote a record about guns, beating people down and all that with \"6 in the Mornin'\".",
"At the same time my single came out, Boogie Down Productions hit with ''Criminal Minded'', which was a gangster-based album.",
"It wasn't about messages or \"You Must Learn\", it was about gangsterism.In 2011, Ice-T repeated in his autobiography that Schoolly D was his inspiration for gangsta rap.",
"Ice-T continued to release gangsta albums for the remainder of the 1980s: ''Rhyme Pays'' in 1987, ''Power'' in 1988 and ''The Iceberg/Freedom of Speech...Just Watch What You Say'' in 1989.Ice-T's lyrics also contained strong political commentary, and often played the line between glorifying the gangsta lifestyle and criticizing it as a no-win situation.Schoolly D's works would heavily influence not only Ice-T, but also Eazy-E and N.W.A (most notably in the song \"Boyz-n-the-Hood\"), as well as the Beastie Boys on their seminal hardcore hip hop-inspired album ''Licensed to Ill'' (1986).===Boogie Down Productions===Boogie Down Productions released their first single, \"Say No Brother (Crack Attack Don't Do It)\", in 1986.It was followed by \"South Bronx/P is Free\" and \"9mm Goes Bang\" in the same year.",
"The latter is the most gangsta-themed song of the three; in it, KRS-One boasts about shooting a crack dealer and his posse to death (in self-defense).",
"The album ''Criminal Minded'' followed in 1987, and was the first rap album to have firearms on its cover.",
"Shortly after the release of this album, BDP's DJ, Scott LaRock was shot and killed.",
"After this, BDP's subsequent records were more focused with the inadequate rationale removed.===Other early influences===The New York-based Run-DMC and LL Cool J, though originating prior to the establishment of \"gangsta rap\" as a cohesive genre, were influential in the formation of gangsta rap, often producing early aggressive hardcore hip hop songs and being among the first rappers to dress in gang-like street clothing.",
"The seminal Long Island-based group Public Enemy featured aggressive, politically charged lyrics, which had an especially strong influence on gangsta rappers such as Ice Cube.",
"The duo Eric B.",
"& Rakim would further influence gangsta rap with aggressive, street-oriented raps, especially on the 1987 album ''Paid in Full''.The hip hop group Beastie Boys also influenced the gangsta rap genre with their 1986 album ''Licensed to Ill'', with an early reference to being a \"gangster\" mentioned in the song \"Slow Ride\".",
"In 1986, the Los Angeles-based group C.I.A.",
"(consisting of Ice Cube, K-Dee, Sir Jinx) rapped over the Beastie Boys' tracks for songs such as \"My Posse\" and \"Ill-Legal\", and the Beastie Boys' influence can be seen significantly in N.W.A's early albums.",
"The Beastie Boys had started out as a hardcore punk band, but after introduction to producer Rick Rubin and the exit of Kate Schellenbach they became a hip hop group.",
"According to ''Rolling Stone'' Magazine, the Beastie Boys' 1986 album ''Licensed to Ill'' is \"filled with enough references to guns, drugs and empty sex (including the pornographic deployment of a Wiffleball bat in \"Paul Revere\") to qualify as a gangsta-rap cornerstone.\""
],
[
"1988–1997: Golden age",
"===N.W.A.",
"and Ice Cube===The first blockbuster gangsta rap album was N.W.A's ''Straight Outta Compton'', released in 1988.",
"''Straight Outta Compton'' established West Coast hip hop as a vital genre, and establish Los Angeles as a legitimate rival to hip hop's long-time capital, New York City.",
"''Straight Outta Compton'' sparked the first major controversy regarding hip hop lyrics when their song \"Fuck tha Police\" earned a letter from FBI Assistant Director, Milt Ahlerich, strongly expressing law enforcement's resentment of the song.",
"Due to the influence of Ice-T, N.W.A, and Ice Cube's early solo career, gangsta rap is often somewhat erroneously credited as being a mostly West Coast phenomenon, despite the contributions of East Coast acts like Boogie Down Productions in shaping the genre and despite Philadelphia rapper Schoolly D being generally regarded as the first gangsta rapper.In the early 1990s, former N.W.A member Ice Cube would further influence gangsta rap with his hardcore, socio-political solo albums, which suggested the potential of gangsta rap as a political medium to give voice to inner-city youth.",
"Ice Cube's early solo albums and EPs, including ''AmeriKKKa's Most Wanted'' (1990), ''Death Certificate'' (1991), the ''Kill at Will'' EP (1991) and ''The Predator'' (1992) all contributed significantly to the development of gangsta rap.",
"N.W.A's second album, ''Efil4zaggin'' (1991) (released after Ice Cube's departure from the group), broke ground as the first gangsta rap album to reach No.",
"1 on the Billboard pop charts.Aside from N.W.A and Ice-T, Too Short (from Oakland), Kid Frost and the South Gate-based Latino group Cypress Hill were pioneering West Coast rappers with gangsta rap songs and themes.",
"Above the Law also played an important role in the gangsta rap movement, as their 1990 debut album ''Livin' Like Hustlers''.===Ice-T's solo career===Ice-T released one of the seminal albums of the genre, ''OG: Original Gangster'' in 1991.It also contained a song by his new thrash metal group Body Count, who released a self-titled album in 1992.Particular controversy surrounded one of its songs \"Cop Killer\".",
"The rock song was intended to speak from the viewpoint of a police target seeking revenge on racist, brutal cops.",
"Ice-T's rock song gained controversy, with observers ranging from President George H.W Bush and his Vice President Dan Quayle, the National Rifle Association of America, police organizations across the nation to various police advocacy groups.",
"Consequently, Time Warner Music refused to release Ice-T's upcoming album ''Home Invasion'' and dropped Ice-T from the label.",
"Ice-T suggested that the furor over the song was an overreaction, telling journalist Chuck Philips \"... they've done movies about nurse killers and teacher killers and student killers.",
"Arnold Schwarzenegger blew away dozens of cops as the Terminator.",
"But I don't hear anybody complaining about that.\"",
"In the same interview, Ice-T suggested to Philips that the misunderstanding of \"Cop Killer\", the misclassification of it as a rap song (rather than a rock song), and the attempts to censor it had racial overtones: \"The Supreme Court says it's OK for a white man to burn a cross in public.",
"But nobody wants a black man to write a record about a cop killer.",
"\"Ice-T's next album, ''Home Invasion'', was postponed as a result of the controversy, and was finally released in 1993.While it contained gangsta elements, it was his most political album to date.",
"After a proposed censoring of the ''Home Invasion'' album cover art, he left Warner Bros. Records.",
"Ice-T's subsequent releases went back to straightforward gangsta rap, but were not as popular as his earlier releases.===G-funk and Death Row Records===In 1992, former N.W.A member Dr. Dre released ''The Chronic'', a massive seller (eventually going triple platinum) which showed that explicit gangsta rap could hold as much mass commercial appeal as the pop-oriented rap styles of MC Hammer, the Fresh Prince and Tone Lōc.",
"The album established the dominance of West Coast gangsta rap and Dre's new post-N.W.A label, Death Row Records (owned by Dr. Dre along with Marion \"Suge\" Knight), as Dre's album showcased a stable of promising new Death Row rappers.",
"The album also popularized the subgenre of G-funk, a slow, drawled form of hip hop that dominated the rap charts for some time.Extensively sampling P-Funk bands, especially Parliament and Funkadelic, G-funk was multi-layered, yet simple and easy to dance to.",
"The simple message of its lyrics, that life's problems could be overcome by guns, alcohol and marijuana, endeared it to a teenage audience.",
"The single \"Nuthin' but a 'G' Thang\" became a crossover hit, with its humorous, ''House Party''-influenced video becoming an MTV staple despite that network's historic orientation towards rock music.Another success was Ice Cube's ''Predator'' album, released at about the same time as ''The Chronic'' in 1992.It sold over 5 million copies and was No.",
"1 in the charts, propelled by the hit single \"It Was a Good Day\", despite the fact that Ice Cube was not a Death Row artist.",
"One of the genre's biggest crossover stars was Dre's protégé Snoop Doggy Dogg (''Doggystyle''), whose exuberant, party-oriented themes made songs such as \"Gin and Juice\" club anthems and top hits nationwide.",
"In 1996, 2Pac signed with Death Row and released the multi-platinum double album ''All Eyez on Me''.",
"Not long afterward, his murder brought gangsta rap into the national headlines and propelled his posthumous ''The Don Killuminati: The 7 Day Theory'' album (released under the alias \"Makaveli\") to the top of the charts.",
"Lill 1/2 Dead released gangsta album.",
"Warren G and Nate Dogg were other musicians at the forefront of G-funk.",
"Successful G-funk influenced artists also included Spice 1, MC Eiht and MC Ren, all of them reaching decent positions on the Billboard 100, or soul chart in spite of not being associated with Death Row.",
"Ray Luv released G single \"Last Nite\" in 1995.===Mafioso rap===Mafioso rap is a hardcore hip hop subgenre founded by Kool G Rap in the late 1980s.",
"East Coast mafioso rap was partially the counterpart of West Coast G-funk rap.",
"Mafioso rap is characterized by references to famous mobsters and mafiosi, racketeering and organized crime (particularly the Sicilian Mafia, the Italian-American Mafia, African-American organized crime, and Latin American organized crime or drug cartels) or has subject matter that would relate to the mafia.",
"Though a significant amount of mafioso rap was grittier and more street-oriented, focusing on street-level organized crime, other mafioso rap artists frequently focused on lavish, self-indulgent, materialistic, and luxurious subject matter associated with crime bosses and high-level mobsters, such as expensive drugs, cars, and champagne.",
"Though the genre died down for several years, it re-emerged in 1995 when Wu-Tang Clan member Raekwon released his critically acclaimed solo album, ''Only Built 4 Cuban Linx...'' That year also saw the release of ''Doe or Die'' by AZ and the release of the album ''4,5,6'' by subgenre originator Kool G Rap.",
"His album featured other mafioso rap artists, including MF Grimm, Nas, and B-1.These three albums brought the genre to mainstream recognition, and inspired other East Coast artists, such as Jay-Z, Notorious B.I.G., and Nas to adopt the same themes with their albums ''Reasonable Doubt'', ''Life After Death,'' and ''It Was Written'', respectively.East Coast gangsta rap was popular by the late 1990s, and there were more modern mafioso rap albums such as Ghostface Killah's ''Fishscale'', Jay-Z's ''American Gangster,'' and Raekwon's ''Only Built 4 Cuban Linx... Pt.",
"II''.",
"Many rappers, such as Conejo, Mr Criminal, T.I., Rick Ross, Fabolous, Jadakiss, Jim Jones, and Cassidy have maintained popularity with lyrics about self-centered urban criminal lifestyles or \"hustling\".",
"Lil' Kim's mafioso album ''La Bella Mafia'', released in 2003, was a commercial success, receiving platinum certification.===East Coast hardcore hip hop and the East Coast–West Coast feud===Meanwhile, rappers from New York City, such as Wu-Tang Clan, Black Moon and Boot Camp Clik, Onyx, Big L, Mobb Deep, Nas, the Notorious B.I.G., DMX and the Lox, among others, pioneered a grittier sound known as hardcore hip hop.",
"In 1994, both Nas and the Notorious B.I.G.",
"released their debut albums ''Illmatic'' (April 19) and ''Ready to Die'' (September 13) respectively, which paved the way for New York City to take back dominance from the West Coast.",
"In an interview for ''The Independent'' in 1994, the Wu-Tang Clan's GZA commented on the term \"gangsta rap\" and its association with his group's music and hip hop at the time:It is widely speculated that the ensuing East Coast–West Coast hip hop rivalry between Death Row Records and Bad Boy Records resulted in the deaths of Death Row Records' 2Pac and Bad Boy Records' the Notorious B.I.G..",
"Even before the murders, Death Row had begun to unravel, as co-founder Dr. Dre had left earlier in 1996; in the aftermath of 2Pac's death, label owner Suge Knight was sentenced to prison for a parole violation, and Death Row proceeded to sink quickly as most of its remaining artists, including Snoop Dogg, left.",
"Dr. Dre, at the MTV Video Music Awards, claimed that \"gangsta rap was dead\".",
"While Puff Daddy's Bad Boy Entertainment fared better than its West Coast rival, it eventually began to lose popularity and support by the end of the decade, due to its pursuit of a more mainstream sound, as well as challenges from Atlanta and New Orleans-based labels, especially, Master P's No Limit stable of popular rappers.===Southern and Midwest gangsta rap===Houston first came on to the national scene in the late 1980s with the violent and disturbing stories told by the Geto Boys(hit single \"Mind Playing Tricks On Me\"), with member Scarface achieving major solo success in the mid-1990s.",
"After the deaths of Tupac Shakur and the Notorious B.I.G.",
"and the media attention surrounding them, gangsta rap became an even greater commercial force.",
"However, most of the industry's major labels were in turmoil, bankrupt, or creatively stagnant, and new labels representing the rap scenes in new locations sprang up.Master P's No Limit Records label, based out of New Orleans, became quite popular in the late 1990s, though critical success was very scarce, with the exceptions of some later additions like Mystikal (''Ghetto Fabulous'', 1998).",
"No Limit had begun its rise to national popularity with Master P's ''The Ghetto Is Trying to Kill Me!''",
"(1994), and had major hits with Silkk the Shocker (''Charge It 2 Da Game'', 1998) and C-Murder (''Life or Death'', 1998).",
"No Limit released Mia X, Mr. Serv-On and TRU albums also.",
"Cash Money Records, also based out of New Orleans, had enormous commercial success with Juvenile, B.G., Hot Boys, beginning in the late 1990s with a similar gangsta rap style like No Limit.Memphis collective Hypnotize Minds, led by Three 6 Mafia and Project Pat, have taken gangsta rap to some of its darker extremes.",
"Led by in-house producers DJ Paul and Juicy J, the label became known for its pulsating, menacing beats and uncompromisingly thuggish lyrics.",
"However, in the mid-2000s, the group began attaining more mainstream popularity, eventually culminating in the Three 6 Mafia winning an Academy Award for the song \"It's Hard out Here for a Pimp\" from ''Hustle & Flow''.The chopped and screwed genre was developed in Houston, Texas, the location which is still most associated with the style.",
"DJ Screw is credited with the creation of and early experimentation with the genre.",
"DJ Screw began making mixtapes of the slowed-down music in the early 1990s and began the Screwed Up Click.",
"This provided a significant outlet for MCs in the South-Houston area, and helped local rappers such as Willie D, Big Moe, Lil' Flip, E.S.G., UGK, Lil' Keke, South Park Mexican, and Z-Ro gain regional and sometimes national prominence.===Narco-rap===Narco-rap is a music scene, similar to the early underground gangsta rap scene, that emerged in north-eastern Mexico and southern Texas.",
"Its lyrical content, popular among Latino youth, is violent and focuses on the power of drug cartels and the gruesomeness of the Mexican drug war.",
"Narco-rap emerged in the urban areas of Tamaulipas, a Mexican state currently subject to a turf war between Los Zetas and the Gulf Cartel.",
"Narco-rappers sing about the life of mobsters and the reality of the cities under the cartel's rule.",
"Some of the key players of the genre are Cano y Blunt, DemenT and Big Los."
],
[
"1997–2007: bling era/crunk",
"Before the late 1990s, gangsta rap, while a huge-selling genre, had been regarded as well outside of the pop mainstream, committed to representing the experience of the inner-city and not \"selling out\" to the pop charts.",
"However, the rise of Bad Boy Records, propelled by the massive crossover success of Bad Boy head Sean \"Puffy\" Combs's 1997 ensemble album, ''No Way Out'', on the heels of the media attention generated by the murders of Tupac Shakur and the Notorious B.I.G., signaled a major stylistic change in gangsta rap (or as it is referred to on the East Coast, hardcore rap), as it morphed into a new subgenre of hip hop which would become even more commercially successful and popularly accepted.",
"Gangsta Boo, Gangsta Blac, and Ghetto Twinz released Gangsta rap albums.The earlier, somewhat controversial crossover success enjoyed by popular gangsta rap songs like \"Gin and Juice\" gave way to gangsta rap's becoming a widely accepted staple on the pop charts in the late 1990s.",
"R&B-styled hooks and samples of well-known soul and pop songs from the 1970s and 1980s were the staples of this sound, which was showcased primarily in Sean \"Puffy\" Combs's latter-day production work for The Notorious B.I.G.",
"(\"Mo Money, Mo Problems\"), Mase (\"Feels So Good\") and non-Bad Boy artists such as Jay-Z (\"Can I Get A...\") and Nas (\"Street Dreams\"), which he sampled from 2Pac's song (All Eyez On Me).",
"Also achieving similar levels of success with a similar sound at the same time as Bad Boy was Master P and his No Limit label in New Orleans, as well as the New Orleans upstart Cash Money label.",
"Three 6 Mafia, Lil Jon, Pitbull, and Crime Mob released \"crunk\" CDs."
],
[
"2007–2012: Kanye vs. 50 Cent battle, mainstream decline",
"By the late 2000s, alternative hip hop had secured its place within the mainstream, due in part to the declining commercial viability of gangsta rap.",
"Industry observers view the sales race between Kanye West's ''Graduation'' and 50 Cent's ''Curtis'' as a turning point for hip hop.",
"Kanye West emerged the victor, selling nearly a million copies in the first week alone, proving that innovative rap music could be just as commercially viable as gangsta rap, if not more so.",
"Although he designed it as a melancholic pop album rather than a rap album, West's subsequent release ''808s & Heartbreak'' would have a significant effect on hip hop music.",
"While his decision to sing about love, loneliness, and heartache for the entirety of the album was at first heavily criticized by music audiences and the album was predicted to be a flop, its subsequent critical acclaim and commercial success encouraged other mainstream rappers to take greater creative risks with their music.During the release of ''The Blueprint 3'', New York rap mogul Jay-Z revealed that next studio album would be an experimental effort, stating, \"... it's not gonna be a #1 album.",
"That's where I'm at right now.",
"I wanna make the most experimental album I ever made.\"",
"Jay-Z elaborated that like Kanye, he was unsatisfied with contemporary hip hop, was being inspired by indie-rockers like Grizzly Bear, and asserted his belief that the indie rock movement would play an important role in the continued evolution of hip-hop."
],
[
"2012–present: rise of drill, trap, chicago rap",
"In the 2010s, a new form of gangsta rap known as drill emerged from the Midwest, gaining popularity via rappers such as Lil Durk, Chief Keef, Lil Reese, King Von, Polo G and G Herbo.",
"West Coast rapper Vince Staples is part of the new generation of rappers that is influenced by G-funk.",
"Vince Staples' conscious rap album ''Summertime '06'' (2015) reflects the \"challenges of racism, injustice, and violent fallouts in his childhood neighborhood\".",
"T.I, Rick Ross, Future, and Gucci Mane released new rap style \"trap\" CDs.",
"Other Afroamerican and Chicano gangsta rappers who gained small success or big success include XXXTentacion, Kendrick Lamar, Ms Krazie, Knight Owl, Chino Grande, Lil Rob, Mr. Criminal, Mr. Capone-E, Mr. Sancho, ShooterGang Kony, Mozzy, YNW Melly, Pusha T, Nsanity, Jeezy (Young Jeezy), YG, Nipsey Hussle, Migos, Freddie Gibbs, Meek Mill, A$AP Mob, Jay Rock, ScHoolboy Q, 21 Savage, Kodak Black 6ix9ine, Blueface, NBA Youngboy, NLE Choppa, Pop Smoke, Young Dolph and BlocBoy JB.Gangsta rap's pioneers have met success in other forms of pop culture as well.",
"In 2016, N.W.A was inducted to the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.",
"They were followed up by the late Tupac Shakur in 2017 who was inducted as the first solo hip hop act, under his first year of eligibility as a nominee.",
"Other Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Hip-Hop Acts include the 2007 induction of Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five, who are considered pioneers of expanding the sound of Hip-Hop from disco inspired partying, to street reality that inspired social change.",
"The 2009 induction of Run-DMC to the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame opened the door for more Hip-Hop inductions, as they were followed up by the 2012 induction of Beastie Boys, and the 2013 induction of Public Enemy."
],
[
"Criticism and debate{{anchor|Criticisms}}",
"The explicit nature of gangsta rap's lyrics has made it heavily controversial.",
"There is also debate about the causation between gangsta rap and violent behavior.",
"A study by the Prevention Research Center of the Pacific Institute for Research and Evaluation in Berkeley, Calif., finds young people who listen to rap and hip-hop are more likely to abuse alcohol and commit violent acts.Critics of gangsta rap hold that it glorifies and encourages criminal behavior, and may be at least partially to blame for the problem of street gangs.",
"Although this view is often stereotyped as that of white conservatives, it has been shared by members of the black community, most notably Bill Cosby.Those who are supportive or at least less critical of gangsta rap hold that crime on the street level is for the most part a reaction to poverty and that gangsta rap reflects the reality of lower class life.",
"Many believe that the blaming of crime on gangsta rap is a form of unwarranted moral panic; The World Development Report 2011, for instance, confirmed that most street gang members maintain that poverty and unemployment is what drove them to crime; none made reference to music.",
"Ice Cube famously satirized the blame placed on gangsta rap for social ills in his song \"Gangsta Rap Made Me Do It\".",
"Many gangsta rappers maintain they are playing a \"role\" in their music like an actor in a play or film, and do not encourage the behavior in their music.Moreover, English scholar Ronald A.T. Judy has argued that gangsta rap reflects the experience of blackness at the end of political economy, when capital is no longer wholly produced by human labor but in a globalized system of commodities.",
"In this economy, gangsta rap traffics blackness as a commodifiable effect of \"being a nigga\".",
"In other words, gangsta rap defines the experience of blackness, in which he locates in gangsta rap's deployment of the word \"nigga\", in this new global economic system as \"adaptation to the force of commodification\".",
"For Judy, ''nigga'' (and gangsta rap) becomes an epistemologically authentic category for describing the condition of being black in the modern \"realm of things\".Despite this, many who hold that gangsta rap is not responsible for social ills are critical of the way many gangsta rappers intentionally exaggerate their criminal pasts for the sake of street credibility.",
"Rick Ross and Slim Jesus among others have been heavily criticized for this.===Hip-Hop Minister Conrad Tillard===In the 1990s and early 2000s, Nation of Islam Minister Conrad Tillard, known as the \"Hip-Hop Minister,\" was an outspoken critic of hip hop lyrics that he perceived as degrading and dangerous to Blacks.",
"He said such lyrics suggested \"that we are penny-chasing, Champagne-drinking, gold-teeth-wearing, modern-day Sambos, pimps and players.\"",
"He criticized hip-hop lyrics that portrayed American black communities as degenerate.",
"He believed that in seeking to emulate the lyrics in gangsta rap, young Black Americans became victims of mass incarceration, violence, sexual exploitation, and drug crime.In the 1990s, he started an organization called A Movement for C.H.H.A.N.G.E.",
"(\"Conscious Hip Hop Activism Necessary for Global Empowerment\"), to advocate for \"conscious hip hop activism\".After the drive-by shooting murder of rapper Tupac Shakur in 1996, Tillard organized a \"Day of Atonement\" event to advocate against violent themes in hip-hop music, to promote unity, and to celebrate Shakur's life.",
"He invited rap group A Tribe Called Quest, Chuck D with Public Enemy, Kool Herc, Afrika Bambaataa, model Bethann Hardison, actor Malik Yoba, Bad Boy Records president Sean Combs, and rapper the Notorious B.I.G.",
"There were an estimated 2,000 attendees.Tillard also criticized the Reverend Al Sharpton and other civil rights leaders, calling them \"hired guns\" for not condemning rappers Sean Combs or Shyne Barrows.",
"He also criticized the businessmen who supported that approach.",
"He feuded with Def Jam founder Russell Simmons in 2001, accusing him of stoking violence by allowing the frequent use of words such as \"nigga\" and \"bitch\" in rap lyrics.",
"Tillard organized a summit in Harlem over what he perceived as negative imagery in hip hop.",
"Def Jam Recordings founder Russell Simmons organized a counter-summit, urging the public not to \"support open and aggressive critics of the hip-hop community\".===''2Pacalypse Now'' controversy===In 1992, then-U.S. Vice President Dan Quayle blasted the recording industry for producing rap music he believed led to violence.",
"Quayle called on Time Warner Inc. subsidiary, Interscope Records, to withdraw Tupac Shakur's 1991 debut album ''2Pacalypse Now'' from stores.",
"Quayle stated, \"There is absolutely no reason for a record like this to be published—It has no place in our society.\"",
"Quayle's motivation came in light of the murder of a Texas state trooper Bill Davidson, who had been shot by Ronald Ray Howard after he had been pulled over.",
"Howard was driving a stolen vehicle while songs from ''2Pacalypse Now'' were playing on the tape deck when he was stopped by the officer.",
"The family of Davidson filed a civil suit against Shakur and Interscope Records, claiming the record's violent lyrics incite \"imminent lawless action\".",
"District Judge John D. Rainey held that Shakur and the record companies did not have the duty to prevent distributing his music when they could not reasonably foresee violence arising from the distribution, nor was there any intent for the usage of the music as a \"product for purposes of recovery under a products liability theory\".",
"Judge Rainey concluded the suit by ruling the Davidsons' argument that the music was unprotected speech under the First Amendment was irrelevant.===C.",
"Delores Tucker===Politicians such as C. Delores Tucker have cited concerns with sexually explicit and misogynistic lyrics featured in hip-hop tracks.",
"Tucker claimed the explicit lyrics used in hip-hop songs were threatening to the African-American community.",
"Tucker, who once was the highest-ranking African American woman in the Pennsylvania state government, focused on rap music in 1993, labeling it as \"pornographic filth\" and claiming it was offensive and demeaning to black women.",
"Tucker stated, \"You can't listen to all that language and filth without it affecting you.\"",
"Tucker also handed out leaflets containing lyrics from rap music and urged people to read them aloud.",
"She picketed stores that sold the music and handed out petitions.",
"She then proceeded to buy stock in Time Warner, Sony and other companies for the sole purpose to protest rap music at shareholders meetings.",
"In 1994, Tucker protested when the NAACP nominated rapper Tupac Shakur for one of its image awards as Outstanding Actor in a Motion Picture from his role in ''Poetic Justice''.Some rappers labeled her \"narrow-minded\", and some ridiculed her in their lyrics, notably Shakur, who mentions her multiple times in his diamond certified 1996 album ''All Eyez On Me''.",
"Shakur mentions Tucker in the tracks \"Wonda Why They Call U Bitch\" and \"How Do U Want It\", where Shakur raps \"Delores Tucker, you's a motherfucker/Instead of trying to help a nigga you destroy a brother.\"",
"Tucker filed a $10 million lawsuit against Shakur's estate for the comments made in both songs.",
"In her lawsuit, she claimed that the comments were slanderous, caused her emotional distress and invaded her personal privacy.",
"The case was eventually dismissed.",
"Shakur was not the only rap artist to mention her in his songs, as Jay-Z, Eminem, Lil' Kim, the Game and Lil Wayne have all previously criticized Tucker for her opposition of the genre.===First Amendment rights===Gangsta rap has also raised questions of whether it is protected speech under the First Amendment to the United States Constitution, since lyrics may express violence and may be considered true threats.",
"The Supreme Court ruled in ''Elonis v. United States'' (2015) that ''mens rea'', the intent to commit a crime, is necessary to convict someone of a crime for using threatening words in a rap song.In a notable case, rapper Jamal Knox, performing as \"Mayhem Mal\", wrote a gangsta rap song named \"F*** the Police\" shortly after he was arrested for gun and drug charges in Pittsburgh.",
"The song's lyrics specifically named the two arresting officers, and included explicit violent threats including \"Let's kill these cops cuz they don't do us no good\".",
"One of the officers, believing to be threatened, subsequently left the force.Knox was convicted of making terroristic threats and of witness intimidation in a bench trial, and the conviction was affirmed by the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania, which held that the song's lyrics amounted to a true threat.",
"Knox petitioned the Supreme Court of the United States to hear the case, and academics joined rappers Killer Mike, Chance the Rapper, Meek Mill, Yo Gotti, Fat Joe and 21 Savage in an ''amicus curiae'' brief arguing that Knox's song should be seen as a political statement and thus is protected speech.",
"The Supreme Court declined review in April 2019."
],
[
"International influence",
"===German gangsta-rap===The gangsta-rap movement in Germany derived its roots from the '90s and since 2003–2004 has become a successful subgenre of German hip hop.",
"Contextually and musically, it borrows its influences from the French and US-based gangsta rap and battle rap.",
"Although there is a certain correlation between street-rap and gangsta-rap, gangsta-rap is not considered as a derivative genre since it is only partially related to street-rap and has contextually little to do with the other subgenre.====History====Pioneers of the subgenre gangsta-rap, who have since the 1990s still been active, are Kool Savas and Azad.",
"Within the genre, they implemented an incredibly explicit, broken and aggressive text, that originally still had much influence from English text elements.",
"This style of rap, after the turn of the century, was implemented by the majority of gangsta-rappers in Germany and is, therefore, a very well respected form on the approach of German gangsta-rap.",
"On the other hand, Savas distanced himself from these vulgar and explicit texts.",
"One of the founding fathers of German gangsta-rap, Charnell, the little-known rapper and martial-arts artist, thematized growing up in the midst of a social renaissance.",
"Gangsta-rap in other countries, that resembled the music of the Rödelheim Hartreim Projekt in Germany, was commercially successful in the 2000s.",
"Germany at the time, however, had few rappers active in this subgenre; allowing certain artists in the Berlin underground-hip-hop scene an opportunity to establish themselves with their lyrics representing a certain hardship acquired through the criminal lifestyle which had previously been popularized.",
"Recognizable names from the underground scene are Bass Sultan Hengzt, Fler, MC Bogy or MOK.",
"Another notable rapper and pioneer of gangsta-rap in Germany is Azad.",
"Although he came from the rural Frankfurt am Main, he was a big reason this subgenre became popular in Germany.",
"In his lyrical text, he thematized the rigid and rough lifestyle of living in the northwest district of Frankfurt.At the beginning of the year 2003 the process of commercialization of this subgenre began.",
"Contrary to popular belief, a variable of the German gangsta-rap became popular before the actual subgenre itself did.",
"When Sido, a notoriously known rapper from Berlin, released his album ''Maske'' which thematized gangs, drugs and violence, this album became the first of its genre to sell 100,000 copies.",
"Following that album Sido released another two named ''Ich'' and ''Ich und meine Maske'' which both had over 100,000 sold copies and emphasized the success of his first album.Following the success of Sido and his albums, Bushido became the next artist to emerge from the German gangsta-rap scene.",
"He established himself a career and became the most important representative of German gangsta-rap of his time.",
"Aggro Berlin, the label those two artists were both represented by, stated that this version of rap was the second, more aggressive evolution of German hip-hop.",
"Bushido's albums ''Carlo Cokxxx Nutten'' with Fler and Bushido's debut album ''Vom Bordstein bis zur Skyline'' had relatively little success although the prominent topics on his album reflected directly with the themes that made Sido popular.Following the continuous success of Sido and Bushido came a wave of rappers who were trying, with the help of major-labels, to establish themselves and be recognized by the populace.",
"Eventually came Massiv, who was signed with Sony BMG, and was crowned by his label to be the German 50 Cent.",
"This artist did not reach the success of 50 Cent.",
"Further artists such as Baba Saad or Kollegah have since then established themselves as relatively successful in the German charts.",
"As of recently, names such as Farid Bang, Nate57, Majoe & Jasko and Haftbefehl have appeared on the charts regularly.===Road rap===Road rap (also known as British gangsta rap or simply UK rap) is a genre of music pioneered in South London, primarily in Brixton and Peckham.",
"The genre was pioneered by groups such as PDC, SMS, SN1, North Star, MashTown, U.S.G.",
"and artists such as Giggs, K Koke, Nines and Sneakbo.",
"The genre came to the fore as a backlash against the perceived commercialisation of grime in the mid-late 2000s in London.",
"The genre came to prominence around 2007 with the rise of Giggs.",
"Road rap retained the explicit depictions of violence and British gang culture found in some early grime music and combines it with a musical style more similar to American gangsta rap than the sound system influenced music of grime, dubstep, UK garage, jungle, reggae and dub.Gangs played a large part in the genre, with gangs such as the Peckham Boys (with its various sets such as SN1, PYG and OPB), based in Peckham and GAS Gang, based in Brixton, becoming notable in the road rap scene during the 2000s.The road rap scene centres around mixtape releases and YouTube videos with some of the genres more popular acts getting mainstream recognition.",
"The genre has been criticised for the relentless nihilism and violence in its lyrics as well as its links to gangs and gun crime with many rappers serving prison sentences.",
"In keeping with grime, road rap has suffered from pre-emptive policing with Giggs claiming that the Metropolitan Police have set out to deny him the opportunity to make a living from music having banned him from touring.",
"In 2011, Stigs was served the first ever gang injunction that banned him from rapping about anything that may encourage violence.In the early 2010s, the American genre drill began to emerge in the UK, pushed by groups such as 150, 67 and Section Boyz.",
"UK drill has been referred to as subgenre of road rap due to the influence it has had on the genre.",
"Road rap also went on to influence afroswing, which emerged in the mid-2010s."
],
[
"See also",
"* List of gangsta rap artists* List of criminal enterprises, gangs, and syndicates* List of murdered hip hop musicians* Narcocorrido* Road rap"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Sources",
"*"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Gleichschaltung"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The Nazi term '''''' () or \"'''coordination'''\" was the process of '''Nazification''' by which Adolf Hitler — leader of the Nazi Party in Germany — successively established a system of totalitarian control and coordination over all aspects of German society \"from the economy and trade associations to the media, culture and education\".",
"Although the Weimar Constitution remained nominally in effect until Germany's surrender following World War II, near total Nazification had been secured by the 1935 resolutions approved during the Nuremberg Rally, when the symbols of the Nazi Party and the state were fused (see Flag of Nazi Germany) and German Jews were deprived of their citizenship (see Nuremberg Laws).",
"The tenets of ''Gleichschaltung'' also applied to territories occupied by the Nazis."
],
[
"Terminology",
" is a compound word that comes from the German words (same) and (circuit) and was derived from an electrical engineering term meaning that all switches are put on the same circuit so that all can be activated by throwing a single master switch.",
"Its first use is credited to Reich Justice Minister Franz Gürtner.",
"It has been variously translated as \"coordination\", \"Nazification of state and society\", \"synchronization\", and \"bringing into line\".",
"English texts often use the untranslated German word to convey its unique historical meaning.",
"In their seminal work on National Socialist vernacular, ''Nazi-Deutsch/Nazi-German: An English Lexicon of the Language of the Third Reich'', historians Robert Michael and Karin Doerr define as: \"Consolidation.",
"All of the German Volk's social, political, and cultural organizations to be controlled and run according to Nazi ideology and policy.",
"All opposition to be eliminated.\"",
"This accords the general description provided by historian Jane Caplan, who characterized the term as \"the coordination of German institutions into a cohesive, Nazified whole.\""
],
[
"Legal basis",
"The Nazis were able to put into effect due to multiple legal measures enacted by the Reich government during the 20 months following 30 January 1933, when Adolf Hitler became Chancellor of Germany.",
"* '''''Reichstag'' Fire Decree.'''",
"The day after the Reichstag fire, President of Germany Paul von Hindenburg, acting at Hitler's request and based on the emergency powers in article 48 of the Weimar Constitution, issued the Reichstag Fire Decree (28 February 1933).",
"This decree, formally titled \"Decree of the Reich President for the Protection of People and State,\" suspended most citizen rights provided for by the constitution, including the right of ''habeas corpus,'' freedom of speech, press, assembly and privacy of communications.",
"This allowed for the arrest of political adversaries, mostly Communists, and for terrorizing of other voters by the (SA) (Nazi paramilitary branch) before the upcoming election.",
"In this atmosphere, the general election of the took place on 5 March 1933.The Nazis had hoped to win an outright majority and push aside their coalition partners, the German National People's Party (DNVP).",
"However, the Nazis won only 43.9 percent of the vote, short of a majority and well below the number needed to amend the federal constitution.",
"During the debate on the Enabling Act, Social Democrat chairman Otto Wels spoke the last free words in the Reichstag: \"Freedom and life can be taken from us, but not our honor.\"",
"The subsequent passage of the Act did away with parliamentary democracy.",
"* '''Enabling Act.'''",
"When the newly elected convened – not including the Communist delegates whose participation in politics had been banned – it passed the Enabling Act (23 March 1933).",
"This law, formally titled \"Law to Remedy the Distress of the People and the Reich,\" gave the government (the Reich Chancellor and his cabinet) the right to enact laws for a period of four years without the involvement of the ''Reichstag'' or the Reich President.",
"Under certain circumstances, these laws could \"deviate from the Constitution.\"",
"As a constitutional amendment, it required a two-thirds majority for passage.",
"Even with the proscription of the Communists, the Nazis and their ally the DNVP were still short of this number.",
"Through intimidation of deputies by surrounding the ''Reichstag'' with a cordon of SA members, and through promises of religious freedom protections to the Catholic Centre Party, the acquiescence of a sufficient number of deputies was obtained.",
"With only the SPD in opposition, the Enabling Act passed 444–94.For all intents and purposes, the entire Weimar Constitution was rendered void.",
"It formed the cornerstone on which Hitler circumvented the constitutional framework of the Weimar Republic and was able to impose his will on the nation by decree.",
"* '''Provisional Law on the Coordination of the States with the Reich.'''",
"Enacted by the Reich government using the Enabling Act, the \"Provisional Law on the Coordination of the States with the Reich\" (31 March 1933) dissolved the sitting parliaments of all German states except the recently elected Prussian parliament, which the Nazis already controlled.",
"It also ordered the state parliaments reconstituted based on the state votes cast in the 5 March ''Reichstag'' election (except for Communist seats, which were not filled).",
"Under this provision, the Nazis and their DNVP partners were able to attain working majorities in all the parliaments.",
"It further mandated the simultaneous dissolution of all state parliaments whenever the ''Reichstag'' was dissolved.",
"It also gave the state governments the same powers to enact legislation that the Reich government possessed under the Enabling Act.",
"* '''Second Law on the Coordination of the States with the Reich.'''",
"In order to further extend their power over the German states, the Reich government enacted the \"Second Law on the Coordination of the States with the Reich\" (7 April 1933).",
"This measure deployed one (Reich Governor) in each state.",
"These officers, appointed by the President on the recommendation of the Chancellor, were responsible to Interior Minister Wilhelm Frick and were intended to act as local proconsuls in each state, with near-complete control over the state governments.",
"They were empowered to preside over meetings of the state government, appoint and dismiss the state minister-president as well as other high officials and judges, dissolve the state parliament, call new elections and promulgate state laws.",
"The law conferred the office of in Prussia on the Reich Chancellor himself.",
"* '''Law for the Restoration of a Professional Civil Service.'''",
"Another measure of Nazi was the enactment of the \"Law for the Restoration of a Professional Civil Service\" (7 April 1933), which mandated the \"co-ordination\" of the civil service – which in Germany included not only bureaucrats, but also schoolteachers and professors, judges, prosecutors, and other professionals – at the federal, state and municipal level, and authorized the removal of Jews and Communists from these positions, with limited exceptions for those who had fought in the First World War or had lost a father or son in combat.",
"*'''Law Against the Formation of Parties.'''",
"The Communist Party had effectively been outlawed in all but name by the Reichstag Fire Decree, and was completely banned from 6 March.",
"Following additional months of violence and intimidation against the Social Democratic Party, the government seized all its assets, and banned it outright on 22 June 1933, canceling all SDP electoral mandates in both the ''Reichstag'' and the state parliaments.",
"By early July, all other parties, even the Nazis' erstwhile allies the DNVP, had been intimidated into dissolving themselves rather than face arrests and concentration camp imprisonment.",
"Thus the DNVP (27 June) the German State Party (28 June), the Bavarian People's Party (4 July), the German People's Party (4 July) and the Centre Party (5 July) all formally disbanded.",
"The \"Law Against the Formation of Parties\" (14 July 1933) declared the NSDAP as the country's only legal political party, formalizing what had already been accomplished through the campaign of Nazi terror and the complete capitulation of the opposition.",
"* '''Law to Secure the Unity of Party and State'''.",
"With the Nazi Party as the only remaining legal party, Hitler now sought to extend the Party's grasp over all the levers of state power and administration through the \"Law to Secure the Unity of Party and State\" (1 December 1933), which was enacted by the Reich government under the provisions of the Enabling Act.",
"The Nazi Party was legally established as a public corporation with jurisdiction over its members.",
"The Party and the SA became official organs of the German Reich.",
"The Deputy ''Führer'' of the Party (Rudolf Hess) and the ''Stabschef'' of the SA (Ernst Röhm), were made ''ex officio'' members of the Reich government as ministers without portfolio, further interlocking the leadership of the Party and State.",
"Government agencies, including public safety and law enforcement authorities such as the police, public prosecutors and the courts, were obligated to provide the Party and the SA with administrative and legal information and investigatory assistance.",
"Party courts (''Parteigerichte'') received the status of official legal institutions of the State and any crime committed against the Party now was considered a crime against the State.",
"These courts were now authorized to impose detention or imprisonment as punishment.",
"* '''Law on the Reconstruction of the Reich.'''",
"All the state parliaments had been dissolved (along with the ''Reichstag'') on 14 October 1933, and while new ''Reichstag'' elections took place on 12 November, no new state parliamentary elections were scheduled.",
"Now, on the one-year anniversary of coming to power, the Reich government passed through the ''Reichstag'', by a unanimous vote, the \"Law on the Reconstruction of the Reich\" (30 January 1934).",
"This was one of only seven laws passed by the ''Reichstag'' in the 19 sessions held during the entire Nazi regime, as opposed to 986 laws enacted solely by the Reich government under the authority of the Enabling Act.",
"The law, in the form of a constitutional amendment, formally did away with the concept of a federal republic.",
"The state parliaments were abolished altogether and state sovereignty passed to the central government.",
"The states, though not themselves eliminated, were reduced to mere administrative bodies of the Reich, effectively converting Germany into a highly centralized unitary state.",
"By destroying the autonomy of the historic German states, Hitler achieved what Bismarck, Wilhelm II and the Weimar Republic had never dared to attempt.",
"* '''Law on the Abolition of the ''Reichsrat.'''''",
"Within two weeks of the abolition of the state parliaments, the Reich government enacted the \"Law on the Abolition of the Reichsrat\" (14 February 1934) formally abolishing the ''Reichsrat'', the second chamber of the national parliament that represented the states.",
"This was a clear violation of the Enabling Act.",
"While Article 2 of the Enabling Act allowed the government to pass laws that deviated from the Constitution, it explicitly prohibited laws affecting the institution of the ''Reichsrat''.",
"* '''Law Concerning the Head of State of the German Reich.'''",
"With Reich President von Hindenburg fatally ill, the Reich government enacted the \"Law Concerning the Head of State of the German Reich\" (1 August 1934).",
"This law was signed by the entire Reich cabinet.",
"It combined the office of Reich President with that of Reich Chancellor under the title of \"''Führer'' and Reich Chancellor,\" and was drawn up to become effective on the death of the Reich President, which occurred the next day.",
"Again, this flagrantly violated Article 2 of the Enabling Act, which forbade any actions interfering with the office of the Reich President.",
"With this law, Hitler became not only Germany's head of state, but also the commander-in-chief of the armed forces."
],
[
"Coordination of the German ''Länder''",
"German states were not formally abolished (excluding Mecklenburg-Strelitz in 1934 and Lübeck in 1937), their constitutional rights and sovereignty were eroded and ultimately ended.",
"Prussia was already under federal administration when Hitler came to power, providing a model for the process.Nazi Party Gaue effectively replaced the federal government structure.When Hitler was appointed Reich Chancellor on 30 January 1933, the Nazi Party had control of only five of the seventeen German ''Länder'' (states).",
"However, the Nazis acted swiftly to eliminate any potential centers of opposition arising in the remaining states.",
"Immediately following the Reichstag election of 5 March 1933, the central government began in earnest its campaign to take over the state governments that it did not yet control, and within a very short period they achieved dominance over the administration in every state.The pattern was in each case similar: pressure on the non-Nazi state governments to place a National Socialist in charge of the police; threatening demonstrations from SA and SS troops in the big cities; the symbolic raising of the swastika banner on town halls; the capitulation with hardly any resistance of the elected governments; the imposition of a Reich Commissar under the pretext of restoring order … Despite the semblance of legality, the usurpation of the powers of the ''Länder'' by the Reich was a plain breach of the Constitution.",
"Force and pressure by the Nazi organizations themselves – political blackmail – had been solely responsible for creating the 'unrest' that had prompted the alleged restorations of 'order'.",
"The terms of the emergency decree of 28 February provided no justification since there was plainly no need for defence from any 'communist acts of violence endangering the state'.",
"The only such acts were those of the Nazis themselves.The following table presents an overview of the process of ''Gleichschaltung'' as it was applied to the Nazification of the German ''Länder'' governments.",
"While, strictly speaking, the ''Gleichschaltung'' process did not start until after the Nazi seizure of power at the Reich level at the end of January 1933, the table also presents earlier Nazi Party successes in infiltrating and taking charge of several German state administrations during 1930–1932.In most of these instances, they took the portfolio of the state interior ministries from which they controlled the police, installing Nazi adherents and purging opponents.",
"Most coalition cabinets that the Nazis formed were with the participation of their conservative nationalist ally, the German National People's Party (DNVP).",
"The \"Law Against the Founding of New Parties\" (14 July 1933) banned all parties except the Nazi Party.",
"The DNVP members of the remaining coalition cabinets eventually either joined the Party or were replaced by Nazis, resulting in one-party government in all the ''Länder''.Key:Entered into a coalition government led by a non-NaziFormed a coalition government led by a Nazi Formed an all-Nazi governmentNazi Seizure of Power in the ''Länder'' Date ''Länder'' Event Thuringia 23 January 1930 First Nazi enters a coalition cabinet with Wilhelm Frick appointed Minister of the Interior and Public Education 26 August 1932Nazi-led coalition cabinet formed under Minister-President Fritz Sauckel Brunswick 1 October 1930 Nazis enter coalition cabinet with Anton Franzen appointed Minister of the Interior and Public Education 9 May 1933All Nazi cabinet formed under Minister-President Dietrich Klagges Mecklenburg-Strelitz 8 April 1932 Nazis enter coalition cabinet with Fritz Stichtenoth appointed ''Staatsrat'' (State Councillor) 29 May 1933All Nazi cabinet formed under Minister of State Fritz Stichtenoth Anhalt 21 May 1932 First Nazi-led coalition cabinet formed under Minister-President Alfred Freyberg.",
"Oldenburg 16 June 1932First all Nazi cabinet formed under Minister-President Carl Röver Mecklenburg-Schwerin 13 July 1932All Nazi cabinet formed under Minister-President Walter Granzow Prussia 30 January 1933Nazis enter coalition cabinet formed under ''Reichskommissar'' Franz von Papen; Hermann Göring becomes Minister of the Interior 11 April 1933Nazi-led coalition cabinet formed under Minister-President Hermann Göring Lippe 7 February 1933Nazi-led coalition cabinet formed under Chairman of the ''Landespräsidien'' (State Presidency) Ernst Krappe Hamburg 8 March 1933Nazi-led coalition cabinet formed under Senate President and ''Bürgermeister'' Carl Vincent Krogmann Schaumburg-Lippe 8 March 1933Appointment of ''Reichskommissar'' Kurt Matthaei; on 1 April, an all Nazi cabinet formed under State Councillor Hans-Joachim Riecke Bavaria 10 March 1933All Nazi cabinet formed under ''Reichskommissar'' Franz Ritter von Epp Saxony 10 March 1933Nazi-led coalition cabinet formed under ''Reichskommissar'' Manfred Freiherr von Killinger Baden 10 March 1933All Nazi cabinet formed under ''Reichskommissar'' Robert Heinrich Wagner Lübeck 11 March 1933Appointment of ''Reichskommissar'' Friedrich Völtzer; on 31 May, Otto-Heinrich Drechsler named Senate President and ''Bürgermeister'' Hesse 13 March 1933All Nazi cabinet formed under ''Staatspräsident'' Ferdinand Werner Württemberg 15 March 1933Nazi-led coalition cabinet formed under Minister-President Wilhelm Murr Bremen 18 March 1933All Nazi cabinet formed under Senate President and acting ''Bürgermeister'' Richard Markert"
],
[
"Propaganda and societal integration",
"Joseph Goebbels in 1942One of the most critical steps towards of German society was the introduction of the \"Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda\" under Joseph Goebbels in March 1933 and the subsequent steps taken by the Propaganda Ministry to assume complete control of the press and all means of social communication.",
"This included oversight of newspapers, magazines, films, books, public meetings and ceremonies, foreign press relations, theater, art and music, radio, and television.",
"To this end, Goebbels said:The secret of propaganda is to permeate the person it aims to grasp, without his even noticing that he is being permeated.",
"''Of course'' propaganda has a purpose, but the purpose must be concealed with such cleverness and virtuosity that the person on whom this purpose is to be carried out doesn't notice it at all.This was also the purpose of \"co-ordination\": to ensure that every aspect of the lives of German citizens was permeated with the ideas and prejudices of the Nazis.",
"From March to July 1933 and continuing afterward, the Nazi Party systematically eliminated or co-opted non-Nazi organizations that could potentially influence people.",
"Those critical of Hitler and the Nazis were suppressed, intimidated, or murdered.Every national voluntary association, and every local club, was brought under Nazi control, from industrial and agricultural pressure groups to sports associations, football clubs, male voice choirs, women's organizations—in short, the whole fabric of associational life was Nazified.",
"Rival, politically oriented clubs or societies were merged into a single Nazi body.",
"Existing leaders of voluntary associations were either unceremoniously ousted, or knuckled under of their own accord.",
"Many organizations expelled leftish or liberal members and declared their allegiance to the new state and its institutions.",
"The whole process ... went on all over Germany.",
"... By the end, virtually the only non-Nazi associations left were the army and the Churches with their lay organizations.For example, in 1934, the government founded the ''Deutscher Reichsbund für Leibesübungen'', later the ''Nationalsozialistischer Reichsbund für Leibesübungen'', as the official sports governing body.",
"All other German sport associations gradually lost their freedom and were coopted into it.",
"Besides sports, another more important part of the \"co-ordination\" effort was the purging of the civil service, both at the Federal and state level.",
"Top Federal civil servants—the State Secretaries—were largely replaced if they were not sympathetic to the Nazi program, as were the equivalent bureaucrats in the states, but Nazification took place at every level.",
"Civil servants rushed to join the Nazi Party, fearing they would lose their jobs if they did not.",
"At the local level, mayors and councils were terrorized by Nazi stormtroopers of the SA and SS into resigning or following orders to replace officials and workers at local public institutions who were Jewish or belonged to other political parties.The '''' also included the formation of various organizations with compulsory membership for segments of the population, particularly the youth of Germany.",
"Boys first served as apprentices in the (cubs), beginning at the age of six, and at age ten, entered the (Young German Boys) and served there until joining the Hitler Youth proper at age fourteen.",
"Boys remained there until age eighteen, at which time they entered into the (Labor Service) and the armed forces.",
"Girls became part of the (Young Maidens) at age ten and at age fourteen were enrolled in the '''' (League of German Maidens).",
"At eighteen, BDM members generally went to the eastern territory for their , or , a year of labor on a farm.",
"By 1940, membership in the Hitler Youth numbered some eight million.===Strength Through Joy===An all-embracing recreational organization for workers, called (\"Strength Through Joy\") was set up under the auspices of the German Labor Front ( or DAF), which had been created when the Nazis forcibly dissolved the trade unions on 2 May 1933, thus nullifying the labor movement.",
"Hobbies were regimented, and all private clubs, whether they be for chess, football, or woodworking, were brought under the control of Strength Through Joy, which also provided vacation trips, skiing, swimming, concerts, and ocean cruises.",
"Some 43 million Germans enjoyed trips via the Strength Through Joy initiative.",
"This effort inspired the idea of Germans acquiring automobiles and the construction of the ''Autobahn''.",
"It was the largest of the many organizations established by the Nazis and a propaganda success.",
"Workers were also brought in line with the party through activities such as the , a national vocational competition.",
"Many unemployed people were also drafted into the German Labour Front where they were given uniforms and tools and put to work; the disappearance of unemployed people from the streets contributed to the perception that the Nazis were improving the economic conditions of Germany."
],
[
"Implications",
"Historian Claudia Koonz explains that the word stems from the arena of electricity, where it refers to converting power from alternating current to direct current, which is called \"rectification\" in English; the word translates literally as \"phasing\".",
"Used in its socio-political sense, has no equivalent in any other language.",
"The Nazis also used other similar terms, such as , which constituted the removal or \"switching off\" of anyone who stained or soiled the German nation.",
"This seemingly clinical terminology captured both the mechanical and biological meaning for members of German society; as one German citizen visiting London explained, \"It means the same stream will flow through the ethnic body politic .",
"\"Former University of Dresden professor of romance languages, Viktor Klemperer—dismissed from his post for being Jewish in 1935 and who only survived his time in Germany due to being married to a prominent German woman—collected a list of terms employed in everyday speech by the Nazis, which he discussed in his book, ''LTI – Lingua Tertii Imperii'', published in English as ''The Language of the Third Reich''.",
"In this work, Klemperer contends that the Nazis made the German language itself a servant to their ideology through its repetitive use, eventually permeating the very \"flesh and blood\" of its people.",
"For instance, if it was sunny and pleasant, it was described as \"Hitler weather\", or if you failed to comply with Nazi ideals of racial and social conformity, you were \"switched off.",
"\"When the blatant emphasis on racial hatred of others seemed to reach an impasse in the school system, through radio broadcasts, or on film reels, the overseers of Nazi propaganda switched to strategies that focused more on togetherness and the \"we-consciousness\" of the collective Volk, but the mandates of Nazi \"coordination\" remained: pay homage to the Führer, expel all foreigners, sacrifice for the German people, and welcome future challenges.",
"While greater German social and economic unity was produced through the ''Gleichschaltung'' initiatives of the regime, it was at the expense of individuality and to the social detriment of any nonconformist; and worse—it contributed to and reinforced the social and racial exclusion of anyone deemed an enemy by National Socialist doctrine.",
"The Nazi or \"synchronization\" of German society—along with a series of Nazi legislation—was part and parcel to Jewish economic disenfranchisement, the violence against political opposition, the creation of concentration camps, the Nuremberg Laws, the establishment of a racial , the seeking of , and the violent mass destruction of human life deemed somehow less valuable by the National Socialist government of Germany."
],
[
"See also",
"* Denazification* Führerprinzip"
],
[
"References",
"===Notes======Citations======Bibliography===* ** * * * * * * * * * * ** * * * ** ** * * * * * * *"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* Bracher, Karl Dietrich (1972).",
"\"Stages of Totalitarian 'Integration' (): The Consolidation of National Socialist Rule in 1933 and 1934\", in ''Republic To Reich: The Making of the Nazi Revolution Ten Essays'', edited by Hajo Holborn, New York: Pantheon Books.",
"pp.",
"109–28* Hughes, Everett (December 1955).",
"\"The of the German Statistical Yearbook: A Case in Professional Political Neutrality\".",
"''The American Statistician''.",
"Vol.",
"IX.",
"pp. 8–11.",
"* Kroeschell, Karl (1989).",
", 2nd ed., * Kroeschell, Karl (1992).",
", *"
],
[
"External links",
"* Lebendiges virtuelles Museum Online : Die Errichtung des Einparteienstaats 1933* 1933: Gleichschaltung"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Georg Cantor"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Georg Ferdinand Ludwig Philipp Cantor''' ( , ; – 6 January 1918) was a mathematician who played a pivotal role in the creation of set theory, which has become a fundamental theory in mathematics.",
"Cantor established the importance of one-to-one correspondence between the members of two sets, defined infinite and well-ordered sets, and proved that the real numbers are more numerous than the natural numbers.",
"Cantor's method of proof of this theorem implies the existence of an infinity of infinities.",
"He defined the cardinal and ordinal numbers and their arithmetic.",
"Cantor's work is of great philosophical interest, a fact he was well aware of.Originally, Cantor's theory of transfinite numbers was regarded as counter-intuitive – even shocking.",
"This caused it to encounter resistance from mathematical contemporaries such as Leopold Kronecker and Henri Poincaré and later from Hermann Weyl and L. E. J. Brouwer, while Ludwig Wittgenstein raised philosophical objections; see Controversy over Cantor's theory.",
"Cantor, a devout Lutheran Christian, believed the theory had been communicated to him by God.",
"Some Christian theologians (particularly neo-Scholastics) saw Cantor's work as a challenge to the uniqueness of the absolute infinity in the nature of God – on one occasion equating the theory of transfinite numbers with pantheism – a proposition that Cantor vigorously rejected.",
"Not all theologians were against Cantor's theory; prominent neo-scholastic philosopher Constantin Gutberlet was in favor of it and Cardinal Johann Baptist Franzelin accepted it as a valid theory (after Cantor made some important clarifications).The objections to Cantor's work were occasionally fierce: Leopold Kronecker's public opposition and personal attacks included describing Cantor as a \"scientific charlatan\", a \"renegade\" and a \"corrupter of youth\".",
"Kronecker objected to Cantor's proofs that the algebraic numbers are countable, and that the transcendental numbers are uncountable, results now included in a standard mathematics curriculum.",
"Writing decades after Cantor's death, Wittgenstein lamented that mathematics is \"ridden through and through with the pernicious idioms of set theory\", which he dismissed as \"utter nonsense\" that is \"laughable\" and \"wrong\".",
"Cantor's recurring bouts of depression from 1884 to the end of his life have been blamed on the hostile attitude of many of his contemporaries, though some have explained these episodes as probable manifestations of a bipolar disorder.The harsh criticism has been matched by later accolades.",
"In 1904, the Royal Society awarded Cantor its Sylvester Medal, the highest honor it can confer for work in mathematics.",
"David Hilbert defended it from its critics by declaring, \"No one shall expel us from the paradise that Cantor has created.\""
],
[
"Biography",
"===Youth and studies===Cantor, around 1870Georg Cantor, born in 1845 in Saint Petersburg, Russian Empire, was brought up in that city until the age of eleven.",
"The oldest of six children, he was regarded as an outstanding violinist.",
"His grandfather Franz Böhm (1788–1846) (the violinist Joseph Böhm's brother) was a well-known musician and soloist in a Russian imperial orchestra.",
"Cantor's father had been a member of the Saint Petersburg stock exchange; when he became ill, the family moved to Germany in 1856, first to Wiesbaden, then to Frankfurt, seeking milder winters than those of Saint Petersburg.",
"In 1860, Cantor graduated with distinction from the Realschule in Darmstadt; his exceptional skills in mathematics, trigonometry in particular, were noted.",
"In August 1862, he then graduated from the \"Höhere Gewerbeschule Darmstadt\", now the Technische Universität Darmstadt.",
"In 1862 Cantor entered the Swiss Federal Polytechnic in Zurich.",
"After receiving a substantial inheritance upon his father's death in June 1863, Cantor transferred to the University of Berlin, attending lectures by Leopold Kronecker, Karl Weierstrass and Ernst Kummer.",
"He spent the summer of 1866 at the University of Göttingen, then and later a center for mathematical research.",
"Cantor was a good student, and he received his doctoral degree in 1867.===Teacher and researcher===Cantor submitted his dissertation on number theory at the University of Berlin in 1867.After teaching briefly in a Berlin girls' school, he took up a position at the University of Halle, where he spent his entire career.",
"He was awarded the requisite habilitation for his thesis, also on number theory, which he presented in 1869 upon his appointment at Halle University.In 1874, Cantor married Vally Guttmann.",
"They had six children, the last (Rudolph) born in 1886.Cantor was able to support a family despite his modest academic pay, thanks to his inheritance from his father.",
"During his honeymoon in the Harz mountains, Cantor spent much time in mathematical discussions with Richard Dedekind, whom he had met at Interlaken in Switzerlandtwo years earlier while on holiday.Cantor was promoted to extraordinary professor in 1872 and made full professor in 1879.To attain the latter rank at the age of 34 was a notable accomplishment, but Cantor desired a chair at a more prestigious university, in particular at Berlin, at that time the leading German university.",
"However, his work encountered too much opposition for that to be possible.",
"Kronecker, who headed mathematics at Berlin until his death in 1891, became increasingly uncomfortable with the prospect of having Cantor as a colleague, perceiving him as a \"corrupter of youth\" for teaching his ideas to a younger generation of mathematicians.",
"Worse yet, Kronecker, a well-established figure within the mathematical community and Cantor's former professor, disagreed fundamentally with the thrust of Cantor's work ever since he had intentionally delayed the publication of Cantor's first major publication in 1874.Kronecker, now seen as one of the founders of the constructive viewpoint in mathematics, disliked much of Cantor's set theory because it asserted the existence of sets satisfying certain properties, without giving specific examples of sets whose members did indeed satisfy those properties.",
"Whenever Cantor applied for a post in Berlin, he was declined, and the process usually involved Kronecker, so Cantor came to believe that Kronecker's stance would make it impossible for him ever to leave Halle.In 1881, Cantor's Halle colleague Eduard Heine died.",
"Halle accepted Cantor's suggestion that Heine's vacant chair be offered to Dedekind, Heinrich M. Weber and Franz Mertens, in that order, but each declined the chair after being offered it.",
"Friedrich Wangerin was eventually appointed, but he was never close to Cantor.In 1882, the mathematical correspondence between Cantor and Dedekind came to an end, apparently as a result of Dedekind's declining the chair at Halle.",
"Cantor also began another important correspondence, with Gösta Mittag-Leffler in Sweden, and soon began to publish in Mittag-Leffler's journal ''Acta Mathematica''.",
"But in 1885, Mittag-Leffler was concerned about the philosophical nature and new terminology in a paper Cantor had submitted to ''Acta''.",
"He asked Cantor to withdraw the paper from ''Acta'' while it was in proof, writing that it was \"... about one hundred years too soon.\"",
"Cantor complied, but then curtailed his relationship and correspondence with Mittag-Leffler, writing to a third party, \"Had Mittag-Leffler had his way, I should have to wait until the year 1984, which to me seemed too great a demand!",
"...",
"But of course I never want to know anything again about ''Acta Mathematica''.",
"\"Cantor suffered his first known bout of depression in May 1884.Criticism of his work weighed on his mind: every one of the fifty-two letters he wrote to Mittag-Leffler in 1884 mentioned Kronecker.",
"A passage from one of these letters is revealing of the damage to Cantor's self-confidence:This crisis led him to apply to lecture on philosophy rather than on mathematics.",
"He also began an intense study of Elizabethan literature, thinking there might be evidence that Francis Bacon wrote the plays attributed to William Shakespeare (see Shakespearean authorship question); this ultimately resulted in two pamphlets, published in 1896 and 1897.Cantor recovered soon thereafter, and subsequently made further important contributions, including his diagonal argument and theorem.",
"However, he never again attained the high level of his remarkable papers of 1874–84, even after Kronecker's death on December 29, 1891.He eventually sought, and achieved, a reconciliation with Kronecker.",
"Nevertheless, the philosophical disagreements and difficulties dividing them persisted.In 1889, Cantor was instrumental in founding the German Mathematical Society, and he chaired its first meeting in Halle in 1891, where he first introduced his diagonal argument; his reputation was strong enough, despite Kronecker's opposition to his work, to ensure he was elected as the first president of this society.",
"Setting aside the animosity Kronecker had displayed towards him, Cantor invited him to address the meeting, but Kronecker was unable to do so because his wife was dying from injuries sustained in a skiing accident at the time.",
"Georg Cantor was also instrumental in the establishment of the first International Congress of Mathematicians, which took place in Zürich, Switzerland, in 1897.===Later years and death===After Cantor's 1884 hospitalization there is no record that he was in any sanatorium again until 1899.Soon after that second hospitalization, Cantor's youngest son Rudolph died suddenly on December 16 (Cantor was delivering a lecture on his views on Baconian theory and William Shakespeare), and this tragedy drained Cantor of much of his passion for mathematics.",
"Cantor was again hospitalized in 1903.One year later, he was outraged and agitated by a paper presented by Julius König at the Third International Congress of Mathematicians.",
"The paper attempted to prove that the basic tenets of transfinite set theory were false.",
"Since the paper had been read in front of his daughters and colleagues, Cantor perceived himself as having been publicly humiliated.",
"Although Ernst Zermelo demonstrated less than a day later that König's proof had failed, Cantor remained shaken, and momentarily questioning God.",
"Cantor suffered from chronic depression for the rest of his life, for which he was excused from teaching on several occasions and repeatedly confined to various sanatoria.",
"The events of 1904 preceded a series of hospitalizations at intervals of two or three years.",
"He did not abandon mathematics completely, however, lecturing on the paradoxes of set theory (Burali-Forti paradox, Cantor's paradox, and Russell's paradox) to a meeting of the ''Deutsche Mathematiker-Vereinigung'' in 1903, and attending the International Congress of Mathematicians at Heidelberg in 1904.In 1911, Cantor was one of the distinguished foreign scholars invited to the 500th anniversary of the founding of the University of St. Andrews in Scotland.",
"Cantor attended, hoping to meet Bertrand Russell, whose newly published ''Principia Mathematica'' repeatedly cited Cantor's work, but the encounter did not come about.",
"The following year, St. Andrews awarded Cantor an honorary doctorate, but illness precluded his receiving the degree in person.Cantor retired in 1913, and lived in poverty and suffering from malnourishment during World War I.",
"The public celebration of his 70th birthday was canceled because of the war.",
"In June 1917, he entered a sanatorium for the last time and continually wrote to his wife asking to be allowed to go home.",
"Georg Cantor had a fatal heart attack on January 6, 1918, in the sanatorium where he had spent the last year of his life."
],
[
"Mathematical work",
"Cantor's work between 1874 and 1884 is the origin of set theory.",
"Prior to this work, the concept of a set was a rather elementary one that had been used implicitly since the beginning of mathematics, dating back to the ideas of Aristotle.",
"No one had realized that set theory had any nontrivial content.",
"Before Cantor, there were only finite sets (which are easy to understand) and \"the infinite\" (which was considered a topic for philosophical, rather than mathematical, discussion).",
"By proving that there are (infinitely) many possible sizes for infinite sets, Cantor established that set theory was not trivial, and it needed to be studied.",
"Set theory has come to play the role of a foundational theory in modern mathematics, in the sense that it interprets propositions about mathematical objects (for example, numbers and functions) from all the traditional areas of mathematics (such as algebra, analysis, and topology) in a single theory, and provides a standard set of axioms to prove or disprove them.",
"The basic concepts of set theory are now used throughout mathematics.In one of his earliest papers, Cantor proved that the set of real numbers is \"more numerous\" than the set of natural numbers; this showed, for the first time, that there exist infinite sets of different sizes.",
"He was also the first to appreciate the importance of one-to-one correspondences (hereinafter denoted \"1-to-1 correspondence\") in set theory.",
"He used this concept to define finite and infinite sets, subdividing the latter into denumerable (or countably infinite) sets and nondenumerable sets (uncountably infinite sets).Cantor developed important concepts in topology and their relation to cardinality.",
"For example, he showed that the Cantor set, discovered by Henry John Stephen Smith in 1875, is nowhere dense, but has the same cardinality as the set of all real numbers, whereas the rationals are everywhere dense, but countable.",
"He also showed that all countable dense linear orders without end points are order-isomorphic to the rational numbers.Cantor introduced fundamental constructions in set theory, such as the power set of a set ''A'', which is the set of all possible subsets of ''A''.",
"He later proved that the size of the power set of ''A'' is strictly larger than the size of ''A'', even when ''A'' is an infinite set; this result soon became known as Cantor's theorem.",
"Cantor developed an entire theory and arithmetic of infinite sets, called cardinals and ordinals, which extended the arithmetic of the natural numbers.",
"His notation for the cardinal numbers was the Hebrew letter (aleph) with a natural number subscript; for the ordinals he employed the Greek letter ω (omega).",
"This notation is still in use today.The ''Continuum hypothesis'', introduced by Cantor, was presented by David Hilbert as the first of his twenty-three open problems in his address at the 1900 International Congress of Mathematicians in Paris.",
"Cantor's work also attracted favorable notice beyond Hilbert's celebrated encomium.",
"The US philosopher Charles Sanders Peirce praised Cantor's set theory and, following public lectures delivered by Cantor at the first International Congress of Mathematicians, held in Zürich in 1897, Adolf Hurwitz and Jacques Hadamard also both expressed their admiration.",
"At that Congress, Cantor renewed his friendship and correspondence with Dedekind.",
"From 1905, Cantor corresponded with his British admirer and translator Philip Jourdain on the history of set theory and on Cantor's religious ideas.",
"This was later published, as were several of his expository works.===Number theory, trigonometric series and ordinals===Cantor's first ten papers were on number theory, his thesis topic.",
"At the suggestion of Eduard Heine, the Professor at Halle, Cantor turned to analysis.",
"Heine proposed that Cantor solve an open problem that had eluded Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet, Rudolf Lipschitz, Bernhard Riemann, and Heine himself: the uniqueness of the representation of a function by trigonometric series.",
"Cantor solved this problem in 1869.It was while working on this problem that he discovered transfinite ordinals, which occurred as indices ''n'' in the ''n''th derived set ''S''''n'' of a set ''S'' of zeros of a trigonometric series.",
"Given a trigonometric series f(x) with ''S'' as its set of zeros, Cantor had discovered a procedure that produced another trigonometric series that had ''S''1 as its set of zeros, where ''S''1 is the set of limit points of ''S''.",
"If ''S''''k+1'' is the set of limit points of ''S''''k'', then he could construct a trigonometric series whose zeros are ''S''''k+1''.",
"Because the sets ''S''''k'' were closed, they contained their limit points, and the intersection of the infinite decreasing sequence of sets ''S'', ''S''1, ''S''2, ''S''3,... formed a limit set, which we would now call ''S''''ω'', and then he noticed that ''S''ω would also have to have a set of limit points ''S''ω+1, and so on.",
"He had examples that went on forever, and so here was a naturally occurring infinite sequence of infinite numbers ''ω'', ''ω'' + 1, ''ω'' + 2, ...Between 1870 and 1872, Cantor published more papers on trigonometric series, and also a paper defining irrational numbers as convergent sequences of rational numbers.",
"Dedekind, whom Cantor befriended in 1872, cited this paper later that year, in the paper where he first set out his celebrated definition of real numbers by Dedekind cuts.",
"While extending the notion of number by means of his revolutionary concept of infinite cardinality, Cantor was paradoxically opposed to theories of infinitesimals of his contemporaries Otto Stolz and Paul du Bois-Reymond, describing them as both \"an abomination\" and \"a cholera bacillus of mathematics\".",
"Cantor also published an erroneous \"proof\" of the inconsistency of infinitesimals.===Set theory===An illustration of Cantor's diagonal argument for the existence of uncountable sets.",
"The sequence at the bottom cannot occur anywhere in the infinite list of sequences above.The beginning of set theory as a branch of mathematics is often marked by the publication of Cantor's 1874 paper, \"Ueber eine Eigenschaft des Inbegriffes aller reellen algebraischen Zahlen\" (\"On a Property of the Collection of All Real Algebraic Numbers\").",
"This paper was the first to provide a rigorous proof that there was more than one kind of infinity.",
"Previously, all infinite collections had been implicitly assumed to be equinumerous (that is, of \"the same size\" or having the same number of elements).",
"Cantor proved that the collection of real numbers and the collection of positive integers are not equinumerous.",
"In other words, the real numbers are not countable.",
"His proof differs from the diagonal argument that he gave in 1891.Cantor's article also contains a new method of constructing transcendental numbers.",
"Transcendental numbers were first constructed by Joseph Liouville in 1844.Cantor established these results using two constructions.",
"His first construction shows how to write the real algebraic numbers as a sequence ''a''1, ''a''2, ''a''3, ....",
"In other words, the real algebraic numbers are countable.",
"Cantor starts his second construction with any sequence of real numbers.",
"Using this sequence, he constructs nested intervals whose intersection contains a real number not in the sequence.",
"Since every sequence of real numbers can be used to construct a real not in the sequence, the real numbers cannot be written as a sequence – that is, the real numbers are not countable.",
"By applying his construction to the sequence of real algebraic numbers, Cantor produces a transcendental number.",
"Cantor points out that his constructions prove more – namely, they provide a new proof of Liouville's theorem: Every interval contains infinitely many transcendental numbers.",
"Cantor's next article contains a construction that proves the set of transcendental numbers has the same \"power\" (see below) as the set of real numbers.Between 1879 and 1884, Cantor published a series of six articles in ''Mathematische Annalen'' that together formed an introduction to his set theory.",
"At the same time, there was growing opposition to Cantor's ideas, led by Leopold Kronecker, who admitted mathematical concepts only if they could be constructed in a finite number of steps from the natural numbers, which he took as intuitively given.",
"For Kronecker, Cantor's hierarchy of infinities was inadmissible, since accepting the concept of actual infinity would open the door to paradoxes which would challenge the validity of mathematics as a whole.",
"Cantor also introduced the Cantor set during this period.The fifth paper in this series, \"'''''Grundlagen einer allgemeinen Mannigfaltigkeitslehre\"''''' (\"''Foundations of a General Theory of Aggregates\"''), published in 1883, was the most important of the six and was also published as a separate monograph.",
"It contained Cantor's reply to his critics and showed how the transfinite numbers were a systematic extension of the natural numbers.",
"It begins by defining well-ordered sets.",
"Ordinal numbers are then introduced as the order types of well-ordered sets.",
"Cantor then defines the addition and multiplication of the cardinal and ordinal numbers.",
"In 1885, Cantor extended his theory of order types so that the ordinal numbers simply became a special case of order types.In 1891, he published a paper containing his elegant \"diagonal argument\" for the existence of an uncountable set.",
"He applied the same idea to prove Cantor's theorem: the cardinality of the power set of a set ''A'' is strictly larger than the cardinality of ''A''.",
"This established the richness of the hierarchy of infinite sets, and of the cardinal and ordinal arithmetic that Cantor had defined.",
"His argument is fundamental in the solution of the Halting problem and the proof of Gödel's first incompleteness theorem.",
"Cantor wrote on the Goldbach conjecture in 1894.Passage of Georg Cantor's article with his set definitionIn 1895 and 1897, Cantor published a two-part paper in ''Mathematische Annalen'' under Felix Klein's editorship; these were his last significant papers on set theory.",
"The first paper begins by defining set, subset, etc., in ways that would be largely acceptable now.",
"The cardinal and ordinal arithmetic are reviewed.",
"Cantor wanted the second paper to include a proof of the continuum hypothesis, but had to settle for expositing his theory of well-ordered sets and ordinal numbers.",
"Cantor attempts to prove that if ''A'' and ''B'' are sets with ''A'' equivalent to a subset of ''B'' and ''B'' equivalent to a subset of ''A'', then ''A'' and ''B'' are equivalent.",
"Ernst Schröder had stated this theorem a bit earlier, but his proof, as well as Cantor's, was flawed.",
"Felix Bernstein supplied a correct proof in his 1898 PhD thesis; hence the name Cantor–Bernstein–Schröder theorem.====One-to-one correspondence====A bijective functionCantor's 1874 Crelle paper was the first to invoke the notion of a 1-to-1 correspondence, though he did not use that phrase.",
"He then began looking for a 1-to-1 correspondence between the points of the unit square and the points of a unit line segment.",
"In an 1877 letter to Richard Dedekind, Cantor proved a far stronger result: for any positive integer ''n'', there exists a 1-to-1 correspondence between the points on the unit line segment and all of the points in an ''n''-dimensional space.",
"About this discovery Cantor wrote to Dedekind: \"\" (\"I see it, but I don't believe it!\")",
"The result that he found so astonishing has implications for geometry and the notion of dimension.In 1878, Cantor submitted another paper to Crelle's Journal, in which he defined precisely the concept of a 1-to-1 correspondence and introduced the notion of \"power\" (a term he took from Jakob Steiner) or \"equivalence\" of sets: two sets are equivalent (have the same power) if there exists a 1-to-1 correspondence between them.",
"Cantor defined countable sets (or denumerable sets) as sets which can be put into a 1-to-1 correspondence with the natural numbers, and proved that the rational numbers are denumerable.",
"He also proved that ''n''-dimensional Euclidean space '''R'''''n'' has the same power as the real numbers '''R''', as does a countably infinite product of copies of '''R'''.",
"While he made free use of countability as a concept, he did not write the word \"countable\" until 1883.Cantor also discussed his thinking about dimension, stressing that his mapping between the unit interval and the unit square was not a continuous one.This paper displeased Kronecker and Cantor wanted to withdraw it; however, Dedekind persuaded him not to do so and Karl Weierstrass supported its publication.",
"Nevertheless, Cantor never again submitted anything to Crelle.====Continuum hypothesis====Cantor was the first to formulate what later came to be known as the continuum hypothesis or CH: there exists no set whose power is greater than that of the naturals and less than that of the reals (or equivalently, the cardinality of the reals is ''exactly'' aleph-one, rather than just ''at least'' aleph-one).",
"Cantor believed the continuum hypothesis to be true and tried for many years to prove it, in vain.",
"His inability to prove the continuum hypothesis caused him considerable anxiety.The difficulty Cantor had in proving the continuum hypothesis has been underscored by later developments in the field of mathematics: a 1940 result by Kurt Gödel and a 1963 one by Paul Cohen together imply that the continuum hypothesis can be neither proved nor disproved using standard Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory plus the axiom of choice (the combination referred to as \"ZFC\").====Absolute infinite, well-ordering theorem, and paradoxes====In 1883, Cantor divided the infinite into the transfinite and the absolute.The transfinite is increasable in magnitude, while the absolute is unincreasable.",
"For example, an ordinal α is transfinite because it can be increased to α + 1.On the other hand, the ordinals form an absolutely infinite sequence that cannot be increased in magnitude because there are no larger ordinals to add to it.",
"In 1883, Cantor also introduced the well-ordering principle \"every set can be well-ordered\" and stated that it is a \"law of thought\".Cantor extended his work on the absolute infinite by using it in a proof.",
"Around 1895, he began to regard his well-ordering principle as a theorem and attempted to prove it.",
"In 1899, he sent Dedekind a proof of the equivalent aleph theorem: the cardinality of every infinite set is an aleph.",
"First, he defined two types of multiplicities: consistent multiplicities (sets) and inconsistent multiplicities (absolutely infinite multiplicities).",
"Next he assumed that the ordinals form a set, proved that this leads to a contradiction, and concluded that the ordinals form an inconsistent multiplicity.",
"He used this inconsistent multiplicity to prove the aleph theorem.",
"In 1932, Zermelo criticized the construction in Cantor's proof.Cantor avoided paradoxes by recognizing that there are two types of multiplicities.",
"In his set theory, when it is assumed that the ordinals form a set, the resulting contradiction implies only that the ordinals form an inconsistent multiplicity.",
"In contrast, Bertrand Russell treated all collections as sets, which leads to paradoxes.",
"In Russell's set theory, the ordinals form a set, so the resulting contradiction implies that the theory is inconsistent.",
"From 1901 to 1903, Russell discovered three paradoxes implying that his set theory is inconsistent: the Burali-Forti paradox (which was just mentioned), Cantor's paradox, and Russell's paradox.",
"Russell named paradoxes after Cesare Burali-Forti and Cantor even though neither of them believed that they had found paradoxes.In 1908, Zermelo published his axiom system for set theory.",
"He had two motivations for developing the axiom system: eliminating the paradoxes and securing his proof of the well-ordering theorem.",
"Zermelo had proved this theorem in 1904 using the axiom of choice, but his proof was criticized for a variety of reasons.",
"His response to the criticism included his axiom system and a new proof of the well-ordering theorem.",
"His axioms support this new proof, and they eliminate the paradoxes by restricting the formation of sets.In 1923, John von Neumann developed an axiom system that eliminates the paradoxes by using an approach similar to Cantor's—namely, by identifying collections that are not sets and treating them differently.",
"Von Neumann stated that a class is too big to be a set if it can be put into one-to-one correspondence with the class of all sets.",
"He defined a set as a class that is a member of some class and stated the axiom: A class is not a set if and only if there is a one-to-one correspondence between it and the class of all sets.",
"This axiom implies that these big classes are not sets, which eliminates the paradoxes since they cannot be members of any class.",
"Von Neumann also used his axiom to prove the well-ordering theorem: Like Cantor, he assumed that the ordinals form a set.",
"The resulting contradiction implies that the class of all ordinals is not a set.",
"Then his axiom provides a one-to-one correspondence between this class and the class of all sets.",
"This correspondence well-orders the class of all sets, which implies the well-ordering theorem.",
"In 1930, Zermelo defined models of set theory that satisfy von Neumann's axiom."
],
[
"Philosophy, religion, literature and Cantor's mathematics",
"The concept of the existence of an actual infinity was an important shared concern within the realms of mathematics, philosophy and religion.",
"Preserving the orthodoxy of the relationship between God and mathematics, although not in the same form as held by his critics, was long a concern of Cantor's.",
"He directly addressed this intersection between these disciplines in the introduction to his ''Grundlagen einer allgemeinen Mannigfaltigkeitslehre'', where he stressed the connection between his view of the infinite and the philosophical one.",
"To Cantor, his mathematical views were intrinsically linked to their philosophical and theological implications – he identified the Absolute Infinite with God, and he considered his work on transfinite numbers to have been directly communicated to him by God, who had chosen Cantor to reveal them to the world.",
"He was a devout Lutheran whose explicit Christian beliefs shaped his philosophy of science.",
"Joseph Dauben has traced the effect Cantor's Christian convictions had on the development of transfinite set theory.Debate among mathematicians grew out of opposing views in the philosophy of mathematics regarding the nature of actual infinity.",
"Some held to the view that infinity was an abstraction which was not mathematically legitimate, and denied its existence.",
"Mathematicians from three major schools of thought (constructivism and its two offshoots, intuitionism and finitism) opposed Cantor's theories in this matter.",
"For constructivists such as Kronecker, this rejection of actual infinity stems from fundamental disagreement with the idea that nonconstructive proofs such as Cantor's diagonal argument are sufficient proof that something exists, holding instead that constructive proofs are required.",
"Intuitionism also rejects the idea that actual infinity is an expression of any sort of reality, but arrive at the decision via a different route than constructivism.",
"Firstly, Cantor's argument rests on logic to prove the existence of transfinite numbers as an actual mathematical entity, whereas intuitionists hold that mathematical entities cannot be reduced to logical propositions, originating instead in the intuitions of the mind.",
"Secondly, the notion of infinity as an expression of reality is itself disallowed in intuitionism, since the human mind cannot intuitively construct an infinite set.",
"Mathematicians such as L. E. J. Brouwer and especially Henri Poincaré adopted an intuitionist stance against Cantor's work.",
"Finally, Wittgenstein's attacks were finitist: he believed that Cantor's diagonal argument conflated the intension of a set of cardinal or real numbers with its extension, thus conflating the concept of rules for generating a set with an actual set.Some Christian theologians saw Cantor's work as a challenge to the uniqueness of the absolute infinity in the nature of God.",
"In particular, neo-Thomist thinkers saw the existence of an actual infinity that consisted of something other than God as jeopardizing \"God's exclusive claim to supreme infinity\".",
"Cantor strongly believed that this view was a misinterpretation of infinity, and was convinced that set theory could help correct this mistake: \"... the transfinite species are just as much at the disposal of the intentions of the Creator and His absolute boundless will as are the finite numbers.\".",
"Prominent neo-scholastic German philosopher Constantin Gutberlet was in favor of such theory, holding that it didn't oppose the nature of God.Cantor also believed that his theory of transfinite numbers ran counter to both materialism and determinism – and was shocked when he realized that he was the only faculty member at Halle who did ''not'' hold to deterministic philosophical beliefs.It was important to Cantor that his philosophy provided an \"organic explanation\" of nature, and in his 1883 ''Grundlagen'', he said that such an explanation could only come about by drawing on the resources of the philosophy of Spinoza and Leibniz.",
"In making these claims, Cantor may have been influenced by F. A. Trendelenburg, whose lecture courses he attended at Berlin, and in turn Cantor produced a Latin commentary on Book 1 of Spinoza's ''Ethica''.",
"Trendelenburg was also the examiner of Cantor's ''Habilitationsschrift''.In 1888, Cantor published his correspondence with several philosophers on the philosophical implications of his set theory.",
"In an extensive attempt to persuade other Christian thinkers and authorities to adopt his views, Cantor had corresponded with Christian philosophers such as Tilman Pesch and Joseph Hontheim, as well as theologians such as Cardinal Johann Baptist Franzelin, who once replied by equating the theory of transfinite numbers with pantheism.",
"Although later this Cardinal accepted the theory as valid, due to some clarifications from Cantor's.",
"Cantor even sent one letter directly to Pope Leo XIII himself, and addressed several pamphlets to him.Cantor's philosophy on the nature of numbers led him to affirm a belief in the freedom of mathematics to posit and prove concepts apart from the realm of physical phenomena, as expressions within an internal reality.",
"The only restrictions on this metaphysical system are that all mathematical concepts must be devoid of internal contradiction, and that they follow from existing definitions, axioms, and theorems.",
"This belief is summarized in his assertion that \"the essence of mathematics is its freedom.\"",
"These ideas parallel those of Edmund Husserl, whom Cantor had met in Halle.Meanwhile, Cantor himself was fiercely opposed to infinitesimals, describing them as both an \"abomination\" and \"the cholera bacillus of mathematics\".Cantor's 1883 paper reveals that he was well aware of the opposition his ideas were encountering: \"...",
"I realize that in this undertaking I place myself in a certain opposition to views widely held concerning the mathematical infinite and to opinions frequently defended on the nature of numbers.",
"\"Hence he devotes much space to justifying his earlier work, asserting that mathematical concepts may be freely introduced as long as they are free of contradiction and defined in terms of previously accepted concepts.",
"He also cites Aristotle, René Descartes, George Berkeley, Gottfried Leibniz, and Bernard Bolzano on infinity.",
"Instead, he always strongly rejected Immanuel Kant's philosophy, in the realms of both the philosophy of mathematics and metaphysics.",
"He shared B. Russell's motto \"Kant or Cantor\", and defined Kant \"yonder sophistical Philistine who knew so little mathematics.\""
],
[
"Cantor's ancestry",
"The title on the memorial plaque (in Russian): \"In this building was born and lived from 1845 till 1854 the great mathematician and creator of set theory Georg Cantor\", Vasilievsky Island, Saint-Petersburg.Cantor's paternal grandparents were from Copenhagen and fled to Russia from the disruption of the Napoleonic Wars.",
"There is very little direct information on them.",
"Cantor's father, Georg Waldemar Cantor, was educated in the Lutheran mission in Saint Petersburg, and his correspondence with his son shows both of them as devout Lutherans.",
"Very little is known for sure about Georg Waldemar's origin or education.",
"Cantor's mother, Maria Anna Böhm, was an Austro-Hungarian born in Saint Petersburg and baptized Roman Catholic; she converted to Protestantism upon marriage.",
"However, there is a letter from Cantor's brother Louis to their mother, stating:(\"Even if we were descended from Jews ten times over, and even though I may be, in principle, completely in favour of equal rights for Hebrews, in social life I prefer Christians...\") which could be read to imply that she was of Jewish ancestry.According to biographers Eric Temple Bell, Cantor was of Jewish descent, although both parents were baptized.",
"In a 1971 article entitled \"Towards a Biography of Georg Cantor\", the British historian of mathematics Ivor Grattan-Guinness mentions (Annals of Science 27, pp.",
"345–391, 1971) that he was unable to find evidence of Jewish ancestry.",
"(He also states that Cantor's wife, Vally Guttmann, was Jewish).In a letter written to Paul Tannery in 1896 (Paul Tannery, Memoires Scientifique 13 Correspondence, Gauthier-Villars, Paris, 1934, p. 306), Cantor states that his paternal grandparents were members of the Sephardic Jewish community of Copenhagen.",
"Specifically, Cantor states in describing his father: \"Er ist aber in Kopenhagen geboren, von israelitischen Eltern, die der dortigen portugisischen Judengemeinde....\" (\"He was born in Copenhagen of Jewish (lit: 'Israelite') parents from the local Portuguese-Jewish community.",
"\")In addition, Cantor's maternal great uncle, a Hungarian violinist Josef Böhm, has been described as Jewish, which may imply that Cantor's mother was at least partly descended from the Hungarian Jewish community.In a letter to Bertrand Russell, Cantor described his ancestry and self-perception as follows: There were documented statements, during the 1930s, that called this Jewish ancestry into question:"
],
[
"Biographies",
"Until the 1970s, the chief academic publications on Cantor were two short monographs by Arthur Moritz Schönflies (1927) – largely the correspondence with Mittag-Leffler – and Fraenkel (1930).",
"Both were at second and third hand; neither had much on his personal life.",
"The gap was largely filled by Eric Temple Bell's ''Men of Mathematics'' (1937), which one of Cantor's modern biographers describes as \"perhaps the most widely read modern book on the history of mathematics\"; and as \"one of the worst\".",
"Bell presents Cantor's relationship with his father as Oedipal, Cantor's differences with Kronecker as a quarrel between two Jews, and Cantor's madness as Romantic despair over his failure to win acceptance for his mathematics.",
"Grattan-Guinness (1971) found that none of these claims were true, but they may be found in many books of the intervening period, owing to the absence of any other narrative.",
"There are other legends, independent of Bell – including one that labels Cantor's father a foundling, shipped to Saint Petersburg by unknown parents.",
"A critique of Bell's book is contained in Joseph Dauben's biography.",
"Writes Dauben:"
],
[
"See also",
"* Absolute Infinite* Aleph number* Cardinality of the continuum* Cantor medal – award by the Deutsche Mathematiker-Vereinigung in honor of Georg Cantor* Cardinal number* Continuum hypothesis* Countable set* Derived set (mathematics)* Epsilon numbers (mathematics)* Factorial number system* Pairing function* Transfinite number* List of things named after Georg Cantor"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References",
"* .",
"* .",
"* Internet version published in ''Journal of the ACMS'' 2004.Note, though, that Cantor's Latin quotation described in this article as ''a familiar passage from the Bible'' is actually from the works of Seneca and has no implication of divine revelation.",
"* .",
"* .",
"* .",
"* .",
"* .",
"* .",
"* .",
"* .",
"* .",
"*.",
"Although the presentation is axiomatic rather than naive, Suppes proves and discusses many of Cantor's results, which demonstrates Cantor's continued importance for the edifice of foundational mathematics.",
"* .",
"* .",
"* ."
],
[
"Bibliography",
":''Older sources on Cantor's life should be treated with caution.",
"See section § Biographies above.",
"''===Primary literature in English===* .===Primary literature in German===* * .",
"* * * * * Published separately as: ''Grundlagen einer allgemeinen Mannigfaltigkeitslehre''.",
"* * * * * .",
"Almost everything that Cantor wrote.",
"Includes excerpts of his correspondence with Dedekind (p. 443–451) and Fraenkel's Cantor biography (p. 452–483) in the appendix.===Secondary literature===* .",
".",
"A popular treatment of infinity, in which Cantor is frequently mentioned.",
"* * .",
"Contains a detailed treatment of both Cantor's and Dedekind's contributions to set theory.",
"* .",
"* * .",
"Three chapters and 18 index entries on Cantor.",
"* * Newstead, Anne (2009).",
"\"Cantor on Infinity in Nature, Number, and the Divine Mind\", ''American Catholic Philosophical Quarterly'', '''83''' (4): 532–553, https://doi.org/10.5840/acpq200983444.With acknowledgement of Dauben's pioneering historical work, this article further discusses Cantor's relation to the philosophy of Spinoza and Leibniz in depth, and his engagement in the ''Pantheismusstreit''.",
"Brief mention is made of Cantor's learning from F.A.Trendelenburg.",
"* .",
"Chapter 16 illustrates how Cantorian thinking intrigues a leading contemporary theoretical physicist.",
"* .",
"Deals with similar topics to Aczel, but in more depth.",
"* .",
"* Leonida Lazzari, ''L'infinito di Cantor''.",
"Editrice Pitagora, Bologna, 2008."
],
[
"External links",
"* * * * * Mainly devoted to Cantor's accomplishment.",
"* Georg Cantor, britannica.com* ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'': Set theory by Thomas Jech.",
"The Early Development of Set Theory by José Ferreirós.",
"* \"Cantor infinities\", analysis of Cantor's 1874 article, '' BibNum'' (for English version, click 'à télécharger').",
"There is an error in this analysis.",
"It states Cantor's Theorem 1 correctly: Algebraic numbers can be counted.",
"However, it states his Theorem 2 incorrectly: Real numbers cannot be counted.",
"It then says: \"Cantor notes that, taken together, Theorems 1 and 2 allow for the redemonstration of the existence of non-algebraic real numbers …\" This existence demonstration is non-constructive.",
"Theorem 2 stated correctly is: Given a sequence of real numbers, one can determine a real number that is not in the sequence.",
"Taken together, Theorem 1 and this Theorem 2 produce a non-algebraic number.",
"Cantor also used Theorem 2 to prove that the real numbers cannot be counted.",
"See Cantor's first set theory article or Georg Cantor and Transcendental Numbers."
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"University of Gothenburg"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''University of Gothenburg''' () is a university in Sweden's second largest city, Gothenburg.",
"Founded in 1891, the university is the third-oldest of the current Swedish universities and, with 53,845 students and 6,670 staff members, it is one of the largest universities in the Nordic countries."
],
[
"About",
"With its eight faculties and 38 departments, the University of Gothenburg is one of the most wide-ranging and versatile universities in Sweden.",
"Its eight faculties offer training in the Creative Arts, Social Sciences, Natural Sciences, Humanities, Education, Information Technology, Business, Economics and Law, and Health Sciences.The University of Gothenburg has the highest number of applicants per study place in many of its subjects and courses, making it one of the most popular universities in Sweden."
],
[
"History",
"The University of Gothenburg was founded as ''Göteborgs högskola'' (Gothenburg University College) in 1891.In 1907 it was granted the same status as Uppsala University and Lund University by the Swedish government, thus creating Sweden's third university.Over the course of time, it has merged with a number of previously independent higher education institutions in the city and has continuously expanded its study profile.",
"It was granted the rights of a full university by the Swedish Government in 1954, following the merger of the ''Göteborgs högskola'' (Gothenburg College) with the ''Medicinhögskolan i Göteborg'' (Gothenburg Medical School).The University of Gothenburg is a pronounced city university, that is most of its facilities are within the city centre of Gothenburg.",
"The main building as well as most faculties are located in the central part of Gothenburg.Together with Uppsala, Lund, and Stockholm universities, it is one of four large international research universities in Sweden."
],
[
"Structure",
"===Management===The University of Gothenburg is one of Sweden's largest universities.",
"It is a comprehensive university, organised into eight faculties and 38 departments.",
"The university is a public authority as well as a confederation of Faculty Boards.",
"Each faculty/school has significant autonomy based on its attributed powers, and a distinct identity within the university.The ''University Board'' is the university's highest decision-making body.",
"The board consists has \"supervision over all the University's affairs, and is responsible that its duties are fulfilled\".",
"The Swedish Government appoints seven of the members externally, based on their having experience in activities that have significance for the university's teaching and research functions.",
"In addition, the vice-chancellor, three faculty members and three students, as well as union representatives are included as ordinary members.The day-to-day management is headed by the vice-chancellor, Malin Broberg, who is responsible for implementing the decisions of the board.",
"She is supported by the central administration.===Faculties===The university is organised into eight academic faculties.",
"Collaboration across faculty and subject boundaries is emphasised in the university's research and education strategies.",
"All faculties takes advantage of this possibility and are active participants in a multitude of cross-disciplinary research and education activities within the framework of the university.",
"The university closely cooperates with Chalmers University of Technology, a fact that further increases the total scope of the academic environment in Gothenburg.",
"* '''The Artistic Faculty''' (''Konstnärliga fakulteten'') offers courses in the fields of design and crafts, film studies, photography, scene, music and fine arts.",
"* '''The Faculty of Education''' (''Utbildningsvetenskapliga fakulteten'') is responsible for teacher training in various subjects.",
"* '''The Faculty of Humanities''' (''Humanistiska fakulteten'') comprises the humanities, for instance cultural studies, history, literature, history of ideas, religion, archeology, modern languages, philosophy, linguistics, theory of science and Swedish language and literature.The Faculty of Arts* '''The IT Faculty''' (''IT fakulteten'') offers programmes in applied information technology, computer science and engineering.",
"* '''The Faculty of Natural Sciences''' (''Naturvetenskapliga fakulteten'') covers a number of science disciplines such as botany, cell and molecular biology, physics, earth sciences, chemistry, conservation, marine ecology, mathematics, environmental science, and zoology.",
"* '''The Sahlgrenska Academy''' (''Sahlgrenska Akademin'') is the faculty of medicine at the University of Gothenburg.",
"Research and education in medicine, odontology and health and care sciences.",
"* '''The School of Business, Economics and Law''' (''Handelshögskolan vid Göteborgs universitet'') is a business school and a law school.",
"* '''The Faculty of Social Sciences''' (''Samhällsvetenskapliga fakulteten'') offers courses in peace and development studies, public administration, journalism, psychology, social anthropology, social work, sociology, political science, and European studies."
],
[
"World ranking",
"University of Gothenburg was ranked number 201 in the world by Times Higher Educations 2023.Ranking Global Subject: Biomedical and Clinical sciences ARWU- Shanghai 151–200 31 Times 198 97 US News 135 71"
],
[
"Noted people",
"===Alumni===''Artisten'' – Academy of Music and Drama* Percy Barnevik, industry leader, former CEO of Asea Brown Boveri* Nick Bostrom, philosopher and futurist, and Director of the Future of Humanity Institute at Oxford University* Malin Byström, operatic soprano* Magnus Carlsson, singer* Martin Wallström, actor* Jan Eliasson, diplomat and politician (former President of the United Nations General Assembly, former Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Kingdom of Sweden)* Hans Hagnell, politician* Heiða Björg Hilmisdóttir, Icelandic politician* Carl Henrik Fredriksson, literary critic, columnist, essayist, and translator* Cecilia Malmström, former European Commissioner* Aleksandra Mir, visual artist* Njuguna Ndungu, economist, Governor and Chairman of the Board of the Central Bank of Kenya* Susanna Roxman, Anglophone poet and critic* Juri Kurol, Swedish Orthodontist* Maria Wetterstrand, politician (Green Party)* Muhammad al-Yaqoubi, Syrian Islamic scholar* Ann-Sofie Johansson, Creative Advisor and former Head of Design for H&M* Jonas Jonasson, author of ''The Hundred-Year-Old Man Who Climbed Out the Window and Disappeared''.Lotta Lotass, writer and former member of the Swedish Academy.",
"* Sture Allén, computer linguist, former permanent secretary of the Swedish Academy* Jens Allwood, linguist* Dilruba Z. Ara, writer* Arvid Carlsson, Nobel Prize laureate in Medicine, 2000* Ernst Cassirer, philosopher* Östen Dahl, linguist (member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, Royal Swedish Academy of Letters, History and Antiquities and Academia Europaea)* Åke Edwardson, author (used to teach Journalism)* Gunnar D Hansson, author* Tore Janson, linguist.",
"* Bernhard Karlgren, sinologist* Nils Kock, developer of the Kock pouch surgical procedure* Lotta Lotass, writer and literary scholar (former Member of the Swedish Academy)* Erik Lönnroth, historian (Member of the Swedish Academy)* Joakim Norbeck, scientist in molecular biotechnology at Chalmers University* Bo Ralph, linguist (Member of the Swedish Academy)* Bo Rothstein, political scientist* Gudrun Slettengren-Fernholm, artist* Anna Wåhlin, Antarctic researcher, oceanographer* Agnes Wold, professor of clinical bacteriology* José González, singer=== Vice-Chancellors of the University of Gothenburg ===* 1891 Axel Kock* 1891–1893 Hjalmar Edgren* 1893–1899 Johannes Paulson* 1899–1909 Johan Vising* 1909–1914 Ludvig Stavenow* 1914–1931 Otto Sylwan* 1931–1936 Bernhard Karlgren* 1936–1951 Curt Weibull* 1951–1966 Hjalmar Frisk* 1966–1972 Bo Eric Ingelmark* 1972–1982 Georg Lundgren* 1982–1986 Kjell Härnqvist* 1986–1992 Jan S. Nilsson* 1992–1997 Jan Ling* 1997–2003 Bo Samuelsson* 2003–2006 Gunnar Svedberg* 2006–2017 Pam Fredman* 2017–2023 Eva Wiberg* 1st of July 2023 Malin Broberg"
],
[
"See also",
"* Chalmers University of Technology* GOArt* Gothenburg quadricentennial jubilee* List of universities in Sweden* Royal Society of Sciences and Letters in Gothenburg* The International Science Festival in Gothenburg* Sahlgrenska University Hospital"
],
[
"References"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Film genre"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Western films are those \"set in the American West that embody the spirit, the struggle and the demise of the new frontier\".",
"Pictured: Clint Eastwood in the Spaghetti Western film ''A Fistful of Dollars'' (1964).|alt=A '''film genre''' is a stylistic or thematic category for motion pictures based on similarities either in the narrative elements, aesthetic approach, or the emotional response to the film.Drawing heavily from the theories of literary-genre criticism, film genres are usually delineated by \"conventions, iconography, settings, narratives, characters and actors\".",
"One can also classify films by the tone, theme/topic, mood, format, target audience, or budget.",
"These characteristics are most evident in genre films, which are \"commercial feature films that, through repetition and variation, tell familiar stories with familiar characters and familiar situations\" in a given genre.A film's genre will influence the use of filmmaking styles and techniques, such as the use of flashbacks and low-key lighting in film noir; tight framing in horror films; or fonts that look like rough-hewn logs for the titles of Western films.",
"In addition, genres have associated film scoring conventions, such as lush string orchestras for romantic melodramas or electronic music for science fiction films.",
"Genre also affects how films are broadcast on television, advertised, and organized in video rental stores.Alan Williams distinguishes three main genre categories: narrative, avant-garde, and documentary.With the proliferation of particular genres, '''film subgenres''' can also emerge: the legal drama, for example, is a sub-genre of drama that includes courtroom- and trial-focused films.",
"Subgenres are often a mixture of two separate genres; genres can also merge with seemingly unrelated ones to form hybrid genres, where popular combinations include the romantic comedy and the action comedy film.",
"Broader examples include the docufiction and docudrama, which merge the basic categories of fiction and non-fiction (documentary).Genres are not fixed; they change and evolve over time, and some genres may largely disappear (for example, the melodrama).",
"Not only does ''genre'' refer to a type of film or its category, a key role is also played by the expectations of an audience about a film, as well as institutional discourses that create generic structures."
],
[
"Overview",
"=== Characteristics ===Characteristics of particular genres are most evident in genre films, which are \"commercial feature films that, through repetition and variation, tell familiar stories with familiar characters and familiar situations\" in a given genre.Drawing heavily from the theories of literary-genre criticism, film genres are usually delineated by conventions, iconography, narratives, formats, characters, and actors, all of which can vary according to the genre.",
"In terms of standard or \"stock\" characters, those in film noir, for example, include the femme fatale and the \"hardboiled\" detective; while those in Westerns, stock characters include the schoolmarm and the gunslinger.",
"Regarding actors, some may acquire a reputation linked to a single genre, such as John Wayne (the Western) or Fred Astaire (the musical).",
"Some genres have been characterized or known to use particular formats, which refers to the way in which films are shot (e.g., 35 mm, 16 mm or 8 mm) or the manner of presentation (e.g., anamorphic widescreen).Genres can also be classified by more inherent characteristics (usually implied in their names), such as settings, theme/topic, mood, target audience, or budget/type of production.",
"* The setting is the environment—including both time and geographic location—in which the story and action take place (e.g., present day or historical period; Earth or outer-space; urban or rural, etc.).",
"Genres that are particularly concerned with this element include the historical drama, war film, Western, and space-opera, the names of which all denote particular settings.",
"* The theme or topic refers to the issues or concepts that the film revolves around; for example, the science fiction film, sports film, and crime film.",
"* The mood is the emotional tone of the film, as implied in the names of the comedy film, horror film, or 'tearjerker'.",
"* Genres informed by particular target audience(s) include children's film, teen film, woman's film, and \"chick flick\".",
"* Genres characterized by the type of production include the blockbuster, independent film, and low-budget film, such as the B movie (commercial) or amateur film (noncommercial).Screenwriters, in particular, often organize their stories by genre, focusing their attention on three specific aspects: atmosphere, character, and story.",
"A film's atmosphere includes costumes, props, locations, and the visceral experiences created for the audience.",
"Aspects of character include archetypes, stock characters, and the goals and motivations of the central characters.",
"Some story considerations for screenwriters, as they relate to genre, include theme, tent-pole scenes, and how the rhythm of characters' perspective shift from scene to scene."
],
[
"Examples of genres and subgenres",
"+Genres and subgenresGenreDescriptionSubgenre(s)ExamplesAction filmAssociated with particular types of spectacle (e.g., explosions, chases, combat)* Disaster film* Heroic bloodshed: defined by stylized action sequences and themes such as duty, brotherhood, honour, redemption.",
"* Martial arts film: focusing on the excitement and values of martial arts* Spy film: centered on the excitement and entertainment of espionage rather than political or psychological aspects.",
"* Superhero film* War film* ''Commando'' (1985)* ''Die Hard'' (1988)* ''Face/Off'' (1997)* ''The Last Samurai'' (2003)Adventure filmImplies a narrative that is defined by a journey (often including some form of pursuit) and is usually located within a fantasy or exoticized setting.",
"Typically, though not always, such stories include the quest narrative.",
"The predominant emphasis on violence and fighting in action films is the typical difference between the two genres.",
"* Pirate film* Swashbuckler film*Samurai film* ''Swiss Family Robinson'' (1960)* ''Romancing the Stone'' (1984)* ''Stardust'' (2007)* ''Jungle Cruise'' (2021)Animated filmA film ''medium'' in which the film's images are primarily created by computer or hand and the characters are voiced by actors.",
"Animation can incorporate any genre and subgenre.",
"* CGI animation* Cutout animation* Live-action animated film* Stop motion film* Claymation* Traditional animation* ''Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs'' (1937)* ''Toy Story'' (1995)* ''Spirited Away'' (2001)* ''Wallace & Gromit: The Curse of the Were-Rabbit'' (2005)Comedy filmDefined by events that are primarily intended to make the audience laugh* Action comedy film* Buddy comedy* Dark/black comedy film* Mockumentary* Parody film (including spoof film)* Romantic comedy* Screwball comedy* Slapstick film* ''Safety Last!''",
"(1923)* ''Some Like It Hot'' (1959)* ''Monty Python's Life of Brian'' (1986)* ''Superbad'' (2007)DramaFocused on emotions and defined by conflict, often looking to reality rather than sensationalism.",
"* Docudrama* Legal drama* Medical drama* Melodrama* Political drama* Psychological drama* Teen drama* ''The Grapes of Wrath'' (1940)* ''Citizen Kane'' (1941)* ''The Shawshank Redemption'' (1994)* ''Changeling'' (2008)Fantasy filmFilms defined by situations that transcend natural laws and/or by settings inside a fictional universe, with narratives that are often inspired by or involve human myths.",
"* Contemporary fantasy* Dark fantasy* High/epic fantasy* Urban fantasy* ''The Wizard of Oz'' (1939)* ''Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory'' (1971)* ''Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone'' (2001)* ''The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring'' (2001)Historical filmFilms that either provide more-or-less accurate representations of historical accounts or depict fictional narratives placed inside an accurate depiction of a historical setting.",
"* Alternate history* Biopic* Historical epic* Historical event* Historical fiction* Period piece* ''Cleopatra'' (1963)* ''Schindler's List'' (1993)* ''Gladiator'' (2000)* ''The Butler'' (2013)Horror filmFilms that seek to elicit fear or disgust in the audience for entertainment purposes.",
"* Found footage* Ghost films* Monster movie** Vampire films** Werewolf films* Slasher film* Splatter film* Zombie film* Supernatural horror* ''Frankenstein'' (1931)* ''Night of the Living Dead'' (1968)* ''The Exorcist'' (1973)* ''Shaun of the Dead'' (2004)Musical filmA genre in which songs performed by the characters are interwoven into the narrative, sometimes accompanied by dancing.",
"The songs usually advance the plot or develop the film's characters or may serve merely as breaks in the storyline, often as elaborate \"production numbers\".",
"* Jukebox musical* ''Singin' in the Rain'' (1952)* ''West Side Story'' (1961)* ''The Rocky Horror Picture Show'' (1975)* ''Moulin Rouge!''",
"(2001)Noir filmA genre of stylish crime dramas particularly popular during the 1940s and '50s.",
"They were often reflective of the American society and culture at the time.",
"* Neo-noir* Horror-noir* Tech-noir* ''Rebecca'' (1940)* ''Laura'' (1944)* ''Chinatown'' (1974)* ''Who Framed Roger Rabbit'' (1988)Romance filmCharacterized by an emphasis on passion, emotion, and the affectionate romantic involvement of the main characters, with romantic love or the search for it typically being the primary focus.",
"* Historical romance* Paranormal romance* Romantic comedy* Romantic fantasy* Romantic thriller* ''Gone with the Wind'' (1939)* ''Casablanca'' (1942)* ''When Harry Met Sally...'' (1989)* ''Ghost'' (1990)Science fiction filmFilms are defined by a combination of imaginative speculation and a scientific or technological premise, making use of the changes and trajectory of technology and science.",
"* Dystopian film* Post-apocalyptic film* Military science fiction* Steampunk film* Tech noir* Utopian film* Space opera* ''2001: A Space Odyssey'' (1968)* ''Star Wars'' (1977)* ''Back to the Future'' (1985)* ''Gravity'' (2013)Thriller filmFilms that evoke excitement and suspense in the audience.",
"The suspense element found in most films' plots is particularly exploited by the filmmaker in this genre.",
"Tension is created by delaying what the audience sees as inevitable, and is built through situations that are menacing or where escape seems impossible.",
"* Psychological thriller* Mystery film* Techno-thriller* Political thriller* ''M'' (1931)* ''Deliverance'' (1972)* ''Fight Club'' (1999)* ''Runaway Jury'' (2003)WesternA genre in which films are set in the American West during the 19th century.",
"* Epic Western* Revisionist Western* Spaghetti Western* ''Stagecoach'' (1939)* ''The Good, the Bad and the Ugly'' (1966)* ''True Grit'' (1969)* ''Tombstone'' (1993)"
],
[
"History",
"From the earliest days of cinema in the 19th century the term \"genre\" (already in use in English with reference to works of art or literary production from at least 1770) was used to organize films according to type.By the 1950s André Bazin was discussing the concept of \"genre\" by using the Western film as an example; during this era, there was a debate over auteur theory versus genre.",
"In the late 1960s the concept of genre became a significant part of film theory.Film genres draw on genres from other forms; Western novels existed before the Western film, and musical theatre pre-dated film musicals.",
"The perceived genre of a film can change over time; for example, in the 21st century ''The Great Train Robbery'' (1903) classes as a key early Western film, but when released, marketing promoted it \"for its relation to the then-popular genres of the chase film, the railroad film and the crime film\".A key reason that the early Hollywood industrial system from the 1920s to the 1950s favoured genre films is that in \"Hollywood's industrial mode of production, genre movies are dependable products\" to market to audiences – they were easy to produce and it was easy for audiences to understand a genre film.",
"In the 1920s to 1950s, genre films had clear conventions and iconography, such as the heavy coats worn by gangsters in films like ''Little Caesar'' (1931).The conventions in genre films enable filmmakers to generate them in an industrial, assembly-line fashion, an approach which can be seen in the James Bond spy-films, which all use a formula of \"lots of action, fancy gadgets, beautiful woman and colourful villains\", even though the actors, directors and screenwriters change."
],
[
"Pure and hybrid genres",
"Films are rarely purely from one genre, which is in keeping with the cinema's diverse and derivative origins, it being a blend of \"vaudeville, music-hall, theatre, photography\" and novels.",
"American film historian Janet Staiger states that the genre of a film can be defined in four ways.",
"The \"idealist method\" judges films by predetermined standards.",
"The \"empirical method\" identifies the genre of a film by comparing it to a list of films already deemed to fall within a certain genre.",
"The ''a priori'' method uses common generic elements which are identified in advance.",
"The \"social conventions\" method of identifying the genre of a film is based on the accepted cultural consensus within society.",
"Martin Loop contends that Hollywood films are not pure genres because most Hollywood movies blend the love-oriented plot of the romance genre with other genres.",
"Jim Colins claims that since the 1980s, Hollywood films have been influenced by the trend towards \"ironic hybridization\", in which directors combine elements from different genres, as with the Western/science fiction mix in ''Back to the Future Part III''.Many films cross into multiple genres.",
"Susan Hayward states that spy films often cross genre boundaries with thriller films.",
"Some genre films take genre elements from one genre and place them into the conventions of a second genre, such as with ''The Band Wagon'' (1953), which adds film noir and detective film elements into \"The Girl Hunt\" ballet.",
"In the 1970s New Hollywood era, there was so much parodying of genres that it can be hard to assign genres to some films from this era, such as Mel Brooks' comedy-Western ''Blazing Saddles'' (1974) or the private eye parody ''The Long Goodbye'' (1973).",
"Other films from this era bend genres so much that it is challenging to put them in a genre category, such as Roman Polanski's ''Chinatown'' (1974) and William Friedkin's ''The French Connection'' (1971).Film theorist Robert Stam challenged whether genres really exist, or whether they are merely made up by critics.",
"Stam has questioned whether \"genres are really 'out there' in the world or are they really the construction of analysts?\".",
"As well, he has asked whether there is a \"... finite taxonomy of genres or are they in principle infinite?\"",
"and whether genres are \"...timeless essences ephemeral, time-bound entities?",
"Are genres culture-bound or trans-cultural?\".",
"Stam has also asked whether genre analysis should aim at being descriptive or prescriptive.",
"While some genres are based on story content (the war film), other are borrowed from literature (comedy, melodrama) or from other media (the musical).",
"Some are performer-based (Fred Astaire and Ginger Rogers films) or budget-based (blockbusters, low-budget film), while others are based on artistic status (the art film), racial identity (race films), location (the Western), or sexual orientation (\"New Queer Cinema\")."
],
[
"Audience expectations",
"Many genres have built-in audiences and corresponding publications that support them, such as magazines and websites.",
"For example, horror films have a well-established fanbase that reads horror magazines such as ''Fangoria''.",
"Films that are difficult to categorize into a genre are often less successful.",
"As such, film genres are also useful in the areas of marketing, film criticism and the analysis of consumption.",
"Hollywood story consultant John Truby states that \"...you have to know how to transcend the forms genres so you can give the audience a sense of originality and surprise\".Some screenwriters use genre as a means of determining what kind of plot or content to put into a screenplay.",
"They may study films of specific genres to find examples.",
"This is a way that some screenwriters are able to copy elements of successful movies and pass them off in a new screenplay.",
"It is likely that such screenplays fall short in originality.",
"As Truby says, \"Writers know enough to write a genre script but they haven't twisted the story beats of that genre in such a way that it gives an original face to it\".Cinema technologies are associated with genres.",
"Huge widescreens helped Western films to create an expansive setting of the open plains and desert.",
"Science fiction and fantasy films are associated with special effects, notably computer generated imagery (e.g., the Harry Potter films).In 2017, screenwriter Eric R. Williams published a system for screenwriters to conceptualize narrative film genres based on audience expectations.",
"The system was based upon the structure biologists use to analyze living beings.",
"Williams wrote a companion book detailing his taxonomy, which claims to be able to identify all feature length narrative films with seven categorizations: film type, super genre, macro-genre, micro-genre, voice, and pathway."
],
[
"Categorization",
"War film or anti-war movie: Lewis Milestone's ''All Quiet on the Western Front'', 1930Because genres are easier to recognize than to define, academics agree they cannot be identified in a rigid way.",
"Furthermore, different countries and cultures define genres in different ways.",
"A typical example are war movies.",
"In United States, they are mostly related to ones with large U.S. involvement such as World wars and Vietnam, whereas in other countries, movies related to wars in other historical periods are considered ''war movies''.Film genres may appear to be readily categorizable from the setting of the film.",
"Nevertheless, films with the same settings can be very different, due to the use of different themes or moods.",
"For example, while both ''The Battle of Midway'' and ''All Quiet on the Western Front'' are set in a wartime context and might be classified as belonging to the war film genre, the first examines the themes of honor, sacrifice, and valour, and the second is an anti-war film which emphasizes the pain and horror of war.",
"While there is an argument that film noir movies could be deemed to be set in an urban setting, in cheap hotels and underworld bars, many classic noirs take place mainly in small towns, suburbia, rural areas, or on the open road.The editors of filmsite.org argue that animation, pornographic film, documentary film, silent film and so on are non-genre-based film categories.Linda Williams argues that horror, melodrama, and pornography all fall into the category of \"body genres\" since they are each designed to elicit physical reactions on the part of viewers.",
"Horror is designed to elicit spine-chilling, white-knuckled, eye-bulging terror; melodramas are designed to make viewers cry after seeing the misfortunes of the onscreen characters; and pornography is designed to elicit sexual arousal.",
"This approach can be extended: comedies make people laugh, tear-jerkers make people cry, feel-good films lift people's spirits and inspiration films provide hope for viewers.Eric R. Williams (no relation to Linda Williams) argues that all narrative feature-length films can be categorized as one of eleven \"super genres\" (action, crime, fantasy, horror, romance, science fiction, slice of life, sports, thriller, war and Western).",
"Williams contends that labels such as comedy or drama are more broad than the category of super genre, and therefore fall into a category he calls \"film type\".",
"Similarly, Williams explains that labels such as animation and musical are more specific to storytelling technique and therefore fall into his category of \"voice\".",
"For example, according to Williams, a film like ''Blazing Saddles'' could be categorized as a comedy (type) Western (super-genre) musical (voice), while ''Anomalisa'' is a drama (type) Slice of Life (super-genre) animation (voice).",
"Williams has created a seven-tiered categorization for narrative feature films called the Screenwriters Taxonomy.A genre movie is a film that follows some or all of the conventions of a particular genre, whether or not it was intentional when the movie was produced."
],
[
"Film in the context of history",
"In order to understand the creation and context of each film genre, we must look at its popularity in the context of its place in history.",
"For example, the 1970s Blaxploitation films have been called an attempt to \"undermine the rise of Afro-American's Black consciousness movement\" of that era.",
"In William Park's analysis of film noir, he states that we must view and interpret film for its message with the context of history within our minds; he states that this is how film can truly be understood by its audience.",
"Film genres such as film noir and Western film reflect values of the time period.",
"While film noir combines German expressionist filming strategies with post World War II ideals; Western films focused on the ideal of the early 20th century.",
"Films such as the musical were created as a form of entertainment during the Great Depression allowing its viewers an escape during tough times.",
"So when watching and analyzing film genres we must remember to remember its true intentions aside from its entertainment value.Over time, a genre can change through stages: the classic genre era; the parody of the classics; the period where filmmakers deny that their films are part of a certain genre; and finally a critique of the entire genre.",
"This pattern can be seen with the Western film.",
"In the earliest, classic Westerns, there was a clear hero who protected society from lawless villains who lived in the wilderness and came into civilization to commit crimes.",
"However, in revisionist Westerns of the 1970s, the protagonist becomes an antihero who lives in the wilderness to get away from a civilization that is depicted as corrupt, with the villains now integrated into society.",
"Another example of a genre changing over time is the popularity of the neo-noir films in the early 2000s (''Mulholland Drive'' (2001), ''The Man Who Wasn't There'' (2001) and ''Far from Heaven'' (2002); are these film noir parodies, a repetition of noir genre tropes, or a re-examination of the noir genre?This is also important to remember when looking at films in the future.",
"As viewers watch a film they are conscious of societal influence with the film itself.",
"In order to understand its true intentions, we must identify its intended audience and what narrative of our current society, as well as it comments to the past in relation with today's society.",
"This enables viewers to understand the evolution of film genres as time and history morphs or views and ideals of the entertainment industry."
],
[
"See also",
"* Film* Genre fiction* Genres* Glossary of motion picture terms* List of genres* Literary genre* Music genre* Video game genre"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* Altman, Rick (1999) ''Film/Genre'' London: British Film Institute * Friedman, Lester et al.",
"''An Introduction to Film Genres''.",
"New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2014 609p.",
"* Gehring, Wes D (1988) ''Handbook of American Film Genres'' New York: Greenwood Press * Grant, Barry Keith.",
"''Film Genre Reader I, II & III''.",
"Austin: University of Texas Press, 1986, 1995, 2003* Kaminsky, Stuart M (1985) ''American Film Genres'' Chicago: Nelson-Hall* López, Daniel.",
"''Films by Genre: 775 categories, styles, trends, and movements defined, with a filmography for each''.",
"Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland & Co., 1993 495p.",
"* Moin, Raphaëlle (2009) ''Cinema Genre'' New York: John Wiley & Sons * Solomon, Stanley J (1976) ''Beyond Formula: American Film Genres'' New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich * Summers, Howard.",
"''The Guide To Movie Lists 2: Genres, Subjects and Themes''.",
"Borehamwood: Howcom Services, 2018 418p."
],
[
"External links",
"* Genres of film at the Internet Movie Database* Genres and Themes, BFI screenonline * Finding Books on Film Genres, Styles and Categories, Yale University Library* \"A Semantic/Syntactic Approach to Film Genre\", by Rick Altman SCRIBD academia.edu (PDF)* \"Review: Film/Genre by Rick Altman\", by Leger Grindon.",
"."
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Great man theory"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Napoleon, a typical great man, said to have created the \"Napoleonic\" era through his military and political genius.The '''great man theory''' is an approach to the study of history popularised in the 19th century according to which history can be largely explained by the impact of ''great men'', or heroes: highly influential and unique individuals who, due to their natural attributes, such as superior intellect, heroic courage, extraordinary leadership abilities, or divine inspiration, have a decisive historical effect.",
"The theory is primarily attributed to the Scottish essayist, historian, and philosopher Thomas Carlyle, who gave a series of lectures on heroism in 1840, later published as ''On Heroes, Hero-Worship, & the Heroic in History'', in which he states:This theory is usually contrasted with \"history from below\", which emphasizes the life of the masses creating overwhelming waves of smaller events which carry leaders along with them.",
"Another contrasting school is historical materialism."
],
[
"Overview",
"Bust of Thomas Carlyle by Thomas WoolnerCarlyle stated that \"The History of the world is but the Biography of great men\", reflecting his belief that heroes shape history through both their personal attributes and divine inspiration.",
"In his book ''Heroes and Hero-Worship'', Carlyle saw history as having turned on the decisions, works, ideas, and characters of \"heroes\", giving detailed analysis of six types: The hero as divinity (such as Odin), prophet (such as Muhammad), poet (such as Shakespeare), priest (such as Martin Luther), man of letters (such as Rousseau), and king (such as Napoleon).",
"Carlyle also argued that the study of great men was \"profitable\" to one's own heroic side; that by examining the lives led by such heroes, one could not help but uncover something about one's own true nature.As Sidney Hook notes, a common misinterpretation of the theory is that \"all factors in history, save great men, were inconsequential\", whereas Carlyle is instead claiming that great men are the decisive factor, owing to their unique genius.",
"Hook then goes on to emphasize this uniqueness to illustrate the point: \"Genius is not the result of compounding talent.",
"How many battalions are the equivalent of a Napoleon?",
"How many minor poets will give us a Shakespeare?",
"How many run of the mine scientists will do the work of an Einstein?",
"\"American scholar Frederick Adams Woods supported the great man theory in his work ''The Influence of Monarchs: Steps in a New Science of History''.",
"Woods investigated 386 rulers in Western Europe from the 12th century until the French Revolution in the late 18th century and their influence on the course of historical events.The Great Man approach to history was most fashionable with professional historians in the 19th century; a popular work of this school is the ''Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition'' (1911) which contains lengthy and detailed biographies about the great men of history, but very few general or social histories.",
"For example, all information on the post-Roman \"Migrations Period\" of European History is compiled under the biography of Attila the Hun.",
"This heroic view of history was also strongly endorsed by some philosophers, such as Léon Bloy, Kierkegaard, Oswald Spengler and Max Weber.Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, proceeding from providentialist theory, argued that \"what is real is reasonable\" and World-Historical individuals are World-Spirit's agents.",
"Hegel wrote: \"Such are great historical men—whose own particular aims involve those large issues which are the will of the World-Spirit.\"",
"Thus, according to Hegel, a great man does not create historical reality himself but only uncovers the inevitable future.In ''Untimely Meditations'', Friedrich Nietzsche writes that \"the goal of humanity lies in its highest specimens\".",
"Although Nietzsche's body of work shows some overlap with Carlyle's line of thought, Nietzsche expressly rejected Carlyle's hero cult in ''Ecce Homo''.",
"=== Assumptions ===This theory rests on two main assumptions, as pointed out by Villanova University:# Every great leader is born already possessing certain traits that will enable them to rise and lead on instinct.# The need for them has to be great for these traits to then arise, allowing them to lead.This theory, and history, claims these great leaders as heroes that were able to rise against the odds to defeat rivals while inspiring followers along the way.",
"Theorists say that these leaders were then born with a specific set of traits and attributes that make them ideal candidates for leadership and roles of authority and power.",
"This theory relies then heavily on born rather than made, nature rather than nurture and cultivates the idea that those in power deserve to lead and shouldn't be questioned because they have the unique traits that make them suited for the position."
],
[
"Responses",
"Herbert Spencer was a contemporary critic of Carlyle's great man theory.=== Herbert Spencer's critique ===One of the most forceful critics of Carlyle's formulation of the great man theory was Herbert Spencer, who believed that attributing historical events to the decisions of individuals was an unscientific position.",
"He believed that the men Carlyle supposed \"great men\" are merely products of their social environment:=== William James' defence ===leftWilliam James, in his 1880 lecture \"Great Men, Great Thoughts, and the Environment\", published in the ''Atlantic Monthly'', forcefully defended Carlyle and refuted Spencer, condemning what James viewed as an \"impudent\", \"vague\", and \"dogmatic\" argument.James' defence of the great man theory can be summarized as follows: The unique physiological nature of the individual is the deciding factor in making the great man, who, in turn, is the deciding factor in changing his environment in a unique way, without which the new environment would not have come to be, wherein the extent and nature of this change is also dependent on the reception of the environment to this new stimulus.",
"To begin his argument, he first sardonically claims that these inherent physiological qualities have as much to do with \"social, political, geographical and anthropological conditions\" as the \"conditions of the crater of Vesuvius has to do with the flickering of this gas by which I write\".",
"He then illustrates his argument by considering the myriad genetic variations that can occur in the earliest stages of sexual reproduction:James argues that genetic anomalies in the brains of these ''great men'' are the decisive factor by introducing an original influence into their environment.",
"They might therefore offer original ideas, discoveries, inventions and perspectives which \"would not, in the mind of another individual, have engendered just that conclusion ...",
"It flashes out of one brain, and no other, because the instability of that brain is such as to tip and upset itself in just that particular direction.\"",
"James describes the manifestations of these unique physiological qualities as follows:James then argues that these spontaneous variations of genius, i.e.",
"the ''great men'', which are causally independent of their social environment, subsequently influence that environment which in turn will either preserve or destroy the newly encountered variations in a form of evolutionary selection.",
"If the great man is preserved then the environment is changed by his influence in \"an entirely original and peculiar way.",
"He acts as a ferment, and changes its constitution, just as the advent of a new zoological species changes the faunal and floral equilibrium of the region in which it appears.\"",
"Each ferment, each great man, exerts a new influence on their environment which is either embraced or rejected and if embraced will in turn shape the crucible for the selection process of future geniuses.If you remove these geniuses \"or alter their idiosyncrasies\", then what \"increasing uniformities will the environment show?",
"We defy Mr. Spencer or any one else to reply.\"",
"For James (Barney), then, there are two distinct factors that cause social evolution:# The individual, who is unique in his \"physiological and infra-social forces, but bearing all the power of initiative and origination in his hands\" and# The social environment of the individual, \"with its power of adopting or rejecting both him and his gifts\".He thus concludes: \"Both factors are essential to change.",
"The community stagnates without the impulse of the individual.",
"The impulse dies away without the sympathy of the community.",
"\"James asserts that Spencer's view, conversely, ignores the influence of that impulse and=== Other responses ===Before the 19th century, Blaise Pascal begins his ''Three Discourses on the Condition of the Great'' (written it seems for a young duke) by telling the story of a castaway on an island whose inhabitants take him for their missing king.",
"He defends in his parable of the shipwrecked king, that the legitimacy of the greatness of ''great men'' is fundamentally custom and chance.",
"A coincidence that gives birth to him in the right place with noble parents and arbitrary custom deciding, for example, on an unequal distribution of wealth in favor of the nobles.Leo Tolstoy's ''War and Peace'' features criticism of great-man theories as a recurring theme in the philosophical digressions.",
"According to Tolstoy, the significance of great individuals is imaginary; as a matter of fact they are only \"history's slaves,\" realizing the decree of Providence.Jacob Burckhardt affirmed the historical existence of great men in politics, even excusing the rarity among them to possess \"greatness of soul\", or magnanimity: \"Contemporaries believe that if people will only mind their own business political morality will improve of itself and history will be purged of the crimes of the 'great men.'",
"These optimists forget that the common people too are greedy and envious and when resisted tend to turn to collective violence.\"",
"Burckhardt predicted that the belittling of great men would lead to a lowering of standards and rise in mediocrity generally.Mark Twain suggests in his essay \"The United States of Lyncherdom\" that \"moral cowardice\" is \"the commanding feature of the make-up of 9,999 men in the 10,000\" and that \"from the beginning of the world no revolt against a public infamy or oppression has ever been begun but by the one daring man in the 10,000, the rest timidly waiting, and slowly and reluctantly joining, under the influence of that man and his fellows from the other ten thousands.",
"\"In 1926, William Fielding Ogburn noted that Great Men history was being challenged by newer interpretations that focused on wider social forces.",
"While not seeking to deny that individuals could have a role or show exceptional qualities, he saw Great Men as inevitable products of productive cultures.",
"He noted for example that if Isaac Newton had not lived, calculus would have still been discovered by Gottfried Leibniz, and suspected that if neither man had lived, it would have been discovered by someone else.",
"Among modern critics of the theory, Sidney Hook is supportive of the idea; he gives credit to those who shape events through their actions, and his book ''The Hero in History'' is devoted to the role of the hero and in history and influence of the outstanding persons.In the introduction to a new edition of ''Heroes and Hero-Worship'', David R. Sorensen notes the modern decline in support for Carlyle's theory in particular but also for \"heroic distinction\" in general.",
"He cites Robert K. Faulkner as an exception, a proponent of Aristotelian magnanimity who in his book ''The Case for Greatness: Honorable Ambition and Its Critics'', criticizes the political bias in discussions on greatness and heroism, stating: \"the new liberalism’s antipathy to superior statesmen and to human excellence is peculiarly zealous, parochial, and antiphilosophic.",
"\"Ian Kershaw wrote in 1998 that \"The figure of Hitler, whose personal attributes – distinguished from his political aura and impact – were scarcely noble, elevating or enriching, posed self-evident problems for such a tradition.\"",
"Some historians like Joachim Fest responded by arguing that Hitler had a \"negative greatness\".",
"By contrast, Kershaw rejects the Great Men theory and argues that it is more important to study wider political and social factors to explain the history of Nazi Germany.",
"Kershaw argues that Hitler was an unremarkable person, but his importance came from how people viewed him, an example of Max Weber's concept of charismatic leadership."
],
[
"See also"
],
[
"Bibliography",
"* * *"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* \"Twilight of the Idols\", by Peter Dizikes, from ''The New York Times'', November 5, 2006.",
"\"Do changes in science mean the traditional great-man science biography is going the way of the dodo?\""
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Great Pyramid of Giza"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''Great Pyramid of Giza''' is the largest Egyptian pyramid and served as the tomb of pharaoh Khufu, who ruled during the Fourth Dynasty of the Old Kingdom.",
"Built in the early 26th century BC, over a period of about 27 years, the pyramid is the oldest of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, and the only wonder that has remained largely intact.",
"It is the most famous monument of the Giza pyramid complex, which is part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site \"Memphis and its Necropolis\".",
"It is situated at the northern end of the line of the three pyramids at Giza.Initially standing at , the Great Pyramid was the world's tallest human-made structure for more than 3,800 years.",
"Over time, most of the smooth white limestone casing was removed, which lowered the pyramid's height to the current ; what is seen today is the underlying core structure.",
"The base was measured to be about square, giving a volume of roughly , which includes an internal hillock.",
"The dimensions of the pyramid were high, a base length of , with a ''seked'' of palms (a slope of 51°50'40\").The Great Pyramid was built by quarrying an estimated 2.3 million large blocks, weighing 6 million tonnes in total.",
"The majority of the stones are not uniform in size or shape, and are only roughly dressed.",
"The outside layers were bound together by mortar.",
"Primarily local limestone from the Giza Plateau was used for its construction.",
"Other blocks were imported by boat on the Nile: white limestone from Tura for the casing, and blocks of granite from Aswan, weighing up to 80 tonnes, for the \"King's Chamber\" structure.There are three known chambers inside of the Great Pyramid.",
"The lowest was cut into the bedrock, upon which the pyramid was built, but remained unfinished.",
"The so-called Queen's Chamber and King's Chamber, which contain a granite sarcophagus, are above ground, within the pyramid structure.",
"Hemiunu, Khufu's vizier, is believed by some to be the architect of the Great Pyramid.",
"Many varying scientific and alternative hypotheses attempt to explain the exact construction techniques.The funerary complex around the pyramid consisted of two mortuary temples connected by a causeway (one close to the pyramid and one near the Nile); tombs for the immediate family and court of Khufu, including three smaller pyramids for Khufu's wives; an even smaller \"satellite pyramid\"; and five buried solar barges.Near the pyramid were found ceramic vessels of Maadi culture from the Fourth Millennium BC, which are presumably remains of previous settlement in the area."
],
[
"Attribution to Khufu",
"Clay seal bearing the name of Khufu from the Great Pyramid on display at the Louvre museumKhufu's cartouche found inscribed on a backing stone of the pyramidHistorically the Great Pyramid had been attributed to Khufu based on the words of authors of classical antiquity, first and foremost Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus.",
"However, during the Middle Ages other people were credited with the construction of the pyramid as well, for example Joseph from the Book of Genesis, Nimrod, or the legendary king Saurid ibn Salhouk.In 1837 four additional Relieving Chambers were found above the King's Chamber after tunneling to them.",
"The chambers, previously inaccessible, were covered in hieroglyphs of red paint.",
"The workers who were building the pyramid had marked the blocks with the names of their gangs, which included the pharaoh's name (e.g.",
": \"The gang, The white crown of Khnum-Khufu is powerful\").",
"The names of Khufu were spelled out on the walls over a dozen times.",
"Another of these graffiti was found by Goyon on an exterior block of the 4th layer of the pyramid.",
"The inscriptions are comparable to those found at other sites of Khufu, such as the alabaster quarry at Hatnub or the harbor at Wadi al-Jarf, and are present in pyramids of other pharaohs as well.Throughout the 20th century the cemeteries next to the pyramid were excavated.",
"Family members and high officials of Khufu were buried in the East Field south of the causeway, and the West Field.",
"Most notably the wives, children and grandchildren of Khufu, Hemiunu, Ankhaf and (the funerary cache of) Hetepheres I, mother of Khufu.",
"As Hassan puts it: \"From the early dynastic times, it was always the custom for the relatives, friends and courtiers to be buried in the vicinity of the king they had served during life.",
"This was quite in accordance with the Egyptian idea of the Hereafter.",
"\"The cemeteries were actively expanded until the 6th dynasty and used less frequently afterwards.",
"The earliest pharaonic name of seal impressions is that of Khufu, the latest of Pepi II.",
"Worker graffiti was written on some of the stones of the tombs as well; for instance, \"Mddw\" (Horus name of Khufu) on the mastaba of Chufunacht, probably a grandson of Khufu.Some inscriptions in the chapels of the mastabas (like the pyramid, their burial chambers were usually bare of inscriptions) mention Khufu or his pyramid.",
"For instance, an inscription of Mersyankh III states that \"Her mother is the daughter of the King of Upper and Lower Egypt Khufu.\"",
"Most often these references are part of a title, for example, Snnw-ka, \"Chief of the Settlement and Overseer of the Pyramid City of Akhet-Khufu\" or Merib, \"Priest of Khufu\".",
"Several tomb owners have a king's name as part of their own name (e.g.",
"Chufudjedef, Chufuseneb, Merichufu).",
"The earliest pharaoh alluded to in that manner at Giza is Snefru (Khufu's father).In 1936 Hassan uncovered a stela of Amenhotep II near the Great Sphinx of Giza, which implies the two larger pyramids were still attributed to Khufu and Khafre in the New Kingdom.",
"It reads: \"He yoked the horses in Memphis, when he was still young, and stopped at the Sanctuary of Hor-em-akhet (the Sphinx).",
"He spent a time there in going round it, looking at the beauty of the Sanctuary of Khufu and Khafra the revered.",
"\"In 1954 two boat pits, one containing the Khufu ship, were discovered buried at the south foot of the pyramid.",
"The cartouche of Djedefre was found on many of the blocks that covered the boat pits.",
"As the successor and eldest son he would have presumably been responsible for the burial of Khufu.",
"The second boat pit was examined in 1987; excavation work started in 2010.Graffiti on the stones included 4 instances of the name \"Khufu\", 11 instances of \"Djedefre\", a year (in reign, season, month and day), measurements of the stone, various signs and marks, and a reference line used in construction, all done in red or black ink.During excavations in 2013 the Diary of Merer was found at Wadi al-Jarf.",
"It documents the transportation of white limestone blocks from Tura to the Great Pyramid, which is mentioned by its original name Akhet Khufu (with a pyramid determinative) dozens of times.",
"It details that the stones were accepted at She Akhet-Khufu (\"the pool of the pyramid Horizon of Khufu\") and Ro-She Khufu (\"the entrance to the pool of Khufu\"), which were under supervision of Ankhhaf, half brother and vizier of Khufu, as well as owner of the largest mastaba of the Giza East Field."
],
[
"Age",
"+Modern estimates of dating the Great Pyramid and Khufu's first regnal yearAuthor (year)Estimated dateGreaves (1646)1266 BCGardiner (1835)2123 BCLepsius (1849)3124 BCBunsen (1860)3209 BCMariette (1867)4235 BCBreasted (1906)2900 BCHassan (1960)2700 BCO'Mara (1997)2700 BCBeckarath (1997)2554 BCArnold (1999)2551 BCSpence (2000)2480 BCShaw (2000)2589 BCHornung (2006)2509 BCRamsey et al.",
"(2010)2613–2577 BCThe Great Pyramid has been determined to be about 4,600 years old by two principal approaches: indirectly, through its attribution to Khufu and his chronological age, based on archaeological and textual evidence; and directly, via radiocarbon dating of organic material found in the pyramid and included in its mortar.=== Historical chronology ===In the past the Great Pyramid was dated by its attribution to Khufu alone, putting the construction of the Great Pyramid within his reign.",
"Hence dating the pyramid was a matter of dating Khufu and the 4th dynasty.",
"The relative sequence and synchronicity of events is the focal point of this method.Absolute calendar dates are derived from an interlocked network of evidence, the backbone of which are the lines of succession known from ancient king lists and other texts.",
"The reign lengths from Khufu to known points in the earlier past are summated, bolstered with genealogical data, astronomical observations, and other sources.",
"As such, the historical chronology of Egypt is primarily a political chronology, thus independent from other types of archaeological evidence like stratigraphies, material culture, or radiocarbon dating.The majority of recent chronological estimates date Khufu and his pyramid roughly between 2700 and 2500 BC.=== Radiocarbon dating ===Specimen of mortar from between core blocks of the Great PyramidMortar was used generously in the Great Pyramid's construction.",
"In the mixing process ashes from fires were added to the mortar, organic material that could be extracted and radiocarbon dated.",
"A total of 46 samples of the mortar were taken in 1984 and 1995, making sure they were clearly inherent to the original structure and could not have been incorporated at a later date.",
"The results were calibrated to 2871–2604 BC.",
"The old wood problem is thought to be mainly responsible for the 100–300 year offset, since the age of the organic material was determined, not when it was last used.",
"A reanalysis of the data gave a completion date for the pyramid between 2620 and 2484 BC, based on the younger samples.In 1872 Waynman Dixon opened the lower pair of \"Air-Shafts\", previously closed at both ends, by chiseling holes into the walls of the Queen's Chamber.",
"One of the objects found within was a cedar plank, which came into possession of James Grant, a friend of Dixon.",
"After inheritance it was donated to the Museum of Aberdeen in 1946; however, it had broken into pieces and was filed incorrectly.",
"Lost in the vast museum collection, it was only rediscovered in 2020, when it was radiocarbon dated to 3341–3094 BC.",
"Being over 500 years older than Khufu's chronological age, Abeer Eladany suggests that the wood originated from the center of a long-lived tree or had been recycled for many years prior to being deposited in the pyramid.=== History of dating Khufu and the Great Pyramid ===Circa 450 BC Herodotus attributed the Great Pyramid to Cheops (Hellenization of Khufu), yet erroneously placed his reign following the Ramesside period.",
"Manetho, around 200 years later, composed an extensive list of Egyptian kings, which he divided into dynasties, assigning Khufu to the 4th.",
"However, after phonetic changes in the Egyptian language and consequently the Greek translation, \"Cheops\" had transformed into \"Souphis\" (and similar versions).Greaves, in 1646, reported the great difficulty of ascertaining a date for the pyramid's construction based on the lacking and conflicting historic sources.",
"Because of the aforementioned differences in spelling, he did not recognize Khufu on Manetho's king list (as transcribed by Africanus and Eusebius), hence he relied on Herodotus' incorrect account.",
"Summating the duration of lines of succession, Greaves concluded the year 1266 BC to be the beginning of Khufu's reign.Two centuries later, some of the gaps and uncertainties in Manetho's chronology had been cleared by discoveries such as the King Lists of Turin, Abydos, and Karnak.",
"The names of Khufu found within the Great Pyramid's Relieving Chambers in 1837 helped to make clear that Cheops and Souphis are, in fact, one and the same.",
"Thus the Great Pyramid was recognized to have been built in the 4th dynasty.",
"The dating among Egyptologists still varied by multiple centuries (around 4000–2000 BC), depending on methodology, preconceived religious notions (such as the biblical deluge) and which source they thought was more credible.Estimates significantly narrowed in the 20th century, most being within 250 years of each other, around the middle of the third millennium BC.",
"The newly developed radiocarbon dating method confirmed that the historic chronology was approximately correct.",
"It is, however, still not a fully appreciated method due to larger margins or error, calibration uncertainties and the problem of inbuilt age (time between growth and final usage) in plant material, including wood.",
"Furthermore, astronomical alignments have been suggested to coincide with the time of construction.Egyptian chronology continues to be refined and data from multiple disciplines have started to be factored in, such as luminescence dating, radiocarbon dating, and dendrochronology.",
"For instance, Ramsey et al.",
"included over 200 radiocarbon samples in their model."
],
[
"Historiographical record",
"===Classical antiquity=======Herodotus====The Greek historian Herodotus was one of the first major authors to discuss the Great Pyramid.The ancient Greek historian Herodotus, writing in the 5th century BC, is one of the first major authors to mention the pyramid.",
"In the second book of his work ''The Histories'', he discusses the history of Egypt and the Great Pyramid.",
"This report was created more than 2000 years after the structure was built, meaning that Herodotus obtained his knowledge mainly from a variety of indirect sources, including officials and priests of low rank, local Egyptians, Greek immigrants, and Herodotus's own interpreters.",
"Accordingly, his explanations present themselves as a mixture of comprehensible descriptions, personal descriptions, erroneous reports, and fantastical legends; as a result, many of the speculative errors and confusions about the monument can be traced back to Herodotus and his work.Herodotus writes that the Great Pyramid was built by Khufu (Hellenized as Cheops) who, he erroneously relays, ruled after the Ramesside Period (the 19th dynasty and the 20th dynasty).",
"Khufu was a tyrannical king, Herodotus claims, which may explain the Greek's view that such buildings can only come about through cruel exploitation of the people.",
"Herodotus states that gangs of 100,000 labourers worked on the building in three-month shifts, taking 20 years to build.",
"In the first ten years a wide causeway was erected, which, according to Herodotus, was almost as impressive as the construction of the pyramids themselves.",
"It measured nearly long and wide, and elevated to a height of , consisting of stone polished and carved with figures.Underground chambers were made on the hill whereon the pyramids stand.",
"These were intended to be burial places for Khufu himself and were encompassed with water by a channel brought in from the Nile.",
"Herodotus later states that at the Pyramid of Khafre (located beside the Great Pyramid) the Nile flows through a built passage to an island in which Khufu is buried.",
"Hawass interprets this to be a reference to the \"Osiris Shaft\", which is located at the causeway of Khafre, south of the Great Pyramid.Herodotus described an inscription on the outside of the pyramid, which, according to his translators, indicated the amount of radishes, garlic and onions that the workers would have eaten while working on the pyramid.",
"This could be a note of restoration work that Khaemweset, son of Rameses II, had carried out.",
"Apparently, Herodotus' companions and interpreters could not read the hieroglyphs or deliberately gave him false information.====Diodorus Siculus====Between 60 and 56 BC, the ancient Greek historian Diodorus Siculus visited Egypt and later dedicated the first book of his ''Bibliotheca historica'' to the land, its history, and its monuments, including the Great Pyramid.",
"Diodorus's work was inspired by historians of the past, but he also distanced himself from Herodotus, who Diodorus claims tells marvelous tales and myths.",
"Diodorus presumably drew his knowledge from the lost work of Hecataeus of Abdera, and like Herodotus, he also places the builder of the pyramid, \"Chemmis\", after Ramses III.",
"According to his report, neither Chemmis (Khufu) nor Cephren (Khafre) were buried in their pyramids, but rather in secret places, for fear that the people ostensibly forced to build the structures would seek out the bodies for revenge.",
"With this assertion, Diodorus strengthened the connection between pyramid building and slavery.According to Diodorus, the cladding of the pyramid was still in excellent condition at the time, whereas the uppermost part of the pyramid was formed by a platform high.",
"About the construction of the pyramid he notes that it was built with the help of ramps since no lifting tools had yet been invented.",
"Nothing was left of the ramps, as they were removed after the pyramids were completed.",
"He estimated the number of workers necessary to erect the Great Pyramid at 360,000 and the construction time at 20 years.",
"Similar to Herodotus, Diodorus also claims that the side of the pyramid is inscribed with writing that \"set forth the price of vegetables and purgatives for the workmen there were paid out over sixteen hundred talents.",
"\"====Strabo====The Greek geographer, philosopher, and historian Strabo visited Egypt around 25 BC, shortly after Egypt was annexed by the Romans.",
"In his work ''Geographica'', he argues that the pyramids were the burial place of kings, but he does not mention which king was buried in the structure.",
"Strabo also mentions: \"At a moderate height in one of the sides is a stone, which may be taken out; when that is removed, there is an oblique passage to the tomb.\"",
"This statement has generated much speculation, as it suggests that the pyramid could be entered at this time.====Pliny the Elder====During the Roman Empire, Pliny the Elder argues that \"bridges\" were used to transport stones to the top of the Great Pyramid.The Roman writer Pliny the Elder, writing in the first century AD, argued that the Great Pyramid had been raised, either \"to prevent the lower classes from remaining unoccupied\", or as a measure to prevent the pharaoh's riches from falling into the hands of his rivals or successors.",
"Pliny does not speculate as to the pharaoh in question, explicitly noting that \"accident has consigned to oblivion the names of those who erected such stupendous memorials of their vanity\".In pondering how the stones could be transported to such a vast height he gives two explanations: That either vast mounds of nitre and salt were heaped up against the pyramid, which were then melted away with water redirected from the river.",
"Or, that \"bridges\" were constructed, their bricks afterwards distributed for erecting houses of private individuals, arguing that the level of the river is too low for canals to ever bring water up to the pyramid.",
"Pliny also recounts how \"in the interior of the largest Pyramid there is a well, eighty-six cubits deep, which communicates with the river, it is thought\".",
"Further, he describes a method discovered by Thales of Miletus for ascertaining the pyramid's height by measuring its shadow.===Late antiquity and the Middle Ages===During late antiquity, a misinterpretation of the pyramids as \"Joseph's granary\" began to gain in popularity.",
"The first textual evidence of this connection is found in the travel narratives of the female Christian pilgrim Egeria, who records that on her visit between 381 and 384 AD, \"in the twelve-mile stretch between Memphis and Babylonia = Old Cairo are many pyramids, which Joseph made in order to store corn.\"",
"Ten years later the usage is confirmed in the anonymous travelogue of seven monks that set out from Jerusalem to visit the famous ascetics in Egypt, wherein they report that they \"saw Joseph's granaries, where he stored grain in biblical times\".This late 4th century usage is further confirmed in the geographical treatise ''Cosmographia'', written by Julius Honorius around 376 AD, which explains that the Pyramids were called the \"granaries of Joseph\" ().",
"This reference from Julius is important, as it indicates that the identification was starting to spread out from pilgrim's travelogues.",
"In 530 AD, Stephanos of Byzantium added more to this idea when he wrote in his ''Ethnica'' that the word \"pyramid\" was connected to the Greek word (), meaning wheat.Abbasid Caliph al-Ma'mun (786–833 CE) is said to have tunneled into the side of the Great Pyramid.In the seventh century AD, the Rashidun Caliphate conquered Egypt, ending several centuries of Romano-Byzantine rule.",
"A few centuries later, in 832 AD, the Abbasid caliph al-Ma'mun (786–833) is said to have tunneled into the side of the structure and discovered the ascending passage and its connecting chambers.",
"Around this time a Coptic legend gained popularity that claimed the antediluvian king Surid Ibn Salhouk had built the Pyramid.",
"One legend in particular relates how, three hundred years prior to the Great Flood, Surid had a terrifying dream of the world's end, and so he ordered the construction of the pyramids so that they might house all the knowledge of Egypt and survive into the present.The most notable account of this legend was given by al-Masudi (896–956) in his ''Akbar al-zaman'', alongside imaginative tales about the pyramid, such as the story of a man who fell three hours down the pyramid's well and the tale of an expedition that discovered bizarre finds in the structure's inner chambers.",
"''Al-zaman'' also contains a report of al-Ma'mun's entering the pyramid and discovering a vessel containing a thousand coins, which just so happened to account for the cost of opening the pyramid.",
"(Some speculate that this story is true, but that the coins were planted by Al-Ma'mun to appease his workers, who were likely frustrated that they had found no treasure.",
")In 987 AD, the Arab bibliographer Ibn al-Nadim relates a fantastical tale in his ''al-Fihrist'' about a man who journeyed into the main chamber of a pyramid, which Bayard Dodge argues is the Great Pyramid.",
"According to Ibn al-Nadim, the person in question saw a statue of a man holding a tablet and a woman holding a mirror.",
"Supposedly, between the statues was a \"stone vessel with a gold cover\".",
"Inside the vessel was \"something like pitch\", and when the explorer reached into the vessel \"a gold receptacle happened to be inside\".",
"The receptacle, when taken from the vessel, was filled with \"fresh blood\", which quickly dried up.",
"Ibn al-Nadim's work also claims that the bodies of a man and woman were discovered inside the pyramid in the \"best possible state of preservation\".The author al-Kaisi, in his work the ''Tohfat Alalbab,'' retells the story of al-Ma'mun's entry but with the additional discovery of \"an image of a man in green stone\", which when opened revealed a body dressed in jewel-encrusted gold armor.",
"Al-Kaisi claims to have seen the case from which the body was taken, and asserts that it was located at the king's palace in Cairo.",
"He also writes that he himself entered into the pyramid and discovered myriad preserved bodies.",
"Another attempt to enter the pyramid in search of treasure is recorded during the vizierate of al-Afdal Shahanshah (1094–1121), but it was abandoned after a member of the party was lost in the passages.The Arab polymath Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi (1163–1231) studied the pyramid with great care, and in his ''Account of Egypt'', he praises them as works of engineering genius.",
"In addition to measuring the structure, alongside the other pyramids at Giza, al-Baghdadi also writes that the structures were surely tombs, although he thought the Great Pyramid was used for the burial of Agathodaimon or Hermes.",
"Al-Baghdadi ponders whether the pyramid pre-dated the Great flood as described in Genesis, and even briefly entertained the idea that it was a pre-Adamic construction.",
"A few centuries later, the Islamic historian Al-Maqrizi (1364–1442) compiled lore about the Great Pyramid in his ''Al-Khitat''.",
"In addition to reasserting that Al-Ma'mun breached the structure in 820 AD, Al-Maqrizi's work also discusses the sarcophagus in the coffin chambers, explicitly noting that the pyramid was a grave.By the Late Middle Ages, the Great Pyramid had gained a reputation as a haunted structure.",
"Others feared entering, because it was home to animals like bats."
],
[
"Construction",
"=== Preparation of the site ===A hillock forms the base on which the pyramid stands.",
"It was cut back into steps and only a strip around the perimeter was leveled, which has been measured to be horizontal and flat to within .",
"The bedrock reaches a height of almost above the pyramid base at the location of the Grotto.Along the sides of the base platform a series of holes are cut in the bedrock.",
"Lehner hypothesizes that they held wooden posts used for alignment.",
"Edwards, among others, suggested the usage of water for evening the base, although it is unclear how practical and workable such a system would be.=== Materials ===The Great Pyramid consists of an estimated 2.3 million blocks.",
"Approximately 5.5 million tonnes of limestone, 8,000 tonnes of granite, and 500,000 tonnes of mortar were used in the construction.Most of the blocks were quarried at Giza just south of the pyramid, an area now known as the Central Field.",
"They are a particular type of nummulitic limestone formed of the fossils of thousands of prehistoric shell creatures, whose small disc form can still be seen in some of the pyramid's blocks upon close inspection.",
"Other fossils have been found in the blocks and other structures on the site, including fossilized shark teeth.",
"The white limestone used for the casing was transported by boat across the Nile from the Tura quarries of the Eastern Desert plateau, about south east of the Giza plateau.",
"In 2013, rolls of papyrus called the Diary of Merer were discovered, written by a supervisor of the deliveries of limestone from Tura to Giza in the 27th year of Khufu's reign.The granite stones in the pyramid were transported from Aswan, more than south.",
"The largest, weighing 25 to 80 tonnes, form the ceilings of the \"King's chamber\" and the \"relieving chambers\" above it.",
"Ancient Egyptians cut stone into rough blocks by hammering grooves into natural stone faces, inserting wooden wedges, then soaking these with water.",
"As the water was absorbed, the wedges expanded, breaking off workable chunks.",
"Once the blocks were cut, they were carried by boat on the Nile River to the pyramid.=== Workforce ===The ancient Greeks believed that slave labour was used, but modern discoveries made at nearby workers' camps associated with construction at Giza suggest that it was built by thousands of conscript laborers.Worker graffiti found at Giza suggest haulers were divided into ''zau'' (singular ''za''), groups of 40 men, consisting of four sub-units that each had an \"Overseer of Ten\".As to the question of how over two million blocks could have been cut within Khufu's lifetime, stonemason Franck Burgos conducted an archaeological experiment based on an abandoned quarry of Khufu discovered in 2017.Within it, an almost completed block and the tools used for cutting it had been uncovered: hardened arsenic copper chisels, wooden mallets, ropes and stone tools.",
"In the experiment replicas of these were used to cut a block weighing about 2.5 tonnes (the average block size used for the Great Pyramid).",
"It took four workers 4 days (with each working 6 hours a day) to excavate it.",
"The initially slow progress sped up six times when the stone was wetted with water.",
"Based on the data, Burgos extrapolates that about 3,500 quarry-men could have produced the 250 blocks/day needed to complete the Great Pyramid in 27 years.A construction management study conducted in 1999, in association with Mark Lehner and other Egyptologists, had estimated that the total project required an average workforce of about 13,200 people and a peak workforce of roughly 40,000.=== Surveys and design ===The first precise measurements of the pyramid were made by Egyptologist Flinders Petrie in 1880–1882, published as ''The Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh''.",
"Many of the casing-stones and inner chamber blocks of the Great Pyramid fit together with high precision, with joints, on average, only wide.",
"On the contrary, core blocks were only roughly shaped, with rubble inserted between larger gaps.",
"Mortar was used to bind the outer layers together and fill gaps and joints.The block height and weight tends to get progressively smaller towards the top.",
"Petrie measured the lowest layer to be high, whereas the layers towards the summit barely exceed .The accuracy of the pyramid's perimeter is such that the four sides of the base have an average error of only in length and the finished base was squared to a mean corner error of only 12 seconds of arc.The completed design dimensions are measured to have originally been high by long at each of the four sides of its base.",
"Ancient Egyptians used seked – how much run for one cubit of rise – to describe slopes.",
"For the Great Pyramid a seked of palms was chosen, a ratio of 14 up to 11 in.Some Egyptologists suggest this slope was chosen because the ratio of perimeter to height (1760/280 cubits) equals 2π to an accuracy of better than 0.05 percent (corresponding to the well-known approximation of π as 22/7).",
"Verner wrote, \"We can conclude that although the ancient Egyptians could not precisely define the value of π, in practice they used it\".",
"Petrie concluded: \"but these relations of areas and of circular ratio are so systematic that we should grant that they were in the builder's design\".",
"Others have argued that the ancient Egyptians had no concept of pi and would not have thought to encode it in their monuments and that the observed pyramid slope may be based on the seked choice alone.==== Alignment to the cardinal directions ====The sides of the Great Pyramid's base are closely aligned to the four geographic (not magnetic) cardinal directions, deviating on average 3 minutes and 38 seconds of arc, or about a tenth of a degree.",
"Several methods have been proposed for how the ancient Egyptians achieved this level of accuracy:* The solar gnomon method: The shadow of a vertical rod is tracked throughout a day.",
"The shadow line is intersected by a circle drawn around the base of the rod.",
"Connecting the intersecting points produces an east–west line.",
"An experiment using this method resulted in lines being, on average, 2 minutes, 9 seconds off due east–west.",
"Employing a pinhole produced much more accurate results (19 arc seconds off), whereas using an angled block as a shadow definer was less accurate (3′ 47″ off).",
"* The pole star method: The polar star is tracked using a movable sight and fixed plumb line.",
"Halfway between the maximum eastern and western elongations is true north.",
"Thuban, the polar star during the Old Kingdom, was about two degrees removed from the celestial pole at the time.",
"* The simultaneous transit method: The stars Mizar and Kochab appear on a vertical line on the horizon, close to true north around 2500 BC.",
"They slowly and simultaneously shift east over time, which is used to explain the relative misalignment of the pyramids.===Construction theories===Many alternative, often contradictory, theories have been proposed regarding the pyramid's construction techniques.",
"One mystery of the pyramid's construction is its planning.",
"John Romer suggests that they used the same method that had been used for earlier and later constructions, laying out parts of the plan on the ground at a 1-to-1 scale.",
"He writes that \"such a working diagram would also serve to generate the architecture of the pyramid with precision unmatched by any other means\".The basalt blocks of the pyramid temple show \"clear evidence\" of having been cut with some kind of saw with an estimated cutting blade of in length.",
"Romer suggests that this \"super saw\" may have had copper teeth and weighed up to .",
"He theorizes that such a saw could have been attached to a wooden trestle support and possibly used in conjunction with vegetable oil, cutting sand, emery or pounded quartz to cut the blocks, which would have required the labour of at least a dozen men to operate it."
],
[
"Exterior",
"===Casing===Remaining casing stones on the north side of the Great PyramidA casing stone in the British MuseumAt completion, the Great Pyramid was cased entirely in white limestone.",
"Precisely worked blocks were placed in horizontal layers and carefully fitted together with mortar, their outward faces cut at a slope and smoothed to a high degree.",
"Together they created four uniform surfaces, angled at 51°50'40\" (a seked of palms).",
"Unfinished casing blocks of the pyramids of Menkaure and Henutsen at Giza suggest that the front faces were smoothed only after the stones were laid, with chiseled seams marking correct positioning and where the superfluous rock would have to be trimmed off.The height of the horizontal layers is not uniform but varies considerably.",
"The highest of the 203 remaining courses are towards the bottom, the first layer being the tallest at .",
"Towards the top, layers tend to be only slightly over in height.",
"An irregular pattern is noticeable when looking at the sizes in sequence, where layer height declines steadily only to rise sharply again.So-called \"backing stones\" supported the casing, which were (unlike core blocks), precisely dressed as well and bound to the casing with mortar.",
"Now, these stones give the structure its visible appearance, following the partial dismantling of the pyramid in the Middle Ages.",
"Amidst earthquakes in northern Egypt, workers (perhaps the descendants of those who served al-Ma'mun) stripped away many of the outer casing stones, which were said to have been carted away by Bahri Sultan An-Nasir Nasir-ad-Din al-Hasan in 1356 for use in nearby Cairo.Many more casing stones were removed from the site by Muhammad Ali Pasha in the early 19th century to build the upper portion of his Alabaster Mosque in Cairo.",
"Later explorers reported massive piles of rubble at the base of the pyramids left over from the continuing collapse of the casing stones, which were subsequently cleared away during continuing excavations of the site.",
"Today a few of the casing stones from the lowest course can be seen ''in situ'' on each side, with the best preserved on the north below the entrances, excavated by Vyse in 1837.The mortar was chemically analyzed and contains organic inclusions (mostly charcoal), samples of which were radiocarbon dated to 2871–2604 BC.",
"It has been theorized that the mortar enabled the masons to set the stones exactly by providing a level bed.Although it has been suggested that some or all of the casing stones were made from a type of concrete that was cast in place, rather than quarried and moved, archaeological evidence and petrographic analysis indicate this was not the case.Petrie noted in 1880 that the sides of the pyramid, as we see them today, are \"very distinctly hollowed\" and that \"each side has a sort of groove specially down the middle of the face\", which he reasoned was a result of increased casing thickness in these areas.",
"A laser scanning survey in 2005 confirmed the existence of the anomalies, which can be, to some degree, attributed to damaged and removed stones.",
"Under certain lighting conditions and with image enhancement the faces can appear to be split, leading to speculation that the pyramid had been intentionally constructed eight-sided.=== Pyramidion and missing tip ===The pyramid was once topped by a capstone known as a pyramidion.",
"The material from which it was made is subject to much speculation; limestone, granite or basalt are commonly proposed, while in popular culture it is often solid gold, gilded or electrum.",
"All known 4th dynasty ''pyramidia'' (of the Red Pyramid, Satellite Pyramid of Khufu (G1-d) and Queen's Pyramid of Menkaure (G3-a)) are of white limestone and were not gilded.",
"Only from the 5th dynasty onward is there evidence of gilded capstones; for instance, a scene on the causeway of Sahure speaks of the \"white gold pyramidion of the pyramid Sahure's Soul Shines\".The Great Pyramid's pyramidion was lost in antiquity, as Pliny the Elder and later authors report a platform on its summit.",
"Now, the pyramid is about shorter than it was when intact, with about 1,000 tonnes of material missing from the top.In 1874 a mast was installed on the top by the Scottish astronomer Sir David Gill who, whilst returning from work involving observing a rare Venus transit, was invited to survey Egypt and began by surveying the Great Pyramid.",
"His measurements of the pyramid were accurate to within 1 mm, and the survey mast is still in place to this day."
],
[
"Interior",
"Elevation diagram of the interior structures of the Great Pyramid viewed from the east.",
"The inner and outer lines indicate the pyramid's present and original profiles.The internal structure consists of three main chambers (the King's, Queen's and Subterranean Chambers), the Grand Gallery and various corridors and shafts.",
"None of the interior walls were decorated or inscribed, as was the norm for tombs of the 4th dynasty, apart from the marks and names of work-gangs left on blocks of the relieving chambers.There are two entrances into the pyramid: the original and a forced passage, which meet at a junction.",
"From there, one passage descends into the Subterranean Chamber, while the other ascends to the Grand Gallery.",
"From the beginning of the gallery three paths can be taken:* a vertical shaft that leads down, past a grotto, to meet the descending passage* a horizontal corridor leading to the Queen's Chamber* and the path up the gallery itself to the King's Chamber that contains the sarcophagus.Both the King's and Queen's Chamber have a pair of small \"air-shafts\".",
"Above the King's Chamber are a series of five Relieving Chambers.=== Entrances ======= Original entrance ====The original entrance is located on the north side, east of the centerline of the pyramid.",
"Before the removal of the casing in the Middle Ages, the pyramid was entered through a hole in the 19th layer of masonry, approximately above the pyramid's base level.",
"The height of that layer – – corresponds to the size of the entrance tunnel that is commonly called the Descending Passage.",
"According to Strabo (64–24 BC) a movable stone could be raised to enter this sloping corridor; however, it is not known if it was a later addition or original.The original entrance (top-left), Robbers' Tunnel (middle-right)A row of double chevrons diverts weight away from the entrance.",
"Several of these chevron blocks are now missing, as indicated by the slanted faces on which they once rested.Numerous, mostly modern, graffiti is cut into the stones around the entrance.",
"Most notable is a large, square text of hieroglyphs carved in honor of Frederick William IV, by Karl Richard Lepsius's Prussian expedition to Egypt in 1842.===== North Face Corridor =====In 2016 the ScanPyramids team detected a cavity behind the entrance chevrons using muography, which was confirmed in 2019 to be a corridor at least long, and running horizontal or sloping upwards (thus not parallel to the Descending Passage).In February 2023 the North Face Corridor was explored with an endoscopic camera, revealing a horizontal tunnel with a length of and a transverse section of about .",
"Its ceiling is formed by large chevrons, like those visible above the original entrance and also similar to Relieving Chambers.====Robbers' Tunnel====Today tourists enter the Great Pyramid via the Robbers' Tunnel, which was long ago cut straight through the masonry of the pyramid.",
"The entrance was forced into the 6th and 7th layer of the casing, about above the base.",
"After running more or less straight and horizontal for it turns sharply left to encounter the blocking stones in the Ascending Passage.",
"It is possible to enter the Descending Passage from this point but access is usually forbidden.The origin of this Robbers' Tunnel is the subject of much scholarly discussion.",
"According to tradition the opening was made around 820 AD by Caliph al-Ma'mun's workmen with a battering ram.",
"The digging dislodged the stone in the ceiling of the Descending Passage that hid the entrance to the Ascending Passage, and the noise of that stone falling, then sliding down the Descending Passage alerted them to the need to turn left.",
"Unable to remove these stones, the workmen tunneled upwards beside them through the softer limestone of the Pyramid until they reached the Ascending Passage.Due to a number of historical and archaeological discrepancies, many scholars (with Antoine de Sacy perhaps being the first) contend that this story is apocryphal.",
"They argue that it is much more likely that the tunnel had been carved shortly after the pyramid was initially sealed.",
"This tunnel, the scholars continue, was then resealed (likely during the Ramesside Restoration), and it was this plug that al-Ma'mun's ninth-century expedition cleared away.",
"This theory is furthered by the report of patriarch Dionysius I Telmaharoyo, who claimed that before al-Ma'mun's expedition, there already existed a breach in the pyramid's north face that extended into the structure before hitting a dead end.",
"This suggests that some sort of robber's tunnel predated al-Ma'mun, and that the caliph simply enlarged it and cleared it of debris.=== Descending Passage ===From the original entrance, a passage descends through the masonry of the pyramid and then into the bedrock beneath it, ultimately leading to the Subterranean Chamber.It has a slanted height of 4 Egyptian feet (1.20 m; 3.9 ft) and a width of .",
"Its angle of 26°26'46\" corresponds to a ratio of 1 to 2 (rise over run).After , the lower end of the Ascending Passage is reached; a square hole in the ceiling, which is blocked by granite stones and might have originally been concealed.",
"To circumvent these hard stones, a short tunnel was excavated that meets the end of the Robbers' Tunnel.",
"This was expanded over time and fitted with stairs.The passage continues to descend for another , now through bedrock instead of the pyramid superstructure.",
"Lazy guides used to block off this part with rubble to avoid having to lead people down and back up the long shaft, until around 1902 when Covington installed a padlocked iron grill-door to stop this practice.",
"Near the end of this section, on the west wall, is the connection to the vertical shaft that leads up to the Grand Gallery.A horizontal shaft connects the end of the Descending Passage to the Subterranean Chamber, It has a length of , width of and height of .",
"A recess is located towards the end of the western wall, slightly larger than the tunnel, the ceiling of which is irregular and undressed.=== Subterranean Chamber ===The Subterranean Chamber, or \"Pit\", is the lowest of the three main chambers and the only one dug into the bedrock beneath the pyramid.Located about below base level, it measures roughly north-south by east-west, with an approximate height of .The western half of the room, apart from the ceiling, is unfinished, with trenches left behind by the quarry-men running east to west.",
"A niche was cut into the northern half of the west wall.",
"The only access, through the Descending Passage, lies on the eastern end of the north wall.Although seemingly known in antiquity, according to Herodotus and later authors, its existence had been forgotten in the Middle Ages until rediscovery in 1817, when Giovanni Caviglia cleared the rubble blocking the Descending Passage.Opposing the entrance, a blind corridor runs straight south for and continues with a slight bend another , measuring about squared.",
"A Greek or Roman character was found on its ceiling with the light of a candle, suggesting that the chamber had indeed been accessible during Classical antiquity.In the middle of the eastern half is a large hole called a Pit Shaft or Perring's Shaft.",
"The uppermost part may have ancient origins, about squared in width and in depth, diagonally aligned with the chamber.",
"Caviglia and Salt enlarged it to the depth of about .",
"In 1837 Vyse directed the shaft to be sunk to a depth of , in hopes of discovering the chamber encompassed by water that Herodotus alluded to.",
"It is slightly narrower in width at about .",
"No chamber was discovered after Perring and his workers had spent one and a half years penetrating the bedrock to the then water level of the Nile, some further down.The rubble produced during this operation was deposited throughout the chamber.",
"Petrie, visiting in 1880, found the shaft to be partially filled with rainwater that had rushed down the Descending Passage.",
"In 1909, when the Edgar brothers' surveying activities were encumbered by the material, they moved the sand and smaller stones back into the shaft, leaving the upper part clear.",
"The deep, modern shaft is sometimes mistaken to be part of the original design.Ludwig Borchardt suggested that the Subterranean Chamber was originally planned to be the burial place for pharaoh Khufu, but that it was abandoned during construction in favour of a chamber higher up in the pyramid.File:27_edgar.jpg|Rubble from the Pit Shaft excavation still filling the subterranean chamber in 1909File:30_edgar.jpg|Pit Shaft in the floor, and blind corridor entranceFile:28_edgar.jpg|Niche in the west wallFile:31_edgar.jpg|Descending Passage exiting in the north wall=== Ascending Passage ===The upper two granite plugs in the Ascending Passage, seen from the end of the Robbers' TunnelThe Ascending Passage connects the Descending Passage to the Grand Gallery.",
"It is long and of the same width and height as the shaft from which it originates, although its angle is slightly lower at 26°6'.The lower end of the shaft is plugged by three granite stones, which were slid down from the Grand Gallery to seal the tunnel.",
"They are , and long respectively.",
"The uppermost is heavily damaged, hence it is shorter.",
"The end of the Robbers' Tunnel concludes slightly below the stones, so a short tunnel was dug around them to gain access to the Descending Passage, since the surrounding limestone is considerably softer and easier to work.Most of the joints between the blocks of the walls run perpendicular to the floor, with two exceptions.",
"Firstly, those in the lower third of the corridor are vertical.",
"Secondly, the three girdle stones that are inserted near the middle (about 10 cubits apart) presumably stabilize the tunnel.=== Well Shaft and Grotto ===Grotto (left) accessed through the broken wall of the Well Shaft (right)The Well Shaft (also known as the Service Shaft or Vertical Shaft) links the lower end of the Grand Gallery to the bottom of the Descending Passage, about further down.It takes a winding and indirect course.",
"The upper half goes through the nucleus masonry of the pyramid.",
"It runs vertical at first for , then slightly angles southwards for about the same distance, until it hits bedrock approximately above the pyramid's base level.",
"Another vertical section descends further, which is partially lined with masonry that has been broken through to a cavity known as the Grotto.",
"The lower half of the Well Shaft goes through the bedrock at an angle of about 45° for before a steeper section, long, leads to its lowest point.",
"The final section of connects it to the Descending Passage, running almost horizontally.",
"The builders evidently had trouble aligning the lower exit.The purpose of the shaft is commonly explained as a ventilation shaft for the Subterranean Chamber and as an escape shaft for the workers who slid the blocking stones of the Ascending Passage into place.The Grotto is a natural limestone cave that was likely filled with sand and gravel before construction, before being hollowed out by looters.",
"A granite block rests in it that likely originated from the portcullis that once sealed the King's Chamber.===Queen's Chamber===upright=1.2The Horizontal Passage links the Grand Gallery to the Queen's Chamber.",
"Five pairs of holes at the start suggest the tunnel was once concealed with slabs that laid flush with the gallery floor.",
"The passage is wide and high for most of its length, but near the chamber there is a step in the floor, after which the passage increases to high.",
"Half of the west-wall consists of two layers that have atypically continuous vertical joints.",
"Dormion suggests the entrances to magazines laid here and have been filled in.The Queen's Chamber is exactly halfway between the north and south faces of the pyramid.",
"It measures north-south, east-west, and has a pointed roof that apexes at tall.",
"At the eastern end of the chamber is a niche high.",
"The original depth of the niche was , but it has since been deepened by treasure hunters.Shafts were discovered in the north and south walls of the Queen's Chamber in 1872 by British engineer Waynman Dixon, who believed shafts similar to those in the King's Chamber must also exist.",
"The shafts were not connected to the outer faces of the pyramid or the Queen's Chamber; their purpose is unknown.",
"In one shaft Dixon discovered a ball of diorite, a bronze hook of unknown purpose and a piece of cedar wood.",
"The first two objects are now in the British Museum.",
"The latter was lost until recently when it was found at the University of Aberdeen.",
"It has since been radiocarbon dated to 3341–3094 BC.",
"The northern shaft's angle of ascent fluctuates and at one point turns 45 degrees to avoid the Great Gallery.",
"The southern shaft is perpendicular to the pyramid's slope.The shafts in the Queen's Chamber were explored in 1993 by the German engineer Rudolf Gantenbrink using a crawler robot he designed, ''Upuaut 2''.",
"After a climb of , he discovered that one of the shafts was blocked by a limestone \"door\" with two eroded copper \"handles\".",
"The National Geographic Society created a similar robot, which, in September 2002, drilled a small hole in the southern door only to find another stone slab behind it.",
"The northern passage, which was difficult to navigate because of its twists and turns, was also found to be blocked by a slab.Research continued in 2011 with the Djedi Project, which used a fibre-optic \"micro snake camera\" that could see around corners.",
"With this, they were able to penetrate the first door of the southern shaft through the hole drilled in 2002, and view all the sides of the small chamber behind it.",
"They discovered hieroglyphic characters written in red paint.",
"Egyptian mathematics researcher Luca Miatello stated that the markings read \"121\" – the length of the shaft in cubits.",
"The Djedi team were also able to scrutinize the inside of the two copper \"handles\" embedded in the door, which they now believe to be for decorative purposes.",
"They additionally found the reverse side of the \"door\" to be finished and polished, which suggests that it was not put there just to block the shaft from debris, but rather for a more specific reason.===Grand Gallery===Grand Gallery (with modern walkway up the middle)The Grand Gallery continues the slope of the Ascending Passage towards the King's Chamber, extending from the 23rd to the 48th course (of stones), a rise of .",
"It has been praised as a \"truly spectacular example of stonemasonry\".",
"It is high and long.",
"The base is wide, but after two courses – at a height of – the blocks of stone in the walls are corbelled inwards by on each side.There are seven of these steps, so, at the top, the Grand Gallery is only wide.",
"It is roofed by slabs of stone laid at a slightly steeper angle than the floor so that each stone fits into a slot cut into the top of the gallery, like the teeth of a ratchet.",
"The purpose was to have each block supported by the wall of the Gallery, rather than resting on the block beneath it, in order to prevent cumulative pressure.At the upper end of the Gallery, on the eastern wall, is a hole near the roof that opens into a short tunnel by which access can be gained to the lowest of the Relieving Chambers.The floor of the Grand Gallery has a shelf or step on either side, wide, leaving a lower ramp wide between them.",
"There are 56 slots on the shelves, with 28 on each side.",
"On each wall, 25 niches have been cut above the slots.",
"The purpose of these slots is not known, but the central gutter in the floor of the Gallery, which is the same width as the Ascending Passage, has led to speculation that the blocking stones were stored in the Grand Gallery and the slots held wooden beams to restrain them from sliding down the passage.",
"Jean-Pierre Houdin theorized that they held a timber frame that was used in combination with a trolley to pull the heavy granite blocks up the pyramid.At the top of the gallery, there is a step onto a small horizontal platform where a tunnel leads through the Antechamber, once blocked by portcullis stones, into the King's Chamber.===The Big Void===East-West cut view of the Great Pyramid and front view of the North face Chevron area.",
"a Subterranean chamber, b queen's chamber, c grand gallery, d king's chamber, e descending corridor, f ascending corridor, g al-Ma’mun corridor, h north face Chevron area, i ScanPyramids Big Void with horizontal hypothesis (red hatching) and inclined hypothesis (green hatching) as published in November 2017.In 2017, scientists from the ScanPyramids project discovered a large cavity above the Grand Gallery using muon radiography, which they called the \"ScanPyramids Big Void\".",
"A research team, under the supervision of Professor Morishima Kunihiro at Nagoya University, used special nuclear emulsion detectors.",
"Its length is at least and its cross-section is similar to that of the Grand Gallery.",
"Its existence was confirmed by independent detection with three different technologies: nuclear emulsion films, scintillator hodoscopes, and gas detectors.",
"The purpose of the cavity is unknown and it is not accessible.",
"Zahi Hawass speculates it may have been a gap used in the construction of the Grand Gallery, but the Japanese research team state that the void is completely different from previously identified construction spaces.To verify and pinpoint the void, a team from Kyushu University, Tohoku University, the University of Tokyo and the Chiba Institute of Technology planned to rescan the structure with a newly developed muon detector in 2020.Their work was delayed by the COVID-19 pandemic.=== Antechamber ===upright=1.8The last line of defense against intrusion was a small chamber designed to house portcullis blocking stones, called the Antechamber.",
"It is cased almost entirely in granite and is situated between the upper end of the Grand Gallery and the King's Chamber.",
"Three slots for portcullis stones line the east and west wall of the chamber.",
"Each of them is topped with a semi-circular groove for a log, around which ropes could be spanned.The granite portcullis stones were approximately thick and were lowered into position by the aforementioned ropes, which were tied through a series of four holes at the top of the blocks.",
"A corresponding set of four vertical grooves are on the south wall of the chamber, recesses that make space for the ropes.The Antechamber has a design flaw: the space above them can be accessed, thus all but the last block can be circumvented.",
"This was exploited by looters who punched a hole through the ceiling of the tunnel behind, gaining access to the King's Chamber.",
"Later on, all three portcullis stones were broken and removed.",
"Fragments of these blocks can be found in various locations in the pyramid (the Pit Shaft, the Original Entrance, the Grotto and the recess before the Subterranean Chamber).===King's Chamber===Axonometric view of the King's ChamberThe King's Chamber is the upmost of the three main chambers of the pyramid.",
"It is faced entirely with granite and measures east-west by north-south.",
"Its flat ceiling is about 11 cubits and 5 digits () above the floor, formed by nine slabs of stone weighing in total about 400 tons.",
"All the roof beams show cracks due to the chamber having settled .The walls consist of five courses of blocks that are uninscribed, as was the norm for burial chambers of the 4th dynasty.",
"The stones are precisely fitted together.",
"The facing surfaces are dressed to varying degrees, with some displaying remains of lifting bosses not entirely cut away.",
"The back sides of the blocks were only roughly hewn to shape, as was usual with Egyptian hard-stone facade blocks, presumably to save work.==== Sarcophagus ====uprightThe only object in the King's Chamber is a sarcophagus made of a single, hollowed-out granite block.",
"When it was rediscovered in the Early Middle Ages, it was found broken open and any contents had already been removed.",
"It is of the form common for early Egyptian sarcophagi, rectangular in shape with grooves to slide the now missing lid into place with three small holes for pegs to fixate it.",
"The coffer was not perfectly smoothed, displaying various tool marks matching those of copper saws and tubular hand-drills.The internal dimensions are roughly by , the external by , with a height of .",
"The walls have a thickness of about .",
"The sarcophagus is too large to fit around the corner between the Ascending and Descending Passages, which indicates that it must have been placed in the chamber before the roof was put in place.==== Air shafts ====In the north and south walls of the King's Chamber are two narrow shafts, commonly known as \"air shafts\".",
"They face each other and are located approximately above the floor, from the eastern wall, with a width of and a height of .",
"Both start out horizontally for the length of the granite blocks they go through before changing to an upwards direction.The southern shaft ascends at an angle of 45° with a slight curve westwards.",
"One ceiling stone was found to be distinctly unfinished, which Gantenbrink called a \"Monday morning block\".",
"The northern shaft changes angle several times, shifting the path to the west, perhaps to avoid the Big Void.",
"The builders apparently had trouble calculating the right angles, resulting in parts of the shaft being narrower.",
"Now, they both commute to the exterior.",
"Whether they originally penetrated the outer casing is unknown.The purpose of these shafts is not clear: They were long believed by Egyptologists to be shafts for ventilation, but this idea has now been widely abandoned in favour of the shafts serving a ritualistic purpose associated with the ascension of the king's spirit to the heavens.The idea that the shafts point towards stars or areas of the northern and southern skies has been largely dismissed as the northern shaft follows a dog-leg course through the masonry and the southern shaft has a bend of approximately , indicating no intention to have them point to any celestial objects.In 1992, as part of the Upuaut project, a ventilation system was installed in both air shafts of the King's Chamber.=== Relieving chambers ===Smyth 1877Above the roof of the King's Chamber are five compartments, named (from lowest upwards) \"Davison's Chamber\", \"Wellington's Chamber\", \"Nelson's Chamber\", \"Lady Arbuthnot's Chamber\", and \"Campbell's Chamber\".They were presumably intended to safeguard the King's Chamber from the possibility of the roof collapsing under the weight of stone above; hence they are referred to as \"Relieving Chambers\".The granite blocks that divide the chambers have flat bottom sides but roughly shaped top sides, giving all five chambers an irregular floor, but a flat ceiling, with the exception of the uppermost chamber, which has a pointed limestone roof.Nathaniel Davison is credited with the discovery of the lowest of these chambers in 1763, although a French merchant named Maynard informed him of its existence.",
"It can be reached through an ancient passage that originates from the top of the south wall of the Grand Gallery.",
"The upper four chambers were discovered in 1837 by Howard Vyse after discovering a crack in the ceiling of the first chamber.",
"This allowed the insertion of a long reed, which, with the employment of gunpowder and boring rods, opened a tunnel upwards through the masonry.",
"As no access shafts existed for the upper four chambers – unlike Davison's Chamber – they were completely inaccessible until this point.Numerous graffiti of red ochre paint were found covering the limestone walls of all four newly discovered chambers.",
"Apart from leveling lines and indication marks for masons, multiple hieroglyphic inscriptions spell out the names of work-gangs.",
"Those names, which were also found in other Egyptian pyramids like that of Menkaure and Sahure, usually included the name of the pharaoh for whom they were working.",
"The blocks must have received the inscriptions before the chambers became inaccessible during construction.",
"Their orientation, often side-ways or upside down, and their sometimes being partially covered by blocks, seems to indicate that the stones were inscribed before being laid.The inscriptions, correctly deciphered only decades after discovery, read as follows:* \"The gang, The Horus Mededuw-is-the-purifier-of-the-two-lands\".",
"Found once in relieving chamber 3.",
"(Mededuw being Khufu's Horus name.",
")* \"The gang, The Horus Mededuw-is-pure\" Found seven times in chamber 4.",
"* \"The gang, Khufu-excites-love\" Found once in chamber 5 (top chamber).",
"* \"The gang, The-white-crown-of Khnumkhuwfuw-is-powerful\" Found once in chambers 2 and 3, ten times in chamber 4 and twice in chamber 5.",
"(Khnum-Khufu being Khufu's full birth name.)"
],
[
"Pyramid complex",
"The Great Pyramid is surrounded by a complex of several buildings, including small pyramids.=== Temples and causeway ===Remains of the basalt floor of the temple at the east foot of the pyramidThe Pyramid Temple, which stood on the east side of the pyramid and measured north to south and east to west, has almost entirely disappeared.",
"Only some of the black basalt paving remains.",
"There are only a few remnants of the causeway that linked the pyramid with the valley and the Valley Temple.",
"The Valley Temple is buried beneath the village of Nazlet el-Samman; basalt paving and limestone walls have been found but the site has not been excavated.=== East cemetery ===The tomb of Queen Hetepheres I, sister-wife of Sneferu and mother of Khufu, is located approximately east of the Great Pyramid.",
"Discovered by accident by the Reisner expedition, the burial was intact, although the carefully sealed coffin proved to be empty.==== Subsidiary pyramids ====On the southern end of the east side are four subsidiary pyramids The three that remain standing to almost full height are popularly known as the Queens' Pyramids (G1-a, G1-b and G1-c).",
"The fourth, smaller satellite pyramid (G1-d), is so ruined that its existence was not suspected until the first course of stones and, later, the remains of the capstone were discovered during excavations in 1991–1993.===Boats===A restored Khufu ship was once displayed at the Giza Solar boat museum and is now relocated to the Grand Egyptian Museum.Three boat-shaped pits are located east of the pyramid.",
"They are large enough in size and shape to have held complete boats, though so shallow that any superstructure, if there ever was one, must have been removed or disassembled.Two additional boat pits, long and rectangular in shape, were found south of the pyramid, still covered with slabs of stone weighing up to 15 tons.The first of these was discovered in May 1954 by the Egyptian archaeologist Kamal el-Mallakh.",
"Inside were 1,224 pieces of wood, the longest in length, the shortest .",
"These were entrusted to a boat builder, Haj Ahmed Yusuf, who worked out how the pieces fit together.",
"The entire process, including conservation and straightening of the warped wood, took fourteen years.",
"The result is a cedar-wood boat long, its timbers held together by ropes, which was originally housed in the Giza Solar boat museum, a special boat-shaped, air-conditioned museum beside the pyramid.",
"The boat is now in the Grand Egyptian Museum.During construction of this museum in the 1980s, the second sealed boat pit was discovered.",
"It was left unopened until 2011 when excavation began on the boat.=== Pyramid town ===A notable construction flanking the Giza pyramid complex is a cyclopean stone wall, the Wall of the Crow.",
"Mark Lehner discovered a worker's town outside of the wall, otherwise known as \"The Lost City\", dated by pottery styles, seal impressions and stratigraphy to have been constructed and occupied sometime during the reigns of Khafre (2520–2494 BC) and Menkaure (2490–2472 BC).",
"In the early 21st century, Lehner and his team made several discoveries, including what appears to have been a thriving port, suggesting the town and associated living quarters, which consisted of barracks called \"galleries\", may not have been for the pyramid workers after all, but rather for the soldiers and sailors who used the port.",
"In light of this new discovery, as to where then the pyramid workers may have lived, Lehner suggested the alternative possibility they may have camped on the ramps he believes were used to construct the pyramids, or possibly at nearby quarries.In the early 1970s, the Australian archaeologist Karl Kromer excavated a mound in the South Field of the plateau.",
"It contained artefacts including mudbrick seals of Khufu, which Kromer identified with an artisans' settlement.",
"Mudbrick buildings just south of Khufu's Valley Temple contained mud sealings of Khufu and have been suggested to be a settlement serving the cult of Khufu after his death.",
"A worker's cemetery used at least between Khufu's reign and the end of the Fifth Dynasty was discovered south of the Wall of the Crow by Hawass in 1990."
],
[
"Looting",
"Authors Bob Brier and Hoyt Hobbs claim that \"all the pyramids were robbed\" by the New Kingdom, when the construction of royal tombs in the Valley of the Kings began.",
"Joyce Tyldesley states that the Great Pyramid itself \"is known to have been opened and emptied by the Middle Kingdom\", before the Arab caliph Al-Ma'mun entered the pyramid around 820 AD.I.",
"E. S. Edwards discusses Strabo's mention that the pyramid \"a little way up one side has a stone that may be taken out, which being raised up there is a sloping passage to the foundations\".",
"Edwards suggested that the pyramid was entered by robbers after the end of the Old Kingdom and sealed and then reopened more than once until Strabo's door was added.",
"He adds: \"If this highly speculative surmise be correct, it is also necessary to assume either that the existence of the door was forgotten or that the entrance was again blocked with facing stones\", in order to explain why al-Ma'mun could not find the entrance.",
"Scholars such as Gaston Maspero and Flinders Petrie have noted that evidence for a similar door has been found at the Bent Pyramid of Dashur.Herodotus visited Egypt in the 5th century BC and recounts a story that he was told concerning vaults under the pyramid built on an island where the body of Khufu lies.",
"Edwards notes that the pyramid had \"almost certainly been opened and its contents plundered long before the time of Herodotus\" and that it might have been closed again during the Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt when other monuments were restored.",
"He suggests that the story told to Herodotus could have been the result of almost two centuries of telling and retelling by pyramid guides."
],
[
"See also",
"* Ancient Egypt in mathematics and architecture* Index of Egypt-related articles* List of Egyptian pyramids* List of largest monoliths, including a section on calculating the weight of megaliths* List of tallest freestanding structures* List of tallest structures built before the 20th century* Pyramidology"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References",
"===Bibliography===* * * * * * ** * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* * * * * * * * * * * * * *"
],
[
"External links",
"** * Building the Khufu Pyramid* *"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"GURPS"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''''Generic Universal RolePlaying System''''', or '''''GURPS''''', is a tabletop role-playing game system designed to allow for play in any game setting.",
"It was created by Steve Jackson Games and first published in 1986 at a time when most such systems were story- or genre-specific.Players control their in-game characters verbally and the success of their actions is determined by the skill of their character, the difficulty of the action, and the rolling of dice.",
"Characters earn points during play which are used to gain greater abilities.",
"Gaming sessions are story-told and run by \"Game Masters\" (often referred to as simply \"GMs\").",
"''GURPS'' won the Origins Award for ''Best Roleplaying Rules of 1988'', and in 2000 it was inducted into the Origins Hall of Fame.",
"Many of its expansions have also won awards."
],
[
"History",
"===Prior RPG history===Prior to ''GURPS'', most roleplaying games (RPGs) of the 1970s and early 1980s were developed especially for certain gaming environments, and they were largely incompatible with one another.",
"For example, TSR published its ''Dungeons & Dragons'' game specifically for a fantasy environment.",
"Another game from the same company, ''Star Frontiers'', was developed for science fiction–based role-playing.",
"TSR produced other games for other environments, such as ''Gamma World'' (post-apocalyptic adventures), ''Top Secret'' (spies and secret agents), ''Gangbusters'' (Roaring Twenties adventures), and ''Boot Hill'' (American Old West).",
"Each of these games was set with its own self-contained rules system, and the rules for playing each game differed greatly from one game to the next.",
"Attempts were made in ''Advanced Dungeons and Dragons'' to allow cross-genre games using ''Gamma World'' and ''Boot Hill'' rules; however, characters could only be used in a new genre by converting their statistics.",
"Although GURPS was preceded by ''Basic Role-Playing'' (Chaosium, 1980) and the Hero System (Hero Games, a system that expanded to multiple genres starting in 1982), ''GURPS'' was the most commercially successful generic role-playing game system to allow players to role-play in any environment they please while still using the same set of core rules.",
"This flexibility of environment is greatly aided by the use of technology levels (or \"tech-levels\") that allow a campaign to be set from the Stone Age (TL-0) to the Digital Age (TL-8) or beyond.===The GURPS concept===Role-playing games of the 1970s and 1980s, such as ''Dungeons & Dragons'', generally used random numbers generated by dice rolls to assign statistics to player characters.",
"In 1978, Steve Jackson designed a new character generation system for the microgames ''Melee'' and ''Wizard'' that used a point-buy system: players are given a fixed number of points with which to buy abilities.",
"(The Hero System first used by the ''Champions'' role-playing game published two years later also used a point-buy system.",
")''GURPS'' emphasis on its generic aspect has proven to be a successful marketing tactic, as many game series have source engines which can be retrofitted to many styles.",
"Its approach to versatility includes using real world measurements wherever possible (\"reality-checking\" is an important part of any ''GURPS'' book).",
"''GURPS'' also benefits from the many dozens of worldbooks describing settings or additional rules in all genres including science fiction, fantasy, and historical.",
"Many game designers began their professional careers as ''GURPS'' writers, including C. J. Carella, Robin Laws, S. John Ross, and Steffan O'Sullivan.===GURPS history===''GURPS'' first edition box setThe immediate mechanical antecedents of ''GURPS'' were Steve Jackson's microgames ''Melee'' and ''Wizard'', both published by Metagaming Concepts, which eventually combined them along with another Jackson game, ''In the Labyrinth'', to form ''The Fantasy Trip'' (''TFT''), an early role-playing game.",
"Several of the core concepts of ''GURPS'' first appeared in ''TFT'', including the inclusion of Strength, Dexterity and Intelligence as the core abilities scores of each character.By April 1984, the core rules for ''GURPS'' (at that point referred to as the \"Great Unnamed Universal Role-Playing System\") was being playtested in preparation for a GURPS question-and-answer seminar at Origins 1984 in Dallas.",
"The combat system for GURPS was published in 1985 as ''Man to Man: Fantasy Combat from GURPS'' to meet the deadline for Origins 1985 and was followed up later that year by the adventure supplement ''Orcslayer''.The ''Basic GURPS'' set was published in 1986 and 1987 and included two booklets, one for developing characters and one for Adventuring.In 1990 ''GURPS'' intersected part of the hacker subculture when the company's Austin, Texas, offices were raided by the Secret Service.",
"The target was the author of ''GURPS Cyberpunk'' in relation to E911 Emergency Response system documents stolen from Bell South.",
"The incident was a direct contributor to the founding of the Electronic Frontier Foundation.",
"A common misconception holds that this raid was part of Operation Sundevil and carried out by the FBI.",
"Operation: Sundevil was in action at the same time, but it was completely separate.",
"See ''Steve Jackson Games, Inc. v. United States Secret Service''.The 1995 supplement ''GURPS Illuminati University'' introduced Agatha Heterodyne, the character who would go on to star in the popular comic series ''Girl Genius'' in 2001.A free PDF version of the ''GURPS'' rules was released in 1998 as ''GURPS Lite''.",
"This limited ruleset was also included with various books such as ''GURPS Discworld'' and ''Transhuman Space''.Steve Jackson Games released ''GURPS Fourth Edition'' at the first day of Gen Con on August 19, 2004.It promised to simplify and streamline most areas of play and character creation.",
"The changes include modification of the attribute point adjustments, an edited and rationalized skill list, clarification of the differences between abilities from experience and from inborn talent, more detailed language rules, and revised technology levels.",
"Designed by Sean Punch, the Fourth Edition is sold as two full-color hardcover books as well as in the PDF format."
],
[
"Mechanics of the game",
"===Character points===A character in ''GURPS'' is built with character points.",
"For a beginning character in an average power game, the 4th edition suggests 100–150 points to modify attribute stats, select advantages and disadvantages, and purchase levels in skills.",
"Normal NPCs are built on 25–50 points.",
"Full-fledged heroes usually have 150–250 points, while superheroes are commonly built with 400–800 points.",
"The highest point value recorded for a canon character in a ''GURPS'' sourcebook is 10,452 for the Harvester (p. 88) in ''GURPS Monsters''.In principle, a Game Master can balance the power of foes to the abilities of the player characters by comparing their relative point values.===Attributes===Characters in ''GURPS'' have four basic attributes:* '''Strength (ST)''': A measure of the character's physical power and bulk, ability to lift, carry, and do damage* '''Dexterity (DX)''': A measure of the character's physical agility, coordination, and manual dexterity* '''Intelligence (IQ)''': A measure of the character's mental capacity, acuity and sense of the world* '''Health (HT)''': A measure of the character's physical stamina, recovery speed, energy and vitality, ability to resist diseaseEach attribute has a number rating assigned to it.",
"Normally they begin at 10, representing typical human ability, but can go as low as 1 for nearly useless, to 20 (or higher) for superhuman power.",
"Anything in the 8 to 12 range is considered to be in the ''normal'' or ''average'' area for humans.",
"Basic attribute scores of 6 or less are considered ''crippling''—they are so far below the human norm that they are only used for severely handicapped characters.",
"Scores of 15 or more are described as ''amazing''—they are immediately apparent and draw constant comment.Players assign these ratings spending character points.",
"The higher the rating the more points it will cost the player, however, assigning a score below the average 10 gives the player points back to assign elsewhere.",
"Since almost all skills are based on Dexterity or Intelligence, those attributes are twice as expensive (or yield twice the points, if purchased below 10).",
"In earlier editions (pre–4th Edition) all attributes followed the same cost-progression, where higher attributes cost more per increase than attributes close to the average of 10.Attribute scores also determine several ''secondary characteristics''.",
"The four major ones are each directly based on a single attribute:*'''Hit Points (HP)''': how much damage and injury can be sustained, based on ''ST'' in 4e.",
"In previous editions it was based on HT.",
"*'''Will (Will)''': mental focus and strength, withstanding stress, based on ''IQ''.",
"*'''Perception (Per)''': general sensory alertness, based on ''IQ''.",
"*'''Fatigue Points (FP)''': a measure of exertion, tiredness, and hunger, based on ''HT'' in 4e.",
"In previous editions it was based on ST.The other secondary characteristics (Damage, Basic Lift, Basic Speed, Dodge, Move) are calculated from one or more attribute values using individual tables or formulae.=== Character advantages and disadvantages ===''GURPS'' has a profusion of advantages and disadvantages which enable players or Game Masters to customize their characters.",
"The myriad options available and the rewards the system provides players for carefully creating their characters are attractive to gamers who enjoy a high degree of flexibility in character design.A player can select numerous Advantages and Disadvantages to differentiate the character; the system supports both mundane traits (such as above-average or below-average Wealth, Status and Reputation) as well as more exotic special abilities and weaknesses.",
"These are categorized as physical, mental or social, and as exotic, supernatural, or mundane.",
"Advantages benefit the character and cost points to purchase.",
"Selecting Disadvantages returns character points and allows players to limit their characters in one way in exchange for being more powerful or gifted in other areas.",
"Disadvantages include such positive attributes as honesty and truthfulness which limit the way a character is played.",
"There are also many Perks and Quirks to choose from which give a character some personality.",
"Perks (minor Advantages) and Quirks (minor Disadvantages) benefit or hinder the character a bit, but they mostly add role-playing flavor.Enhancements and limitations can tailor an advantage or disadvantage to suit creative players.",
"These modify the effects and point cost of advantages and disadvantages.",
"For example, to create a \"dragon's breath\" attack, a player would select the Innate Attack ability (the ability that allows a player to perform an attack most humans could not), and select burning attack 4D (normally 20 points).",
"Then, the player would modify it as follows: cone, 5 yards (+100%); limited use, 3/day (-20%); reduced range, x1/5 (-20%).",
"The final percentage modifier would be +60%, making the final cost 32 points.",
"This addition to the system greatly increases its flexibility while decreasing the number of specific advantages and disadvantages that must be listed.",
"Finally, ''mitigators'' can themselves tailor advantages and disadvantages (see ''GURPS Bio-Tech'' for such an example).===Skills===''GURPS'' has a wide variety of skills intended to enable it to support any conceivable genre (such as Acrobatics and Vehicle Piloting).",
"Each skill is tied to at least one attribute, and the characters' abilities in that skill is a function of their base attributes + or - a certain amount.The availability of skills depends on the particular genre in which the ''GURPS'' game is played.",
"For instance, in a generic medieval fantasy setting, skills for operating a computer or flying a fighter jet would not normally be available.",
"Skills are rated by level, and the more levels purchased with character points, the better the characters are at that particular skill relative to their base attribute.Skills are categorized by difficulty: Easy, Average, Hard, and Very Hard.",
"Easy skills cost few points to purchase levels in, and the cost per skill level increases with each level of difficulty.",
"Game mechanics allow that eventually it may be less expensive to raise the level of the base attribute the skills depend on as opposed to purchasing higher levels of skills.",
"Players can generally purchase a skill for their characters at any level they can afford.",
"The lower a player chooses, the fewer points it costs to buy the skill, while higher levels cost more points.",
"Some skills have default levels, which indicate the level rating a character has when using that skill untrained (i.e.",
"not purchased).",
"For example, a character with a Dexterity of 12, is using the Climbing skill untrained.",
"Climbing has a default of DX-5 or ST-5, which means that using the skill untrained gives him a Climbing skill level of 7 (12-5) if he tied it to the Dexterity stat.",
"If the character had a higher Strength stat, he could have a better chance of success if he tied the Climbing skill there instead.Some skills also have a Tech Level (TL) rating attached to them, to differentiate between Skills that concern similar concepts, but whose tasks are accomplished in different ways when used with differing levels of technology.",
"This helps during time traveling scenarios, or when characters are forced to deal with particularly outdated or advanced equipment.",
"For instance, a modern boat builder's skills will be of less use if he is stuck on a desert island and forced to work with primitive tools and techniques.",
"Thus, the skills he uses are different when in his shop (Shipbuilding/TL8) and when he is on the island (Shipbuilding/TL0).===Success rolls===''GURPS'' uses six-sided dice for all game mechanics using standard dice notation.",
"An \"average roll\" of three six sided dice generates a total of 10.5; this makes an \"average\" skill check (a skill of 10, based on an unmodified attribute) equally likely to succeed or fail.Making statistic and skill checks in ''GURPS'' is the reverse of the mechanics of most other RPGs, where the higher the total of the die roll, the better.",
"''GURPS'' players hope to roll as low as possible under the tested statistic's rating or skill's level.",
"If the roll is less than or equal to that number, the check succeeds.",
"There is no \"target number\" or \"difficulty rating\" set by the Game Master, as would be the case in many other RPG systems.",
"Instead the GM will apply various modifiers to add or subtract to the skill level.",
"In this way, positive modifiers increase the chance for success by adding to the stat or skill level the player must roll under while negative modifiers deduct from it, making things more difficult.For example: a player makes a pick pocketing test for her character.",
"The character has a Pickpocket skill with a level of 11.Under normal circumstances - i.e., under an ''average stressful situation'', according to the manual - the player must roll an 11 or less for the character to succeed.",
"If the player rolls above 11, then the character has failed the attempt at pick pocketing.There are some exceptions for very high or low rolls, deemed criticals.",
"No matter the level of the skill, a die roll of 18 is always a ''critical failure'', and a roll of 3 or 4 is always a critical success (a roll of 17 is a critical failure as well, unless the character relevant skill level is 16 or more).",
"The Game Master may decide in such cases that, in first case (a roll of 18, or 10+ over the modified skill level), the character has failed miserably and caused something disastrous to happen or, in the other case, that he or she succeeds incredibly well and gains some benefit as a result.===Combat===Combat in ''GURPS'' is organized in personal turns: i.e., every character gets a turn each second, and during a character's turn he or she may take an action, such as attack or move.",
"After all characters have taken their action, one second has elapsed.",
"Free actions are simple actions that can be done at any time.",
"Characters in a party have a set initiative that is entirely based upon their Basic Speed characteristic.There are two kinds of attacks: Melee (possibly with hand-to-hand weapons, or unarmed combat) and Ranged (bows, guns, thrown weapons, some Innate Attacks, etc.).",
"Attacks made by a character are checked against their skill with the particular weapon they carry.",
"For instance, if a character is using a pistol, as with any other skill, it is beneficial to have a high level in the Guns skill.",
"Like any other skill check, a player must roll equal to or less than the level of the skill to succeed.",
"Failure means a miss, success scores a hit.",
"Similarly, critical hits mean that the blow might inflict significantly more damage to its target; critical misses may lead to a rather unpleasant and unexpected event (such as dropping the weapon or hitting the wrong target).",
"Attack modifiers are set by the GM when factoring in things like distance, speed and cover that make a successful strike more difficult.After a successful attack, except in the case of a critical hit, the defender usually gets a chance to avoid the blow.",
"This is called an Active Defense, and takes the form of a Dodge (deliberate movement out of the perceived path of the attack), Parry (attempt to deflect or intercept the attack with a limb or weapon), or Block (effort to interpose a shield or similar object between the attack and the defender's body).",
"Unlike many RPG systems, an Active Defense is an unopposed check, meaning that in most cases, the success of an attack has no effect on the difficulty of the defense.",
"Dodge is based on the Basic Speed characteristic, while Parry and Block are each based on individual combat skills, such as Fencing, Karate, or Staff for Parry, and Shield or Cloak for Block.",
"A common criticism is that characters can achieve a relatively high Active Defense value, drawing out fights considerably.",
"The only mechanic within the system to address this is the Feint action, which if successful will place the adversary in an unfavorable position, reducing their active defense against that character only, on the subsequent turn.Skills, advantages, and equipment, can be combined to great effect.",
"For example, a gunslinger from the Old West is facing a foe: * the Combat Reflexes advantage gives a +1 on Fast-Draw attempts and prevents the gunslinger from being stunned into inaction during a surprise attack; * a successful Fast-Draw(Pistol) skill roll grants the results of the Ready maneuver instantly; * the Gunslinger advantage grants the character the benefits of the Aim maneuver instantly; * the Dual-Weapon Attack(Pistol) technique allows the gunslinger to fire both his guns at once without the -4 penalties.",
"* the Ambidextrous advantage or the Off-Hand Weapon Training Technique eliminates the -4 penalty for the weapon in the \"off\" hand.If the gunslinger lacked these advantages, skills, and techniques, then readying, aiming, firing, aiming again, and firing again would take at least 5 seconds.",
"If the gunslinger lacked these traits and tried to shoot two pistols at once:* it would take 1 second to ready the pistols* the right hand pistol would be fired with a -4 penalty* the \"off\" hand pistol would be fired with a -8 penalty* both attacks would lack the accuracy bonus from the aiming maneuver.===Damage and defenses===Damage from muscle-powered weapons, (clubs, swords, bows, etc.)",
"is calculated based on the character's ST rating.",
"The weaker a character is physically, the less damage he or she is capable of inflicting with such a weapon.",
"Purely mechanical weapons (guns, beam sabers, bombs, etc.)",
"have a set damage value.When damage is inflicted upon characters, it is deducted from their Hit Points, which are calculated with the Strength stat (prior to ''GURPS'' 4th Edition, Hit Points were derived from the Health stat).",
"Like most other RPGs, a loss of hit points indicates physical harm being inflicted upon a character, which can potentially lead to death.",
"''GURPS'' calculates shock penalties when someone is hit, representing the impact it causes and the rush of pain that interferes with concentration.",
"Different weapons can cause different 'types' of damage, ranging from crushing (a club or mace), impaling (a spear or arrow), cutting (most swords and axes), piercing (bullets), and so on.One peculiarity about loss of Hit Points is that in GURPS, death is not certain.",
"While a very high amount of total HP loss will cause certain death, there are also several points at which a player must successfully roll HT, with different grades of failure indicating character death or a mortal injury.Depending on the nature of the attack, there will sometimes be additional effects.===Advancement===Character advancement follows the same system as character creation.",
"Characters are awarded character points to improve themselves at regular intervals (usually at the end of a game session or story).GMs are free to distribute experience as they see fit.",
"This contrasts with some traditional RPGs where players receive a predictable amount of experience for defeating foes.",
"The book recommends providing 1-3 points for completing objectives and 1-3 points for good role-playing per game session.Advancement can also come through study, work, or other activities, either during game play or between sessions.",
"In general, 200 hours of study equals one character point which can be applied for the area being studied.",
"Self-study and on the job experience take more time per character point while high tech teaching aids can reduce the time required.Some intensive situations let a character advance quickly, as most waking hours are considered study.",
"For instance, characters travelling through the Amazon may count every waking moment as study of jungle survival, while living in a foreign country could count as eight hours per day of language study or more."
],
[
"Licensed works",
"The computer game publisher Interplay licensed ''GURPS'' as the basis for a post–nuclear war role-playing video game (''Fallout'') in 1995.Late in development, Interplay replaced the ''GURPS'' character-building system with their own SPECIAL System.",
"Brian Fargo, one of the executive producers of ''Fallout'', stated during an interview that Interplay dropped out of the licensing deal, following fundamental disagreements on the game's content.",
"\"Steve Jackson was offended by the nature of the content and where it was going. ...",
"He saw the opening cinematic, and he just wouldn't approve it.\"",
"Steve Jackson said \"I made a lot of concessions because I want to save the project\" and that he felt \"all the original problems could be resolved\".",
"''GURPS For Dummies'' (), a guidebook by Stuart J. Stuple, Bjoern-Erik Hartsfvang, and Adam Griffith, was published in 2006."
],
[
"Reception",
"Marcus L. Rowland reviewed ''GURPS'' in 1986 for ''White Dwarf'' #83, and stated that \"While I can applaud the idea behind the system, I can't really recommend ''GURPS'' at its present stage of development.",
"In the long run, ''GURPS'' and all its supplements may cover more ground than other systems, possibly at less expense, but in the short term there isn't enough support material to run a fully rounded game of any type, apart from gladiatorial combat and medieval adventures.",
"\"''The Games Machine'' reviewed ''GURPS'' and stated that \"If the idea of a generic system appeals, or you want a straightforward set of rules with which to run adventures in a setting of your own making, ''GURPS'' is worth a look.",
"\"In his 1990 book ''The Complete Guide to Role-Playing Games'', game critic Rick Swan called ''GURPS'' \"an ambitious design by Steve Jackson that attempts to cover every imaginable genre, setting and character type in the same game.",
"That it achieves this goal at all is impressive; that it does so with imagination, elegance, and innovation is stunning.\"",
"Swan liked the \"slick mechanics\", and called the game \"a model of organization and presentation.\"",
"Swan concluded by giving this game a top rating of 4 out of 4, saying, \"Though it's amazing that a game so all-encompassing is this smooth, it's not intended for beginners.",
"Experienced players, however, owe it to themselves to investigate this landmark design — it's possible ''GURPS'' may be the only RPG they'll ever need.\"",
"In a 1996 reader poll conducted by the British games magazine ''Arcane'' to determine the fifty most popular role-playing games, ''GURPS'' was ranked 14th.",
"Editor Paul Pettengale commented: \"Based around a points system and six-sided dice, ''GURPS'' succeeds better than most 'generic' games.",
"The rules are flexible and it's well supported – regardless of what you want to do with it, you'll probably find a supplement with some advice and background.",
"The game suffers from being a little too detailed at times, and can get bogged down in numbers.",
"Still, it's an adaptable system with some superb supplements.",
"\"Scott Taylor for ''Black Gate'' in 2013 rated ''GURPS'' as #5 in the top ten role-playing games of all time, saying \"''GURPS'' is a very cool idea, especially considering it was created during a time of very hard adherence to finding a genre to fill and making a game that holds fast within it.",
"The ability of ''GURPS'' to allow players to play in any setting with the same set of core rules captured the minds and wallets of many gaming fans during the late 1980s and is still popular today.\""
],
[
"Reviews",
"*''Adventurer'' (Issue 6 - Jan 1986)* ''Casus Belli'' #70 (July 1992)* ''Casus Belli'' #71 (Sep 1992)*1986 Games 100*''Breakout''"
],
[
"See also",
"* List of ''GURPS'' books* ''GURPS Basic Set''* ''Pyramid'', a monthly online magazine with ''GURPS'' support"
],
[
"References",
"* Review of the French translation"
],
[
"External links",
"*"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Government"
],
[
"Introduction",
"A '''government''' is the system or group of people governing an organized community, generally a state.In the case of its broad associative definition, government normally consists of legislature, executive, and judiciary.",
"Government is a means by which organizational policies are enforced, as well as a mechanism for determining policy.",
"In many countries, the government has a kind of constitution, a statement of its governing principles and philosophy.While all types of organizations have governance, the term ''government'' is often used more specifically to refer to the approximately 200 independent national governments and subsidiary organizations.The main types of modern political systems recognized are democracies, totalitarian regimes, and, sitting between these two, authoritarian regimes with a variety of hybrid regimes.",
"Modern classification system also include monarchies as a standalone entity or as a hybrid system of the main three.",
"Historically prevalent forms of government include monarchy, aristocracy, timocracy, oligarchy, democracy, theocracy, and tyranny.",
"These forms are not always mutually exclusive, and mixed governments are common.",
"The main aspect of any philosophy of government is how political power is obtained, with the two main forms being electoral contest and hereditary succession."
],
[
"Definitions and etymology",
"A government is the system to govern a state or community.",
"The ''Columbia Encyclopedia'' defines government as \"a system of social control under which the right to make laws, and the right to enforce them, is vested in a particular group in society\".",
"While all types of organizations have governance, the word ''government'' is often used more specifically to refer to the approximately 200 independent national governments on Earth, as well as their subsidiary organizations, such as state and provincial governments as well as local governments.The word ''government'' derives from the Greek verb meaning ''to steer'' with a gubernaculum (rudder), the metaphorical sense being attested in the literature of classical antiquity, including Plato's Ship of State.",
"In British English, \"government\" sometimes refers to what's also known as a \"ministry\" or an \"administration\", i.e., the policies and government officials of a particular executive or governing coalition.",
"Finally, ''government'' is also sometimes used in English as a synonym for rule or governance.In other languages, cognates may have a narrower scope, such as the government of Portugal, which is actually more similar to the concept of \"administration\"."
],
[
"History",
"=== Earliest governments ===The moment and place that the phenomenon of human government developed is lost in time; however, history does record the formations of early governments.",
"About 5,000 years ago, the first small city-states appeared.",
"By the third to second millenniums BC, some of these had developed into larger governed areas: Sumer, ancient Egypt, the Indus Valley civilization, and the Yellow River civilization.One reason that explains the emergence of governments includes agriculture.",
"Since the Neolithic Revolution, agriculture was an efficient method to create food surplus.",
"This enabled people to specialize in non-agricultural activities.",
"Some of them included being able to rule over others as an external authority.",
"Others included social experimentation with diverse governance models.",
"Both these activities formed the basis of governments.",
"These governments gradually became more complex as agriculture supported larger and denser populations, creating new interactions and social pressures that the government needed to control.",
"David Christian explainsAnother explanation includes the need to properly manage infrastructure projects such as water infrastructure.",
"Historically, this required centralized administration and complex social organisation, as seen in regions like Mesopotamia.",
"However, there is archaeological evidence that shows similar successes with more egalitarian and decentralized complex societies.=== Modern governments ===Starting at the end of the 17th century, the prevalence of republican forms of government grew.",
"The English Civil War and Glorious Revolution in England, the American Revolution, and the French Revolution contributed to the growth of representative forms of government.",
"The Soviet Union was the first large country to have a Communist government.",
"Since the fall of the Berlin Wall, liberal democracy has become an even more prevalent form of government.In the nineteenth and twentieth century, there was a significant increase in the size and scale of government at the national level.",
"This included the regulation of corporations and the development of the welfare state."
],
[
"Political science",
"=== Classification ===In political science, it has long been a goal to create a typology or taxonomy of polities, as typologies of political systems are not obvious.",
"It is especially important in the political science fields of comparative politics and international relations.",
"Like all categories discerned within forms of government, the boundaries of government classifications are either fluid or ill-defined.Superficially, all governments have an official ''de jure'' or ideal form.",
"The United States is a federal constitutional republic, while the former Soviet Union was a federal socialist republic.",
"However self-identification is not objective, and as Kopstein and Lichbach argue, defining regimes can be tricky, especially ''de facto'', when both its government and its economy deviate in practice.",
"For example, Voltaire argued that \"the Holy Roman Empire is neither Holy, nor Roman, nor an Empire\".",
"In practice, the Soviet Union was a centralized autocratic one-party state under Joseph Stalin.Identifying a form of government is also difficult because many political systems originate as socio-economic movements and are then carried into governments by parties naming themselves after those movements; all with competing political-ideologies.",
"Experience with those movements in power, and the strong ties they may have to particular forms of government, can cause them to be considered as forms of government in themselves.Other complications include general non-consensus or deliberate \"distortion or bias\" of reasonable technical definitions to political ideologies and associated forms of governing, due to the nature of politics in the modern era.",
"For example: The meaning of \"conservatism\" in the United States has little in common with the way the word's definition is used elsewhere.",
"As Ribuffo notes, \"what Americans now call conservatism much of the world calls liberalism or neoliberalism\"; a \"conservative\" in Finland would be labeled a \"socialist\" in the United States.",
"Since the 1950s conservatism in the United States has been chiefly associated with right-wing politics and the Republican Party.",
"However, during the era of segregation many Southern Democrats were conservatives, and they played a key role in the conservative coalition that controlled Congress from 1937 to 1963.===Social-political ambiguity===Opinions vary by individuals concerning the types and properties of governments that exist.",
"\"Shades of gray\" are commonplace in any government and its corresponding classification.",
"Even the most liberal democracies limit rival political activity to one extent or another while the most tyrannical dictatorships must organize a broad base of support thereby creating difficulties for \"pigeonholing\" governments into narrow categories.",
"Examples include the claims of the United States as being a plutocracy rather than a democracy since some American voters believe elections are being manipulated by wealthy Super PACs.",
"Some consider that government is to be reconceptualised where in times of climatic change the needs and desires of the individual are reshaped to generate sufficiency for all."
],
[
"Measurement of governing",
"A quality of a government can be measured by Government effectiveness index, which relates to political efficacy and state capacity."
],
[
"Forms",
"Plato in his book ''The Republic'' (375 BC) divided governments into five basic types (four being existing forms and one being Plato's ideal form, which exists \"only in speech\"):* Aristocracy (rule by law and order, like ideal traditional \"benevolent\" kingdoms that are not tyrannical)* Democracy (rule by pure liberty and equality, like a free citizen)* Oligarchy (rule by wealth and market-based-ethics, like a free-trading capitalist state)* Timocracy (rule by honor and duty, like a \"benevolent\" military; Sparta as an example)* Tyranny (rule by fear, like a despot)These five regimes progressively degenerate starting with aristocracy at the top and tyranny at the bottom.In his ''Politics'', Aristotle elaborates on Plato's five regimes discussing them in relation to the government of one, of the few, and of the many.",
"From this follows the classification of forms of government according to which people have the authority to rule: either one person (an autocracy, such as monarchy), a select group of people (an aristocracy), or the people as a whole (a democracy, such as a republic).Thomas Hobbes stated on their classification:===Modern basic political systems===According to Yale professor Juan José Linz, there a three main types of political systems today: democracies,totalitarian regimes and, sitting between these two, authoritarian regimes with hybrid regimes.",
"Another modern classification system includes monarchies as a standalone entity or as a hybrid system of the main three.",
"Scholars generally refer to a dictatorship as either a form of authoritarianism or totalitarianism.===Autocracy===An autocracy is a system of government in which supreme power is concentrated in the hands of one person, whose decisions are subject to neither external legal restraints nor regularized mechanisms of popular control (except perhaps for the implicit threat of a coup d'état or mass insurrection).",
"Absolute monarchy is a historically prevalent form of autocracy, wherein a monarch governs as a singular sovereign with no limitation on royal prerogative.",
"Most absolute monarchies are hereditary, however some, notably the Holy See, are elected by an electoral college (such as the college of cardinals, or prince-electors).",
"Other forms of autocracy include tyranny, despotism, and dictatorship.===Aristocracy===Aristocracy is a form of government that places power in the hands of a small, elite ruling class, such as a hereditary nobility or privileged caste.",
"This class exercises minority rule, often as a landed timocracy, wealthy plutocracy, or oligarchy.Many monarchies were aristocracies, although in modern constitutional monarchies the monarch may have little effective power.",
"The term ''aristocracy'' could also refer to the non-peasant, non-servant, and non-city classes in the feudal system.===Democracy===Governments recognised as \"electoral democracies\" by the ''Freedom in the World'' surveyDemocracy is a system of government where citizens exercise power by voting and deliberation.",
"In a direct democracy, the citizenry as a whole directly forms a participatory governing body and vote directly on each issue.",
"In indirect democracy, the citizenry governs indirectly through the selection of representatives or delegates from among themselves, typically by election or, less commonly, by sortition.",
"These select citizens then meet to form a governing body, such as a legislature or jury.Some governments combine both direct and indirect democratic governance, wherein the citizenry selects representatives to administer day-to-day governance, while also reserving the right govern directly through popular initiatives, referendums (plebiscites), and the right of recall.",
"In a constitutional democracy the powers of the majority are exercised within the framework of a representative democracy, but the constitution limits majority rule, usually through the provision by all of certain universal rights, such as freedom of speech or freedom of association.==== Republics ====A republic is a form of government in which the country is considered a \"public matter\" (), not the private concern or property of the rulers, and where offices of states are subsequently directly or indirectly elected or appointed rather than inherited.",
"The people, or some significant portion of them, have supreme control over the government and where offices of state are elected or chosen by elected people.A common simplified definition of a republic is a government where the head of state is not a monarch.",
"Montesquieu included both democracies, where all the people have a share in rule, and aristocracies or oligarchies, where only some of the people rule, as republican forms of government.Other terms used to describe different republics include democratic republic, parliamentary republic, semi-presidential republic, presidential republic, federal republic, people's republic, and Islamic republic.==== Federalism ====Federalism is a political concept in which a ''group'' of members are bound together by covenant with a governing representative head.",
"The term \"federalism\" is also used to describe a system of government in which sovereignty is constitutionally divided between a central governing authority and constituent political units, variously called states, provinces or otherwise.",
"Federalism is a system based upon democratic principles and institutions in which the power to govern is shared between national and provincial/state governments, creating what is often called a federation.",
"Proponents are often called federalists."
],
[
"Branches",
"Separation of powers in the US government, demonstrating the ''trias politica'' modelGovernments are typically organised into distinct institutions constituting branches of government each with particular powers, functions, duties, and responsibilities.",
"The distribution of powers between these institutions differs between governments, as do the functions and number of branches.",
"An independent, parallel distribution of powers between branches of government is the separation of powers.",
"A shared, intersecting, or overlapping distribution of powers is the fusion of powers.Governments are often organised into three branches with separate powers: a legislature, an executive, and a judiciary; this is sometimes called the model.",
"However, in parliamentary and semi-presidential systems, branches of government often intersect, having shared membership and overlapping functions.",
"Many governments have fewer or additional branches, such as an independent electoral commission or auditory branch."
],
[
"Party system",
"Presently, most governments are administered by members of an explicitly constituted political party which coordinates the activities of associated government officials and candidates for office.",
"In a multiparty system of government, multiple political parties have the capacity to gain control of government offices, typically by competing in elections, although the effective number of parties may be limited.A majority government is a government by one or more governing parties together holding an absolute majority of seats in the parliament, in contrast to a minority government in which they have only a plurality of seats and often depend on a confidence-and-supply arrangement with other parties.",
"A coalition government is one in which multiple parties cooperate to form a government as part of a coalition agreement.",
"In a single-party government a single party forms a government without the support of a coalition, as is typically the case with majority governments, but even a minority government may consist of just one party unable to find a willing coalition partner at the moment.A state that continuously maintains a single-party government within a (nominally) multiparty system possesses a dominant-party system.",
"In a (nondemocratic) one-party system a single ruling party has the (more-or-less) exclusive right to form the government, and the formation of other parties may be obstructed or illegal.",
"In some cases, a government may have a non-partisan system, as is the case with absolute monarchy or non-partisan democracy."
],
[
"Maps",
"Democracy is the most popular form of government with more than half of the nations in the world being democracies-97 of 167 nations as of 2021.However the world is becoming more authoritarian with a quarter of the world's population under democratically backsliding governments.Democracy Index by the Economist Intelligence Unit, 2017.----'''Full Democracies''''''Flawed Democracies''''''Hybrid Regimes''''''Authoritarian Regimes'''World first-and-second degree administrative levelsA world map distinguishing countries of the world as federations ('''green''') from unitary states ('''blue''').----"
],
[
"See also"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References",
"===Bibliography===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* * * * *"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Gary Coleman"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Gary Wayne Coleman''' (February 8, 1968 – May 28, 2010) was an American actor and comedian.",
"Coleman was the highest-paid child actor on television throughout the late 1970s and 1980s.",
"He was rated first on a list of VH1's \"100 Greatest Kid Stars\".Coleman was best known for playing the role of Arnold Jackson in the sitcom ''Diff'rent Strokes'' (1978–1986), which he reprised in numerous other television series such as ''Hello, Larry'' (1979), ''The Facts of Life'' (1979–1980) and ''The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air'' (1996), among others.",
"For playing the role of Arnold, he received several accolades, which include two Young Artist Awards; in 1980 for Outstanding Contribution to Youth Through Entertainment and in 1982 for Best Young Actor in a Comedy Series; and three People's Choice Awards; a consecutive three wins for Favorite Young TV Performer from 1980 to 1983; as well as nominations for two TV Land Awards.Coleman's stardom resulted in several roles thereafter, including the television film ''The Kid from Left Field'' (1979), his feature film debut ''On the Right Track'' (1981), the comedies ''Jimmy the Kid'' and ''The Kid with the Broken Halo'' (both released in 1982), the cult film ''Dirty Work'' (1998), the satirical-comedy film ''An American Carol'' (2008) and the independent film ''Midgets vs.",
"Mascots'' (2009).",
"He was the star of ''The Gary Coleman Show'' (1982) where he voiced Andy LeBeau, and he additionally provided the voice of Kevin in the animated show ''Waynehead'' (1996–1997).",
"He also starred in the video games ''The Curse of Monkey Island'' (1997) and did some voice acting and motion capture for ''Postal 2'' (2003).Coleman struggled financially in later life; in 1989, he successfully sued his parents and business adviser over misappropriation of his assets, only to declare bankruptcy a decade later.",
"Very few details of Coleman's medical history have been made public, although his battles with issues such as growth deficiency, substance abuse, and depression during his life earned significant media coverage.Coleman died at Utah Valley Regional Medical Center in Provo, Utah on May 28, 2010, aged 42.He had been admitted two days earlier after falling down the stairs at his home in Santaquin and striking his head, resulting in an epidural hematoma."
],
[
"Early life",
"Gary Wayne Coleman was born in Zion, Illinois, on February 8, 1968.He was adopted by W. G. Coleman, a fork-lift operator, and Edmonia Sue, a nurse practitioner.",
"Due to focal segmental glomerulosclerosis, a kidney disease, and the corticosteroids and other medications used to treat it, his growth was limited to , and his face kept a childlike appearance even into adulthood.",
"He underwent two unsuccessful kidney transplants in 1973 and again in 1984, and required dialysis."
],
[
"Career",
"The cast of ''Diff'rent Strokes'' with guest star Nancy Reagan in 1983In 1974, Coleman's career began when he appeared in a commercial for Harris Bank.",
"His line (after the announcer said, \"You should have a Harris banker\") was \"You should have a Hubert doll.\"",
"\"Hubert\" was a stuffed lion representing the Harris bank logo.",
"The same year, he appeared in an episode of ''Medical Center''.",
"In 1977, Coleman appeared in a pilot for a revival of ''The Little Rascals'' as Stymie, which ultimately ended up not getting picked up as a series.",
"His work on the ''Little Rascals'' pilot caught the attention of an executive, and in 1978 Coleman was cast as Arnold Jackson in ''Diff'rent Strokes'', playing one of two black brothers from Harlem adopted by a wealthy white widower in Manhattan.",
"After the premiere, ''Diff'rent Strokes'' became a hit, and ran for 8 seasons, ending in 1986.Coleman received recognition and praise for his work on ''Diff'rent Strokes''; for his role he received five Young Artist Award nominations, of which he won two, and won the People's Choice Awards for Favorite Young TV Performer four years in a row, from 1980 to 1983.At the height of his fame on ''Diff'rent Strokes'', he earned $100,000 per episode, and he became known by his character's catchphrase \"What'chu talkin' 'bout, Willis?",
"\", uttered skeptically in response to statements by his brother Willis, who was portrayed by Todd Bridges.",
"According to Bridges' autobiography ''Killing Willis'', Coleman was forced to work long hours on the set of ''Diff'rent Strokes'' despite his age and debilitating health problems, which contributed to him feeling depressed and withdrawn from the rest of the cast.",
"A Biography Channel documentary estimated that Coleman was left with a quarter of the original amount of money he received from his years on ''Diff'rent Strokes'' after paying his parents, advisers, lawyers, and taxes.",
"In 1989, Coleman sued his adoptive parents and former business advisor for $3.8 million for misappropriating his trust fund and won a $1.28 million judgment in 1993.NAACP Image Award for ''The Kid from Left Field'' in 1980, pictured alongside Danielle Spencer and Kim Fields|200x200pxColeman had appeared on ''The Jeffersons'' as Raymond, George Jefferson's nephew, and on ''Good Times'' in 1978 as Penny's friend Gary.",
"Along with his work on ''Diff'rent Strokes'', Coleman began working in films, first appearing in the baseball comedy television film ''The Kid from Left Field'' in 1979.In that same year, he made a guest appearance on the science-fiction show ''Buck Rogers in the 25th Century'' as a time-displaced whiz kid named Hieronymous Fox; a role he would reprise in a later episode in Season 2 of the series (in 1980).",
"In 1981, Coleman made his feature film debut with the comedy ''On the Right Track'', headlining as Lester, a young shoeshine boy who achieves fame for having an uncanny talent for gambling on horses.",
"The film was received with mixed reviews, with critics stating that the film rode nearly entirely on Coleman's credibility and presence; however, the film was a commercial success, and his performance was praised.",
"He next starred in ''Jimmy the Kid'' (1982).",
"The film was financially successful, but received resoundingly negative reviews, with critic Roger Ebert writing \"... movies like this don't really have room for brilliant performances.",
"They're written by formula, cast by computer and directed by the book, and when a little spontaneity creeps in, it seems out of place.",
"\"Coleman starred in the television film ''The Kid with the Broken Halo''.",
"The film served as the basis for ''The Gary Coleman Show'' in 1982, where Coleman had the lead voice role as Andy LeBeau, an angel in training who comes to earth to help others and gain his wings.",
"Coleman voiced the role of Kevin in the animated show ''Waynehead'', which ran from 1996 to 1997.He also voiced Kenny Falmouth in the video game ''The Curse of Monkey Island'' in 1997, which gained him attention, being one of the first few major mainstream actors to appear in a video game.",
"He had ventured into politics, and in the 2003 California recall election he was a candidate for governor.",
"His campaign was sponsored by the free newsweekly ''East Bay Express'' as a satirical comment on the recall.",
"After Arnold Schwarzenegger declared his candidacy, Coleman announced that he would vote for Schwarzenegger.",
"Coleman placed 8th in a field of 135 candidates, receiving 14,242 votes.In 2003, Coleman portrayed a fictional version of himself in the video game ''Postal 2'' (2003).",
"The second game in the ''Postal'' franchise, it received a cult following following its release, and brought Coleman much attention.",
"In 2005, Coleman appeared in John Cena's music video for his single \"Bad, Bad Man\" (from the album ''You Can't See Me'') and played himself as a villain taking Michael Jackson and Madonna hostage.",
"The video was a spoof of 1980s culture, focusing on ''The A-Team''.",
"Coleman's final television role was a voice role in the animated series ''Robot Chicken''.",
"His final film roles were starring as Charles Higgins in the sports comedy film ''Church Ball'' (2006), appearing as a slave in the satirical comedy film ''An American Carol'' (2008), and appearing as Gary in the comedy film ''Midgets vs.",
"Mascots'' (2009)."
],
[
"Personal life",
"uprightColeman was an avid railroad fan, and he later worked part-time at Denver-area, Tucson-area, and California hobby stores to be around his hobby.",
"Coleman built and maintained miniature railroads in his homes in several states throughout the 1990s.",
"Currently, at least one of Coleman's model railroads is being preserved in Colorado Springs, Colorado.",
"In a 1993 television interview, Coleman said he had twice attempted suicide by overdosing on pills.",
"Coleman lived in Santaquin, a small town about south of Salt Lake City, Utah, from 2005 to the remainder of his life.In early 2007, Coleman met Shannon Price, 22, on the set of the film ''Church Ball'', where she was working as an extra.",
"Price and Coleman married several months later.",
"On May 1 and 2, 2008, they made a well-publicized appearance on the show ''Divorce Court'' to air their differences in an attempt to save their marriage.",
"However, they divorced in August 2008, and Coleman was granted an ''ex parte'' restraining order against Price to prevent her from living in his home when he was hospitalized after their divorce.",
"According to a court petition later filed by Price, she and Coleman continued to live together in a common-law marriage until his death.",
"However, a judge ultimately ruled against Price after hearing testimony that she engaged in love affairs with other men during the time when she claimed to have been with Coleman, and \"physically abused Coleman in public, led him around by the hand like a child and displayed no physical affection toward him in front of anyone.",
"\"===Legal problems===In 1998, Coleman was charged with assault while working as a security guard.",
"Tracy Fields, a Los Angeles bus driver and fan of Coleman's work on ''Diff'rent Strokes'', approached him in a California mall and requested his autograph while he was shopping for a bulletproof vest.",
"When Coleman refused to give her an autograph, an argument ensued, and Fields reportedly mocked Coleman's lackluster acting career.",
"Coleman then punched Fields in the face several times in front of witnesses.",
"He was arrested and later defended himself in court, alleging that Fields had threatened him.",
"He said: \"She wouldn't leave me alone.",
"I was getting scared, and she was getting ugly.\"",
"Coleman pleaded no contest to one count of assault, received a suspended jail sentence and was ordered to pay Fields' $1,665 hospital bill and to take anger management classes.In 2007, Coleman was cited for misdemeanor disorderly conduct in Provo, Utah after a \"heated discussion\" in public with his wife, Shannon Price.",
"In 2009, Coleman and his ex-wife were involved in a domestic dispute, after which Price was arrested on suspicion of domestic violence, and both parties were cited for disorderly conduct.In 2008, Coleman was involved in an altercation at a Payson, Utah bowling alley, which began when Colt Rushton, age 24, photographed Coleman without his permission.",
"The two men argued, according to witnesses.",
"In the parking lot, Coleman allegedly backed his truck into Rushton, striking his knee and pulling him under the vehicle, before hitting another car.",
"Rushton was treated at a local hospital for minor injuries and released.",
"Coleman later pleaded no contest to charges of disorderly conduct and reckless driving and was fined $100.In 2010, he settled a civil suit related to the incident for an undisclosed amount.",
"Months before his death in 2010, Coleman was arrested on an outstanding domestic assault warrant in Santaquin, booked into the Utah County Jail and released the following day.===Financial problems===In August 1999, Coleman filed for bankruptcy protection.",
"He claimed that multiple people were responsible for his insolvency, \"from me, to accountants, to my adoptive parents, to agents, to lawyers, and back to me again.\"",
"He lost $200,000 on an arcade that he had named the Gary Coleman Game Parlor, which was located at Fisherman's Village in Marina del Rey, California.",
"Ongoing medical expenses contributed significantly to Coleman's chronic financial problems and sometimes compelled him to resort to unusual fundraising activities.",
"In 1999, he partnered with UGO Networks for an online auction titled \"Save Me!\".",
"Items included his couch, a \"tiny pimp suit\" with matching gold Nikes and an autographed ice scraper.",
"Items attracted more than $5,000 in bids."
],
[
"Health problems and death",
"In 2009, Coleman underwent heart surgery.",
"Although the details of the procedure were never made public, he is known to have developed postoperative pneumonia.",
"In January 2010, Coleman was hospitalized after a seizure in Los Angeles, and in February, he experienced another seizure on the set of ''The Insider'' television program.",
"On May 26, 2010, Coleman was admitted to Utah Valley Regional Medical Center in Provo, Utah in critical condition after falling down the stairs at his Santaquin home and hitting his head, possibly after another seizure, and experiencing an epidural hematoma.",
"According to a hospital spokesman, Coleman was conscious and lucid the next morning, but his condition subsequently worsened.",
"By mid-afternoon on May 27, he was unconscious and on life support.",
"He died at 12:05 pm MDT (18:05 UTC) on May 28, 2010, at age 42.The weekend after Coleman's death, a scheduled funeral was postponed and later canceled following a dispute regarding the disposition of his estate and remains among Coleman's adoptive parents, former business associate Anna Gray and Price.",
"Coleman's former manager Dion Mial was initially involved but withdrew after Coleman's 1999 will, which had named Mial as executor, was found to have been superseded by a 2005 will replacing Mial with Gray.",
"The earlier will had stipulated that Coleman's wake be \"...conducted by those with no financial ties to me and can look each other in the eyes and say they really cared personally for Gary Coleman\", but the later version directed \"...that there be no funeral service, wake, or other ceremony memorializing my passing.",
"\"=== Aftermath ===Questions were raised as to whether Price, who approved discontinuing Coleman's life support, was legally authorized to do so.",
"The controversy was exacerbated by a photograph published on the front page of the tabloid newspaper ''Globe'' depicting Price posed next to a comatose, intubated Coleman under the headline, \"It Was Murder!\"",
"While Coleman's final will named Gray as executor and awarded his entire estate to her, Coleman and Price married in 2007.Although she had divorced Coleman in 2008, Price claimed in a court petition that she had remained his common-law wife, with the two sharing bank accounts and presenting themselves publicly as husband and wife until Coleman's death.",
"Her assertion, if validated by the court, would have made her his lawful heir.In May 2012, judge James Taylor stated that while Price had indeed lived in Coleman's home after their marriage ended, their relationship at the time of his death failed to meet Utah's standard for a common-law marriage.",
"The hospital later issued a statement confirming that Coleman had completed an advance healthcare directive granting Price permission to make medical decisions on his behalf.",
"An investigation by Santaquin police was closed on October 5, 2010, after the medical examiner ruled Coleman's death accidental and no evidence of wrongdoing could be demonstrated.",
"The disposition of Coleman's ashes remains unknown.",
"Price said that had she been granted disposition, she would have scattered the ashes at the Golden Spike National Historic Site in Utah as a tribute to Coleman's lifelong love of trains."
],
[
"Legacy",
"Coleman promoting ''Postal 2'' at E3 2003Coleman is frequently listed as one of the most influential child actors in the world.",
"He was rated first on a list of VH1's \"100 Greatest Kid Stars\" on television, and was noted by MTV for having an \"Undeniable Impact on Pop Culture.\"",
"Mike Hogan from ''Vanity Fair'' wrote on his career, saying \"He was unquestionably a superstar, overshadowing them with his radiant charisma and boundless energy, but the kidney condition that enabled him, even as a teen, to play the world's most precocious little brother on TV also complicated his life in ways most of us will never understand.\"",
"Actress Lucille Ball stated in a 1980 interview with ''People'' magazine that although she rarely watched sitcoms, \"I love Gary Coleman.",
"He puts me away.",
"He puts everybody away.",
"\"Filk music act Ookla the Mok paid tribute to Coleman on their 2003 album \"''oh okay LA''\" with the song \"A.M.",
"Suicide\".",
"He is parodied in ''Avenue Q'', which won the 2004 Tony Award for Best Musical; a fictionalized version of him works as the superintendent of the apartment complex where the musical takes place.",
"In the song \"It Sucks to Be Me\", he laments his fate.",
"On Broadway, the role was originally performed by Natalie Venetia Belcon.",
"The show's creators, Jeff Marx and Robert Lopez, have said the Coleman character personifies one of ''Avenue Q'' central themes: that as children we are told we are \"special\", but upon entering adulthood, we discover that life is not nearly as easy as we have been led to believe.",
"They added that their original intent was for Coleman himself to play the Gary Coleman role, and he expressed interest in it but did not show up for a meeting scheduled to discuss it.",
"In 2005, Coleman announced his intention to sue the producers of ''Avenue Q'' for their depiction of him, although the lawsuit never materialized.",
"At the 2007 New York Comic Con, Coleman said, \"I wish there was a lawyer on Earth that would sue them for me.",
"\"Following his death in 2010, the casts of the off-Broadway production of ''Avenue Q'' in New York City and the ''Avenue Q'' National Tour in Dallas dedicated their performances to his memory, and the actors playing the part of Coleman paid tribute to him from the stage at the performances' conclusions.",
"The Coleman character remained in the show after modifications were made to relevant dialogue.",
"Randy Kester—Coleman's attorney—told ''Dallas News'' in 2010, \"The world's going to be a little less happy place without Gary.",
"For being a small guy, he sure had a big impact on the world.\"",
"In the 2021 ''Diff'rent Strokes'' special, actor Kevin Hart played Coleman's signature character of Arnold Jackson."
],
[
"Works and awards",
"Throughout his career, Coleman had garnered over sixty acting credits, and over eighty television appearances.",
"For playing the role of Arnold Jackson in the sitcom ''Diff'rent Strokes'' (1978–1986), he received several accolades, which include two Young Artist Awards and three People's Choice Awards; the latter being a consecutive three wins for Favorite Young TV Performer from 1980 to 1983; and nominations for two TV Land Awards.YearAwardCategoryWorkResultRef.1979Young Artist AwardsBest Young Actor in a Television Series''Diff'rent Strokes'' 1980Young Artist AwardsOutstanding Contribution to Youth Through EntertainmentHimself1980 People's Choice Awards Favorite Young TV Performer ''Diff'rent Strokes'' 1981 People's Choice Awards Favorite Young TV Performer ''Diff'rent Strokes'' 1981Young Artist AwardsBest Young Comedian – Motion Picture or Television''Diff'rent Strokes''1982Golden Raspberry AwardsWorst Actor''On The Right Track'' 1982Golden Raspberry AwardsWorst New Actor''On The Right Track'' 1982Young Artist AwardsBest Young Actor in a Comedy Series''Diff'rent Strokes''1982People's Choice AwardsFavorite Young TV Performer''Diff'rent Strokes''1983Young Artist AwardsBest Young Actor in a Comedy Series''Diff'rent Strokes''2003TV Land AwardsQuintessential Non-Traditional Family (shared with cast)''Diff'rent Strokes'' 2004TV Land AwardsQuintessential Non-Traditional Family (shared with cast)''Diff'rent Strokes''"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* * * Gary Coleman: 1968–2010 photo gallery by ''The Washington Post''"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Garth Brooks"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Troyal Garth Brooks''' (born February 7, 1962) is an American country singer and songwriter.",
"His integration of pop and rock elements into the country genre has earned him his immense popularity, particularly in the United States with success on the country music single and album charts, multi-platinum recordings and record-breaking live performances, while also crossing over into the mainstream pop arena.Brooks is the only artist in music history to have released nine albums that were certified Diamond by the Recording Industry Association of America (surpassing The Beatles' former record of six); those albums are ''Garth Brooks'' (diamond), ''No Fences'' (17× platinum), ''Ropin' the Wind'' (14× platinum), ''The Chase'' (diamond), ''In Pieces'' (diamond), ''The Hits'' (diamond), ''Sevens'' (diamond), ''Double Live'' (21× platinum), and ''The Ultimate Hits'' (diamond).",
"Since 1989, Brooks has released 24 records in all, which include 14 studio albums, two live albums, three compilation albums, three Christmas albums, and four box sets, along with 77 singles.",
"He has won several awards in his career, including two Grammy Awards, 17 American Music Awards (including \"Artist of the '90s\") and the RIAA Award for best-selling solo albums artist of the century in the U.S.Troubled by conflicts between career and family, Brooks retired from recording and performing from 2001 until 2005.During this time, he sold millions of albums through an exclusive distribution deal with Walmart and sporadically released new singles.",
"In 2005, Brooks started a partial comeback, giving select performances and releasing two compilation albums.",
"In 2009, he began Garth at Wynn, a periodic weekend concert residency at Las Vegas' Encore Theatre from December 2009 to January 2014.Following the conclusion of the residency, Brooks announced his signing with Sony Music Nashville in July 2014.In September 2014, he began his comeback world tour, with wife and musician Trisha Yearwood, which culminated in 2017.This was followed by his Stadium Tour, which began in 2019, and another Las Vegas concert residency, Garth Brooks/Plus ONE, continuing into 2024.His most recent album, ''Time Traveler'', was released in November 2023.Brooks is one of the world's best-selling music artists, having sold more than 170 million records.",
"''Billboard'' ranked Brooks as the greatest male solo artist on the ''Billboard'' 200 chart of all time.",
", according to the RIAA, he is the best-selling solo albums artist in the United States with 156 million domestic units sold, ahead of Elvis Presley, and is second only to the Beatles in total album sales overall.",
"Brooks was inducted into the Country Music Hall of Fame on October 21, 2012, having been inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame the year before.",
"He was also inducted into the Musicians Hall of Fame and Museum in 2016 with his studio musicians, The G-Men.",
"In 2020, Brooks became the youngest recipient of the Library of Congress Gershwin Prize for Popular Song."
],
[
"Early life and education",
"Troyal Garth Brooks was born on February 7, 1962, in Tulsa, Oklahoma.",
"He was the youngest child of Troyal Raymond Brooks Jr. (1931–2010), a draftsman for an oil company, and Colleen McElroy Carroll (1929–1999), a 1950s-era country singer of Irish ancestry who recorded on the Capitol Records label and appeared on ''Ozark Jubilee''.",
"This was the second marriage for each of his parents, giving Brooks four older half-siblings (Jim, Jerry, Mike, and Betsy).",
"The couple had two children together, Kelly and Garth.",
"At their home in Yukon, Oklahoma, the family hosted weekly talent nights.",
"All of the children were required to participate, either by singing or doing skits.",
"Brooks learned to play both the guitar and banjo.As a child, Brooks often sang in casual family settings, but his primary focus was athletics.",
"In high school, he played football and baseball and ran track and field.",
"He received a track scholarship to Oklahoma State University in Stillwater, where he competed in the javelin.",
"At nights, he worked as a bouncer at a local bar and formed his own band, Santa Fe, learning to play whatever the college audience wanted.",
"Brooks graduated in 1984 with a degree in advertising.",
"His roommate, Ty England, later played guitar in his road band until going solo in 1995."
],
[
"Career",
"===1985–1989: Musical beginnings===In 1985, Brooks began his professional music career, singing and playing guitar in Oklahoma clubs and bars, most notably Wild Willie's Saloon in Stillwater.",
"Through his elder siblings, Brooks was exposed to a wide range of music.",
"Although he listened to some country music, especially that of George Jones, Brooks was most fond of rock music, citing James Taylor, Dan Fogelberg, and Townes Van Zandt as major influences.",
"In 1981, after hearing \"Unwound\", the debut single of George Strait, Brooks decided that he was more interested in playing country music.In 1985, entertainment attorney Rod Phelps drove from Dallas to listen to Brooks.",
"Phelps liked what he heard and offered to produce Brooks' first demo.",
"With Phelps' encouragement, including a list of Phelps' contacts in Nashville and some of his credit cards, Brooks traveled to Nashville to pursue a recording contract; he returned to Oklahoma within 24 hours.",
"Phelps continued to urge Brooks to return to Nashville, which he did.",
"In 1987, Brooks and wife Sandy Mahl moved to Nashville, and Brooks began making contacts in the music industry.===1989–1990: Breakthrough success===Garth Brooks' eponymous first album was released in 1989 and was a chart success.",
"It peaked at No.",
"2 on the ''Billboard'' Top Country Albums chart, and reached No.",
"13 on the ''Billboard'' 200 chart.",
"Most of the album was traditionalist country, influenced in part by George Strait.",
"The first single, \"Much Too Young (To Feel This Damn Old)\", was a country top 10 success.",
"It was followed by Brooks' first number-one single on the Hot Country Songs chart, \"If Tomorrow Never Comes\".",
"\"Not Counting You\" reached No.",
"2, and \"The Dance\" reached No.",
"1; its music video, directed by John Lloyd Miller, gave Brooks his first push towards a broader audience.",
"Brooks has later claimed that out of all the songs he has recorded, \"The Dance\" remains his favorite.",
"In 1989, Brooks embarked on his first major concert tour, as opening act for Kenny Rogers.Brooks' second album, ''No Fences'', was released in 1990 and spent 23 weeks at No.",
"1 on the ''Billboard'' Top Country Albums chart.",
"The album also reached No.",
"3 on the ''Billboard'' 200, and eventually became Brooks' highest-selling album, with domestic shipments of 17 million.",
"It contained what would become Brooks' signature song, the blue collar anthem \"Friends in Low Places\", as well as other popular singles, \"The Thunder Rolls\" and \"Unanswered Prayers\".Each of these songs, as well as \"Two of a Kind, Workin' on a Full House\", reached No.",
"1 on the Hot Country Songs chart.While Brooks' musical style placed him squarely within the boundaries of country music, he was strongly influenced by the 1970s singer-songwriter movement, especially the works of James Taylor, whom he idolized and named his first child after, as well as Dan Fogelberg.",
"Similarly, Brooks was influenced by the 1970s-era rock of Billy Joel and Bruce Springsteen and the operatic rock of Queen with Freddie Mercury.In his live shows, Brooks used a wireless headset microphone to free himself to run about the stage, adding energy and arena rock theatrics to spice up the normally staid country music approach to concerts.",
"The band KISS was also one of Brooks' early musical influences, and his shows often reflect this.",
"Despite all the cited influences, Brooks stated the energetic style of his stage persona is directly inspired by Chris LeDoux.In late 1990, Brooks was inducted into the Grand Ole Opry.===1991–1993: ''Ropin' the Wind'', ''The Chase'', and ''Beyond the Season''===Brooks' third album, ''Ropin' the Wind'', was released in September 1991.It had advance orders of 4 million copies and entered the ''Billboard'' 200 at No.",
"1, a first for a country artist.",
"The album's musical content was a melange of country pop and honky-tonk; singles included \"The River\", \"What She's Doing Now\", and a cover of Billy Joel's \"Shameless\".",
"It would become Brooks' second-best selling album, after ''No Fences''.",
"The success of ''Ropin' the Wind'' further propelled the sales of Brooks' first two albums, enabling Brooks to become the first country artist with three albums listed in the ''Billboard'' 200's top 20 in one week.After spending time in Los Angeles during the 1992 riots, Brooks co-wrote a gospel-country-rock hybrid single, \"We Shall Be Free\", to express his desire for tolerance.",
"The song became the first single off his fourth album ''The Chase''.",
"The single only reached No.",
"12 on the ''Billboard'' Top Country Singles chart, Brooks' first song in three years to fail to make the top 10.Nonetheless, \"We Shall Be Free\" peaked at No.",
"22 on the ''Billboard'' Christian Songs charts through a marketing deal with Rick Hendrix Company, and earned Brooks a 1993 GLAAD Media Award.",
"The next single released from ''The Chase'' was \"Somewhere Other Than the Night\", followed by \"Learning to Live Again\", which peaked at numbers one and two on the Hot Country Songs chart, respectively.",
"The album's final single, \"That Summer\", would go on to be the most successful single from the album, reaching No.",
"1 in July 1993.Brooks released his first Christmas album, ''Beyond the Season'' on August 25, 1992.The album included classics such as \"White Christmas\" and \"Silent Night\" as well as an original tune \"The Old Man's Back in Town.\"",
"\"Beyond the Season\" was the best selling Christmas album in 1992, peaking at No.",
"2 on the Billboard 200 chart.===1993–1994: ''In Pieces'' and first world tour===In 1993, Brooks, who had criticized music stores selling used CDs since it led to a loss in proper royalty payments, persuaded Capitol Records to not ship his 1993 album, ''In Pieces'', to stores which engaged in this practice.",
"This led to several antitrust lawsuits against the record label, ending with Capitol shipping the albums to the stores.Despite the delay in shipping, ''In Pieces'' was another success, peaking at No.",
"1 on both the ''Billboard'' 200 and Top Country Albums charts, and selling a total of nearly 10 million copies.",
"After a delay in its worldwide release, the album also peaked at No.",
"2 on the United Kingdom Albums Chart.",
"That same year, \"The Red Strokes\" became Brooks' first single to make the UK Singles Chart, reaching a high of No.",
"13; it was followed by \"Standing Outside the Fire\", which reached No.",
"23.Previous albums ''No Fences'', ''Ropin' the Wind'' and ''The Chase'' also remained in the top 30 in the UK Albums Chart.Brooks' first world tour began in 1993, reaching the UK after many domestic concerts.",
"Brooks sold-out venues such as Birmingham's National Exhibition Centre and London's Wembley Arena, a feat never accomplished by an American country music artist.",
"He also began the London radio station, Country 1035.Despite the disdain of the British media, Brooks' overall popularity in the country was evident, with a top disc jockey, Nick Barraclough, referring to Brooks as Garth Vader (a play on Darth Vader) for his \"invasion\" of the charts and his success in the country genre.",
"Unlike Alan Jackson, who refused to return to the UK after being treated in a similar negative manner by the press, Brooks would later return in 1996 for more performances.",
"Brooks also took his World Tour to other regions throughout Europe, as well as Brazil, Australia, and New Zealand.In 1994, Brooks paid homage to one of his musical influences, KISS, appearing on the tribute compilation, ''Kiss My Ass: Classic Kiss Regrooved,'' a collection of songs performed by popular artists from various genres.",
"The unlikely collaboration of Brooks and KISS' rendition of \"Hard Luck Woman\" was performed live on ''The Tonight Show with Jay Leno'', and despite its hard-rock appeal, Brooks' version appeared on the ''Billboard'' Hot Country Songs chart.===1995–1998: More albums released and second world tour===In November 1995, Brooks released ''Fresh Horses'', his first album of new material in two years.",
"Within six months of its release, the album had sold over three million copies.",
"Despite its promising start, ''Fresh Horses'' plateaued quickly, topping out at quadruple platinum.The album's lead single, \"She's Every Woman\" peaked at No.",
"1 on the ''Billboard'' Hot Country Songs chart; however, its follow-up single, \"The Fever\" (an Aerosmith cover) only peaked at No.",
"23, becoming Brooks' first country single to not chart on the top 10.However, Brooks had three additional top 10 singles from the album, including \"The Beaches of Cheyenne\", which reached No.",
"1.Following the release of ''Fresh Horses'', Brooks embarked on his second world tour.",
"Its total attendance, approximately 5.5 million, ranks third on the all-time list of concert attendance, and its gross of over $105 million ranks it among the highest-grossing concert tours in the 1990s.In 1997, Brooks released his seventh studio album, ''Sevens''.",
"The album was originally scheduled to be released in August 1997, allowing for promotion during Brooks' Central Park concert; however, plans went awry after a dispute within Capitol Records.",
"The Central Park concert went on as planned, receiving 980,000 fans in attendance and becoming the largest concert in park history.",
"''Sevens'' debuted at No.",
"1 on both the ''Billboard'' 200 and Top Country Albums charts.",
"It later became Brooks' fourth album to reach sales of 10 million copies.",
"The album included the duet \"In Another's Eyes\" with Trisha Yearwood, which reached No.",
"2 on Hot Country Songs chart, and its first single, \"Longneck Bottle\", with Steve Wariner, reached No.",
"1.The album spawned two additional number-one singles, \"Two Pina Coladas\" and \"To Make You Feel My Love\" (a Bob Dylan cover), which also was a top 10 hit on the Hot Adult Contemporary Tracks chart and was released on the soundtrack to the film, ''Hope Floats''.Brooks' first live album, ''Double Live'' was released in 1998.Recorded at various shows over the course of his second world tour, the album contained new material not previously released, such as \"Tearin' It Up (and Burnin' It Down)\" and \"Wild as the Wind,\" featuring Trisha Yearwood.",
"Peaking at No.",
"1 on both the ''Billboard'' 200 and Top Country Albums charts, ''Double Live'' went on to become the best-selling live album of all time, certified 21× Platinum by the RIAA, and is the seventh-most shipped album in United States music history.In 1998, Brooks also released the first installment of ''The Limited Series'', a six-disc box set containing reissues of his first six studio albums.",
"Each of the reissued albums included a bonus track not available on the original release.===1999: \"Chris Gaines\" and holiday album===In 1999, Brooks took on the persona of \"Chris Gaines\", a fictitious rock-and-roll musician and character for an upcoming film titled ''The Lamb''.",
"In October 1999, the film's pre-release soundtrack, ''Garth Brooks in...the Life of Chris Gaines'' (also dubbed Gaines' ''Greatest Hits''), was released to much public criticism.",
"Brooks also appeared as Gaines in a television mockumentary for the VH1 series ''Behind the Music'', and as the musical guest on an episode of ''Saturday Night Live'', which he also hosted as himself.Brooks' promotion of the album and the film did not garner excitement, and the failure of the Gaines project was evident mere weeks after the album was released.",
"The majority of the American public was either bewildered, or completely unreceptive to the idea of Brooks portraying a rock-and-roll musician.",
"Sales of the album were unspectacular, at least compared with most of Brooks' previous albums, and although it made it to No.",
"2 on the ''Billboard'' 200 chart, expectations had been higher and retail stores began heavily discounting their oversupply.",
"Less-than-expected sales of the album (more than two million) brought the project to an indefinite hiatus in February 2001 and Gaines quickly faded into obscurity.Despite the less-than-spectacular response to the Gaines project, Brooks gained his first (and only) ''Billboard'' Top 40 pop single in \"Lost in You\".",
"The album was later certified Double Platinum by the RIAA.On November 23, 1999, Brooks released his second holiday album, ''Garth Brooks & the Magic of Christmas''.",
"The album peaked at No.",
"7 on ''Billboard''s Top 200 and No.",
"1 on the Top Country Albums, making it Brooks' 10th number-one album.===2000–2004: ''Scarecrow'' and retirement===As his career flourished, Brooks seemed frustrated by the conflicts between career and family.",
"He first talked of retiring from performing in 1992, and again in 1995, but each time returned to touring.",
"In 1999, Brooks appeared on The Nashville Network's ''Crook & Chase'' program, again mentioning retirement in a more serious tone.",
"On October 26, 2000, Brooks officially announced his retirement from recording and performing.",
"Later that evening, Capitol Records noted Brooks' achievement of selling 100 million albums in the US, celebrating at Nashville's Gaylord Entertainment Center.Brooks' final album before retirement, ''Scarecrow'', was released on November 13, 2001.The album did not match the sales levels of Brooks' heyday, but still sold well, reaching No.",
"1 on ''Billboard'' 200 and Top Country Albums charts.",
"Although he staged a few performances for promotional purposes, Brooks stated that he would be retired from recording and performing at least until his youngest daughter finished high school.===2005–2008: Compilation albums and special performances===In 2005, Brooks expressed his interest in returning to live performances; however, he remained adamant to the premise of not releasing new music until 2014.Despite this, later that year, Brooks signed a deal with Walmart, leasing them the rights to his entire catalog following his split with Capitol Records.",
"Brooks was one of the first musicians to sign an exclusive music distribution deal with a single retailer (along with fellow country music artist Ricky Van Shelton, who issued his 1998 album ''Making Plans'' through the chain as well).Three months later, in November 2005, Brooks and Walmart issued an updated ''The Limited Series'' compilation, a box set containing reissues of Brooks' albums, including ''Double Live'', and ''The Lost Sessions'', featuring eleven previously unreleased recordings.",
"The box set sold more than 500,000 physical copies on its issue date.",
"By the first week in December 2005, it had sold over 1 million physical copies.Brooks took a brief break from retirement early in 2005 to perform in various benefit concerts.",
"He also released a new single, \"Good Ride Cowboy\", as a tribute to his late friend and country singer, Chris LeDoux, via Walmart.In early 2006, Walmart reissued ''The Lost Sessions'' as a single CD apart from the box set, with additional songs, including a duet with Trisha Yearwood, \"Love Will Always Win\", which reached the top 25 on the ''Billboard'' Hot Country Songs chart.",
"The couple were later nominated for a \"Best Country Collaboration With Vocals\" Grammy Award.On August 18, 2007, Brooks announced plans for a new box set, ''The Ultimate Hits''.",
"The new set featured two discs containing 30 classic songs, three new songs, and a DVD featuring music videos.",
"The album's first single, \"More Than a Memory\", was released on August 27, 2007.It debuted at No.",
"1 on the ''Billboard'' Hot Country Songs chart, becoming the highest-debuting single in the chart's history.In November 2007, Brooks embarked on Garth Brooks: Live in Kansas City, performing nine sold-out concerts in Kansas City at the Sprint Center, which had opened a month prior.",
"Originally scheduled to be only one show, the performance expanded to nine due to incredibly high demand, with all nine shows (equaling about 140,000 tickets) selling out in under two hours.",
"The final concert of the series was simulcast to more than 300 movie theaters across the U.S.In January 2008, Brooks embarked on another incredible feat performing five sold-out shows (in less than 48 hours) at the Staples Center in Los Angeles for a fundraiser towards the 2007 wildfires season that impacted much of Southern California's cities and counties.",
"The first concert (of the five) titled Garth Brooks: Live in LA was taped and broadcast repeatedly on CBS with all donations going to all of the victims and families in state of California who were impacted by the fires.===2009–2013: Las Vegas concert residency===We Are One concert in 2009In January 2009, Brooks made another one of few public appearances since his retirement, performing at the We Are One: The Obama Inaugural Celebration at the Lincoln Memorial concert in Washington, D.C..",
"In his three-song set, Brooks performed \"We Shall Be Free\", along with covers of Don McLean's \"American Pie\" and the Isley Brothers' \"Shout\".On October 15, 2009, Brooks suspended his retirement to begin Garth at Wynn, a periodic weekend concert residency at Encore Las Vegas on the Las Vegas Strip.",
"The schedule allowed Brooks both to have the family life during the week and to continue to perform on the weekend.",
"The financial terms of the agreement were not announced, but Steve Wynn did disclose that he gave Brooks access to a private jet to quickly transport him between Las Vegas and his home in Oklahoma.Brooks' first weekend on shows in Vegas received positive reviews and was called the \"antithesis of Vegas glitz and of the country singer's arena and stadium extravaganzas\" by USA Today.",
"The shows featured Brooks performing solo, acoustic concerts, and included a set list of songs that have influenced him.",
"Artists covered in the show include Simon and Garfunkel, Bob Seger, Billy Joel, and Don McLean.",
"His first performances at Encore Las Vegas coincided with his wedding anniversary, and his wife Trisha Yearwood joined him for two songs.In 2013, influenced by the set list of the Las Vegas shows, Brooks released ''Blame It All on My Roots: Five Decades of Influences'' via Walmart, a compilation album consisting of songs Brooks attributes to the development of his unique country pop genre.",
"The box set's albums were individually certified Platinum and the compilation received a Billboard Music Award nomination.",
"In a December 2013 appearance on Good Morning America to promote the album, Brooks also surprisingly announced plans for a world tour, beginning in 2014.===2014–2015: ''Man Against Machine'', GhostTunes, and world tour===Brooks' tour with Trisha Yearwood in 2014In February 2014, Brooks announced two concerts at Croke Park, Dublin, Ireland, to be held on July 25 and 26, 2014.Due to high demand, three additional shows were added, and a total of 400,000 tickets were sold.",
"However, due to licensing conflict, Aiken Promotions and Croke Park management were prompted to cancel two of the five concerts after conflict among nearby residents.",
"Brooks, committed to performing the five original concerts, refused to follow through with the request to only perform three, and all concerts were cancelled.On July 10, 2014, Brooks held a press conference where he announced his signing with Sony Music Nashville, as well as confirming plans for a new album, world tour, the release of his music in a digital format, and remorse for the Ireland concert controversy.",
"Fifteen days later, tickets first went on sale for the world tour.On September 3, 2014, Brooks released his comeback single, \"People Loving People\", in promotion of his world tour and new album, ''Man Against Machine''.",
"The song debuted onto the Nielsen BDS-driven Country Airplay chart at No.",
"19, tying for the third-highest debut of Brooks' career.",
"On September 4, 2014, Brooks released his entire studio output on digital for the first time ever.",
"Bypassing traditional digital music service providers, Brooks opted into releasing his albums directly his own new online music store, GhostTunes.",
"On September 19, Brooks confirmed the release date for his next album, scheduled for November 11 via a press conference in Atlanta.",
"''Man Against Machine'' was released via Pearl and RCA Nashville and was available online exclusively through GhostTunes.",
"GhostTunes closed on March 3, 2017.Brooks' digital catalogue moved to Amazon Music, who maintain exclusive rights over it.In September 2015, it was announced Brooks would reissue his album ''No Fences'' later in the year to commemorate its 25-year release anniversary.",
"The release would include a new version of \"Friends in Low Places\", featuring George Strait, Jason Aldean, Florida Georgia Line, and Keith Urban singing along with Brooks.",
"The album release has since been delayed due to royalty disputes.",
"The track was later featured on his 2016 compilation album, ''The Ultimate Collection''.===2016–2017: ''Gunslinger'', ''Christmas Together'', and online streaming===On October 13, 2016, Brooks released the first single, \"Baby, Let's Lay Down and Dance\", from his upcoming album.",
"The following week, Brooks released the upcoming album's title, ''Gunslinger'', via Facebook Live.",
"It was released on November 11, 2016, as a part of ''The Ultimate Collection'', a compilation album Brooks released through Target.",
"Brooks' other project for 2016 was a duet holiday album with wife Trisha Yearwood, ''Christmas Together''.After years of royalty disputes and an opposition to online music streaming, Brooks launched a streaming channel on Sirius XM Radio.",
"He also reached an agreement to stream his entire catalogue via Amazon Music.===2018–present: Stadium Tour and other ventures===Brooks performing in 2020On June 19, 2018, Brooks released a new single, \"All Day Long\", the first off his 2020 album, ''Fun''.",
"The release also included a B-side, \"The Road I'm On\".",
"In August 2018, Brooks announced new live album, ''Triple Live'', to be released in partnership with Ticketmaster.In August 2018, Brooks announced his Stadium Tour, which will visit thirty North American stadiums and showcase Brooks in a football-centric environment.",
"In promotion of the tour, Brooks performed the first concert at the University of Notre Dame's football stadium in 2018 He released the second single, \"Stronger Than Me\", from his upcoming 2019 album release following a performance dedicated to his wife Trisha Yearwood at the CMA Awards.",
"On August 14, 2021, he performed his largest ever ticketed concert at Memorial Stadium in Lincoln, Neb., selling 90,000 tickets.The third single from his upcoming album, \"Dive Bar\", a duet with Blake Shelton, was released in June 2019.Brooks also embarked on the Dive Bar Tour, a promotional tour in support of the single, visiting seven dive bars throughout the United States.During the COVID-19 pandemic, Brooks and wife Trisha Yearwood performed an informal concert broadcast on Facebook Live.",
"The website crashed multiple times as an estimated 5.2 million streamed the broadcast.",
"As a result of this, Brooks and Yearwood performed a concert in the same format the following week, broadcast live on CBS, along with a donation of $1 million to relief efforts.",
"The CBS special scored an estimated 5.6 million viewers.",
"On July 7, Brooks and Yearwood performed a \"part 2\" to their previous online concert, taking song requests and again broadcast on Facebook Live.",
"On June 27, 2020, Brooks performed a concert broadcast at 300 drive-in theaters throughout North America.Brooks released his most recent album, ''Fun'', on November 20, 2020.On January 20, 2021, Brooks performed \"Amazing Grace\" at the inauguration of Joe Biden.",
"He said his performance was an opportunity \"to serve\" and is a \"statement of unity.",
"\"On April 30, 2022, Brooks performed in Tiger Stadium on the campus of Louisiana State University in Baton Rouge, Louisiana.",
"When he performed his signature hit \"Callin' Baton Rouge,\" he became the second person, after LSU quarterback Tommy Hodson, to excite the crowd to a degree that the noise level registered on the university's seismograph – registering as an earthquake caused by excited fans.On November 14, 2022, Brooks announced his second concert residency, Garth Brooks/Plus ONE, at The Colosseum at Caesars Palace in Las Vegas.",
"He released his most recent album, ''Time Traveler'', in November 2023.On November 24, 2023, Brooks headlined an ''Amazon Music Live'' concert special, ''Garth Brooks: Dive Bar Concert''.",
"The concert took place at Brooks' Nashville bar Friends in Low Places Bar & Honky-Tonk."
],
[
"The G-Men",
"The vast majority of Brooks' recordings have used the same studio band, known collectively as the \"G-Men\".",
"These are Bruce Bouton (steel guitar), Mark Casstevens (acoustic guitar), Mike Chapman (bass guitar), Rob Hajacos (fiddle), Milton Sledge (drums), and Bobby Wood (keyboards), along with sound engineer Mark Miller, who took over from Allen Reynolds as Brooks' producer starting with ''Blame It All on My Roots: Five Decades of Influences''.",
"Chapman died on June 13, 2016."
],
[
"Other ventures",
"===Professional baseball===In 1998, Brooks launched his Touch 'em All Foundation with Major League Baseball.",
"He also began with a short career in baseball, when he signed with the San Diego Padres for spring training in 1998 and 1999.Brooks' performance on the field did not warrant management placing him on the regular season roster; however, he was offered a non-roster spot, but declined it.",
"The following season, Brooks signed with the New York Mets.",
"This spring-training stint was also a poor performance for Brooks, resulting in a zero-for-seventeen batting record.",
"In 2004, Brooks returned to baseball with the Kansas City Royals.",
"He got his first and only hit off Mike Myers during his final spring training game with the Royals.In 2019, Brooks made a return to spring training, joining the Pittsburgh Pirates to promote his charity.===Pearl Records===In 2005, Brooks ended his association with Capitol Records and established his own record label, '''Pearl Records'''.",
"Brooks has released four compilation albums via Pearl Records, as well as his 2014 and 2016 studio albums plus any future releases (also released through RCA Records Nashville).===GhostTunes===In September 2014, Brooks established GhostTunes, an online music store featuring his own digital music, as well as over ten million songs from other artists.",
"The store, contracted with \"the big three\" record labels, allows for autonomous pricing and distribution format, resulting in the most proper royalty payments for artists and songwriters.",
"In March 2017, GhostTunes officially closed, merging with Amazon Music."
],
[
"Personal life",
"Brooks with his wife, Trisha Yearwood, at the 2019 iHeartRadio Music Awards.Brooks graduated from Oklahoma State University where he starred on the track and field team in the javelin throw.",
"He later completed his MBA from Oklahoma State and participated in the commencement ceremony on May 6, 2011.Brooks married songwriter Sandy Mahl on May 24, 1986.The couple later had three daughters: Taylor Mayne Pearl (born 1992), August Anna (born 1994), and Allie Colleen Brooks (born 1996).",
"Brooks and Mahl separated in March 1999, announcing their plans to divorce on October 9, 2000, and filed for divorce on November 6, 2000.The divorce became final on December 17, 2001.Brooks remarried on December 10, 2005, to country singer and cookbook author Trisha Yearwood.",
"Yearwood has included various recipes created or inspired by Brooks in her published works, including Garth's Breakfast Bowl, a breakfast dish including cheese and garlic tortellini.In July 2013, Brooks became a grandfather when August had daughter Karalynn with Chance Michael Russell.===Charitable activities===In 1999, Brooks began the Teammates for Kids Foundation, which provides financial aid to charities for children.",
"The organization breaks down into three categories spanning three different sports:*Touch 'Em All Foundation – Baseball Division*Top Shelf – Hockey Division*Touchdown – Football DivisionBrooks is also a fundraiser for various other charities, including a number of children's charities and famine relief.",
"With wife Trisha Yearwood, Brooks sang Creedence Clearwater Revival's \"Who'll Stop the Rain\" on the ''Shelter from the Storm: A Concert for the Gulf Coast'' nationwide telethon for Hurricane Katrina relief.",
"He performed the Garth Brooks: Live in LA benefit concerts, five sold-out concerts over a two-day period at the Staples Center in Los Angeles, California on January 25 and 26, 2008 (setting numerous records at the high-profile venue in the process and accomplished a feat done by no other artist in music history to perform all 5 shows in a 48-hour time frame).",
"These concerts were staged to raise money for Fire Intervention Relief Effort, serving those impacted by the 2007 California wildfires.",
"Tickets were priced at $40 each and all five shows (totaling more than 85,000 tickets) sold out in 58 minutes.",
"CBS broadcast the first concert live as a telethon for additional fundraising.Brooks, along with wife Yearwood, has supported Habitat for Humanity's work over the years.",
"In December 2010, Brooks played nine shows in less than a week in Nashville at Bridgestone Arena to benefit victims from the May 2010 Nashville flood.",
"Over 140,000 tickets were sold and $5 million raised.On July 6, 2013, Brooks joined with Toby Keith for a benefit concert for victims of the 2013 Oklahoma tornadoes.",
"The sold-out show featured artists Mel Tillis, John Anderson, Willie Nelson, Trisha Yearwood, Sammy Hagar, Kellie Coffey, Ronnie Dunn, Carrie Underwood and Krystal Keith.",
"It was held at Gaylord Family Oklahoma Memorial Stadium.",
"Most recently, while between legs of his world tour in 2015, Brooks performed a sold-out concert in Barretos, Brazil to benefit the Hospital de Câncer de Barretos.===Support for gay rights===In a 1999 interview with ''George'', Brooks said, \"But if you're in love, you've got to follow your heart and trust that God will explain to us why we sometimes fall in love with people of the same sex.\"",
"Lyrics to his song, \"We Shall Be Free\", features the line, \"When we're free to love anyone we choose,\" which has been interpreted as a reference to same-sex relationships.",
"Brooks won a 1993 GLAAD Media Award for the song.In 2000, Brooks appeared at the Equality Rocks benefit concert for gay rights.",
"He sang a duet with openly gay singer George Michael.Brooks' half-sister, Betsy Smittle, who died in 2013, was a musician who released her own album ''Rough Around the Edges'' (as Betsy) and was part of Brooks' band for some years.",
"She also worked with the late country star Gus Hardin and other musicians in Tulsa.",
"Smittle was a lesbian, and Brooks has credited her with some of the inspiration for his support for same-sex marriage."
],
[
"Awards and records",
"Brooks receiving the \"Grammy on the Hill Award\" in the Oval Office in 2010Brooks has won a record 22 Academy of Country Music Awards and received a total of 47 overall nominations.",
"His 13 Grammy Award nominations have resulted in 2 awards won, along with Billboard Music Awards, Country Music Association Awards, and many others.",
"Brooks' work has earned awards and nominations in television and film as well, including the Primetime Emmy Awards and Golden Globe Awards.",
"He was inducted into the Country Music Hall of Fame in 2012.In 2010, he was inducted into the Cheyenne Frontier Days Hall of Fame.",
"He has also been inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame, and the Musicians Hall of Fame and Museum.In 2020, Brooks was awarded the Library of Congress Gershwin Prize for Popular Song.",
"Age 57 at the time he was named as the Gershwin honoree, he is the youngest recipient of the award.",
"Also in 2020, Cher presented Brooks with the Billboard Icon Award.In 2021, Brooks was named a recipient for the 43rd Annual Kennedy Center Honors.===Records===According to the Recording Industry Association of America, Brooks was the best-selling solo artist of the 20th century in America.",
"This conclusion drew criticism from the press and many music fans who were convinced that Elvis Presley had sold more records, but had been short-changed in the rankings due to faulty RIAA certification methods during his lifetime.",
"Brooks, while proud of his sales accomplishments, stated that he too believed that Presley must have sold more.The RIAA has since reexamined their methods for counting certifications.",
"Under their revised methods, Presley became the best-selling solo artist in U.S. history, making Brooks the number-two solo artist, ranking third overall, as the Beatles have sold more albums than either he or Presley.",
"The revision brought more criticism of the accuracy of the RIAA's figures, this time from Brooks' followers.",
"On November 5, 2007, Brooks was again named the best selling solo artist in US history, surpassing Presley after audited sales of 123 million were announced.",
"In December 2010, several more of Presley's albums received certifications from the RIAA.",
"As a result, Elvis again surpassed Brooks.",
", the RIAA lists Presley's total sales at 134.5 million and Brooks' at 134 million.",
"Subsequently, ''Man Against Machine'' has been certified by the RIAA as Platinum and listing Brooks sales as exceeding 136 million, placing Brooks again as the number 1 selling solo artist.In 2012, Brooks officially passed the Beatles as the top-selling act of the past 20 years, moving 68.5 million units worldwide, almost 5 million more than the Beatles.",
"In May 2014, Brooks' total album sales reached 69,544,000 copies, which makes him the best-selling album artist in the U.S., ahead of the Beatles (65,730,000), Metallica (54,365,000), Mariah Carey (54,280,000) and Celine Dion (52,234,000).In September 2016, Brooks became the first and only artist in music history to achieve seven career Diamond Award albums, according to the RIAA (surpassing the previous tied record of six next to The Beatles).On June 16, 2021, Brooks won the ''Pollstar'' award as the \"country touring artist of the decade\" (2010s).",
"Brooks thanked his band for the companionship during all those years.===Other===In 2014, Brooks was awarded the Arkansas Traveler certificate."
],
[
"Discography",
"* ''Garth Brooks'' (1989)* ''No Fences'' (1990)* ''Ropin' the Wind'' (1991)* ''Beyond the Season'' (1992)* ''The Chase'' (1992)* ''In Pieces'' (1993)* ''Fresh Horses'' (1995)* ''Sevens'' (1997)* ''Garth Brooks in...the Life of Chris Gaines'' (1999)* ''Garth Brooks & the Magic of Christmas'' (1999)* ''Scarecrow'' (2001)* ''Man Against Machine'' (2014)* ''Christmas Together'' (2016)* ''Gunslinger'' (2016)* ''Fun'' (2020)* ''Time Traveler'' (2023)"
],
[
"Filmography",
"+Notable television appearances Year Title Role Notes 1989 ''Nashville Beat'' Himself TV movie 1990 ''Hee Haw'' Himself 4 episodes 1991 ''Empty Nest'' Himself Episode: \"Country Weston\" 1994 ''Mad About You'' Himself Episode: \"Up All Night\" 1995''Sesame Street'' Himself Episode: \"A New Way to Walk\" 1996 ''Muppets Tonight'' Himself Episode: \"Garth Brooks\" 1998 ''Saturday Night Live'' Himself Host, musical guest 1999 ''Saturday Night Live'' Himself; Chris Gaines Host, musical guest (as Gaines) 1999 ''Behind the Music'' Chris Gaines Episode: \"Behind the Life of Chris Gaines\" 2016 ''The Voice'' Himself / Mentor Season 11"
],
[
"Concert tours and residencies",
"*The Garth Brooks World Tour (1993–1994)*The Garth Brooks World Tour (1996–1998)*Garth at Wynn (2009–2014)*The Garth Brooks World Tour (2014–2017)*Dive Bar Tour (2019)*The Garth Brooks Stadium Tour (2019–2022)*Garth Brooks/Plus ONE (2023)"
],
[
"See also",
"*List of best-selling music artists*List of best-selling music artists in the United States*List of highest-grossing concert tours"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Sources",
"*"
],
[
"Further reading",
"******"
],
[
"External links",
"* * Teammates for Kids Foundation official website* *"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Gustave Eiffel"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Alexandre Gustave Eiffel''' ( , ; '''Bonickhausen dit Eiffel'''; 15 December 1832 – 27 December 1923) was a French civil engineer.",
"A graduate of École Centrale des Arts et Manufactures, he made his name with various bridges for the French railway network, most famously the Garabit Viaduct.",
"He is best known for the world-famous Eiffel Tower, designed by his company and built for the 1889 Universal Exposition in Paris, and his contribution to building the Statue of Liberty in New York.",
"After his retirement from engineering, Eiffel focused on research into meteorology and aerodynamics, making significant contributions in both fields."
],
[
"Early life",
"Alexandre Gustave Eiffel was born in France, in the Côte-d'Or, the first child of Catherine-Mélanie (née Moneuse) and Alexandre Bonickhausen dit Eiffel.",
"He was a descendant of Marguerite Frédérique (née Lideriz) and Jean-René Bönickhausen and who had emigrated from the German town of Marmagen and settled in Paris at the beginning of the 19th century.",
"The family adopted the name Eiffel as a reference to the Eifel mountains in the region from which they had come.",
"Although the family always used the name Eiffel, Gustave's name was registered at birth as Bonickhausen dit Eiffel, and was not formally changed to Eiffel until 1880.At the time of Gustave's birth his father, an ex-soldier, was working as an administrator for the French Army; but shortly after his birth his mother expanded a charcoal business she had inherited from her parents to include a coal-distribution business, and soon afterwards his father gave up his job to assist her.",
"Due to his mother's business commitments, Gustave spent his childhood living with his grandmother, but nevertheless remained close to his mother, who was to remain an influential figure until her death in 1878.The business was successful enough for Catherine Eiffel to sell it in 1843 and retire on the proceeds.",
"Eiffel was not a studious child, and thought his classes at the Lycée Royal in Dijon boring and a waste of time, although in his last two years, influenced by his teachers for history and literature, he began to study seriously, and he gained his baccalauréats in humanities and science.An important part in his education was played by his uncle, Jean-Baptiste Mollerat, who had invented a process for distilling vinegar and had a large chemical works near Dijon, and one of his uncle's friends, the chemist Michel Perret.",
"Both men spent a lot of time with the young Eiffel, teaching him about everything from chemistry and mining to theology and philosophy.Eiffel went on to attend the Collège Sainte-Barbe in Paris, to prepare for the difficult entrance exams set by engineering colleges in France, and qualified for entry to two of the most prestigious schools – École polytechnique and École Centrale des Arts et Manufactures – and ultimately entered the latter.",
"During his second year he chose to specialize in chemistry, and graduated ranking at 13th place out of 80 candidates in 1855.This was the year that Paris hosted a World's Fair, and Eiffel was bought a season ticket by his mother."
],
[
"Early career",
"The Bordeaux bridge, Eiffel's first major workAfter graduation, Eiffel had hoped to find work in his uncle's workshop in Dijon, but a family dispute made this impossible.",
"After a few months working as an unpaid assistant to his brother-in-law, who managed a foundry, Eiffel approached the railway engineer Charles Nepveu, who gave Eiffel his first paid job as his private secretary.",
"However, shortly afterwards Nepveu's company went bankrupt, Nepveu found Eiffel a job designing a sheet iron bridge for the Saint Germaine railway.",
"Some of Nepveu's businesses were then acquired by the Compagnie Belge de Matériels de Chemin de Fer: Nepveu was appointed the managing director of the two factories in Paris, and offered Eiffel a job as head of the research department.",
"In 1857 Nepveu negotiated a contract to build a railway bridge over the river Garonne at Bordeaux, connecting the Paris-Bordeaux line to the lines running to Sète and Bayonne, which involved the construction of a iron girder bridge supported by six pairs of masonry piers on the river bed.",
"These were constructed with the aid of compressed air caissons and hydraulic rams, both innovative techniques at the time.",
"Eiffel was initially given the responsibility of assembling the metalwork and eventually took over the management of the entire project from Nepveu, who resigned in March 1860.Following the completion of the project on schedule Eiffel was appointed as the principal engineer of the Compagnie Belge.",
"His work had also gained the attention of several people who were later to give him work, including Stanislas de la Roche Toulay, who had prepared the design for the metalwork of the Bordeaux bridge, Jean Baptiste Krantz and Wilhelm Nordling.",
"Further promotion within the company followed, but the business began to decline, and in 1865 Eiffel, seeing no future there, resigned and set up as an independent consulting engineer.",
"He was already working independently on the construction of two railway stations, at Toulouse and Agen, and in 1866 he was given a contract to oversee the construction of 33 locomotives for the Egyptian government, a profitable but undemanding job in the course of which he visited Egypt, where he visited the Suez Canal which was being constructed by Ferdinand de Lesseps.",
"At the same time he was employed by Jean-Baptiste Kranz to assist him in the design of the exhibition hall for the Exposition Universelle which was to be held in 1867.Eiffel's principal job was to draw up the arch girders of the Galerie des Machines.",
"In order to carry out this work, Eiffel and Henri Treca, the director of the Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers, conducted valuable research on the structural properties of cast iron, definitively establishing the modulus of elasticity applicable to compound castings."
],
[
"Eiffel et Cie",
"The Budapest Nyugati railway stationAt the end of 1866 Eiffel managed to borrow enough money to set up his own workshops at 48 Rue Fouquet in Levallois-Perret.",
"His first important commission was for two viaducts for the railway line between Lyon and Bordeaux, and the company also began to undertake work in other countries, including St. Mark's Cathedral in Arica, Peru, which was an all-metal prefabricated building, manufactured in France and shipped to South America in pieces to be assembled on site; first it was intended for the city of Ancón, a beach near Lima, but the Peruvian Government of President José Balta changed the final destination to Arica because the old church was destroyed by an earthquake on 13 August 1868.Because of this, a committee of ladies of Arica asked Balta to relocate Eiffel's structure to Arica.On 6 October 1868 he entered into partnership with Théophile Seyrig, a fellow graduate of the École Centrale, forming the company Eiffel et Cie.In 1875, Eiffel et Cie were given two important contracts, one for the Budapest Nyugati railway station for the Vienna to Budapest railway and the other for a bridge over the river Douro in Portugal.",
"The station in Budapest was an innovative design.",
"The usual pattern for building a railway terminus was to conceal the metal structure behind an elaborate facade: Eiffel's design for Budapest used the metal structure as the centerpiece of the building, flanked on either side by conventional stone and brick-clad structures housing administrative offices.The Maria Pia BridgeThe bridge over the Douro came about as the result of a competition held by the Royal Portuguese Railroad Company.",
"The task was a demanding one: the river was fast-flowing, up to deep, and had a bed formed of a deep layer of gravel which made the construction of piers on the river bed impossible, and so the bridge had to have a central span of .",
"This was greater than the longest arch span which had been built at the time.Eiffel's proposal was for a bridge whose deck was supported by five iron piers, with the abutments of the pair on the river bank also bearing a central supporting arch.",
"The price quoted by Eiffel was FF.965,000, far below the nearest competitor and so he was given the job, although since his company was less experienced than his rivals the Portuguese authorities appointed a committee to report on Eiffel et Cie's suitability.",
"The members included Jean-Baptiste Krantz, Henri Dion and Léon Molinos, both of whom had known Eiffel for a long time: their report was favorable, and Eiffel got the job.",
"On-site work began in January 1876 and was complete by the end of October 1877: the bridge was ceremonially opened by King Luís I and Queen Maria Pia, after whom the bridge was named, on 4 November.The Exposition Universelle in 1878 firmly established his reputation as one of the leading engineers of the time.",
"As well as exhibiting models and drawings of work undertaken by the company, Eiffel was also responsible for the construction of several of the exhibition buildings.",
"One of these, a pavilion for the Paris Gas Company, was Eiffel's first collaboration with Stephen Sauvestre, who was later to become the head of the company's architectural office.In 1879 the partnership with Seyrig was dissolved, and the company was renamed the '''Compagnie des Établissements Eiffel.",
"'''The same year the company was given the contract for the Garabit viaduct, a railway bridge near Ruynes en Margeride in the Cantal département.",
"Like the Douro bridge, the project involved a lengthy viaduct crossing the river valley as well as the river itself, and Eiffel was given the job without any process of competitive tendering due to his success with the bridge over the Douro.",
"To assist him in the work he took on several people who were to play important roles in the design and construction of the Eiffel Tower, including Maurice Koechlin, a young graduate of the Zurich Polytechnikum, who was engaged to undertake calculations and make drawings, and Émile Nouguier, who had previously worked for Eiffel on the construction of the Douro bridge.Interior structural elements of the Statue of Liberty designed by Gustave EiffelThe same year Eiffel started work on a system of standardised prefabricated bridges, an idea that was the result of a conversation with the governor of Cochin-China.",
"These used a small number of standard components, all small enough to be readily transportable in areas with poor or non-existent roads, and were joined using bolts rather than rivets, reducing the need for skilled labour on site.",
"A number of different types were produced, ranging from footbridges to standard-gauge railway bridges.In 1881 Eiffel was contacted by Auguste Bartholdi who was in need of an engineer to help him to realise the Statue of Liberty.",
"Some work had already been carried out by Eugène Viollet-le-Duc, but he had died in 1879.Eiffel was selected because of his experience with wind stresses.",
"Eiffel devised a structure consisting of a four legged pylon to support the copper sheeting which made up the body of the statue.",
"The entire statue was erected at the Eiffel works in Paris before being dismantled and shipped to the United States.In 1886 Eiffel also designed the dome for the Astronomical Observatory in Nice.",
"This was the most important building in a complex designed by Charles Garnier, later among the most prominent critics of the Tower.",
"The dome, with a diameter of , was the largest in the world when built and used an ingenious bearing device: rather than running on wheels or rollers, it was supported by a ring-shaped hollow girder floating in a circular trough containing a solution of magnesium chloride in water.",
"This had been patented by Eiffel in 1881.=== The Eiffel Tower ===Koechlin's first drawing for the Eiffel Tower.",
"Note the sketched stack of buildings, with Notre Dame at the bottom, indicating the scale of the proposed tower.The design of the Eiffel Tower was originated by Maurice Koechlin and Emile Nouguier, who had discussed ideas for a centrepiece for the 1889 Exposition Universelle.",
"In May 1884 Koechlin, working at his home, made an outline drawing of their scheme, described by him as \"a great pylon, consisting of four lattice girders standing apart at the base and coming together at the top, joined together by metal trusses at regular intervals\".",
"Initially Eiffel showed little enthusiasm, although he did sanction further study of the project, and the two engineers then asked Stephen Sauvestre to add architectural embellishments.",
"Sauvestre added the decorative arches to the base, a glass pavilion to the first level and the cupola at the top.",
"The enhanced idea gained Eiffel's support for the project, and he bought the rights to the patent on the design which Koechlin, Nougier and Sauvestre had taken out.",
"The design was exhibited at the Exhibition of Decorative Arts in the autumn of 1884, and on 30 March 1885 Eiffel read a paper on the project to the Société des Ingénieurs Civils.",
"After discussing the technical problems and emphasising the practical uses of the tower, he finished his talk by saying that the tower would symboliseLittle happened until the beginning of 1886, but with the re-election of Jules Grévy as president and his appointment of Edouard Lockroy as Minister for Trade decisions began to be made.",
"A budget for the Exposition was passed and on 1 May Lockroy announced an alteration to the terms of the open competition which was being held for a centerpiece for the exposition, which effectively made the choice of Eiffel's design a foregone conclusion: all entries had to include a study for a four-sided metal tower on the Champ de Mars.",
"On 12 May a commission was set up to examine Eiffel's scheme and its rivals and on 12 June it presented its decision, which was that only Eiffel's proposal met their requirements.",
"After some debate about the exact site for the tower, a contract was signed on 8 January 1887.This was signed by Eiffel acting in his own capacity rather than as the representative of his company, and granted him one and a half million francs toward the construction costs.",
"This was less than a quarter of the estimated cost of six and a half million francs.",
"Eiffel was to receive all income from the commercial exploitation during the exhibition and for the following twenty years.",
"Eiffel later established a separate company to manage the tower.The tower had been a subject of some controversy, attracting criticism both from those who did not believe it feasible and from those who objected on artistic grounds.",
"Just as work began at the Champ de Mars, the \"Committee of Three Hundred\" (one member for each metre of the tower's height) was formed, led by Charles Garnier and including some of the most important figures of the French arts establishment, including Adolphe Bouguereau, Guy de Maupassant, Charles Gounod and Jules Massenet: a petition was sent to Jean-Charles Adolphe Alphand, the Minister of Works, and was published by ''Le Temps''.",
"Image:Construction tour eiffel.JPG|18 July 1887Image:Construction tour eiffel2.JPG|7 December 1887Image:Construction tour eiffel3.JPG|20 March 1888Image:Construction tour eiffel4.JPG|15 May 1888Image:Construction tour eiffel5.JPG|21 August 1888Image:Construction tour eiffel6.JPG|26 December 1888Image:Construction tour eiffel8.JPG|March 1889Caricature of Eiffel, published 1887 in ''Le Temps'' at the time of \"The Artist's Protest\"Work on the foundations started on 28 January 1887.Those for the east and south legs were straightforward, each leg resting on four concrete slabs, one for each of the principal girders of each leg but the other two, being closer to the river Seine were more complicated: each slab needed two piles installed by using compressed-air caissons long and in diameter driven to a depth of to support the concrete slabs, which were thick.",
"Each of these slabs supported a limestone block, each with an inclined top to bear the supporting shoe for the ironwork.",
"These shoes were anchored by bolts 10 cm (4 in) in diameter and long.Work on the foundations was complete by 30 June and the erection of the iron work was started.",
"Although no more than 250 men were employed on the site, a prodigious amount of exacting preparatory work was entailed: the drawing office produced 1,700 general drawings and 3,629 detail drawings of the 18,038 different parts needed.",
"The task of drawing the components was complicated by the complex angles involved in the design and the degree of precision required: the positions of rivet holes were specified to within 0.1 mm (0.004 in) and angles worked out to one second of arc.",
"The components, some already riveted together into sub-assemblies, were first bolted together, the bolts being replaced by rivets as construction progressed.",
"No drilling or shaping was done on site: if any part did not fit it was sent back to the factory for alteration.",
"The four legs, each at an angle of 54° to the ground, were initially constructed as cantilevers, relying on the anchoring bolts in the masonry foundation blocks.",
"Eiffel had calculated that this would be satisfactory until they approached halfway to the first level: accordingly work was stopped for the purpose of erecting a wooden supporting scaffold.",
"This gave ammunition to his critics, and lurid headlines including \"Eiffel Suicide!\"",
"and \"Gustave Eiffel has gone mad: he has been confined in an Asylum\" appeared in the popular press.",
"At this stage a small \"creeper\" crane was installed in each leg, designed to move up the tower as construction progressed and making use of the guides for the elevators which were to be fitted in each leg.",
"After this brief pause erection of the metalwork continued, and the critical operation of linking the four legs was successfully completed by March 1888.In order to precisely align the legs so that the connecting girders could be put into place, a provision had been made to enable precise adjustments by placing hydraulic jacks in the footings for each of the girders making up the legs.The main structural work was completed at the end of March 1889 and, on 31 March, Eiffel celebrated by leading a group of government officials, accompanied by representatives of the press, to the top of the tower.",
"Since the lifts were not yet in operation, the ascent was made by foot, and took over an hour, Eiffel frequently stopping to make explanations of various features.",
"Most of the party chose to stop at the lower levels, but a few, including Nouguier, Compagnon, the President of the City Council and reporters from ''Le Figaro'' and ''Le Monde Illustré'' completed the climb.",
"At 2.35 Eiffel hoisted a large tricolour, to the accompaniment of a 25-gun salute fired from the lower level.=== The Panama Scandal ===Illustration of Eiffel's lock design from a contemporary magazineIn 1887, Eiffel became involved with the French effort to construct a canal across the Panama Isthmus.",
"The French Panama Canal Company, headed by Ferdinand de Lesseps, had been attempting to build a sea-level canal, but came to the realization that this was impractical.",
"The plan was changed to one using locks, which Eiffel was contracted to design and build.",
"The locks were on a large scale, most having a change of level of .",
"Eiffel had been working on the project for little more than a year when the company suspended payments of interest on 14 December 1888, and shortly afterwards was put into liquidation.",
"Eiffel's reputation was badly damaged when he was implicated in the financial and political scandal which followed.",
"Although he was simply a contractor, he was charged along with the directors of the project with raising money under false pretenses and misappropriation of funds.",
"On 9 February 1893, Eiffel was found guilty on the charge of misuse of funds and was fined 20,000 francs and sentenced to two years in prison, although he was acquitted on appeal.",
"The later American-built canal used new lock designs (see History of the Panama Canal).Shortly before the trial, Eiffel had announced his intention to resign from the Board of Directors of the Compagnie des Etablissements Eiffel and did so at a General Meeting held on 14 February, saying, \"I have absolutely decided to abstain from any participation in any manufacturing business from now on, and so that no one can be misled and to make it most evident I intend to remain uninvolved with the establishments that bears my name, and insist that it be removed from the company's name.\"",
"The company changed its name to '''La Société Constructions Levallois-Perret''', with Maurice Koechlin as managing director.",
"The name was changed to the '''Anciens Etablissements Eiffel''' in 1937."
],
[
"Later career",
"Eiffel in 1910After his retirement from the Compagnie des Etablissements Eiffel, Eiffel went on to do important work in meteorology and aerodynamics.",
"Eiffel's interest in these areas was a consequence of the problems he had encountered with the effects of wind forces on the structures he had built.His first aerodynamic experiments, investigating the air resistance of surfaces, were carried out by dropping the surface to be investigated together with a measuring apparatus down a vertical cable stretched between the second level of the Eiffel Tower and the ground.",
"Using this Eiffel definitely established that the air resistance of a body was very closely related to the square of the airspeed.",
"He then built a laboratory on the Champ de Mars at the foot of the tower in 1905, building his first wind tunnel there in 1909.The wind tunnel was used to investigate the characteristics of the airfoil sections used by the early pioneers of aviation such as the Wright Brothers, Gabriel Voisin and Louis Blériot.",
"Eiffel established that the lift produced by an airfoil was the result of a reduction of air pressure above the wing rather than an increase of pressure acting on the under surface.",
"Following complaints about noise from people living nearby, he moved his experiments to a new establishment at Auteuil in 1912.Here it was possible to build a larger wind tunnel, and Eiffel began to make tests using scale models of aircraft designs.In 1913 Eiffel was awarded the Samuel P. Langley Medal for Aerodromics by the Smithsonian Institution.",
"In his speech at the presentation of the medal, Alexander Graham Bell said:Eiffel had meteorological measuring equipment placed on the tower in 1889, and also built a weather station at his house in Sèvres.",
"Between 1891 and 1892 he compiled a complete set of meteorological readings, and later extended his record-taking to include measurements from 25 different locations across France.Eiffel died on 27 December 1923, while listening to Beethoven's 5th symphony ''andante'', in his mansion on Rue Rabelais in Paris.",
"He was buried in the family tomb in Levallois-Perret Cemetery."
],
[
"Influence",
"Edward Moran's 1886 painting, ''The Statue of Liberty Enlightening the World'', depicts the unveiling of the Statue of Liberty.Gustave Eiffel's career was a result of the Industrial Revolution.",
"For a variety of economic and political reasons, this had been slow to make an impact in France, and Eiffel had the good fortune to be working at a time of rapid industrial development in France.",
"Eiffel's importance as an engineer was twofold.",
"Firstly he was ready to adopt innovative techniques first used by others, such as his use of compressed-air caissons and hollow cast-iron piers, and secondly he was a pioneer in his insistence on basing all engineering decisions on thorough calculation of the forces involved, combining this analytical approach with an insistence on a high standard of accuracy in drawing and manufacture.The growth of the railway network had an immense effect on people's lives, but although the enormous number of bridges and other work undertaken by Eiffel were an important part of this, the two works that did most to make him famous are the Statue of Liberty and the Eiffel Tower, both projects of immense symbolic importance and today internationally recognized landmarks.",
"The Tower is also important because of its role in establishing the aesthetic potential of structures whose appearance is largely dictated by practical considerations.His contribution to the science of aerodynamics is probably of equal importance to his work as an engineer."
],
[
"Works",
"===Buildings and structures===Cathedral of San Pedro de Tacna, PeruThe \"Grand Hotel Traian\" in Iaşi, is Gustave Eiffel's link to RomaniaKonak Pier in İzmir, Turkey, designed by Gustave Eiffel*Railway station at Toulouse, France (1862)*Railway station at Agen, France.",
"*Church of Notre Dame des Champs, Paris (1867)*Synagogue in Rue de Pasarelles, Paris (1867)*Théâtre les Folies, Paris (1868)*Burullus lighthouse, Egypt (1869)*Ras gharib lighthouse, Egypt (1871)*Gasworks, La Paz, Bolivia (1873)*Gasworks, Tacna, Peru (1873)*Church of San Marcos, Arica, Chile (1875)*Cathedral of San Pedro de Tacna, Peru (1875)*Lycée Carnot, Paris (1876)*Budapest Nyugati Pályaudvar (Western railway station), Budapest, Hungary (1877)*Ornamental Fountain of the Three Graces, Moquegua, Peru (1877)*Ruhnu Lighthouse at Ruhnu island, Estonia (1877)*Grand Hotel Traian, Iaşi, Romania (1882)*Iglesia Santa Barbara, Santa Rosalia, Baja California Sur, Mexico (1884-1897)*Nice Observatory, Nice, France (1886)*Statue of Liberty, Liberty Island, New York City, United States (1886)*Eiffel Tower, Paris, France (1889)*Paradis Latin theatre, Paris, France (1889)*The Iron Framework of the Chai de Segonzac (1892)*Casa de Fierro, Iquitos, Peru (1892) – disputed*Iglesia de Santa Bárbara in Santa Rosalía, Baja California Sur, Mexico (1897) – disputed*Opéra-Comique in Paris, France (1898)*Aérodynamique EIFFEL (wind tunnel), Paris (Auteuil), France (1911)*The Market, Olhão, Portugal*Konak Pier, İzmir, Turkey – disputed*Palacio de Hierro, Orizaba, Veracruz, Mexico*Catedral de Santa María, Chiclayo, Peru (late 20th century)*Combier Distillery, Saumur (Loire Valley), France La Paz bus station*Church in Coquimbo, Chile – disputed*Fénix Theatre, Arequipa, Peru*San Camilo Market, Arequipa, Peru*Farol de São Thomé, Campos, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil*Pabellon de la Rosa Piriapolis, Uruguay*La Cristalera, old portuary storage, El Puerto de Santa María, Spain*Clock Tower, Monte Cristi, Dominican Republic – disputed===Bridges and viaducts===Eiffel bridge in Caminha, PortugalBelvárosi Bridge in SzegedEiffel Bridge (also known as Skenderija Bridge), built in 1893 in Sarajevo, spans the Miljacka.",
"*Railway bridge over the river Garonne, Bordeaux (1861)*Viaduct over the river Sioule (1867)*Viaduct at Neuvial (1867)*''Pont de Ferro'' or ''Pont Eiffel'' in Girona (1876)*Maria Pia Bridge over the river Douro, Portugal (1877)*Cubzac bridge over the Dordogne, France (1880)*Borjomi bridge over the Tsemistskali River, Georgia (1902)*Belvárosi Bridge over the river Tisza in the centre of Szeged, Hungary (1881)*Mong Bridge over Bến Nghé River, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam (1882) - removed 2005 and restored after 2011*Garabit Viaduct, France (1884)*Railway bridge over the San, Przemyśl, Poland (1891)*Imbaba Bridge over the river Nile, Cairo, Egypt (1892)*The road (D50) bridge over the river Lay at Lavaud in the Vendée, France*Bridge over the Schelde in Temse, Belgium*Ponte Eiffel in Viana do Castelo's Marina, Portugal (1878)*The Railway Bridge over the Coura river in Caminha, Portugal.",
"*Eiffel Bridge in Ungheni, between Moldova and Romania (1877)*Ajfel Bridge on Skenderija Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina*Ghenh Bridge and Rach Cat Bridge in Bien Hoa city, Đồng Nai Province, Vietnam*Trường Tiền Bridge in Huế city, Thừa Thiên–Huế Province, Vietnam*Bolívar Bridge, in Arequipa, Peru*''Puente Ferroviario Banco de Arena'' Railway Bridge near Constitución, Chile===Destroyed===*The Eiffel Bridge in Zrenjanin (constructed and finished in 1904; dismantled in 1969)*Birsbrücke, Münchenstein, Switzerland, which collapsed (1891), killing over 70 people in the Münchenstein rail disaster.",
"*Souleuvre Viaduct (1893; bridge spans removed but piers survive)===Not proven===*Mercado Adolpho Lisboa, Manaus, Brazil (1883)*Basilica of San Sebastian, Manila, Philippines (1891)*Malleco Viaduct, Chile (1890)*Estación Central (railway station) Santiago, Chile, (1897)*Dam on Great Bačka Canal, Bečej, Serbia (1900)*Santa Justa Lift (Carmo Lift), in Lisbon, Portugal (1901)*Santa Efigênia Viaduct, São Paulo, Brazil (1913)*La Paz Train Station, La Paz, Bolivia (now La Paz Bus Station) (1917) - different style than the Eiffel's and built more than 20 years after he left the company and construction business*\"Vuelta al Mundo\", Córdoba, Argentina*Puente de hierro sobre el río Conlara, Tilquicho, Córdoba, Argentina*Watermill, Villa Dolores, Córdoba, Argentina*Casa del Cura (also called Casa Eiffel), in Ulea, Spain (1912)*Palácio de Ferro (Iron Palace), Angola*Train Yard, Novi Sad, Serbia (1921)===Unrealized projects===*Trinity Bridge, Saint Petersburg—Eiffel entered a project into the contest, but his project was not realized."
],
[
"Heritage protection efforts",
"A number of works of Gustave Eiffel are in danger today.",
"Some have already been destroyed, like in Vietnam.A proposal to demolish the railway bridge of Bordeaux (also known as the \"passerelle St Jean\"), the first major work of Gustave Eiffel, resulted in a large response from the public.",
"Actions to protect the bridge were taken as early as 2002 by the \"Association of the Descendants of Gustave Eiffel\", joined from 2005 onwards by the Association \"Sauvons la Passerelle Eiffel\" (''Save the Eiffel Bridge'').",
"They led, in 2010, to the decision to list Eiffel's Bordeaux bridge as a French Historical Monument."
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Bibliography",
"***"
],
[
"External links",
"* Official website of the Association of the Descendants of Gustave Eiffel (in English)* Gustave Eiffel: The Man Behind the Masterpiece * * Einsturz der Birsbrücke bei Münchenstein (Basel)*"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Greenpeace"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Greenpeace''' is an independent global campaigning network, founded in Canada in 1971 by a group of environmental activists.",
"Greenpeace states its goal is to \"ensure the ability of the Earth to nurture life in all its diversity\" and focuses its campaigning on worldwide issues such as climate change, deforestation, overfishing, commercial whaling, genetic engineering, anti-war and anti-nuclear issues.",
"It uses direct action, advocacy, research, and ecotage to achieve its goals.The network comprises 26 independent national/regional organisations in over 55 countries across Europe, the Americas, Africa, Asia, Australia and the Pacific, as well as a coordinating body, Greenpeace International, based in Amsterdam, the Netherlands.The global network does not accept funding from governments, corporations, or political parties, relying on three million individual supporters and foundation grants.",
"Greenpeace has a general consultative status with the United Nations Economic and Social Council and is a founding member of the INGO Accountability Charter, an international non-governmental organization that intends to foster accountability and transparency of non-governmental organizations.Greenpeace is known for its nonviolent direct actions and has been described as one of the most visible environmental organizations in the world.",
"It has raised environmental issues to public knowledge, and influenced both the private and the public sector.",
"The organization has received criticism; it was the subject of an open letter from more than 100 Nobel laureates urging Greenpeace to end its campaign against genetically modified organisms (GMOs).",
"The organization's direct actions have sparked legal actions against Greenpeace activists, such as fines and suspended sentences for destroying a test plot of genetically modified wheat and, according to the Peruvian Government, damaging the Nazca Lines, a UN World Heritage site."
],
[
"History",
"===Origins===Location of Amchitka island in Alaska.The nuclear device that sparked the creation of Greenpeace being lowered into its firing hole for ''Cannikin''.In the late 1960s, the U.S. had planned its ''Cannikin'' underground nuclear weapon test in the tectonically unstable island of Amchitka in Alaska; the plans raised some concerns of the test triggering earthquakes and causing a tsunami.",
"Some 7,000 people blocked the Peace Arch Border Crossing between British Columbia and Washington, carrying signs reading \"Don't Make A Wave.",
"It's Your Fault If Our Fault Goes\".",
"and \"Stop My Ark's Not Finished\".",
"The protests did not stop the U.S. from detonating the bomb.While no earthquake or tsunami followed the test, the opposition grew when the U.S. announced they would detonate a bomb five times more powerful than the first one.",
"Among the opponents were Jim Bohlen, a veteran who had served in the U.S. Navy, and Irving Stowe and Dorothy Stowe, who had recently become Quakers.",
"They were frustrated by the lack of action by the Sierra Club Canada, of which they were members.",
"From Irving Stowe, Jim Bohlen learned of a form of passive resistance, \"bearing witness\", where objectionable activity is protested simply by mere presence.",
"Jim Bohlen's wife Marie came up with the idea to sail to Amchitka, inspired by the anti-nuclear voyages of Albert Bigelow in 1958.The idea ended up in the press and was linked to The Sierra Club.",
"The Sierra Club did not like this connection and in 1970 the Don't Make a Wave Committee was established for the protest.",
"Early meetings were held in the Shaughnessy home of Robert Hunter and his wife Bobbi Hunter.",
"Subsequently, the Stowe home at 2775 Courtenay Street in Vancouver became the headquarters.",
"As Rex Weyler put it in his chronology, ''Greenpeace'', in 1969, Irving and Dorothy Stowe's \"quiet home on Courtenay Street would soon become a hub of monumental, global significance\".",
"Some of the first Greenpeace meetings were held there.",
"The first office was opened in a backroom, storefront on Cypress and West Broadway southeast corner in Kitsilano, Vancouver.",
"Within half a year Greenpeace moved in to share the upstairs office space with The Society Promoting Environmental Conservation at 4th and Maple in Kitsilano.Irving Stowe arranged a benefit concert (supported by Joan Baez) that took place on 16 October 1970 at the Pacific Coliseum in Vancouver.",
"The concert created the financial basis for the first Greenpeace campaign.",
"Amchitka, the 1970 concert that launched Greenpeace was published by Greenpeace in November 2009 on CD and is also available as an mp3 download via the Amchitka concert website.",
"Using the money raised with the concert, the Don't Make a Wave Committee chartered a ship, the ''Phyllis Cormack'' owned and sailed by John Cormack.",
"The ship was renamed ''Greenpeace'' for the protest after a term coined by activist Bill Darnell.",
"The complete crew included: Captain John Cormack (the boat's owner), Jim Bohlen, Bill Darnell, Patrick Moore, Dr Lyle Thurston, Dave Birmingham, Terry A. Simmons, Richard Fineberg, Robert Hunter (journalist), Ben Metcalfe (journalist), Bob Cummings (journalist) and Bob Keziere (photographer).On 15 September 1971, the ship sailed towards Amchitka and faced the U.S. Coast Guard ship ''Confidence'' which forced the activists to turn back.",
"Because of this and the increasingly bad weather the crew decided to return to Canada only to find out that the news about their journey and reported support from the crew of the ''Confidence'' had generated sympathy for their protest.",
"After this Greenpeace tried to navigate to the test site with other vessels, until the U.S. detonated the bomb.",
"The nuclear test was criticized, and the U.S. decided not to continue with their test plans at Amchitka.====Founders and founding time of Greenpeace====Environmental historian Frank Zelko dates the formation of the \"Don't Make a Wave Committee\" to 1969 and, according to Jim Bohlen, the group adopted the name \"Don't Make a Wave Committee\" on 28 November 1969.According to the Greenpeace web site, The Don't Make a Wave Committee was established in 1970.The certificate of incorporation of The Don't Make a Wave Committee dates the incorporation to the fifth of October, 1970.Researcher Vanessa Timmer dates the official incorporation to 1971.Greenpeace itself calls the protest voyage of 1971 as \"the beginning\".",
"According to Patrick Moore, who was an early member and has since mutually distanced himself from Greenpeace, and Rex Weyler, the name of \"The Don't Make a Wave Committee\" was officially changed to Greenpeace Foundation in 1972.Vanessa Timmer has referred to the early members as \"an unlikely group of loosely organized protestors\".",
"Frank Zelko has commented that \"unlike Friends of the Earth, for example, which sprung fully formed from the forehead of David Brower, Greenpeace developed in a more evolutionary manner.",
"There was no single founder\".",
"Greenpeace itself says on its web page that \"there's a joke that in any bar in Vancouver, British Columbia, you can sit down next to someone who claims to have founded Greenpeace.",
"In fact, there was no single founder: name, idea, spirit and tactics can all be said to have separate lineages\".",
"Patrick Moore has said that \"the truth is that Greenpeace was always a work in progress, not something definitively founded like a country or a company.",
"Therefore there are a few shades of gray about who might lay claim to being a founder of Greenpeace.\"",
"Early Greenpeace director Rex Weyler says on his homepage that the insiders of Greenpeace have debated about the founders since the mid-1970s.The current Greenpeace web site lists the founders of The Don't Make a Wave Committee as Dorothy and Irving Stowe, Marie and Jim Bohlen, Ben and Dorothy Metcalfe, and Robert Hunter.",
"According to both Patrick Moore and an interview with Dorothy Stowe, Dorothy Metcalfe, Jim Bohlen and Robert Hunter, the founders of The Don't Make a Wave Committee were Paul Cote, Irving and Dorothy Stowe and Jim and Marie Bohlen.Paul Watson, founder of the Sea Shepherd Conservation Society maintains that he also was one of the founders of The Don't Make a Wave Committee and Greenpeace.",
"Greenpeace has stated that Watson was an influential early member, but not one of the founders of Greenpeace.",
"Watson has since accused Greenpeace of rewriting their history.Because Patrick Moore was among the crew of the first protest voyage, Moore also considers himself one of the founders.",
"Greenpeace claims that although Moore was a significant early member, he was not among the founders of Greenpeace.===After Amchitka===After the office in the Stowe home, (and after the first concert fund-raiser) Greenpeace functions moved to other private homes and held public meetings weekly on Wednesday nights at the Kitsilano Neighborhood House before settling, in the autumn of 1974, in a small office shared with the SPEC environmental group at 2007 West 4th at Maple in Kitsilano.",
"When the nuclear tests at Amchitka were over, Greenpeace moved its focus to the French atmospheric nuclear weapons testing at the Moruroa Atoll in French Polynesia.",
"The young organization needed help for their protests and were contacted by David McTaggart, a former businessman living in New Zealand.",
"In 1972 the yacht ''Vega'', a ketch owned by David McTaggart, was renamed ''Greenpeace III'' and sailed in an anti-nuclear protest into the exclusion zone at Moruroa to attempt to disrupt French nuclear testing.",
"This voyage was sponsored and organized by the New Zealand branch of the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament.",
"The French Navy tried to stop the protest in several ways, including assaulting David McTaggart.",
"McTaggart was supposedly beaten to the point that he lost sight in one of his eyes.",
"However, one of McTaggart's crew members photographed the incident and went public.",
"After the assault was publicized, France announced it would stop the atmospheric nuclear tests.In the mid-1970s some Greenpeace members started an independent campaign, Project Ahab, against commercial whaling, since Irving Stowe was against Greenpeace focusing on other issues than nuclear weapons.",
"After Irving Stowe died in 1975, the ''Phyllis Cormack'' sailed from Vancouver to face Soviet whalers on the coast of California.",
"Greenpeace activists disrupted the whaling by placing themselves between the harpoons and the whales, and footage of the protests spread across the world.",
"Later in the 1970s, the organization widened its focus to include toxic waste and commercial seal hunting.The \"Greenpeace Declaration of Interdependence\" was published by Greenpeace in the ''Greenpeace Chronicles'' (Winter 1976–77).",
"This declaration was a condensation of a number of ecological manifestos Bob Hunter had written over the years.===Organizational development===MV ''Esperanza'', a former fire-fighter owned by the Russian Navy, was relaunched by Greenpeace in 2002Greenpeace evolved from a group of Canadian and American protesters into a less conservative group of environmentalists who were more reflective of the counterculture and hippie youth movements of the 1960s and 1970s.",
"The social and cultural background from which Greenpeace emerged heralded a period of de-conditioning away from Old World antecedents and sought to develop new codes of social, environmental and political behavior.In the mid-1970s independent groups using the name Greenpeace started springing up worldwide.",
"By 1977, there were 15 to 20 Greenpeace groups around the world.",
"At the same time the Canadian Greenpeace office was heavily in debt.",
"Disputes between offices over fund-raising and organizational direction split the global movement as the North American offices were reluctant to be under the authority of the Canada office.After the incidents of Moruroa Atoll, David McTaggart had moved to France to battle in court with the French state and helped to develop the cooperation of European Greenpeace groups.",
"David McTaggart lobbied the Canadian Greenpeace Foundation to accept a new structure bringing the scattered Greenpeace offices under the auspices of a single global organization.",
"The European Greenpeace paid the debt of the Canadian Greenpeace office and on 14 October 1979, '''Greenpeace International''' came into existence.",
"Under the new structure, the local offices contributed a percentage of their income to the international organization, which took responsibility for setting the overall direction of the movement with each regional office having one vote.",
"Some Greenpeace groups, namely London Greenpeace (dissolved in 2001) and the US-based Greenpeace Foundation (still operational) however decided to remain independent from Greenpeace International.Along with several other NGOs, Greenpeace was the subject of an improper and baseless investigation by the US Federal Bureau of Investigation between 2001 and 2005.The Inspector General of the US Justice Department determined that there was little or no basis for the investigation and that it resulted in the FBI making inaccurate and misleading claims to the United States Congress.In 2015, Greenpeace UK launched an investigative journalism publication called ''Unearthed''."
],
[
"Organizational structure",
"===Governance===The governance and management structure of Greenpeace.Greenpeace consists of ''Greenpeace International'' (officially Stichting Greenpeace Council) based in Amsterdam, Netherlands, and 25 regional offices operating in 55 countries.",
"The regional offices work largely autonomously under the supervision of Greenpeace International.",
"The executive director of Greenpeace is elected by the board members of Greenpeace International.",
"The current interim director of Greenpeace International is Mads Flarup Christensen and the current interim Co-Chairs of the Board are Marcelo Iniarra and David Tong.",
"Greenpeace has a staff of 2,400 and 15,000 volunteers globally.Each regional office is led by a regional executive director elected by the regional board of directors.",
"The regional boards also appoint a trustee to The Greenpeace International Annual General Meeting, where the trustees elect or remove the board of directors of Greenpeace International.",
"The annual general meeting's role is also to discuss and decide the overall principles and strategically important issues for Greenpeace in collaboration with the trustees of regional offices and Greenpeace International board of directors.===Funding===Greenpeace street fundraiser talking to a passer-byGreenpeace receives its funding from individual supporters and foundations.",
"It screens all major donations in order to ensure it does not receive unwanted donations.",
"Other than the Netherlands' National Postcode Lottery, the biggest government-sponsored lottery in that country, the organization does not accept money from governments, intergovernmental organizations, political parties or corporations in order to avoid their influence.Donations from foundations which are funded by political parties or receive most of their funding from governments or intergovernmental organizations are rejected.",
"Foundation donations are also rejected if the foundations attach unreasonable conditions, restrictions or constraints on Greenpeace activities or if the donation would compromise the independence and aims of the organization.",
"Since in the mid-1990s the number of supporters started to decrease, Greenpeace pioneered the use of face-to-face fundraising where fundraisers actively seek new supporters at public places, subscribing them for a monthly direct debit donation.",
"In 2008, most of the €202.5 million received by the organization was donated by about 2.6 million regular supporters, mainly from Europe.",
"In 2014, the organization's annual revenue was reported to be about €300 million (US$400 million) although they lost about €4 million (US$5 million) in currency speculation that year.In September 2003, Public Interest Watch (PIW) complained to the Internal Revenue Service that Greenpeace US's A tax returns were inaccurate and in violation of the law.",
"The IRS conducted an extensive review and concluded in December 2005 that Greenpeace USA continued to qualify for its tax-exempt status.",
"In March 2006 ''The Wall Street Journal'' reported that PIW's \"federal tax filing, covering August 2003 to July 2004, stated that $120,000 of the $124,095 the group received in contributions during that period came from ExxonMobil\".",
"In 2013, after the IRS performed a follow-up audit, which again was clean, and, following claims of politically motivated IRS audits of groups affiliated with the Tea Party movement, Greenpeace U.S. Executive Director Phil Radford called for a Congressional investigation into all politically motivated audits – including those allegedly targeting the Tea Party Movement, the NAACP, and Greenpeace.=== Digital transformation ===International Executive Director Kumi Naidoo declared the 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Conference a \"colossal failure\" and indicated the organization faced a \"burning platform\" moment.",
"Naidoo encouraged Greenpeace's international executive directors to embrace new strategies and tactics or risk becoming irrelevant.To implement a new strategy approved in 2010, Greenpeace hired Michael Silberman to build a \"Digital Mobilisation Centre of Excellence\" in 2011, which turned into the Mobilisation Lab (\"MobLab\").",
"Designed as a source of best practices, testing, and strategy development, the MobLab also focused on increasing digital capacity and promoting community-based campaigning in 42 countries.",
"In March 2017, the MobLab spun out of Greenpeace through a joint investment by Greenpeace and CIVICUS World Alliance for Citizen Participation.\""
],
[
"Summary of priorities and campaigns",
"On its International website, Greenpeace defines its mission as the following:Greenpeace is an independent campaigning organisation, which uses non-violent, creative confrontation to expose global environmental problems, and develop solutions for a green and peaceful future.",
"Our goal is to ensure the ability of the earth to nurture life in all its diversity.",
"That means we want to:* Stop the planet from warming beyond 1.5° to prevent the most catastrophic impacts of the climate breakdown.",
"* Protect biodiversity in all its forms.",
"* Slow the volume of hyper-consumption and learn to live within our means.",
"* Promote renewable energy as a solution that can power the world.",
"* Nurture peace, global disarmament and non-violence."
],
[
"Climate and energy",
"Tove Maria Ryding, in her then role as Greenpeace Climate Policy Coordinator, at the conference from Bonn to Cancun, 2010Greenpeace Climate March 2015 in MadridGreenpeace was one of the first parties to formulate a sustainable development scenario for climate change mitigation, which it did in 1993.According to sociologists Marc Mormont and Christine Dasnoy, the organization played a significant role in raising public awareness of global warming in the 1990s.",
"Greenpeace has also focused on CFCs, because of both their global warming potential and their effect on the ozone layer.",
"It was one of the leading participants advocating early phase-out of ozone depleting substances in the Montreal Protocol.",
"In the early 1990s, Greenpeace developed a CFC-free refrigerator technology, \"Greenfreeze\" for mass production together with the refrigerator industry.",
"United Nations Environment Programme awarded Greenpeace for \"outstanding contributions to the protection of the Earth's ozone layer\" in 1997.In 2011 two-fifths of the world's total production of refrigerators were based on Greenfreeze technology, with over 600 million units in use.Currently Greenpeace considers global warming to be the greatest environmental problem facing the Earth.",
"It calls for global greenhouse gas emissions to peak in 2015 and to decrease as close to zero as possible by 2050.To reach these numbers, Greenpeace has called for the industrialized countries to cut their emissions at least 40% by 2020 (from 1990 levels) and to give substantial funding for developing countries to build a sustainable energy capacity, to adapt to the inevitable consequences of global warming, and to stop deforestation by 2020.Together with EREC, Greenpeace has formulated a global energy scenario, \"Energy Revolution\", where 80% of the world's total energy is produced with renewables, and the emissions of the energy sector are decreased by over 80% of the 1990 levels by 2050.Using direct action, members Greenpeace have protested several times against coal by occupying coal power plants and blocking coal shipments and mining operations, in places such as New Zealand, Svalbard, Australia, and the United Kingdom.",
"Greenpeace is also critical of extracting petroleum from oil sands and has used direct action to block operations at the Athabasca oil sands in Canada.=== Green Planet Energy ===In 1999 Greenpeace Germany (NGO) founded Greenpeace Energy, a renewable electricity cooperative that supplied customers with fossil gas starting from 2011.After a 2021 media outcry about an entity associated with Greenpeace selling fossil fuel which has been described as greenwashing, the cooperative changed its name to Green Planet Energy.",
"The Greenpeace Germany NGO retains one share in the cooperative, which has been criticized for \"greenwashing\" Russian gas.===Kingsnorth court case===In October 2007, six Greenpeace protesters were arrested for breaking into the Kingsnorth power station in Kent, England; climbing the 200-metre (600') smokestack, painting the name Gordon on the chimney (in reference to former UK Prime Minister, Gordon Brown), and causing an estimated £30,000 damage.",
"At their subsequent trial they admitted trying to shut the station down, but argued that they were legally justified because they were trying to prevent climate change from causing greater damage to property elsewhere around the world.",
"Evidence was heard from David Cameron's environment adviser Zac Goldsmith, climate scientist James E. Hansen and an Inuit leader from Greenland, all saying that climate change was already seriously affecting life around the world.",
"The six activists were acquitted.",
"It was the first case where preventing property damage caused by climate change has been used as part of a \"lawful excuse\" defense in court.",
"Both ''The Daily Telegraph'' and ''The Guardian'' described the acquittal as an embarrassment to the Brown Ministry.",
"In December 2008 ''The New York Times'' listed the acquittal in its annual list of the most influential ideas of the year.===\"Go Beyond Oil\"===As part of their stance on renewable energy commercialisation, Greenpeace have launched the \"Go Beyond Oil\" campaign.",
"The campaign is focused on slowing, and eventually ending, the world's consumption of oil; with activist activities taking place against companies that pursue oil drilling as a venture.",
"Much of the activities of the \"Go Beyond Oil\" campaign have been focused on drilling for oil in the Arctic and areas affected by the ''Deepwater Horizon'' disaster.",
"The activities of Greenpeace in the Arctic have mainly involved the Edinburgh-based oil and gas exploration company, Cairn Energy; and range from protests at the Cairn Energy's headquarters to scaling their oil rigs in an attempt to halt the drilling process.The \"Go Beyond Oil\" campaign also involves applying political pressure on the governments who allow oil exploration in their territories; with the group stating that one of the key aims of the \"Go Beyond Oil\" campaign is to \"work to expose the lengths the oil industry is willing to go to squeeze the last barrels out of the ground and put pressure on industry and governments to move beyond oil.",
"\"===Nuclear power===Greenpeace is opposed to nuclear power because it views it as \"dangerous, polluting, expensive and non-renewable\".",
"The organization highlights the Chernobyl nuclear disaster of 1986 and Fukushima nuclear disaster of 2011 as evidence of the risk nuclear power can pose to people's lives, the environment and the economy.",
"Greenpeace views the benefits of nuclear power to be relatively minor in comparison to its major problems and risks, such as environmental damage and risks from uranium mining, nuclear weapons proliferation, and unresolved questions concerning nuclear waste.The organization argues that the potential of nuclear power to mitigate global warming is marginal, referring to the IEA energy scenario where an increase in world's nuclear capacity from 2608 TWh in 2007 to 9857 TWh by 2050 would cut global greenhouse gas emissions less than 5% and require 32 nuclear reactor units of 1000 MW capacity built per year until 2050.According to Greenpeace, the slow construction times, construction delays, and hidden costs all negate nuclear power's mitigation potential.",
"This makes the IEA scenario technically and financially unrealistic.",
"They also argue that binding massive amounts of investments on nuclear energy would take funding away from more effective solutions.",
"Greenpeace views the construction of Olkiluoto 3 nuclear power plant in Finland as an example of the problems on building new nuclear power.In 2022, Greenpeace threatened to sue the European Union after it proposed to categorize nuclear power as a \"green\" technology that helps countries reduce emissions.Greenpeace celebrated the phaseout of nuclear power in Germany in 2023.At the time, Germany was experiencing an energy crisis and relying heavily on coal and gas for power generation.====Anti-nuclear advertisement====In 1994, Greenpeace published an anti-nuclear newspaper advert which included a claim that nuclear facilities in Sellafield would kill 2,000 people in the next 10 years, and an image of a hydrocephalus-affected child said to be a victim of nuclear weapons testing in Kazakhstan.",
"Advertising Standards Authority viewed the claim concerning Sellafield as unsubstantiated, lacking any scientific base.",
"This resulted in the banning of the advert.",
"Greenpeace did not admit fault, stating that a Kazakhstan doctor had said that the child's condition was due to nuclear testing even though no nuclear weapons testing is performed in Sellafield.====EDF spying conviction and appeal====In 2011, a French court fined Électricité de France (EDF) €1.5m and jailed two senior employees for spying on Greenpeace, including hacking into Greenpeace's computer systems.",
"Greenpeace was awarded €500,000 in damages.",
"Although EDF claimed that a security firm had only been employed to monitor Greenpeace, the court disagreed, jailing the head and deputy head of EDF's nuclear security operation for three years each.",
"EDF appealed the conviction, the company was cleared of conspiracy to spy on Greenpeace and the fine was cancelled.",
"Two employees of the security firm, Kargus, run by a former member of France's secret services, received sentences of three and two years respectively.===Ozone layer and Greenfreeze===Peter Melchett, right, (then ED of Greenpeace UK) with Malcolm Walker, (Chairman Iceland Frozen Foods) and a Greenfreeze fridge, 1998The ozone layer surrounding the Earth absorbs significant amounts of ultraviolet radiation.",
"A 1976 report by the US Academy of Sciences supported the ozone \"depletion hypothesis\".",
"Its suffering large losses from chlorinated and nitrogenous compounds was reported in 1985.Earlier studies had led some countries to enact bans on aerosol sprays, so that the Vienna Convention was signed in 1985 the Montreal Protocol was signed in 1987 to go in force two years later.",
"The use of CFCs and HCFCs in refrigeration were and are among the banned technologies.A German technological institute developed an ozone-safe hydrocarbon alternative refrigerant that came to a Greenpeace campaigner's attention around 1992.The rights to the technology were donated to Greenpeace, which maintained it as an open source patent.",
"The technology was subsequently used in Germany, then China, elsewhere in Europe, and after some years in Japan and South America, and finally in the US by 2012.===Action against new oil licences in the UK===In August 2023, Greenpeace highlighted the grant of new oil exploration licences in the United Kingdom, in an action in Yorkshire where they covered the facade of the home of the Prime Minister Rishi Sunak, in black fabric."
],
[
"Forest campaign",
"The March For Forests, 2019Greenpeace event in Switzerland to bring awareness to protect forests, 2023Greenpeace aims to protect intact primary forests from deforestation and degradation with the target of zero deforestation by 2020.The organization has accused several corporations, such as Unilever, Nike, KFC, Kit Kat and McDonald's of having links to the deforestation of the tropical rainforests, resulting in policy changes in several of the companies.",
"Greenpeace, together with other environmental NGOs, also campaigned for ten years for the EU to ban import of illegal timber.",
"The EU decided to ban illegal timber in July 2010.As deforestation contributes to global warming, Greenpeace has demanded that REDD (Reduced Emission from Deforestation and Forest Degradation) should be included in the climate treaty following the Kyoto Protocol.Another Greenpeace movement concerning the rain forests is discouraging palm oil industries.",
"The movement has been the most active in Indonesia where already 6 million hectares (23,000 sq.",
"mi.)",
"are used for palm oil plantation and had plans for another 4 million hectares (15,000 sq.",
"mi.)",
"by 2015.Acknowledging that mass production of palm oil may be disastrous on biodiversity of forests, Greenpeace is actively campaigning against the production, urging the industries and the government to turn to other forms of energy resources.",
"One of the positive results of the campaign was GAR (Golden Agri-Resources), the world's second largest palm oil production company, deciding to commit itself to forest conservation.",
"The company signed an agreement which prevents them from developing plantations in areas where large amounts of carbon are locked up.On the promotional side, an example of Greenpeace's success in the area is a viral video from 2016 protesting Nestlé's use of palm oil in Kit Kat bars.",
"The video received over 1 million views, and resulted in a public statement by Nestlé claiming to no longer use such practices in their products.",
"In 2018, Greenpeace released an animated short starring a fictional orangutan named ''Rang-tan'' ahead of the World Orangutan Day.",
"In November 2018, UK's Clearcast have denied a version of Rang-tan video as submitted by Iceland Foods Ltd.===Removal of an ancient tree===In June 1995, Greenpeace took a trunk of a tree from the forests of the proposed national park of Koitajoki in Ilomantsi, Finland and put it on display at exhibitions held in Austria and Germany.",
"Greenpeace said in a press conference that the tree was originally from a logged area in the ancient forest which was supposed to be protected.",
"Metsähallitus accused Greenpeace of theft and said that the tree was from a normal forest and had been left standing because of its old age.",
"Metsähallitus also said that the tree had actually crashed over a road during a storm.",
"The incident received publicity in Finland, for example in the large newspapers ''Helsingin Sanomat'' and ''Ilta-Sanomat''.",
"Greenpeace replied that the tree had fallen down because the protective forest around it had been clearcut, and that they wanted to highlight the fate of old forests in general, not the fate of one particular tree.",
"Greenpeace also highlighted that Metsähallitus admitted the value of the forest afterwards as Metsähallitus currently refers to Koitajoki as a distinctive area because of its old growth forests.=== Wilmar International palm-oil issue ===A 2018 investigation conducted by Greenpeace International found that Wilmar International (the world's largest palm-oil trader) was still linked to forest destruction in the Indonesian province of Papua.",
"The connected company, Gama, run by senior Wilmar executives, had caused deforestation twice the size of Paris.",
"Greenpeace also called Wilmar out for breaking their 2013 commitment to end deforestation, in which they promised to incorporate organic and sustainable ways to collect palm oil.",
"Greenpeace press releases connected Gama-produced palm oil to global brands including Procter & Gamble, Nestlé and Unilever.=== Resolute Forest Products issue ===The logging company Resolute Forest Products sued Greenpeace several times since 2013.In 2020, a court in California ordered Resolute to pay US$816,000 to the organization to cover the costs of the legal process after the claims of the company were mostly rejected in one 2019 lawsuit.",
"Greenpeace claims that the activity of the company is hurting the Boreal forest of Canada.",
"Greenpeace claims that Boreal Forests contain even more carbon than Tropical Forests and therefore are very important to protecting the global climate."
],
[
"Tokyo Two",
"In 2008, two Greenpeace anti-whaling activists, Junichi Sato and Toru Suzuki, stole a case of whale meat from a delivery depot in Aomori prefecture, Japan.",
"Their intention was to expose what they considered embezzlement of the meat collected during whale hunts.",
"After a brief investigation of their allegations was ended, Sato and Suzuki were charged with theft and trespassing.",
"Amnesty International said that the arrests and following raids on Greenpeace Japan office and homes of five of Greenpeace staff members were aimed at intimidating activists and non-governmental organizations.",
"They were convicted of theft and trespassing in September 2010 by the Aomori District Court."
],
[
"Genetically modified organisms (GMOs)",
"European Union members in Brussels presented with a petition of 1 million signatures against GMO, 2010Greenpeace has also supported the rejection of GM food from the US in famine-stricken Zambia as long as supplies of non-genetically engineered grain exist, stating that the US \"should follow in the European Union's footsteps and allow aid recipients to choose their food aid, buying it locally if they wish.",
"This practice can stimulate developing economies and creates more robust food security\", adding that, \"if Africans truly have no other alternative, the controversial GE maize should be milled so it can't be planted.",
"It was this condition that allowed Zambia's neighbours Zimbabwe and Malawi to accept it.",
"\"After Zambia banned all GM food aid, the former agricultural minister of Zambia criticized, \"how the various international NGOs that have spoken approvingly of the government's action will square the body count with their various consciences.\"",
"Concerning the decision of Zambia, Greenpeace has stated that, \"it was obvious to us that if no non-GM aid was being offered then they should absolutely accept GM food aid.",
"But the Zambian government decided to refuse the GM food.",
"We offered our opinion to the Zambian government and, as many governments do, they disregarded our advice.",
"\"In 2007 Greenpeace funded research by Gilles-Éric Séralini into MON 863 genetically engineered maize which concluded it caused health issues to the rats used in the study.",
"European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) and French Commission du Génie Biomoléculaire (AFBV) evaluation indicated serious methodological errors in the publication.",
"Further research by Séralini on GMO resulted in widespread criticism of scientific fraud and retractions of his publications.Also in 2007 Greenpeace similarly publicised results of Árpád Pusztai which were retracted too.===Greenpeace on golden rice===Greenpeace opposes the planned use of golden rice, a variety of ''Oryza sativa'' rice produced through genetic engineering to biosynthesize beta-carotene, a precursor of pro-vitamin A in the edible parts of rice.",
"The addition of beta-carotene to the rice is seen as preventive to loss of sight in poverty stricken countries where golden rice is intended for distribution.",
"According to Greenpeace, golden rice has not managed to do anything about malnutrition for 10 years during which alternative methods are already tackling malnutrition.",
"The alternative proposed by Greenpeace is to discourage monocropping and to increase production of crops which are naturally nutrient-rich (containing other nutrients not found in golden rice in addition to beta-carotene).",
"Greenpeace argues that resources should be spent on programs that are already working and helping to relieve malnutrition.The renewal of these concerns coincided with the publication of a paper in the journal ''Nature'' about a version of golden rice with much higher levels of beta carotene.",
"This \"golden rice 2\" was developed and patented by Syngenta, which provoked Greenpeace to renew its allegation that the project is driven by profit motives and to serve as propaganda aimed at increasing public opinion of GMO products.Although Greenpeace stated that the golden rice program's true efficiency in treating malnourished populations was its primary concern as early as 2001, statements from March and April 2005 also continued to express concern over human health and environmental safety.",
"In particular, Greenpeace has expressed concern over the lack of safety testing being done on GMO crops such as golden rice and of \"playing with the lives of people...using Golden Rice to promote more GMOs\".In June 2016, a conglomeration of 107 Nobel Laureates signed an open letter urging Greenpeace to end its campaign against genetically modified crops and Golden Rice in particular.",
"In the letter, they also called upon governments of the world to \"do everything in their power to oppose Greenpeace's actions and accelerate the access of farmers to all the tools of modern biology, especially seeds improved through biotechnology.\"",
"The letter states that \"Opposition based on emotion and dogma contradicted by data must be stopped.\"",
"Greenpeace responded stating that \"Accusations that anyone is blocking genetically engineered 'Golden' rice are false\" and that they support \"...investing in climate-resilient ecological agriculture and empowering farmers to access a balanced and nutritious diet, rather than pouring money down the drain for GE 'Golden' rice.\""
],
[
"Toxic waste",
"In July 2011, Greenpeace released its Dirty Laundry report accusing some of the world's top fashion and sportswear brands of releasing toxic waste into China's rivers.",
"The report profiles the problem of water pollution resulting from the release of toxic chemicals associated with the country's textile industry.",
"Investigations focused on industrial wastewater discharges from two facilities in China; one belonging to the Youngor Group located on the Yangtze River Delta and the other to Well Dyeing Factory Ltd. located on a tributary of the Pearl River Delta.",
"Scientific analysis of samples from both facilities revealed the presence of hazardous and persistent hormone disruptor chemicals, including alkylphenols, perfluorinated compounds and perfluorooctane sulfonate.",
"The report goes on to assert that the Youngor Group and Well Dyeing Factory Ltd. - the two companies behind the facilities - have commercial relationships with a range of major clothing brands, including Abercrombie & Fitch, Adidas, Bauer Hockey, Calvin Klein, Converse, Cortefiel, H&M, Lacoste, Li Ning, Metersbonwe Group, Nike, Phillips-Van Heusen and Puma AG.In 2013, Greenpeace launched the \"Detox Fashion\" campaign, which signed up some fashion brands to stop the discharge of toxic chemicals into rivers as a result of the production of their clothes.===Guide to Greener Electronics===In August 2006, Greenpeace released the first edition of Guide to Greener Electronics, a magazine where mobile and PC manufacturers were ranked for their green performance, mainly based on the use of toxic materials in their products and e-waste.",
"In November 2011, the criteria were updated, as the industry had progressed since 2006, with the objective to get companies to set goals for greenhouse gas reduction, the use of renewable power up to 100 percent, producing long-lasting products free of hazardous substances and increasing sustainable practices.",
"To ensure the transparency of the ranking the companies are assessed based only on their public information.",
"For proving companies' policies and practices, Greenpeace uses chemical testing of products, reports from industry observers, media reports and testing of consumer programs to check if they match with their actions.",
"Since the Guide was released in 2006, along with other similar campaigns has driven numerous improvements, when companies ranked eliminate toxic chemicals from their products and improve their recycling schemes.",
"The last published edition of Guide to Greener Electronics was in 2017.The 2017 version included 17 major IT companies and ranked them on three criteria: energy use, resource consumption and chemical elimination."
],
[
"Save the Arctic",
"Shell's office in London in September, 2015In continuity of the successful campaign to reach the Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, in 2012 and 2013 protests with \"Save the Arctic\" banners were started.",
"To stop oil- and gas-drilling, industrial fishing and military operations in the Arctic region completely, a \"global sanctuary in the high arctic\" was demanded from the World leaders at the UN General Assembly: \"We want them to pass a UN resolution expressing international concern for the Arctic.\"",
"A resolution to protect the very vulnerable wildlife and ecosystem.",
"30 activists from MV ''Arctic Sunrise'' were arrested on 19 September 2013 by the Russian Coast Guard while protesting at Gazprom's Prirazlomnaya platform.",
"Greenpeace members were originally charged with piracy, then later downgraded to hooliganism, before being dropped altogether following the passage of an amnesty law by the Russian government.In July 2014, Greenpeace launched a global boycott campaign to persuade Lego to cease producing toys carrying the oil company Shell's logo in response to Shell's plans to drill for oil in the Arctic.",
"The organisation launched a video with over 9 million views (on Youtube alone) denouncing the impacts of this alliance.",
"The video was entitled \"LEGO: Everything is NOT awesome\".",
"Lego's partnership with Shell dates back to the 1960s, although the LEGO company created a fictional oil company called Octan.",
"Octan has appeared in countless sets, computer and console games, can be seen at Legoland parks, and is featured as the corporation headed by the villain President Business in The Lego Movie.===Norway===There is a conflict over oil rigs in the Arctic Ocean between the Norwegian Government and Greenpeace.",
"In 2013, three activists of Greenpeace got on a Statoil's oil rig, wearing bear suits.",
"According to a spokesman from Greenpeace Russia, they stayed on the rig for about three hours.",
"The activists in bear suits \"were escorted\" to the shore.",
"Statoil reportedly did not intend to file a suit against them.Greenpeace had argued that Statoil's drilling plans posed a threat to Bear Island, an uninhabited wildlife sanctuary that is home to rare species including polar bears, because an oil spill would be nearly impossible to clean up in the Arctic because of the harsh conditions.",
"Greenpeace regards the petroleum activities of Statoil as \"illegal\".",
"Statoil denies the Greenpeace statement.",
"According to The Maritime Executive (2014), Statoil says \"Statoil respects people's right to make a legal protest, and we feel it is important to have a democratic debate around the oil industry.",
"We have established robust plans for the operation, and feel confident they can be carried out safely and without accidents.",
"\"On 27 May 2014, Greenpeace's ship, MV ''Esperanza'', took over Transocean Spitsbergen, oil rig of Statoil in the Barents Sea such that it became incapable of operating.",
"After that, the manager of Greenpeace Norway Truls Gulowsen answered a phone interview, stating that \"Five protesters left the rig by helicopter last night and three returned to a nearby Greenpeace ship.\"",
"There were seven more protesters on the rig at the time, but the Norwegian police could not remove them immediately because the rig was a flag of convenience ship registered in the Marshall Islands and thus regarded as a ship in the open sea, as long as it did not begin drilling.",
"On 29 May, however, the seven activists from Greenpeace were peacefully captured by Norwegian police on the rig.",
"Soon after, according to Reuters, all the activists were set free without any fine.",
"On 30 May, the Norwegian Coast Guard finally towed away ''Esperanza'', though in the morning Greenpeace submitted a plea on which more than 80,000 signatures to the Norwegian Environment Minister Tine Sundtoft in Oslo were written.",
"Norwegian government and police reportedly allowed the coast guard to tow the Greenpeace ship.The Norwegian police stated that Statoil asked Greenpeace to stop preventing its activities, but Greenpeace ignored the warning.",
"The police have stated that Greenpeace's interference with the petroleum activities of Statoil was the contrary to Norwegian law and ordered Greenpeace to leave the Barents Sea site.",
"Statoil said delays to the start of drilling cost the company about $1.26 million per day.According to Reuters, Statoil was slated to begin drilling \"three oil wells in the Apollo, Atlantis and Mercury prospects in the Hoop area, which is some 300 km away from the mainland of Norway\" in the summer of 2014.Greenpeace has continued to criticize the big oil company for their \"green wash\", arguing that Statoil hid the truth that it is doing the risky oil drilling by holding \"Lego League\" with Lego and distracting people's attention to the company's project, and it also argues that Statoil has to alter its attitude toward environments."
],
[
"Moratorium on deep sea mining in international waters",
"Greenpeace has joined with other environmental organizations to call for a moratorium on exploratory deep sea mining authorized by the International Seabed Authority (ISA) under the auspices of the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS).",
"Greenpeace says exploratory and commercial mining of polymetallic nodules could wreak havoc on the world's oceans, which act as a carbon sink absorbing a quarter of the world's carbon emissions each year.",
"The organization says deep sea mining also disrupts the habitats of newly reported species, from crabs to whales to snails that survive without eating and congregate near bioluminescent thermal vents.",
"Greenpeace has urged the International Seabed Authority to further develop UNCLOS' foundational Article 136 principle \"of common heritage to all mankind\" to revise regulations and set conservation targets.",
"In a 2018 Greenpeace Research Laboratories report the organization stressed the importance of protecting marine biodiversity from toxins released during seabed mining for natural gas and rare metals for photovoltaic cells.Greenpeace maintains the \"pro-exploitation\" ISA is not the appropriate authority to regulate deep sea mining (DSM).",
"In 2019 Greenpeace activists protested outside the annual meeting of the International Seabed Authority in Jamaica, calling for a global ocean treaty to ban deep sea mining in ocean sanctuaries.",
"Some of the activists had sailed to Jamaica aboard Greenpeace's ship, the Esperanza, which travelled from the \"Lost City in the mid-Atlantic\", an area Greenpeace says is threatened by exploratory mining."
],
[
"Alternative economy",
"Greenpeace promotes alternatives to the current economic and social system.",
"According to the organization, the current system is not friendly to people and the planet, so Greenpeace tries to find a better alternative in collaboration with \"communities, academics and organisations\"."
],
[
"Ships",
"Since Greenpeace was founded, seagoing ships have played a vital role in its campaigns.",
"Greenpeace has chartered additional ships as needed.",
"At least one non-Greenpeace owned ship was used during the organization's 2008-11 campaign to disrupt trawling in the North Sea by placing large boulders on the seafloor and then providing local authorities with updated charts of where the boulders were placed.",
"All ships are equipped with marine diesel engines.===In service===MV ''Arctic Sunrise'' in the harbour of Helsinki.",
"* ''Rainbow Warrior'' is the third vessel to bear the name.",
"Launched in 2011, it is sometimes referred to as ''Rainbow Warrior III''.",
"* MV ''Arctic Sunrise''* ''SY Witness''===Previously in service=======First ''Rainbow Warrior''====In 1978, Greenpeace launched the original ''Rainbow Warrior'', a , former fishing trawler named after the book ''Warriors of the Rainbow'', which inspired early activist Robert Hunter on the first voyage to Amchitka.",
"Greenpeace purchased the ''Rainbow Warrior'' (originally launched as the ''Sir William Hardy'' in 1955) at a cost of £40,000.Volunteers restored and refitted it over a period of four months.",
"First deployed to disrupt the hunt of the Icelandic whaling fleet, the ''Rainbow Warrior'' quickly became a mainstay of Greenpeace campaigns.",
"Between 1978 and 1985, crew members also engaged in direct action against the ocean-dumping of toxic and radioactive waste, the grey seal hunt in Orkney and nuclear testing in the Pacific.",
"In May 1985, the vessel was instrumental for 'Operation Exodus', the evacuation of about 300 Rongelap Atoll islanders whose home had been contaminated with nuclear fallout from a US nuclear test two decades earlier which had never been cleaned up and was still having severe health effects on the locals.Later in 1985 the ''Rainbow Warrior'' was to lead a flotilla of protest vessels into the waters surrounding Moruroa atoll, site of French nuclear testing.",
"The sinking of the ''Rainbow Warrior'' occurred when the French government secretly bombed the ship in Auckland harbour on orders from François Mitterrand himself.",
"This killed Dutch freelance photographer Fernando Pereira, who thought it was safe to enter the boat to get his photographic material after a first small explosion, but drowned as a result of a second, larger explosion.",
"The attack was a public relations disaster for France after it was quickly exposed by the New Zealand police.",
"The French Government in 1987 agreed to pay New Zealand compensation of NZ$13 million and formally apologised for the bombing.",
"The French Government also paid ₣2.3 million compensation to the family of the photographer.",
"Later, in 2001, when the Institute of Cetacean Research of Japan called Greenpeace \"eco-terrorists\", Gert Leipold, then executive director of Greenpeace, detested the claim, saying \"calling non-violent protest terrorism insults those who were injured or killed in the attacks of real terrorists, including Fernando Pereira, killed by State terrorism in the 1985 attack on the ''Rainbow Warrior''\".====Second ''Rainbow Warrior''====Rainbow Warrior'' ship arrives in Bali for the 2007 UN climate conference.In 1989 Greenpeace commissioned a replacement Rainbow Warrior vessel, sometimes referred to as ''Rainbow Warrior II''.",
"It retired from service on 16 August 2011, to be replaced by the third generation vessel.",
"In 2005 the ''Rainbow Warrior II'' ran aground on and damaged the Tubbataha Reef in the Philippines while inspecting the reef for coral bleaching.",
"Greenpeace was fined US$7,000 for damaging the reef and agreed to pay the fine saying they felt responsible for the damage, although Greenpeace stated that the Philippines government had given it outdated charts.",
"The park manager of Tubbataha appreciated the quick action Greenpeace took to assess the damage to the reef.====Others====* MV ''Sirius''* MV ''Solo''* MV ''Greenpeace''* MV ''Gondwana''* MV ''Beluga'' (in German)* MV ''Esperanza''"
],
[
"Reactions and responses to Greenpeace activities",
"Lawsuits have been filed against Greenpeace for lost profits, reputation damage and \"sailormongering\".",
"The latter case, brought under a law not prosecuted since 1890, was widely viewed as an attempt at revenge by the Bush administration for Greenpeace's criticism of its environmental policies.",
"The case was dismissed when the prosecution rested, having failed to prove its case.",
"In 2004 it was revealed that the Australian government was willing to offer a subsidy to Southern Pacific Petroleum on the condition that the oil company would take legal action against Greenpeace, which had campaigned against the Stuart Oil Shale Project.Some corporations, such as Royal Dutch Shell, BP and Électricité de France have reacted to Greenpeace campaigns by spying on Greenpeace activities and infiltrating Greenpeace offices.",
"Greenpeace activists have also been targets of phone tapping, death threats, violence and even state terrorism in the case of the bombing of the ''Rainbow Warrior''.On 19 May 2023, Russia's Prosecutor-General's Office designated Greenpeace as an undesirable organisation, accusing it of interfering with Russia's internal affairs, undermining the country's economy, and financing the activities of Russian organizations recognized as \"foreign agents\"."
],
[
"Criticism",
"=== By Patrick Moore ===Patrick Moore, an early Greenpeace member, left the organization in 1986 when it, according to Moore, decided to support a universal ban on chlorine in drinking water.",
"Moore has argued that Greenpeace today is motivated by politics rather than science and that none of his \"fellow directors had any formal science education\".",
"Bruce Cox, Director of Greenpeace Canada, responded that Greenpeace has never demanded a universal chlorine ban and that Greenpeace does not oppose use of chlorine in drinking water or in pharmaceutical uses, adding that \"Mr. Moore is alone in his recollection of a fight over chlorine and/or use of science as his reason for leaving Greenpeace.\"",
"Paul Watson, an early member of Greenpeace has said that Moore \"uses his status as a so-called co-founder of Greenpeace to give credibility to his accusations.",
"I am also a co-founder of Greenpeace and I have known Patrick Moore for 35 years.... Moore makes accusations that have no basis in fact\".Patrick Moore also reversed his position on nuclear power in 1976, first opposing it and now supporting it.",
"In Australian newspaper ''The Age'', he writes \"Greenpeace is wrong—we must consider nuclear power\".",
"He argues that any realistic plan to reduce reliance on fossil fuels or greenhouse gas emissions need increased use of nuclear energy.",
"Phil Radford, executive director of Greenpeace US responded that nuclear energy is too risky, takes too long to build to address climate change, and claims that most countries, including the U.S., could shift to nearly 100% renewable energy while phasing out nuclear power by 2050.In 2013, Moore criticized Greenpeace's stance on golden rice, an issue where Moore has been joined by other environmentalists such as Mark Lynas, stating that Greenpeace has \"waged a campaign of misinformation, trashed the scientists who are working to bring Golden Rice to the people who need it, and supported the violent destruction of Golden Rice field trials.",
"\"===Brent Spar tanker===Research published in natural science journal ''Nature'' accused Greenpeace of not caring for facts when it criticized the dumping of the Brent Spar tanker, and accused the group of exaggerating the volume of oil that was stored in the tanker.",
"Greenpeace had claimed that the tanker contained 5,500 tonnes of crude oil, while Shell estimated it only contained 50 tonnes.",
"However, the measurements had been made under duress during a protest occupation of the platform, since Shell had refused permission, and Greenpeace activists had been under attack by water cannons and the like.",
"The BBC issued an apology to Greenpeace for having reported that the NGO lied.Shell UK took three years to evaluate the disposal options, concluding that the disposal of the tanker in the deep ocean was the \"Best Practicable Environmental Option\" (BPEO), an option which gained some support within some portion of the scientific community, as it was found by some to be of \"negligible\" environmental impact.",
"British government and Oslo and Paris Commissions (OSPAR) accepted the solution.The resulting NGO campaign against Shell's proposals included letters, boycotts which even escalated to vandalism in Germany, and lobbying at intergovernmental conferences.",
"Binding moratoriums supporting Greenpeace's, ecosystem protection, and the precautionary principle position were issued in more than one intergovernmental meeting, and at the 1998 OSPAR Convention, WWF presented a study of toxic effects on deep sea ecosystems.",
"The meeting confirmed a general prohibition on ocean dumping.",
"Shell had transported the rig to the dumping site, but in the last hours canceled the operation and announced that it had failed in communicating its plans sufficiently to the public, admitting they had underestimated the strength of public opinion.",
"In January 1998, Shell issued a new BPEO indicating recycling the rig as a quay in Norway.In 1999, the Brent Spar container was decommissioned and one side issue that emerged was that the legs of the structure were found to contain cold-water coral species (''Lophelia pertusa'').",
"As a result, the possibility was suggested of keeping the legs of such platforms on the sea bed in future, to serve as habitat.",
"A Greenpeace representative opposed the suggestion, citing the fact that the reefs formed by the coral are at risk, not the coral itself, and that such a move would not promote development of such reefs, and expose coral species to toxic substances found in oil.",
"\"If I was to dump a car in a wood, moss would grow on it, and if I was lucky a bird may even nest in it.",
"But this is not justification to fill our forests with disused cars,\" said Greenpeace campaigner Simon Reddy.===Pascal Husting commute===In 2013 reports noted that Pascal Husting, the director of Greenpeace International's \"international programme\" was commuting 400 km (250 miles) to work by plane, despite Greenpeace's activism to reduce air travel due to carbon footprint.",
"Greenpeace has said \"the growth in aviation is ruining our chances of stopping dangerous climate change\".",
"After a \"public uproar\" Greenpeace announced that Husting would commute by train.===Nazca Lines===In December 2014, Greenpeace activists damaged rock related to the Nazca Lines in Peru while setting up a banner within the lines of one of the famed geoglyphs, and there were concerns that the harm might be irreparable.",
"The activists damaged an area around the hummingbird by walking near the glyph without regulation footwear.",
"Access to the area around the lines is strictly prohibited and special shoes must be worn to avoid damaging the UN World Heritage site.",
"Greenpeace said the activists were \"absolutely careful to protect the Nazca lines,\" but this is contradicted by video and photographs showing the activists wearing conventional shoes (not special protective shoes) while walking on the site.Greenpeace has apologized to the Peruvian people, but Loise Jamie Castillo, Peru's Vice Minister of Cultural Heritage called the apology \"a joke\", because Greenpeace refused to identify the vandals or accept responsibility.",
"Culture Minister Diana Álvarez-Calderón said that evidence gathered during an investigation by the government will be used as part of a legal suit against Greenpeace.",
"\"The damage done is irreparable and the apologies offered by the environmental group aren't enough,\" she said at a news conference.",
"By January 2015, Greenpeace had presented statements of four members of the NGO involved in the action.===Anti-whaling campaign in Norway in the 1990s===During the 1990s Greenpeace conducted many anti-whaling expeditions in Norway.",
"Critics have said that Greenpeace only campaigned against whaling to gain economic donations from the US economy, and it had little to do with saving the environment or the lives of the whales.",
"For example, shark hunting is a more pressing issue, but since sharks are widely feared in the United States, activism to help sharks does not receive as much financial support.",
"Greenpeace has rejected this claim.",
"However, in Norwegian Newspaper Dagbladet on 11 April 2015, Kumi Naidoo admitted that the anti-whale campaign was a \"miscalculation\".",
"Greenpeace holds that whaling was only resumed by Norway after the IWC ban because of political election motives, and faces many explicit hurdles, including decreased demand in Japan and toxic chemical contamination.===Open letter from Nobel laureates===In June 2016, 107 Nobel laureates signed an open letter urging Greenpeace to end its opposition to genetically modified organisms (GMOs).",
"The letter stated:We urge Greenpeace and its supporters to re-examine the experience of farmers and consumers worldwide with crops and foods improved through biotechnology, recognize the findings of authoritative scientific bodies and regulatory agencies, and abandon their campaign against \"GMOs\" in general and Golden Rice in particular.",
"Scientific and regulatory agencies around the world have repeatedly and consistently found crops and foods improved through biotechnology to be as safe as, if not safer than those derived from any other method of production.",
"There has never been a single confirmed case of a negative health outcome for humans or animals from their consumption.",
"Their environmental impacts have been shown repeatedly to be less damaging to the environment, and a boon to global biodiversity.",
"... We call upon governments of the world to ... do everything in their power to oppose Greenpeace's actions and accelerate the access of farmers to all the tools of modern biology, especially seeds improved through biotechnology.",
"... Opposition based on emotion and dogma contradicted by data must be stopped.Greenpeace responded stating that \"Accusations that anyone is blocking genetically engineered 'Golden' rice are false\" and that they support \"investing in climate-resilient ecological agriculture and empowering farmers to access a balanced and nutritious diet, rather than pouring money down the drain for GE 'Golden' rice.",
"\"=== Efforts to curb Arctic Oil Exploration ===In December 2020, Norway's Supreme Court refused to interfere in the work of ongoing oil exploration endeavors which was challenged jointly by Greenpeace and Nature and Youth Norway on the ground that the activity related to oil explorations violate human rights due to its contributing aspect towards carbon emission.",
"The ruling said that the permission granted during 2016 will remain valid as it was not found to violate either 'Norwegian Constitution's right' or 'European Convention on Human Rights'.",
"Greta Thunberg reportedly contributed $29,000 as the lawsuit cost on behalf of the plaintiff Greenpeace and Nature and Youth Norway.=== Vandalism of an aircraft ===In March 2021, nine Greenpeace activists got inside Charles de Gaulle Airport by scaling a fence at the edge of the airport ramp and vandalized on one side of an Air France Boeing 777 with an extendable paint roller.",
"They claimed that was to raise awareness on \"greenwashing\" of climate change and environmental regulation, and as a commentary on a climate bill debate in the French Parliament.",
"Despite warnings from security officers, they refused to surrender.",
"They were later arrested, and sparked security concerns about the airport.",
"The National Airline Pilots Union (SNPL) denounced the act, saying that it is a costly damage, and went against the claims of the activists."
],
[
"Archives",
"There is a Greenpeace Canada fonds at Library and Archives Canada.",
"Archival reference number is R4377."
],
[
"Gallery",
"Greenpeace Hamburg White Out.jpg|Greenpeace boat on the Elbe, Hamburg, Germany, 2007CoalProtest.jpg|Coal protest in Canada, 2009Angra 3-Greenpeace (7345540700).jpg|Anti-nuclear demonstration, Rio de Janeiro, 2009Katowice.",
"Odkrywka w wielkim mieście.jpg|Activists in Poland against an open pit mine, 2014Greenpeace Israel in action against pollution.jpg|Greenpeace Israel in action against pollution, 2015Mersin Greenpeace action activists in 2015 7528.jpg|Nuclear protest in Turkey, 2015CDH - Comissão de Direitos Humanos e Legislação Participativa (21404043203).jpg|Legislative hearing on deforestation in Brasil, 2015 Protest of Greenpeace with coal in front of the German Chancellery 10.jpg|Protest with coal in front of the German Chancellery, 2017Poluezi de mori, CEO!.jpg|Romanian nuclear protest, 2017Concierto Enérgicas de Greenpeace, Madrid 2018, 00.jpg|''Women in Concert for the Energy Revolution'', Sala la Riviera, Madrid 20181Europafüralle demonstration Berlin Greenpeace block 04.jpg|Demonstration in Berlin, 2019"
],
[
"See also",
"* 350.org* Climate Reality Project* Climate Clock* European Renewable Energy Council* Friends of Nature* Fund for Wild Nature* ''How to Change the World'' (2015 documentary film about Greenpeace)* Sea Shepherd Conservation Society* World Wide Fund for Nature* Greenpeace USA* Greenpeace Australia Pacific"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* * Hunter, Robert and McTaggart, David (1978) ''Greenpeace III: Journey into the Bomb'' (Collins).",
"* Hunter, Robert (1979) ''Warriors of the Rainbow: A Chronicle of the Greenpeace Movement'' (Holt, Rinehart and Winston).",
"* King, Michael (1986) ''Death of the Rainbow Warrior'' (Penguin Books).",
"* McCormick, John (1995) ''The Global Environmental Movement'' (John Wiley)* Robie, David (1987) ''Eyes of Fire: The Last Voyage of the Rainbow Warrior'' (New Society Press).",
"* Brown, Michael; May, John (1989) ''The Greenpeace Story'' (Dorling Kindersley, 1991).",
"* * Weyler, Rex (2004), ''Greenpeace: How a Group of Ecologists, Journalists and Visionaries Changed the World'', Rodale * Mulvaney, Kieran; Warford, Mark (1996): ''Witness: Twenty-Five Years on the Environmental Front Line'', Andre Deutsch.",
"* Zelko, Frank (2013): ''Make it a Green Peace.",
"The Rise of Countercultural Environmentalism'' (Oxford University Press, 2013) , book review: Jan-Henrik Meyer (2016): ''Where did Environmentalism come from'' * Zelko, Frank (2017): Scaling Greenpeace: From Local Activism to Global Governance , in: Historical Social Research 42 (2), 318–342."
],
[
"External links",
"*"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"George Whipple"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''George Hoyt Whipple''' (August 28, 1878 – February 1, 1976) was an American physician, pathologist, biomedical researcher, and medical school educator and administrator.",
"Whipple shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1934 with George Richards Minot and William Parry Murphy \"for their discoveries concerning liver therapy in cases of anemia\".",
"This makes Whipple the first of several Nobel laureates affiliated with the University of Rochester."
],
[
"Early life",
"Whipple was born to Ashley Cooper Whipple and Frances Anna Hoyt in Ashland, New Hampshire.",
"Ashley Cooper Whipple was a physician, and his father (George's paternal grandfather) was a physician and President of the New Hampshire Medical Society.",
"Whipple's father died from pneumonia or typhoid fever when George was just shy of two years old.",
"His maternal grandfather also died when Whipple was two years old, and his paternal grandfather died a year later.",
"This left Whipple to be raised by his mother, Frances, and grandmother, Frances Moody Hoyt, who impressed on him the value of hard work and education.Whipple attended Andover prep school and began attending Yale University as an undergraduate in 1896, earning A.B.",
"degree in 1900.During these years, he developed as an outdoorsman, an affinity he would hold lifelong.",
"He wrote in his autobiography about growing up in a lake district, \"I feel very fortunate that I grew up in the country...I became interested in wild life and camping, also hiking, snowshoeing, skating, bob sledding, canoeing, fishing, hunting—all this was an essential part of my life\".",
"He even credited his love for the outdoors as a contributor to his successes in work, study, and teaching.",
"In the summers of prep school and undergrad, he worked at a drugstore and at Squam Lake and Lake Winnipesaukee in New Hampshire providing help and ferry services to the tourists and campers.",
"Of his summer experiences, Whipple said, \"I sometimes think I learned as much during the summer work periods as during the school terms.\""
],
[
"Education",
"As an undergraduate, he became a member of Beta Theta Pi fraternity, and proved to be a prize-winning gymnast, oarsman, and an outstanding science student.",
"His excellence in science was exemplified by his election to Sigma Xi honor society and graduation with senior honors.",
"The interactions Whipple had with biochemists Russell Henry Chittenden and Lafayette Mendel during his senior year at Yale left an indelible mark on his life and career.",
"In his autobiography, Whipple describes Mendel as \"an unusual man who exerted a strong influence on me ... work with him was exciting and never to be forgotten\".With a shortage of funds to finance further education, Whipple took a year off after graduating Yale.",
"During this year, he worked at Dr. Holbrook Military School in Ossining, New York, teaching mathematics and science, and serving as an athletic coach.In 1901, under the advice, persuasion, and guidance of his mother, Whipple attended medical school at Johns Hopkins School of Medicine.",
"He received his M.D.",
"degree in 1905.To gain experience and subsidize his medical school studies, Whipple applied for and was accepted to a teaching assistantship in John J. Abel's Department of Physiological Chemistry.",
"Later, his performance in his first year anatomy course earned him a second-year appointment as a student instructor in anatomy.",
"During this time, his interest in histology developed.",
"Under the mentorship of William Welch, Eugene Opie, and William McCallum, Whipple was inspired to correlate clinical illness and disease, to the tissue findings discovered on autopsy.",
"Together, McCallum and Welch conspired to offer Whipple a position as junior member of the pathology department with the hope it would lead to Whipple become a pediatric pathologist.",
"Ultimately, Whipple accepted the position which shaped his career aspirations to become a pathologist."
],
[
"Career",
"In 1905, Whipple joined the pathology department at Johns Hopkins School of Medicine as an assistant in pathology.",
"He was promoted successively to Assistant, Instructor, Associate and Associate Professor in pathology until he left in 1914.During this time, he spent a year in Panama at Ancon Hospital as a pathologist.",
"In Panama, he worked with Samuel Darling, a resident pathologist, and General Gorgas to gain experience in tropical diseases.",
"This experience afforded him the opportunity to study massive hemolysis associated with blackwater fever.",
"Before returning to Johns Hopkins School of Medicine after his time in Panama, Whipple traveled to Europe and spent time in the laboratories of Krehl and Morawitz in Heidelberg, where he learned about anemia in rabbits.",
"In 1911, Whipple went to Vienna to study hepatic portal vein blood flow and its effects on hepatic functions in the dog with Hans Meyer.In 1914, at 34 years old, Whipple married Katherine Ball Waring of Charleston, South Carolina.",
"They had two children.",
"He was also appointed Professor of Research Medicine, and Director of the Hooper Foundation for Medical Research at the University of California San Francisco medical school.",
"He was dean of that medical school in 1920 and 1921.In 1921, through the persistence of University of Rochester President Benjamin Rush Rhees, Whipple agreed to become a Professor and Chairman of Pathology, and the founding Dean of the yet-to-be-built medical school (URMC).",
"Rhees was so determined to recruit Whipple, he personally flew to UC San Francisco to offer him the opportunity to build the medical school from the ground up.",
"Whipple found this offer attractive because it would fulfil his passion to create a program which fostered an exchange between clinical and preclinical disciplines.",
"His vision for the school included housing the medical school and hospital at the same site to facilitate this exchange.",
"The first students entered URMC in 1925.Whipple categorically discriminated against African-American students during his time as dean, and would send a form letter to applicants rejecting their admission and requesting they apply elsewhere.",
"In 1939, A commission of the New York state legislature found this practice to be in violation of New York's anti-discrimination laws, after which the URMC began to admit African-American medical students."
],
[
"Retirement",
"In 1953, at 75 years old, Whipple retired from the Deanship, and retirement from the University would follow in 1955.He was remembered as a superb teacher.",
"In his autobiography, ''A Dozen Doctors'', Whipple wrote, \"I would be remembered as a teacher\".",
"He spent his retirement years dabbling in pathology department and medical school activities at the University of Rochester, but returned to his outdoors-man roots, filling his time with pheasant hunting, salmon fishing on the Margaree River, and tarpon fishing off the coast in Florida.Whipple died in 1976 at the age of 97 and his ashes were scattered in Rochester's Mount Hope Cemetery.Though he was not related to Allen Whipple, who described the Whipple procedure and Whipple's triad, the two were lifelong friends.",
"The Whipples also had a deep friendship with George Eastman, founder of Rochester-based Eastman Kodak."
],
[
"Whipple's research",
"Over the course of his career, Whipple authored or co-authored more than 300 publications.Whipple's research interests during his career primarily included anemia and the physiology and pathology of the liver.",
"But he also researched and made significant contributions to tuberculosis, pancreatitis, chloroform poisoning in animals, the metabolism of bile pigments and iron, the constituents of the bile, and the regeneration of plasma protein, protein metabolism, and the stroma of the red blood cells.One of his first publications described the role of the lungs, lymphatic system, and gastrointestinal tract in the spread of tubercle bacillus causing tuberculosis.",
"Another one of his early publications described autopsy results from a patient with an accumulation of fatty acids in the walls of the small intestine and lymph nodes.",
"He named this abnormality lipodystrophia intestinalis (intestinal lipodystrophy), and correctly pointed to the bacterial cause of the lipid deposits, resulting in the disease being named Whipple's disease.When Whipple first joined Johns Hopkins School of Medicine as an assistant, he worked under William H. Welch, focusing on the repair and regeneration of liver cells.",
"His research in dogs demonstrated that liver cells had an almost unlimited ability to regenerate.",
"Through his chloroform liver injury studies, Whipple demonstrated that the liver was the site of fibrinogen synthesis.",
"His research elucidated the route by which bile pigments enter circulation and produce jaundice in various parts of the body.Later, he studied bile pigments and their production outside the liver by way of bile fistulas at the Hooper Foundation at UC San Francisco.",
"His interests soon extended to understanding the production of hemoglobin to gain a better understand of how it is metabolized into bile pigments.",
"Co-authored with Hooper, Whipple published 12 papers, from 1915–1917, reporting the following:* Bile pigment bilirubin was a breakdown product of muscle hemoglobin, though red blood cell hemoglobin was the major normal source.",
"* Bile pigment was not reabsorbed and reused in the production of new red blood cells.",
"* The heme moiety of hemoglobin could be converted to bilirubin in both the pleural and peritoneal cavities, in addition to the liver.",
"* Normal liver function was essential for the excretion of bilirubin.",
"* The curve of red blood cell regeneration in anemia, as influenced by dietary factors, like sugar, amino acids and starvation.At the University of Rochester, Whipple's research focus became studying the various factors in diets which contributed to recovery of long-term anemia, particularly in anemic dogs.",
"Along with his research assistant, Frieda Robscheit-Robbins (formally Frieda Robbins), they co-authored 21 publications, from 1925–1930, reporting the following:* Circulating plasma and hemoglobin volumes* The effects of dietary and other factors on bile salt production and secretion* Measurements of blood fibrinogen* The effects of diet, hemorrhage, liver injury, and other factors on plasma fibrinogen levels* Blood regeneration following simple anemiaWhipple and Robscheit-Robbins were regarded as having one of the \"great creative partnerships in medicine\".In his landmark studies, published as a series \"Blood Regeneration in Severe Anemia\" beginning in 1925, Whipple demonstrated that raw liver fed to anemic dogs was the most effective diet additive for reversing the anemia by boosting the production of red blood cells.",
"He would go on to show that foods derived from animal tissue, and cooked apricots also had a positive effect of increasing red blood cells during anemia.",
"Based on these data, Whipple associated the iron content in these dietary factors to the potency of red blood cell regeneration.",
"This data led directly to successful liver treatment of pernicious anemia by George R. Minot and William P. Murphy, despite the main therapeutic mechanism being through B12 rather than iron.",
"This was a remarkable discovery since previously, pernicious anemia was invariably fatal at a young age.",
"For his contribution to this body of work, he was jointly awarded the Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine in 1934 along with Minot and Murphy.In 1937, Whipple collaborated with William B. Hawkins to determine the life-span of the red blood cell in dogs.",
"Simultaneously, with the advent of radioactive iron, Whipple, Paul F. Hahn, and William F. Bale collaborated to study iron absorption and utilization.",
"They demonstrated that iron absorption was highly regulated in the small intestine and was influenced by the amount of iron stores in the body.",
"They also demonstrated that insignificant amounts of iron were normally excreted or lost in the urine, feces, or bile.",
"During this time, Whipple also formulated his theory on \"the dynamic equilibrium between blood and tissue proteins\" based on earlier plasmapheresis experiments he had performed (in the early 1930s) which demonstrated the importance of dietary protein on production of plasma proteins.",
"This formed the foundation of research into mammalian protein metabolism, and led Rudolf Schoenheimer to write ''The Dynamic State of the Body Constituents,'' marking the modern era of biochemistry and biology.Between 1939 and 1943 Leon L. Miller and Whipple collaborated to study the hepato-toxic effects of chloroform anesthesia on dogs.",
"They found that dogs in a protein depleted state sustained lethal liver injury from within anesthesia fifteen minutes; but that feeding these depleted dogs a protein rich meal, particularly rich in L-methionine or L-cystine, prior to anesthesia was protective.",
"This and other studies, led Whipple to the conclusion that S-containing amino acids are protective against liver against toxic agents.During World War II, Whipple tested combinations of dietary amino acids, administered, orally or parenterally, and their effects on plasma protein synthesis.",
"He was able to characterize amino acid mixtures that could satisfy the metabolic requirements necessary to maintain weight, nitrogen balance, and plasma protein and hemoglobin regeneration in the dog.",
"This would ultimately led to human clinical trials which demonstrated that these amino acid mixtures, along with enzymatic digest of casein, could sustain nourishment in patients who could not intake nutrients through the normal gastrointestinal route for extended periods.",
"Intravenous nutrition, referred to as parenteral nutrition, is routinely used today."
],
[
"Nobel Prize, honors and distinctions",
"Whipple shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1934 with George R. Minot and William P. Murphy \"for their discoveries concerning liver therapy in cases of anemia\".In presenting the Nobel Prize, Professor I. Holmgren of the Nobel committee observed that \"Of the three prize winners, it was Whipple who first occupied himself with the investigations for which the prize is now awarded.",
"... Whipple's experiments were planned exceedingly well, and carried out very accurately, and consequently their results can lay claim to absolute reliability.",
"These investigations and results of Whipple's gave Minot and Murphy the idea that an experiment could be made to see whether favorable results might also be obtained in the case of pernicious anemia...by making use of the foods of the kind that Whipple had found to yield favorable results in his experiments regarding anemia from loss of blood.",
"\"Whipple received honorary doctorates from several American and international Universities, including the Universities of Athens and Glasgow.",
"In 1930, along with Minot, he received the Popular Science Monthly Gold Medal and Annual Award.",
"In 1934, he was awarded the William Wood Gerhard Gold Medal of the Pathological Society of Philadelphia.He also was a member of the following organizations:* Rockefeller Foundation, Trustee * Association of Physicians in Vienna, Corresponding Member * Royal Society of Physicians in Budapest* European Society of Haematology* British Medical Association, Foreign Corresponding Member.",
"* Pathological Society of Great Britain and Ireland, Honorary Member * American Philosophical Society, Honorary Member* Society of Experimental Biology and Medicine, Honorary Member * Board of Scientific Directors of the Rockefeller Institute, Member* Board of Trustees of the Rockefeller Institute, Member; Vice-Chairman; and Trustee Emeritus"
],
[
"See also",
"* Whipple House (Ashland, New Hampshire), his birthplace* New Hampshire Historical Marker No.",
"100: George Hoyt Whipple"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* * * * * * * * * * *"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* including the Nobel Lecture, December 12, 1934 ''Hemoglobin Regeneration as Influenced by Diet and Other Factors''* Other biography"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Göktürks"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''Göktürks''', '''Türks''', '''Celestial Turks''' or '''Blue Turks''' (; ) were a nomadic confederation of Turkic peoples in medieval Inner Asia.",
"The Göktürks, under the leadership of Bumin Qaghan (d. 552) and his sons, succeeded the Rouran Khaganate as the main power in the region and established the First Turkic Khaganate, one of several nomadic dynasties that would shape the future geolocation, culture, and dominant beliefs of Turkic peoples."
],
[
"Etymology",
"===Origin===A funerary depiction of long haired Türks in the Kazakh steppe.",
"Miho funerary couch, circa 570.Strictly speaking, the common name \"Göktürk\" emerged from the misreading of the word \"Kök\" meaning Ashina, ruling clan of the historical ethnic group's endonym: which was attested as , or .",
"It is generally accepted that the name ''Türk'' is ultimately derived from the Old-Turkic migration-term 𐱅𐰇𐰼𐰜 ''Türük''/''Törük'', which means 'created, born'.They were known in Middle Chinese historical sources as the ''Tūjué'' (; reconstructed in Middle Chinese as romanized: *''dwət-kuɑt'' > ''tɦut-kyat'').The ethnonym was also recorded in various other Middle Asian languages, such as Sogdian *''Türkit ~ Türküt'', ''tr'wkt'', ''trwkt'', ''turkt'' > ''trwkc'', ''trukč''; Khotanese Saka ''Ttūrka''/''Ttrūka'', Rouran ''to̤ro̤x''/''türǖg'' and Old Tibetan ''Drugu''.===Definition===According to Chinese sources, Tūjué meant \"combat helmet\" (), reportedly because the shape of the Altai Mountains, where they lived, was similar to a combat helmet.",
"Róna-Tas (1991) pointed to a Khotanese-Saka word, ''tturakä'' \"lid\", semantically stretchable to \"helmet\", as a possible source for this folk etymology, yet Golden thinks this connection requires more data.Göktürk means \"Celestial Turk\", or sometimes \"Blue Turk\" (i.e.",
"because sky blue is associated with celestial realms).",
"This is consistent with \"the cult of heavenly ordained rule\" which was a recurrent element of Altaic political culture and as such may have been imbibed by the Göktürks from their predecessors in Mongolia.",
"The traditional interpretation of \"Blue\" in association with peoples is East, as it used in the cardinal system of central asia.",
"thus meaning \"Turks of the East\".",
"The name of the ruling Ashina clan may derive from the Khotanese Saka term for \"deep blue\", ''āššɪna''.According to the American Heritage Dictionary, the word Türk meant \"strong\" in Old Turkic; though Gerhard Doerfer supports this theory, Gerard Clauson points out that \"the word '''Türk''' is never used in the generalized sense of 'strong'\" and that the noun '''Türk''' originally meant \"'the culminating point of maturity' (of a fruit, human being, etc.",
"), but more often used as an adjective meaning (of a fruit) 'just fully ripe'; (of a human being) 'in the prime of life, young, and vigorous'\".The name as used by the Göktürks only applied to themselves, the Göktürk khanates, and their subjects.",
"The Göktürks did not consider other Turkic speaking groups such as the Uyghurs, Tiele, and Kyrgyz to be Türks.",
"In the Orkhon inscriptions, the Toquz Oghuz and the Yenisei Kyrgyz are not referred to as Türks.",
"Similarly, the Uyghurs called themselves Uyghurs and used ''Türk'' exclusively for the Göktürks, whom they portrayed as enemy aliens in their royal inscriptions.",
"The Khazars may have kept the Göktürk tradition alive by claiming descent from the Ashina.",
"When tribal leaders built their khanates, ruling over assorted tribes and tribal unions, the collected people identified themselves politically with the leadership.",
"Turk became the designation for all subjects of the Turk empires.",
"Nonetheless, subordinate tribes and tribal unions retained their original names, identities, and social structures.",
"Memory of the Göktürks and the Ashina had faded by the turn of the millennium.",
"The Karakhanids, Qocho Uyghurs, and Seljuks did not claim descent from the Göktürks."
],
[
"History",
"=== Origins ===Altai region, 5th-6th century ADTurkic horseman (Tomb of An Jia, 579 CE).The Göktürk rulers originated from the Ashina clan, who were first attested to in 439.The ''Book of Sui'' reports that in that year, on October 18, the Tuoba ruler Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei overthrew Juqu Mujian of the Northern Liang in eastern Gansu, whence 500 Ashina families fled northwest to the Rouran Khaganate in the vicinity of Gaochang.According to the ''Book of Zhou'' and ''History of the Northern Dynasties'', the Ashina clan was a component of the Xiongnu confederation, specifically, the Northern Xiongnu tribes or southern Xiongnu \"who settled along the northern Chinese frontier\", according to Edwin G. Pulleyblank.",
"However, this view is contested.",
"Göktürks were also posited as having originated from an obscure Suo state (索國) (MC: *''sâk'') which was situated north of the Xiongnu and had been founded by the Sakas or Xianbei.",
"According to the ''Book of Sui'' and the ''Tongdian'', they were \"mixed Hu (barbarians)\" () from Pingliang (平涼), now in Gansu, Northwest China.",
"Pointing to the Ashina's association with the Northern tribes of the Xiongnu, some researchers (e.g.",
"Duan, Lung, etc.)",
"proposed that Göktürks belonged in particular to the Tiele confederation, likewise Xiongnu-associated, by ancestral lineage.",
"However, Lee and Kuang (2017) state that Chinese sources do not describe the Ashina-led Göktürks as descending from the Dingling or belonging to the Tiele confederation.Chinese sources linked the Hu on their northern borders to the Xiongnu just as Graeco-Roman historiographers called the Pannonian Avars, Huns and Hungarians “Scythians\".",
"Such archaizing was a common literary topos, implying similar geographic origins and nomadic lifestyle but not direct filiation.As part of the heterogeneous Rouran Khaganate, the Turks lived for generations north of the Altai Mountains, where they 'engaged in metal working for the Rouran'.",
"According to Denis Sinor, the rise to power of the Ashina clan represented an 'internal revolution' in the Rouran Khaganate rather than an external conquest.According to Charles Holcombe, the early Turk population was rather heterogeneous and many of the names of Turk rulers, including the two founding members, are not even Turkic.",
"This is supported by evidence from the Orkhon inscriptions, which include several non-Turkic lexemes, possibly representing Uralic or Yeniseian words.",
"Peter Benjamin Golden points out that the khaghans of the Turkic Khaganate, the Ashina, who were of an undetermined ethnic origin, adopted Iranian and Tokharian (or non-Altaic) titles.",
"German Turkologist W.-E. Scharlipp points out that many common terms in Turkic are Iranian in origin.",
"Whatever language the Ashina may have spoken originally, they and those they ruled would all speak Turkic, in a variety of dialects, and create, in a broadly defined sense, a common culture.===Expansion===The Göktürks reached their peak in the late 6th century and began to invade the Sui dynasty of China.",
"However, the war ended due to the division of Turkic nobles and their civil war for the throne of Khagan.",
"With the support of Emperor Wen of Sui, Yami Qaghan won the competition.",
"However, the Göktürk empire was divided to Eastern and Western empires.",
"Weakened by the civil war, Yami Qaghan declared allegiance to the Sui dynasty.",
"When Sui began to decline, Shibi Khagan began to assault its territory and even surrounded Emperor Yang of Sui in Siege of Yanmen (615 AD) with 100,000 cavalry troops.",
"After the collapse of the Sui dynasty, the Göktürks intervened in the ensuing Chinese civil wars, providing support to the northeastern rebel Liu Heita against the rising Tang in 622 and 623.Liu enjoyed a long string of success but was finally routed by Li Shimin and other Tang generals and executed.",
"The Tang dynasty was then established.=== Conquest by the Tang ===Although the Göktürk Khaganate once provided support to the Tang dynasty in the early period of the civil war during the collapse of the Sui dynasty, the conflicts between the Göktürks and Tang finally broke out when Tang was gradually reunifying China proper.",
"The Göktürks began to attack and raid the northern border of the Tang Empire and once marched their main force of 100,000 soldiers to Chang'an, the capital of Tang.",
"The emperor Taizong of the Tang, in spite of the limited resources at his disposal, managed to turn him back.",
"Later, Taizong sent his troops to Mongolia and defeated the main force of Göktürk army in Battle of Yinshan four years later and captured Illig Qaghan in 630 AD.",
"With the submission of the Turkic tribes, the Tang conquered the Mongolian Plateau.From then on, the Eastern Turks were subjugated to China.After a vigorous court debate, Emperor Taizong decided to pardon the Göktürk nobles and offered them positions as imperial guards.",
"However, the proposition was ended by a plan for the assassination of the emperor.",
"On May 19, 639 Ashina Jiesheshuai and his tribesmen directly assaulted Emperor Taizong of Tang at Jiucheng Palace (, in present-day Linyou County, Baoji, Shaanxi).",
"However, they did not succeed and fled to the north, but were caught by pursuers near the Wei River and were killed.",
"Ashina Hexiangu was exiled to Lingbiao.",
"After the unsuccessful raid of Ashina Jiesheshuai, on August 13, 639 Taizong installed Qilibi Khan and ordered the settled Turkic people to follow him north of the Yellow River to settle between the Great Wall of China and the Gobi Desert.",
"However, many Göktürk generals still remained loyal in service to the Tang Empire.Bust of Kul Tigin (684–731) found in Khashaat, Arkhangai Province, Orkhon River valley.",
"Located in the National Museum of Mongolia.===Revival===In 679, Ashide Wenfu and Ashide Fengzhi, who were Turkic leaders of the Chanyu Protectorate (單于大都護府), declared Ashina Nishufu as qaghan and revolted against the Tang dynasty.",
"In 680, Pei Xingjian defeated Ashina Nishufu and his army.",
"Ashina Nishufu was killed by his men.",
"Ashide Wenfu made Ashina Funian a qaghan and again revolted against the Tang dynasty.",
"Ashide Wenfu and Ashina Funian surrendered to Pei Xingjian.",
"On December 5, 681, 54 Göktürks, including Ashide Wenfu and Ashina Funian, were publicly executed in the Eastern Market of Chang'an.",
"In 682, Ilterish Qaghan and Tonyukuk revolted and occupied Heisha Castle (northwest of present-day Hohhot, Inner Mongolia) with the remnants of Ashina Funian's men.",
"The restored Göktürk Khaganate intervened in the war between Tang and Khitan tribes.",
"However, after the death of Bilge Qaghan, the Göktürks could no longer subjugate other Turk tribes in the grasslands.",
"In 744, allied with the Tang dynasty, the Uyghur Khaganate defeated the last Göktürk Khaganate and controlled the Mongolian Plateau."
],
[
"Rulers",
"The Ashina tribe of the Göktürks ruled the First Turkic Khaganate, which then split into the Eastern Turkic Khaganate and the\tWestern Turkic Khaganate, and later the Second Turkic Khaganate, controlling much of Central Asia and the Mongolian Plateau between 552 and 745.The rulers were named \"Khagan\" (Qaghan)."
],
[
"Religion",
"Their religion was polytheistic.",
"The great god was the sky, Tengri, who dispensed the viaticum for the journey of life (qut) and fortune (ulug) and watched over the cosmic order and the political and social order.",
"People prayed to him and sacrificed to him, preferably with a white horse.",
"The ruler, who came from him and derived his authority from him, was raised on a felt saddle to meet him.",
"Tengri issued decrees, brought pressure to bear on human beings, and enforced capital punishment, often by striking the offender with lightning.",
"The many secondary powers – sometimes named deities, sometimes spirits or simply said to be sacred, and almost always associated with Tengri – were the Earth, the Mountain, Water, the Springs, and the Rivers; the master/possessors of all objects, particularly of the land and the waters of the nation; trees, cosmic axes, and sources of life; fire, the symbol of the family and alterego of the shaman; the stars, particularly the sun and the moon, the Pleiades, and Venus, whose image changes over time; Umay, a mother goddess who is none other than the placenta; the threshold and the doorjamb; personifications of Time, the Road, Desire, etc.",
"; heroes and ancestors embodied in the banner, in tablets with inscriptions, and in idols; and spirits wandering or fixed in Penates or in all kinds of holy objects.",
"These and other powers have an uneven force which increases as objects accumulate, as trees form a forest, stones form a cairn, arrows form a quiver, and drops of water form a lake."
],
[
"Genetics",
"A Turk (center) mourning the Buddha, surrounded by Tocharians.",
"Kizil Caves, Mingoi, Maya cave, 550–600 CE.A genetic study published in ''Nature'' in May 2018 examined the remains of four elite Türk soldiers buried between ca.",
"300 AD and 700 AD.",
"50% of the samples of Y-DNA belonged to the West Eurasian haplogroup R1, while the other 50% belonged to East Eurasian haplogroups Q and O.",
"The extracted samples of mtDNA belonged mainly to East Eurasian haplogroups C4b1, A14 and A15c, while one specimen carried the West Eurasian haplogroup H2a.",
"The authors suggested that central Asian nomadic populations may have been Turkicized by an East Asian minority elite, resulting in a small but detectable increase in East Asian ancestry.",
"However, these authors also found that Türkic period individuals were extremely genetically diverse, with some individuals being of near complete West Eurasian descent.",
"To explain this diversity of ancestry, they propose that there were also incoming West Eurasians moving eastward on the Eurasian steppe during the Türkic period, resulting in admixture.A 2020 study analyzed genetic data from 7 early medieval Türk skeletal remains from Eastern Turkic Khaganate burial sites in Mongolia.",
"The authors described the Türk samples as highly diverse, carrying on average 40% West Eurasian, and 60% East Eurasian ancestry.",
"West Eurasian ancestry in the Türks combined Sarmatian-related and BMAC ancestry, while the East Eurasian ancestry was related to Ancient Northeast Asians.",
"The authors also observed that the Western Steppe Herder ancestry in the Türks was largely inherited from male ancestors, which also corresponds with the marked increase of paternal haplogroups such as R and J during the Türkic period in Mongolia.",
"Admixture between East and West Eurasian ancestors of the Türkic samples was dated to 500 CE, or roughly 8 generations prior.",
"Three of the Türkic-affiliated males carried the paternal haplogroups J2a and J1a, two carried haplogroup C-F3830, and one carried R1a-Z93.The analyzed maternal haplogroups were identified as D4, D2, B4, C4, H1 and U7.A 2023 study published in the Journal of Systematics and Evolution analyzed the DNA of Empress Ashina (551–582), a royal Göktürk and immediate descendant of the first Khagans, whose remains were recovered from a mausoleum in Xianyang, China.",
"The authors determined that Empress Ashina belonged to the North-East Asian mtDNA haplogroup F1d.",
"Approximately 96-98% of her autosomal ancestry was of Ancient Northeast Asian origin, while roughly 2-4% was of West Eurasian origin, indicating ancient admixture, and no Chinese (\"Yellow River\") admixture.",
"The results are consistent with a North-East Asian origin of the royal Ashina family and the Göktürk Khaganate.",
"However, the Ashina did not show close genetic affinity with central-steppe Türks and early medieval Türks, who exhibit a high (but variable) degree of West Eurasian ancestry, which indicates that there was genetic sub-structure within the Türkic empire.",
"For example, the ancestry of early medieval Turks was derived from Ancient Northeast Asians for about 62% of their genome, while the remaining 38% was derived from West Eurasians (BMAC and Afanasievo), with the admixture occurring around the year 500 CE.",
"The Ashina was found to share genetic affinities to post-Iron Age Tungusic and Mongolic pastoralists, and was genetically closer to East Asians, while having heterogeneous relationships towards various Turkic-speaking groups in central Asia, suggesting genetic heterogeneity and multiple sources of origin for the population of the Turkic empire.",
"This shows that the Ashina lineage had a dominating contribution on Mongolic and Tungusic speakers but limited contribution on Turkic-speaking populations.",
"According to the authors, these findings \"once again validates a cultural diffusion model over a demic diffusion model for the spread of Turkic languages\" and refutes \"the western Eurasian origin and multiple origin hypotheses\" in favor of an East Asian origin for the royal Ashina family."
],
[
"Gallery"
],
[
"See also",
"*Göktürk family tree*Horses in East Asian warfare*Khazars*Timeline of the Turkic peoples (500–1300)*Silver Deer of Bilge Khan"
],
[
"In popular culture",
"*Kürşat, fictional character based on Göktürk prince Ashina Jiesheshuai*Göktürk-1, Göktürk-2, Göktürk-3 satellites named after Göktürks*Gokturk exoplanet named after Gökturks"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Sources",
"* * * * * * *Great Soviet Encyclopaedia, 3rd ed.",
"Article \"Turkic Khaganate\" ( online ).",
"*Grousset, René.",
"''The Empire of the Steppes''.",
"Rutgers University Press, 1970..*Gumilev, Lev (2007) ''The Göktürks'' (Древние тюрки ;Drevnie ti︠u︡rki).",
"Moscow: AST, 2007..**Yu.",
"Zuev (I︠U︡.",
"A. Zuev) (2002) , ''\"Early Türks: Essays on history and ideology\"'' ( Rannie ti︠u︡rki: ocherki istorii i ideologii), Almaty, Daik-Press, p. 233, * **Wink, André.",
"''Al-Hind: The Making of the Indo-Islamic World''.",
"Brill Academic Publishers, 2002..*Zhu, Xueyuan (朱学渊) (2004) ''The Origins of the Ethnic Groups of Northern China'' (中国北方诸族的源流).",
"Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju (中华书局) *Xue, Zongzheng (薛宗正) (1992) ''A History of the Turks'' (突厥史).",
"Beijing: Chinese Social Sciences Press (中国社会科学出版社) **"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Guilt (emotion)"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Glasgow Botanic Gardens.",
"Kibble Palace.",
"Edwin Roscoe Mullins – ''Cain'' or ''My Punishment is Greater than I can Bear'' (Genesis 4:13), about 1899.",
"'''Guilt''' is a moral emotion that occurs when a person believes or realizes—accurately or not—that they have compromised their own standards of conduct or have violated universal moral standards and bear significant responsibility for that violation.Guilt is closely related to the concept of remorse, regret, as well as shame.Guilt is an important factor in perpetuating obsessive–compulsive disorder symptoms."
],
[
"Etymology",
"The etymology of the word is obscure, and developed its modern spelling from the O.E.",
"form ''gylt'' \"crime, sin, fault, fine, debt\", which is possibly derived from O.E.",
"''gieldan'' \"to pay for, debt\".",
"Because it was used in the Lord's Prayer as the translation for the Latin ''debitum'' and also in Matthew xviii.",
"27, and ''gyltiȝ'' is used to render ''debet'' in Matthew xxiii.",
"18, it has been inferred to have had the primary sense of ‘debt’, though there is no real evidence for this.Its development into a \"sense of guilt\" is first recorded in 1690 as a misuse of its original meaning.",
"\"Guilt by association\" is first recorded in 1941.",
"\"Guilty\" is similarly from O.E.",
"''gyltig'', itself from ''gylt''."
],
[
"Psychology",
"Guilt and its associated causes, advantages, and disadvantages are common themes in psychology and psychiatry.",
"Both in specialized and in ordinary language, guilt is an affective state in which one experiences conflict at having done something that one believes one should not have done (or conversely, having not done something one believes one should have done).",
"It gives rise to a feeling which does not go away easily, driven by 'conscience'.",
"Sigmund Freud described this as the result of a struggle between the ego and the superego – parental imprinting.",
"Freud rejected the role of God as punisher in times of illness or rewarder in time of wellness.",
"While removing one source of guilt from patients, he described another.",
"This was the unconscious force within the individual that contributed to illness, Freud in fact coming to consider \"the obstacle of an unconscious sense of guilt...as the most powerful of all obstacles to recovery.\"",
"For his later explicator, Jacques Lacan, guilt was the inevitable companion of the signifying subject who acknowledged normality in the form of the Symbolic order.Alice Miller claims that \"many people suffer all their lives from this oppressive feeling of guilt, the sense of not having lived up to their parents' expectations....no argument can overcome these guilt feelings, for they have their beginnings in life's earliest period, and from that they derive their intensity.\"",
"This may be linked to what Les Parrott has called \"the disease of false guilt....At the root of false guilt is the idea that what you ''feel'' must be true.",
"\"The philosopher Martin Buber underlined the difference between the Freudian notion of guilt, based on internal conflicts, and ''existential guilt'', based on actual harm done to others.Guilt is often associated with anxiety.",
"In mania, according to Otto Fenichel, the patient succeeds in applying to guilt \"the defense mechanism of denial by overcompensation...re-enacts being a person without guilt feelings.",
"\"In psychological research, guilt can be measured by using questionnaires, such as the Differential Emotions Scale (Izard's DES), or the Dutch Guilt Measurement Instrument.=== Defenses ===According to psychoanalytic theory, defenses against feeling guilt can become an overriding aspect of one's personality.",
"The methods that can be used to avoid guilt are multiple.",
"They include:#Repression, usually used by the superego and ego against instinctive impulses, but on occasion employed against the superego/conscience itself.",
"If the defence fails, then (in a return of the repressed) one may begin to feel guilty years later for actions lightly committed at the time.#Projection is another defensive tool with wide applications.",
"It may take the form of blaming the victim: The victim of someone else's accident or bad luck may be offered criticism, the theory being that the victim may be at fault for having attracted the other person's hostility.",
"Alternatively, not the guilt, but the condemning agency itself, may be projected onto other people, in the hope that they will look upon one's deeds more favorably than one's own conscience (a process that verges on ideas of reference).#Sharing a feeling of guilt, and thereby being less alone with it, is a motive force in both art and joke-telling; while it is also possible to \"borrow\" a sense of guilt from someone who is seen as in the wrong, and thereby assuage one's own.#Self-harm may be used as an alternative to compensating the object of one's transgression – perhaps in the form of not allowing oneself to enjoy opportunities open to one, or benefits due, as a result of uncompensated guilt feelings.=== Behavioral responses ===Guilt proneness is reliably associated with moral character.",
"Similarly, feelings of guilt can prompt subsequent virtuous behavior.",
"People who feel guilty may be more likely to exercise restraint, avoid self-indulgence, and exhibit less prejudice.",
"Guilt appears to prompt reparatory behaviors to alleviate the negative emotions that it engenders.",
"People appear to engage in targeted and specific reparatory behaviors toward the persons they wronged or offended.=== Lack of guilt in psychopaths ===Individuals high in psychopathy lack any true sense of guilt or remorse for harm they may have caused others.",
"Instead, they rationalize their behavior, blame someone else, or deny it outright.",
"People with psychopathy have a tendency to be harmful to themselves and to others.",
"They have little ability to plan ahead for the future.",
"An individual with psychopathy will never find themselves at fault because they will do whatever it takes to benefit themselves without reservation.",
"A person that does not feel guilt or remorse would have no reason to find themselves at fault for something that they did with the intention of hurting another person.",
"To a person high in psychopathy, their actions can always be rationalized to be the fault of another person.",
"This is seen by psychologists as part of a lack of moral reasoning (in comparison with the majority of humans), an inability to evaluate situations in a moral framework, and an inability to develop emotional bonds with other people due to a lack of empathy.One study on psychopaths found that, under certain circumstances, they could willfully empathize with others, and that their empathic reaction initiated the same way it does for controls.",
"Psychopathic criminals were brain-scanned while watching videos of a person harming another individual.",
"The psychopaths' empathic reaction initiated the same way it did for controls when they were instructed to empathize with the harmed individual, and the area of the brain relating to pain was activated when the psychopaths were asked to imagine how the harmed individual felt.",
"The research suggests psychopaths can switch empathy on at will, which would enable them to be both callous and charming.",
"The team who conducted the study say they do not know how to transform this willful empathy into the spontaneous empathy most people have, though they propose it might be possible to rehabilitate psychopaths by helping them to activate their \"empathy switch\".",
"Others suggested that it remains unclear whether psychopaths' experience of empathy was the same as that of controls, and also questioned the possibility of devising therapeutic interventions that would make the empathic reactions more automatic.Neuroscientist Antonio R. Damasio and his colleagues showed that subjects with damage to the ventromedial prefrontal cortex lack the ability to empathically feel their way to moral answers, and that when confronted with moral dilemmas, these brain-damaged patients coldly came up with \"end-justifies-the-means\" answers, leading Damasio to conclude that the point was not that they reached immoral conclusions, but that when they were confronted by a difficult issue – in this case as whether to shoot down a passenger plane hijacked by terrorists before it hits a major city – these patients appear to reach decisions without the anguish that afflicts those with normally functioning brains.",
"According to Adrian Raine, a clinical neuroscientist also at the University of Southern California, one of this study's implications is that society may have to rethink how it judges immoral people: \"Psychopaths often feel no empathy or remorse.",
"Without that awareness, people relying exclusively on reasoning seem to find it harder to sort their way through moral thickets.",
"Does that mean they should be held to different standards of accountability?",
"\"=== Causes ======= Evolutionary theories ====Some evolutionary psychologists theorize that guilt and shame helped maintain beneficial relationships, such as reciprocal altruism.",
"If a person feels guilty when he harms another or fails to reciprocate kindness, he is more likely not to harm others or become too selfish.",
"In this way, he reduces the chances of retaliation by members of his tribe, and thereby increases his survival prospects, and those of the tribe or group.",
"As with any other emotion, guilt can be manipulated to control or influence others.",
"As highly social animals living in large, relatively stable groups, humans need ways to deal with conflicts and events in which they inadvertently or purposefully harm others.",
"If someone causes harm to another, and then feels guilt and demonstrates regret and sorrow, the person harmed is likely to forgive.",
"Thus, guilt makes it possible to forgive, and helps hold the social group together."
],
[
"Collective guilt",
"Collective guilt (or group guilt) is the unpleasant and often emotional reaction that results among a group of individuals when it is perceived that the group illegitimately harmed members of another group.",
"It is often the result of \"sharing a social identity with others whose actions represent a threat to the positivity of that identity\".",
"For an individual to experience collective guilt, he must identify himself as a part of the in-group.",
"\"This produces a perceptual shift from thinking of oneself in terms of 'I' and 'me' to 'us' or 'we'.”"
],
[
"Comparison with shame",
"Guilt and shame are two closely related concepts, but they have key differences that should not be overlooked.",
"Cultural Anthropologist Ruth Benedict describes shame as the result of a violation of cultural or social values, while guilt is conjured up internally when one's personal morals are violated.",
"To put it more simply, the primary difference between shame and guilt is the source that creates the emotion.",
"Shame arises from a real or imagined negative perception coming from others and guilt arises from a negative perception of one's own thoughts or actions.Psychoanalyst Helen Block Lewis stated that, \"The experience of shame is directly about the self, which is the focus of evaluation.",
"In guilt, the self is not the central object of negative evaluation, but rather the thing done is the focus.\"",
"An individual can still possess a positive perception of themselves while also feeling guilt for certain actions or thoughts they took part in.",
"Contrary to guilt, Shame has a more inclusive focus on the individual as a whole.",
"Fossum and Mason's ideas clearly outline this idea in their book Facing Shame.",
"They state that \"While guilt is a painful feeling of regret and responsibility for one's actions, shame is a painful feeling about oneself as a person\".Shame can almost be described as looking at yourself unfavorably through the eyes of others.",
"Psychiatrist Judith Lewis Herman portrays this idea by stating that \"Shame is an acutely self-conscious state in which the self is 'split,' imagining the self in the eyes of the other; by contrast, in guilt the self is unified\".",
"Both shame and guilt are directly related to self-perception, only shame causes the individual to account for the cultural and social beliefs of others.",
"Paul Gilbert talks about the powerful hold that shame can take over someone in his article Evolution, Social Roles, and the Differences in Shame and Guilt.",
"He says that \"The fear of shame and ridicule can be so strong that people will risk serious physical injury or even death to avoid it.",
"One of the reasons for this is because shame can indicate serious damage to social acceptance and a breakdown in a variety of social relationships.",
"The evolutionary root of shame is in a self-focused, social threat system related to competitive behavior and the need to prove oneself acceptable/desirable to others\" Guilt on the other hand evolved from a place of Care-Giving and avoidance of any act that harms others."
],
[
"Cultural views",
"Traditional Japanese society, Korean society and Chinese culture are sometimes said to be \"shame-based\" rather than \"guilt-based\", in that the social consequences of \"getting caught\" are seen as more important than the individual feelings or experiences of the agent (see the work of Ruth Benedict).",
"The same has been said of Ancient Greek society, a culture where, in Bruno Snell's words, if \"honour is destroyed the moral existence of the loser collapses.",
"\"This may lead to more of a focus on etiquette than on ethics as understood in Western civilization, leading some in Western civilizations to question why the word ''ethos'' was adapted from Ancient Greek with such vast differences in cultural norms.",
"Christianity and Islam inherit most notions of guilt from Judaism, Persian, and Roman ideas, mostly as interpreted through Augustine, who adapted Plato's ideas to Christianity.",
"The Latin word for guilt is ''culpa'', a word sometimes seen in law literature, for instance in ''mea culpa'' meaning \"my fault (guilt)\".=== In literature ===Guilt is a main theme in John Steinbeck's ''East of Eden'', Fyodor Dostoyevsky's ''Crime and Punishment'', Tennessee Williams' ''A Streetcar Named Desire'', William Shakespeare's play ''Macbeth'', Edgar Allan Poe's \"The Tell-Tale Heart\" and \"The Black Cat\", and many other works of literature.",
"In Sartre's ''The Flies'', the Furies (in the form of flies) represent the morbid, strangling forces of neurotic guilt which bind us to authoritarian and totalitarian power.Guilt is a major theme in many works by Nathaniel Hawthorne, and is an almost universal concern of novelists who explore inner life and secrets.=== In Epicurean Philosophy ===In his Kyriai Doxai (Principal Doctrines) 17 and 35, Epicurus teaches that we may identify and diagnose guilt by its signs and perturbations.",
"Within his ethical system based on pleasure and pain, guilt manifests as constant fear of detection that emerges from \"secretly doing something contrary to an agreement to not harm one another or be harmed\".Since Epicurus rejects supernatural claims, the easiest way to avoid this perturbation is to avoid the antisocial behavior in order to continue enjoying ataraxia (the state of no-perturbation).",
"However, once guilt is unavoidable, Epicurean Guides recommended confession of one's offenses as a practice that helps to purge the character from its evil tendencies and reform the character.",
"According to Norman DeWitt, author of \"St Paul and Epicurus\", confession was one of the Epicurean practices that was later appropriated by the early Christian communities.=== In the Christian Bible ===Guilt in the Christian Bible is not merely an emotional state; it is also a legal state of deserving punishment.",
"The Hebrew Bible does not have a unique word for guilt, but uses a single word to signify: \"sin, the guilt of it, the punishment due unto it, and a sacrifice for it.\"",
"The Greek New Testament uses a word for guilt that means \"standing exposed to judgment for sin\" (e. g., Romans 3:19).",
"In what Christians call the \"Old Testament\", Christians believe the Bible teaches that, through sacrifice, one's sins can be forgiven (Judaism categorically rejects this idea, holding that forgiveness of sin is exclusively through repentance, and the role of sacrifices was for atonement of sins committed by accident or ignorance ).",
"The New Testament says that forgiveness is given as written in 1 Corinthians 15:3–4: \"3 For what I received I passed on to you as of first importance: that Christ died for our sins according to the Scriptures, for that he was buried, that he was raised on the third day according to the Scriptures.\"",
"In both the Old Testament and the New Testament, salvation is granted based on God's grace and forgiveness (Gen 6:8; 19:19; Exo 33:12–17; 34:6–7).",
"The New Testament says that, in Jesus Christ, God took upon Himself the sins of the world and died on the cross to pay mankind's debt (Rom 6:23).",
"Those who repent and accept Christ's sacrifice for their sins, will be redeemed by God and thus not guilty before Him.",
"They will be granted eternal life which will take effect after the Second Coming of Christ (1 Thess 4:13–18).The Bible agrees with pagan cultures that guilt creates a cost that someone must pay (Heb 9:22).",
"(This assumption was expressed in the previous section, \"Defences\": \"Guilty people punish themselves if they have no opportunity to compensate the transgression that caused them to feel guilty.",
"It was found that self-punishment did not occur if people had an opportunity to compensate the victim of their transgression.\")",
"Unlike pagan deities who demanded that debts for sin be paid by humans, God, according to the Bible, loved humanity enough to pay it Himself (Mat 5:45)."
],
[
"See also"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* Nina Coltart, 'Sin and the Super-ego', in ''Slouching Towards Bethlehem'' (1992)* Adam Phillips, 'Guilt', in ''On Flirtation'' (1994) pp.",
"138–147"
],
[
"External links",
"** Guilt, unconscious sense of* Michael Eigen, 'Guilt in an Age of Psychopathy'* Guilt, BBC Radio 4 discussion with Stephen Mulhall, Miranda Fricker & Oliver Davies (''In Our Time'', 1 Nov. 2007)"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Gold"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Gold''' is a chemical element; it has symbol '''Au''' () and atomic number 79.In pure form, it is a bright, slightly orange-yellow, dense, soft, malleable, and ductile metal.",
"Chemically, gold is a transition metal, a group 11 element, and one of the noble metals.",
"It is one of the least reactive chemical elements being second lowest in the Reactivity series.",
"It is a solid under standard conditions.Gold often occurs in free elemental (native state), as nuggets or grains, in rocks, veins, and alluvial deposits.",
"It occurs in a solid solution series with the native element silver (as in electrum), naturally alloyed with other metals like copper and palladium, and mineral inclusions such as within pyrite.",
"Less commonly, it occurs in minerals as gold compounds, often with tellurium (gold tellurides).Gold is resistant to most acids, though it does dissolve in aqua regia (a mixture of nitric acid and hydrochloric acid), forming a soluble tetrachloroaurate anion.",
"Gold is insoluble in nitric acid alone, which dissolves silver and base metals, a property long used to refine gold and confirm the presence of gold in metallic substances, giving rise to the term 'acid test'.",
"Gold dissolves in alkaline solutions of cyanide, which are used in mining and electroplating.",
"Gold also dissolves in mercury, forming amalgam alloys, and as the gold acts simply as a solute, this is not a chemical reaction.A relatively rare element, gold is a precious metal that has been used for coinage, jewelry, and other work of art throughout recorded history.",
"In the past, a gold standard was often implemented as a monetary policy.",
"Gold coins ceased to be minted as a circulating currency in the 1930s, and the world gold standard was abandoned for a fiat currency system after the Nixon shock measures of 1971.In 2020, the world's largest gold producer was China, followed by Russia and Australia.",
"A total of around 201,296 tonnes of gold exists above ground, .",
"This is equal to a cube with each side measuring roughly .",
"The world's consumption of new gold produced is about 50% in jewelry, 40% in investments, and 10% in industry.",
"Gold's high malleability, ductility, resistance to corrosion and most other chemical reactions, and conductivity of electricity have led to its continued use in corrosion-resistant electrical connectors in all types of computerized devices (its chief industrial use).",
"Gold is also used in infrared shielding, the production of colored glass, gold leafing, and tooth restoration.",
"Certain gold salts are still used as anti-inflammatories in medicine."
],
[
"Characteristics",
"Gold can be drawn into a monatomic wire, and then stretched more before it breaks.A gold nugget of in size can be hammered into a gold foil of about in area.Gold is the most malleable of all metals.",
"It can be drawn into a wire of single-atom width, and then stretched considerably before it breaks.",
"Such nanowires distort via the formation, reorientation, and migration of dislocations and crystal twins without noticeable hardening.",
"A single gram of gold can be beaten into a sheet of , and an avoirdupois ounce into .",
"Gold leaf can be beaten thin enough to become semi-transparent.",
"The transmitted light appears greenish-blue because gold strongly reflects yellow and red.",
"Such semi-transparent sheets also strongly reflect infrared light, making them useful as infrared (radiant heat) shields in the visors of heat-resistant suits and in sun visors for spacesuits.",
"Gold is a good conductor of heat and electricity.Gold has a density of 19.3 g/cm3, almost identical to that of tungsten at 19.25 g/cm3; as such, tungsten has been used in the counterfeiting of gold bars, such as by plating a tungsten bar with gold.",
"By comparison, the density of lead is 11.34 g/cm3, and that of the densest element, osmium, is .=== Color ===Ag–Au–Cu alloysWhereas most metals are gray or silvery white, gold is slightly reddish-yellow.",
"This color is determined by the frequency of plasma oscillations among the metal's valence electrons, in the ultraviolet range for most metals but in the visible range for gold due to relativistic effects affecting the orbitals around gold atoms.",
"Similar effects impart a golden hue to metallic caesium.Common colored gold alloys include the distinctive eighteen-karat rose gold created by the addition of copper.",
"Alloys containing palladium or nickel are also important in commercial jewelry as these produce white gold alloys.",
"Fourteen-karat gold-copper alloy is nearly identical in color to certain bronze alloys, and both may be used to produce police and other badges.",
"Fourteen- and eighteen-karat gold alloys with silver alone appear greenish-yellow and are referred to as green gold.",
"Blue gold can be made by alloying with iron, and purple gold can be made by alloying with aluminium.",
"Less commonly, addition of manganese, indium, and other elements can produce more unusual colors of gold for various applications.Colloidal gold, used by electron-microscopists, is red if the particles are small; larger particles of colloidal gold are blue.=== Isotopes ===Gold has only one stable isotope, , which is also its only naturally occurring isotope, so gold is both a mononuclidic and monoisotopic element.",
"Thirty-six radioisotopes have been synthesized, ranging in atomic mass from 169 to 205.The most stable of these is with a half-life of 186.1 days.",
"The least stable is , which decays by proton emission with a half-life of 30 µs.",
"Most of gold's radioisotopes with atomic masses below 197 decay by some combination of proton emission, α decay, and β+ decay.",
"The exceptions are , which decays by electron capture, and , which decays most often by electron capture (93%) with a minor β− decay path (7%).",
"All of gold's radioisotopes with atomic masses above 197 decay by β− decay.At least 32 nuclear isomers have also been characterized, ranging in atomic mass from 170 to 200.Within that range, only , , , , and do not have isomers.",
"Gold's most stable isomer is with a half-life of 2.27 days.",
"Gold's least stable isomer is with a half-life of only 7 ns.",
"has three decay paths: β+ decay, isomeric transition, and alpha decay.",
"No other isomer or isotope of gold has three decay paths.==== Synthesis ====The possible production of gold from a more common element, such as lead, has long been a subject of human inquiry, and the ancient and medieval discipline of alchemy often focused on it; however, the transmutation of the chemical elements did not become possible until the understanding of nuclear physics in the 20th century.",
"The first synthesis of gold was conducted by Japanese physicist Hantaro Nagaoka, who synthesized gold from mercury in 1924 by neutron bombardment.",
"An American team, working without knowledge of Nagaoka's prior study, conducted the same experiment in 1941, achieving the same result and showing that the isotopes of gold produced by it were all radioactive.",
"In 1980, Glenn Seaborg transmuted several thousand atoms of bismuth into gold at the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory.",
"Gold can be manufactured in a nuclear reactor, but doing so is highly impractical and would cost far more than the value of the gold that is produced."
],
[
"Chemistry",
"Gold(III) chloride solution in waterAlthough gold is the most noble of the noble metals, it still forms many diverse compounds.",
"The oxidation state of gold in its compounds ranges from −1 to +5, but Au(I) and Au(III) dominate its chemistry.",
"Au(I), referred to as the aurous ion, is the most common oxidation state with soft ligands such as thioethers, thiolates, and organophosphines.",
"Au(I) compounds are typically linear.",
"A good example is , which is the soluble form of gold encountered in mining.",
"The binary gold halides, such as AuCl, form zigzag polymeric chains, again featuring linear coordination at Au.",
"Most drugs based on gold are Au(I) derivatives.Au(III) (referred to as auric) is a common oxidation state, and is illustrated by gold(III) chloride, .",
"The gold atom centers in Au(III) complexes, like other d8 compounds, are typically square planar, with chemical bonds that have both covalent and ionic character.",
"Gold(I,III) chloride is also known, an example of a mixed-valence complex.Gold does not react with oxygen at any temperature and, up to 100 °C, is resistant to attack from ozone:Some free halogens react with gold.",
"Gold is strongly attacked by fluorine at dull-red heat to form gold(III) fluoride .",
"Powdered gold reacts with chlorine at 180 °C to form gold(III) chloride .",
"Gold reacts with bromine at 140 °C to form a combination of gold(III) bromide and gold(I) bromide AuBr, but reacts very slowly with iodine to form gold(I) iodide AuI:2 Au{} + 3 F2 ->{}\\atop\\Delta 2 AuF32 Au{} + 3 Cl2 ->{}\\atop\\Delta 2 AuCl32 Au{} + 2 Br2 ->{}\\atop\\Delta AuBr3{} + AuBr2 Au{} + I2 ->{}\\atop\\Delta 2 AuIGold does not react with sulfur directly, but gold(III) sulfide can be made by passing hydrogen sulfide through a dilute solution of gold(III) chloride or chlorauric acid.Unlike sulfur, phosphorus reacts directly with gold at elevated temperatures to produce gold phosphide (Au2P3).Gold readily dissolves in mercury at room temperature to form an amalgam, and forms alloys with many other metals at higher temperatures.",
"These alloys can be produced to modify the hardness and other metallurgical properties, to control melting point or to create exotic colors.Gold is unaffected by most acids.",
"It does not react with hydrofluoric, hydrochloric, hydrobromic, hydriodic, sulfuric, or nitric acid.",
"It does react with selenic acid, and is dissolved by aqua regia, a 1:3 mixture of nitric acid and hydrochloric acid.",
"Nitric acid oxidizes the metal to +3 ions, but only in minute amounts, typically undetectable in the pure acid because of the chemical equilibrium of the reaction.",
"However, the ions are removed from the equilibrium by hydrochloric acid, forming ions, or chloroauric acid, thereby enabling further oxidation:2 Au{} + 6 H2SeO4 ->{}\\atop{200^\\circ\\text{C}} Au2(SeO4)3{} + 3 H2SeO3{} + 3 H2OAu{} + 4HCl{} + HNO3 -> HAuCl4{} + NO\\uparrow + 2H2O Gold is similarly unaffected by most bases.",
"It does not react with aqueous, solid, or molten sodium or potassium hydroxide.",
"It does however, react with sodium or potassium cyanide under alkaline conditions when oxygen is present to form soluble complexes.Common oxidation states of gold include +1 (gold(I) or aurous compounds) and +3 (gold(III) or auric compounds).",
"Gold ions in solution are readily reduced and precipitated as metal by adding any other metal as the reducing agent.",
"The added metal is oxidized and dissolves, allowing the gold to be displaced from solution and be recovered as a solid precipitate.=== Rare oxidation states ===Less common oxidation states of gold include −1, +2, and +5.The −1 oxidation state occurs in aurides, compounds containing the anion.",
"Caesium auride (CsAu), for example, crystallizes in the caesium chloride motif; rubidium, potassium, and tetramethylammonium aurides are also known.",
"Gold has the highest electron affinity of any metal, at 222.8 kJ/mol, making a stable species, analogous to the halides.Gold also has a –1 oxidation state in covalent complexes with the group 4 transition metals, such as in titanium tetraauride and the analogous zirconium and hafnium compounds.",
"These chemicals are expected to form gold-bridged dimers in a manner similar to titanium(IV) hydride.Gold(II) compounds are usually diamagnetic with Au–Au bonds such as .",
"The evaporation of a solution of in concentrated produces red crystals of gold(II) sulfate, .",
"Originally thought to be a mixed-valence compound, it has been shown to contain cations, analogous to the better-known mercury(I) ion, .",
"A gold(II) complex, the tetraxenonogold(II) cation, which contains xenon as a ligand, occurs in .",
"In September 2023, a novel type of metal-halide perovskite material consisting of Au3+ and Au2+ cations in its crystal structure has been found.",
"It has been shown to unexpectedly stable at normal conditions.Gold pentafluoride, along with its derivative anion, , and its difluorine complex, gold heptafluoride, is the sole example of gold(V), the highest verified oxidation state.Some gold compounds exhibit ''aurophilic bonding'', which describes the tendency of gold ions to interact at distances that are too long to be a conventional Au–Au bond but shorter than van der Waals bonding.",
"The interaction is estimated to be comparable in strength to that of a hydrogen bond.Well-defined cluster compounds are numerous.",
"In some cases, gold has a fractional oxidation state.",
"A representative example is the octahedral species ."
],
[
"Origin",
"===Gold production in the universe===Schematic of a NE (left) to SW (right) cross-section through the 2.020-billion-year-old Vredefort impact structure in South Africa and how it distorted the contemporary geological structures.",
"The present erosion level is shown.",
"Johannesburg is located where the Witwatersrand Basin (the yellow layer) is exposed at the \"present surface\" line, just inside the crater rim, on the left.",
"Not to scale.Gold is thought to have been produced in supernova nucleosynthesis, and from the collision of neutron stars, and to have been present in the dust from which the Solar System formed.Traditionally, gold in the universe is thought to have formed by the r-process (rapid neutron capture) in supernova nucleosynthesis, but more recently it has been suggested that gold and other elements heavier than iron may also be produced in quantity by the r-process in the collision of neutron stars.",
"In both cases, satellite spectrometers at first only indirectly detected the resulting gold.",
"However, in August 2017, the spectroscopic signatures of heavy elements, including gold, were observed by electromagnetic observatories in the GW170817 neutron star merger event, after gravitational wave detectors confirmed the event as a neutron star merger.",
"Current astrophysical models suggest that this single neutron star merger event generated between 3 and 13 Earth masses of gold.",
"This amount, along with estimations of the rate of occurrence of these neutron star merger events, suggests that such mergers may produce enough gold to account for most of the abundance of this element in the universe.===Asteroid origin theories===Because the Earth was molten when it was formed, almost all of the gold present in the early Earth probably sank into the planetary core.",
"Therefore, most of the gold that is in the Earth's crust and mantle has in one model thought to have been delivered to Earth later, by asteroid impacts during the Late Heavy Bombardment, about 4 billion years ago.Gold which is reachable by humans has, in one case, been associated with a particular asteroid impact.",
"The asteroid that formed Vredefort impact structure 2.020 billion years ago is often credited with seeding the Witwatersrand basin in South Africa with the richest gold deposits on earth.",
"However, this scenario is now questioned.",
"The gold-bearing Witwatersrand rocks were laid down between 700 and 950 million years before the Vredefort impact.",
"These gold-bearing rocks had furthermore been covered by a thick layer of Ventersdorp lavas and the Transvaal Supergroup of rocks before the meteor struck, and thus the gold did not actually arrive in the asteroid/meteorite.",
"What the Vredefort impact achieved, however, was to distort the Witwatersrand basin in such a way that the gold-bearing rocks were brought to the present erosion surface in Johannesburg, on the Witwatersrand, just inside the rim of the original diameter crater caused by the meteor strike.",
"The discovery of the deposit in 1886 launched the Witwatersrand Gold Rush.",
"Some 22% of all the gold that is ascertained to exist today on Earth has been extracted from these Witwatersrand rocks.===Mantle return theories===Notwithstanding the impact above, much of the rest of the gold on Earth is thought to have been incorporated into the planet since its very beginning, as planetesimals formed the planet's mantle, early in Earth's creation.",
"In 2017, an international group of scientists, established that gold \"came to the Earth's surface from the deepest regions of our planet\", the mantle, evidenced by their findings at Deseado Massif in the Argentinian Patagonia."
],
[
"Occurrence",
"Native gold.On Earth, gold is found in ores in rock formed from the Precambrian time onward.",
"It most often occurs as a native metal, typically in a metal solid solution with silver (i.e.",
"as a gold/silver alloy).",
"Such alloys usually have a silver content of 8–10%.",
"Electrum is elemental gold with more than 20% silver, and is commonly known as white gold.",
"Electrum's color runs from golden-silvery to silvery, dependent upon the silver content.",
"The more silver, the lower the specific gravity.Native gold occurs as very small to microscopic particles embedded in rock, often together with quartz or sulfide minerals such as \"fool's gold\", which is a pyrite.",
"These are called lode deposits.",
"The metal in a native state is also found in the form of free flakes, grains or larger nuggets that have been eroded from rocks and end up in alluvial deposits called placer deposits.",
"Such free gold is always richer at the exposed surface of gold-bearing veins, owing to the oxidation of accompanying minerals followed by weathering; and by washing of the dust into streams and rivers, where it collects and can be welded by water action to form nuggets.Gold sometimes occurs combined with tellurium as the minerals calaverite, krennerite, nagyagite, petzite and sylvanite (see telluride minerals), and as the rare bismuthide maldonite () and antimonide aurostibite ().",
"Gold also occurs in rare alloys with copper, lead, and mercury: the minerals auricupride (), novodneprite () and weishanite ().A 2004 research paper suggests that microbes can sometimes play an important role in forming gold deposits, transporting and precipitating gold to form grains and nuggets that collect in alluvial deposits.A 2013 study has claimed water in faults vaporizes during an earthquake, depositing gold.",
"When an earthquake strikes, it moves along a fault.",
"Water often lubricates faults, filling in fractures and jogs.",
"About below the surface, under very high temperatures and pressures, the water carries high concentrations of carbon dioxide, silica, and gold.",
"During an earthquake, the fault jog suddenly opens wider.",
"The water inside the void instantly vaporizes, flashing to steam and forcing silica, which forms the mineral quartz, and gold out of the fluids and onto nearby surfaces.=== Seawater ===The world's oceans contain gold.",
"Measured concentrations of gold in the Atlantic and Northeast Pacific are 50–150 femtomol/L or 10–30 parts per quadrillion (about 10–30 g/km3).",
"In general, gold concentrations for south Atlantic and central Pacific samples are the same (~50 femtomol/L) but less certain.",
"Mediterranean deep waters contain slightly higher concentrations of gold (100–150 femtomol/L) attributed to wind-blown dust or rivers.",
"At 10 parts per quadrillion the Earth's oceans would hold 15,000 tonnes of gold.",
"These figures are three orders of magnitude less than reported in the literature prior to 1988, indicating contamination problems with the earlier data.A number of people have claimed to be able to economically recover gold from sea water, but they were either mistaken or acted in an intentional deception.",
"Prescott Jernegan ran a gold-from-seawater swindle in the United States in the 1890s, as did an English fraudster in the early 1900s.",
"Fritz Haber did research on the extraction of gold from sea water in an effort to help pay Germany's reparations following World War I.",
"Based on the published values of 2 to 64 ppb of gold in seawater a commercially successful extraction seemed possible.",
"After analysis of 4,000 water samples yielding an average of 0.004 ppb it became clear that extraction would not be possible and he ended the project."
],
[
"History",
"Varna Museum.An Indian tribute-bearer at Apadana, from the Achaemenid satrapy of ''Hindush'', carrying gold on a yoke, circa 500 BC.The Muisca raft, between circa 600–1600 AD.",
"The figure refers to the ceremony of the legend of El Dorado.",
"The ''zipa'' used to cover his body in gold dust, and from his raft, he offered treasures to the ''Guatavita'' goddess in the middle of the sacred lake.",
"This old Muisca tradition became the origin of the legend of El Dorado.This Muisca raft figure is on display in the Gold Museum, Bogotá, Colombia.The earliest recorded metal employed by humans appears to be gold, which can be found free or \"native\".",
"Small amounts of natural gold have been found in Spanish caves used during the late Paleolithic period, .The oldest gold artifacts in the world are from Bulgaria and are dating back to the 5th millennium BC (4,600 BC to 4,200 BC), such as those found in the Varna Necropolis near Lake Varna and the Black Sea coast, thought to be the earliest \"well-dated\" finding of gold artifacts in history.",
"Several prehistoric Bulgarian finds are considered no less old – the golden treasures of Hotnitsa, Durankulak, artifacts from the Kurgan settlement of Yunatsite near Pazardzhik, the golden treasure Sakar, as well as beads and gold jewelry found in the Kurgan settlement of Provadia – Solnitsata (\"salt pit\").",
"However, Varna gold is most often called the oldest since this treasure is the largest and most diverse.Gold artifacts probably made their first appearance in Ancient Egypt at the very beginning of the pre-dynastic period, at the end of the fifth millennium BC and the start of the fourth, and smelting was developed during the course of the 4th millennium; gold artifacts appear in the archeology of Lower Mesopotamia during the early 4th millennium.",
"As of 1990, gold artifacts found at the Wadi Qana cave cemetery of the 4th millennium BC in West Bank were the earliest from the Levant.",
"Gold artifacts such as the golden hats and the Nebra disk appeared in Central Europe from the 2nd millennium BC Bronze Age.The oldest known map of a gold mine was drawn in the 19th Dynasty of Ancient Egypt (1320–1200 BC), whereas the first written reference to gold was recorded in the 12th Dynasty around 1900 BC.",
"Egyptian hieroglyphs from as early as 2600 BC describe gold, which King Tushratta of the Mitanni claimed was \"more plentiful than dirt\" in Egypt.",
"Egypt and especially Nubia had the resources to make them major gold-producing areas for much of history.",
"One of the earliest known maps, known as the Turin Papyrus Map, shows the plan of a gold mine in Nubia together with indications of the local geology.",
"The primitive working methods are described by both Strabo and Diodorus Siculus, and included fire-setting.",
"Large mines were also present across the Red Sea in what is now Saudi Arabia.Ancient golden Kritonios Crown, funerary or marriage material, 370–360 BC; from a grave in Armento, BasilicataGold is mentioned in the Amarna letters numbered 19 and 26 from around the 14th century BC.Gold is mentioned frequently in the Old Testament, starting with Genesis 2:11 (at Havilah), the story of the golden calf, and many parts of the temple including the Menorah and the golden altar.",
"In the New Testament, it is included with the gifts of the magi in the first chapters of Matthew.",
"The Book of Revelation 21:21 describes the city of New Jerusalem as having streets \"made of pure gold, clear as crystal\".",
"Exploitation of gold in the south-east corner of the Black Sea is said to date from the time of Midas, and this gold was important in the establishment of what is probably the world's earliest coinage in Lydia around 610 BC.",
"The legend of the golden fleece dating from eighth century BCE may refer to the use of fleeces to trap gold dust from placer deposits in the ancient world.",
"From the 6th or 5th century BC, the Chu (state) circulated the Ying Yuan, one kind of square gold coin.In Roman metallurgy, new methods for extracting gold on a large scale were developed by introducing hydraulic mining methods, especially in Hispania from 25 BC onwards and in Dacia from 106 AD onwards.",
"One of their largest mines was at Las Medulas in León, where seven long aqueducts enabled them to sluice most of a large alluvial deposit.",
"The mines at Roşia Montană in Transylvania were also very large, and until very recently, still mined by opencast methods.",
"They also exploited smaller deposits in Britain, such as placer and hard-rock deposits at Dolaucothi.",
"The various methods they used are well described by Pliny the Elder in his encyclopedia ''Naturalis Historia'' written towards the end of the first century AD.During Mansa Musa's (ruler of the Mali Empire from 1312 to 1337) hajj to Mecca in 1324, he passed through Cairo in July 1324, and was reportedly accompanied by a camel train that included thousands of people and nearly a hundred camels where he gave away so much gold that it depressed the price in Egypt for over a decade, causing high inflation.",
"A contemporary Arab historian remarked:Gold coin of Eucratides I (171–145 BC), one of the Hellenistic rulers of ancient Ai-Khanoum.",
"This is the largest known gold coin minted in antiquity (; ).The European exploration of the Americas was fueled in no small part by reports of the gold ornaments displayed in great profusion by Native American peoples, especially in Mesoamerica, Peru, Ecuador and Colombia.",
"The Aztecs regarded gold as the product of the gods, calling it literally \"god excrement\" (''teocuitlatl'' in Nahuatl), and after Moctezuma II was killed, most of this gold was shipped to Spain.",
"However, for the indigenous peoples of North America gold was considered useless and they saw much greater value in other minerals which were directly related to their utility, such as obsidian, flint, and slate.El Dorado is applied to a legendary story in which precious stones were found in fabulous abundance along with gold coins.",
"The concept of El Dorado underwent several transformations, and eventually accounts of the previous myth were also combined with those of a legendary lost city.",
"El Dorado, was the term used by the Spanish Empire to describe a mythical tribal chief (zipa) of the Muisca native people in Colombia, who, as an initiation rite, covered himself with gold dust and submerged in Lake Guatavita.",
"The legends surrounding El Dorado changed over time, as it went from being a man, to a city, to a kingdom, and then finally to an empire.Beginning in the early modern period, European exploration and colonization of West Africa was driven in large part by reports of gold deposits in the region, which was eventually referred to by Europeans as the \"Gold Coast\".",
"From the late 15th to early 19th centuries, European trade in the region was primarily focused in gold, along with ivory and slaves.",
"The gold trade in West Africa was dominated by the Ashanti Empire, who initially traded with the Portuguese before branching out and trading with British, French, Spanish and Danish merchants.",
"British desires to secure control of West African gold deposits played a role in the Anglo-Ashanti wars of the late 19th century, which saw the Ashanti Empire annexed by Britain.Gold played a role in western culture, as a cause for desire and of corruption, as told in children's fables such as Rumpelstiltskin—where Rumpelstiltskin turns hay into gold for the peasant's daughter in return for her child when she becomes a princess—and the stealing of the hen that lays golden eggs in Jack and the Beanstalk.The top prize at the Olympic Games and many other sports competitions is the gold medal.75% of the presently accounted for gold has been extracted since 1910, two-thirds since 1950.One main goal of the alchemists was to produce gold from other substances, such as lead — presumably by the interaction with a mythical substance called the philosopher's stone.",
"Trying to produce gold led the alchemists to systematically find out what can be done with substances, and this laid the foundation for today's chemistry, which can produce gold (albeit uneconomically) by using nuclear transmutation.",
"Their symbol for gold was the circle with a point at its center (☉), which was also the astrological symbol and the ancient Chinese character for the Sun.The Dome of the Rock is covered with an ultra-thin golden glassier.",
"The Sikh Golden temple, the Harmandir Sahib, is a building covered with gold.",
"Similarly the Wat Phra Kaew emerald Buddhist temple (wat) in Thailand has ornamental gold-leafed statues and roofs.",
"Some European king and queen's crowns were made of gold, and gold was used for the bridal crown since antiquity.",
"An ancient Talmudic text circa 100 AD describes Rachel, wife of Rabbi Akiva, receiving a \"Jerusalem of Gold\" (diadem).",
"A Greek burial crown made of gold was found in a grave circa 370 BC.Gold leaf MET DP260372.jpg|Minoan jewellery, 2300–2100 BC, gold, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New YorkEarrings from Shulgi.JPG|Sumerian earrings with cuneiform inscriptions, 2093–2046 BC, gold, Sulaymaniyah Museum, Sulaymaniyah, IraqFile:Aegina treasure 10.jpg|Minoan cup, part of the Aegina Treasure, 1850–1550 BC, gold, British MuseumStatuette of Amun MET DT553.jpg|Ancient Egyptian statuette of Amun, 945–715 BC, gold, Metropolitan Museum of ArtAnillo de Sheshonq (46627183381).jpg|Ancient Egyptian signet ring, 664–525 BC, gold, British MuseumFile:Openwork dagger handle-IMG 4418-black.jpg|Ancient Chinese cast openwork dagger hilt, 6th–5th centuries BC, gold, British MuseumGold stater MET DP138743.jpg|Ancient Greek stater, 323–315 BC, gold, Metropolitan Museum of ArtGold funerary wreath MET DP257471.jpg|Etruscan funerary wreath, 4th–3rd century BC, gold, Metropolitan Museum of ArtGold aureus of Hadrian MET DP104782b.jpg|Roman aureus of Hadrian, 134–138 AD, gold, Metropolitan Museum of ArtLime Container (Poporo) MET DT1262.jpg|Quimbaya lime container, 5th–9th century, gold, Metropolitan Museum of ArtFile:British Museum - Room 41 (20626313758).jpg|Anglo-Saxon belt buckle from Sutton Hoo with a niello interlace pattern, 7th century, gold, British MuseumByzantium, 11th century - Scyphate - 2001.25 - Cleveland Museum of Art.tif|Byzantine scyphate, 1059–1067, gold, Cleveland Museum of Art, Cleveland, Ohio, USADouble Bat-Head Figure Pendant MET DT935.jpg|Pre-Columbian pendant with two bat-head warriors who carry spears, 11th–16th century, gold, Metropolitan Museum of ArtFile:AHOTWgold lama.JPG|Inca hollow model of a llama, 14th-15th centuries, gold, British MuseumFile:The Judgement of Paris, Waddeson Bequest.jpg|Renaissance hat badge that shows the Judgment of Paris, 16th century, enamelled gold, British MuseumBox with scene depicting Roman hero Gaius Mucius Scaevola before the Etruscan king Lars Porsena MET DP170836 (cropped).jpg|Rococo box, by George Michael Moser, 1741, gold, Metropolitan Museum of ArtJean Joseph de Saint-Germain - Candelabrum - 1946.81 - Cleveland Museum of Art.tif|Rococo candelabrum, by Jean Joseph de Saint-Germain, 1750, gilt bronze, Cleveland Museum of ArtTabatière Minerve, Mercure, Pégase (Louvre, OA 2121).jpg|Rococo snuff box with Minerva, by Jean-Malquis Lequin, 1750–1752, gold and painted enamel, LouvreFile:Tabatière J-Frémin (Louvre, OA 6857).jpg|Louis XVI style snuff box, by Jean Frémin, 1763–1764, gold and painted enamel, LouvreFile:Washstand (athénienne or lavabo) MET DP106594.jpg|Neoclassical washstand (athénienne or lavabo), 1800–1814, legs, base and shelf of yew wood, gilt bronze mounts, iron plate beneath shelf, Metropolitan Museum of Art\tFile:Clock, French, circa 1835-1840, gilt and patinated bronze, inherited from Maurice Quentin Bauchart, 1911, inv.",
"17741, Museum of Decorative Arts, Paris.jpg|Gothic Revival clock, unknown French maker, 1835-1840, gilt and patinated bronze, Museum of Decorative Arts, ParisFile:Teapot, by Alphonse Debain, from Paris, 1900, gilt silver and ivory, inv.",
"2021.63.1 MAD Paris.jpg|Art Nouveau teapot, by Alphonse Debain, gilt silver and ivory, Museum of Decorative Arts=== Etymology ===An early mention of gold in the ''Beowulf''''Gold'' is cognate with similar words in many Germanic languages, deriving via Proto-Germanic *''gulþą'' from Proto-Indo-European *''ǵʰelh₃-'' .The symbol ''Au'' is from the Latin .",
"The Proto-Indo-European ancestor of ''aurum'' was ''*h₂é-h₂us-o-'', meaning .",
"This word is derived from the same root (Proto-Indo-European ''*h₂u̯es-'' ) as ''*h₂éu̯sōs'', the ancestor of the Latin word .",
"This etymological relationship is presumably behind the frequent claim in scientific publications that meant .=== Culture ===Gold crafts from the Philippines prior to Western contactIn popular culture gold is a high standard of excellence, often used in awards.",
"Great achievements are frequently rewarded with gold, in the form of gold medals, gold trophies and other decorations.",
"Winners of athletic events and other graded competitions are usually awarded a gold medal.",
"Many awards such as the Nobel Prize are made from gold as well.",
"Other award statues and prizes are depicted in gold or are gold plated (such as the Academy Awards, the Golden Globe Awards, the Emmy Awards, the Palme d'Or, and the British Academy Film Awards).Aristotle in his ethics used gold symbolism when referring to what is now known as the golden mean.",
"Similarly, gold is associated with perfect or divine principles, such as in the case of the golden ratio and the golden rule.",
"Gold is further associated with the wisdom of aging and fruition.",
"The fiftieth wedding anniversary is golden.",
"A person's most valued or most successful latter years are sometimes considered \"golden years\".",
"The height of a civilization is referred to as a golden age.====Religion====The Agusan image, depicting a deity from northeast MindanaoThe first known prehistoric human usages of gold were religious in nature.In some forms of Christianity and Judaism, gold has been associated both with the sacred and evil.",
"In the Book of Exodus, the Golden Calf is a symbol of idolatry, while in the Book of Genesis, Abraham was said to be rich in gold and silver, and Moses was instructed to cover the Mercy Seat of the Ark of the Covenant with pure gold.",
"In Byzantine iconography the halos of Christ, Virgin Mary and the saints are often golden.In Islam, gold (along with silk) is often cited as being forbidden for men to wear.",
"Abu Bakr al-Jazaeri, quoting a hadith, said that \"the wearing of silk and gold are forbidden on the males of my nation, and they are lawful to their women\".",
"This, however, has not been enforced consistently throughout history, e.g.",
"in the Ottoman Empire.",
"Further, small gold accents on clothing, such as in embroidery, may be permitted.In ancient Greek religion and mythology, Theia was seen as the goddess of gold, silver and other gems.According to Christopher Columbus, those who had something of gold were in possession of something of great value on Earth and a substance to even help souls to paradise.Wedding rings are typically made of gold.",
"It is long lasting and unaffected by the passage of time and may aid in the ring symbolism of eternal vows before God and the perfection the marriage signifies.",
"In Orthodox Christian wedding ceremonies, the wedded couple is adorned with a golden crown (though some opt for wreaths, instead) during the ceremony, an amalgamation of symbolic rites.On 24 August 2020, Israeli archaeologists discovered a trove of early Islamic gold coins near the central city of Yavne.",
"Analysis of the extremely rare collection of 425 gold coins indicated that they were from the late 9th century.",
"Dating to around 1,100 years back, the gold coins were from the Abbasid Caliphate."
],
[
"Production",
"link=File:Gold_-_world_production_trend.svg%3Flang=enAccording to the United States Geological Survey in 2016, about of gold has been accounted for, of which 85% remains in active use.=== Mining and prospecting ===A miner underground at Pumsaint gold mine, Wales; .Grasberg mine, Indonesia is the world's largest gold mine.Since the 1880s, South Africa has been the source of a large proportion of the world's gold supply, and about 22% of the gold presently accounted is from South Africa.",
"Production in 1970 accounted for 79% of the world supply, about 1,480 tonnes.",
"In 2007 China (with 276 tonnes) overtook South Africa as the world's largest gold producer, the first time since 1905 that South Africa had not been the largest.In 2020, China was the world's leading gold-mining country, followed in order by Russia, Australia, the United States, Canada, and Ghana.Relative sizes of an block of gold ore and the of gold that can be extracted from it, Toi gold mine, Japan.In South America, the controversial project Pascua Lama aims at exploitation of rich fields in the high mountains of Atacama Desert, at the border between Chile and Argentina.It has been estimated that up to one-quarter of the yearly global gold production originates from artisanal or small scale mining.The city of Johannesburg located in South Africa was founded as a result of the Witwatersrand Gold Rush which resulted in the discovery of some of the largest natural gold deposits in recorded history.",
"The gold fields are confined to the northern and north-western edges of the Witwatersrand basin, which is a thick layer of archean rocks located, in most places, deep under the Free State, Gauteng and surrounding provinces.",
"These Witwatersrand rocks are exposed at the surface on the Witwatersrand, in and around Johannesburg, but also in isolated patches to the south-east and south-west of Johannesburg, as well as in an arc around the Vredefort Dome which lies close to the center of the Witwatersrand basin.",
"From these surface exposures the basin dips extensively, requiring some of the mining to occur at depths of nearly , making them, especially the Savuka and TauTona mines to the south-west of Johannesburg, the deepest mines on earth.",
"The gold is found only in six areas where archean rivers from the north and north-west formed extensive pebbly Braided river deltas before draining into the \"Witwatersrand sea\" where the rest of the Witwatersrand sediments were deposited.The Second Boer War of 1899–1901 between the British Empire and the Afrikaner Boers was at least partly over the rights of miners and possession of the gold wealth in South Africa.Gold prospecting at the Ivalo River in the Finnish Lapland in 1898During the 19th century, gold rushes occurred whenever large gold deposits were discovered.",
"The first documented discovery of gold in the United States was at the Reed Gold Mine near Georgeville, North Carolina in 1803.The first major gold strike in the United States occurred in a small north Georgia town called Dahlonega.",
"Further gold rushes occurred in California, Colorado, the Black Hills, Otago in New Zealand, a number of locations across Australia, Witwatersrand in South Africa, and the Klondike in Canada.Grasberg mine located in Papua, Indonesia is the largest gold mine in the world.=== Extraction and refining ===Gold Nuggets found in Arizona.Gold extraction is most economical in large, easily mined deposits.",
"Ore grades as little as 0.5 parts per million (ppm) can be economical.",
"Typical ore grades in open-pit mines are 1–5 ppm; ore grades in underground or hard rock mines are usually at least 3 ppm.",
"Because ore grades of 30 ppm are usually needed before gold is visible to the naked eye, in most gold mines the gold is invisible.The average gold mining and extraction costs were about $317 per troy ounce in 2007, but these can vary widely depending on mining type and ore quality; global mine production amounted to 2,471.1 tonnes.After initial production, gold is often subsequently refined industrially by the Wohlwill process which is based on electrolysis or by the Miller process, that is chlorination in the melt.",
"The Wohlwill process results in higher purity, but is more complex and is only applied in small-scale installations.",
"Other methods of assaying and purifying smaller amounts of gold include parting and inquartation as well as cupellation, or refining methods based on the dissolution of gold in aqua regia.===Recycling===In 1997, recycled gold accounted for approximately 20% of the 2700 tons of gold supplied to the market.",
"Jewelry companies such as Generation Collection and computer companies including Dell conduct recyclingAs of 2020, the amount of carbon dioxide produced in mining a kilogram of gold is 16 tonnes, while recycling a kilogram of gold produces 53 kilograms of equivalent.",
"Approximately 30 percent of the global gold supply is recycled and not mined as of 2020.=== Consumption ===+ Gold jewelry consumption by country (in tonnes) Country 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 442.37 745.70 986.3 864 974 376.96 428.00 921.5 817.5 1120.1 150.28 128.61 199.5 161 190 75.16 74.07 143 118 175.2 77.75 72.95 69.1 58.5 72.2 60.12 67.50 76.7 81.9 73.3 67.60 63.37 60.9 58.1 77.1 56.68 53.43 36 47.8 57.3 41.00 32.75 55 52.3 68 31.75 27.35 22.6 21.1 23.4Other Persian Gulf Countries 24.10 21.97 22 19.9 24.6 21.85 18.50 −30.1 7.6 21.3 18.83 15.87 15.5 12.1 17.5 15.08 14.36 100.8 77 92.2 7.33 6.28 107.4 80.9 140.1'''Total''' '''1466.86''' '''1770.71''' '''2786.12 ''' '''2477.7''' '''3126.1 '''''Other Countries'' ''251.6'' ''254.0'' ''390.4'' ''393.5'' ''450.7'''''World Total''' '''1718.46''' '''2024.71''' '''3176.52''' '''2871.2''' '''3576.8'''The consumption of gold produced in the world is about 50% in jewelry, 40% in investments, and 10% in industry.According to the World Gold Council, China was the world's largest single consumer of gold in 2013, overtaking India.=== Pollution ===Gold production is associated with contribution to hazardous pollution.Low-grade gold ore may contain less than one ppm gold metal; such ore is ground and mixed with sodium cyanide to dissolve the gold.",
"Cyanide is a highly poisonous chemical, which can kill living creatures when exposed in minute quantities.",
"Many cyanide spills from gold mines have occurred in both developed and developing countries which killed aquatic life in long stretches of affected rivers.",
"Environmentalists consider these events major environmental disasters.",
"Up to thirty tons of used ore can be dumped as waste for producing one troy ounce of gold.",
"Gold ore dumps are the source of many heavy elements such as cadmium, lead, zinc, copper, arsenic, selenium and mercury.",
"When sulfide-bearing minerals in these ore dumps are exposed to air and water, the sulfide transforms into sulfuric acid which in turn dissolves these heavy metals facilitating their passage into surface water and ground water.",
"This process is called acid mine drainage.",
"These gold ore dumps contain long-term, highly hazardous waste.It was once common to use mercury to recover gold from ore, but today the use of mercury is largely limited to small-scale individual miners.",
"Minute quantities of mercury compounds can reach water bodies, causing heavy metal contamination.",
"Mercury can then enter into the human food chain in the form of methylmercury.",
"Mercury poisoning in humans causes incurable brain function damage and severe retardation.Gold extraction is also a highly energy-intensive industry, extracting ore from deep mines and grinding the large quantity of ore for further chemical extraction requires nearly 25 kWh of electricity per gram of gold produced."
],
[
"Monetary use",
"Two golden 20 kr coins from the Scandinavian Monetary Union, which was based on a gold standard.",
"The coin to the left is Swedish and the right one is Danish.Gold has been widely used throughout the world as money, for efficient indirect exchange (versus barter), and to store wealth in hoards.",
"For exchange purposes, mints produce standardized gold bullion coins, bars and other units of fixed weight and purity.The first known coins containing gold were struck in Lydia, Asia Minor, around 600 BC.",
"The ''talent'' coin of gold in use during the periods of Grecian history both before and during the time of the life of Homer weighed between 8.42 and 8.75 grams.",
"From an earlier preference in using silver, European economies re-established the minting of gold as coinage during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries.Bills (that mature into gold coin) and gold certificates (convertible into gold coin at the issuing bank) added to the circulating stock of gold standard money in most 19th century industrial economies.",
"In preparation for World War I the warring nations moved to fractional gold standards, inflating their currencies to finance the war effort.",
"Post-war, the victorious countries, most notably Britain, gradually restored gold-convertibility, but international flows of gold via bills of exchange remained embargoed; international shipments were made exclusively for bilateral trades or to pay war reparations.After World War II gold was replaced by a system of nominally convertible currencies related by fixed exchange rates following the Bretton Woods system.",
"Gold standards and the direct convertibility of currencies to gold have been abandoned by world governments, led in 1971 by the United States' refusal to redeem its dollars in gold.",
"Fiat currency now fills most monetary roles.",
"Switzerland was the last country to tie its currency to gold; this was ended by a referendum in 1999.Central banks continue to keep a portion of their liquid reserves as gold in some form, and metals exchanges such as the London Bullion Market Association still clear transactions denominated in gold, including future delivery contracts.",
"Today, gold mining output is declining.",
"With the sharp growth of economies in the 20th century, and increasing foreign exchange, the world's gold reserves and their trading market have become a small fraction of all markets and fixed exchange rates of currencies to gold have been replaced by floating prices for gold and gold future contract.",
"Though the gold stock grows by only 1% or 2% per year, very little metal is irretrievably consumed.",
"Inventory above ground would satisfy many decades of industrial and even artisan uses at current prices.The gold proportion (fineness) of alloys is measured by karat (k).",
"Pure gold (commercially termed ''fine'' gold) is designated as 24 karat, abbreviated 24k.",
"English gold coins intended for circulation from 1526 into the 1930s were typically a standard 22k alloy called crown gold, for hardness (American gold coins for circulation after 1837 contain an alloy of 0.900 fine gold, or 21.6 kt).Although the prices of some platinum group metals can be much higher, gold has long been considered the most desirable of precious metals, and its value has been used as the standard for many currencies.",
"Gold has been used as a symbol for purity, value, royalty, and particularly roles that combine these properties.",
"Gold as a sign of wealth and prestige was ridiculed by Thomas More in his treatise ''Utopia''.",
"On that imaginary island, gold is so abundant that it is used to make chains for slaves, tableware, and lavatory seats.",
"When ambassadors from other countries arrive, dressed in ostentatious gold jewels and badges, the Utopians mistake them for menial servants, paying homage instead to the most modestly dressed of their party.The ISO 4217 currency code of gold is XAU.",
"Many holders of gold store it in form of bullion coins or bars as a hedge against inflation or other economic disruptions, though its efficacy as such has been questioned; historically, it has not proven itself reliable as a hedging instrument.",
"Modern bullion coins for investment or collector purposes do not require good mechanical wear properties; they are typically fine gold at 24k, although the American Gold Eagle and the British gold sovereign continue to be minted in 22k (0.92) metal in historical tradition, and the South African Krugerrand, first released in 1967, is also 22k (0.92).The ''special issue'' Canadian Gold Maple Leaf coin contains the highest purity gold of any bullion coin, at 99.999% or 0.99999, while the ''popular issue'' Canadian Gold Maple Leaf coin has a purity of 99.99%.",
"In 2006, the United States Mint began producing the American Buffalo gold bullion coin with a purity of 99.99%.",
"The Australian Gold Kangaroos were first coined in 1986 as the Australian Gold Nugget but changed the reverse design in 1989.Other modern coins include the Austrian Vienna Philharmonic bullion coin and the Chinese Gold Panda.=== Price ===Gold price history in 1960–2020.Like other precious metals, gold is measured by troy weight and by grams.",
"The proportion of gold in the alloy is measured by ''karat'' (k), with 24 karat (24k) being pure gold (100%), and lower karat numbers proportionally less (18k = 75%).",
"The purity of a gold bar or coin can also be expressed as a decimal figure ranging from 0 to 1, known as the millesimal fineness, such as 0.995 being nearly pure.The price of gold is determined through trading in the gold and derivatives markets, but a procedure known as the Gold Fixing in London, originating in September 1919, provides a daily benchmark price to the industry.",
"The afternoon fixing was introduced in 1968 to provide a price when US markets are open.",
", gold was valued at around $42 per gram ($1,300 per troy ounce).=== History ===Historically gold coinage was widely used as currency; when paper money was introduced, it typically was a receipt redeemable for gold coin or bullion.",
"In a monetary system known as the gold standard, a certain weight of gold was given the name of a unit of currency.",
"For a long period, the United States government set the value of the US dollar so that one troy ounce was equal to $20.67 ($0.665 per gram), but in 1934 the dollar was devalued to $35.00 per troy ounce ($0.889/g).",
"By 1961, it was becoming hard to maintain this price, and a pool of US and European banks agreed to manipulate the market to prevent further currency devaluation against increased gold demand.The largest gold depository in the world is that of the U.S. Federal Reserve Bank in New York, which holds about 3% of the gold known to exist and accounted for today, as does the similarly laden U.S. Bullion Depository at Fort Knox.",
"In 2005 the World Gold Council estimated total global gold supply to be 3,859 tonnes and demand to be 3,754 tonnes, giving a surplus of 105 tonnes.After 15 August 1971 Nixon shock, the price began to greatly increase, and between 1968 and 2000 the price of gold ranged widely, from a high of $850 per troy ounce ($27.33/g) on 21 January 1980, to a low of $252.90 per troy ounce ($8.13/g) on 21 June 1999 (London Gold Fixing).",
"Prices increased rapidly from 2001, but the 1980 high was not exceeded until 3 January 2008, when a new maximum of $865.35 per troy ounce was set.",
"Another record price was set on 17 March 2008, at $1023.50 per troy ounce ($32.91/g).On 2 December 2009, gold reached a new high closing at $1,217.23.Gold further rallied hitting new highs in May 2010 after the European Union debt crisis prompted further purchase of gold as a safe asset.",
"On 1 March 2011, gold hit a new all-time high of $1432.57, based on investor concerns regarding ongoing unrest in North Africa as well as in the Middle East.From April 2001 to August 2011, spot gold prices more than quintupled in value against the US dollar, hitting a new all-time high of $1,913.50 on 23 August 2011, prompting speculation that the long secular bear market had ended and a bull market had returned.",
"However, the price then began a slow decline towards $1200 per troy ounce in late 2014 and 2015.In August 2020, the gold price picked up to US$2060 per ounce after a total growth of 59% from August 2018 to October 2020, a period during which it outplaced the Nasdaq total return of 54%.Gold futures are traded on the COMEX exchange.",
"These contacts are priced in USD per troy ounce (1 troy ounce = 31.1034768 grams).",
"Below are the CQG contract specifications outlining the futures contracts:+Contract SpecificationsGold (GCA)Exchange:COMEX Sector: Metal Tick Size:0.1 Tick Value: 10 USD BPV: 100Denomination: USDDecimal Place: 1"
],
[
"Other applications",
"=== Jewelry ===Moche gold necklace depicting feline heads.",
"Larco Museum Collection, Lima, Peru.A 21.5k yellow gold pendant watch so-called \"Boule de Genève\" (Geneva ball), .Because of the softness of pure (24k) gold, it is usually alloyed with other metals for use in jewelry, altering its hardness and ductility, melting point, color and other properties.",
"Alloys with lower karat rating, typically 22k, 18k, 14k or 10k, contain higher percentages of copper, silver, palladium or other base metals in the alloy.",
"Nickel is toxic, and its release from nickel white gold is controlled by legislation in Europe.",
"Palladium-gold alloys are more expensive than those using nickel.",
"High-karat white gold alloys are more resistant to corrosion than are either pure silver or sterling silver.",
"The Japanese craft of Mokume-gane exploits the color contrasts between laminated colored gold alloys to produce decorative wood-grain effects.By 2014, the gold jewelry industry was escalating despite a dip in gold prices.",
"Demand in the first quarter of 2014 pushed turnover to $23.7 billion according to a World Gold Council report.Gold solder is used for joining the components of gold jewelry by high-temperature hard soldering or brazing.",
"If the work is to be of hallmarking quality, the gold solder alloy must match the fineness of the work, and alloy formulas are manufactured to color-match yellow and white gold.",
"Gold solder is usually made in at least three melting-point ranges referred to as Easy, Medium and Hard.",
"By using the hard, high-melting point solder first, followed by solders with progressively lower melting points, goldsmiths can assemble complex items with several separate soldered joints.",
"Gold can also be made into thread and used in embroidery.=== Electronics ===Only 10% of the world consumption of new gold produced goes to industry, but by far the most important industrial use for new gold is in fabrication of corrosion-free electrical connectors in computers and other electrical devices.",
"For example, according to the World Gold Council, a typical cell phone may contain 50 mg of gold, worth about 2 dollars 82 cents.",
"But since nearly one billion cell phones are produced each year, a gold value of US$2.82 in each phone adds to US$2.82 billion in gold from just this application.",
"(Prices updated to November 2022)Though gold is attacked by free chlorine, its good conductivity and general resistance to oxidation and corrosion in other environments (including resistance to non-chlorinated acids) has led to its widespread industrial use in the electronic era as a thin-layer coating on electrical connectors, thereby ensuring good connection.",
"For example, gold is used in the connectors of the more expensive electronics cables, such as audio, video and USB cables.",
"The benefit of using gold over other connector metals such as tin in these applications has been debated; gold connectors are often criticized by audio-visual experts as unnecessary for most consumers and seen as simply a marketing ploy.",
"However, the use of gold in other applications in electronic sliding contacts in highly humid or corrosive atmospheres, and in use for contacts with a very high failure cost (certain computers, communications equipment, spacecraft, jet aircraft engines) remains very common.Besides sliding electrical contacts, gold is also used in electrical contacts because of its resistance to corrosion, electrical conductivity, ductility and lack of toxicity.",
"Switch contacts are generally subjected to more intense corrosion stress than are sliding contacts.",
"Fine gold wires are used to connect semiconductor devices to their packages through a process known as wire bonding.The concentration of free electrons in gold metal is 5.91×1022 cm−3.Gold is highly conductive to electricity and has been used for electrical wiring in some high-energy applications (only silver and copper are more conductive per volume, but gold has the advantage of corrosion resistance).",
"For example, gold electrical wires were used during some of the Manhattan Project's atomic experiments, but large high-current silver wires were used in the calutron isotope separator magnets in the project.It is estimated that 16% of the world's presently-accounted-for gold and 22% of the world's silver is contained in electronic technology in Japan.=== Medicine ===Metallic and gold compounds have long been used for medicinal purposes.",
"Gold, usually as the metal, is perhaps the most anciently administered medicine (apparently by shamanic practitioners) and known to Dioscorides.",
"In medieval times, gold was often seen as beneficial for the health, in the belief that something so rare and beautiful could not be anything but healthy.",
"Even some modern esotericists and forms of alternative medicine assign metallic gold a healing power.In the 19th century gold had a reputation as an anxiolytic, a therapy for nervous disorders.",
"Depression, epilepsy, migraine, and glandular problems such as amenorrhea and impotence were treated, and most notably alcoholism (Keeley, 1897).The apparent paradox of the actual toxicology of the substance suggests the possibility of serious gaps in the understanding of the action of gold in physiology.",
"Only salts and radioisotopes of gold are of pharmacological value, since elemental (metallic) gold is inert to all chemicals it encounters inside the body (e.g., ingested gold cannot be attacked by stomach acid).",
"Some gold salts do have anti-inflammatory properties and at present two are still used as pharmaceuticals in the treatment of arthritis and other similar conditions in the US (sodium aurothiomalate and auranofin).",
"These drugs have been explored as a means to help to reduce the pain and swelling of rheumatoid arthritis, and also (historically) against tuberculosis and some parasites.Gold alloys are used in restorative dentistry, especially in tooth restorations, such as crowns and permanent bridges.",
"The gold alloys' slight malleability facilitates the creation of a superior molar mating surface with other teeth and produces results that are generally more satisfactory than those produced by the creation of porcelain crowns.",
"The use of gold crowns in more prominent teeth such as incisors is favored in some cultures and discouraged in others.Colloidal gold preparations (suspensions of gold nanoparticles) in water are intensely red-colored, and can be made with tightly controlled particle sizes up to a few tens of nanometers across by reduction of gold chloride with citrate or ascorbate ions.",
"Colloidal gold is used in research applications in medicine, biology and materials science.",
"The technique of immunogold labeling exploits the ability of the gold particles to adsorb protein molecules onto their surfaces.",
"Colloidal gold particles coated with specific antibodies can be used as probes for the presence and position of antigens on the surfaces of cells.",
"In ultrathin sections of tissues viewed by electron microscopy, the immunogold labels appear as extremely dense round spots at the position of the antigen.Gold, or alloys of gold and palladium, are applied as conductive coating to biological specimens and other non-conducting materials such as plastics and glass to be viewed in a scanning electron microscope.",
"The coating, which is usually applied by sputtering with an argon plasma, has a triple role in this application.",
"Gold's very high electrical conductivity drains electrical charge to earth, and its very high density provides stopping power for electrons in the electron beam, helping to limit the depth to which the electron beam penetrates the specimen.",
"This improves definition of the position and topography of the specimen surface and increases the spatial resolution of the image.",
"Gold also produces a high output of secondary electrons when irradiated by an electron beam, and these low-energy electrons are the most commonly used signal source used in the scanning electron microscope.The isotope gold-198 (half-life 2.7 days) is used in nuclear medicine, in some cancer treatments and for treating other diseases.=== Cuisine ===Cake with gold decoration served at the Amstel Hotel, Amsterdam * Gold can be used in food and has the E number 175.In 2016, the European Food Safety Authority published an opinion on the re-evaluation of gold as a food additive.",
"Concerns included the possible presence of minute amounts of gold nanoparticles in the food additive, and that gold nanoparticles have been shown to be genotoxic in mammalian cells in vitro.",
"* Gold leaf, flake or dust is used on and in some gourmet foods, notably sweets and drinks as decorative ingredient.",
"Gold flake was used by the nobility in medieval Europe as a decoration in food and drinks,* Danziger Goldwasser (German: Gold water of Danzig) or Goldwasser () is a traditional German herbal liqueur produced in what is today Gdańsk, Poland, and Schwabach, Germany, and contains flakes of gold leaf.",
"There are also some expensive (c. $1000) cocktails which contain flakes of gold leaf.",
"However, since metallic gold is inert to all body chemistry, it has no taste, it provides no nutrition, and it leaves the body unaltered.",
"* Vark is a foil composed of a pure metal that is sometimes gold, and is used for garnishing sweets in South Asian cuisine.=== Miscellanea ===Mirror for the James Webb Space Telescope coated in gold to reflect infrared lightKamakshi Amman Temple with golden roof, Kanchipuram.",
"* Gold produces a deep, intense red color when used as a coloring agent in cranberry glass.",
"* In photography, gold toners are used to shift the color of silver bromide black-and-white prints towards brown or blue tones, or to increase their stability.",
"Used on sepia-toned prints, gold toners produce red tones.",
"Kodak published formulas for several types of gold toners, which use gold as the chloride.",
"* Gold is a good reflector of electromagnetic radiation such as infrared and visible light, as well as radio waves.",
"It is used for the protective coatings on many artificial satellites, in infrared protective faceplates in thermal-protection suits and astronauts' helmets, and in electronic warfare planes such as the EA-6B Prowler.",
"* Gold is used as the reflective layer on some high-end CDs.",
"* Automobiles may use gold for heat shielding.",
"McLaren uses gold foil in the engine compartment of its F1 model.",
"* Gold can be manufactured so thin that it appears semi-transparent.",
"It is used in some aircraft cockpit windows for de-icing or anti-icing by passing electricity through it.",
"The heat produced by the resistance of the gold is enough to prevent ice from forming.",
"* Gold is attacked by and dissolves in alkaline solutions of potassium or sodium cyanide, to form the salt gold cyanide—a technique that has been used in extracting metallic gold from ores in the cyanide process.",
"Gold cyanide is the electrolyte used in commercial electroplating of gold onto base metals and electroforming.",
"* Gold chloride (chloroauric acid) solutions are used to make colloidal gold by reduction with citrate or ascorbate ions.",
"Gold chloride and gold oxide are used to make cranberry or red-colored glass, which, like colloidal gold suspensions, contains evenly sized spherical gold nanoparticles.",
"* Gold, when dispersed in nanoparticles, can act as a heterogeneous catalyst of chemical reactions.",
"* In recent years, gold has been used as a symbol of pride by the autism rights movement, as its symbol Au could be seen as similar to the word \"autism\"."
],
[
"Toxicity",
"Pure metallic (elemental) gold is non-toxic and non-irritating when ingested and is sometimes used as a food decoration in the form of gold leaf.",
"Metallic gold is also a component of the alcoholic drinks Goldschläger, Gold Strike, and Goldwasser.",
"Metallic gold is approved as a food additive in the EU (E175 in the Codex Alimentarius).",
"Although the gold ion is toxic, the acceptance of metallic gold as a food additive is due to its relative chemical inertness, and resistance to being corroded or transformed into soluble salts (gold compounds) by any known chemical process which would be encountered in the human body.Soluble compounds (gold salts) such as gold chloride are toxic to the liver and kidneys.",
"Common cyanide salts of gold such as potassium gold cyanide, used in gold electroplating, are toxic by virtue of both their cyanide and gold content.",
"There are rare cases of lethal gold poisoning from potassium gold cyanide.",
"Gold toxicity can be ameliorated with chelation therapy with an agent such as dimercaprol.Gold metal was voted Allergen of the Year in 2001 by the American Contact Dermatitis Society; gold contact allergies affect mostly women.",
"Despite this, gold is a relatively non-potent contact allergen, in comparison with metals like nickel.A sample of the fungus ''Aspergillus niger'' was found growing from gold mining solution; and was found to contain cyano metal complexes, such as gold, silver, copper, iron and zinc.",
"The fungus also plays a role in the solubilization of heavy metal sulfides."
],
[
"See also",
"Iron pyrite or \"fool's gold\"* Bulk leach extractable gold, for sampling ores* Chrysiasis (dermatological condition)* Digital gold currency, form of electronic currency* GFMS business consultancy* Gold fingerprinting, use impurities to identify an alloy* Gold standard in banking* List of countries by gold production* Tumbaga, alloy of gold and copper* Iron pyrite, fool's gold* Nordic gold, non-gold copper alloy"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* Bachmann, H. G. ''The lure of gold : an artistic and cultural history'' (2006) online* Bernstein, Peter L. ''The Power of Gold: The History of an Obsession'' (2000) online* Brands, H.W.",
"''The Age of Gold: The California Gold Rush and the New American Dream'' (2003) excerpt* Buranelli, Vincent.",
"''Gold : an illustrated history'' (1979) online' wide-ranging popular history* Cassel, Gustav.",
"\"The restoration of the gold standard.\"",
"''Economica'' 9 (1923): 171–185.online* Eichengreen, Barry.",
"''Golden Fetters: The Gold Standard and the Great Depression, 1919–1939'' (Oxford UP, 1992).",
"* Ferguson, Niall.",
"''The Ascent of Money – Financial History of the World'' (2009) online* Hart, Matthew, Gold: The Race for the World's Most Seductive Metal ''Gold : the race for the world's most seductive metal\", New York: Simon & Schuster, 2013.",
"''* Johnson, Harry G. \"The gold rush of 1968 in retrospect and prospect\".",
"''American Economic Review'' 59.2 (1969): 344–348.online* Kwarteng, Kwasi.",
"''War and Gold: A Five-Hundred-Year History of Empires, Adventures, and Debt'' (2014) online* Vilar, Pierre.",
"''A History of Gold and Money, 1450–1920'' (1960).",
"online* Vilches, Elvira.",
"''New World Gold: Cultural Anxiety and Monetary Disorder in Early Modern Spain'' (2010)."
],
[
"External links",
"* * Chemistry in its element podcast (MP3) from the Royal Society of Chemistry's Chemistry World: Gold www.rsc.org* Gold at ''The Periodic Table of Videos'' (University of Nottingham)* ''Getting Gold'' 1898 book, www.lateralscience.co.uk* , www.epa.gov* Gold element information – rsc.org"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Gallium"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Gallium''' is a chemical element; it has symbol '''Ga''' and atomic number 31.Discovered by the French chemist Paul-Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran in 1875, gallium is in group 13 of the periodic table and is similar to the other metals of the group (aluminium, indium, and thallium).Elemental gallium is a relatively soft, silvery metal at standard temperature and pressure.",
"In its liquid state, it becomes silvery white.",
"If enough force is applied, solid gallium may fracture conchoidally.",
"Since its discovery in 1875, gallium has widely been used to make alloys with low melting points.",
"It is also used in semiconductors, as a dopant in semiconductor substrates.The melting point of gallium is used as a temperature reference point.",
"Gallium alloys are used in thermometers as a non-toxic and environmentally friendly alternative to mercury, and can withstand higher temperatures than mercury.",
"An even lower melting point of , well below the freezing point of water, is claimed for the alloy galinstan (62–95% gallium, 5–22% indium, and 0–16% tin by weight), but that may be the freezing point with the effect of supercooling.Gallium does not occur as a free element in nature, but as gallium(III) compounds in trace amounts in zinc ores (such as sphalerite) and in bauxite.",
"Elemental gallium is a liquid at temperatures greater than , and will melt in a person's hands at normal human body temperature of .Gallium is predominantly used in electronics.",
"Gallium arsenide, the primary chemical compound of gallium in electronics, is used in microwave circuits, high-speed switching circuits, and infrared circuits.",
"Semiconducting gallium nitride and indium gallium nitride produce blue and violet light-emitting diodes and diode lasers.",
"Gallium is also used in the production of artificial gadolinium gallium garnet for jewelry.",
"Gallium is considered a technology-critical element by the United States National Library of Medicine and Frontiers Media.Gallium has no known natural role in biology.",
"Gallium(III) behaves in a similar manner to ferric salts in biological systems and has been used in some medical applications, including pharmaceuticals and radiopharmaceuticals."
],
[
"Physical properties",
"Crystallization of gallium from the meltElemental gallium is not found in nature, but it is easily obtained by smelting.",
"Very pure gallium is a silvery blue metal that fractures conchoidally like glass.",
"Gallium liquid expands by 3.10% when it solidifies; therefore, it should not be stored in glass or metal containers because the container may rupture when the gallium changes state.",
"Gallium shares the higher-density liquid state with a short list of other materials that includes water, silicon, germanium, bismuth, and plutonium.Liquid gallium at Gallium forms alloys with most metals.",
"It readily diffuses into cracks or grain boundaries of some metals such as aluminium, aluminium–zinc alloys and steel, causing extreme loss of strength and ductility called liquid metal embrittlement.The melting point of gallium, at 302.9146 K (29.7646 °C, 85.5763 °F), is just above room temperature, and is approximately the same as the average summer daytime temperatures in Earth's mid-latitudes.",
"This melting point (mp) is one of the formal temperature reference points in the International Temperature Scale of 1990 (ITS-90) established by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM).",
"The triple point of gallium, 302.9166 K (29.7666 °C, 85.5799 °F), is used by the US National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) in preference to the melting point.The melting point of gallium allows it to melt in the human hand, and then solidify if removed.",
"The liquid metal has a strong tendency to supercool below its melting point/freezing point: Ga nanoparticles can be kept in the liquid state below 90 K. Seeding with a crystal helps to initiate freezing.",
"Gallium is one of the four non-radioactive metals (with caesium, rubidium, and mercury) that are known to be liquid at, or near, normal room temperature.",
"Of the four, gallium is the only one that is neither highly reactive (as are rubidium and caesium) nor highly toxic (as is mercury) and can, therefore, be used in metal-in-glass high-temperature thermometers.",
"It is also notable for having one of the largest liquid ranges for a metal, and for having (unlike mercury) a low vapor pressure at high temperatures.",
"Gallium's boiling point, 2676 K, is nearly nine times higher than its melting point on the absolute scale, the greatest ratio between melting point and boiling point of any element.",
"Unlike mercury, liquid gallium metal wets glass and skin, along with most other materials (with the exceptions of quartz, graphite, gallium(III) oxide and PTFE), making it mechanically more difficult to handle even though it is substantially less toxic and requires far fewer precautions than mercury.",
"Gallium painted onto glass is a brilliant mirror.",
"For this reason as well as the metal contamination and freezing-expansion problems, samples of gallium metal are usually supplied in polyethylene packets within other containers.+Properties of gallium for different crystal axesProperty''a'' ''b'' ''c''α (~25 °C, μm/m)161131ρ (29.7 °C, nΩ·m)54317481ρ (0 °C, nΩ·m)48015471.6ρ (77 K, nΩ·m)10130.814.3ρ (4.2 K, pΩ·m)13.86.81.6Gallium does not crystallize in any of the simple crystal structures.",
"The stable phase under normal conditions is orthorhombic with 8 atoms in the conventional unit cell.",
"Within a unit cell, each atom has only one nearest neighbor (at a distance of 244 pm).",
"The remaining six unit cell neighbors are spaced 27, 30 and 39 pm farther away, and they are grouped in pairs with the same distance.",
"Many stable and metastable phases are found as function of temperature and pressure.The bonding between the two nearest neighbors is covalent; hence Ga2 dimers are seen as the fundamental building blocks of the crystal.",
"This explains the low melting point relative to the neighbor elements, aluminium and indium.",
"This structure is strikingly similar to that of iodine and may form because of interactions between the single 4p electrons of gallium atoms, further away from the nucleus than the 4s electrons and the Ar3d10 core.",
"This phenomenon recurs with mercury with its \"pseudo-noble-gas\" Xe4f145d106s2 electron configuration, which is liquid at room temperature.",
"The 3d10 electrons do not shield the outer electrons very well from the nucleus and hence the first ionisation energy of gallium is greater than that of aluminium.",
"Ga2 dimers do not persist in the liquid state and liquid gallium exhibits a complex low-coordinated structure in which each gallium atom is surrounded by 10 others, rather than 11–12 neighbors typical of most liquid metals.The physical properties of gallium are highly anisotropic, i.e.",
"have different values along the three major crystallographic axes ''a'', ''b'', and ''c'' (see table), producing a significant difference between the linear (α) and volume thermal expansion coefficients.",
"The properties of gallium are strongly temperature-dependent, particularly near the melting point.",
"For example, the coefficient of thermal expansion increases by several hundred percent upon melting.===Isotopes===Gallium has 31 known isotopes, ranging in mass number from 56 to 86.Only two isotopes are stable and occur naturally, gallium-69 and gallium-71.Gallium-69 is more abundant: it makes up about 60.1% of natural gallium, while gallium-71 makes up the remaining 39.9%.",
"All the other isotopes are radioactive, with gallium-67 being the longest-lived (half-life 3.261 days).",
"Isotopes lighter than gallium-69 usually decay through beta plus decay (positron emission) or electron capture to isotopes of zinc, although the lightest few (mass numbers 56–59) decay through prompt proton emission.",
"Isotopes heavier than gallium-71 decay through beta minus decay (electron emission), possibly with delayed neutron emission, to isotopes of germanium, while gallium-70 can decay through both beta minus decay and electron capture.",
"Gallium-67 is unique among the light isotopes in having only electron capture as a decay mode, as its decay energy is not sufficient to allow positron emission.",
"Gallium-67 and gallium-68 (half-life 67.7 min) are both used in nuclear medicine."
],
[
"Chemical properties",
"Gallium is found primarily in the +3 oxidation state.",
"The +1 oxidation state is also found in some compounds, although it is less common than it is for gallium's heavier congeners indium and thallium.",
"For example, the very stable GaCl2 contains both gallium(I) and gallium(III) and can be formulated as GaIGaIIICl4; in contrast, the monochloride is unstable above 0 °C, disproportionating into elemental gallium and gallium(III) chloride.",
"Compounds containing Ga–Ga bonds are true gallium(II) compounds, such as GaS (which can be formulated as Ga24+(S2−)2) and the dioxan complex Ga2Cl4(C4H8O2)2.===Aqueous chemistry===Strong acids dissolve gallium, forming gallium(III) salts such as (gallium nitrate).",
"Aqueous solutions of gallium(III) salts contain the hydrated gallium ion, .",
"Gallium(III) hydroxide, , may be precipitated from gallium(III) solutions by adding ammonia.",
"Dehydrating at 100 °C produces gallium oxide hydroxide, GaO(OH).Alkaline hydroxide solutions dissolve gallium, forming ''gallate'' salts (not to be confused with identically named gallic acid salts) containing the anion.",
"Gallium hydroxide, which is amphoteric, also dissolves in alkali to form gallate salts.",
"Although earlier work suggested as another possible gallate anion, it was not found in later work.===Oxides and chalcogenides===Gallium reacts with the chalcogens only at relatively high temperatures.",
"At room temperature, gallium metal is not reactive with air and water because it forms a passive, protective oxide layer.",
"At higher temperatures, however, it reacts with atmospheric oxygen to form gallium(III) oxide, .",
"Reducing with elemental gallium in vacuum at 500 °C to 700 °C yields the dark brown gallium(I) oxide, .",
"is a very strong reducing agent, capable of reducing to .",
"It disproportionates at 800 °C back to gallium and .Gallium(III) sulfide, , has 3 possible crystal modifications.",
"It can be made by the reaction of gallium with hydrogen sulfide () at 950 °C.",
"Alternatively, can be used at 747 °C::2 + 3 → + 6 Reacting a mixture of alkali metal carbonates and with leads to the formation of ''thiogallates'' containing the anion.",
"Strong acids decompose these salts, releasing in the process.",
"The mercury salt, , can be used as a phosphor.Gallium also forms sulfides in lower oxidation states, such as gallium(II) sulfide and the green gallium(I) sulfide, the latter of which is produced from the former by heating to 1000 °C under a stream of nitrogen.The other binary chalcogenides, and , have the zincblende structure.",
"They are all semiconductors but are easily hydrolysed and have limited utility.===Nitrides and pnictides===Gallium reacts with ammonia at 1050 °C to form gallium nitride, GaN.",
"Gallium also forms binary compounds with phosphorus, arsenic, and antimony: gallium phosphide (GaP), gallium arsenide (GaAs), and gallium antimonide (GaSb).",
"These compounds have the same structure as ZnS, and have important semiconducting properties.",
"GaP, GaAs, and GaSb can be synthesized by the direct reaction of gallium with elemental phosphorus, arsenic, or antimony.",
"They exhibit higher electrical conductivity than GaN.",
"GaP can also be synthesized by reacting with phosphorus at low temperatures.Gallium forms ternary nitrides; for example:: + → Similar compounds with phosphorus and arsenic are possible: and .",
"These compounds are easily hydrolyzed by dilute acids and water.===Halides===Gallium(III) oxide reacts with fluorinating agents such as HF or to form gallium(III) fluoride, .",
"It is an ionic compound strongly insoluble in water.",
"However, it dissolves in hydrofluoric acid, in which it forms an adduct with water, .",
"Attempting to dehydrate this adduct forms .",
"The adduct reacts with ammonia to form , which can then be heated to form anhydrous .Gallium trichloride is formed by the reaction of gallium metal with chlorine gas.",
"Unlike the trifluoride, gallium(III) chloride exists as dimeric molecules, , with a melting point of 78 °C.",
"Eqivalent compounds are formed with bromine and iodine, and .Like the other group 13 trihalides, gallium(III) halides are Lewis acids, reacting as halide acceptors with alkali metal halides to form salts containing anions, where X is a halogen.",
"They also react with alkyl halides to form carbocations and .When heated to a high temperature, gallium(III) halides react with elemental gallium to form the respective gallium(I) halides.",
"For example, reacts with Ga to form ::2 Ga + 3 GaCl (g)At lower temperatures, the equilibrium shifts toward the left and GaCl disproportionates back to elemental gallium and .",
"GaCl can also be produced by reacting Ga with HCl at 950 °C; the product can be condensed as a red solid.Gallium(I) compounds can be stabilized by forming adducts with Lewis acids.",
"For example::GaCl + → The so-called \"gallium(II) halides\", , are actually adducts of gallium(I) halides with the respective gallium(III) halides, having the structure .",
"For example::GaCl + → ===Hydrides===Like aluminium, gallium also forms a hydride, , known as ''gallane'', which may be produced by reacting lithium gallanate () with gallium(III) chloride at −30 °C::3 + → 3 LiCl + 4 In the presence of dimethyl ether as solvent, polymerizes to .",
"If no solvent is used, the dimer (''digallane'') is formed as a gas.",
"Its structure is similar to diborane, having two hydrogen atoms bridging the two gallium centers, unlike α- in which aluminium has a coordination number of 6.Gallane is unstable above −10 °C, decomposing to elemental gallium and hydrogen.===Organogallium compounds===Organogallium compounds are of similar reactivity to organoindium compounds, less reactive than organoaluminium compounds, but more reactive than organothallium compounds.",
"Alkylgalliums are monomeric.",
"Lewis acidity decreases in the order Al > Ga > In and as a result organogallium compounds do not form bridged dimers as organoaluminium compounds do.",
"Organogallium compounds are also less reactive than organoaluminium compounds.",
"They do form stable peroxides.",
"These alkylgalliums are liquids at room temperature, having low melting points, and are quite mobile and flammable.",
"Triphenylgallium is monomeric in solution, but its crystals form chain structures due to weak intermolecluar Ga···C interactions.Gallium trichloride is a common starting reagent for the formation of organogallium compounds, such as in carbogallation reactions.",
"Gallium trichloride reacts with lithium cyclopentadienide in diethyl ether to form the trigonal planar gallium cyclopentadienyl complex GaCp3.Gallium(I) forms complexes with arene ligands such as hexamethylbenzene.",
"Because this ligand is quite bulky, the structure of the Ga(η6-C6Me6)+ is that of a half-sandwich.",
"Less bulky ligands such as mesitylene allow two ligands to be attached to the central gallium atom in a bent sandwich structure.",
"Benzene is even less bulky and allows the formation of dimers: an example is Ga(η6-C6H6)2 GaCl4·3C6H6."
],
[
"History",
"Small gallium droplets fusing togetherIn 1871, the existence of gallium was first predicted by Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev, who named it \"eka-aluminium\" from its position in his periodic table.",
"He also predicted several properties of eka-aluminium that correspond closely to the real properties of gallium, such as its density, melting point, oxide character, and bonding in chloride.",
":+ Comparison between Mendeleev's 1871 predictions and the known properties of gallium Property Mendeleev's predictions Actual properties Atomic weight ~68 69.723 Density 5.9 g/cm3 5.904 g/cm3 Melting point Low 29.767 °C Formula of oxide M2O3 Ga2O3 Density of oxide 5.5 g/cm3 5.88 g/cm3 Nature of hydroxide amphoteric amphotericMendeleev further predicted that eka-aluminium would be discovered by means of the spectroscope, and that metallic eka-aluminium would dissolve slowly in both acids and alkalis and would not react with air.",
"He also predicted that M2O3 would dissolve in acids to give MX3 salts, that eka-aluminium salts would form basic salts, that eka-aluminium sulfate should form alums, and that anhydrous MCl3 should have a greater volatility than ZnCl2: all of these predictions turned out to be true.Gallium was discovered using spectroscopy by French chemist Paul Emile Lecoq de Boisbaudran in 1875 from its characteristic spectrum (two violet lines) in a sample of sphalerite.",
"Later that year, Lecoq obtained the free metal by electrolysis of the hydroxide in potassium hydroxide solution.He named the element \"gallia\", from Latin meaning Gaul, after his native land of France.",
"It was later claimed that, in a multilingual pun of a kind favoured by men of science in the 19th century, he had also named gallium after himself: is French for \"the rooster\", and the Latin word for \"rooster\" is .",
"In an 1877 article, Lecoq denied this conjecture.Originally, de Boisbaudran determined the density of gallium as 4.7 g/cm3, the only property that failed to match Mendeleev's predictions; Mendeleev then wrote to him and suggested that he should remeasure the density, and de Boisbaudran then obtained the correct value of 5.9 g/cm3, that Mendeleev had predicted exactly.From its discovery in 1875 until the era of semiconductors, the primary uses of gallium were high-temperature thermometrics and metal alloys with unusual properties of stability or ease of melting (some such being liquid at room temperature).The development of gallium arsenide as a direct bandgap semiconductor in the 1960s ushered in the most important stage in the applications of gallium.",
"In the late 1960s, the electronics industry started using gallium on a commercial scale to fabricate light emitting diodes, photovoltaics and semiconductors, while the metals industry used it to reduce the melting point of alloys."
],
[
"Occurrence",
"Gallium does not exist as a free element in the Earth's crust, and the few high-content minerals, such as gallite (CuGaS2), are too rare to serve as a primary source.",
"The abundance in the Earth's crust is approximately 16.9 ppm.",
"This is comparable to the crustal abundances of lead, cobalt, and niobium.",
"Yet unlike these elements, gallium does not form its own ore deposits with concentrations of > 0.1 wt.% in ore. Rather it occurs at trace concentrations similar to the crustal value in zinc ores, and at somewhat higher values (~ 50 ppm) in aluminium ores, from both of which it is extracted as a by-product.",
"This lack of independent deposits is due to gallium's geochemical behaviour, showing no strong enrichment in the processes relevant to the formation of most ore deposits.The United States Geological Survey (USGS) estimates that more than 1 million tons of gallium is contained in known reserves of bauxite and zinc ores.",
"Some coal flue dusts contain small quantities of gallium, typically less than 1% by weight.",
"However, these amounts are not extractable without mining of the host materials (see below).",
"Thus, the availability of gallium is fundamentally determined by the rate at which bauxite, zinc ores, and coal are extracted."
],
[
"Production and availability",
"99.9999% (6N) gallium sealed in vacuum ampouleGallium is produced exclusively as a by-product during the processing of the ores of other metals.",
"Its main source material is bauxite, the chief ore of aluminium, but minor amounts are also extracted from sulfidic zinc ores (sphalerite being the main host mineral).",
"In the past, certain coals were an important source.During the processing of bauxite to alumina in the Bayer process, gallium accumulates in the sodium hydroxide liquor.",
"From this it can be extracted by a variety of methods.",
"The most recent is the use of ion-exchange resin.",
"Achievable extraction efficiencies critically depend on the original concentration in the feed bauxite.",
"At a typical feed concentration of 50 ppm, about 15% of the contained gallium is extractable.",
"The remainder reports to the red mud and aluminium hydroxide streams.",
"Gallium is removed from the ion-exchange resin in solution.",
"Electrolysis then gives gallium metal.",
"For semiconductor use, it is further purified with zone melting or single-crystal extraction from a melt (Czochralski process).",
"Purities of 99.9999% are routinely achieved and commercially available.Bauxite mine in Jamaica (1984)Its by-product status means that gallium production is constrained by the amount of bauxite, sulfidic zinc ores (and coal) extracted per year.",
"Therefore, its availability needs to be discussed in terms of supply potential.",
"The supply potential of a by-product is defined as that amount which is economically extractable from its host materials ''per year'' under current market conditions (i.e.",
"technology and price).",
"Reserves and resources are not relevant for by-products, since they ''cannot'' be extracted independently from the main-products.",
"Recent estimates put the supply potential of gallium at a minimum of 2,100 t/yr from bauxite, 85 t/yr from sulfidic zinc ores, and potentially 590 t/yr from coal.",
"These figures are significantly greater than current production (375 t in 2016).",
"Thus, major future increases in the by-product production of gallium will be possible without significant increases in production costs or price.",
"The average price for low-grade gallium was $120 per kilogram in 2016 and $135–140 per kilogram in 2017.In 2017, the world's production of low-grade gallium was tons—an increase of 15% from 2016.China, Japan, South Korea, Russia, and Ukraine were the leading producers, while Germany ceased primary production of gallium in 2016.The yield of high-purity gallium was ca.",
"180 tons, mostly originating from China, Japan, Slovakia, UK and U.S.",
"The 2017 world annual production capacity was estimated at 730 tons for low-grade and 320 tons for refined gallium.China produced tons of low-grade gallium in 2016 and tons in 2017.It also accounted for more than half of global LED production.",
"As of July 2023, China accounted for between 80% to 95% of its production."
],
[
"Applications",
"Semiconductor applications dominate the commercial demand for gallium, accounting for 98% of the total.",
"The next major application is for gadolinium gallium garnets.===Semiconductors===Gallium-based blue LEDsExtremely high-purity (>99.9999%) gallium is commercially available to serve the semiconductor industry.",
"Gallium arsenide (GaAs) and gallium nitride (GaN) used in electronic components represented about 98% of the gallium consumption in the United States in 2007.About 66% of semiconductor gallium is used in the U.S. in integrated circuits (mostly gallium arsenide), such as the manufacture of ultra-high-speed logic chips and MESFETs for low-noise microwave preamplifiers in cell phones.",
"About 20% of this gallium is used in optoelectronics.Worldwide, gallium arsenide makes up 95% of the annual global gallium consumption.",
"It amounted to $7.5 billion in 2016, with 53% originating from cell phones, 27% from wireless communications, and the rest from automotive, consumer, fiber-optic, and military applications.",
"The recent increase in GaAs consumption is mostly related to the emergence of 3G and 4G smartphones, which employ up to 10 times the amount of GaAs in older models.Gallium arsenide and gallium nitride can also be found in a variety of optoelectronic devices which had a market share of $15.3 billion in 2015 and $18.5 billion in 2016.Aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs) is used in high-power infrared laser diodes.",
"The semiconductors gallium nitride and indium gallium nitride are used in blue and violet optoelectronic devices, mostly laser diodes and light-emitting diodes.",
"For example, gallium nitride 405 nm diode lasers are used as a violet light source for higher-density Blu-ray Disc compact data disc drives.Other major applications of gallium nitride are cable television transmission, commercial wireless infrastructure, power electronics, and satellites.",
"The GaN radio frequency device market alone was estimated at $370 million in 2016 and $420 million in 2016.Multijunction photovoltaic cells, developed for satellite power applications, are made by molecular-beam epitaxy or metalorganic vapour-phase epitaxy of thin films of gallium arsenide, indium gallium phosphide, or indium gallium arsenide.",
"The Mars Exploration Rovers and several satellites use triple-junction gallium arsenide on germanium cells.",
"Gallium is also a component in photovoltaic compounds (such as copper indium gallium selenium sulfide ) used in solar panels as a cost-efficient alternative to crystalline silicon.===Galinstan and other alloys===Galinstan easily wetting a piece of ordinary glassOwing to their low melting points, gallium and its alloys can be shaped into various 3D forms using 3D printing and additive manufacturing.Gallium readily alloys with most metals, and is used as an ingredient in low-melting alloys.",
"The nearly eutectic alloy of gallium, indium, and tin is a room temperature liquid used in medical thermometers.",
"This alloy, with the trade-name ''Galinstan'' (with the \"-stan\" referring to the tin, in Latin), has a low melting point of −19 °C (−2.2 °F).",
"It has been suggested that this family of alloys could also be used to cool computer chips in place of water, and is often used as a replacement for thermal paste in high-performance computing.",
"Gallium alloys have been evaluated as substitutes for mercury dental amalgams, but these materials have yet to see wide acceptance.",
"Liquid alloys containing mostly gallium and indium have been found to precipitate gaseous CO2 into solid carbon and are being researched as potential methodologies for carbon capture and possibly carbon removal.Because gallium wets glass or porcelain, gallium can be used to create brilliant mirrors.",
"When the wetting action of gallium-alloys is not desired (as in Galinstan glass thermometers), the glass must be protected with a transparent layer of gallium(III) oxide.Due to their high surface tension and deformability, gallium-based liquid metals can be used to create actuators by controlling the surface tension.",
"Researchers have demonstrated the potentials of using liquid metal actuators as artificial muscle in robotic actuation.The plutonium used in nuclear weapon pits is stabilized in the δ phase and made machinable by alloying with gallium.===Biomedical applications===Although gallium has no natural function in biology, gallium ions interact with processes in the body in a manner similar to iron(III).",
"Because these processes include inflammation, a marker for many disease states, several gallium salts are used (or are in development) as pharmaceuticals and radiopharmaceuticals in medicine.",
"Interest in the anticancer properties of gallium emerged when it was discovered that 67Ga(III) citrate injected in tumor-bearing animals localized to sites of tumor.",
"Clinical trials have shown gallium nitrate to have antineoplastic activity against non-Hodgkin's lymphoma and urothelial cancers.",
"A new generation of gallium-ligand complexes such as tris(8-quinolinolato)gallium(III) (KP46) and gallium maltolate has emerged.",
"Gallium nitrate (brand name Ganite) has been used as an intravenous pharmaceutical to treat hypercalcemia associated with tumor metastasis to bones.",
"Gallium is thought to interfere with osteoclast function, and the therapy may be effective when other treatments have failed.",
"Gallium maltolate, an oral, highly absorbable form of gallium(III) ion, is an anti-proliferative to pathologically proliferating cells, particularly cancer cells and some bacteria that accept it in place of ferric iron (Fe3+).",
"Researchers are conducting clinical and preclinical trials on this compound as a potential treatment for a number of cancers, infectious diseases, and inflammatory diseases.When gallium ions are mistakenly taken up in place of iron(III) by bacteria such as ''Pseudomonas'', the ions interfere with respiration, and the bacteria die.",
"This happens because iron is redox-active, allowing the transfer of electrons during respiration, while gallium is redox-inactive.A complex amine-phenol Ga(III) compound MR045 is selectively toxic to parasites resistant to chloroquine, a common drug against malaria.",
"Both the Ga(III) complex and chloroquine act by inhibiting crystallization of hemozoin, a disposal product formed from the digestion of blood by the parasites.====Radiogallium salts====Gallium-67 salts such as gallium citrate and gallium nitrate are used as radiopharmaceutical agents in the nuclear medicine imaging known as gallium scan.",
"The radioactive isotope 67Ga is used, and the compound or salt of gallium is unimportant.",
"The body handles Ga3+ in many ways as though it were Fe3+, and the ion is bound (and concentrates) in areas of inflammation, such as infection, and in areas of rapid cell division.",
"This allows such sites to be imaged by nuclear scan techniques.Gallium-68, a positron emitter with a half-life of 68 min, is now used as a diagnostic radionuclide in PET-CT when linked to pharmaceutical preparations such as DOTATOC, a somatostatin analogue used for neuroendocrine tumors investigation, and DOTA-TATE, a newer one, used for neuroendocrine metastasis and lung neuroendocrine cancer, such as certain types of ''microcytoma''.",
"Gallium-68's preparation as a pharmaceutical is chemical, and the radionuclide is extracted by elution from germanium-68, a synthetic radioisotope of germanium, in gallium-68 generators.===Other uses==='''Neutrino detection''': Gallium is used for neutrino detection.",
"Possibly the largest amount of pure gallium ever collected in a single location is the Gallium-Germanium Neutrino Telescope used by the SAGE experiment at the Baksan Neutrino Observatory in Russia.",
"This detector contains 55–57 tonnes (~9 cubic metres) of liquid gallium.",
"Another experiment was the GALLEX neutrino detector operated in the early 1990s in an Italian mountain tunnel.",
"The detector contained 12.2 tons of watered gallium-71.Solar neutrinos caused a few atoms of 71Ga to become radioactive 71Ge, which were detected.",
"This experiment showed that the solar neutrino flux is 40% less than theory predicted.",
"This deficit (solar neutrino problem) was not explained until better solar neutrino detectors and theories were constructed (see SNO).",
"'''Ion source''': Gallium is also used as a liquid metal ion source for a focused ion beam.",
"For example, a focused gallium-ion beam was used to create the world's smallest book, ''Teeny Ted from Turnip Town''.",
"'''Lubricants''': Gallium serves as an additive in glide wax for skis and other low-friction surface materials.",
"'''Flexible electronics''': Materials scientists speculate that the properties of gallium could make it suitable for the development of flexible and wearable devices.",
"'''Hydrogen generation''': Gallium disrupts the protective oxide layer on aluminium, allowing water to react with the aluminium in AlGa to produce hydrogen gas.",
"'''Humor''': A well-known practical joke among chemists is to fashion gallium spoons and use them to serve tea to unsuspecting guests, since gallium has a similar appearance to its lighter homolog aluminium.",
"The spoons then melt in the hot tea."
],
[
"Gallium in the ocean",
"Advances in trace element testing have allowed scientists to discover traces of dissolved gallium in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans In recent years, dissolved gallium concentrations have presented in the Beaufort Sea.",
"These reports reflect the possible profiles of the Pacific and Atlantic Ocean waters.",
"For the Pacific Oceans, typical dissolved gallium concentrations are between 4–6 pmol/kg at depths ~350 m.Gallium has entered oceans mainly through aeolian input, but having gallium in our oceans can be used to resolve aluminium distribution in the oceans.",
"The reason for this is that gallium is geochemically similar to aluminium, just less reactive.",
"Gallium also has a slightly larger surface water residence time than aluminium.",
"Gallium has a similar dissolved profile similar to that of aluminium, due to this gallium can be used as a tracer for aluminium.",
"Gallium can also be used as a tracer of aeolian inputs of iron.",
"Gallium is used as a tracer for iron in the northwest Pacific, south and central Atlantic Oceans.",
"For example, in the northwest Pacific, low gallium surface waters, in the subpolar region suggest that there is low dust input, which can subsequently explain the following high-nutrient, low-chlorophyll environmental behavior."
],
[
"Precautions",
"Metallic gallium is not toxic.",
"However, several gallium compounds are toxic.Gallium halide complexes can be toxic.",
"The Ga3+ ion of soluble gallium salts tends to form the insoluble hydroxide when injected in large doses; precipitation of this hydroxide resulted in nephrotoxicity in animals.",
"In lower doses, soluble gallium is tolerated well and does not accumulate as a poison, instead being excreted mostly through urine.",
"Excretion of gallium occurs in two phases: the first phase has a biological half-life of 1 hour, while the second has a biological half-life of 25 hours.Inhaled Ga2O3 particles are probably toxic."
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Bibliography",
"*"
],
[
"External links",
"* Gallium at ''The Periodic Table of Videos'' (University of Nottingham)* Safety data sheet at acialloys.com* High-resolution photographs of molten gallium, gallium crystals and gallium ingots under Creative Commons licence* Textbook information regarding gallium* Environmental effects of gallium* Gallium Statistics and Information* Gallium: A Smart Metal United States Geological Survey* Thermal conductivity* Physical and thermodynamical properties of liquid gallium (doc pdf)"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Germanium"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Germanium''' is a chemical element; it has symbol '''Ge''' and atomic number 32.It is lustrous, hard-brittle, grayish-white and similar in appearance to silicon.",
"It is a metalloid in the carbon group that is chemically similar to its group neighbors silicon and tin.",
"Like silicon, germanium naturally reacts and forms complexes with oxygen in nature.Because it seldom appears in high concentration, germanium was found comparatively late in the discovery of the elements.",
"Germanium ranks near 50th in relative abundance of the elements in the Earth's crust.",
"In 1869, Dmitri Mendeleev predicted its existence and some of its properties from its position on his periodic table, and called the element '''ekasilicon'''.",
"On February 6, 1886, Clemens Winkler at Freiberg University found the new element, along with silver and sulfur, in the mineral argyrodite.",
"Winkler named the element after his country of birth, Germany.",
"Germanium is mined primarily from sphalerite (the primary ore of zinc), though germanium is also recovered commercially from silver, lead, and copper ores.Elemental germanium is used as a semiconductor in transistors and various other electronic devices.",
"Historically, the first decade of semiconductor electronics was based entirely on germanium.",
"Presently, the major end uses are fibre-optic systems, infrared optics, solar cell applications, and light-emitting diodes (LEDs).",
"Germanium compounds are also used for polymerization catalysts and have most recently found use in the production of nanowires.",
"This element forms a large number of organogermanium compounds, such as tetraethylgermanium, useful in organometallic chemistry.",
"Germanium is considered a technology-critical element.Germanium is not thought to be an essential element for any living organism.",
"Similar to silicon and aluminium, naturally-occurring germanium compounds tend to be insoluble in water and thus have little oral toxicity.",
"However, synthetic soluble germanium salts are nephrotoxic, and synthetic chemically reactive germanium compounds with halogens and hydrogen are irritants and toxins."
],
[
"History",
"Prediction of germanium, \"?=70\" (periodic table 1869)In his report on ''The Periodic Law of the Chemical Elements'' in 1869, the Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev predicted the existence of several unknown chemical elements, including one that would fill a gap in the carbon family, located between silicon and tin.",
"Because of its position in his periodic table, Mendeleev called it ''ekasilicon (Es)'', and he estimated its atomic weight to be 70 (later 72).In mid-1885, at a mine near Freiberg, Saxony, a new mineral was discovered and named ''argyrodite'' because of its high silver content.",
"The chemist Clemens Winkler analyzed this new mineral, which proved to be a combination of silver, sulfur, and a new element.",
"Winkler was able to isolate the new element in 1886 and found it similar to antimony.",
"He initially considered the new element to be eka-antimony, but was soon convinced that it was instead eka-silicon.",
"Before Winkler published his results on the new element, he decided that he would name his element ''neptunium'', since the recent discovery of planet Neptune in 1846 had similarly been preceded by mathematical predictions of its existence.",
"However, the name \"neptunium\" had already been given to another proposed chemical element (though not the element that today bears the name neptunium, which was discovered in 1940).",
"So instead, Winkler named the new element ''germanium'' (from the Latin word, ''Germania'', for Germany) in honor of his homeland.",
"Argyrodite proved empirically to be Ag8GeS6.Because this new element showed some similarities with the elements arsenic and antimony, its proper place in the periodic table was under consideration, but its similarities with Dmitri Mendeleev's predicted element \"ekasilicon\" confirmed that place on the periodic table.",
"With further material from 500 kg of ore from the mines in Saxony, Winkler confirmed the chemical properties of the new element in 1887.He also determined an atomic weight of 72.32 by analyzing pure germanium tetrachloride (), while Lecoq de Boisbaudran deduced 72.3 by a comparison of the lines in the spark spectrum of the element.Winkler was able to prepare several new compounds of germanium, including fluorides, chlorides, sulfides, dioxide, and tetraethylgermane (Ge(C2H5)4), the first organogermane.",
"The physical data from those compounds—which corresponded well with Mendeleev's predictions—made the discovery an important confirmation of Mendeleev's idea of element periodicity.",
"Here is a comparison between the prediction and Winkler's data: Property Ekasilicon Germanium atomic mass 72.64 72.63 density (g/cm3) 5.5 5.35 melting point (°C) high 947 color gray gray oxide type refractory dioxide refractory dioxide oxide density (g/cm3) 4.7 4.7 oxide activity feebly basic feebly basic chloride boiling point (°C) under 100 86 (GeCl4) chloride density (g/cm3) 1.9 1.9Until the late 1930s, germanium was thought to be a poorly conducting metal.",
"Germanium did not become economically significant until after 1945 when its properties as an electronic semiconductor were recognized.",
"During World War II, small amounts of germanium were used in some special electronic devices, mostly diodes.",
"The first major use was the point-contact Schottky diodes for radar pulse detection during the War.",
"The first silicon–germanium alloys were obtained in 1955.Before 1945, only a few hundred kilograms of germanium were produced in smelters each year, but by the end of the 1950s, the annual worldwide production had reached .The development of the germanium transistor in 1948 opened the door to countless applications of solid state electronics.",
"From 1950 through the early 1970s, this area provided an increasing market for germanium, but then high-purity silicon began replacing germanium in transistors, diodes, and rectifiers.",
"For example, the company that became Fairchild Semiconductor was founded in 1957 with the express purpose of producing silicon transistors.",
"Silicon has superior electrical properties, but it requires much greater purity that could not be commercially achieved in the early years of semiconductor electronics.Meanwhile, the demand for germanium for fiber optic communication networks, infrared night vision systems, and polymerization catalysts increased dramatically.",
"These end uses represented 85% of worldwide germanium consumption in 2000.The US government even designated germanium as a strategic and critical material, calling for a 146 ton (132 tonne) supply in the national defense stockpile in 1987.Germanium differs from silicon in that the supply is limited by the availability of exploitable sources, while the supply of silicon is limited only by production capacity since silicon comes from ordinary sand and quartz.",
"While silicon could be bought in 1998 for less than $10 per kg, the price of germanium was almost $800 per kg."
],
[
"Characteristics",
"Under standard conditions, germanium is a brittle, silvery-white, semi-metallic element.",
"This form constitutes an allotrope known as ''α-germanium'', which has a metallic luster and a diamond cubic crystal structure, the same as diamond.",
"While in crystal form, germanium has a displacement threshold energy of .",
"At pressures above 120 kbar, germanium becomes the allotrope ''β-germanium'' with the same structure as β-tin.",
"Like silicon, gallium, bismuth, antimony, and water, germanium is one of the few substances that expands as it solidifies (i.e.",
"freezes) from the molten state.Germanium is a semiconductor having an indirect bandgap, as is crystalline silicon.",
"Zone refining techniques have led to the production of crystalline germanium for semiconductors that has an impurity of only one part in 1010,making it one of the purest materials ever obtained.The first semi-metallic material discovered (in 2005) to become a superconductor in the presence of an extremely strong electromagnetic field was an alloy of germanium, uranium, and rhodium.Pure germanium is known to spontaneously extrude very long screw dislocations, referred to as ''germanium whiskers''.",
"The growth of these whiskers is one of the primary reasons for the failure of older diodes and transistors made from germanium, as, depending on what they eventually touch, they may lead to an electrical short.=== Chemistry ===Elemental germanium starts to oxidize slowly in air at around 250 °C, forming GeO2 .",
"Germanium is insoluble in dilute acids and alkalis but dissolves slowly in hot concentrated sulfuric and nitric acids and reacts violently with molten alkalis to produce germanates ().",
"Germanium occurs mostly in the oxidation state +4 although many +2 compounds are known.",
"Other oxidation states are rare: +3 is found in compounds such as Ge2Cl6, and +3 and +1 are found on the surface of oxides, or negative oxidation states in germanides, such as −4 in .",
"Germanium cluster anions (Zintl ions) such as Ge42−, Ge94−, Ge92−, (Ge9)26− have been prepared by the extraction from alloys containing alkali metals and germanium in liquid ammonia in the presence of ethylenediamine or a cryptand.",
"The oxidation states of the element in these ions are not integers—similar to the ozonides O3−.Two oxides of germanium are known: germanium dioxide (, germania) and germanium monoxide, ().",
"The dioxide, GeO2, can be obtained by roasting germanium disulfide (), and is a white powder that is only slightly soluble in water but reacts with alkalis to form germanates.",
"The monoxide, germanous oxide, can be obtained by the high temperature reaction of GeO2 with elemental Ge.",
"The dioxide (and the related oxides and germanates) exhibits the unusual property of having a high refractive index for visible light, but transparency to infrared light.",
"Bismuth germanate, Bi4Ge3O12 (BGO), is used as a scintillator.Binary compounds with other chalcogens are also known, such as the disulfide () and diselenide (), and the monosulfide (GeS), monoselenide (GeSe), and monotelluride (GeTe).",
"GeS2 forms as a white precipitate when hydrogen sulfide is passed through strongly acid solutions containing Ge(IV).",
"The disulfide is appreciably soluble in water and in solutions of caustic alkalis or alkaline sulfides.",
"Nevertheless, it is not soluble in acidic water, which allowed Winkler to discover the element.",
"By heating the disulfide in a current of hydrogen, the monosulfide (GeS) is formed, which sublimes in thin plates of a dark color and metallic luster, and is soluble in solutions of the caustic alkalis.",
"Upon melting with alkaline carbonates and sulfur, germanium compounds form salts known as thiogermanates.Germane is similar to alt=Skeletal chemical structure of a tetrahedral molecule with germanium atom in its center bonded to four hydrogen atoms.",
"The Ge-H distance is 152.51 picometers.Four tetrahalides are known.",
"Under normal conditions GeI4 is a solid, GeF4 a gas and the others volatile liquids.",
"For example, germanium tetrachloride, GeCl4, is obtained as a colorless fuming liquid boiling at 83.1 °C by heating the metal with chlorine.",
"All the tetrahalides are readily hydrolyzed to hydrated germanium dioxide.",
"GeCl4 is used in the production of organogermanium compounds.",
"All four dihalides are known and in contrast to the tetrahalides are polymeric solids.",
"Additionally Ge2Cl6 and some higher compounds of formula Ge''n''Cl2''n''+2 are known.",
"The unusual compound Ge6Cl16 has been prepared that contains the Ge5Cl12 unit with a neopentane structure.Germane (GeH4) is a compound similar in structure to methane.",
"Polygermanes—compounds that are similar to alkanes—with formula Ge''n''H2''n''+2 containing up to five germanium atoms are known.",
"The germanes are less volatile and less reactive than their corresponding silicon analogues.",
"GeH4 reacts with alkali metals in liquid ammonia to form white crystalline MGeH3 which contain the GeH3− anion.",
"The germanium hydrohalides with one, two and three halogen atoms are colorless reactive liquids.Nucleophilic addition with an organogermanium compound|alt=Skeletal chemical structures outlining an additive chemical reaction including an organogermanium compound.The first organogermanium compound was synthesized by Winkler in 1887; the reaction of germanium tetrachloride with diethylzinc yielded tetraethylgermane ().",
"Organogermanes of the type R4Ge (where R is an alkyl) such as tetramethylgermane () and tetraethylgermane are accessed through the cheapest available germanium precursor germanium tetrachloride and alkyl nucleophiles.",
"Organic germanium hydrides such as isobutylgermane () were found to be less hazardous and may be used as a liquid substitute for toxic germane gas in semiconductor applications.",
"Many germanium reactive intermediates are known: germyl free radicals, germylenes (similar to carbenes), and germynes (similar to carbynes).",
"The organogermanium compound 2-carboxyethylgermasesquioxane was first reported in the 1970s, and for a while was used as a dietary supplement and thought to possibly have anti-tumor qualities.Using a ligand called Eind (1,1,3,3,5,5,7,7-octaethyl-s-hydrindacen-4-yl) germanium is able to form a double bond with oxygen (germanone).",
"Germanium hydride and germanium tetrahydride are very flammable and even explosive when mixed with air.=== Isotopes ===Germanium occurs in five natural isotopes: , , , , and .",
"Of these, is very slightly radioactive, decaying by double beta decay with a half-life of .",
"is the most common isotope, having a natural abundance of approximately 36%.",
"is the least common with a natural abundance of approximately 7%.",
"When bombarded with alpha particles, the isotope will generate stable , releasing high energy electrons in the process.",
"Because of this, it is used in combination with radon for nuclear batteries.At least 27 radioisotopes have also been synthesized, ranging in atomic mass from 58 to 89.The most stable of these is , decaying by electron capture with a half-life of ays.",
"The least stable is , with a half-life of .",
"While most of germanium's radioisotopes decay by beta decay, and decay by delayed proton emission.",
"through isotopes also exhibit minor delayed neutron emission decay paths.=== Occurrence ===alt=A brown block of irregular shape and surface, about 6 cm in size.Germanium is created by stellar nucleosynthesis, mostly by the s-process in asymptotic giant branch stars.",
"The s-process is a slow neutron capture of lighter elements inside pulsating red giant stars.",
"Germanium has been detected in some of the most distant stars and in the atmosphere of Jupiter.Germanium's abundance in the Earth's crust is approximately 1.6 ppm.",
"Only a few minerals like argyrodite, briartite, germanite, renierite and sphalerite contain appreciable amounts of germanium.",
"Only few of them (especially germanite) are, very rarely, found in mineable amounts.",
"Some zinc–copper–lead ore bodies contain enough germanium to justify extraction from the final ore concentrate.",
"An unusual natural enrichment process causes a high content of germanium in some coal seams, discovered by Victor Moritz Goldschmidt during a broad survey for germanium deposits.",
"The highest concentration ever found was in Hartley coal ash with as much as 1.6% germanium.",
"The coal deposits near Xilinhaote, Inner Mongolia, contain an estimated 1600 tonnes of germanium."
],
[
"Production",
"About 118 tonnes of germanium were produced in 2011 worldwide, mostly in China (80 t), Russia (5 t) and United States (3 t).",
"Germanium is recovered as a by-product from sphalerite zinc ores where it is concentrated in amounts as great as 0.3%, especially from low-temperature sediment-hosted, massive Zn–Pb–Cu(–Ba) deposits and carbonate-hosted Zn–Pb deposits.",
"A recent study found that at least 10,000 t of extractable germanium is contained in known zinc reserves, particularly those hosted by Mississippi-Valley type deposits, while at least 112,000 t will be found in coal reserves.",
"In 2007 35% of the demand was met by recycled germanium.Year Cost($/kg)1999 1,4002000 1,2502001 8902002 6202003 3802004 6002005 6602006 8802007 1,2402008 1,4902009 9502010 9402011 1,6252012 1,6802013 1,8752014 1,9002015 1,7602016 9502017 1,3582018 1,3002019 1,2402020 1,000While it is produced mainly from sphalerite, it is also found in silver, lead, and copper ores.",
"Another source of germanium is fly ash of power plants fueled from coal deposits that contain germanium.",
"Russia and China used this as a source for germanium.",
"Russia's deposits are located in the far east of Sakhalin Island, and northeast of Vladivostok.",
"The deposits in China are located mainly in the lignite mines near Lincang, Yunnan; coal is also mined near Xilinhaote, Inner Mongolia.The ore concentrates are mostly sulfidic; they are converted to the oxides by heating under air in a process known as roasting:: GeS2 + 3 O2 → GeO2 + 2 SO2Some of the germanium is left in the dust produced, while the rest is converted to germanates, which are then leached (together with zinc) from the cinder by sulfuric acid.",
"After neutralization, only the zinc stays in solution while germanium and other metals precipitate.",
"After removing some of the zinc in the precipitate by the Waelz process, the residing Waelz oxide is leached a second time.",
"The dioxide is obtained as precipitate and converted with chlorine gas or hydrochloric acid to germanium tetrachloride, which has a low boiling point and can be isolated by distillation:: GeO2 + 4 HCl → GeCl4 + 2 H2O: GeO2 + 2 Cl2 → GeCl4 + O2Germanium tetrachloride is either hydrolyzed to the oxide (GeO2) or purified by fractional distillation and then hydrolyzed.",
"The highly pure GeO2 is now suitable for the production of germanium glass.",
"It is reduced to the element by reacting it with hydrogen, producing germanium suitable for infrared optics and semiconductor production:: GeO2 + 2 H2 → Ge + 2 H2OThe germanium for steel production and other industrial processes is normally reduced using carbon:: GeO2 + C → Ge + CO2"
],
[
"Applications",
"The major end uses for germanium in 2007, worldwide, were estimated to be: 35% for fiber-optics, 30% infrared optics, 15% polymerization catalysts, and 15% electronics and solar electric applications.",
"The remaining 5% went into such uses as phosphors, metallurgy, and chemotherapy.=== Optics ===A typical single-mode optical fiber.",
"Germanium oxide is a dopant of the core silica (Item 1).",
"The notable properties of germania (GeO2) are its high index of refraction and its low optical dispersion.",
"These make it especially useful for wide-angle camera lenses, microscopy, and the core part of optical fibers.",
"It has replaced titania as the dopant for silica fiber, eliminating the subsequent heat treatment that made the fibers brittle.",
"At the end of 2002, the fiber optics industry consumed 60% of the annual germanium use in the United States, but this is less than 10% of worldwide consumption.",
"GeSbTe is a phase change material used for its optic properties, such as that used in rewritable DVDs.Because germanium is transparent in the infrared wavelengths, it is an important infrared optical material that can be readily cut and polished into lenses and windows.",
"It is especially used as the front optic in thermal imaging cameras working in the 8 to 14 micron range for passive thermal imaging and for hot-spot detection in military, mobile night vision, and fire fighting applications.",
"It is used in infrared spectroscopes and other optical equipment that require extremely sensitive infrared detectors.",
"It has a very high refractive index (4.0) and must be coated with anti-reflection agents.",
"Particularly, a very hard special antireflection coating of diamond-like carbon (DLC), refractive index 2.0, is a good match and produces a diamond-hard surface that can withstand much environmental abuse.=== Electronics ===Germanium can be alloyed with silicon, and silicon–germanium alloys are rapidly becoming an important semiconductor material for high-speed integrated circuits.",
"Circuits utilizing the properties of Si-SiGe heterojunctions can be much faster than those using silicon alone.",
"The SiGe chips, with high-speed properties, can be made with low-cost, well-established production techniques of the silicon chip industry.High efficiency solar panels are a major use of germanium.",
"Because germanium and gallium arsenide have nearly identical lattice constant, germanium substrates can be used to make gallium-arsenide solar cells.",
"Germanium is the substrate of the wafers for high-efficiency multijunction photovoltaic cells for space applications, such as the Mars Exploration Rovers, which use triple-junction gallium arsenide on germanium cells.",
"High-brightness LEDs, used for automobile headlights and to backlight LCD screens, are also an important application.Germanium-on-insulator (GeOI) substrates are seen as a potential replacement for silicon on miniaturized chips.",
"CMOS circuit based on GeOI substrates has been reported recently.",
"Other uses in electronics include phosphors in fluorescent lamps and solid-state light-emitting diodes (LEDs).",
"Germanium transistors are still used in some effects pedals by musicians who wish to reproduce the distinctive tonal character of the \"fuzz\"-tone from the early rock and roll era, most notably the Dallas Arbiter Fuzz Face.Germanium has been studied as a potential material for implantable bioelectronic sensors that are resorbed in the body without generating harmful hydrogen gas, replacing zinc oxide- and indium gallium zinc oxide-based implementations.=== Other uses ===PET bottle|alt=Photo of a standard transparent plastic bottle.Germanium dioxide is also used in catalysts for polymerization in the production of polyethylene terephthalate (PET).",
"The high brilliance of this polyester is especially favored for PET bottles marketed in Japan.",
"In the United States, germanium is not used for polymerization catalysts.Due to the similarity between silica (SiO2) and germanium dioxide (GeO2), the silica stationary phase in some gas chromatography columns can be replaced by GeO2.In recent years germanium has seen increasing use in precious metal alloys.",
"In sterling silver alloys, for instance, it reduces firescale, increases tarnish resistance, and improves precipitation hardening.",
"A tarnish-proof silver alloy trademarked Argentium contains 1.2% germanium.Semiconductor detectors made of single crystal high-purity germanium can precisely identify radiation sources—for example in airport security.",
"Germanium is useful for monochromators for beamlines used in single crystal neutron scattering and synchrotron X-ray diffraction.",
"The reflectivity has advantages over silicon in neutron and high energy X-ray applications.",
"Crystals of high purity germanium are used in detectors for gamma spectroscopy and the search for dark matter.",
"Germanium crystals are also used in X-ray spectrometers for the determination of phosphorus, chlorine and sulfur.Germanium is emerging as an important material for spintronics and spin-based quantum computing applications.",
"In 2010, researchers demonstrated room temperature spin transport and more recently donor electron spins in germanium has been shown to have very long coherence times."
],
[
"Strategic importance",
"Due to its use in advanced electronics and optics, Germanium is considered a technology-critical element (by e.g.",
"the European Union), essential to fulfill the green and digital transition.",
"As China controls 60% of global Germanium production it holds a dominant position over the world's supply chains.",
"On 3 July 2023 China suddenly imposed restrictions on the exports of germanium (and gallium), ratcheting up trade tensions with Western allies.",
"Invoking \"national security interests,\" the Chinese Ministry of Commerce informed that companies that intend to sell products containing germanium would need an export licence.",
"It sees such products as \"dual-use\" items that may have military purposes and therefore warrant an extra layer of oversight.",
"The new dispute opened a new chapter in the increasingly fierce technology race that has pitted the United States, and to a lesser extent Europe, against China.",
"The US wants its allies to heavily curb, or downright prohibit, advanced electronic components bound to the Chinese market in order to prevent Beijing from securing global technology supremacy.",
"China denied any tit-for-tat intention behind the Germanium export restrictions.",
"Following China's export restrictions, Russian state-owned company Rostec announced an increase in germanium production to meet domestic demand."
],
[
"Germanium and health",
"Germanium is not considered essential to the health of plants or animals.",
"Germanium in the environment has little or no health impact.",
"This is primarily because it usually occurs only as a trace element in ores and carbonaceous materials, and the various industrial and electronic applications involve very small quantities that are not likely to be ingested.",
"For similar reasons, end-use germanium has little impact on the environment as a biohazard.",
"Some reactive intermediate compounds of germanium are poisonous (see precautions, below).Germanium supplements, made from both organic and inorganic germanium, have been marketed as an alternative medicine capable of treating leukemia and lung cancer.",
"There is, however, no medical evidence of benefit; some evidence suggests that such supplements are actively harmful.",
"U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) research has concluded that inorganic germanium, when used as a nutritional supplement, \"presents potential human health hazard\".Some germanium compounds have been administered by alternative medical practitioners as non-FDA-allowed injectable solutions.",
"Soluble inorganic forms of germanium used at first, notably the citrate-lactate salt, resulted in some cases of renal dysfunction, hepatic steatosis, and peripheral neuropathy in individuals using them over a long term.",
"Plasma and urine germanium concentrations in these individuals, several of whom died, were several orders of magnitude greater than endogenous levels.",
"A more recent organic form, beta-carboxyethylgermanium sesquioxide (propagermanium), has not exhibited the same spectrum of toxic effects.Certain compounds of germanium have low toxicity to mammals, but have toxic effects against certain bacteria.=== Precautions for chemically reactive germanium compounds ===While use of germanium itself does not require precautions, some of germanium's artificially produced compounds are quite reactive and present an immediate hazard to human health on exposure.",
"For example, Germanium tetrachloride and germane (GeH4) are a liquid and gas, respectively, that can be very irritating to the eyes, skin, lungs, and throat."
],
[
"See also",
"* Germanene* Vitrain* History of the transistor"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* Germanium at ''The Periodic Table of Videos'' (University of Nottingham)"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Gadolinium"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Gadolinium''' is a chemical element; it has symbol '''Gd''' and atomic number 64.Gadolinium is a silvery-white metal when oxidation is removed.",
"It is a malleable and ductile rare-earth element.",
"Gadolinium reacts with atmospheric oxygen or moisture slowly to form a black coating.",
"Gadolinium below its Curie point of is ferromagnetic, with an attraction to a magnetic field higher than that of nickel.",
"Above this temperature it is the most paramagnetic element.",
"It is found in nature only in an oxidized form.",
"When separated, it usually has impurities of the other rare-earths because of their similar chemical properties.Gadolinium was discovered in 1880 by Jean Charles de Marignac, who detected its oxide by using spectroscopy.",
"It is named after the mineral gadolinite, one of the minerals in which gadolinium is found, itself named for the Finnish chemist Johan Gadolin.",
"Pure gadolinium was first isolated by the chemist Paul-Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran around 1886.Gadolinium possesses unusual metallurgical properties, to the extent that as little as 1% of gadolinium can significantly improve the workability and resistance to oxidation at high temperatures of iron, chromium, and related metals.",
"Gadolinium as a metal or a salt absorbs neutrons and is, therefore, used sometimes for shielding in neutron radiography and in nuclear reactors.Like most of the rare earths, gadolinium forms trivalent ions with fluorescent properties, and salts of gadolinium(III) are used as phosphors in various applications.Gadolinium(III) ions in water-soluble salts are highly toxic to mammals.",
"However, chelated gadolinium(III) compounds prevent the gadolinium(III) from being exposed to the organism and the majority is excreted by healthy kidneys before it can deposit in tissues.",
"Because of its paramagnetic properties, solutions of chelated organic gadolinium complexes are used as intravenously administered gadolinium-based MRI contrast agents in medical magnetic resonance imaging."
],
[
"Characteristics",
"A sample of gadolinium metal===Physical properties===Gadolinium is the eighth member of the lanthanide series.",
"In the periodic table, it appears between the elements europium to its left and terbium to its right, and above the actinide curium.",
"It is a silvery-white, malleable, ductile rare-earth element.",
"Its 64 electrons are arranged in the configuration of Xe4f75d16s2, of which the ten 4f, 5d, and 6s electrons are valence.Like most other metals in the lanthanide series, three electrons are usually available as valence electrons.",
"The remaining 4f electrons are too strongly bound: this is because the 4f orbitals penetrate the most through the inert xenon core of electrons to the nucleus, followed by 5d and 6s, and this increases with higher ionic charge.",
"Gadolinium crystallizes in the hexagonal close-packed α-form at room temperature.",
"At temperatures above , it forms or transforms into its β-form, which has a body-centered cubic structure.The isotope gadolinium-157 has the highest thermal-neutron capture cross-section among any stable nuclide: about 259,000 barns.",
"Only xenon-135 has a higher capture cross-section, about 2.0 million barns, but this isotope is radioactive.Gadolinium is believed to be ferromagnetic at temperatures below and is strongly paramagnetic above this temperature.",
"In fact, at body temperature, gadolinium exhibits the greatest paramagnetic effect of any element.",
"There is evidence that gadolinium is a helical antiferromagnetic, rather than a ferromagnetic, below .",
"Gadolinium demonstrates a magnetocaloric effect whereby its temperature increases when it enters a magnetic field and decreases when it leaves the magnetic field.",
"A significant magnetocaloric effect is observed at higher temperatures, up to about 300 kelvins, in the compounds Gd5(Si1-''x''Ge''x'')4.Individual gadolinium atoms can be isolated by encapsulating them into fullerene molecules, where they can be visualized with a transmission electron microscope.",
"Individual Gd atoms and small Gd clusters can be incorporated into carbon nanotubes.===Chemical properties===Gadolinium combines with most elements to form Gd(III) derivatives.",
"It also combines with nitrogen, carbon, sulfur, phosphorus, boron, selenium, silicon, and arsenic at elevated temperatures, forming binary compounds.Unlike the other rare-earth elements, metallic gadolinium is relatively stable in dry air.",
"However, it tarnishes quickly in moist air, forming a loosely-adhering gadolinium(III) oxide (Gd2O3)::4 Gd + 3 O2 → 2 Gd2O3,which spalls off, exposing more surface to oxidation.Gadolinium is a strong reducing agent, which reduces oxides of several metals into their elements.",
"Gadolinium is quite electropositive and reacts slowly with cold water and quite quickly with hot water to form gadolinium(III) hydroxide (Gd(OH)3)::2 Gd + 6 H2O → 2 Gd(OH)3 + 3 H2.Gadolinium metal is attacked readily by dilute sulfuric acid to form solutions containing the colorless Gd(III) ions, which exist as Gd(H2O)93+ complexes::2 Gd + 3 H2SO4 + 18 H2O → 2 Gd(H2O)93+ + 3 + 3 H2.====Chemical compounds====In the great majority of its compounds, like many rare-earth metals, gadolinium adopts the oxidation state +3.However, gadolinium can be found on rare occasions in the 0, +1 and +2 oxidation states.",
"All four trihalides are known.",
"All are white, except for the iodide, which is yellow.",
"Most commonly encountered of the halides is gadolinium(III) chloride (GdCl3).",
"The oxide dissolves in acids to give the salts, such as gadolinium(III) nitrate.Gadolinium(III), like most lanthanide ions, forms complexes with high coordination numbers.",
"This tendency is illustrated by the use of the chelating agent DOTA, an octadentate ligand.",
"Salts of Gd(DOTA)− are useful in magnetic resonance imaging.",
"A variety of related chelate complexes have been developed, including gadodiamide.Reduced gadolinium compounds are known, especially in the solid state.",
"Gadolinium(II) halides are obtained by heating Gd(III) halides in presence of metallic Gd in tantalum containers.",
"Gadolinium also forms the sesquichloride Gd2Cl3, which can be further reduced to GdCl by annealing at .",
"This gadolinium(I) chloride forms platelets with layered graphite-like structure.===Isotopes===Naturally occurring gadolinium is composed of six stable isotopes, 154Gd, 155Gd, 156Gd, 157Gd, 158Gd and 160Gd, and one radioisotope, 152Gd, with the isotope 158Gd being the most abundant (24.8% natural abundance).",
"The predicted double beta decay of 160Gd has never been observed (an experimental lower limit on its half-life of more than 1.3×1021 years has been measured).Thirty-three radioisotopes of gadolinium have been observed, with the most stable being 152Gd (naturally occurring), with a half-life of about 1.08×1014 years, and 150Gd, with a half-life of 1.79×106 years.",
"All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives of less than 75 years.",
"The majority of these have half-lives of less than 25 seconds.",
"Gadolinium isotopes have four metastable isomers, with the most stable being 143mGd (''t''1/2= 110 seconds), 145mGd (''t''1/2= 85 seconds) and 141mGd (''t''1/2= 24.5 seconds).The isotopes with atomic masses lower than the most abundant stable isotope, 158Gd, primarily decay by electron capture to isotopes of europium.",
"At higher atomic masses, the primary decay mode is beta decay, and the primary products are isotopes of terbium."
],
[
"History",
"Gadolinium is named after the mineral gadolinite, in turn named after Finnish chemist and geologist Johan Gadolin.",
"In 1880, the Swiss chemist Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac observed the spectroscopic lines from gadolinium in samples of gadolinite (which actually contains relatively little gadolinium, but enough to show a spectrum) and in the separate mineral cerite.",
"The latter mineral proved to contain far more of the element with the new spectral line.",
"De Marignac eventually separated a mineral oxide from cerite, which he realized was the oxide of this new element.",
"He named the oxide \"gadolinia\".",
"Because he realized that \"gadolinia\" was the oxide of a new element, he is credited with the discovery of gadolinium.",
"The French chemist Paul-Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran carried out the separation of gadolinium metal from gadolinia in 1886."
],
[
"Occurrence",
"GadoliniteGadolinium is a constituent in many minerals, such as monazite and bastnäsite.",
"The metal is too reactive to exist naturally.",
"Paradoxically, as noted above, the mineral gadolinite actually contains only traces of this element.",
"The abundance in the Earth's crust is about 6.2 mg/kg.",
"The main mining areas are in China, the US, Brazil, Sri Lanka, India, and Australia with reserves expected to exceed one million tonnes.",
"World production of pure gadolinium is about 400 tonnes per year.",
"The only known mineral with essential gadolinium, lepersonnite-(Gd), is very rare."
],
[
"Production",
"Gadolinium is produced both from monazite and bastnäsite.# Crushed minerals are extracted with hydrochloric acid or sulfuric acid, which converts the insoluble oxides into soluble chlorides or sulfates.# The acidic filtrates are partially neutralized with caustic soda to pH 3–4.Thorium precipitates as its hydroxide, and is then removed.# The remaining solution is treated with ammonium oxalate to convert rare earths into their insoluble oxalates.",
"The oxalates are converted to oxides by heating.# The oxides are dissolved in nitric acid that excludes one of the main components, cerium, whose oxide is insoluble in HNO3.# The solution is treated with magnesium nitrate to produce a crystallized mixture of double salts of gadolinium, samarium and europium.# The salts are separated by ion exchange chromatography.# The rare-earth ions are then selectively washed out by a suitable complexing agent.Gadolinium metal is obtained from its oxide or salts by heating it with calcium at in an argon atmosphere.",
"Sponge gadolinium can be produced by reducing molten GdCl3 with an appropriate metal at temperatures below (the melting point of Gd) at reduced pressure.==Applications==Gadolinium has no large-scale applications, but it has a variety of specialized uses.===Neutron absorber===Because gadolinium has a high neutron cross-section, it is effective for use with neutron radiography and in shielding of nuclear reactors.",
"It is used as a secondary, emergency shut-down measure in some nuclear reactors, particularly of the CANDU reactor type.",
"Gadolinium is used in nuclear marine propulsion systems as a burnable poison.",
"The use of gadolinium in neutron capture therapy to target tumors has been investigated, and gadolinium-containing compounds have proven promising.===Alloys===Gadolinium possesses unusual metallurgic properties, with as little as 1% of gadolinium improving the workability and resistance of iron, chromium, and related alloys to high temperatures and oxidation.===Magnetic contrast agent===Gadolinium is paramagnetic at room temperature, with a ferromagnetic Curie point of .",
"Paramagnetic ions, such as gadolinium, increase nuclear spin relaxation rates, making gadolinium useful as a contrast agent for magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).",
"Solutions of organic gadolinium complexes and gadolinium compounds are used as intravenous contrast agents to enhance images in medical and magnetic resonance angiography (MRA) procedures.",
"Magnevist is the most widespread example.",
"Nanotubes packed with gadolinium, called \"gadonanotubes\", are 40 times more effective than the usual gadolinium contrast agent.",
"Traditional gadolinium-based contrast agents are un-targeted, generally distributing throughout the body after injection, but will not readily cross the intact blood–brain barrier.",
"Brain tumors, and other disorders that degrade the blood-brain barrier, allow these agents to penetrate into the brain and facilitate their detection by contrast-enhanced MRI.",
"Similarly, delayed gadolinium-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging of cartilage uses an ionic compound agent, originally Magnevist, that is excluded from healthy cartilage based on electrostatic repulsion but will enter proteoglycan-depleted cartilage in diseases such as osteoarthritis.===Phosphors===Gadolinium is used as a phosphor in medical imaging.",
"It is contained in the phosphor layer of X-ray detectors, suspended in a polymer matrix.",
"Terbium-doped gadolinium oxysulfide (Gd2O2S:Tb) at the phosphor layer converts the X-rays released from the source into light.",
"This material emits green light at 540 nm because of the presence of Tb3+, which is very useful for enhancing the imaging quality.",
"The energy conversion of Gd is up to 20%, which means that one fifth of the X-ray energy striking the phosphor layer can be converted into visible photons.",
"Gadolinium oxyorthosilicate (Gd2SiO5, GSO; usually doped by 0.1–1.0% of Ce) is a single crystal that is used as a scintillator in medical imaging such as positron emission tomography, and for detecting neutrons.Gadolinium compounds are also used for making green phosphors for color TV tubes.===Gamma ray emitter===Gadolinium-153 is produced in a nuclear reactor from elemental europium or enriched gadolinium targets.",
"It has a half-life of days and emits gamma radiation with strong peaks at 41 keV and 102 keV.",
"It is used in many quality-assurance applications, such as line sources and calibration phantoms, to ensure that nuclear-medicine imaging systems operate correctly and produce useful images of radioisotope distribution inside the patient.",
"It is also used as a gamma-ray source in X-ray absorption measurements and in bone density gauges for osteoporosis screening.===Electronic and optical devices===Gadolinium is used for making gadolinium yttrium garnet (Gd:Y3Al5O12), which has microwave applications and is used in fabrication of various optical components and as substrate material for magneto-optical films.===Electrolyte in fuel cells===Gadolinium can also serve as an electrolyte in solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs).",
"Using gadolinium as a dopant for materials like cerium oxide (in the form of gadolinium-doped ceria) gives an electrolyte having both high ionic conductivity and low operating temperatures.===Magnetic refrigeration===Research is being conducted on magnetic refrigeration near room temperature, which could provide significant efficiency and environmental advantages over conventional refrigeration methods.",
"Gadolinium-based materials, such as Gd5(Si''x''Ge1−''x'')4, are currently the most promising materials, owing to their high Curie temperature and giant magnetocaloric effect.",
"Pure Gd itself exhibits a large magnetocaloric effect near its Curie temperature of , and this has sparked interest into producing Gd alloys having a larger effect and tunable Curie temperature.",
"In Gd5(Si''x''Ge1−''x'')4, Si and Ge compositions can be varied to adjust the Curie temperature.===Superconductors===Gadolinium barium copper oxide (GdBCO) is a superconductor with applications in superconducting motors or generators such as in wind turbines.",
"It can be manufactured in the same way as the most widely researched cuprate high temperature superconductor, yttrium barium copper oxide (YBCO) and uses an analogous chemical composition (GdBa2Cu3O7−''δ'' ).",
"It was used in 2014 to set a new world record for the highest trapped magnetic field in a bulk high temperature superconductor, with a field of 17.6T being trapped within two GdBCO bulks.===Niche and former applications===Gadolinium is used for antineutrino detection in the Japanese Super-Kamiokande detector in order to sense supernova explosions.",
"Low-energy neutrons that arise from antineutrino absorption by protons in the detector's ultrapure water are captured by gadolinium nuclei, which subsequently emit gamma rays that are detected as part of the antineutrino signature.Gadolinium gallium garnet (GGG, Gd3Ga5O12) was used for imitation diamonds and for computer bubble memory."
],
[
"Safety",
"As a free ion, gadolinium is reported often to be highly toxic, but MRI contrast agents are chelated compounds and are considered safe enough to be used in most persons.",
"The toxicity of free gadolinium ions in animals is due to interference with a number of calcium-ion channel dependent processes.",
"The 50% lethal dose is about 0.34 mmol/kg (IV, mouse) or 100–200 mg/kg.",
"Toxicity studies in rodents show that chelation of gadolinium (which also improves its solubility) decreases its toxicity with regard to the free ion by a factor of 31 (i.e., the lethal dose for the Gd-chelate increases by 31 times).",
"It is believed therefore that clinical toxicity of gadolinium-based contrast agents (GBCAs) in humans will depend on the strength of the chelating agent; however this research is still not complete.",
"About a dozen different Gd-chelated agents have been approved as MRI contrast agents around the world.Use of gadolinium-based contrast agents results in deposition of gadolinium in tissues of the brain, bone, skin, and other tissues in amounts that depend on kidney function, structure of the chelates (linear or macrocyclic) and the dose administered.",
"In patients with kidney failure, there is a risk of a rare but serious illness called nephrogenic systemic fibrosis (NSF) that is caused by the use of gadolinium-based contrast agents.",
"The disease resembles scleromyxedema and to some extent scleroderma.",
"It may occur months after a contrast agent has been injected.",
"Its association with gadolinium and not the carrier molecule is confirmed by its occurrence with various contrast materials in which gadolinium is carried by very different carrier molecules.",
"Because of the risk of NSF, use these agents is not recommended for any individual with end-stage kidney failure as they may require emergent dialysis.Included in the current guidelines from the Canadian Association of Radiologists are that dialysis patients should receive gadolinium agents only where essential and that they should receive dialysis after the exam.",
"If a contrast-enhanced MRI must be performed on a dialysis patient, it is recommended that certain high-risk contrast agents be avoided but not that a lower dose be considered.",
"The American College of Radiology recommends that contrast-enhanced MRI examinations be performed as closely before dialysis as possible as a precautionary measure, although this has not been proven to reduce the likelihood of developing NSF.",
"The FDA recommends that potential for gadolinium retention be considered when choosing the type of GBCA used in patients requiring multiple lifetime doses, pregnant women, children, and patients with inflammatory conditions.Anaphylactoid reactions are rare, occurring in approximately 0.03–0.1%.Long-term environmental impacts of gadolinium contamination due to human usage is a topic of ongoing research."
],
[
"Biological use",
"Gadolinium has no known native biological role, but its compounds are used as research tools in biomedicine.",
"Gd3+ compounds are components of MRI contrast agents.",
"It is used in various ion channel electrophysiology experiments to block sodium leak channels and stretch activated ion channels.",
"Gadolinium has recently been used to measure the distance between two points in a protein via electron paramagnetic resonance, something that gadolinium is especially amenable to thanks to EPR sensitivity at w-band (95 GHz) frequencies."
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* Nephrogenic Systemic Fibrosis – Complication of Gadolinium MR Contrast (series of images at MedPix website)* It's Elemental – Gadolinium* Refrigerator uses gadolinium metal that heats up when exposed to magnetic field* FDA advisory on gadolinium-based contrast* Abdominal MR imaging: important considerations for evaluation of gadolinium enhancement Rafael O.P.",
"de Campos, Vasco Herédia, Ersan Altun, Richard C. Semelka, Department of Radiology University of North Carolina Hospitals Chapel Hill* Inside Japan’s Super Kamiokande 360 degree tour including details on adding Gadolinium to the pure water to aid in studying neutrinos"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"German Unity Day"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''German Unity Day''' (, ) is the National Day of Germany, celebrated on 3 October as a public holiday.",
"It commemorates German reunification in 1990 when the German Democratic Republic (East Germany) joined the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany), so that for the first time since 1945 there existed a single German state.",
"German Unity Day on 3 October has been the German National Holiday since 1990, when the reunification was formally completed.An alternative choice to commemorate the reunification could have been the day the Berlin Wall came down: 9 November 1989, which coincided with the anniversary of the proclamation of the German Republic in 1918, and the defeat of Hitler's first coup in 1923.However, 9 November was also the anniversary of the first large-scale Nazi-led pogroms against Jews in 1938 (''Kristallnacht''), so the day was considered racist as a national holiday (see 9 November in German history).",
"Therefore, 3 October 1990, the day of the formal reunification, was chosen instead.",
"It replaced the \"German Unity Day\" on 17 June, the national holiday of the Federal Republic of Germany from 1954."
],
[
"History",
"Germany has historically associated various dates with its nationhood and unity.===Imperial Germany===Before 1871, in the area where the single state of Germany now exists, different kingdoms and principalities existed.",
"After the unification of Germany, and the Founding of the Empire 1871, there was still no common national holiday.",
"The Sedantag was, however, celebrated every year on 2 September, recalling the decisive victory in the Franco-Prussian War on 2 September 1870.Before the Empire was founded in 1872, there were calls for a national holiday, and there were three suggestions.",
"No decision was made.",
"Until 1873, the Sedantag was moved to 18 January or the day of the Frankfurt Treaty (10 May 1871).",
"The Sedantag would soon also be celebrated at the universities and in many German cities.",
"It never occurred to them to think about \"Empire Parade\" or \"Emperor's Birthday\".",
"Some Culture Ministers of the states, especially in Prussia, decided that the Sedantag would be an official festival in schools.",
"Upon many suggestions, the date of the Emperor's proclamation on 18 January would be established as day of remembrance.",
"Emperor Wilhelm I declined this: \"This was also the day of the first Prussian coronation of the king, which should not fall into the shadow of a united German holiday.\"",
"Despite this, the Day of the founding of the German Empire was still celebrated locally and nationally to some degree.",
"These celebrations continued in the Weimar Republic and Nazi Germany.",
"Following World War II, East Germany completely abandoned the holiday, while West Germany still celebrated it on a smaller scale.",
"West Germany did acknowledge the centennial of the German Empire as the founding of the German state in 1971.This holiday is still celebrated by some Germans.===Weimar Republic===On 31 July 1919, the Weimar Constitution would be accepted in its form by the Weimar National Congress.",
"In memorial of this \"Hour of birth of democracy\", 11 August was created as Constitution Day, because the President of Germany Friedrich Ebert, signed the constitution on this day.===National Socialism===Shortly after the Nazis took power in 1933 (the so-called ''Machtergreifung''), May Day (1 May) was established as a national holiday in the ''German Reich''.",
"It was already celebrated as a \"Day of the Labor Movement\" since 1890, and also was part of the tradition for the May dance commemorating the Walpurgis Night.",
"Immediately after the establishment of the holiday in 1933, the Nazis banned trade unions on 2 May 1933 and occupied their buildings as offices for the Nazi Movement.",
"On 1 March 1939, Hitler declared 9 November (the day of the failed Beer Hall Putsch in 1923) as the \"Memorial Day for the movement\" as the national holiday.===Federal Republic of Germany===From 1954 to 1990, 17 June was an official holiday in the Federal Republic of Germany to commemorate the East German uprising of 1953, even with the name \"Day of the German Unity\".",
"Since 1963, it was proclaimed by the President of the Federal Republic as \"National Day of Memorial of the German People\".",
"However, by the mid-1960s as hope faded that the two Germanys would ever be re-united, this date became more of a holiday and day of recreation than a day to consider national unity.In the year 1990, the \"Day of German Unity\" was celebrated twice, on this date and on 3 October.===German Democratic Republic===In East Germany, the Founding Day in 1949 was celebrated on 7 October as Day of the Republic, until the 40th anniversary in 1989."
],
[
"Decision for GDR's unity with the Federal Republic",
"The motive for setting the date of 3 October as the possible Day of Unity was decided by the Volkskammer (GDR Congress) on the impending economical and political collapse of the GDR.",
"The Helsinki Conference was set for 2 October, at which the foreign ministers would be informed of the results of the Two-plus-Four talks.At the beginning of July, the governments of both German states decided on the schedule: elections in the GDR would be held on 14 October, and a common election for the entire country on 2 December.The decision on the date was finally made on 22 August by the GDR's Minister-President, Lothar de Maizière, at a special session of the Volkskammer, which began at 9 p.m. After a heated debate, the President of the Volkskammer, Sabine Bergmann-Pohl, announced the results at 2:30 a.m. on 23 August:Gregor Gysi, Chairman of the SED-PDS, was visibly moved and made a personal statement: \"Madame President!",
"The Parliament has no more and no less decided on the downfall of the German Democratic Republic as of 3 October 1990\".",
"(Jubilant cheers from the CDU/DA, DSU and SPD.",
")===Attempt to change the date of Unity Day===On 3 November 2004, the Federal Chancellor, Gerhard Schröder, suggested that the \"Day of the German Unity\" be celebrated on a Sunday, for economic reasons.",
"Instead of 3 October, the National Reunification should be celebrated on the first Sunday of October.",
"This suggestion received a lot of criticism from many sides, amongst them from Federal President Horst Köhler as well as the President of the Bundestag, Wolfgang Thierse.",
"The demand worried a part of the population because of discontent for increased working hours would be seen as a provocation and devaluing the national holiday.",
"In addition, fixing the Unity Day on the first Sunday of October would have meant that it would sometimes fall on 7 October, which happens to have been the national day of East Germany; this date would thus have been seen as commemorating the division of Germany rather than the reunification.",
"The idea was dropped after a short but angry debate."
],
[
"Celebrations",
"Chancellor Angela Merkel and President Joachim Gauck at the ''Bürgerfest'' (German Unity Day festivities) in Hannover in 2014The Day of German Unity is celebrated each year with a ceremonial act and a citizen's festival ('''').The celebrations are hosted by a major city, usually the state capital, in the German state presiding over the Bundesrat in the respective year (a sequence determined by the Königstein Agreement).",
"After Bonn in 2011, Frankfurt am Main was the second non-state capital to host the celebrations in 2015; however, both cities are significant in German political history (Bonn as former capital of West Germany and Frankfurt as the place of the Frankfurt Parliament of 1848–49).",
"*1990 in Berlin, capital of Germany, reunited that year*1991 in Hamburg *1992 in Schwerin, state capital of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern*1993 in Saarbrücken, state capital of Saarland*1994 in Bremen, state capital of Bremen*1995 in Düsseldorf, state capital of North Rhine-Westphalia*1996 in Munich, state capital of Bavaria*1997 in Stuttgart, state capital of Baden-Württemberg*1998 in Hannover, state capital of Lower Saxony*1999 in Wiesbaden, state capital of Hesse*2000 in Dresden, state capital of Saxony*2001 in Mainz, state capital of Rhineland-Palatinate*2002 in Berlin*2003 in Magdeburg, state capital of Saxony-Anhalt*2004 in Erfurt, state capital of Thuringia*2005 in Potsdam, state capital of Brandenburg*2006 in Kiel, state capital of Schleswig-Holstein*2007 in Schwerin, state capital of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern*2008 in Hamburg*2009 in Saarbrücken, state capital of Saarland*2010 in Bremen*2011 in Bonn, former federal capital, instead of the state capital of North Rhine-Westphalia, Düsseldorf (Motto: \"Freiheit Einheit Freude – Bewegt mehr\" - \"Liberty Unity Joy - Make a bigger difference\")*2012 in Munich, state capital of Bavaria*2013 in Stuttgart, state capital of Baden-Württemberg*2014 in Hannover, state capital of Lower Saxony (Motto: \"Einheit in Vielfalt\" - \"Unity in Diversity\")*2015 in Frankfurt, largest city of Hesse (Motto: \"Grenzen überwinden\" - \"Overcoming borders\")*2016 in Dresden, state capital of Saxony (Motto: \"Brücken bauen\" - \"Building bridges\")*2017 in Mainz, state capital of Rhineland-Palatinate (Motto: \"Zusammen sind wir Deutschland\" - \"Together we are Germany\")*2018 in Berlin*2019 in Kiel, state capital of Schleswig-Holstein*2020 in Potsdam, state capital of Brandenburg*2021 in Halle, largest city of Saxony-Anhalt*2022 in Erfurt, state capital of Thuringia*2023 in Hamburg In addition, various celebrations are held in the federal capital Berlin, mainly based on the Straße des 17.Juni and around the Brandenburg Gate.",
"State capitals and also other cities often have additional festivities.",
"Furthermore, the Oktoberfest beer festival in Munich, which traditionally runs until the first Sunday in October, now runs until 3 October, if the Sunday in question falls on the first or second day of October.",
"The celebrations in the host city always includes a festival and fireworks show.===Zipfelbund: compass communities===At the 1999 Day of German Unity celebration in Wiesbaden the (Compass Confederation) was formalised.",
"The Zipfelbund are the four communities at the cardinal compass points of Germany: North – List on the island of Sylt, West – Selfkant, South – Oberstdorf and East – Görlitz.",
"Together, they always participate in the respective annual celebration to represent the modern borders of Germany.",
"Direction Community State Coordinates Population North List auf Sylt Schleswig-Holstein 2,462 West Selfkant North Rhine-Westphalia 10,263 East Görlitz Saxony 56,461 South Oberstdorf Bavaria 9,974"
],
[
"See also",
"* East German uprising of 1953"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* Tag der Deutschen Einheit 2014 Niedersächsische Staatskanzlei* Tag der Deutschen Einheit 2011 Bonn * Chronik der Mauer chronik-der-mauer.de 1990 * Video: Volkskammerbeschluss 23.August 1990 zum Beitritt der DDR zur Bundesrepublik Deutsches Rundfunkarchiv 1989 * German Embassy Publication, Infocus:German Unity Day"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Alliance 90/The Greens"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Alliance 90/The Greens''' (, ), often simply referred to as '''the Greens''' (, ), is a green political party in Germany.",
"It was formed in 1993 by the merger of The Greens (formed in West Germany in 1980) and Alliance 90 (formed in East Germany in 1990).",
"The Greens had itself merged with the East German Green Party after German reunification in 1990.Since January 2022, Ricarda Lang and Omid Nouripour have been co-leaders of the party.",
"It currently holds 118 of the 736 seats in the Bundestag, having won 14.8% of votes cast in the 2021 federal election, and its parliamentary group is the third largest of six.",
"Its parliamentary co-leaders are Britta Haßelmann and Katharina Dröge.",
"The Greens have been part of the federal government twice: first as a junior partner to the Social Democrats (SPD) from 1998 to 2005, and then with the SPD and the Free Democratic Party (FDP) in the traffic light coalition since the 2021 German federal election.",
"In the incumbent Scholz cabinet, the Greens have five ministers, including Vice-Chancellor Robert Habeck and Foreign Minister Annalena Baerbock.The party holds seats in all of Germany's state legislatures, except the Saarland, and is a member of coalition governments in eleven states.",
"Winfried Kretschmann, Minister-President of Baden-Württemberg, is the only Green head of government in Germany.",
"The Landtag of Baden-Württemberg is also the only state legislature in which Alliance 90/The Greens is the largest party; it is the second largest party in the legislatures of Berlin, Hamburg, and Schleswig-Holstein.Alliance 90/The Greens is a founding member of the European Green Party and the Greens–European Free Alliance group in the European Parliament.",
"It is currently the largest party in the G/EFA group, with 21 MEPs.",
"In the 2019 European election, Alliance 90/The Greens was the second largest party in Germany, winning 20.5% of votes cast.",
"The party had 126,451 members in December 2022, making it the fourth largest party in Germany by membership."
],
[
"History",
"===Background===The Green Party was initially founded in West Germany as ''Die Grünen'' (the Greens) in January 1980.It grew out of the anti-nuclear energy, environmental, peace, new left, and new social movements of the late 20th century.",
"''Grüne Liste Umweltschutz'' (green list for environmental protection) was the name used for some branches in Lower Saxony and other states in the Federal Republic of Germany.",
"These groups were founded in 1977 and took part in several elections.",
"Most of them merged with The Greens in 1980.The West Berlin state branch of The Greens was founded as ''Alternative Liste'', or precisely, ''Alternative Liste für Demokratie und Umweltschutz'' (AL; alternative list for democracy and environmental protection) in 1978 and became the official West Berlin branch of The Greens in 1980.In 1993 it renamed to Alliance 90/The Greens Berlin after the merger with East Berlin's Greens and Alliance 90.The Hamburg state branch of the Green Party was called ''Grün-Alternative Liste Hamburg'' (GAL; green-alternative list) from its foundation in 1982 until 2012.In 1984 it became the official Hamburg branch of The Greens.===12–13 January 1980: Foundation congress===The political party '''The Greens''' () sprung out of the wave of New Social Movements that were active in the 1970s, including environmentalist, anti-war, and anti-nuclear movements which can trace their origin to the student protests of 1968.Officially founded as a German national party on 13 January 1980 in Karlsruhe, the party sought to give these movements political and parliamentary representation, as the pre-existing peoples parties were not organised in a way to address their stated issues.",
"Its membership included organisers from former attempts to achieve institutional representation such as GLU and AUD.",
"Opposition to pollution, use of nuclear power, NATO military action, and certain aspects of industrialised society were principal campaign issues.",
"The party also championed sexual liberation and the abolition of age of consent laws.The formation of a party was purportedly first discussed by movement leaders in 1978.Important figures in the first years were – among others – Petra Kelly, Joschka Fischer, Gert Bastian, Lukas Beckmann, Rudolf Bahro, Joseph Beuys, Antje Vollmer, Herbert Gruhl, August Haußleiter, Luise Rinser, Dirk Schneider, Christian Ströbele, Jutta Ditfurth, and Baldur Springmann.In the foundational congress of 1980, the ideological tenets of the party were consolidated, proclaiming the famous Four Pillars of the Green Party:* Social justice* Ecological wisdom* Grassroots democracy* Nonviolence===1980s: Parliamentary representation on the federal level===In 1982, the conservative factions of the Greens broke away to form the Ecological Democratic Party (ÖDP).",
"Those who remained in the Green party were more strongly pacifist and against restrictions on immigration and reproductive rights, while supporting the legalisation of cannabis use, placing a higher priority on working for LGBT rights, and tending to advocate what they described as \"anti-authoritarian\" concepts of education and child-rearing.",
"They also tended to identify more closely with a culture of protest and civil disobedience, frequently clashing with police at demonstrations against nuclear weapons, nuclear energy, and the construction of a new runway () at Frankfurt Airport.",
"Those who left the party at the time might have felt similarly about some of these issues, but did not identify with the forms of protest that Green party members took part in.After some success at state-level elections, the party won 27 seats with of the vote in the Bundestag, the lower house of the German parliament, in the 1983 federal election.",
"Among the important political issues at the time was the deployment of Pershing II IRBMs and nuclear-tipped cruise missiles by the U.S. and NATO on West German soil, generating strong opposition in the general population that found an outlet in mass demonstrations.",
"The newly formed party was able to draw on this popular movement to recruit support.",
"Partly due to the impact of the Chernobyl disaster in 1986, and to growing awareness of the threat of air pollution and acid rain to German forests (), the Greens increased their share of the vote to in the 1987 federal election.",
"Around this time, Joschka Fischer emerged as the unofficial leader of the party, which he remained until resigning all leadership posts following the 2005 federal election.The Greens were the target of attempts by the East German secret police to enlist the cooperation of members who were willing to align the party with the agenda of the German Democratic Republic.",
"The party ranks included several politicians who were later discovered to have been Stasi agents, including Bundestag representative Dirk Schneider, European Parliament representative Brigitte Heinrich, and Red Army Faction defense lawyer Klaus Croissant.",
"Greens politician and Bundestag representative Gert Bastian was also a founding member of , a pacifist group created and funded by the Stasi, the revelation of which may have contributed to the murder-suicide in which he killed his partner and Greens founder Petra Kelly.",
"A study commissioned by the Greens determined that 15 to 20 members intimately cooperated with the Stasi and another 450 to 500 had been informants.Until 1987, the Greens included a faction involved in pedophile activism, the short for (approx.",
"''working group \"Gays, Pederasts and Transsexuals\"'').",
"This faction campaigned for repealing § 176 of the German penal code, dealing with child sexual abuse.",
"This group was controversial within the party itself, and was seen as partly responsible for the poor election result of 1985.This controversy re-surfaced in 2013 and chairwoman Claudia Roth stated she welcomed an independent scientific investigation on the extent of influence pedophile activists had on the party in the mid-1980s.",
"In November 2014, the political scientist Franz Walter presented the final report about his research on a press conference.===1990s: German reunification, electoral failure in the West, formation of Alliance 90/The Greens===GDR's Green Party logoIn the 1990 federal elections, taking place post-reunified Germany, the Greens in the West did not pass the 5% limit required to win seats in the Bundestag.",
"It was only due to a temporary modification of German election law, applying the five-percent \"hurdle\" separately in East and West Germany, that the Greens acquired any parliamentary seats at all.",
"This happened because in the new states of Germany, the Greens, in a joint effort with Alliance 90, a heterogeneous grouping of civil rights activists, were able to gain more than 5% of the vote.",
"Some critics attribute this poor performance to the reluctance of the campaign to cater to the prevalent mood of nationalism, instead focusing on subjects such as global warming.",
"A campaign poster at the time proudly stated, \"Everyone is talking about Germany; we're talking about the weather!",
"\", paraphrasing a popular slogan of Deutsche Bundesbahn, the German national railway.",
"The party also opposed imminent reunification that was in process, instead wanting to initiate debates on ecology and nuclear issues before reunification causing a drop in support in Western Germany.",
"After the 1994 federal election; however, the merged party returned to the Bundestag, and the Greens received 7.3% of the vote nationwide and 49 seats.===1998–2002: Greens as governing party, first term===A cycle rickshaw (velotaxi) in front of the German Bundestag in Berlin with the Alliance 90/The Greens livery for the 2005 federal electionIn the 1998 federal election, despite a slight fall in their percentage of the vote (6.7%), the Greens retained 47 seats and joined the federal government for the first time in 'Red-Green' coalition government with the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD).",
"Joschka Fischer became Vice-Chancellor of Germany and foreign minister in the new government, which had two other Green ministers (Andrea Fischer, later Renate Künast, and Jürgen Trittin).Almost immediately the party was plunged into a crisis by the question of German participation in the NATO actions in Kosovo.",
"Numerous anti-war party members resigned their party membership when the first post-war deployment of German troops in a military conflict abroad occurred under a Red-Green government, and the party began to experience a long string of defeats in local and state-level elections.",
"Disappointment with the Green participation in government increased when anti-nuclear power activists realised that shutting down the nation's nuclear power stations would not happen as quickly as they wished, and numerous pro-business SPD members of the federal cabinet opposed the environmentalist agenda of the Greens, calling for tacit compromises.In 2001, the party experienced a further crisis as some Green Members of Parliament refused to back the government's plan of sending military personnel to help with the 2001 invasion of Afghanistan.",
"Chancellor Gerhard Schröder called a vote of confidence, tying it to his strategy on the war.",
"Four Green MPs and one Social Democrat voted against the government, but Schröder was still able to command a majority.On the other hand, the Greens achieved a major success as a governing party through the 2000 decision to phase out the use of nuclear energy.",
"Minister of Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety Jürgen Trittin reached an agreement with energy companies on the gradual phasing out of the country's nineteen nuclear power plants and a cessation of civil usage of nuclear power by 2020.This was authorised through the Nuclear Exit Law.",
"Based on an estimate of 32 years as the normal period of operation for a nuclear power plant, the agreement defines precisely how much energy a power plant is allowed to produce before being shut down.",
"This law has since been overturned.===2002–2005: Greens as governing party, second term===Despite the crises of the preceding electoral period, in the 2002 federal election, the Greens increased their total to 55 seats (in a smaller parliament) and 8.6%.",
"This was partly due to the perception that the internal debate over the war in Afghanistan had been more honest and open than in other parties, and one of the MPs who had voted against the Afghanistan deployment, Hans-Christian Ströbele, was directly elected to the Bundestag as a district representative for the Friedrichshain-Kreuzberg – Prenzlauer Berg East constituency in Berlin, becoming the first Green to ever gain a first-past-the-post seat in Germany.The Greens benefited from increased inroads among traditionally left-wing demographics which had benefited from Green-initiated legislation in the 1998–2002 term, such as environmentalists (Renewable Energies Act) and LGBT groups (Registered Partnership Law).",
"Perhaps most important for determining the success of both the Greens and the SPD was the increasing threat of war in Iraq, which was highly unpopular with the German public, and helped gather votes for the parties which had taken a stand against participation in this war.",
"Despite losses for the SPD, the Red-Green coalition government retained a very slight majority in the Bundestag (4 seats) and was renewed, with Joschka Fischer as foreign minister, Renate Künast as minister for consumer protection, nutrition and agriculture, and Jürgen Trittin as minister for the environment.One internal issue in 2002 was the failed attempt to settle a long-standing discussion about the question of whether members of parliament should be allowed to become members of the party executive.",
"Two party conventions declined to change the party statute.",
"The necessary majority of two-thirds was missed by a small margin.",
"As a result, former party chairpersons Fritz Kuhn and Claudia Roth (who had been elected to parliament that year) were no longer able to continue in their executive function and were replaced by former party secretary general Reinhard Bütikofer and former Bundestag member Angelika Beer.",
"The party then held a member referendum on this question in the spring of 2003 which changed the party statute.",
"Now members of parliament may be elected for two of the six seats of the party executive, as long as they are not ministers or caucus leaders.",
"57% of all party members voted in the member referendum, with 67% voting in favor of the change.",
"The referendum was only the second in the history of Alliance 90/The Greens, the first having been held about the merger of the Greens and Alliance 90.In 2004, after Angelika Beer was elected to the European parliament, Claudia Roth was elected to replace her as party chair.Federal party convention in Oldenburg; Renate Künast speaking (2005)The only party convention in 2003 was planned for November 2003, but about 20% of the local organisations forced the federal party to hold a special party convention in Cottbus early to discuss the party position regarding ''Agenda 2010'', a major reform of the German welfare programmes planned by Chancellor Schröder.The November 2003 party convention was held in Dresden and decided the election platform for the 2004 European Parliament elections.",
"The German Green list for these elections was headed by Rebecca Harms (then leader of the Green party in Lower Saxony) and Daniel Cohn-Bendit, previously Member of the European Parliament for The Greens of France.",
"The November 2003 convention is also noteworthy because it was the first convention of a German political party ever to use an electronic voting system.The Greens gained a record 13 of Germany's 99 seats in these elections, mainly due to the perceived competence of Green ministers in the federal government and the unpopularity of the Social Democratic Party.In early 2005, the Greens were the target of the German Visa Affair 2005, instigated in the media by the Christian Democratic Union (CDU).",
"At the end of April 2005, they celebrated the decommissioning of the Obrigheim nuclear power station.",
"They also continue to support a bill for an Anti-Discrimination Law (:de: Allgemeines Gleichbehandlungsgesetz) in the Bundestag.In May 2005, the only remaining state-level red-green coalition government lost the vote in the North Rhine-Westphalia state election, leaving only the federal government with participation of the Greens (apart from local governments).",
"In the early 2005 federal election the party incurred very small losses and achieved 8.1% of the vote and 51 seats.",
"However, due to larger losses of the SPD, the previous coalition no longer had a majority in the Bundestag.Map showing Alliance 90/The Greens vote in each of the German constituencies at the 2005 German federal election===2005–2021: In opposition===Map showing Alliance 90/The Greens vote in each of the German constituencies at the 2009 German federal electionFor almost two years after the federal election in 2005, the Greens were not part of any government at the state or federal level.",
"In June 2007, the Greens in Bremen entered into a coalition with the Social Democratic Party (SPD) following the 2007 Bremen state election.Professionalization of G-Coordination since 2007In April 2008, following the 2008 Hamburg state election, the Green-Alternative List (GAL) in Hamburg entered into a coalition with the Christian Democratic Union (CDU), the first such state-level coalition in Germany.",
"Although the GAL had to agree to the deepening of the Elbe River, the construction of a new coal-fired power station and two road projects they had opposed, they also received some significant concessions from the CDU.",
"These included reforming state schools by increasing the number of primary school educational stages, the restoration of trams as public transportation in the city-state, and more pedestrian-friendly real estate development.",
"On 29 November 2010, the coalition collapsed, resulting in an election that was won by SPD.Following the Saarland state election of August 2009, The Greens held the balance of power after a close election where no two-party coalitions could create a stable majority government.",
"After negotiations, the Saarland Greens rejected the option of a left-wing 'red-red-green' coalition with the SPD and The Left () in order to form a centre-right state government with the CDU and Free Democratic Party (FDP), a historical first time that a Jamaica coalition has formed in German politics.In June 2010, in the first state election following the victory of the CDU/CSU and FDP in the 2009 federal election, the \"black-yellow\" CDU-FDP coalition in North Rhine-Westphalia under Jürgen Rüttgers lost its majority.",
"The Greens and the SPD came one seat short of a governing majority, but after multiple negotiations about coalitions of SPD and Greens with either the FDP or The Left, the SPD and Greens decided to form a minority government, which was possible because under the constitution of North Rhine-Westphalia a plurality of seats is sufficient to elect a minister-president.",
"So a red-green government in a state where it was defeated under Peer Steinbrück in 2005 came into office again on 14 June 2010 with the election of Hannelore Kraft as minister-president (Cabinet Kraft I).The Greens founded the first international chapter of a German political party in the U.S. on 13 April 2008 at the Goethe-Institut in Washington D.C. Its main goal is \"to provide a platform for politically active and green-oriented German citizens, in and beyond Washington D.C., to discuss and actively participate in German Green politics.",
"... to foster professional and personal exchange, channeling the outcomes towards the political discourse in Germany.",
"\"In March 2011 (two weeks after the Fukushima nuclear disaster had begun), the Greens made large gains in Rhineland-Palatinate and in Baden-Württemberg.",
"In Baden-Württemberg they became the senior partner in a governing coalition for the first time.",
"Winfried Kretschmann is now the first Green to serve as Minister-President of a German State (Cabinet Kretschmann I and II).",
"Polling data from August 2011 indicated that one in five Germans supported the Greens.",
"From 4 October 2011 to 4 September 2016, the party was represented in all state parliaments.Like the Social Democrats, the Greens backed Chancellor Angela Merkel on most bailout votes in the German parliament during her second term, saying their pro-European stances overrode party politics.",
"Shortly before the elections, the party plummeted to a four-year low in the polls, undermining efforts by Peer Steinbrück's Social Democrats to unseat Merkel.",
"While being in opposition on the federal level since 2005, the Greens have established themselves as a powerful force in Germany's political system.",
"By 2016, the Greens had joined 11 out of 16 state governments in a variety of coalitions.",
"Over the years, they have built up an informal structure called G-coordination to organize interests between the federal party office, the parliamentary group in the Bundestag, and the Greens governing on the state level.The Greens remained the smallest of six parties in the Bundestag in the 2017 federal election, winning 8.9% of votes.",
"After the election, they entered into talks for a Jamaica coalition with the CDU and FDP.",
"Discussions collapsed after the FDP withdrew in November.After the federal election and unsuccessful Jamaica negotiations, the party held elections for two new co-leaders; incumbents Özdemir and Peter did not stand for re-election.",
"Robert Habeck and Annalena Baerbock were elected with 81% and 64% of votes, respectively.",
"Habeck had served as deputy premier and environment minister in Schleswig-Holstein since 2012, while Baerbock had been a leading figure in the party's Brandenburg branch since 2009.Their election was considered a break with tradition, as they were both members of the moderate wing.The Greens saw a major surge in support during the Bavarian and Hessian state elections in October 2018, becoming the second largest party in both.",
"They subsequently rose to second place behind the CDU/CSU in national polling, averaging between 17% and 20% over the next six months.2019 European Parliament election.",
"Darker shades indicate a higher vote share.In the 2019 European Parliament election, the Greens achieved their best ever result in a national election, placing second with 20.5% of the vote and winning 21 seats.",
"National polling released after the election showed a major boost for the party.",
"The first poll after the election, conducted by Forsa, showed the Greens in first place on 27%.",
"This was the first time the Greens had ever been in first place in a national opinion poll, and the first time in the history of the Federal Republic that any party other than the CDU/CSU or SPD had placed first in a national poll.",
"This trend continued as polls from May to July showed the CDU/CSU and Greens trading first place, after which point the CDU/CSU pulled ahead once more.",
"The Greens continued to poll in the low 20% range into early 2020.The Greens recorded best-ever results in the Brandenburg (10.8%) and Saxony (8.6%) state elections in September 2019, and subsequently joined coalition governments in both states.",
"They suffered an unexpected decline in the Thuringian election in October, only narrowing retaining their seats with 5.2%.",
"In the February 2020 Hamburg state election, the Greens became the second largest party, winning 24.2% of votes cast.In March 2021, the Greens improved their performance in Baden-Württemberg, where they remained the strongest party with 32.6% of votes, and Rhineland-Palatinate, where they moved into third place with 9.3%.Due to their sustained position as the second most popular party in national polling ahead of the September 2021 federal election, the Greens chose to forgo the traditional dual lead-candidacy in favour of selecting a single Chancellor candidate.",
"Co-leader Annalena Baerbock was announced as Chancellor candidate on 19 April and formally confirmed on 12 June with 98.5% approval.A map showing the percentage of votes won by the Greens by constituency and state in the 2021 federal election.",
"Darker shades indicate a higher vote share.The Greens surged in opinion polls in late April and May, briefly surpassing the CDU as the most popular party in the country, but their numbers slipped back after Baerbock was caught up in several controversies.",
"Her personal popularity also fell below that of both Armin Laschet and Olaf Scholz, the Chancellor candidates for the CDU and SPD, respectively.",
"The party's fortunes did not reverse even after the July floods, which saw climate change return as the most important issue among voters.",
"The situation worsened in August as the SPD surged into first place to the detriment of both the CDU and Greens.=== 2021–present: Return to government ===The Greens finished in third place in the 2021 federal election with 14.8% of votes.",
"Though their best ever federal election result, it was considered a bitter disappointment in light of their polling numbers during the previous three years.",
"They entered coalition talks with the FDP and SPD, eventually joining a traffic light coalition under Chancellor Olaf Scholz which took office on 8 December 2021.The Greens have five ministers in the Scholz cabinet, including Robert Habeck as Vice-Chancellor and Annalena Baerbock as foreign minister.Since party statute mandates that party leaders may not hold government office, Baerbock and Habeck stepped down after entering cabinet.",
"At a party conference in January 2022, Ricarda Lang and Omid Nouripour were elected to succeed them.",
"At the time of her election, Lang was 28 years old, speaker for women's issues, and a former leader of the Green Youth.",
"46-year-old Nouripour was foreign affairs spokesman and a member of the Bundestag since 2006.Of the new leaders, Lang is considered a representative of the party's left-wing, while Nouripour represents the right-wing."
],
[
"Ideology and platform",
"The party's main ideological trends are green politics and social liberalism.",
"Its political position is generally described to be centre-left, but there are also sources describing the party as centrist.",
"The West German Greens played a crucial role in the development of green politics in Europe, with their original program outlining \"four principles: ecological, social, grassroots, and non-violent.\"",
"Initially ideologically heterogenous, the party took up a position on the radical left in its early years, which were dominated by conflicts between the more left-wing \"Fundi\" (fundamentalist) and more moderate \"Realo\" (realist) factions.",
"These conflicts became less significant as the party moved toward the political mainstream in the 1990s.During the 2021 federal election, the WZB Berlin Social Science Center classified the party as the most centrist of Germany's left-wing parties.",
"However, Baerbock campaigned from the left of the SPD, stating that the party's economic program is geared towards the \"common good\" while the SPD's no longer is.",
"The party has a more pragmatic approach to workers' rights than the SPD.",
"On the other hand, the party clearly holds positions to the left of the SPD on issues such as fiscal discipline, particularly on the debt brake, the climate transition, and property expropriation in Berlin.",
"They are focusing on environmentalist and socially progressive policies.",
"Emphasis is placed on mitigating climate change, reducing carbon emissions, and fostering sustainability and environmentally-friendly practices.",
"They support equality, social justice, and humanitarian responses to events such as the European migrant crisis.",
"Their fiscal platform is flexible and seeks to balance social, economic, and environmental interests.",
"The party is strongly pro-European, advocating European federalism, and promotes wider international cooperation, including strengthening existing alliances.Starting from the leadership of Annalena Baerbock and Robert Habeck, commentators have observed the Greens taking a pragmatic, moderate approach to work with parties from across the political spectrum.",
"Baerbock described their stances and style as a form of \"radical realism\" attempting to reconcile principles with practical politics.",
"At the same time, the party has denounced populism and division, and placed rhetorical emphasis on optimism and cross-party cooperation.",
"Accompanied by record high popularity and election results, this led some to suggest that the Greens were filling a gap in the political centre, which was left by the declining popularity of the CDU/CSU and SPD.===Economic policies===The party has economically left-liberal views.===Foreign policy===The Greens are regarded as taking a Atlanticist line on defense and pushing for a stronger common EU foreign policy, especially against Russia and China.",
"Green Party co-leader Annalena Baerbock has proposed a post-pacifist foreign policy.",
"She supports eastward expansion of NATO and has considered the number of UN resolutions critical of Israel as \"absurd compared to resolutions against other states.\"",
"The party's program included references to NATO as an \"indispensable\" part of European security.",
"The Greens have promised to abolish the contested Nord Stream 2 pipeline to ship Russian natural gas to Germany.",
"The party criticized the EU's investment deal with China.",
"In 2016, the Greens criticised Germany's defense plan with Saudi Arabia, which has been waging war in Yemen and has been accused of massive human rights violations.The party remains divided over issues such as nuclear disarmament and U.S. nuclear weapons on German territory.",
"Some Greens want Germany to sign the United Nations' Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.===Energy and nuclear power===Anti-nuclear protest near nuclear waste disposal centre at Gorleben in northern Germany, on 8 November 2008Ever since the party's inception, The Greens have been concerned with the immediate halt of construction or operation of all nuclear power stations.",
"As an alternative, they promote a shift to non-nuclear renewable energy and a comprehensive program of energy conservation.In 1986, large parts of Germany were covered with radioactive contamination from the Chernobyl disaster and Germans went to great lengths to deal with the contamination.",
"Germany's anti-nuclear stance was strengthened.",
"From the mid-1990s onwards, anti-nuclear protests were primarily directed against transports of radioactive waste in \"CASTOR\" containers.After the Chernobyl disaster, the Greens became more radicalised and resisted compromise on the nuclear issue.",
"During the 1990s, a re-orientation towards a moderate program occurred, with concern about global warming and ozone depletion taking a more prominent role.",
"During the federal red-green government (1998–2005) many people became disappointed with what they saw as excessive compromise on key Greens policies.Eight German nuclear power reactors (Biblis A and B, Brunsbuettel, Isar 1, Kruemmel, Neckarwestheim 1, Philippsburg 1 and Unterweser) were declared permanently shut down on 6 August 2011, following the Japanese Fukushima nuclear disaster.Energy policy is still the most important cross-cutting issue in climate and economic policies.",
"Implementation of Green Policy would see electricity generation from 100 percent renewable sources as early as 2040.The development of renewable energy and combined heat and power is also a great opportunity for technical and economic innovation.",
"Solar industry and environmental technologies are already a significant part of key industries providing jobs which need to be developed and promoted vigorously.",
"In addition, a priority of green energy policy is increasing the thermal insulation and energy efficiency of homes, the phaseout of all nuclear energy generation with possible high-efficiency gas-fired power plants operational during the transition phase.===Environment and climate policy===The central idea of green politics is sustainable development.",
"The concept of environmental protection is the cornerstone of Alliance 90/The Greens policy.",
"In particular, the economic, energy and transport policy claims are in close interaction with environmental considerations.",
"The Greens acknowledge the natural environment as a high priority and animal protection should be enshrined as a national objective in constitutional law.",
"An effective environmental policy would be based on a common environmental code, with the urgent integration of a climate change bill.",
"During the red-green coalition (1998–2005) a policy of agricultural change was launched labeled as a paradigm shift in agricultural policy towards a more ecological friendly agriculture, which needs to continue.The Greens have praised the European Green Deal, which aims to make the EU climate neutral by 2050.Climate change is at the center of all policy considerations.",
"This includes environmental policy and safety and social aspects.",
"The plans of the Alliance 90/The Greens provide a climate change bill laying down binding reductions to greenhouse gas emissions in Germany by 2020 restricting emissions to minus 40 percent compared to 1990.=== European Union ===Alliance 90/The Greens supports the eventual federalization of the European Union into a Federal European Republic (German: ''Föderale Europäische Republik''), i.e.",
"a single federal European sovereign state.===Transport===A similarly high priority is given to transport policy.",
"The switch from a traveling allowance to a mobility allowance, which is paid regardless of income to all employees, replacing company car privileges.",
"The truck toll will act as a climate protection instrument internalizing the external costs of transport.",
"Railway should be promoted in order to achieve the desired environmental objectives and the comprehensive care of customers.",
"The railway infrastructure is to remain permanently in the public sector, allowing a reduction in expenditure on road construction infrastructure.",
"The Greens want to control privileges on kerosene and for international flights, introduce an air ticket levy.Fossil fuels such as heavy oil or diesel shall be replaced by emission-neutral fuels and green propulsion systems in order to make shipping climate-neutral in the long term.===Social policy===For many years, the Green Party has advocated against the \"Ehegattensplitting\" policy, under which the incomes of married couples are split for taxation purposes.",
"Furthermore, the Party advocates for a massive increase in federal spending for places in preschools, and for increased investment in education: an additional 1 billion Euros for vocational schools and 200 million Euros more BAföG (Bundesausbildungsförderungsgesetz in German, approximately translated to \"the Federal Law for the Advancement of Education\") for adults.In its 2013 platform, the Green Party successfully advocated for a minimum wage of 8.50 Euro per hour, which was implemented on 1 January 2015.It continues to press for higher minimum wages.The Greens want the starting retirement age to remain 67, but with some qualificationsfor example, a provision for partial retirement.The party supports and has supported various forms of rent regulation.",
"During the 2021 election, the party called for rent hikes to be capped at 2.5% per year.The Greens support progressive taxation and is critical of FDP efforts to cut taxes for top earners.===Women and LGBTQIA+ rights===Green supporters supporting Annalena Baerbock in 2021The Green Party supports the implementation of quotas in executive boards, the policy of equal pay for equal work, and continuing the fight against domestic violence.",
"According to its website, the Green Party \"fights for the acceptance and against the exclusion of homosexuals, bisexuals, intersex- and transgender people and others\".In order to recognize the political persecution that LGBT+ people face abroad, the Green Party wants to extend asylum to LGBTQIA+ people abroad.",
"The policy change was sponsored primarily by Volker Beck, one of the Party's most prominent gay members.",
"Because of the extensive support the Green Party has given the LGBTQIA+ community since its conception, many LGBTQIA+ people vote for the Green Party even if their political ideology does not quite align otherwise.===Drug policy===The party supports the legalization and regulation of cannabis and is the sponsor of the proposed German cannabis control bill.Furthermore, the Greens support research on the drug and the use of marijuana for medicinal purposes."
],
[
"Electorate",
"A 2000 study by the Infratest Dimap political research company has suggested the Green voter demographic includes those on higher incomes (e.g.",
"above €2000/month) and the party's support is less among households with lower incomes.",
"The same polling research also concluded that the Greens received fewer votes from the unemployed and general working population, with business people favouring the party as well as the centre-right liberal Free Democratic Party.",
"According to Infratest Dimap the Greens received more voters from the age group 34–42 than any other age group and that the young were generally more supportive of the party than the old.",
"(Source: Intrafest Dimap political research company for the ARD.",
")The Greens have a higher voter demographic in urban areas than rural areas, except for a small number of rural areas with pressing local environmental concerns, such as strip mining or radioactive waste deposits.",
"The cities of Bonn, Cologne, Stuttgart, Berlin, Hamburg, Frankfurt and Munich have among the highest percentages of Green voters in the country.",
"The towns of Aachen, Bonn, Darmstadt, Hanover, Mönchengladbach and Wuppertal have Green mayors.",
"The party has a lower level of support in the states of the former German Democratic Republic (East Germany); nonetheless, the party is currently represented in every state landtag except Saarland."
],
[
"Election results",
"===Federal Parliament (''Bundestag'')=== Election Constituency Party list Seats +/– Status Votes % Votes % 1980 732,619 1.0 (#5) 569,589 1.5 (#5) No seats 1983 1,609,855 4.1 (#5) 2,167,431 5.6 (#5) 27 1987 2,649,459 7.0 (#4) 3,126,256 8.3 (#5) 15 1990 2,589,912 5.6 (#5) 2,347,407 5.0 (#4) 36 1994 3,037,902 6.5 (#4) 3,424,315 7.3 (#4) 41 1998 2,448,162 5.0 (#4) 3,301,624 6.7 (#4) 2 2002 2,693,794 5.6 (#5) 4,108,314 8.6 (#4) 8 2005 2,538,913 5.4 (#5) 3,838,326 8.1 (#5) 4 2009 3,974,803 9.2 (#5) 4,641,197 10.7 (#5) 17 2013 3,177,269 7.3 (#5) 3,690,314 8.4 (#4) 5 2017 3,717,436 8.0 (#6) 4,157,564 8.9 (#6) 4 2021 6,465,502 14.0 (#3) 6,848,215 14.8 (#3) 51 ImageSize = width:525 height:150PlotArea = width:500 height:125 left:25 bottom:20AlignBars = justifyColors = id:Grüne value:rgb(0,0.9999,0)DateFormat = yyyyPeriod = from:0 till:200TimeAxis = orientation:verticalScaleMajor = unit:year increment:50 start:0PlotData = bar:Seats color:Grüne width:24 mark:(line,white) align:left fontsize:S bar:1980 color:Grüne from:start till:0 text:0 align:center bar:1983 color:Grüne from:start till:27 text:27 align:center bar:1987 color:Grüne from:start till:42 text:42 align:center bar:1990 color:Grüne from:start till:8 text:8 align:center bar:1994 color:Grüne from:start till:49 text:49 align:center bar:1998 color:Grüne from:start till:47 text:47 align:center bar:2002 color:Grüne from:start till:55 text:55 align:center bar:2005 color:Grüne from:start till:51 text:51 align:center bar:2009 color:Grüne from:start till:68 text:68 align:center bar:2013 color:Grüne from:start till:63 text:63 align:center bar:2017 color:Grüne from:start till:67 text:67 align:center bar:2021 color:Grüne from:start till:118 text:118 align:centerImageSize = width:525 height:150PlotArea = width:500 height:125 left:25 bottom:20AlignBars = justifyColors = id:Grüne value:rgb(0,0.9999,0)DateFormat = yyyyPeriod = from:0 till:200TimeAxis = orientation:verticalScaleMajor = unit:year increment:50 start:0PlotData = bar:Vote% color:Grüne width:24 mark:(line,white) align:left fontsize:S bar:1980 color:Grüne from:start till:15 text:1.5 align:center bar:1983 color:Grüne from:start till:56 text:5.6 align:center bar:1987 color:Grüne from:start till:83 text:8.3 align:center bar:1990 color:Grüne from:start till:50 text:5.0 align:center bar:1994 color:Grüne from:start till:73 text:7.3 align:center bar:1998 color:Grüne from:start till:67 text:6.7 align:center bar:2002 color:Grüne from:start till:86 text:8.6 align:center bar:2005 color:Grüne from:start till:81 text:8.1 align:center bar:2009 color:Grüne from:start till:107 text:10.7 align:center bar:2013 color:Grüne from:start till:84 text:8.4 align:center bar:2017 color:Grüne from:start till:89 text:8.9 align:center bar:2021 color:Grüne from:start till:148 text:14.8 align:center Results of ''Alliance 90/The Greens'' (East) and ''The Greens'' (West)===European Parliament=== Election Votes % Seats +/– 1979 893,683 3.2 (#5) 1984 2,025,972 8.2 (#4) 7 1989 2,382,102 8.4 (#3) 1 1994 3,563,268 10.1 (#3) 4 1999 1,741,494 6.4 (#4) 5 2004 3,078,276 11.9 (#3) 6 2009 3,193,821 12.1 (#3) 1 2014 3,138,201 10.7 (#3) 3 2019 7,675,584 20.5 (#2) 10===State Parliaments (''Länder'')=== State parliament Election Votes % Seats +/– Status Baden-Württemberg 2021 1,585,903 32.6 (#1) 11 Bavaria 2023 1,972,147 14.4 (#4) 6 Berlin 2023 278,964 18.4 (#3) 2 Brandenburg 2019 136,364 10.8 (#4) 4 Bremen 2023 150,263 11.9 (#3) 5 Hamburg 2020 963,796 24.2 (#2) 18 Hesse 2023 415,888 14.8 (#4) Lower Saxony 2022 526,923 14.5 (#3) 12 2021 57,548 6.8 (#5) 5 North Rhine-Westphalia 2022 1,299,821 18.2 (#3) 25 Rhineland-Palatinate 2021 179,902\t 9.3 (#3) 4 Saarland 2022 22,598 4.995 (#4) 0 Saxony 2019 187,015 8.6 (#4) 4 Saxony-Anhalt 2021 63,145 5.9 (#6) 1 Schleswig-Holstein 2022 254,124 4 Thuringia 2019 57,485 5.2 (#5) 1 ===Results timeline=== Year DE EU BW BY BE BB HB HH HE NI MV NW RP SL SN ST SH TH 1978 ''N/A'' ''N/A'' ''N/A'' 1.8 ''N/A'' ''N/A'' ''N/A'' 4.6 2.0 3.9 ''N/A'' ''N/A'' ''N/A'' ''N/A'' ''N/A'' ''N/A'' ''N/A'' ''N/A'' 1979 3.2 3.7 6.5 ''N/A'' 2.4 1980 1.5 5.3 3.0 2.9 1981 7.2 1982 4.6 7.7 8.0 6.5 6.8 1983 5.6 5.4 5.9 4.5 3.6 1984 8.2 8.0 1985 10.6 4.6 2.5 1986 7.5 10.4 7.1 1987 8.3 10.2 7.0 9.4 5.9 3.9 1988 7.9 2.9 1989 8.4 11.8 1990 5.0 6.4 9.4 9.2 5.5 '''9.3''' 5.0 2.6 5.6 5.3 '''6.5''' 1991 11.2 7.2 8.8 6.5 1992 9.5 5.0 1993 13.5 1994 7.3 10.1 6.1 2.9 7.4 3.7 5.5 4.1 5.1 4.5 1995 13.2 13.1 11.2 10.0 1996 12.1 6.9 8.1 1997 13.9 1998 6.7 5.7 7.0 2.7 3.2 1999 6.4 9.9 1.9 8.9 7.2 3.2 2.6 1.9 2000 7.1 6.2 2001 7.7 9.1 8.6 5.2 2002 8.6 2.6 2.0 2003 7.7 12.8 10.1 7.6 2004 11.9 3.6 12.3 5.6 5.1 4.5 2005 8.1 6.2 6.2 2006 11.7 13.1 3.4 4.6 3.6 2007 16.5 2008 9.4 9.6 7.5 8.0 2009 10.7 12.1 5.7 13.7 '''5.9''' 6.4 12.4 6.2 2010 12.1 2011 24.2 17.6 '''22.5''' 11.2 8.7 '''15.4''' '''7.1''' 2012 11.3 5.0 13.2 2013 8.4 8.6 11.1 13.7 2014 10.7 6.2 5.7 5.7 2015 15.1 12.3 2016 30.3 15.2 4.8 5.3 5.2 2017 8.9 8.7 6.4 4.0 12.9 2018 '''17.6''' '''19.8''' 2019 '''20.5''' '''10.8''' 17.4 '''8.6''' 5.2 2020 '''24.2''' 2021 '''14.8''' '''32.6''' '''18.9''' 6.3 9.3 5.9 2022 '''14.5''' '''18.2''' 5.0 '''18.3''' 2023 14.4 18.4 11.9 14.8 Year DE EU BW BY BE BB HB HH HE NI MV NW RP SL SN ST SH TH '''Bold''' indicates best result to date.",
"Present in legislature (in opposition) Junior coalition partner Senior coalition partner===States (''Länder'')===+ The Greens, Alliance 90 and Alliance 90/The Greens in government Length State/Federation Coalition partner(s) 1985–1987 Hesse SPD (Cabinet Börner III) 1989–1990 Berlin Alternative List for Democracy and Environment Protectionwith SPD (Senate Momper) 1990–1994 Lower Saxony SPD (Cabinet Schröder I) 1990–1994 Brandenburg Alliance 90 with SPD and FDP (Cabinet Stolpe I) 1991–1999 Hesse SPD (Cabinets Eichel I and II) 1991–1995 Bremen SPD and FDP (Senate Wedemeier III) 1994–1998 Saxony-Anhalt SPD (Cabinet Höppner I),minority government supported by PDS 1995–2005 North Rhine-Westphalia SPD (Cabinets Rau V, Clement I and II, Steinbrück) 1996–2005 Schleswig-Holstein SPD (Cabinets Simonis II and III) 1997–2001 Hamburg SPD (Senate Runde) 1998–2005 '''Federal Government''' SPD (Cabinets Schröder I and II) 2001–2002 Berlin SPD (Senate Wowereit I),minority government supported by PDS 2007–2019 Bremen SPD (Senates Böhrnsen II and III and Sieling) 2008–2010 Hamburg CDU (Senates von Beust III and Ahlhaus) 2009–2012 Saarland CDU and FDP (Cabinets Müller III and Kramp-Karrenbauer) 2010–2017 North Rhine-Westphalia SPD (Cabinets Kraft I (minority government with changing majorities) and II) 2011–2016 Baden-Württemberg SPD (Cabinet Kretschmann I) ('''Greens as leading party''') 2011–2016 Rhineland-Palatinate SPD (Cabinets Beck V and Dreyer I) 2012–2017 Schleswig-Holstein SPD and SSW (Cabinet Albig) 2013–2017 Lower Saxony SPD (Cabinet Weil I) Hesse CDU (Cabinet Bouffier II, III, and Rhein) 2014–2020 Thuringia Left and SPD (Cabinet Ramelow I) Hamburg SPD (Senates Scholz II, Tschentscher I and II) Baden-Württemberg CDU (Cabinets Kretschmann II and III) ('''Greens as leading party''') Rhineland-Palatinate SPD and FDP (Cabinets Dreyer II and III) 2016–2021 Saxony-Anhalt CDU and SPD (Cabinet Haseloff II) Berlin SPD and Linke (Senates Müller II and Giffey) 2017–2022 Schleswig-Holstein CDU and FDP (Cabinet Günther I) Bremen SPD and Left (Senate Bovenschulte) Brandenburg SPD and CDU (Cabinet Woidke III) Saxony CDU and SPD (Cabinet Kretschmer II) Thuringia Left and SPD (Cabinet Ramelow II) '''Federal Government''' SPD and FDP (Cabinet Scholz) North Rhine-Westphalia CDU (Cabinet Wüst II) Schleswig-Holstein CDU (Cabinet Günther II) Lower Saxony SPD (Cabinet Weil III)Alliance 90/The Greens representation at the state level:"
],
[
"Leadership (1993–present)",
"LeadersYearLudger VolmerMarianne Birthler 1993–1994Jürgen TrittinKrista Sager 1994–1996Gunda Röstel 1996–1998Antje Radcke 1998–2000Fritz KuhnRenate Künast 2000–2001Claudia Roth 2001–2002Reinhard BütikoferAngelika Beer 2002–2004Claudia Roth 2004–2008Cem Özdemir 2008–2013Simone Peter2013–2018Robert HabeckAnnalena Baerbock 2018–2022Omid NouripourRicarda Lang 2022–present"
],
[
"See also",
"* Anti-nuclear movement* Green party* Green Party faction (Bundestag)* Green Youth (Germany)* List of German Green Party politicians* List of political parties in Germany"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"****Kolinsky, Eva (1989): ''The Greens in West Germany: Organisation and Policy Making'' Oxford: Berg.",
"*Nishida, Makoto (2005): ''Strömungen in den Grünen (1980–2003) : eine Analyse über informell-organisierte Gruppen innerhalb der Grünen'' Münster: Lit, , * *Raschke, Joachim (1993): ''Die Grünen: Wie sie wurden, was sie sind.''",
"Köln: Bund-Verlag.",
"*Raschke, Joachim (2001): ''Die Zukunft der Grünen.''",
"Frankfurt am Main / New York: Campus.",
"*Stifel, Andreas (2018): Vom erfolgreichen Scheitern einer Bewegung – Bündnis 90/Die Grünen als politische Partei und soziokulturelles Phänomen.",
"Wiesbaden: VS Springer.",
"**Wiesenthal, Helmut (2000): \"Profilkrise und Funktionswandel.",
"Bündnis 90/Die Grünen auf dem Weg zu einem neuen Selbstverständnis\", in ''Aus Politik und Zeitgeschichte'', B5 2000, S. 22–29."
],
[
"External links",
"* Official Homepage of Bündnis 90/Die Grünen* European Green Party information on Bündnis 90/Die Grünen * \"German Greens and Pax Europa\" (English) The Nation article about Green foreign policy* The Rise of the Green Party – slideshow by ''Der Spiegel''"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Gheorghe Zamfir"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Gheorghe Zamfir''' (; born April 6, 1941) is a Romanian nai (pan flute) musician.Zamfir is known for playing an expanded version of normally 20-pipe nai, with 22, 25, 28 or even 30 pipes, to increase its range, and obtaining as many as eight overtones (additional to the fundamental tone) from each pipe by changing his embouchure.",
"He is known as \"The Master of the Pan Flute\"."
],
[
"Career",
"Zamfir came to the public eye when he was approached by Swiss ethnomusicologist Marcel Cellier, who extensively researched Romanian folk music in the 1960s.",
"The composer Vladimir Cosma brought Zamfir with his pan flute to Western European countries for the first time in 1972 as the soloist in Cosma's original music for the movie ''Le grand blond avec une chaussure noire''.",
"The movie received several awards, including the ''Top Foreign Film'' from the National Board of Review in 1973.Zamfir continued to perform as a soloist in movie soundtracks by composers Francis Lai, Ennio Morricone and many others.",
"Largely through television commercials where he was billed as \"Zamfir, Master of the Pan Flute\", he introduced the folk instrument to a modern audience and revived it from obscurity.In 1966, Zamfir was appointed conductor of the \"Ciocîrlia Orchestra\", one of the most prestigious state ensembles of Romania, destined for concert tours abroad.",
"This created the opportunity for composition and arranging.",
"In 1969 he left Ciocîrlia and started his own ''taraf'' (small band) and in 1970 he had his first longer term contract in Paris.",
"Zamfir discovered the much greater freedom for artistic adventure.",
"His taraf consisted of: Ion Drăgoi (violin), Ion Lăceanu (flutes), Dumitru Fărcaș (tarogato), Petre Vidrean (double bass) and Tony Iordache (cymbalum) all number one soloists in their country.",
"This taraf made some excellent recordings (CD Zamfir a Paris).",
"He changed the composition of the band soon after: Efta Botoca (violin), Marin Chisar (flutes), Dorin Ciobaru and Pavel Cebzan (clarinet and tarogato), Vasile Pandelescu (accordion), Petre Vidrean (bass) and Pantelimon Stînga (cymbalum).",
"It is said that this change was made to increase the command of Zamfir and have more artistic freedom.",
"A turning point was the recording of Zamfir's composition \"Messe pour la Paix\" (Philips).",
"His taraf joined a choir and a symphonic orchestra.",
"This was evidence of the growing ambition.",
"While the Philips recordings of that time were rather conservative, Zamfir preached revolution in the concert halls with daring performances.",
"In 1977, he recorded \"The Lonely Shepherd\" with James Last.",
"Zamfir put himself on the world map and since then his career became highly varied, hovering over classical repertoire, easy listening and pop music.Between 1976 and 1983, Zamfir had six albums peak within the Australian top 100 albums charts, with ''The Flutes of Pan'', his best, peaking at number 26 in 1980.Zamfir's big break in the English-speaking world came when the BBC religious television program, ''The Light of Experience'', adopted his recording of \"Doina De Jale\", a traditional Romanian funeral song, as its theme.",
"Epic Records released the tune as a single in 1976, and it climbed to number four on the UK Singles chart.",
"It would prove to be his only UK hit single, but it helped pave the way for a consistent stream of album sales in Britain.",
"His song \"Summer Love\" reached number 9 in South Africa in November 1976.In 1983, he scored a No.",
"3 hit on the Canadian Adult Contemporary chart with \"Blue Navajo,\" \"Senatorial Samba\" in honor of his life long friend and confidant The Senator, and several of his albums (including 1982's ''Romance'' and 1983's ''Childhood Dreams'') have charted in Canada as well.",
"His 1985 album, ''Atlantis'', contained tracks composed by Jacques Brel and Eric Satie, plus music from films and Zamfir's version of \"Stranger on the Shore\".After nearly a decade-long absence, Zamfir returned to Canada in January 2006 for a seven-city tour with the Traffic Strings quintet.",
"The program included a world premiere of Vivaldi's Four Seasons for pan flute and string quintet arranged by Lucian Moraru, jazz standards, and well-known favorites.In 2009, Zamfir was sampled by Animal Collective in the song \"Graze\" on their EP ''Fall Be Kind''.",
"In 2012, he performed at the opening ceremony of the 11th Conference of Parties to the Ramsar Convention at the Palace of the Parliament in Bucharest, Romania.Zamfir played \"Silent Night\" at the opening of Concerto di Natale (The Christmas Concert) on 15 December 2018 at the Vatican Aula Jean Paul the II.",
"Concerto di Natale is an international event where artists from all over the world meet for a special concert to raise as much money as possible for charity projects in Africa and poor regions of the world.",
"He performed with Anastacia, the Italian singer Alessandra Amoroso, and the Italian flautist Andrea Griminelli.",
"Zamfir and Andrea Griminelli appeared again to perform “The Lonely Shepherd”."
],
[
"Soundtracks",
"His first appearance as soloist interpreter in a movie soundtrack was in Vladimir Cosma's 1972 ''Le grand blond avec une chaussure noire'', whose soundtrack became a worldwide hit.Another of his notable contributions was to the soundtrack of the classic 1975 Australian film ''Picnic at Hanging Rock''.",
"His other film scores include ''La guerre du pétrole n'aura pas lieu'' (1975) and the Moroccan film ''Bodas de Sangre'' (1977).He was asked by Ennio Morricone to perform the pieces \"Childhood Memories\" and \"Cockeye's Song\" for the soundtrack of Sergio Leone's 1984 gangster film ''Once Upon a Time in America''.",
"His performance can also be heard throughout the 1984 film ''The Karate Kid'' plus the sequels.One of Zamfir's most famous pieces is \"The Lonely Shepherd\", which was written by James Last and recorded with the James Last Orchestra, and first included on Last's 1977 album ''Russland Erinnerungen'' (Memories of Russia); it was also released as a single.",
"\"The Lonely Shepherd\" was used as the theme for the 1979 Australian miniseries ''Golden Soak''.",
"It was also featured in Quentin Tarantino's 2003 film ''Kill Bill: Volume 1'' and in Nikolas Grasso's short film ''Doina''.His song \"Frunzuliță Lemn Adus Cântec De Nuntă\" (\"Fluttering Green Leaves Wedding Song\") appears in the 1991 Studio Ghibli film ''Only Yesterday''."
],
[
"Personal life",
"Zamfir was born in Găeşti, Romania, on April 6, 1941.Although initially interested in becoming an accordionist, at the age of 14 he began his pan flute studies with Fănică Luca at the Special Musical School no.",
"1 in Bucharest.",
"Later he attended the Ciprian Porumbescu Conservatory.",
"He currently resides and teaches pan flute in Bucharest.",
"His son, Emmanuel Teodor (who resides in Montreal, Canada), is also a drummer/musician."
],
[
"Bibliography",
"* (instructional book) * (autobiography)"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* Official site* * * Henk Jansen: Zamfir and his artistic success"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Georg Henrik von Wright"
],
[
"Introduction",
"G. H. von Wright in 1961 '''Georg Henrik von Wright''' (; 14 June 1916 – 16 June 2003) was a Finnish philosopher."
],
[
"Biography",
"G. H. von Wright was born in Helsinki on 14 June 1916 to Tor von Wright and his wife Ragni Elisabeth Alfthan.On the retirement of Ludwig Wittgenstein as professor at the University of Cambridge in 1948, von Wright succeeded him.",
"He published in English, Finnish, German, and Swedish, belonging to the Swedish-speaking minority of Finland.",
"Von Wright was of both Finnish and 17th-century Scottish ancestry, and the family was raised to nobility in 1772."
],
[
"Work",
"Von Wright's writings come under two broad categories.",
"The first is analytic philosophy and philosophical logic in the Anglo-American vein.",
"His 1951 texts ''An Essay in Modal Logic'' and \"Deontic Logic\" were landmarks in the postwar rise of formal modal logic and its deontic version.",
"He was an authority on Wittgenstein, editing his later works.",
"He was the leading figure in the Finnish philosophy of his time, specializing in philosophical logic, philosophical analysis, philosophy of action, philosophy of language, epistemology, and the close study of Charles Sanders Peirce.The other vein in von Wright's writings is moralist and pessimist.",
"During the last twenty years of his life, under the influence of Oswald Spengler, Jürgen Habermas and the Frankfurt School's reflections about modern rationality, he wrote prolifically.",
"His best known article from this period is entitled \"The Myth of Progress\" (1993), and it questions whether our apparent material and technological progress can really be considered \"progress\" (see Myth of Progress)."
],
[
"Awards",
"In the last year of his life, he was awarded several honorary degrees, including one by the University of Bergen.",
"He also was awarded the Swedish Academy Finland Prize in 1968."
],
[
"Publications",
"*''The Logical Problem of Induction'', PhD thesis, 31 May 1941*''Den logiska empirismen'' (Logical Empirism), in Swedish, 1945*''Über Wahrscheinlichkeit'' (On Chance), in German, 1945*''An Essay in Modal Logic'', (Studies in Logic and the Foundations of Mathematics: Volume V), L.E.J.",
"Brouwer, E.W.",
"Beth, and A. Heyting (eds.",
"), Amsterdam: North-Holland,1951*''A Treatise on Induction and Probability'', 1951* \"Deontic Logic\" ''Mind'', 60: 1–15, 1951*''Tanke och förkunnelse'' (Thought and Preaching), in Swedish, 1955*''Logical Studies'', 1957*''Logik, filosofi och språk'' (Logic, philosophy and language), in Swedish, 1957*''The Varieties of Goodness'', 1963.",
"(1958–60 Gifford Lectures in the University of St. Andrews.",
"He considered this his best and most personal work.",
")*''Norm and Action'', 1963 (1958–60 Gifford Lectures, St.",
"Andrews.",
")*''The Logic of Preference'', 1963*''Essay om naturen, människan och den vetenskaplig-tekniska revolutionen'' (Essay on Nature, Man and the Scientific-Technological Revolution), in Swedish, 1963*''An Essay in Deontic Logic'', 1968*''Time, Change and Contradiction'', (The Twenty-Second Arthur Stanley Eddington Memorial Lecture Delivered at Cambridge University 1 November 1968) Cambridge University Press.",
"1969*''Tieteen filosofian kaksi perinnettä'' (The Two Traditions of the Philosophy of Science), in Finnish, 1970*''Explanation and Understanding'', 1971*''Causality and Determinism'', 1974*''Handlung, Norm und Intention'' (Action, Norm and Intention), in German, 1977*''Humanismen som livshållning'' (Humanism as an approach to Life), in Swedish, 1978*''Freedom and Determination'', 1980*''Wittgenstein'', 1982*''Philosophical Papers I–III'', 1983–1984**v. I ''Practical Reason'', v. II ''Philosophical Logic'', v. III ''Truth, Knowledge, and Modality''*'' Of Human Freedom,'' 1985.",
"(1984 Tanner Lectures at the University of Helsinki)*''Filosofisia tutkielmia'' (Philosophical Dissertations), in Finnish, 1985*''Vetenskapen och förnuftet'' (Science and Reason), in Swedish, 1986*''Minervan Pöllö'' (The Owl of Minerva), in Finnish, 1991*''Myten om framsteget'' (The Myth of Progress), in Swedish, 1993*''The Tree of Knowledge and Other Essays,'' Leiden, Brill''.''",
", 1993*''Att förstå sin samtid'' (To Understand one's own Time), in Swedish, 1994*''Six Essays in Philosophical Logic''.",
"Acta Philosphica Fennica, Vol.",
"60, 1996*''Viimeisistä ajoista: Ajatusleikki'' (On the End Times: A Thought Experiment.",
"), in Finnish, 1997*''Logiikka ja humanismi'' (''Logic and Humanism''), in Finnish, 1998*''In the Shadow of Descartes: Essays in the Philosophy of Mind'', Dordrech, Kluwer, 1998*''Mitt liv som jag minns det'' (My Life as I Remember it), in Swedish, 2001Von Wright edited posthumous publications by Wittgenstein, which were published by Blackwell (unless otherwise stated):* 1961.",
"''Notebooks 1914-1916''.",
"* 1967.",
"''Zettel'' (Translated into English as ''Culture and Value'').",
"* 1969.",
"''On Certainty''.",
"* 1971.",
"''ProtoTractatus—An Early Version of Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus''.",
"Cornell University Press.",
"* 1973.",
"''Letters to C. K. Ogden with Comments on the English Translation of the Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus''.",
"* 1974.",
"''Letters to Russell, Keynes and Moore''.",
"* 1978 (1956).",
"''Remarks on the Foundations of Mathematics''.",
"* 1980.",
"''Remarks on the Philosophy of Psychology'', Vols 1–2.",
"* 1980.",
"''Culture and Value'' (English translation of ''Zettel'').",
"* 1982.",
"''Last Writings on the Philosophy of Psychology'', Vols.",
"1–2, 1992.Von Wright also edited extracts from the diary of David Pinsent, also published by Wiley-Blackwell:* 1990.''",
"A Portrait of Wittgenstein as a Young Man: From the Diary of David Hume Pinsent 1912–1914''.",
".For more complete publication details see \"Bibliography of the Writings of Georg Henrik von Wright\" (in Schilpp, 1989) and \"The Georg Henrik von Wright-Bibliography\" (2005)."
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Sources",
"* Von Wright Obituary.",
"''The Guardian'', 4 July 2003.",
"* G. H. von Wright.",
"''Encyclopædia Britannica.''",
"(Archived by Wayback Machine.)"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* Artosi, Alberto (March 2005).",
"\"Georg H. von Wright: In Memoriam\".",
"''Ratio Juris''.",
"'''18''' (1): 120–123.",
"* * *"
],
[
"External links",
"* \"G. H. von Wright\" obituary by Brian McGuinness in ''The Independent,'' 24 June 2003 (Archived by Wayback Machine)* Georg Henrik Wright in the National Biography of Finland.",
"* Georg Henrik von Wright in ''375 humanists''.",
"Faculty of Arts, University of Helsinki, 13 May 2015.",
"*"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Gaudy Night"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''''Gaudy Night''''' (1935) is a mystery novel by Dorothy L. Sayers, the tenth featuring Lord Peter Wimsey, and the third including Harriet Vane.The dons of Harriet Vane's ''alma mater'', the all-female Shrewsbury College, Oxford (based on Sayers' own Somerville College), have invited her back to attend the annual Gaudy celebrations.",
"However, the mood turns sour when someone begins a series of malicious acts including poison-pen messages, obscene graffiti, and wanton vandalism.",
"Despite the dons' reluctance to share the secret with an outsider, Harriet convinces them to let her bring in Lord Peter Wimsey to assist the investigation—but his involvement is not without complications, both personal and professional."
],
[
"Plot",
"Harriet Vane returns with trepidation to her ''alma mater'', Shrewsbury College, Oxford to attend the Gaudy dinner.",
"Expecting hostility because of her notoriety (she had stood trial for murder in an earlier novel, ''Strong Poison''), she is surprised to be welcomed warmly by most of the dons, and rediscovers her old love of academic life.",
"Harriet's short stay is, however, marred by her discovery of a sheet of paper with an offensive drawing, and a poison pen message referring to her as a \"dirty murderess\".Some time later the Dean of Shrewsbury writes to ask for her help.",
"There has been an outbreak of vandalism and anonymous letters, and fearing for the college's reputation if this becomes public knowledge, the Dean wants someone to investigate confidentially.",
"Harriet, herself a victim of poison-pen letters since her trial, reluctantly agrees, and returns to spend some months in residence, ostensibly to do research on Sheridan Le Fanu and to assist a don with her book.",
"The timing of the first poison pen message during the gaudy, and the use of a Latin quotation from the ''Aeneid'' during one disturbance, focuses suspicion on the Senior Common Room dons, causing escalating tensions.As Harriet wrestles with the case, trying to narrow down the list of suspects who might be responsible for poison-pen messages, obscene graffiti, wanton vandalism including the destruction of a set of scholarly proofs, and the crafting of vile effigies, she is forced to examine her ambivalent feelings about Wimsey, love and marriage, and her attraction to academia as an intellectual and emotional refuge.",
"Wimsey eventually arrives in Oxford to help, and she gains a new perspective from those who know him, including his nephew, an undergraduate at the university.The attacks build to a crisis.",
"There is an attempt to drive a vulnerable student to suicide and a physical assault on Harriet that almost kills her.",
"The perpetrator is finally unmasked as Annie Wilson, one of the college scouts, revealed to be the widow of a disgraced University of York academic.",
"Her husband's academic fraud had been exposed by an examiner, destroying his career and driving him to suicide; his suicide note used the Latin quote eventually used by Wilson.",
"The examiner later moved to Shrewsbury College, and the widow's campaign has been her revenge against the examiner in particular and more generally against intellectual women who move outside what she sees as their proper domestic sphere.At the end of the book, with Wimsey admitting his own faults in his attempts at courtship and having come to terms with her own feelings, Harriet finally accepts Wimsey's proposal of marriage."
],
[
"Principal characters",
"A modern view of Somerville College, Oxford, the inspiration for the fictional Shrewsbury College and Sayers' ''alma mater''*Harriet Vane – protagonist, a mystery writer*Lord Peter Wimsey – protagonist, an aristocratic amateur detective*Letitia Martin – Dean of Shrewsbury College*Helen de Vine – new Research Fellow at Shrewsbury College*Miss Lydgate – Harriet's former tutor*Dr Baring – Warden of Shrewsbury College*Miss Hillyard – history don at Shrewsbury College*Phoebe Tucker – Harriet's old college friend*Viscount Saint-George – Lord Peter's nephew, an undergraduate at Christ Church, Oxford*Reggie Pomfret – undergraduate at Queen's College*Miss Burrows – College librarian*Annie Wilson – scout at Shrewsbury College*Padgett – Head Porter at Shrewsbury College*Bunter – Lord Peter's manservant"
],
[
"Title",
"A \"gaudy\", at the University of Oxford, is a college feast, typically a reunion for its alumni.",
"The term \"gaudy night\" appears in Shakespeare's ''Antony and Cleopatra'': \"Let's have one other gaudy night: call to me / All my sad captains; fill our bowls once more / Let's mock the midnight bell\"."
],
[
"Literary significance and criticism",
"Writing in 1936, George Orwell disagreed with the opinion of an ''Observer'' critic who felt that ''Gaudy Night'' had put Miss Sayers \"definitely among the great writers\".",
"Orwell concluded, to the contrary, that \"her slickness in writing has blinded many readers to the fact that her stories, considered as detective stories, are very bad ones.",
"They lack the minimum of probability that even a detective story ought to have, and the crime is always committed in a way that is incredibly tortuous and quite uninteresting\".Although no murder occurs in ''Gaudy Night'', it includes a great deal of suspense and psychological thrills.",
"The narrative is interwoven with a love story and an examination of women's struggles to enlarge their roles and achieve some independence within the social climate of 1930s England, and the novel has been described as \"the first feminist mystery novel\".Jacques Barzun stated that \"''Gaudy Night'' is a remarkable achievement.",
"Harriet Vane and Saint-George, the undergraduate nephew of Lord Peter, help give variety, and the college setting justifies good intellectual debate.",
"The motive is magnificently orated on by the culprit in a scene that is a striking set-piece.",
"And though the Shrewsbury dons are sometimes hard to distinguish one from another, the College architecture is very good\".",
"''Gaudy Night'' deals with a number of philosophical themes, such as the right relation between love and independence or between principles and personal loyalties.",
"Susan Haack has an essay on ''Gaudy Night'' as a philosophical novel."
],
[
"Women's education",
"The issue of women's right to academic education is central to the book's plot.",
"The lecturers of Shrewsbury College are veterans of the prolonged struggle for academic degrees for women, which Oxford granted only reluctantly.",
"The Fellows of the college are surprised and a bit dismayed at the attitude of their students, who take for granted this right for which such a hard struggle had to be fought.Sayers had herself been one of the first women to obtain an Oxford University degree, having been awarded first-class honours in the mediaeval literature examinations of 1915.She attended Somerville College, the basis for the fictional Shrewsbury College of the plot."
],
[
"Adaptations",
"The book was adapted as a three-part series for BBC television in 1987, starring Edward Petherbridge as Wimsey and Harriet Walter as Harriet.In 2005 a dramatisation of the novel was released on CD by the BBC Radio Collection, with Joanna David as Harriet and Ian Carmichael as Wimsey, later broadcast on BBC Radio 7 in 2010."
],
[
"See also",
"*"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* * Annotations and explanations by Bill Peschel * \"Gaudy Night — More Than a Mystery\", 2013 review by Faith Ann Colburn"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"G"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''G''', or '''g''', is the seventh letter in the Latin alphabet, used in the modern English alphabet, the alphabets of other western European languages and others worldwide.",
"Its name in English is ''gee'' (pronounced ), plural ''gees''.",
"The lowercase version can be written in two forms: the single-storey (sometimes \"opentail\") 5px and the double-storey (sometimes \"looptail\") 6px.",
"The former is commonly used in handwriting and fonts based on it, especially fonts intended to be read by children."
],
[
"History",
"The evolution of the Latin alphabet's G can be traced back to the Latin alphabet's predecessor, the Greek alphabet.",
"The voiced velar stop was represented by the third letter of the Greek alphabet, gamma (Γ), which was later adopted by the Etruscan language.",
"Latin then borrowed this \"rounded form\" of gamma, C, to represent the same sound in words such as ''recei'', which was likely an early dative form of ''rex'', meaning \"king,\" as found in an \"early Latin inscription.\"",
"Over time, however, the letter C shifted to represent the unvoiced velar stop, leading to the displacement of the letter K. Scholars believe that this change can be attributed to the influence of the Etruscan language on Latin.",
"Afterwards, the letter 'G' was introduced in the Old Latin period as a variant of 'C' to distinguish voiced from voiceless , and G was used to represent a voiced velar from this point on and C \"stood for the unvoiced velar only\".The recorded originator of 'G' is freedman Spurius Carvilius Ruga, who added letter G to the teaching of the Roman alphabet during the 3rd century BC: he was the first Roman to open a fee-paying school, around 230 BC.",
"At this time, 'K' had fallen out of favor, and 'C', which had formerly represented both and before open vowels, had come to express in all environments.Ruga's positioning of 'G' shows that alphabetic order related to the letters' values as Greek numerals was a concern even in the 3rd century BC.",
"According to some records, the original seventh letter, 'Z', had been purged from the Latin alphabet somewhat earlier in the 3rd century BC by the Roman censor Appius Claudius, who found it distasteful and foreign.",
"Sampson (1985) suggests that: \"Evidently the order of the alphabet was felt to be such a concrete thing that a new letter could be added in the middle only if a 'space' was created by the dropping of an old letter.\"",
"George Hempl proposed in 1899 that there never was such a \"space\" in the alphabet and that in fact 'G' was a direct descendant of zeta.",
"Zeta took shapes like ⊏ in some of the Old Italic scripts; the development of the monumental form 'G' from this shape would be exactly parallel to the development of 'C' from gamma.",
"He suggests that the pronunciation > was due to contamination from the also similar-looking 'K'.Eventually, both velar consonants and developed palatalized allophones before front vowels; consequently in today's Romance languages, and have different sound values depending on context (known as hard and soft C and hard and soft G).",
"Because of French influence, English language orthography shares this feature.===Typographic variants===Typographic variants include a double-storey and a single-storey '''g'''.The modern lowercase 'g' has two typographic variants: the single-storey (sometimes \"opentail\") '8px' and the double-storey (sometimes \"looptail\") '8px'.",
"The single-storey form derives from the majuscule (uppercase) form by raising the serif that distinguishes it from 'c' to the top of the loop (thus closing the loop), and extending the vertical stroke downward and to the left.",
"The double-storey form had developed similarly, except that some ornate forms then extended the tail back to the right, and to the left again, forming a closed bowl or loop.",
"The initial extension to the left was absorbed into the upper closed bowl.",
"The double-storey version became popular when printing switched to \"Roman type\" because the tail was effectively shorter, making it possible to put more lines on a page.",
"In the double-storey version, a small top stroke in the upper-right, often terminating in an orb shape, is called an \"ear\".Generally, the two forms are complementary, but occasionally the difference has been exploited to provide contrast.",
"In the International Phonetic Alphabet, opentail has always represented a voiced velar plosive, while was distinguished from and represented a voiced velar fricative from 1895 to 1900.In 1948, the Council of the International Phonetic Association recognized and as typographic equivalents, and this decision was reaffirmed in 1993.While the 1949 ''Principles of the International Phonetic Association'' recommended the use of for a velar plosive and for an advanced one for languages where it is preferable to distinguish the two, such as Russian, this practice never caught on.",
"The 1999 ''Handbook of the International Phonetic Association'', the successor to the ''Principles'', abandoned the recommendation and acknowledged both shapes as acceptable variants.Wong et al.",
"(2018) found that native English speakers have little conscious awareness of the looptail form They write: \"Despite being questioned repeatedly, and despite being informed directly that G has two lowercase print forms, nearly half of the participants failed to reveal any knowledge of the looptail 'g', and only 1 of the 38 participants was able to write looptail 'g' correctly.",
"\"In Unicode, the two appearances are generally treated as glyph variants with no semantic difference.",
"Most serif typefaces use the looptail form (for example, '''g''') and most sans-serif typefaces use the opentail form (for example, '''g''') but the code point in both cases is U+0067.For applications where the single-storey variant must be distinguished (such as strict IPA in a typeface where the usual g character is double-storey), the character is available, as well as an upper case version, ."
],
[
"Pronunciation and use",
"+Pronunciations of GgLanguageDialect(s)Pronunciation (IPA)EnvironmentNotesAfrikaansArabicLatinization; corresponding to or in Arabic AzeriCatalan/(d)ʒ/Before e, iUsuallyDanishWord-initiallyUsuallyDutchStandardSouthern dialectsNorthern dialectsEnglishBefore e, i, y (see exceptions below)UsuallyBefore e, i in \"modern\" loanwords from French''silent''Some words, initial , and word-finally before a consonantEsperantoFaroesesoft, lenited; see Faroese phonologyhardsoftafter a, æ, á, e, o, ø and before uafter ó, u, ú and before a, i, or u''silent''after a, æ, á, e, o, ø and before aFijianFrenchUsuallyBefore e, i, yGalician~UsuallySee ''Gheada'' for consonant variationBefore e, iobsolete spelling, replaced by the letter ''x''GreekUsuallyLatinizationBefore ai, e, i, oi, yLatinizationIcelandicsofthardhard, lenited; see Icelandic phonologysoft, lenitedIrishUsuallyAfter i or before e, iItalianUsuallyBefore e, iMalayMandarinStandardPinyin latinizationNormanBefore e, iUsuallyNorwegianUsuallyBefore ei, i, j, øy, yPortugueseUsuallyBefore e, i, yRomanianBefore e, iUsuallyRomanshBefore e, iUsuallySamoanScottish GaelicUsuallyAfter i or before e, iSpanishUsually or Before e, i, yVariation between velar and glottal realizations depends on dialectSwedishUsuallyBefore ä, e, i, ö, yTurkishUsuallyBefore e, i, ö, üVietnameseStandardNorthern/z/Before iSouthern/j/Before i===English===In English, the letter appears either alone or in some digraphs.",
"Alone, it represents* a voiced velar plosive ( or \"hard\" ), as in ''goose'', ''gargoyle'', and ''game'';* a voiced palato-alveolar affricate ( or \"soft\" ), predominates before or , as in ''giant'', ''ginger'', and ''geology''; or* a voiced palato-alveolar sibilant () in post-medieval loanwords from French, such as ''rouge'', ''beige'', ''genre'' (often), and ''margarine'' (rarely) is predominantly soft before (including the digraphs and ), , or , and hard otherwise.",
"It is hard in those derivations from ''γυνή (gynḗ)'' meaning woman where initial-worded as such.",
"Soft is also used in many words that came into English from medieval church/academic use, French, Spanish, Italian or Portuguese – these tend to, in other ways in English, closely align to their Ancient Latin and Greek roots (such as ''fragile'', ''logic'' or ''magic'').There remain widely used a few English words of non-Romance origin where is hard followed by or (''get'', ''give'', ''gift''), and very few in which is soft though followed by such as ''gaol'', which since the 20th century is almost always written as \"jail\".The double consonant has the value (hard ) as in ''nugget'', with very few exceptions: in ''exaggerate'' and ''veggies'' and dialectally in ''suggest''.The digraph has the value (soft ), as in ''badger''.",
"Non-digraph can also occur, in compounds like ''floodgate'' and ''headgear''.The digraph may represent:* a velar nasal () as in ''length'', ''singer''* the latter followed by hard () as in ''jungle'', ''finger'', ''longest''Non-digraph also occurs, with possible values* as in ''engulf'', ''ungainly''* as in ''sponge'', ''angel''* as in ''melange''The digraph (in many cases a replacement for the obsolete letter yogh, which took various values including , , and ) may represent:* as in ''ghost'', ''aghast'', ''burgher'', ''spaghetti''* as in ''cough'', ''laugh'', ''roughage''* ∅ (no sound) as in ''through'', ''neighbor'', ''night'' * in ''ugh''* (rarely) in ''hiccough''* (rarely) in ''s'ghetti''Non-digraph also occurs, in compounds like ''foghorn'', ''pigheaded''.The digraph may represent:* as in ''gnostic'', ''deign'', ''foreigner'', ''signage''* in loanwords like ''champignon'', ''lasagna''Non-digraph also occurs, as in ''signature'', ''agnostic''.The trigraph has the value as in ''gingham'' or ''dinghy''.",
"Non-trigraph also occurs, in compounds like ''stronghold'' and ''dunghill''.G is the tenth least frequently used letter in the English language (after Y, P, B, V, K, J, X, Q, and Z), with a frequency of about 2.02% in words.===Other languages===Most Romance languages and some Nordic languages also have two main pronunciations for , hard and soft.",
"While the soft value of varies in different Romance languages ( in French and Portuguese, in Catalan, in Italian and Romanian, and in most dialects of Spanish), in all except Romanian and Italian, soft has the same pronunciation as the .In Italian and Romanian, is used to represent before front vowels where would otherwise represent a soft value.",
"In Italian and French, is used to represent the palatal nasal , a sound somewhat similar to the in English ''canyon''.",
"In Italian, the trigraph , when appearing before a vowel or as the article and pronoun ''gli'', represents the palatal lateral approximant .Other languages typically use to represent regardless of position.Amongst European languages, Czech, Dutch, Estonian and Finnish are an exception as they do not have in their native words.",
"In Dutch, represents a voiced velar fricative instead, a sound that does not occur in modern English, but there is a dialectal variation: many Netherlandic dialects use a voiceless fricative ( or ) instead, and in southern dialects it may be palatal .",
"Nevertheless, word-finally it is always voiceless in all dialects, including the standard Dutch of Belgium and the Netherlands.",
"On the other hand, some dialects (like Amelands) may have a phonemic .Faroese uses to represent , in addition to , and also uses it to indicate a glide.In Māori, is used in the digraph which represents the velar nasal and is pronounced like the in ''singer''.The Samoan and Fijian languages use the letter by itself for .In older Czech and Slovak orthographies, was used to represent , while was written as ( with caron).The Azerbaijani Latin alphabet uses exclusively for the \"soft\" sound, namely .",
"The sound is written as .",
"This leads to unusual spellings of loanwords: ''qram'' 'gram', ''qrup'' 'group', ''qaraj'' 'garage', ''qallium'' 'gallium'."
],
[
"Related characters",
"===Ancestors, descendants and siblings===* 𐤂 : Semitic letter Gimel, from which the following symbols originally derive* C c : Latin letter C, from which G derives* : Greek letter Gamma, from which C derives in turn* ɡ : Latin letter script small G* ᶢ : Modifier letter small script g is used for phonetic transcription* 𝼁 : Latin small letter reversed script g, an extension to IPA for disordered speech (extIPA)* ᵷ : Turned g* 𝼂 : Latin letter small capital turned g, an extension to IPA for disordered speech (extIPA)* Г г : Cyrillic letter Ge* Ȝ ȝ : Latin letter Yogh* Ɣ ɣ : Latin letter Gamma* Ᵹ ᵹ : Insular g* ᫌ : Combining insular g, used in the Ormulum* Ꝿ ꝿ : Turned insular g* Ꟑ ꟑ : Closed insular g, used in the Ormulum* ɢ : Latin letter small capital G, used in the International Phonetic Alphabet to represent a voiced uvular stop* 𐞒 : Modifier letter small capital G, used as a superscript IPA letter* ʛ : Latin letter small capital G with hook, used in the International Phonetic Alphabet to represent a voiced uvular implosive* 𐞔 : Modifier letter small capital G with hook, used as a superscript IPA letter* 𐞓 : Modifier letter small g with hook, used as a superscript IPA letter* ᴳ ᵍ : Modifier letters are used in the Uralic Phonetic Alphabet* ꬶ : Used for the Teuthonista phonetic transcription system* G with diacritics: Ǵ ǵ Ǥ ǥ Ĝ ĝ Ǧ ǧ Ğ ğ Ģ ģ Ɠ ɠ Ġ ġ Ḡ ḡ Ꞡ ꞡ ᶃ*ց : Armenian alphabet Tso===Ligatures and abbreviations===* ₲ : Paraguayan guaraní"
],
[
"Computing codes",
": 1"
],
[
"Other representations"
],
[
"See also",
"* Carolingian G* Hard and soft G*"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* * * * Lewis and Short ''Latin Dictionary'': G"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Gamma"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Gamma''' (; uppercase , lowercase ; ''gámma'') is the third letter of the Greek alphabet.",
"In the system of Greek numerals it has a value of 3.In Ancient Greek, the letter gamma represented a voiced velar stop .",
"In Modern Greek, this letter normally represents a voiced velar fricative , except before either of the two front vowels (/e/, /i/), where it represents a voiced palatal fricative ; while /g/ in foreign words is instead commonly transcribed as γκ).In the International Phonetic Alphabet and other modern Latin-alphabet based phonetic notations, it represents the voiced velar fricative."
],
[
"History",
"The Greek letter Gamma Γ is a grapheme derived from the Phoenician letter (''gīml'') which was rotated from the right-to-left script of Canaanite to accommodate the Greek language's writing system of left-to-right.",
"The Canaanite grapheme represented the /g/ phoneme in the Canaanite language, and as such is cognate with ''gimel'' ג of the Hebrew alphabet.Based on its name, the letter has been interpreted as an abstract representation of a camel's neck, but this has been criticized as contrived, and it is more likely that the letter is derived from an Egyptian hieroglyph representing a club or throwing stick.The alphabet on black-figure pottery with a lambda-shaped gammaIn Archaic Greece, the shape of gamma was closer to a classical lambda (Λ), while lambda retained the Phoenician L-shape ().Letters that arose from the Greek gamma include Etruscan (Old Italic) 𐌂, Roman C and G, Runic ''kaunan'' , Gothic ''geuua'' , the Coptic Ⲅ, and the Cyrillic letters Г and Ґ."
],
[
"Greek phoneme",
"The Ancient Greek /g/ phoneme was the voiced velar stop, continuing the reconstructed proto-Indo-European ''*g'', ''*ǵ''.The modern Greek phoneme represented by gamma is realized either as a voiced palatal fricative () before a front vowel (/e/, /i/), or as a voiced velar fricative in all other environments.",
"Both in Ancient and in Modern Greek, before other velar consonants (κ, χ, ξ – that is, ''k, kh, ks''), gamma represents a velar nasal .",
"A double gamma γγ (e.g., άγγελος, \"angel\") represents the sequence (phonetically varying ) or ."
],
[
"Phonetic transcription",
"Lowercase Greek gamma is used in the Americanist phonetic notation and Uralic Phonetic Alphabet to indicate voiced consonants.The gamma was also added to the Latin alphabet, as Latin gamma, in the following forms: majuscule Ɣ, minuscule ɣ, and superscript modifier letter ˠ.In the International Phonetic Alphabet the minuscule letter is used to represent a voiced velar fricative and the superscript modifier letter is used to represent velarization.",
"It is not to be confused with the character , which looks like a lowercase Latin gamma that lies above the baseline rather than crossing, and which represents the close-mid back unrounded vowel.",
"In certain nonstandard variations of the IPA, the uppercase form is used.It is as a full-fledged majuscule and minuscule letter in the alphabets of some of languages of Africa such as Dagbani, Dinka, Kabye, and Ewe, and Berber languages using the Berber Latin alphabet.It is sometimes also used in the romanization of Pashto."
],
[
"Mathematics and science",
"===Lowercase===The lowercase letter is used as a symbol for:*Chromatic number of in graph theory*Gamma radiation in nuclear physics*The photon, the elementary particle of light and other electromagnetic radiation*The 434 nm spectral line in the Balmer series*Surface energy in materials science*The Lorentz factor in the theory of relativity*In mathematics, the lower incomplete gamma function*The Euler–Mascheroni constant ≈ 0.57721566490153286*The heat capacity ratio ''Cp''  /''Cv'' in thermodynamics*The activity coefficient in thermodynamics*The gyromagnetic ratio in electromagnetism*Gamma waves in neuroscience*Gamma motor neurons in neuroscience*A non-SI metric unit of measure of mass equal to one microgram (1 μg).",
"This always-rare use is deprecated.",
"*A non-SI unit of measure of magnetic flux density, sometimes used in geophysics, equal to 10−5 Gauss (G), or 1 nanotesla (nT).",
"*The power by which the luminance of an image is increased in gamma correction*In civil and mechanical engineering:**Specific weight**The shear rate of a fluid is represented by a lowercase gamma with a dot above it: **Austenite (also known as γ-iron), a metallic non-magnetic allotrope or solid solution of iron.",
"*The gamma carbon, the third carbon attached to a functional group in organic chemistry and biochemistry; see Alpha and beta carbonThe lowercase Latin gamma ɣ can also be used in contexts (such as chemical or molecule nomenclature) where gamma must not be confused with the letter y, which can occur in some computer typefaces.===Uppercase===The uppercase letter is used as a symbol for:*In mathematics, the gamma function (usually written as -function) is an extension of the factorial to complex numbers*In mathematics, the upper incomplete gamma function*The Christoffel symbols in differential geometry*In probability theory and statistics, the gamma distribution is a two-parameter family of continuous probability distributions.",
"*In solid-state physics, the center of the Brillouin zone*Circulation in fluid mechanics*As reflection coefficient in physics and electrical engineering*The tape alphabet of a Turing machine*The Feferman–Schütte ordinal *One of the Greeks in mathematical finance"
],
[
"Meteorology",
"===Tropical cyclones=== The name Gamma has been used twice for tropical cyclones:Tropical Storm Gamma (2005) - deadly tropical storm that impacted HondurasHurricane Gamma (2020) - hurricane that affected the Yucatán Peninsula"
],
[
"Encoding",
"===HTML===The HTML entities for uppercase and lowercase gamma are Γ and γ.===Unicode===* Greek Gamma* Coptic Gamma* Latin Gamma / phonetic Gamma* CJK Square Gamma* Technical / Mathematical GammaThese characters are used only as mathematical symbols.",
"Stylized Greek text should be encoded using the normal Greek letters, with markup and formatting to indicate text style."
],
[
"See also",
"* Г, г - Ge (Cyrillic)* G, g - Latin* Gamma correction"
],
[
"References"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Goitre"
],
[
"Introduction",
"A '''goitre''', or '''goiter''', is a swelling in the neck resulting from an enlarged thyroid gland.",
"A goitre can be associated with a thyroid that is not functioning properly.Worldwide, over 90% of goitre cases are caused by iodine deficiency.",
"The term is from the Latin ''gutturia'', meaning throat.",
"Most goitres are not cancerous (benign), though they may be potentially harmful."
],
[
"Signs and symptoms",
"A goitre can present as a palpable or visible enlargement of the thyroid gland at the base of the neck.",
"A goitre, if associated with hypothyroidism or hyperthyroidism, may be present with symptoms of the underlying disorder.",
"For hyperthyroidism, the most common symptoms are associated with adrenergic stimulation: tachycardia (increased heart rate), palpitations, nervousness, tremor, increased blood pressure and heat intolerance.",
"Clinical manifestations are often related to hypermetabolism (increased metabolism), excessive thyroid hormone, an increase in oxygen consumption, metabolic changes in protein metabolism, immunologic stimulation of diffuse goitre, and ocular changes (exophthalmos).",
"Hypothyroid people commonly have poor appetite, cold intolerance, constipation, lethargy and may undergo weight gain.",
"However, these symptoms are often non-specific and make diagnosis difficult.According to the WHO classification of goitre by palpation, the severity of goitre is currently graded as grade 0, grade 1, grade 2.File:Struma 001.jpg|Goitre Class II, WHO grade 2File:Kone med stor struma.jpg|Goitre Class III, WHO grade 2"
],
[
"Causes",
"Worldwide, the most common cause for goitre is iodine deficiency, commonly seen in countries that scarcely use iodized salt.",
"Selenium deficiency is also considered a contributing factor.",
"In countries that use iodized salt, Hashimoto's thyroiditis is the most common cause.",
"Goitre can also result from cyanide poisoning, which is particularly common in tropical countries where people eat the cyanide-rich cassava root as the staple food.",
"Cause Pathophysiology Resultant thyroid activity Growth pattern Treatment Incidence and prevalence Prognosis Iodine deficiency Hyperplasia of thyroid to compensate for decreased efficacy Can cause hypothyroidism Diffuse Iodine Constitutes over 90% cases of goitre worldwide Increased size of thyroid may be permanent if untreated for around five years Congenital hypothyroidism Inborn errors of thyroid hormone synthesisHypothyroidism Goitrogen ingestion Adverse drug reactions Hashimoto's thyroiditis Autoimmune disease in which the thyroid gland is gradually destroyed.",
"Infiltration of lymphocytes.",
"Hypothyroidism Diffuse and lobulated Thyroid hormone replacement Prevalence: 1 to 1.5 in a 1000 Remission with treatment Pituitary disease Hypersecretion of thyroid stimulating hormone, almost always by a pituitary adenoma Diffuse Pituitary surgery Very rare Graves' disease—also called Basedow syndrome Autoantibodies (TSHR-Ab) that activate the TSH-receptor (TSHR) Hyperthyroidism Diffuse Antithyroid agents, radioiodine, surgery Will develop in about 0.5% of males and 3% of females Remission with treatment, but still lower quality of life for 14 to 21 years after treatment, with lower mood and lower vitality, regardless of the choice of treatment Thyroiditis Acute or chronic inflammation Can be hyperthyroidism initially, but progress to hypothyroidism Thyroid cancer Usually uninodular Overall relative 5-year survival rate of 85% for females and 74% for males Benign thyroid neoplasms Usually hyperthyroidism Usually uninodular Mostly harmless Thyroid hormone insensitivity Secretional hyperthyroidism, Symptomatic hypothyroidism Diffuse * Sarcoidosis* Amyloidosis* Hydatidiform mole* Cysts* Acromegaly* Pendred syndrome"
],
[
"Diagnosis",
"toxic adenomaGoitre may be diagnosed via a thyroid function test in an individual suspected of having it.===Types===A goitre may be classified either as nodular or diffuse.",
"Nodular goitres are either of one nodule (uninodular) or of multiple nodules (multinodular).",
"Multinodular goiter (MNG) is the most common disorder of the thyroid gland.",
";Growth pattern:* Uninodular goitre: one thyroid nodule; can be either inactive, or active (toxic) – autonomously producing thyroid hormone.",
"* Multinodular goitre: multiple nodules; can likewise be inactive or toxic, the latter is called toxic multinodular goitre and associated with hyperthyroidism.",
"These nodules grow up at varying rates and secrete thyroid hormone autonomously, thereby suppressing TSH-dependent growth and function in the rest of gland.",
"Inactive nodules in the same goitre can be malignant.",
"Thyroid cancer is identified in 13.7% of the patients operated for multinodular goitre.",
"* Diffuse goitre: the whole thyroid appearing to be enlarged due to hyperplasia.",
";Size:* Class I: the goitre in normal posture of the head cannot be seen; it is only found by palpation.",
"* Class II: the goitre is palpable and can be easily seen.",
"* Class III: the goitre is very large and is retrosternal (partially or totally lying below the sternum), pressure results in compression marks."
],
[
"Treatment",
"Goitre is treated according to the cause.",
"If the thyroid gland is producing an excess of thyroid hormones (T3 and T4), radioactive iodine is given to the patient to shrink the gland.",
"If goitre is caused by iodine deficiency, small doses of iodide in the form of Lugol's iodine or KI solution are given.",
"If the goitre is associated with an underactive thyroid, thyroid supplements are used as treatment.",
"Sometimes a partial or complete thyroidectomy is required."
],
[
"Epidemiology",
"Disability-adjusted life year for iodine deficiency per 100,000 inhabitants in 2002.Goitre is more common among women, but this includes the many types of goitre caused by autoimmune problems, and not only those caused by simple lack of iodine.Iodine mainly accumulates in the sea and in the topsoil.",
"Before iodine enrichment programs, goiters was common in areas with repeated flooding or glacial activities, which erodes the topsoil.",
"It is endemic in populations where the intake of iodine is less than 10 µg per day.Examples of such regions include the alpine regions of Southern Europe (such as Switzerland), the Himalayans, the Great Lakes basin, etc.",
"As reported in 1923, all the domestic animals have goiter in some of the glacial valleys of Southern Alaska.",
"It was so severe in Pemberton Meadows that it was difficult to raise young animals there."
],
[
"History",
"Goitre and congenital iodine deficiency syndrome in Styria, copper engraving, 1815Woman in Miesbacher Tracht wearing a goitre chokerChinese physicians of the Tang dynasty (618–907) were the first to successfully treat patients with goitre by using the iodine-rich thyroid gland of animals such as sheep and pigs—in raw, pill, or powdered form.",
"This was outlined in Zhen Quan's (d. 643 AD) book, as well as several others.",
"One Chinese book, ''The Pharmacopoeia of the Heavenly Husbandman'', asserted that iodine-rich sargassum was used to treat goitre patients by the 1st century BC, but this book was written much later.In the 12th century, Zayn al-Din al-Jurjani, a Persian physician, provided the first description of Graves' disease after noting the association of goitre and a displacement of the eye known as exophthalmos in his ''Thesaurus of the Shah of Khwarazm'', the major medical dictionary of its time.",
"The disease was later named after Irish doctor Robert James Graves, who described a case of goitre with exophthalmos in 1835.The German Karl Adolph von Basedow also independently reported the same constellation of symptoms in 1840, while earlier reports of the disease were also published by the Italians Giuseppe Flajani and Antonio Giuseppe Testa, in 1802 and 1810 respectively, and by the English physician Caleb Hillier Parry (a friend of Edward Jenner) in the late 18th century.Paracelsus (1493–1541) was the first person to propose a relationship between goitre and minerals (particularly lead) in drinking water.",
"Iodine was later discovered by Bernard Courtois in 1811 from seaweed ash.Goitre was previously common in many areas that were deficient in iodine in the soil.",
"For example, in the English Midlands, the condition was known as '''Derbyshire Neck'''.",
"In the United States, goitre was found in the Appalachian, Great Lakes, Midwest, and Intermountain regions.",
"The condition is now practically absent in affluent nations, where table salt is supplemented with iodine.",
"However, it is still prevalent in India, China, Central Asia, and Central Africa.Goitre had been prevalent in the alpine countries for a long time.",
"Switzerland reduced the condition by introducing iodized salt in 1922.The Bavarian tracht in the Miesbach and Salzburg regions, which appeared in the 19th century, includes a choker, dubbed ''Kropfband'' (struma band) which was used to hide either the goitre or the remnants of goitre surgery."
],
[
"Society and culture",
"In the 1920s wearing bottles of iodine around the neck was believed to prevent goitre.===Notable cases===* Former U.S. President George H. W. Bush and his wife Barbara Bush were both diagnosed with Graves' disease and goitres, within two years of each other.",
"The disease caused hyperthyroidism and cardiac dysrhythmia.",
"Scientists said that, absent an environmental cause, the odds of both a husband and wife having Graves' disease might be 1 in 100,000 or as low as 1 in 3,000,000.===Heraldry===The coat of arms and crest of Die Kröpfner, of Tyrol showed a man \"afflicted with a large goitre\", an apparent pun on the German for the word (\"Kropf\")."
],
[
"See also",
"* David Marine conducted substantial research on the treatment of goitre with iodine.",
"* Endemic goitre* Struma ovarii—a kind of teratoma* Thyroid hormone receptor"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* *"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Genetics"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Genetics''' is the study of genes, genetic variation, and heredity in organisms.",
"It is an important branch in biology because heredity is vital to organisms' evolution.",
"Gregor Mendel, a Moravian Augustinian friar working in the 19th century in Brno, was the first to study genetics scientifically.",
"Mendel studied \"trait inheritance\", patterns in the way traits are handed down from parents to offspring over time.",
"He observed that organisms (pea plants) inherit traits by way of discrete \"units of inheritance\".",
"This term, still used today, is a somewhat ambiguous definition of what is referred to as a gene.Trait inheritance and molecular inheritance mechanisms of genes are still primary principles of genetics in the 21st century, but modern genetics has expanded to study the function and behavior of genes.",
"Gene structure and function, variation, and distribution are studied within the context of the cell, the organism (e.g.",
"dominance), and within the context of a population.",
"Genetics has given rise to a number of subfields, including molecular genetics, epigenetics and population genetics.",
"Organisms studied within the broad field span the domains of life (archaea, bacteria, and eukarya).Genetic processes work in combination with an organism's environment and experiences to influence development and behavior, often referred to as nature versus nurture.",
"The intracellular or extracellular environment of a living cell or organism may increase or decrease gene transcription.",
"A classic example is two seeds of genetically identical corn, one placed in a temperate climate and one in an arid climate (lacking sufficient waterfall or rain).",
"While the average height of the two corn stalks may be genetically determined to be equal, the one in the arid climate only grows to half the height of the one in the temperate climate due to lack of water and nutrients in its environment."
],
[
"Etymology",
"The word ''genetics'' stems from the ancient Greek '''' meaning \"genitive\"/\"generative\", which in turn derives from '''' meaning \"origin\"."
],
[
"History",
"The observation that living things inherit traits from their parents has been used since prehistoric times to improve crop plants and animals through selective breeding.",
"The modern science of genetics, seeking to understand this process, began with the work of the Augustinian friar Gregor Mendel in the mid-19th century.Prior to Mendel, Imre Festetics, a Hungarian noble, who lived in Kőszeg before Mendel, was the first who used the word \"genetic\" in hereditarian context.",
"He described several rules of biological inheritance in his works ''The genetic laws of the Nature'' (Die genetischen Gesetze der Natur, 1819).",
"His second law is the same as that which Mendel published.",
"In his third law, he developed the basic principles of mutation (he can be considered a forerunner of Hugo de Vries).",
"Festetics argued that changes observed in the generation of farm animals, plants, and humans are the result of scientific laws.",
"Festetics empirically deduced that organisms inherit their characteristics, not acquire them.",
"He recognized recessive traits and inherent variation by postulating that traits of past generations could reappear later, and organisms could produce progeny with different attributes.",
"These observations represent an important prelude to Mendel's theory of particulate inheritance insofar as it features a transition of heredity from its status as myth to that of a scientific discipline, by providing a fundamental theoretical basis for genetics in the twentieth century.Blending inheritance leads to the averaging out of every characteristic, which as the engineer Fleeming Jenkin pointed out, makes evolution by natural selection impossible.Other theories of inheritance preceded Mendel's work.",
"A popular theory during the 19th century, and implied by Charles Darwin's 1859 ''On the Origin of Species'', was blending inheritance: the idea that individuals inherit a smooth blend of traits from their parents.",
"Mendel's work provided examples where traits were definitely not blended after hybridization, showing that traits are produced by combinations of distinct genes rather than a continuous blend.",
"Blending of traits in the progeny is now explained by the action of multiple genes with quantitative effects.",
"Another theory that had some support at that time was the inheritance of acquired characteristics: the belief that individuals inherit traits strengthened by their parents.",
"This theory (commonly associated with Jean-Baptiste Lamarck) is now known to be wrong—the experiences of individuals do not affect the genes they pass to their children.",
"Other theories included Darwin's pangenesis (which had both acquired and inherited aspects) and Francis Galton's reformulation of pangenesis as both particulate and inherited.=== Mendelian genetics ===sex-linked inheritance of a mutation causing white eyes in ''Drosophila'' led him to the hypothesis that genes are located upon chromosomes.Modern genetics started with Mendel's studies of the nature of inheritance in plants.",
"In his paper \"''Versuche über Pflanzenhybriden''\" (\"Experiments on Plant Hybridization\"), presented in 1865 to the ''Naturforschender Verein'' (Society for Research in Nature) in Brno, Mendel traced the inheritance patterns of certain traits in pea plants and described them mathematically.",
"Although this pattern of inheritance could only be observed for a few traits, Mendel's work suggested that heredity was particulate, not acquired, and that the inheritance patterns of many traits could be explained through simple rules and ratios.The importance of Mendel's work did not gain wide understanding until 1900, after his death, when Hugo de Vries and other scientists rediscovered his research.",
"William Bateson, a proponent of Mendel's work, coined the word ''genetics'' in 1905.",
"(The adjective ''genetic'', derived from the Greek word ''genesis''—γένεσις, \"origin\", predates the noun and was first used in a biological sense in 1860.)",
"Bateson both acted as a mentor and was aided significantly by the work of other scientists from Newnham College at Cambridge, specifically the work of Becky Saunders, Nora Darwin Barlow, and Muriel Wheldale Onslow.",
"Bateson popularized the usage of the word ''genetics'' to describe the study of inheritance in his inaugural address to the Third International Conference on Plant Hybridization in London in 1906.After the rediscovery of Mendel's work, scientists tried to determine which molecules in the cell were responsible for inheritance.",
"In 1900, Nettie Stevens began studying the mealworm.",
"Over the next 11 years, she discovered that females only had the X chromosome and males had both X and Y chromosomes.",
"She was able to conclude that sex is a chromosomal factor and is determined by the male.",
"In 1911, Thomas Hunt Morgan argued that genes are on chromosomes, based on observations of a sex-linked white eye mutation in fruit flies.",
"In 1913, his student Alfred Sturtevant used the phenomenon of genetic linkage to show that genes are arranged linearly on the chromosome.=== Molecular genetics ===DNA, the molecular basis for biological inheritance.",
"Each strand of DNA is a chain of nucleotides, matching each other in the center to form what look like rungs on a twisted ladder.Although genes were known to exist on chromosomes, chromosomes are composed of both protein and DNA, and scientists did not know which of the two is responsible for inheritance.",
"In 1928, Frederick Griffith discovered the phenomenon of transformation: dead bacteria could transfer genetic material to \"transform\" other still-living bacteria.",
"Sixteen years later, in 1944, the Avery–MacLeod–McCarty experiment identified DNA as the molecule responsible for transformation.",
"The role of the nucleus as the repository of genetic information in eukaryotes had been established by Hämmerling in 1943 in his work on the single celled alga ''Acetabularia''.",
"The Hershey–Chase experiment in 1952 confirmed that DNA (rather than protein) is the genetic material of the viruses that infect bacteria, providing further evidence that DNA is the molecule responsible for inheritance.James Watson and Francis Crick determined the structure of DNA in 1953, using the X-ray crystallography work of Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins that indicated DNA has a helical structure (i.e., shaped like a corkscrew).",
"Their double-helix model had two strands of DNA with the nucleotides pointing inward, each matching a complementary nucleotide on the other strand to form what look like rungs on a twisted ladder.",
"This structure showed that genetic information exists in the sequence of nucleotides on each strand of DNA.",
"The structure also suggested a simple method for replication: if the strands are separated, new partner strands can be reconstructed for each based on the sequence of the old strand.",
"This property is what gives DNA its semi-conservative nature where one strand of new DNA is from an original parent strand.Although the structure of DNA showed how inheritance works, it was still not known how DNA influences the behavior of cells.",
"In the following years, scientists tried to understand how DNA controls the process of protein production.",
"It was discovered that the cell uses DNA as a template to create matching messenger RNA, molecules with nucleotides very similar to DNA.",
"The nucleotide sequence of a messenger RNA is used to create an amino acid sequence in protein; this translation between nucleotide sequences and amino acid sequences is known as the genetic code.With the newfound molecular understanding of inheritance came an explosion of research.",
"A notable theory arose from Tomoko Ohta in 1973 with her amendment to the neutral theory of molecular evolution through publishing the nearly neutral theory of molecular evolution.",
"In this theory, Ohta stressed the importance of natural selection and the environment to the rate at which genetic evolution occurs.",
"One important development was chain-termination DNA sequencing in 1977 by Frederick Sanger.",
"This technology allows scientists to read the nucleotide sequence of a DNA molecule.",
"In 1983, Kary Banks Mullis developed the polymerase chain reaction, providing a quick way to isolate and amplify a specific section of DNA from a mixture.",
"The efforts of the Human Genome Project, Department of Energy, NIH, and parallel private efforts by Celera Genomics led to the sequencing of the human genome in 2003."
],
[
"Features of inheritance",
"=== Discrete inheritance and Mendel's laws ===A Punnett square depicting a cross between two pea plants heterozygous for purple (B) and white (b) blossomsAt its most fundamental level, inheritance in organisms occurs by passing discrete heritable units, called genes, from parents to offspring.",
"This property was first observed by Gregor Mendel, who studied the segregation of heritable traits in pea plants, showing for example that flowers on a single plant were either purple or white—but never an intermediate between the two colors.",
"The discrete versions of the same gene controlling the inherited appearance (phenotypes) are called alleles.In the case of the pea, which is a diploid species, each individual plant has two copies of each gene, one copy inherited from each parent.",
"Many species, including humans, have this pattern of inheritance.",
"Diploid organisms with two copies of the same allele of a given gene are called homozygous at that gene locus, while organisms with two different alleles of a given gene are called heterozygous.",
"The set of alleles for a given organism is called its genotype, while the observable traits of the organism are called its phenotype.",
"When organisms are heterozygous at a gene, often one allele is called dominant as its qualities dominate the phenotype of the organism, while the other allele is called recessive as its qualities recede and are not observed.",
"Some alleles do not have complete dominance and instead have incomplete dominance by expressing an intermediate phenotype, or codominance by expressing both alleles at once.When a pair of organisms reproduce sexually, their offspring randomly inherit one of the two alleles from each parent.",
"These observations of discrete inheritance and the segregation of alleles are collectively known as Mendel's first law or the Law of Segregation.",
"However, the probability of getting one gene over the other can change due to dominant, recessive, homozygous, or heterozygous genes.",
"For example, Mendel found that if you cross homozygous dominate trait and homozygous recessive trait your odds of getting the dominant trait is 3:1.Real geneticist study and calculate probabilities by using theoretical probabilities, empirical probabilities, the product rule, the sum rule, and more.=== Notation and diagrams ===Genetic pedigree charts help track the inheritance patterns of traits.Geneticists use diagrams and symbols to describe inheritance.",
"A gene is represented by one or a few letters.",
"Often a \"+\" symbol is used to mark the usual, non-mutant allele for a gene.In fertilization and breeding experiments (and especially when discussing Mendel's laws) the parents are referred to as the \"P\" generation and the offspring as the \"F1\" (first filial) generation.",
"When the F1 offspring mate with each other, the offspring are called the \"F2\" (second filial) generation.",
"One of the common diagrams used to predict the result of cross-breeding is the Punnett square.When studying human genetic diseases, geneticists often use pedigree charts to represent the inheritance of traits.",
"These charts map the inheritance of a trait in a family tree.=== Multiple gene interactions ===Human height is a trait with complex genetic causes.",
"Francis Galton's data from 1889 shows the relationship between offspring height as a function of mean parent height.Organisms have thousands of genes, and in sexually reproducing organisms these genes generally assort independently of each other.",
"This means that the inheritance of an allele for yellow or green pea color is unrelated to the inheritance of alleles for white or purple flowers.",
"This phenomenon, known as \"Mendel's second law\" or the \"law of independent assortment,\" means that the alleles of different genes get shuffled between parents to form offspring with many different combinations.",
"Different genes often interact to influence the same trait.",
"In the Blue-eyed Mary (''Omphalodes verna''), for example, there exists a gene with alleles that determine the color of flowers: blue or magenta.",
"Another gene, however, controls whether the flowers have color at all or are white.",
"When a plant has two copies of this white allele, its flowers are white—regardless of whether the first gene has blue or magenta alleles.",
"This interaction between genes is called epistasis, with the second gene epistatic to the first.Many traits are not discrete features (e.g.",
"purple or white flowers) but are instead continuous features (e.g.",
"human height and skin color).",
"These complex traits are products of many genes.",
"The influence of these genes is mediated, to varying degrees, by the environment an organism has experienced.",
"The degree to which an organism's genes contribute to a complex trait is called heritability.",
"Measurement of the heritability of a trait is relative—in a more variable environment, the environment has a bigger influence on the total variation of the trait.",
"For example, human height is a trait with complex causes.",
"It has a heritability of 89% in the United States.",
"In Nigeria, however, where people experience a more variable access to good nutrition and health care, height has a heritability of only 62%."
],
[
"Molecular basis for inheritance",
"=== DNA and chromosomes ===The molecular structure of DNA.",
"Bases pair through the arrangement of hydrogen bonding between the strands.The molecular basis for genes is deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).",
"DNA is composed of deoxyribose (sugar molecule), a phosphate group, and a base (amine group).",
"There are four types of bases: adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and thymine (T).",
"The phosphates make hydrogen bonds with the sugars to make long phosphate-sugar backbones.",
"Bases specifically pair together (T&A, C&G) between two backbones and make like rungs on a ladder.",
"The bases, phosphates, and sugars together make a nucleotide that connects to make long chains of DNA.",
"Genetic information exists in the sequence of these nucleotides, and genes exist as stretches of sequence along the DNA chain.",
"These chains coil into a double a-helix structure and wrap around proteins called Histones which provide the structural support.",
"DNA wrapped around these histones are called chromosomes.",
"Viruses sometimes use the similar molecule RNA instead of DNA as their genetic material.DNA normally exists as a double-stranded molecule, coiled into the shape of a double helix.",
"Each nucleotide in DNA preferentially pairs with its partner nucleotide on the opposite strand: A pairs with T, and C pairs with G. Thus, in its two-stranded form, each strand effectively contains all necessary information, redundant with its partner strand.",
"This structure of DNA is the physical basis for inheritance: DNA replication duplicates the genetic information by splitting the strands and using each strand as a template for synthesis of a new partner strand.karyogram of a human, showing 22 homologous chromosome pairs, both the female (XX) and male (XY) versions of the sex chromosome (bottom right), as well as the mitochondrial genome (at bottom left).",
"Genes are arranged linearly along long chains of DNA base-pair sequences.",
"In bacteria, each cell usually contains a single circular genophore, while eukaryotic organisms (such as plants and animals) have their DNA arranged in multiple linear chromosomes.",
"These DNA strands are often extremely long; the largest human chromosome, for example, is about 247 million base pairs in length.",
"The DNA of a chromosome is associated with structural proteins that organize, compact, and control access to the DNA, forming a material called chromatin; in eukaryotes, chromatin is usually composed of nucleosomes, segments of DNA wound around cores of histone proteins.",
"The full set of hereditary material in an organism (usually the combined DNA sequences of all chromosomes) is called the genome.DNA is most often found in the nucleus of cells, but Ruth Sager helped in the discovery of nonchromosomal genes found outside of the nucleus.",
"In plants, these are often found in the chloroplasts and in other organisms, in the mitochondria.",
"These nonchromosomal genes can still be passed on by either partner in sexual reproduction and they control a variety of hereditary characteristics that replicate and remain active throughout generations.While haploid organisms have only one copy of each chromosome, most animals and many plants are diploid, containing two of each chromosome and thus two copies of every gene.",
"The two alleles for a gene are located on identical loci of the two homologous chromosomes, each allele inherited from a different parent.Many species have so-called sex chromosomes that determine the sex of each organism.",
"In humans and many other animals, the Y chromosome contains the gene that triggers the development of the specifically male characteristics.",
"In evolution, this chromosome has lost most of its content and also most of its genes, while the X chromosome is similar to the other chromosomes and contains many genes.",
"This being said, Mary Frances Lyon discovered that there is X-chromosome inactivation during reproduction to avoid passing on twice as many genes to the offspring.",
"Lyon's discovery led to the discovery of X-linked diseases.=== Reproduction ===Walther Flemming's 1882 diagram of eukaryotic cell division.",
"Chromosomes are copied, condensed, and organized.",
"Then, as the cell divides, chromosome copies separate into the daughter cells.When cells divide, their full genome is copied and each daughter cell inherits one copy.",
"This process, called mitosis, is the simplest form of reproduction and is the basis for asexual reproduction.",
"Asexual reproduction can also occur in multicellular organisms, producing offspring that inherit their genome from a single parent.",
"Offspring that are genetically identical to their parents are called clones.Eukaryotic organisms often use sexual reproduction to generate offspring that contain a mixture of genetic material inherited from two different parents.",
"The process of sexual reproduction alternates between forms that contain single copies of the genome (haploid) and double copies (diploid).",
"Haploid cells fuse and combine genetic material to create a diploid cell with paired chromosomes.",
"Diploid organisms form haploids by dividing, without replicating their DNA, to create daughter cells that randomly inherit one of each pair of chromosomes.",
"Most animals and many plants are diploid for most of their lifespan, with the haploid form reduced to single cell gametes such as sperm or eggs.Although they do not use the haploid/diploid method of sexual reproduction, bacteria have many methods of acquiring new genetic information.",
"Some bacteria can undergo conjugation, transferring a small circular piece of DNA to another bacterium.",
"Bacteria can also take up raw DNA fragments found in the environment and integrate them into their genomes, a phenomenon known as transformation.",
"These processes result in horizontal gene transfer, transmitting fragments of genetic information between organisms that would be otherwise unrelated.",
"Natural bacterial transformation occurs in many bacterial species, and can be regarded as a sexual process for transferring DNA from one cell to another cell (usually of the same species).",
"Transformation requires the action of numerous bacterial gene products, and its primary adaptive function appears to be repair of DNA damages in the recipient cell.=== Recombination and genetic linkage ===Thomas Hunt Morgan's 1916 illustration of a double crossover between chromosomesThe diploid nature of chromosomes allows for genes on different chromosomes to assort independently or be separated from their homologous pair during sexual reproduction wherein haploid gametes are formed.",
"In this way new combinations of genes can occur in the offspring of a mating pair.",
"Genes on the same chromosome would theoretically never recombine.",
"However, they do, via the cellular process of chromosomal crossover.",
"During crossover, chromosomes exchange stretches of DNA, effectively shuffling the gene alleles between the chromosomes.",
"This process of chromosomal crossover generally occurs during meiosis, a series of cell divisions that creates haploid cells.",
"Meiotic recombination, particularly in microbial eukaryotes, appears to serve the adaptive function of repair of DNA damages.The first cytological demonstration of crossing over was performed by Harriet Creighton and Barbara McClintock in 1931.Their research and experiments on corn provided cytological evidence for the genetic theory that linked genes on paired chromosomes do in fact exchange places from one homolog to the other.The probability of chromosomal crossover occurring between two given points on the chromosome is related to the distance between the points.",
"For an arbitrarily long distance, the probability of crossover is high enough that the inheritance of the genes is effectively uncorrelated.",
"For genes that are closer together, however, the lower probability of crossover means that the genes demonstrate genetic linkage; alleles for the two genes tend to be inherited together.",
"The amounts of linkage between a series of genes can be combined to form a linear linkage map that roughly describes the arrangement of the genes along the chromosome."
],
[
"Gene expression",
"=== Genetic code ===The genetic code: Using a triplet code, DNA, through a messenger RNA intermediary, specifies a protein.Genes express their functional effect through the production of proteins, which are molecules responsible for most functions in the cell.",
"Proteins are made up of one or more polypeptide chains, each composed of a sequence of amino acids.",
"The DNA sequence of a gene is used to produce a specific amino acid sequence.",
"This process begins with the production of an RNA molecule with a sequence matching the gene's DNA sequence, a process called transcription.This messenger RNA molecule then serves to produce a corresponding amino acid sequence through a process called translation.",
"Each group of three nucleotides in the sequence, called a codon, corresponds either to one of the twenty possible amino acids in a protein or an instruction to end the amino acid sequence; this correspondence is called the genetic code.",
"The flow of information is unidirectional: information is transferred from nucleotide sequences into the amino acid sequence of proteins, but it never transfers from protein back into the sequence of DNA—a phenomenon Francis Crick called the central dogma of molecular biology.The specific sequence of amino acids results in a unique three-dimensional structure for that protein, and the three-dimensional structures of proteins are related to their functions.",
"Some are simple structural molecules, like the fibers formed by the protein collagen.",
"Proteins can bind to other proteins and simple molecules, sometimes acting as enzymes by facilitating chemical reactions within the bound molecules (without changing the structure of the protein itself).",
"Protein structure is dynamic; the protein hemoglobin bends into slightly different forms as it facilitates the capture, transport, and release of oxygen molecules within mammalian blood.A single nucleotide difference within DNA can cause a change in the amino acid sequence of a protein.",
"Because protein structures are the result of their amino acid sequences, some changes can dramatically change the properties of a protein by destabilizing the structure or changing the surface of the protein in a way that changes its interaction with other proteins and molecules.",
"For example, sickle-cell anemia is a human genetic disease that results from a single base difference within the coding region for the β-globin section of hemoglobin, causing a single amino acid change that changes hemoglobin's physical properties.Sickle-cell versions of hemoglobin stick to themselves, stacking to form fibers that distort the shape of red blood cells carrying the protein.",
"These sickle-shaped cells no longer flow smoothly through blood vessels, having a tendency to clog or degrade, causing the medical problems associated with this disease.Some DNA sequences are transcribed into RNA but are not translated into protein products—such RNA molecules are called non-coding RNA.",
"In some cases, these products fold into structures which are involved in critical cell functions (e.g.",
"ribosomal RNA and transfer RNA).",
"RNA can also have regulatory effects through hybridization interactions with other RNA molecules (such as microRNA).=== Nature and nurture ===Siamese cats have a temperature-sensitive pigment-production mutation.Although genes contain all the information an organism uses to function, the environment plays an important role in determining the ultimate phenotypes an organism displays.",
"The phrase \"nature and nurture\" refers to this complementary relationship.",
"The phenotype of an organism depends on the interaction of genes and the environment.",
"An interesting example is the coat coloration of the Siamese cat.",
"In this case, the body temperature of the cat plays the role of the environment.",
"The cat's genes code for dark hair, thus the hair-producing cells in the cat make cellular proteins resulting in dark hair.",
"But these dark hair-producing proteins are sensitive to temperature (i.e.",
"have a mutation causing temperature-sensitivity) and denature in higher-temperature environments, failing to produce dark-hair pigment in areas where the cat has a higher body temperature.",
"In a low-temperature environment, however, the protein's structure is stable and produces dark-hair pigment normally.",
"The protein remains functional in areas of skin that are colder—such as its legs, ears, tail, and faceso the cat has dark hair at its extremities.Environment plays a major role in effects of the human genetic disease phenylketonuria.",
"The mutation that causes phenylketonuria disrupts the ability of the body to break down the amino acid phenylalanine, causing a toxic build-up of an intermediate molecule that, in turn, causes severe symptoms of progressive intellectual disability and seizures.",
"However, if someone with the phenylketonuria mutation follows a strict diet that avoids this amino acid, they remain normal and healthy.A common method for determining how genes and environment (\"nature and nurture\") contribute to a phenotype involves studying identical and fraternal twins, or other siblings of multiple births.",
"Identical siblings are genetically the same since they come from the same zygote.",
"Meanwhile, fraternal twins are as genetically different from one another as normal siblings.",
"By comparing how often a certain disorder occurs in a pair of identical twins to how often it occurs in a pair of fraternal twins, scientists can determine whether that disorder is caused by genetic or postnatal environmental factors.",
"One famous example involved the study of the Genain quadruplets, who were identical quadruplets all diagnosed with schizophrenia.=== Gene regulation ===The genome of a given organism contains thousands of genes, but not all these genes need to be active at any given moment.",
"A gene is expressed when it is being transcribed into mRNA and there exist many cellular methods of controlling the expression of genes such that proteins are produced only when needed by the cell.",
"Transcription factors are regulatory proteins that bind to DNA, either promoting or inhibiting the transcription of a gene.",
"Within the genome of ''Escherichia coli'' bacteria, for example, there exists a series of genes necessary for the synthesis of the amino acid tryptophan.",
"However, when tryptophan is already available to the cell, these genes for tryptophan synthesis are no longer needed.",
"The presence of tryptophan directly affects the activity of the genes—tryptophan molecules bind to the tryptophan repressor (a transcription factor), changing the repressor's structure such that the repressor binds to the genes.",
"The tryptophan repressor blocks the transcription and expression of the genes, thereby creating negative feedback regulation of the tryptophan synthesis process.Transcription factors bind to DNA, influencing the transcription of associated genes.Differences in gene expression are especially clear within multicellular organisms, where cells all contain the same genome but have very different structures and behaviors due to the expression of different sets of genes.",
"All the cells in a multicellular organism derive from a single cell, differentiating into variant cell types in response to external and intercellular signals and gradually establishing different patterns of gene expression to create different behaviors.",
"As no single gene is responsible for the development of structures within multicellular organisms, these patterns arise from the complex interactions between many cells.Within eukaryotes, there exist structural features of chromatin that influence the transcription of genes, often in the form of modifications to DNA and chromatin that are stably inherited by daughter cells.",
"These features are called \"epigenetic\" because they exist \"on top\" of the DNA sequence and retain inheritance from one cell generation to the next.",
"Because of epigenetic features, different cell types grown within the same medium can retain very different properties.",
"Although epigenetic features are generally dynamic over the course of development, some, like the phenomenon of paramutation, have multigenerational inheritance and exist as rare exceptions to the general rule of DNA as the basis for inheritance."
],
[
"Genetic change",
"=== Mutations ===Gene duplication allows diversification by providing redundancy: one gene can mutate and lose its original function without harming the organism.During the process of DNA replication, errors occasionally occur in the polymerization of the second strand.",
"These errors, called mutations, can affect the phenotype of an organism, especially if they occur within the protein coding sequence of a gene.",
"Error rates are usually very low—1 error in every 10–100 million bases—due to the \"proofreading\" ability of DNA polymerases.",
"Processes that increase the rate of changes in DNA are called mutagenic: mutagenic chemicals promote errors in DNA replication, often by interfering with the structure of base-pairing, while UV radiation induces mutations by causing damage to the DNA structure.",
"Chemical damage to DNA occurs naturally as well and cells use DNA repair mechanisms to repair mismatches and breaks.",
"The repair does not, however, always restore the original sequence.",
"A particularly important source of DNA damages appears to be reactive oxygen species produced by cellular aerobic respiration, and these can lead to mutations.In organisms that use chromosomal crossover to exchange DNA and recombine genes, errors in alignment during meiosis can also cause mutations.",
"Errors in crossover are especially likely when similar sequences cause partner chromosomes to adopt a mistaken alignment; this makes some regions in genomes more prone to mutating in this way.",
"These errors create large structural changes in DNA sequence—duplications, inversions, deletions of entire regions—or the accidental exchange of whole parts of sequences between different chromosomes, chromosomal translocation.This is a diagram showing mutations in an RNA sequence.",
"Figure (1) is a normal RNA sequence, consisting of 4 codons.",
"Figure (2) shows a missense, single point, non silent mutation.",
"Figures (3 and 4) both show frameshift mutations, which is why they are grouped together.",
"Figure 3 shows a deletion of the second base pair in the second codon.",
"Figure 4 shows an insertion in the third base pair of the second codon.",
"Figure (5) shows a repeat expansion, where an entire codon is duplicated.=== Natural selection and evolution ===Mutations alter an organism's genotype and occasionally this causes different phenotypes to appear.",
"Most mutations have little effect on an organism's phenotype, health, or reproductive fitness.",
"Mutations that do have an effect are usually detrimental, but occasionally some can be beneficial.",
"Studies in the fly ''Drosophila melanogaster'' suggest that if a mutation changes a protein produced by a gene, about 70 percent of these mutations are harmful with the remainder being either neutral or weakly beneficial.An evolutionary tree of eukaryotic organisms, constructed by the comparison of several orthologous gene sequencesPopulation genetics studies the distribution of genetic differences within populations and how these distributions change over time.",
"Changes in the frequency of an allele in a population are mainly influenced by natural selection, where a given allele provides a selective or reproductive advantage to the organism, as well as other factors such as mutation, genetic drift, genetic hitchhiking, artificial selection and migration.Over many generations, the genomes of organisms can change significantly, resulting in evolution.",
"In the process called adaptation, selection for beneficial mutations can cause a species to evolve into forms better able to survive in their environment.Earlier related ideas were acknowledged in New species are formed through the process of speciation, often caused by geographical separations that prevent populations from exchanging genes with each other.By comparing the homology between different species' genomes, it is possible to calculate the evolutionary distance between them and when they may have diverged.",
"Genetic comparisons are generally considered a more accurate method of characterizing the relatedness between species than the comparison of phenotypic characteristics.",
"The evolutionary distances between species can be used to form evolutionary trees; these trees represent the common descent and divergence of species over time, although they do not show the transfer of genetic material between unrelated species (known as horizontal gene transfer and most common in bacteria).=== Model organisms ===The common fruit fly (''Drosophila melanogaster'') is a popular model organism in genetics research.Although geneticists originally studied inheritance in a wide variety of organisms, the range of species studied has narrowed.",
"One reason is that when significant research already exists for a given organism, new researchers are more likely to choose it for further study, and so eventually a few model organisms became the basis for most genetics research.",
"Common research topics in model organism genetics include the study of gene regulation and the involvement of genes in development and cancer.",
"Organisms were chosen, in part, for convenience—short generation times and easy genetic manipulation made some organisms popular genetics research tools.",
"Widely used model organisms include the gut bacterium ''Escherichia coli'', the plant ''Arabidopsis thaliana'', baker's yeast (''Saccharomyces cerevisiae''), the nematode ''Caenorhabditis elegans'', the common fruit fly (''Drosophila melanogaster''), the zebrafish (''Danio rerio''), and the common house mouse (''Mus musculus'').=== Medicine ===Schematic relationship between biochemistry, genetics and molecular biologyMedical genetics seeks to understand how genetic variation relates to human health and disease.",
"When searching for an unknown gene that may be involved in a disease, researchers commonly use genetic linkage and genetic pedigree charts to find the location on the genome associated with the disease.",
"At the population level, researchers take advantage of Mendelian randomization to look for locations in the genome that are associated with diseases, a method especially useful for multigenic traits not clearly defined by a single gene.",
"Once a candidate gene is found, further research is often done on the corresponding (or homologous) genes of model organisms.",
"In addition to studying genetic diseases, the increased availability of genotyping methods has led to the field of pharmacogenetics: the study of how genotype can affect drug responses.Individuals differ in their inherited tendency to develop cancer, and cancer is a genetic disease.",
"The process of cancer development in the body is a combination of events.",
"Mutations occasionally occur within cells in the body as they divide.",
"Although these mutations will not be inherited by any offspring, they can affect the behavior of cells, sometimes causing them to grow and divide more frequently.",
"There are biological mechanisms that attempt to stop this process; signals are given to inappropriately dividing cells that should trigger cell death, but sometimes additional mutations occur that cause cells to ignore these messages.",
"An internal process of natural selection occurs within the body and eventually mutations accumulate within cells to promote their own growth, creating a cancerous tumor that grows and invades various tissues of the body.",
"Normally, a cell divides only in response to signals called growth factors and stops growing once in contact with surrounding cells and in response to growth-inhibitory signals.",
"It usually then divides a limited number of times and dies, staying within the epithelium where it is unable to migrate to other organs.",
"To become a cancer cell, a cell has to accumulate mutations in a number of genes (three to seven).",
"A cancer cell can divide without growth factor and ignores inhibitory signals.",
"Also, it is immortal and can grow indefinitely, even after it makes contact with neighboring cells.",
"It may escape from the epithelium and ultimately from the primary tumor.",
"Then, the escaped cell can cross the endothelium of a blood vessel and get transported by the bloodstream to colonize a new organ, forming deadly metastasis.",
"Although there are some genetic predispositions in a small fraction of cancers, the major fraction is due to a set of new genetic mutations that originally appear and accumulate in one or a small number of cells that will divide to form the tumor and are not transmitted to the progeny (somatic mutations).",
"The most frequent mutations are a loss of function of p53 protein, a tumor suppressor, or in the p53 pathway, and gain of function mutations in the Ras proteins, or in other oncogenes.=== Research methods ===Colonies of ''E.",
"coli'' produced by cellular cloning.",
"A similar methodology is often used in molecular cloning.DNA can be manipulated in the laboratory.",
"Restriction enzymes are commonly used enzymes that cut DNA at specific sequences, producing predictable fragments of DNA.",
"DNA fragments can be visualized through use of gel electrophoresis, which separates fragments according to their length.The use of ligation enzymes allows DNA fragments to be connected.",
"By binding (\"ligating\") fragments of DNA together from different sources, researchers can create recombinant DNA, the DNA often associated with genetically modified organisms.",
"Recombinant DNA is commonly used in the context of plasmids: short circular DNA molecules with a few genes on them.",
"In the process known as molecular cloning, researchers can amplify the DNA fragments by inserting plasmids into bacteria and then culturing them on plates of agar (to isolate clones of bacteria cells).",
"\"Cloning\" can also refer to the various means of creating cloned (\"clonal\") organisms.DNA can also be amplified using a procedure called the polymerase chain reaction (PCR).",
"By using specific short sequences of DNA, PCR can isolate and exponentially amplify a targeted region of DNA.",
"Because it can amplify from extremely small amounts of DNA, PCR is also often used to detect the presence of specific DNA sequences.=== DNA sequencing and genomics ===DNA sequencing, one of the most fundamental technologies developed to study genetics, allows researchers to determine the sequence of nucleotides in DNA fragments.",
"The technique of chain-termination sequencing, developed in 1977 by a team led by Frederick Sanger, is still routinely used to sequence DNA fragments.",
"Using this technology, researchers have been able to study the molecular sequences associated with many human diseases.As sequencing has become less expensive, researchers have sequenced the genomes of many organisms using a process called genome assembly, which uses computational tools to stitch together sequences from many different fragments.",
"These technologies were used to sequence the human genome in the Human Genome Project completed in 2003.New high-throughput sequencing technologies are dramatically lowering the cost of DNA sequencing, with many researchers hoping to bring the cost of resequencing a human genome down to a thousand dollars.Next-generation sequencing (or high-throughput sequencing) came about due to the ever-increasing demand for low-cost sequencing.",
"These sequencing technologies allow the production of potentially millions of sequences concurrently.",
"The large amount of sequence data available has created the subfield of genomics, research that uses computational tools to search for and analyze patterns in the full genomes of organisms.",
"Genomics can also be considered a subfield of bioinformatics, which uses computational approaches to analyze large sets of biological data.",
"A common problem to these fields of research is how to manage and share data that deals with human subject and personally identifiable information."
],
[
"Society and culture",
"On 19 March 2015, a group of leading biologists urged a worldwide ban on clinical use of methods, particularly the use of CRISPR and zinc finger, to edit the human genome in a way that can be inherited.",
"In April 2015, Chinese researchers reported results of basic research to edit the DNA of non-viable human embryos using CRISPR."
],
[
"See also",
"* Bacterial genome size* Cryoconservation of animal genetic resources* Eugenics* Embryology* Genetic disorder* Genetic diversity* Genetic engineering* Genetic enhancement* Glossary of genetics (M−Z)* Index of genetics articles* Medical genetics* Molecular tools for gene study* Neuroepigenetics* Outline of genetics* Timeline of the history of genetics* Plant genetic resources"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* * * * *"
],
[
"External links",
"* * * * *"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"George Pappas"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''George Sotiros Pappas''' (born 1942) is a professor of philosophy at Ohio State University.",
"Pappas specializes in epistemology, the history of early modern philosophy, philosophy of religion and metaphysics.",
"He is of Greek and English origin.He is the author of the ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' entry on \"Internalist versus Externalist\" conceptions of epistemic justification.He was co-editor (with Marshall Swain) of ''Essays on Knowledge and Justification'' (1978), regarded as a key anthology of essays relating to the Gettier problem and used as a core text in undergraduate epistemology courses.Pappas is an editorial consultant of Berkeley Studies."
],
[
"Studies in Berkeley's philosophy",
"Pappas is known to be a leading Berkeley scholar; his essay \"Berkeley and Scepticism\" was in 1993 awarded the International Berkeley Prize.The annual International Berkeley Essay Prize competition was established by Colin Murray Turbayne and his wife in 1990.Pappas is a regular participant of International Berkeley Conferences.",
"At one such conference, celebrating the 300th anniversary of George Berkeley's birth, Pappas propounded a new approach to the relationship between Berkeley's anti-abstractionism and \"esse est percipi\" principle.",
"On Pappas' reading, Berkeley's two theses — that there are no abstract ideas and that sensible objects must be perceived in order to exist — entail one another.Pappas' interpretation of Berkeley's '''esse'' is ''percipi''' thesis has sparked much discussion.- McKim, Robert.",
"\"Abstraction and Immaterialism: Recent Interpretations\", ''Berkeley Newsletter'' '''15''' (1997–1998): 1–13.In 1989, the Garland Publishing Company brought out a 15-volume collection of major works on Berkeley; Pappas' paper \"Abstract ideas and the 'esse is percipi' thesis\" was included in the third volume, as it was considered to be a significant contribution to Berkeley scholarship.Pappas developed his treatment of Berkeley's \"esse est percipi\" principle to repudiate the \"inherence interpretation of Berkeley\", upon which Edwin E. Allaire, among others, elaborated.",
"The article is a classical work of Berkeley scholarship.That account is put forward to answer an extremely perplexing question in the history of philosophy: Why did Berkeley embrace idealism, i. e., why did he hold that esse est percipi, that to be is to be perceived?",
"After emerging in the early 1960s, the \"inherence account\" attracted numerous proponents and became an influential element of contemporary Berkeley scholarship.",
"In his paper \"Ideas, minds, and Berkeley\" Pappas revealed some discrepancies between fountain-head evidences and Allaire's approach to a reconstruction of Berkeley's idealism.",
"Pappas' critical examination of the \"inherence account\" is greatly appreciated by Berkeley scholars.",
"Pappas' penetrating remarks compelled Edwin B. Allaire to revise and improve his conception.",
"Even those who share Allaire's account of Berkeley's idealism acknowledge Pappas' article to be \"an excellent review and critique of the IA inherence account.",
"\"In 2000, Pappas published his monograph ''Berkeley's thought'' in which some parts were based on earlier papers of his.",
"While writings by A.",
"A. Luce or Geoffrey Warnock are long outdated, ''Berkeley's thought'' is often included in lists of recommended literature on Berkeley's philosophy."
],
[
"Publications",
"*"
],
[
"See also",
"* American philosophy* List of American philosophers"
],
[
"References"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Guy de Maupassant"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Henri René Albert Guy de Maupassant''' (, ; ; 5 August 1850 – 6 July 1893) was a 19th-century French author, celebrated as a master of the short story, as well as a representative of the naturalist school, depicting human lives, destinies and social forces in disillusioned and often pessimistic terms.Maupassant was a protégé of Gustave Flaubert and his stories are characterized by economy of style and efficient, seemingly effortless ''dénouements''.",
"Many are set during the Franco-Prussian War of the 1870s, describing the futility of war and the innocent civilians who, caught up in events beyond their control, are permanently changed by their experiences.",
"He wrote 300 short stories, six novels, three travel books, and one volume of verse.",
"His first published story, \"Boule de Suif\" (\"The Dumpling\", 1880), is often considered his most famous work."
],
[
"Biography",
"Guy de Maupassant aged 7Guy de Maupassant and his mother, LaureHis father, Gustave de Maupassant, by Hippolyte BellangéChâteau de Miromesnil, NormandyGrave at Montparnasse, ParisHenri-René-Albert-Guy de Maupassant was born on 5 August 1850 at the late 16th-century Château de Miromesnil (near Dieppe in the Seine-Inférieure (now Seine-Maritime) Department, France), the elder son of Gustave de Maupassant (1821–99) and Laure Le Poittevin, whose family hailed from the prosperous bourgeoisie.",
"His mother urged her husband when they married in 1846 to obtain the right to use the particule or form \"de Maupassant\" instead of \"Maupassant\" as his family name, in order to indicate noble birth.",
"Gustave’s great-great-grandfather, Jean-Baptiste de Maupassant (1699–1774), ''conseiller-secrétaire'' to King Louis XV, had been ennobled by Emperor Francis I in 1752, and although his family were considered petite noblesse they had not yet received official recognition by the Kingdom of France.",
"He then obtained from the Tribunal Civil of Rouen by royal decree dated 9 July 1846 the right to style himself \"de Maupassant\" instead of \"Maupassant\", being formally assumed as the family name before the birth of his children.When Maupassant was 11 and his brother Hervé was five, his mother, an independent-minded woman, risked social disgrace to obtain a legal separation from her husband, who was violent towards her.After the separation, Laure Le Poittevin kept custody of her two sons.",
"In the absence of the Maupassant's father, his mother became the most influential figure in the young boy's life.",
"She was an exceptionally well-read woman and was very fond of classical literature, particularly Shakespeare.",
"Until the age of thirteen, Guy lived happily with his mother, at Étretat in Normandy.",
"At the Villa des Verguies, between the sea and the luxuriant countryside, he grew very fond of fishing and of outdoor activities.",
"When Guy reached the age of thirteen, his mother placed her two sons as day boarders in a private school, the Institution Leroy-Petit, in Rouen—the ''Institution Robineau'' of Maupassant's story ''La Question du Latin''—for classical studies.",
"From his early education, he retained a marked hostility to religion, and to judge from verses composed around this time, he deplored the ecclesiastical atmosphere, its ritual and discipline.",
"Finding the place unbearable, he finally got himself expelled in his penultimate year.In 1867, while he was in junior high school, Maupassant met Gustave Flaubert at Croisset on the insistence of his mother.",
"Next year, in autumn, he was sent to the ''Lycée Pierre-Corneille'' in Rouen where he proved a good scholar, indulging in poetry and taking a prominent part in theatricals.",
"In October 1868, at the age of 18, he saved the famous poet Algernon Swinburne from drowning off the coast of Étretat.The Franco-Prussian War broke out soon after his graduation from college in 1870 and Maupassant volunteered to serve in the French Army without attending military academy as aspirant.",
"In 1871, he left Normandy and moved to Paris, where he spent ten years as a clerk in the Navy Department.",
"During this time his only recreation and relaxation was boating on the Seine on Sundays and holidays.Gustave Flaubert took him under his protection and acted as a kind of literary guardian to him, guiding his debut in journalism and literature.",
"At Flaubert's home he met Émile Zola (1840–1902) and the Russian novelist Ivan Turgenev (1818–1883), as well as many of the proponents of the realist and naturalist schools.",
"He wrote and himself played (1875) in a comedy - \"À la feuille de rose, maison turque\" - with Flaubert's blessing.In 1878, he was transferred to the Ministry of Public Instruction and became a contributing editor to several leading newspapers such as ''Le Figaro'', ''Gil Blas'', ''Le Gaulois'' and ''l'Écho de Paris''.",
"He devoted his spare time to writing novels and short stories.",
"Maupassant's study, illustrated by Gustave Fraipont In 1880 he published what is considered his first masterpiece, \"Boule de Suif\", which met with instant and tremendous success.",
"Flaubert characterized it as \"a masterpiece that will endure\".",
"This, Maupassant's first piece of short fiction set during the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71, was followed by short stories such as \"Deux Amis\", \"Mother Savage\", and \"Mademoiselle Fifi\".",
"\"The fear that haunted his restless brain day and night was already visible in his eyes, I for one considered him then as a doomed man.",
"I knew that the subtle poison of his own Boule de Suif had already begun its work of destruction in this magnificent brain.",
"Did he know it himself?",
"I often thought he did.",
"The MS. of his Sur L'Eau was lying on the table between us, he had just read me a few chapters, the best thing he had ever written I thought.",
"He was still producing with feverish haste one masterpiece after another, slashing his excited brain with champagne, ether and drugs of all sorts.",
"Women after women in endless succession hastened the destruction, women recruited from all quarters... actresses, ballet-dancers, midinettes, grisettes, common prostitutes-- 'le taureau triste' his friends used to call him.",
"Maupassant in the 1880sThe decade from 1880 to 1891 was the most fertile period of Maupassant's life.",
"Made famous by his first short story, he worked methodically and produced two or sometimes four volumes annually.",
"His talent and practical business sense made him wealthy.In 1881 he published his first volume of short stories under the title of ''La Maison Tellier''; it reached its twelfth edition within two years.",
"In 1883 he finished his first novel, ''Une Vie'' (translated into English as ''A Woman's Life''), 25,000 copies of which were sold in less than a year.",
"\"Bed 29\", published in 1884, is a social and political satirical collection of some of his best short stories, including the titular story which is shocking and scandalous, even by modern standards.His editor, Victor Havard, commissioned him to write more stories, and Maupassant continued to produce them efficiently and frequently.",
"His second novel, ''Bel-Ami'', which came out in 1885, had thirty-seven printings in four months.",
"Then, he wrote what many consider his greatest novel, ''Pierre et Jean'' (1888).With a natural aversion to society, he loved retirement, solitude, and meditation.",
"He traveled extensively in Algeria, Italy, England, Brittany, Sicily, and the Auvergne, and from each voyage brought back a new volume.",
"He cruised on his private yacht ''Bel-Ami'', named after his novel.",
"This life did not prevent him from making friends among the literary celebrities of his day: Alexandre Dumas, ''fils'' had a paternal affection for him; at Aix-les-Bains he met Hippolyte Taine (1828–1893) and became devoted to the philosopher-historian.Flaubert continued to act as his literary godfather.",
"His friendship with the Goncourts was of short duration; his frank and practical nature reacted against the ambiance of gossip, scandal, duplicity, and invidious criticism that the two brothers had created around them in the guise of an 18th-century style salon.Maupassant was one of a fair number of 19th-century Parisians (including Charles Gounod, Alexandre Dumas, ''fils'', and Charles Garnier) who did not care for the Eiffel Tower (erected 1887/89).",
"He often ate lunch in the restaurant at its base, not out of preference for the food but because only there could he avoid seeing its otherwise unavoidable profile.",
"He and forty-six other Parisian literary and artistic notables attached their names to an elaborately irate letter of protest against the tower's construction, written to the Minister of Public Works, and published on 14 February 1887.Declining appointment to the Légion d'honneur and election to the Académie française, Maupassant also wrote under several pseudonyms, including \"Joseph Prunier\", \"Guy de Valmont\", and \"Maufrigneuse\" (which he used from 1881 to 1885).In his later years he developed a constant desire for solitude, an obsession for self-preservation, and a fear of death and paranoia of persecution caused by the syphilis he had contracted in his youth.",
"It has been suggested that his brother, Hervé, also suffered from syphilis and that the disease may have been congenital.",
"On 2 January 1892, Maupassant tried to take his own life by cutting his throat; he was committed to the private asylum of Esprit Blanche at Passy, in Paris, where he died on 6 July 1893 from syphilis.Engraving of Maupassant, by Marcellin Desboutin.Maupassant penned his own epitaph: \"I have coveted everything and taken pleasure in nothing.\"",
"He is buried in Section 26 of the Montparnasse Cemetery, Paris."
],
[
"Significance",
"Maupassant is considered a father of the modern short story.",
"Literary theorist Kornelije Kvas wrote that along \"with Chekhov, Maupassant is the greatest master of the short story in world literature.",
"He is not a naturalist like Zola; to him, physiological processes do not constitute the basis of human actions, although the influence of the environment is manifested in his prose.",
"In many respects, Maupassant's naturalism is Schopenhauerian anthropological pessimism, as he is often harsh and merciless when it comes to depicting human nature.",
"He owes most to Flaubert, from whom he learned to use a concise and measured style and to establish a distance towards the object of narration.\"",
"He delighted in clever plotting, and served as a model for Somerset Maugham and O. Henry in this respect.",
"One of his famous short stories, \"The Necklace\", was imitated with a twist by Maugham (\"Mr Know-All\", \"A String of Beads\").",
"Henry James's \"Paste\" adapts another story of his with a similar title, \"The Jewels\".Taking his cue from Balzac, Maupassant wrote comfortably in both the high-realist and fantastic modes; stories and novels such as \"L'Héritage\" and ''Bel-Ami'' aim to recreate Third Republic France in a realistic way, whereas many of the short stories (notably \"Le Horla\" and \"Qui sait?\")",
"describe apparently supernatural phenomena.The supernatural in Maupassant, however, is often implicitly a symptom of the protagonists' troubled minds; Maupassant was fascinated by the burgeoning discipline of psychiatry, and attended the public lectures of Jean-Martin Charcot between 1885 and 1886."
],
[
"Legacy",
"Guy de Maupassant early in his career; by Alphonse Liébert.Leo Tolstoy used Maupassant as the subject for one of his essays on art: ''The Works of Guy de Maupassant''.",
"His stories are second only to Shakespeare in their inspiration of movie adaptations with films ranging from ''Stagecoach'', ''Oyuki the Virgin'' and ''Masculine Feminine''.Friedrich Nietzsche's autobiography mentions him in the following text:\"I cannot at all conceive in which century of history one could haul together such inquisitive and at the same time delicate psychologists as one can in contemporary Paris: I can name as a sample – for their number is by no means small, ... or to pick out one of the stronger race, a genuine Latin to whom I am particularly attached, Guy de Maupassant.",
"\"William Saroyan wrote a short story about Maupassant in his 1971 book, ''Letters from 74 rue Taitbout or Don't Go But If You Must Say Hello To Everybody''.Isaac Babel wrote a short story about him, \"Guy de Maupassant.\"",
"It appears in ''The Collected Stories of Isaac Babel'' and in the story anthology ''You’ve Got To Read This: Contemporary American Writers Introduce Stories that Held Them in Awe.",
"''Gene Roddenberry, in an early draft for ''The Questor Tapes'', wrote a scene in which the android Questor employs Maupassant's theory that, \"the human female will open her mind to a man to whom she has opened other channels of communications.\"",
"In the script Questor copulates with a woman to obtain information that she is reluctant to impart.",
"Due to complaints from NBC executives, this scene was never filmed.Michel Drach directed and co-wrote a 1982 French biographical film: ''Guy de Maupassant''.",
"Claude Brasseur stars as the titular character.Several of Maupassant's short stories, including \"La Peur\" and \"The Necklace\", were adapted as episodes of the 1986 Indian anthology television series ''Katha Sagar''."
],
[
"Bibliography"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* Abamine, E. P. \"German-French Sexual Encounters of the Franco-Prussian War Period in the Fiction of Guy de Maupassant.\"",
"''CLA Journal'' 32.3 (1989): 323–334.online* Bonnefis, Philippe.",
"''Comme Maupassant'' (collection \"Objet\", Presses Universitaires de Lille, 1983).",
"* Dugan, John Raymond.",
"''Illusion and reality: a study of descriptive techniques in the works of Guy de Maupassant'' (Walter de Gruyter, 2014).",
"* Fagley, Robert.",
"''Bachelors, Bastards, and Nomadic Masculinity: Illegitimacy in Guy de Maupassant and André Gide'' (Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2014) online (PDF).",
"* Harris, Trevor A.",
"''Le V. Maupassant in the Hall of Mirrors: Ironies of Repetition in the Work of Guy de Maupassant'' (Springer, 1990).",
"* Lanoux, Armand.",
"''Maupassant le Bel-Ami'' (Fayard, 1967).",
"* Morand, Paul.",
"''Vie de Guy de Maupassant'' (Flammarion, 1942).",
"* Reda, Jacques.",
"''Album Maupassant'' (Bibliothèque de la Pléiade, Gallimard, 1987).",
"* Rougle, Charles.",
"\"Art and the Artist in Babel's\" Guy de Maupassant\".\"",
"''The Russian Review'' 48.2 (1989): 171–180.online* Sattar, Atia.",
"\"Certain Madness: Guy de Maupassant and Hypnotism\".",
"''Configurations'' 19.2 (2011): 213–241.regarding both versions of his horror story \"The Horla\" (1886/87).",
"online* Schmidt, Albert-Marie.",
"Maupassant par lui-même (Le Seuil, 1962).",
"* Stivale, Charles J.",
"''The art of rupture: narrative desire and duplicity in the tales of Guy de Maupassant'' (University of Michigan Press, 1994).",
"* Vial, André.",
"''Maupassant et l'art du roman'' (Nizet, 1954)."
],
[
"External links",
"** * * * Guy de Maupassant timeline and stories at AsNotedIn.com* Complete list of stories by Guy de Maupassant at Prospero's Isle.com* * Université McGill: le roman selon les romanciers Recensement et analyse des écrits non romanesques de Guy de Maupassant* Works by Guy de Maupassant at Online Literature (HTML)* Works by Guy de Maupassant in Ebooks * Works by Guy de Maupassant (text, concordances and frequency list)* Maupassantiana, a French scholar's website on Maupassant and his works* * Oeuvres de Maupassant, à Athena * Guy de Maupassant's ''The Jewels'' audiobook with video at YouTube* Guy de Maupassant's ''The Jewels'' audiobook at Libsyn* ''The Pearl Necklace'' 一串珍珠 (Li Zeyuan, dir., 1926) - Chinese silent film adaptation of \"The Necklace,\" with English subtitles"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Gheorghe Hagi"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Gheorghe Hagi''' (; born 5 February 1965) is a Romanian professional football manager and former player, who is currently the owner and manager of Liga I club Farul Constanța.",
"Deployed as an attacking midfielder, Hagi was considered one of the best players in the world during the 1980s and '90s, and is regarded by many as the greatest Romanian footballer of all time.",
"Fans of Turkish club Galatasaray, with whom Hagi ended his career, called him \"''Comandante''\" (\"The Commander\"), while he was known as \"''Regele''\" (\"The King\") to Romanian supporters.",
"Nicknamed \"The Maradona of the Carpathians\", he was a creative advanced playmaker renowned for his dribbling, technique, vision, passing and shooting.After starting his playing career in Romania, with Farul Constanța, and subsequently featuring for Sportul Studențesc and Steaua București, he later also had spells in Spain with Real Madrid and FC Barcelona, Italy with Brescia, and Turkey, with Galatasaray.",
"Hagi is one of the few footballers to have played for both Spanish rival clubs Real Madrid and Barcelona.",
"Throughout his club career, he won numerous titles while playing in four different countries: he won three Romanian League titles, two Cupa României titles, and the European Super Cup with Steaua București – also reaching the final of the 1988–89 European Cup –, a Supercopa de España title with Real Madrid, the Anglo-Italian Cup with Brescia, another Supercopa de España title with Barcelona, and four Süper Lig titles, two Turkish Cups, two Turkish Super Cups, the UEFA Cup, and the UEFA Super Cup with Galatasaray.At international level, Hagi played for the Romania national team in three FIFA World Cups, in 1990, 1994 (where he was named in the World Cup All-Star Team after helping his nation to the quarter-finals of the tournament) and 1998; as well as in three UEFA European Championships, in 1984, 1996 and 2000.He won a total of 124 caps for Romania between 1983 and 2000, making him the second-most capped Romanian player of all time, behind only Dorinel Munteanu; he is also the joint all-time leading goalscorer of the Romania national side (alongside Adrian Mutu) with 35 goals.Hagi is considered a hero both in his homeland and in Turkey.",
"He was named Romanian Footballer of the Year a record seven times, and is regarded as one of the best football players of his generation.",
"Hagi was nominated six times for the Ballon d'Or, his best performance being a 4th place in 1994.In November 2003, to celebrate UEFA's Jubilee, Hagi was selected as the Golden Player of Romania by the Romanian Football Federation as their most outstanding player of the past 50 years.",
"In 2004, he was named by Pelé as one of the 125 Greatest Living Footballers at a FIFA Awards Ceremony.",
"In 1999, he was ranked at number 25 in ''World Soccer Magazine''s list of the 100 greatest players of the 20th century.Following his retirement in 2001, Hagi pursued a managerial career, coaching the Romania national team, as well as clubs in both Romania and Turkey, namely Bursaspor, Galatasaray, Politehnica Timișoara, Steaua București, Viitorul Constanța and Farul Constanța.",
"In 2009, he founded Romanian club Viitorul Constanța, which he has coached between 2014 and 2020.Hagi also established his namesake football academy, one of the largest ones in Southeastern Europe."
],
[
"Early life",
"Hagi was born to Chirata Hagi, his mother, and Iancu Hagi, his father.",
"Hagi's grandfather was one of 40,000 ethnic Aromanians who fled Greece to Romania.",
"He set up home in the village of Săcele, near Constanța on the Black Sea coast.",
"Hagi has fond memories of his grandfather who, like many Aromanians, was a shepherd.",
"According to him, “I was proud when he, who was called Gheorghe like me, asked me to go and spend the whole day with him minding the sheep,” he said.",
"“I loved to eat cheese and tomatoes with him, and that is still my favorite food today.” He also said \"ambition is the main quality of the Aromanians\"."
],
[
"Club career",
"Hagi started his career playing for the youth teams of FC Constanța under the guidance of coach Iosif Bükössy in the 1970s.",
"He was selected by the Romanian Football Federation to join the squad of Luceafărul București in 1980, where he remained for two years.",
"In 1982, he returned to FC Constanța, making his Divizia A debut under coach Emanoil Hașoti in a 3–0 loss against SC Bacău, but one year later, aged 18, he was prepared to make the step up to play for a top team.",
"He was originally directed to Universitatea Craiova, but chose Sportul Studențesc of Bucharest instead.In late 1986, Hagi transferred to Steaua București as the team prepared for the European Super Cup final against Dynamo Kyiv.",
"The original contract was for a one-game loan only, the final.",
"However, after winning the trophy, in which Hagi scored the only goal of the match from a free kick, Steaua did not want to release him back to Sportul Studențesc and retained him.",
"During his Steaua years (1987–1990), Hagi played 97 Liga I games, scoring 76 goals, and netted 98 goals in total in 107 appearances for the club across all competitions.",
"With the club, he reached the European Cup semi-final in 1988, and the final in the following year, while Hagi finished as one of the competition's top scorers in the former edition of the tournament.",
"Hagi also won three consecutive league and Cup doubles with Steaua between 1987 and 1989.His strong performances had him linked with Arrigo Sacchi's Milan, fellow Serie A club Juventus, and German side Bayern Munich, but Nicolae Ceaușescu's communist government rejected any offer.After impressing at the 1990 FIFA World Cup, Hagi was signed by Spanish club Real Madrid on 27 June that same year; the La Liga side paid $3.5 million to Steaua București in order to acquire him.",
"Hagi played two seasons with Real Madrid, which were largely unsuccessful, scoring 20 goals in 84 games, and only winning the Supercopa de España; some of his most memorable performances for the club included a hat-trick in a 5–0 home win over Athletic Bilbao at the Santiago Bernabéu Stadium, on match-day 22 of the 1991–92 season, and a 40-yard lob against Osasuna during the same campaign.",
"He also helped ''Los Blancos'' to reach the 1991–92 UEFA Cup semi-finals, contributing with 3 goals scored in 10 appearances.",
"He was subsequently sold to Italian side Brescia for 8 billion lira in 1992.Hagi began the 1992–93 season with Brescia in Serie A, but after his first season, the club was relegated to Serie B.",
"The following season, Hagi helped the club win the Anglo-Italian Cup, with Brescia defeating Notts County 1–0 in the final at Wembley, and also helped the team finish third in Serie B and earn promotion back to Serie A.",
"After performing memorably during the 1994 World Cup, Hagi returned to Spain, and was signed by defending La Liga champions Barcelona for £2 million, where he immediately won his second Supercopa de España title; however, he later struggled to gain playing time at the club under manager Johan Cruyff, but managed to give his contribution by scoring 3 goals in 5 matches when ''Barça'' reached the semi-finals in the 1995–96 UEFA Cup season.After two years at ''Barça'', Hagi signed for Turkish club Galatasaray in 1996, at the age of 31.He had been the subject of a competing transfer offer from São Paulo FC.",
"Although in the twilight of his career, at Galatasaray, he was extremely successful, and became highly popular among the Turkish supporters, due to his excellent performances for the club.",
"Hagi was an important member of the Galatasaray team that went on to win four consecutive league titles between 1996 and 2000.In 2000, at age 35, Hagi had one of the best seasons of his career, winning every possible major title with Galatasaray that season.",
"Most significantly, Hagi captained the club to win the 1999–2000 UEFA Cup after defeating Arsenal on penalties in the final, following a 0–0 draw; during the match, Hagi was sent off in extra-time for punching Arsenal captain Tony Adams.",
"Consequently, Galatasaray became the first Turkish club to win a UEFA club competition title.",
"The team's UEFA Cup triumph was immediately followed by the UEFA Super Cup title, with a historic 2–1 win against Hagi's former club Real Madrid in extra-time.",
"The mass hysteria caused by these wins in Istanbul raised Hagi's popularity with the fans even further, and prompted former France international Luis Fernández to say, \"Hagi is like wine, the older it gets, the better it is.",
"\"When he retired in 2001, Hagi was one of the most popular players in both Turkey and Romania.",
"Hagi drew praise from the Galatasaray supporters for his performances during his time with the club, who adopted the chant \"I Love You Hagi\" in his honour.",
"While coaching Galatasaray in 2004, he briefly came out of retirement to play in the testimonial game for his former teammate Suat Kaya against Turkey XI.",
"Hagi played the first half wearing his iconic shirt number 10 and helped Galatasaray win 2–1."
],
[
"International career",
"Gheorghe Hagi made his debut for Romania on 10 August 1983 at the age of 18, under coach Mircea Lucescu who used him in all the minutes of friendly which ended 0–0 against Norway, played on the Ullevaal stadium from Oslo.",
"He scored his first international goal against Northern Ireland in 1984.The following year, he was made captain for the first time, in a World Cup qualifier against the same opponent.Although Romania failed to qualify for the 1986 World Cup, Hagi later took part at the 1990 World Cup, where he helped the team reach the round of 16, before Republic of Ireland ended their run, after winning the resulting penalty shoot-out following a 0–0 draw, with Hagi netting Romania's first spot kick.",
"Four years later, he led the Romanian team to its best ever international performance at the 1994 World Cup, as they reached the quarter-finals, only to lose to Sweden in a penalty shoot-out once again.",
"Hagi scored three times in the tournament, including a memorable goal in their 3–2 surprise defeat of South American powerhouse and previous runners-up Argentina.",
"In the first of Romania's group stage matches, a 3–1 win against Colombia, Hagi provided two assists and scored one of the most memorable goals of the tournament, curling in a 40-yard lob over Colombian goalkeeper Óscar Córdoba who was caught out of position; the goal was later voted the fifth greatest World Cup goal in a FIFAworldcup.com poll.",
"Hagi was named in the Team of the Tournament for his performances.Four years later, he captained Romania at the 1998 World Cup; Hagi initially communicated that France '98 would be his final tournament.",
"Romania topped their group, which featured England, Colombia, and Tunisia, and reached the round of 16, before being eliminated by Croatia.",
"After the tournament, Hagi retired from the national team, only to change his mind after a few months and participate in UEFA Euro 2000, during which he was sent off in the 2–0 quarter-final loss against eventual runners-up Italy; this was his final international appearance.Hagi retired from professional football in 2001, at the age of 36; that year, he was given a send-off in a testimonial game on 24 April, called \"Gala Hagi,\" featuring a team of Romanian All-Stars against a team of international All-Stars.",
"At the time of his retirement, his 124 caps for his country were a national record, which has since been surpassed by Dorinel Munteanu.",
"He currently still holds the record of most goals scored for the Romania national team, alongside Adrian Mutu, with 35."
],
[
"Career as coach",
"===Romania national team===In 2001, Hagi was named the manager of the Romania national team, replacing Ladislau Bölöni, who left the squad to coach Sporting Clube de Portugal.",
"After failing to qualify the team for the World Cup, Hagi was sacked.",
"His only notable achievement during the six months as Romania's manager was the win in Budapest against Hungary.===Bursaspor===In 2003, Hagi took over as coach of Turkish Süper Lig side Bursaspor, but left the club after a disappointing start to the season.===Galatasaray===Hagi then became manager of Galatasaray in 2004, leading the team to the Turkish Cup in 2005 final with 5–1 as a score against fierce rivals Fenerbahçe.",
"His contract, however, was not renewed since his team was not able to win 2004–05 Süper Lig title over Fenerbahçe during the centennial of the club.===Politehnica Timișoara===Steaua București sought to hire Hagi in the summer of 2005, but Hagi's requested wage could not be met by the Romanian champions, and he became manager of Politehnica Timișoara instead.",
"However, after a string of poor results and disagreements with management, he left the club after a few months.",
"Constanța's main stadium used to bear his name, but the name was changed after Hagi signed with Politehnica Timișoara.===FC Steaua București===From June to September 2007, Hagi coached FC Steaua București, had a mediocre start in the internal championship mainly due to the large number of unavailable injured players, and managed to qualify the team for the second time in line to the UEFA Champions League group stages, passing two qualifying rounds.",
"He resigned due to a long series of conflicts with club owner Gigi Becali, which also happens to be his godson.",
"The main reason for resigning was the owner's policy of imposing players, making the team's strategy and threats.",
"Hagi's resigned mere hours after FC Steaua's first Champions League match away against Slavia Prague, a 2–1 loss.===Galatasaray return===After Frank Rijkaard was sacked as coach, Hagi signed a one and a half-year contract with Galatasaray on 21 October 2010.His official presentation was held on 22 October.",
"His former teammate from Galatasaray Tugay Kerimoğlu assisted him in Istanbul, but he was sacked on 22 March 2011 after a series of poor results in the Süper Lig.===Viitorul Constanța===In September 2014, Hagi appointed himself manager of Viitorul Constanța, in addition to being the owner and chairman of the club.",
"Successfully avoiding relegation in his first season, Viitorul went on to be the season's wonder in the 2015–16 season, finishing the first half of the regular season on 3rd place, which led Hagi to be named Romania Coach of the Year.",
"Eventually, Viitorul finished the regular season on 4th place, earning their first play-off qualification.",
"Viitorul finished the play-off on 5th place, but qualified for the UEFA Europa League third qualifying round due to Dinamo București's insolvency.",
"In their first European match, Viitorul were defeated 0–5 by Gent at the Ghelamco Arena, and were eliminated after a 0–0 home draw.Viitorul won their maiden league title, being 2016–17 Liga I champions after a 1–0 home victory over CFR Cluj; they finished the play-off with 44 points, same as FCSB, but on a better head-to-head record after a 3–1 home victory over FCSB.",
"As a result, Hagi won his second Romania Coach of the Year award."
],
[
"Style of play",
"A talented left-footed attacking midfielder, Hagi's playing style was frequently compared with Diego Maradona's throughout his career, due to his technical ability as well as his temperamental character and leadership; as a youth, he was mainly inspired by compatriots Anghel Iordănescu and Ion Dumitru.",
"A quick, agile, creative, and mobile advanced playmaker, Hagi was also tactically versatile, and capable of playing in several midfield and offensive positions on either wing or through the middle, due to his ability with both feet, despite being naturally left-footed, although he had a preference for using his stronger foot; his preferred position was in a free role as a classic number 10, but he was also used as a second striker on occasion.",
"Hagi was renowned in particular for his first touch and speed on the ball, as well as his timing, interpretation of space, bursts of acceleration and dribbling skills, which enabled him to get past defenders; he was also highly regarded for his vision and precise passing, although he was capable of both scoring and assisting goals, and was also an accurate finisher and set-piece taker, who had a penchant for scoring goals from powerful, bending long range strikes.",
"Despite his small stature and slender build, Hagi possessed significant upper body strength, which, along with his control, aided him in protecting the ball from opponents, and allowed him to create space for himself or his teammates.",
"Despite his skill and his reputation as one of the greatest number 10s of his generation, his career was marked by inconsistency at times, and he was also considered to be a controversial player, due to his rebellious and arrogant attitude, as well as his low work-rate, aggression, unsportsmanlike behaviour, and lack of discipline, which led him to have several disagreements and confrontations with his managers, opponents, and officials."
],
[
"Personal life",
"Hagi is currently married to Marilena Hagi, with whom he had two children, Ianis and Kira.His son, Ianis Hagi, who is also a footballer, was born in 1998 in Istanbul, Turkey, when he was playing for Galatasaray SK.His daughter, Kira Hagi, who was born in 1996, in Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain, when he was playing for Barcelona, is an actress.Hagi was chosen to dub in Romanian the character Dagda in the animated movie ''Epic''."
],
[
"Career statistics",
"===Club===+ Appearances and goals by club, season and competitionClubSeasonLeagueCupContinentalOtherTotalDivisionAppsGoalsAppsGoalsAppsGoalsAppsGoalsAppsGoalsFC Constanța1982–83Divizia A18––187Sportul Studențesc1983–84Divizia A3120–3321984–853020–32201985–863123–33341986–871641–206Total1081040011862Steaua București1986–87Divizia A1411–15111987–883184–39291988–893096–39371989–902231–2511Total9721120011888Real Madrid1990–91La Liga2940040103441991–92351251103–5016Total641651143108420Brescia1992–93Serie A31521––3361993–94Serie B30921––3210Total611442——6516Barcelona1994–95La Liga1742120202351995–961934053–286Total3676173205111Galatasaray1996–971.Lig301410312036171997–983086061004281998–9928144183–40181999–2000191231154–37172000–01251110112–3713Total1325915243102019273Career total516237306953350646276===International===+ Appearances and goals by national team and yearNational teamYearAppsGoalsRomania198350198491198510419868319878219884219898019901121991621992541993511994115199531199681199764199871199942200060Total12435:''Scores and results list Romania's goal tally first, score column indicates score after each Hagi goal''.+ List of international goals scored by Gheorghe HagiNo.DateVenueOpponentScoreResultCompetition1 12 September 1984 Windsor Park, Belfast, Northern Ireland 1–1 2–3 FIFA World Cup 1986 Qualifying2 30 January 1985 Estádio José Alvalade, Lisbon, Portugal 3–2 3–2 Friendly3 3 April 1985 Stadionul Central, Craiova, Romania 1–0 3–0 FIFA World Cup 1986 Qualifying4 6 June 1985 Helsinki Olympic Stadium, Helsinki, Finland 1–0 1–1 FIFA World Cup 1986 Qualifying5 28 August 1985 Stadionul 1 Mai, Timișoara, Romania 1–0 2–0 FIFA World Cup 1986 Qualifying6 23 April 1986 Stadionul 1 Mai, Timișoara, Romania 1–0 2–1 Friendly7 20 August 1986 Ullevaal Stadion, Oslo, Norway 2–0 2–2 Friendly8 10 September 1986 Stadionul Ghencea, Bucharest, Romania 4–0 4–1 UEFA Euro 1988 Qualifying9 11 March 1987 Karaiskakis Stadium, Piraeus, Greece 1–1 1–1 Friendly10 25 March 1987 Stadionul Ghencea, Bucharest, Romania 3–1 5–1 UEFA Euro 1988 Qualifying11 20 September 1988 Stadionul 1 Mai, Constanța, Romania 2–0 3–0 Friendly12 2 November 1988 Stadionul Ghencea, Bucharest, Romania 2–0 3–0 FIFA World Cup 1990 Qualifying13 3 August 1990 Stadion Allmend, Lucerne, Switzerland 1–0 1–2 Friendly14 25 April 1990 Kiryat Eliezer Stadium, Haifa, Israel 2–04–1 Friendly15 27 March 1991 Stadio Olimpico, Serravalle, San Marino 1–0 3–1 UEFA Euro 1992 Qualifying16 16 October 1991 Stadionul Ghencea, Bucharest, Romania 1–0 1–0 UEFA Euro 1992 Qualifying17 6 May 1992 Stadionul Ghencea, Bucharest, Romania 2–0 7–0 FIFA World Cup 1994 Qualifying18 20 May 1992 Stadionul Ghencea, Bucharest, Romania 1–0 5–1 FIFA World Cup 1994 Qualifying19 20 May 1992 Stadionul Ghencea, Bucharest, Romania 5–0 5–1 FIFA World Cup 1994 Qualifying20 29 November 1992 Neo GSZ Stadium, Larnaca, Cyprus 3–1 4–1 FIFA World Cup 1994 Qualifying21 17 November 1993 Cardiff Arms Park, Cardiff, Wales 1–0 2–1 FIFA World Cup 1994 Qualifying22 14 June 1994 Trabuco Hills Stadium, Mission Viejo, United States 1–11–1 Friendly23 18 June 1994 Rose Bowl, Pasadena, United States 2–0 3–1 World Cup 1994 Group A24 22 June 1994 Pontiac Silverdome, Pontiac, United States 1–1 1–4 World Cup 1994 Group A25 3 July 1994 Rose Bowl, Pasadena, United States 3–1 3–2 World Cup 1994 Round of 1626 12 November 1994 Stadionul Ghencea, Bucharest, Romania 2–0 3–2 UEFA Euro 1996 Qualifying27 15 October 1995 Všešportový areál, Košice, Slovakia 1–0 2–0 UEFA Euro 1996 Qualifying28 9 October 1996 Laugardalsvöllur, Reykjavík, Iceland 2–0 4–0 World Cup 1998 Qualifying29 29 March 1997 Stadionul Ghencea, Bucharest, Romania 4–0 8–0 World Cup 1998 Qualifying30 10 September 1997 Stadionul Ghencea, Bucharest, Romania 1–0 4–0 World Cup 1998 Qualifying31 10 September 1997 Stadionul Ghencea, Bucharest, Romania 4–0 4–0 World Cup 1998 Qualifying32 11 October 1997 Lansdowne Road, Dublin, Ireland 1–0 1–1 World Cup 1998 Qualifying33 3 June 1998 Stadionul Ghencea, Bucharest, Romania 3–2 3–2 Friendly34 4 September 1999 Tehelné pole, Bratislava, Slovakia 2–1 5–1 UEFA Euro 2000 Qualifying35 8 September 1999 Stadionul Ghencea, Bucharest, Romania 1–0 1–1 UEFA Euro 2000 Qualifying===Managerial statistics===TeamFromToRecordGWDLWin % Romania1 September 200127 November 2001 Bursaspor1 July 200315 November 2003 Galatasaray22 March 200428 May 2005 Politehnica Timișoara7 November 200521 May 2006 Steaua București1 July 200720 September 2007 Galatasaray21 October 201024 March 2011 Viitorul Constanța15 September 20141 August 2020 Farul Constanța21 June 2021'' Present '' Total"
],
[
"Honours",
"===Player==='''Steaua București'''*Divizia A: 1986–87, 1987–88, 1988–89*Cupa României: 1986–87, 1988–89*European Super Cup: 1986*Intercontinental Cup runners-up: 1986*European Cup runners-up: 1988–89'''Real Madrid'''*Copa del Rey runner-up: 1991–92*Supercopa de España: 1990'''Brescia'''*Anglo-Italian Cup: 1993–94'''Barcelona'''*Copa del Rey runner-up: 1995–96*Supercopa de España: 1994'''Galatasaray'''*1.Lig: 1996–97, 1997–98, 1998–99, 1999–2000*Turkish Cup: 1998–99, 1999–2000*Turkish Super Cup: 1996, 1997*UEFA Cup: 1999–2000*UEFA Super Cup: 2000===Manager==='''Galatasaray'''*Turkish Cup: 2004–05'''Viitorul Constanța'''*Liga I: 2016–17*Cupa României: 2018–19*Supercupa României: 2019'''Farul Constanta'''*Liga I: 2022–23===Individual==='''Player'''*Divizia A top scorer: 1985, 1986*European Cup top scorer: 1987–88*''Gazeta Sporturilor'' Romanian Footballer of the Year: 1985, 1987, 1993, 1994, 1997, 1999, 2000*FIFA World Cup All-Star Team: 1994*Ballon d'Or: 4th place 1994*FIFA XI: 1998*Turkish Footballer of the Year: 1996, 1999, 2000,*''World Soccer Magazine''s 100 Greatest Players of the 20th century: 1999 (#25)*UEFA Jubilee Awards – Greatest Romanian Footballer of the last 50 Years: 2003*FIFA 100: 2004*Golden Foot Legends Award: 2015'''Manager'''*Romania Coach of the Year: 2015, 2017*Liga I Manager of the Season: 2022–23"
],
[
"See also",
"*List of top international men's football goalscorers by country*The 100 Greatest Players of the 20th Century*List of footballers with 100 or more caps"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* * * *"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Gordon Banks"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Gordon Banks''' (30 December 1937 – 12 February 2019) was an English professional footballer who played as a goalkeeper.",
"Widely regarded as one of the greatest goalkeepers of all time, he made 679 appearances during a 20-year professional career, and won 73 caps for England, highlighted by starting every game of the nation's 1966 World Cup victory.Banks joined Chesterfield in March 1953, and played for their youth team in the 1956 FA Youth Cup final.",
"He made his first team debut in November 1958, and was sold to Leicester City for £7,000 in July 1959.He played in four cup finals for the club, as they were beaten in the 1961 and 1963 FA Cup finals, before winning the League Cup in 1964 and finishing as finalists in 1965.Despite this success, and his World Cup win in 1966, Banks was dropped by Leicester and sold on to Stoke City for £50,000 in April 1967.In the 1970 World Cup, he made one of the game's greatest saves to prevent a Pelé goal, but was absent due to illness as England were beaten by West Germany in the quarter-finals.Banks was Stoke City's goalkeeper in the 1972 League Cup win, the club's only major honour.",
"He was still Stoke's and England's number one when a car crash in October 1972 cost him both the sight in his right eye and, eventually, his professional career.",
"He played two last seasons in the United States for the Fort Lauderdale Strikers in 1977 and 1978, and despite only having vision in one eye, was NASL Goalkeeper of the Year in 1977 after posting the best defensive record in the league.",
"He briefly entered management with Telford United, but left the game in December 1980.Banks was named FWA Footballer of the Year in 1972, and was named FIFA Goalkeeper of the Year on six occasions.",
"The IFFHS named Banks the second-best goalkeeper of the 20th century, after Lev Yashin."
],
[
"Early life",
"Banks was born in Abbeydale, Sheffield, and brought up in the working-class area of Tinsley.",
"The family later moved to the village of Catcliffe after his father set up a (then-illegal) betting shop.",
"This brought greater prosperity but also misery; one day Banks's disabled brother was mugged for the shop's daily takings, and died of his injuries some weeks later.",
"Banks left school in December 1952, aged 15, and took up employment as a bagger with a local coal merchant, which helped to build up his upper body strength.",
"He spent a season playing for amateur side Millspaugh after their regular goalkeeper failed to turn up for a match; the club's trainer spotted Banks amongst the spectators and invited him to play in goal as he was aware that Banks had previously played for Sheffield Schoolboys.",
"His performances there earned him a game in the Yorkshire League for Rawmarsh Welfare, However, a 12–2 defeat to Stocksbridge Works on his debut was followed by a 3–1 home defeat, and he was dropped by Rawmarsh and returned to Millspaugh.",
"Still aged 15, he then switched jobs to become a hod carrier."
],
[
"Club career",
"=== Chesterfield ===He was scouted by Chesterfield whilst playing for Millspaugh, and offered a six-game trial in the youth team in March 1953.He impressed enough in these games to be offered a part-time £3-a-week contract by manager Teddy Davison in July 1953.The reserve team were placed in the Central League on account of a powerful club director rather than on merit, and Banks conceded 122 goals in the 1954–55 season as the \"Spireites\" finished in last place with only three victories.",
"Banks was posted to Germany with the Royal Signals on national service, and won the Rhine Cup with his regimental team.",
"He recovered from a fractured elbow to help the Chesterfield youth team to the 1956 final of the FA Youth Cup.",
"There they were beaten 4–3 on aggregate by Manchester United's famous \"Busby Babes\"—a team that included both Wilf McGuinness and Bobby Charlton.Banks was given his first team debut by manager Doug Livingstone, at the expense of long-serving Ron Powell, in a Third Division game against Colchester United at Saltergate in November 1958.The game ended 2–2, and Banks kept his place against Norwich City in the following match; by the end of the 1958–59 season he had missed only three games, those owing to injury.",
"With no goalkeeping coach to guide him, Banks had to learn from his mistakes on the pitch, and he soon developed into a modern vocal goalkeeper who ordered the players in front of him into a more effective defence.",
"Having just 23 league and three cup appearances to his name, it came as a surprise to Banks when Matt Gillies, manager of First Division club Leicester City, bought him from Chesterfield for £7,000 in July 1959; this also meant a wage increase to £15 a week.=== Leicester City ===Banks faced competition from five other goalkeepers, including 30-year-old Scotland international Johnny Anderson and 25-year-old Dave MacLaren.",
"He started the 1959–60 season as the reserve team's goalkeeper.",
"This in effect made him the club's second-choice, ahead of four of his rivals but behind first team choice MacLaren.",
"He had played four reserve team games when MacLaren picked up an injury, and manager Matt Gillies selected Banks for his Leicester debut against Blackpool at Filbert Street on 9 September.",
"The match finished 1–1, with Jackie Mudie's strike cancelling out Ken Leek's opener.",
"Banks retained his place for the 2–0 loss to Newcastle United at St James' Park three days later.",
"With McLaren fit again, Banks was sent back to the reserves but, after the first team conceded 14 goals in the next five games, he was recalled and became the first-choice goalkeeper for the remainder of the season.",
"The defensive record did not improve at first, with Banks conceding six in a heavy defeat by Everton at Goodison Park, but he improved in each match and the Foxes settled for a comfortable 12th-place finish.",
"In training, he worked extensively on improving his weaknesses, such as coming for crosses.",
"He put in extra hours during training and came up with practice sessions to improve his skills – this was largely unique in an era where there were no specialized goalkeeping coaches.",
"In the summer, both Anderson and MacLaren departed, leaving Banks as the club's undisputed number one ahead of a group of understudies.Leicester finished sixth in 1960–61, and managed to beat champions Tottenham Hotspur at White Hart Lane.",
"Yet their greatest accomplishment was in reaching the final of the FA Cup, with Banks conceding only five goals in their nine games ''en route'' to the final, and keeping three clean sheets in the semi-final and two replays against Sheffield United.",
"Their opponents in the final at Wembley were Tottenham, who had already won the First Division title by an eight-point margin.",
"Right-back Len Chalmers picked up a severe injury early in the match, and with Ken Leek dropped for disciplinary reasons in favour of rookie Hughie McIlmoyle, City were effectively playing with ten men and offered little threat going forward.",
"Bobby Smith and Terry Dyson gave Spurs a 2–0 win and the first \"double\" of the 20th century, with Banks unable to prevent either goal.The 1961–62 season proved to be highly disappointing, as Leicester finished 14th in the league and exited the FA Cup at the hands of Stoke City.",
"The only highlight was the club's participation in the European Cup Winners' Cup, which actually put Banks in the difficult position of choosing to play for his club against Spanish club Atlético Madrid or choosing to attend the England versus Portugal match as a non-playing squad member.",
"He elected to attend both games, leaving London at full-time to reach Leicester 30 minutes before the kick-off against Madrid.",
"A last-minute goal earned the Spaniards a 1–1 draw at Filbert Street.",
"In the return leg, Banks saved an Enrique Collar penalty, but Atlético were awarded a second penalty which Collar converted, and Leicester lost the game 2–0 (losing the tie 3–1 on aggregate).Banks broke his nose at Craven Cottage on the opening day of the 1962–63 season, in a 2–1 defeat by Fulham.",
"Leicester went to chase a possible double, reaching the FA Cup semi-finals whilst lying top of the table in April.",
"City beat Liverpool 1–0 at Hillsborough to reach the final, with Banks keeping a clean sheet despite his goal being under a near-constant siege from the Merseyside club.",
"The ''News of the World'' reported that Liverpool had had 34 attempts on goal to Leicester's one, and Banks later stated that it was his finest performance at club level.",
"Unluckily, Banks then broke a finger in a 2–1 defeat by West Bromwich Albion at The Hawthorns, and was out injured as Leicester lost their final three league games, ending the season in a disappointing fourth place.",
"In the 1963 FA Cup final Banks and the rest of the team underperformed, and lost the game 3–1 to Manchester United.City ended the 1963–64 season in 11th place, having been inconsistent all season.",
"Success instead came through the League Cup, as they beat West Ham United 6–3 over two legs in the semi-finals to reach the final against Stoke City.",
"The opening tie at the Victoria Ground finished 1–1 in extremely muddy conditions as Banks spilled a shot from Bill Asprey, with Keith Bebbington pouncing on the rebound.",
"Back at Filbert Street, goals from Mike Stringfellow, Dave Gibson and Howard Riley won the game for Leicester 3–2 and settled the tie at 4–3.Banks started the 1964–65 season on wages of £40 a week, and the club only agreed to pay £60 a week in December.",
"These miserly wages made it difficult for the club to spend the £80,000 it received from the sale of Frank McLintock – he had put in a transfer request over dissatisfaction with his pay and quality replacements were reluctant to join a club that paid full internationals like Banks and McLintock no more than the base rate that rival clubs paid to average players.",
"Leicester finished 18th in the league and were knocked out of the FA Cup by Liverpool at Anfield in the sixth round.",
"In the League Cup, City struggled to get past Peterborough United (in a replay), Grimsby Town and Crystal Palace (in a replay), before they recorded an 8–1 victory over Coventry City at Highfield Road.",
"After easing past Plymouth Argyle in the semi-finals, Banks found himself playing in another League Cup final.",
"However, Chelsea won the final after successfully defending their 3–2 win at Stamford Bridge with a goalless draw at Filbert Street.Banks missed the first nine games of the 1965–66 season after breaking his wrist when diving at the feet of Northampton Town's Joe Kiernan in a pre-season friendly.",
"Leicester finished the season in seventh spot, and exited both cup competitions at the hands of Manchester City.Despite being a World Cup winner in the summer of 1966, Banks was dropped towards the end of the 1966–67 season in favour of highly promising teenage reserve Peter Shilton.",
"Manager Matt Gillies was blunt, telling Banks \"we Gillies and the club's directors think your best days are behind you, and you should move on\".",
"Teammate Richie Norman told Banks that Gillies was pressured into the decision, Shilton having told the board he would leave the club unless he was given first team football.",
"Banks was transfer listed at £50,000, the same price the club received for Derek Dougan in March 1967.However, many of the big clubs were unwilling to spend such a sum on a goalkeeper.",
"Liverpool manager Bill Shankly showed strong interest, but could not convince the club's board of directors to agree to such a large fee for a goalkeeper.",
"West Ham United manager Ron Greenwood was prepared to match the fee, but instead signed Kilmarnock's Bobby Ferguson for £65,000 because he had already agreed terms with Kilmarnock and did not want to go back on his word.",
"Terms were instead agreed with Stoke City, a mid-table First Division side.=== Stoke City ===On leaving Filbert Street, Banks requested a loyalty bonus from Leicester, and was told by Matt Gillies \"We've decided not to pay you a penny.",
"There's to be no compensation payment and that's final.\"",
"Banks then refused the move until Stoke boss Tony Waddington seemingly negotiated a £2,000 payment out of Leicester.",
"It was only some years later that Banks was informed that Stoke had actually made the payment, not Leicester.",
"Waddington valued good goalkeepers highly, and the two built up a close relationship.",
"During this time, Banks moved to Madeley, Staffordshire.",
"He replaced John Farmer as the club's number one, and kept goal in the last four games of the 1966–67 season, making his home debut at the Victoria Ground in a 3–1 win over his former club Leicester.Banks fitted in well at Stoke, as Waddington built a team of veteran players who were judged by some to be past their best.",
"The Potters struggled near the foot of the First Division table in the 1967–68 and 1968–69 campaigns, before rising to ninth place in the 1969–70 season.",
"Banks remained a reliable stopper for the club, though on 1 March 1969 he was knocked unconscious at Roker Park by Sunderland's Malcolm Moore, and his replacement David Herd conceded four goals in a 4–1 defeat.",
"Banks also played a season for the Cleveland Stokers of the American United Soccer Association in the summer of 1968: he played seven of the short-lived club's 12 games in Cleveland, Ohio.Banks made what he believed to be three of the best saves of his career in a Stoke shirt.",
"In the first instance he saved and caught a powerful and well-placed header from Manchester City's Wyn Davies from just out; in the second case he saved a Francis Lee header at Maine Road; and he made his third great save for the club by catching a volley from Tottenham Hotspur's Alan Gilzean that had been hit from just out at White Hart Lane.Stoke began to compete for honours in the 1970–71 season, though despite impressive victories against the top two clubs—Arsenal and Leeds United—City ended the season in mid-table obscurity.",
"The club's great achievement was in reaching the semi-finals of the FA Cup, beating Millwall, Huddersfield Town, Ipswich Town and Hull City ''en route''.",
"Facing Arsenal at Hillsborough in the semi-finals, they lost a two-goal lead to draw 2–2, and were then beaten 2–0 in the replay at Villa Park.Despite another mid-table finish in 1971–72, Stoke beat Chesterfield, Tranmere Rovers, Hull City and Manchester United to reach another FA Cup semi-final.",
"They again faced Arsenal, and once more a draw at Villa Park meant a replay at Goodison Park.",
"The Gunners' goals in a 2–1 victory came from a disputed Frank McLintock penalty and a John Radford goal that television replays showed was clearly offside.",
"In a May 2011 interview, Banks said that he still felt \"cheated\" out of a chance to play for the club in an FA Cup final.",
"Stoke and Banks found solace in the League Cup, though it took them 11 matches to reach the final after overcoming Southport, then Oxford United in a replay, Manchester United in a second replay, Bristol Rovers, and then West Ham United in a second replay following an aggregate draw after two legs.",
"In extra time of the second leg with West Ham, Banks fouled Harry Redknapp, conceding a penalty, and then saved Geoff Hurst's powerful spot-kick to keep City in the competition.",
"They then faced Chelsea in the final at Wembley.",
"Peter Osgood beat Banks with a hooked shot just before half-time, but goals from Terry Conroy and George Eastham won Stoke the game 2–1.At the end of the season Banks was named as the FWA Footballer of the Year, becoming the first goalkeeper to receive the honour since Bert Trautmann in 1956.On 22 October 1972, while driving home from a session of work on his injured shoulder with the Stoke physiotherapist, Banks lost control of his new Ford Consul (a re-badged Ford Granada Mk I) car, which ended up in a ditch.",
"He had attempted to overtake a car on a sharp bend and collided with an oncoming Austin A60 van.",
"He was taken to the North Staffordshire Hospital and during an operation received 200 stitches in his face and over 100 micro-stitches inside the socket of his right eye, and was told the chances of saving the sight in his eye were 50–50.His sight never returned, and as the loss of binocular vision severely limited his abilities as a goalkeeper, he retired from professional football the following summer.=== Fort Lauderdale Strikers ===In April 1977 he went to play as a named superstar in the North American Soccer League (NASL) for Fort Lauderdale Strikers.",
"The Strikers won their division in 1977, and Banks was named NASL Goalkeeper of the Year after he conceded only 29 goals in 26 games—the best defensive record in the NASL.",
"He also played one League of Ireland game for St Patrick's Athletic, keeping a clean sheet in a 1–0 win over Shamrock Rovers at Richmond Park on 2 October 1977.He returned to Fort Lauderdale and played 11 games in the 1978 season."
],
[
"International career",
"Banks was capped twice for the England under-23 side, in matches against Wales and Scotland in 1961.Ron Springett was the goalkeeper for England as Banks rose to prominence, but after the 1962 World Cup in Chile, a new coach was appointed in former England right-back Alf Ramsey.",
"Ramsey demanded sole control of the team and began looking towards the next World Cup.",
"Banks won his first cap on 6 April 1963 against Scotland at Wembley, after Springett was dropped following a poor performance.",
"England lost 2–1, though Banks was blameless as Scotland's goals came firstly from an error by Jimmy Armfield and then secondly from the penalty spot.",
"He was picked for the next match against Brazil, which ended in a creditable 1–1 draw after Bryan Douglas cancelled out Pepe's opener.",
"Banks continued to play consistently to become established as England's first-choice goalkeeper.",
"In 1963, he was picked to play against the Rest of the World, in a celebration match to mark 100 years of The Football Association.Banks also played in two of England's three games at the \"Little World Cup\" in Brazil in the summer of 1964, a 1–1 draw with Portugal and a 1–0 defeat to Argentina.",
"Blackpool's Tony Waiters won five caps in the England goal in 1964, but found that his challenge to Banks's first team place came to an end after he conceded five goals to Brazil.",
"During England's summer of 1965 tour he built up a solid understanding with his defenders—George Cohen, Jack Charlton, Bobby Moore, and Ray Wilson—as he only conceded two goals in four matches against Hungary, Yugoslavia, West Germany, and Sweden.",
"They then played seven friendlies in 1966 in the build-up to the World Cup, though the team passed their biggest test of character in the British Home Championship, beating Scotland 4–3 in front of a crowd of over 130,000 at Hampden Park.",
"Going into the competition, the only defeat in 21 matches since the \"Little World Cup\" came against Austria, in a game that Banks missed due to injury.=== 1966 World Cup ===Banks entered the 1966 FIFA World Cup as England's first-choice goalkeeper, and his understudies Ron Springett and Peter Bonetti never took to the field during the tournament.",
"England opened the tournament with a goalless draw against Uruguay, with Banks a virtual spectator as the highly defensive Uruguayans rarely ventured out of their own half.",
"They then defeated Mexico 2–0, with Banks again rarely troubled throughout.",
"A 2–0 win over France then took England through the group stage without Banks conceding a goal.England beat Argentina 1–0 in the last eight, with Geoff Hurst scoring with a header; the match was sullied by the first-half sending off of Argentinian midfielder Antonio Rattín, who refused to leave the pitch after being dismissed for dissent.",
"In contrast to the previous games, the semi-final against Portugal proved to be a fair contest between two sides of talented players eager to attack from the start of the match.",
"Yet there was panic in the buildup to the game as trainer Harold Shepherdson forgot to buy chewing gum, which Banks used to make his hands stickier and better able to handle the ball, and so Shepherdson had to run to a nearby newsagents to purchase gum as the teams were in the tunnel.",
"Bobby Charlton scored two goals, but Portugal made a strong finish and won a penalty on 82 minutes after Jack Charlton handled the ball in the penalty area.",
"Eusébio converted the penalty after sending Banks the wrong way, and the game finished 2–1 in England's favour.",
"This was the first goal Banks had conceded for England in 721 minutes of regular play, since giving up Scotland's last goal after 81 minutes of the Home International clash in April.",
"This remained a record for an England goalkeeper until 2021 when it was broken by Jordan Pickford.England's opponents in the final were West Germany.",
"It was England who dominated the final but it was Banks who was beaten first.",
"A weak header from Ray Wilson handed a chance to Helmut Haller, who sent an accurate but relatively weak shot into the corner of the net; Banks had been unsighted by Jack Charlton, and he failed to adjust his position in time to reach the ball.",
"England equalised through a Geoff Hurst header within six minutes and went ahead late in the second half through Martin Peters.",
"With seconds left in the game, Lothar Emmerich sent a free kick into the England penalty area, and the ball fell to Wolfgang Weber, who guided the ball over a lunging Ray Wilson and an outstretched Banks into the net to take the game into extra-time.",
"In extra-time, the Germans sent shots in at the England goal which Banks managed to catch and control without any great danger.",
"Hurst scored two goals to complete his hat-trick, and though many claimed his second goal never crossed the line Banks always maintained his belief that the officials called the decision correctly.",
"Between these goals Banks had to deal with a fiery shot from Sigfried Held, and was later exposed only for Uwe Seeler to come just centimetres away from connecting with the ball.=== Euro 1968 ===Scotland were the first team to beat the world champions, as goals from Denis Law, Bobby Lennox and Jim McCalliog secured a 3–2 victory at Wembley on 15 April 1967.Despite this set-back, England qualified for UEFA Euro 1968, which consisted of just four teams: England, Italy (hosts), the Soviet Union, and Yugoslavia.",
"England played just two games at the tournament, losing 1–0 to Yugoslavia, and then beating the Soviets 2–0 in the third-place play-off.=== 1970 World Cup ===Banks went into the 1970 World Cup as England's number one with 59 caps to his name, and had Peter Bonetti (six caps) and Alex Stepney (one cap) as his understudies.",
"He found the heat and altitude at Guadalajara, Mexico difficult to cope with.",
"The team's efforts at acclimatisation were not helped when Bobby Moore was falsely accused of stealing the infamous \"Bogotá Bracelet\".",
"Despite this, a Geoff Hurst goal was enough to beat their first opponents, Romania.",
"A far tougher test awaited on 7 June, when England faced Brazil.",
"The day before the match Banks was informed that he had been awarded an OBE.Image describing Banks's save v Pelé in the 1970 World Cup, MexicoPlaying at pace, Brazil were putting England under enormous pressure and an attack was begun by captain Carlos Alberto who sent a low ball down the right flank for the speedy Jairzinho to latch on to.",
"The Brazilian winger sped past left-back Terry Cooper and crossed the ball into the six-yard box, where Pelé connected with a powerful header to send the ball low towards the right-hand corner of the goal.",
"In the knowledge that his header was placed to perfection, Pelé immediately shouted \"Gol!\"",
"(Brazilian Portuguese for goal).The split-second incident only allowed Banks time for one conscious thought – that the shot was impossible to catch, and the only way to prevent Pelé from following up on the rebound would be to parry the ball over the bar.",
"The ball bounced in front of the goal-line, and Banks managed to make contact with the ball with the fingers of his right hand, and rolled his hand slightly to angle the ball over the crossbar.",
"He landed in the inner netting of the goal, and knew he had saved the ball after seeing Pelé's reaction.",
"Banks then rose to his feet to defend the corner, and broke into laughter after the following exchange::\"I thought that was a goal.\"",
"(Pelé):\"You and me both.\"",
"(Banks):\"You're getting old, Banksy, you used to hold on to them.\"",
"(Bobby Moore)Pelé, and numerous journalists and pundits, would later describe the save as the greatest in the history of the game.",
"Banks later said \"They won't remember me for winning the World Cup, it'll be for that save.",
"That's how big a thing it is.",
"People just want to talk about that save.\"",
"In 2002 the UK public voted the save No.",
"41 in the list of the 100 Greatest Sporting Moments.Brazil won the game 1–0 after Jairzinho beat Banks in the second half.",
"England ultimately joined Brazil in the last eight after a win in the final group game against Czechoslovakia.",
"The reward was a rematch of the 1966 final against West Germany.The day before the West Germany game England's hopes of making further inroads into the World Cup were dented when Banks started to complain of an upset stomach.",
"He became affected by violent stomach cramps and aching limbs, and spent his time in the bathroom sweating, shivering and vomiting.",
"He passed an extremely undemanding fitness test but suffered a relapse shortly before the game and Ramsey was forced to rest him and play Peter Bonetti in his place.",
"Ramsey remarked that \"of all the players to lose, we had to lose him.\"",
"Banks watched the game on television at the hotel as England lost a two-goal lead to be eliminated 3–2 after extra time.",
"Due to a time delay on the broadcast he switched the television off with England 2–0 in the lead, as Bobby Moore returned to the hotel to break the news of the defeat.",
"Suspicions later surfaced that Banks had been poisoned to take him out of the game, but with no evidence to support them Banks never believed in them.=== Final years ===Only four teams competed in UEFA Euro 1972: Belgium (hosts), Hungary, the Soviet Union, and West Germany.",
"England came close to qualifying, but lost 3–1 to West Germany in the final round of qualifying.On 15 May 1971, Banks was involved in a notorious incident with George Best who, while playing against England for Northern Ireland, flicked the ball out of Banks's hands and headed it into the net.",
"The move was audacious, but was disallowed by the referee, who judged it to be dangerous play.",
"Banks played his 73rd and final game for England on 27 May 1972, in a 1–0 win over Scotland at Hampden Park.",
"During his 73 international games he kept 35 clean sheets and lost just nine games."
],
[
"Coaching career",
"In December 1977 he was appointed as a coach at Port Vale by manager Dennis Butler, being demoted to reserve coach in October 1978 by new boss Alan Bloor.",
"Banks enjoyed coaching but soon resigned his position, feeling that players such as Bernie Wright refused to take his advice on board.",
"He applied for the vacant management positions at Lincoln City and Rotherham United, but was rejected.",
"He instead accepted the role as manager of Alliance Premier League part-time club Telford United.",
"He signed a goalkeeper, centre-half and centre-forward from Bangor City for £1,500, as well as former Stoke striker John Ruggiero.",
"The \"Bucks\" finished in 13th place in 1979–80.In November 1980, he left Jackie Mudie in temporary charge of team affairs whilst he underwent surgery, who led the club to defeat in the FA Trophy at the hands of a lower league club.",
"On his return to the club Banks was sacked.",
"He was offered the position of raffle-ticket seller, and accepted the post in the belief that it would entitle him to the money owed to him in the terms of his management contract; he eventually had to settle for 50% of his contract.",
"He later stated that \"It broke my heart ...",
"I did not want to stay in the game.\""
],
[
"Style of play",
"An excellent, consistent, and instinctive goalkeeper, who possessed significant physical strength, athleticism, and excellent shot-stopping abilities, Banks is regarded as one of the greatest players of all time in his position.",
"He possessed an excellent positional sense, which he felt to be one of his best assets, and was also known for his handling, awareness, composure, and mental strength, as well as his agility, speed, and quick reflexes, which enabled him to produce acrobatic saves, such as his famous stop from Pelé's header against Brazil at the 1970 World Cup in Mexico."
],
[
"Personal life",
"Banks first met his wife Ursula during his national service in Germany in 1955.They had three children: Robert, Julia and Wendy.",
"He separated from Ursula during his time in America, but the couple reunited when Banks returned to England.In October 1972 Banks was involved in a car crash in his Ford Consul while driving on the wrong side of the road, close to his home in Madeley Heath.",
"Fragments of glass had perforated his right eye and damaged the retina requiring 100 micro stitches to the eye and a further 200 to his face.Banks's nephew is Nick Banks, drummer of the band Pulp.Shortly after his retirement, Banks was surprised by Eamonn Andrews for an episode of ''This Is Your Life''.",
"He later fronted a Leicester-based hospitality company.",
"He lost a significant sum of money when the business failed, but was helped out by Leicester City, who offered him a belated testimonial match.",
"He was appointed as Stoke City's president following the death of Stanley Matthews.",
"Since the 1980s he was a member of the three-man pools panel.In 2001, he sold his World Cup winners medal at Christie's for £124,750, and his international cap from the final was also sold for £27,025.Sheffield Walk of FameBanks was an Inaugural Inductee to the English Football Hall of Fame in 2002.In March 2004, he was named by Pelé as one of the world's 125 greatest living footballers.",
"He was awarded an honorary doctorate from Keele University in February 2006.In May 2006, Banks was the first 'legend' to be inducted into a new Walk of Fame, by having a plaque installed in the pavement in front of Sheffield Town Hall.",
"In July 2008, Pelé unveiled a statue of Banks making his famous 1970 World Cup save outside the Britannia Stadium.",
"In March 2011, he was also inducted into the City of Stoke-on-Trent Hall of Fame, along with Roy Sproson.",
"Pelé became a good friend of Banks and following his death the Brazilian described Banks as a \"goalkeeper with magic\".In 1980 Banks published his first autobiography, ''Banks of England''.",
"He published a more comprehensive autobiography in 2002: ''Banksy: My Autobiography''.",
"Irish investigative author, Don Mullan, published a boyhood memoir in 2006 called ''Gordon Banks – A Hero Who Could Fly'' in which he wrote about the influence of the England goalkeeper on his life.In December 2015, it was announced he was receiving treatment for kidney cancer.Banks died in his sleep on 12 February 2019 at the age of 81.Banks's funeral took place on 4 March 2019 at Stoke Minster.",
"His pallbearers were goalkeepers representing his former teams; Joe Anyon (Chesterfield), Jack Butland (Stoke City), Joe Hart (England) and Kasper Schmeichel (Leicester City)."
],
[
"Career statistics",
"=== Club ===+ Appearances and goals by club, season and competitionClubSeasonDivisionLeagueFA CupLeague CupContinentalOtherTotalAppsGoalsAppsGoalsAppsGoalsAppsGoalsAppsGoalsAppsGoalsChesterfield1958–59Third Division23030———260Leicester City1959–60First Division32040———3601960–61First Division40010010——5101961–62First Division410201040—4801962–63First Division3806020——4601963–64First Division3601080——4501964–65First Division3806090——5301965–66First Division3204010——3701966–67First Division3601030——400Total293034025040003560Stoke City1966–67First Division400000——401967–68First Division3902040——4501968–69First Division3004000——3401969–70First Division3803010——4201970–71First Division39010010—505501971–72First Division36080110—405901972–73First Division80002010—110Total194027019010902500Cleveland Stokers (loan)1967United Soccer Association70————70Hellenic (loan)1971National Football League30————30Fort Lauderdale Strikers1977North American Soccer League260———202801978North American Soccer League110————110Total370———20390St Patrick's Athletic (loan)1977–78League of Ireland100000——10Career total5580640440501106820===International===+ Appearances and goals by national team and yearNational teamYearAppsGoalsEngland19637019647019657019661501967401968601969601970100197170197240Total730"
],
[
"Honours",
"'''Leicester City'''*League Cup: 1963–64'''Stoke City'''*League Cup: 1971–72'''England'''*FIFA World Cup: 1966*UEFA European Championship third-place: 1968*British Home Championship (8): 1964 (shared), 1965, 1966, 1968, 1969, 1970 (shared), 1971, 1972'''Individual'''*FIFA Goalkeeper of the Year: 1966, 1967, 1968, 1969, 1970, 1971*FIFA World Cup All-Star Team: 1966*World XI: 1969, 1971, 1972*Officer of the Order of the British Empire: 1970*''Daily Express'' Sportsmen of the Year: 1971, 1972*FWA Footballer of the Year: 1972*Football League 100 Legends: 1998*English Football Hall of Fame: 2002*NASL All-Stars: 1977*NASL Goalkeeper of the Year: 1977*FIFA 100: 2004*PFA Team of the Century (1907–1976): 2007* Freedom of the City of Stoke-on-Trent 16 October 2014.",
"* Freedom of the Borough of Newcastle-under-Lyme 23 February 2018."
],
[
"References",
";Specific;General***"
],
[
"External links",
"* Official website *** FIFA Classic Player* FA.com profile **"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Ganglion"
],
[
"Introduction",
"A dorsal root ganglion (DRG) from a chicken embryo (around stage of day 7) after incubation overnight in NGF growth medium stained with anti-neurofilament antibody.",
"Note the axons growing out of the ganglion.A '''ganglion''' (: '''ganglia''') is a group of neuron cell bodies in the peripheral nervous system.",
"In the somatic nervous system, this includes dorsal root ganglia and trigeminal ganglia among a few others.",
"In the autonomic nervous system, there are both sympathetic and parasympathetic ganglia which contain the cell bodies of postganglionic sympathetic and parasympathetic neurons respectively.A '''pseudoganglion''' looks like a ganglion, but only has nerve fibers and has no nerve cell bodies."
],
[
"Structure",
"Ganglia are primarily made up of somata and dendritic structures, which are bundled or connected.",
"Ganglia often interconnect with other ganglia to form a complex system of ganglia known as a plexus.",
"Ganglia provide relay points and intermediary connections between different neurological structures in the body, such as the peripheral and central nervous systems.Among vertebrates there are three major groups of ganglia:* Dorsal root ganglia (also known as the spinal ganglia) contain the cell bodies of sensory (afferent) neurons.",
"* Cranial nerve ganglia contain the cell bodies of cranial nerve neurons.",
"* Autonomic ganglia contain the cell bodies of autonomic nerves.In the autonomic nervous system, fibers from the central nervous system to the ganglia are known as preganglionic fibers, while those from the ganglia to the effector organ are called postganglionic fibers.===Basal ganglia===The term \"ganglion\" refers to the peripheral nervous system.However, in the brain (part of the central nervous system), the basal ganglia is a group of nuclei interconnected with the cerebral cortex, thalamus, and brainstem, associated with a variety of functions: motor control, cognition, emotions, and learning.Partly due to this ambiguity, the ''Terminologia Anatomica'' recommends using the term 'basal nuclei' instead of 'basal ganglia'; however, this usage has not been generally adopted.===Pseudoganglion===A pseudoganglion is a localized thickening of the main part or trunk of a nerve that has the appearance of a ganglion but has only nerve fibers and no nerve cell bodies.Pseudoganglia are found in the teres minor muscle and radial nerve."
],
[
"See also",
"* Sympathetic ganglion* Ganglion cyst* Nervous system* Neuron* Chiasm"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"*"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz''' ( – 14 November 1716) was a German polymath active as a mathematician, philosopher, scientist and diplomat who invented calculus in addition to many other branches of mathematics and statistics.",
"Leibniz has been called the \"last universal genius\" due to his knowledge and skills in different fields and because such people became less common during the Industrial Revolution and spread of specialized labor after his lifetime.",
"He is a prominent figure in both the history of philosophy and the history of mathematics.",
"He wrote works on philosophy, theology, ethics, politics, law, history, philology, games, music, and other studies.",
"Leibniz also made major contributions to physics and technology, and anticipated notions that surfaced much later in probability theory, biology, medicine, geology, psychology, linguistics and computer science.",
"In addition, he contributed to the field of library science by devising a cataloguing system whilst working at the Herzog August Library in Wolfenbüttel, Germany, that would have served as a guide for many of Europe's largest libraries.",
"Leibniz's contributions to a wide range of subjects were scattered in various learned journals, in tens of thousands of letters and in unpublished manuscripts.",
"He wrote in several languages, primarily in Latin, French and German.As a philosopher, he was a leading representative of 17th-century rationalism and idealism.",
"As a mathematician, his major achievement was the development of the main ideas of differential and integral calculus, independently of Isaac Newton's contemporaneous developments.",
"Mathematicians have consistently favored Leibniz's notation as the conventional and more exact expression of calculus.In the 20th century, Leibniz's notions of the law of continuity and transcendental law of homogeneity found a consistent mathematical formulation by means of non-standard analysis.",
"He was also a pioneer in the field of mechanical calculators.",
"While working on adding automatic multiplication and division to Pascal's calculator, he was the first to describe a pinwheel calculator in 1685 and invented the Leibniz wheel, later used in the arithmometer, the first mass-produced mechanical calculator.",
"In philosophy and theology, Leibniz is most noted for his optimism, i.e.",
"his conclusion that our world is, in a qualified sense, the best possible world that God could have created, a view sometimes lampooned by other thinkers, such as Voltaire in his satirical novella ''Candide''.",
"Leibniz, along with René Descartes and Baruch Spinoza, was one of the three influential early modern rationalists.",
"His philosophy also assimilates elements of the scholastic tradition, notably the assumption that some substantive knowledge of reality can be achieved by reasoning from first principles or prior definitions.",
"The work of Leibniz anticipated modern logic and still influences contemporary analytic philosophy, such as its adopted use of the term \"possible world\" to define modal notions."
],
[
"Biography",
"===Early life===Gottfried Leibniz was born on July 1 , 1646, in Leipzig, Saxony, to Friedrich Leibniz and Catharina Schmuck.He was baptized two days later at St. Nicholas Church, Leipzig; his godfather was the Lutheran theologian .",
"His father died when he was six years old, and Leibniz was raised by his mother.Leibniz's father had been a Professor of Moral Philosophy at the University of Leipzig, where he also served as dean of philosophy.",
"The boy inherited his father's personal library.",
"He was given free access to it from the age of seven.",
"While Leibniz's schoolwork was largely confined to the study of a small canon of authorities, his father's library enabled him to study a wide variety of advanced philosophical and theological works—ones that he would not have otherwise been able to read until his college years.",
"Access to his father's library, largely written in Latin, also led to his proficiency in the Latin language, which he achieved by the age of 12.At the age of 13 he composed 300 hexameters of Latin verse in a single morning for a special event at school.In April 1661 he enrolled in his father's former university at age 14.There he was guided, among others, by Jakob Thomasius, previously a student of Friedrich.",
"Leibniz completed his bachelor's degree in Philosophy in December 1662.He defended his ''Disputatio Metaphysica de Principio Individui'' (''Metaphysical Disputation on the Principle of Individuation''), which addressed the principle of individuation, on , presenting an early version of monadic substance theory.",
"Leibniz earned his master's degree in Philosophy on 7 February 1664.In December 1664 he published and defended a dissertation ''Specimen Quaestionum Philosophicarum ex Jure collectarum'' (''An Essay of Collected Philosophical Problems of Right''), arguing for both a theoretical and a pedagogical relationship between philosophy and law.",
"After one year of legal studies, he was awarded his bachelor's degree in Law on 28 September 1665.His dissertation was titled ''De conditionibus'' (''On Conditions'').In early 1666, at age 19, Leibniz wrote his first book, ''De Arte Combinatoria'' (''On the Combinatorial Art''), the first part of which was also his habilitation thesis in Philosophy, which he defended in March 1666.",
"''De Arte Combinatoria'' was inspired by Ramon Llull's ''Ars Magna'' and contained a proof of the existence of God, cast in geometrical form, and based on the argument from motion.His next goal was to earn his license and Doctorate in Law, which normally required three years of study.",
"In 1666, the University of Leipzig turned down Leibniz's doctoral application and refused to grant him a Doctorate in Law, most likely due to his relative youth.",
"Leibniz subsequently left Leipzig.Leibniz then enrolled in the University of Altdorf and quickly submitted a thesis, which he had probably been working on earlier in Leipzig.",
"The title of his thesis was ''Disputatio Inauguralis de Casibus Perplexis in Jure'' (''Inaugural Disputation on Ambiguous Legal Cases'').",
"Leibniz earned his license to practice law and his Doctorate in Law in November 1666.He next declined the offer of an academic appointment at Altdorf, saying that \"my thoughts were turned in an entirely different direction\".As an adult, Leibniz often introduced himself as \"Gottfried von Leibniz\".",
"Many posthumously published editions of his writings presented his name on the title page as \"Freiherr G. W. von Leibniz.\"",
"However, no document has ever been found from any contemporary government that stated his appointment to any form of nobility.===1666–1676===Engraving of Gottfried Wilhelm LeibnizLeibniz's first position was as a salaried secretary to an alchemical society in Nuremberg.",
"He knew fairly little about the subject at that time but presented himself as deeply learned.",
"He soon met Johann Christian von Boyneburg (1622–1672), the dismissed chief minister of the Elector of Mainz, Johann Philipp von Schönborn.",
"Von Boyneburg hired Leibniz as an assistant, and shortly thereafter reconciled with the Elector and introduced Leibniz to him.",
"Leibniz then dedicated an essay on law to the Elector in the hope of obtaining employment.",
"The stratagem worked; the Elector asked Leibniz to assist with the redrafting of the legal code for the Electorate.",
"In 1669, Leibniz was appointed assessor in the Court of Appeal.",
"Although von Boyneburg died late in 1672, Leibniz remained under the employment of his widow until she dismissed him in 1674.Von Boyneburg did much to promote Leibniz's reputation, and the latter's memoranda and letters began to attract favorable notice.",
"After Leibniz's service to the Elector there soon followed a diplomatic role.",
"He published an essay, under the pseudonym of a fictitious Polish nobleman, arguing (unsuccessfully) for the German candidate for the Polish crown.",
"The main force in European geopolitics during Leibniz's adult life was the ambition of Louis XIV of France, backed by French military and economic might.",
"Meanwhile, the Thirty Years' War had left German-speaking Europe exhausted, fragmented, and economically backward.",
"Leibniz proposed to protect German-speaking Europe by distracting Louis as follows: France would be invited to take Egypt as a stepping stone towards an eventual conquest of the Dutch East Indies.",
"In return, France would agree to leave Germany and the Netherlands undisturbed.",
"This plan obtained the Elector's cautious support.",
"In 1672, the French government invited Leibniz to Paris for discussion, but the plan was soon overtaken by the outbreak of the Franco-Dutch War and became irrelevant.",
"Napoleon's failed invasion of Egypt in 1798 can be seen as an unwitting, late implementation of Leibniz's plan, after the Eastern hemisphere colonial supremacy in Europe had already passed from the Dutch to the British.Thus Leibniz went to Paris in 1672.Soon after arriving, he met Dutch physicist and mathematician Christiaan Huygens and realised that his own knowledge of mathematics and physics was patchy.",
"With Huygens as his mentor, he began a program of self-study that soon pushed him to making major contributions to both subjects, including discovering his version of the differential and integral calculus.",
"He met Nicolas Malebranche and Antoine Arnauld, the leading French philosophers of the day, and studied the writings of Descartes and Pascal, unpublished as well as published.",
"He befriended a German mathematician, Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus; they corresponded for the rest of their lives.Stepped reckonerWhen it became clear that France would not implement its part of Leibniz's Egyptian plan, the Elector sent his nephew, escorted by Leibniz, on a related mission to the English government in London, early in 1673.There Leibniz came into acquaintance of Henry Oldenburg and John Collins.",
"He met with the Royal Society where he demonstrated a calculating machine that he had designed and had been building since 1670.The machine was able to execute all four basic operations (adding, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing), and the society quickly made him an external member.The mission ended abruptly when news of the Elector's death (12 February 1673) reached them.",
"Leibniz promptly returned to Paris and not, as had been planned, to Mainz.",
"The sudden deaths of his two patrons in the same winter meant that Leibniz had to find a new basis for his career.In this regard, a 1669 invitation from Duke John Frederick of Brunswick to visit Hanover proved to have been fateful.",
"Leibniz had declined the invitation, but had begun corresponding with the duke in 1671.In 1673, the duke offered Leibniz the post of counsellor.",
"Leibniz very reluctantly accepted the position two years later, only after it became clear that no employment was forthcoming in Paris, whose intellectual stimulation he relished, or with the Habsburg imperial court.In 1675 he tried to get admitted to the French Academy of Sciences as a foreign honorary member, but it was considered that there were already enough foreigners there and so no invitation came.",
"He left Paris in October 1676.===House of Hanover, 1676–1716===Leibniz managed to delay his arrival in Hanover until the end of 1676 after making one more short journey to London, where Newton accused him of having seen his unpublished work on calculus in advance.",
"This was alleged to be evidence supporting the accusation, made decades later, that he had stolen calculus from Newton.",
"On the journey from London to Hanover, Leibniz stopped in The Hague where he met van Leeuwenhoek, the discoverer of microorganisms.",
"He also spent several days in intense discussion with Spinoza, who had just completed his masterwork, the ''Ethics''.In 1677, he was promoted, at his request, to Privy Counselor of Justice, a post he held for the rest of his life.",
"Leibniz served three consecutive rulers of the House of Brunswick as historian, political adviser, and most consequentially, as librarian of the ducal library.",
"He thenceforth employed his pen on all the various political, historical, and theological matters involving the House of Brunswick; the resulting documents form a valuable part of the historical record for the period.Leibniz began promoting a project to use windmills to improve the mining operations in the Harz Mountains.",
"This project did little to improve mining operations and was shut down by Duke Ernst August in 1685.Among the few people in north Germany to accept Leibniz were the Electress Sophia of Hanover (1630–1714), her daughter Sophia Charlotte of Hanover (1668–1705), the Queen of Prussia and his avowed disciple, and Caroline of Ansbach, the consort of her grandson, the future George II.",
"To each of these women he was correspondent, adviser, and friend.",
"In turn, they all approved of Leibniz more than did their spouses and the future king George I of Great Britain.The population of Hanover was only about 10,000, and its provinciality eventually grated on Leibniz.",
"Nevertheless, to be a major courtier to the House of Brunswick was quite an honor, especially in light of the meteoric rise in the prestige of that House during Leibniz's association with it.",
"In 1692, the Duke of Brunswick became a hereditary Elector of the Holy Roman Empire.",
"The British Act of Settlement 1701 designated the Electress Sophia and her descent as the royal family of England, once both King William III and his sister-in-law and successor, Queen Anne, were dead.",
"Leibniz played a role in the initiatives and negotiations leading up to that Act, but not always an effective one.",
"For example, something he published anonymously in England, thinking to promote the Brunswick cause, was formally censured by the British Parliament.The Brunswicks tolerated the enormous effort Leibniz devoted to intellectual pursuits unrelated to his duties as a courtier, pursuits such as perfecting calculus, writing about other mathematics, logic, physics, and philosophy, and keeping up a vast correspondence.",
"He began working on calculus in 1674; the earliest evidence of its use in his surviving notebooks is 1675.By 1677 he had a coherent system in hand, but did not publish it until 1684.Leibniz's most important mathematical papers were published between 1682 and 1692, usually in a journal which he and Otto Mencke founded in 1682, the ''Acta Eruditorum''.",
"That journal played a key role in advancing his mathematical and scientific reputation, which in turn enhanced his eminence in diplomacy, history, theology, and philosophy.Pages from Leibniz's papers in the National Library of PolandThe Elector Ernest Augustus commissioned Leibniz to write a history of the House of Brunswick, going back to the time of Charlemagne or earlier, hoping that the resulting book would advance his dynastic ambitions.",
"From 1687 to 1690, Leibniz traveled extensively in Germany, Austria, and Italy, seeking and finding archival materials bearing on this project.",
"Decades went by but no history appeared; the next Elector became quite annoyed at Leibniz's apparent dilatoriness.",
"Leibniz never finished the project, in part because of his huge output on many other fronts, but also because he insisted on writing a meticulously researched and erudite book based on archival sources, when his patrons would have been quite happy with a short popular book, one perhaps little more than a genealogy with commentary, to be completed in three years or less.",
"They never knew that he had in fact carried out a fair part of his assigned task: when the material Leibniz had written and collected for his history of the House of Brunswick was finally published in the 19th century, it filled three volumes.Leibniz was appointed Librarian of the Herzog August Library in Wolfenbüttel, Lower Saxony, in 1691.In 1708, John Keill, writing in the journal of the Royal Society and with Newton's presumed blessing, accused Leibniz of having plagiarised Newton's calculus.",
"Thus began the calculus priority dispute which darkened the remainder of Leibniz's life.",
"A formal investigation by the Royal Society (in which Newton was an unacknowledged participant), undertaken in response to Leibniz's demand for a retraction, upheld Keill's charge.",
"Historians of mathematics writing since 1900 or so have tended to acquit Leibniz, pointing to important differences between Leibniz's and Newton's versions of calculus.In 1711, while traveling in northern Europe, the Russian Tsar Peter the Great stopped in Hanover and met Leibniz, who then took some interest in Russian matters for the rest of his life.",
"In 1712, Leibniz began a two-year residence in Vienna, where he was appointed Imperial Court Councillor to the Habsburgs.",
"On the death of Queen Anne in 1714, Elector George Louis became King George I of Great Britain, under the terms of the 1701 Act of Settlement.",
"Even though Leibniz had done much to bring about this happy event, it was not to be his hour of glory.",
"Despite the intercession of the Princess of Wales, Caroline of Ansbach, George I forbade Leibniz to join him in London until he completed at least one volume of the history of the Brunswick family his father had commissioned nearly 30 years earlier.",
"Moreover, for George I to include Leibniz in his London court would have been deemed insulting to Newton, who was seen as having won the calculus priority dispute and whose standing in British official circles could not have been higher.",
"Finally, his dear friend and defender, the Dowager Electress Sophia, died in 1714.===Death===Leibniz died in Hanover in 1716.At the time, he was so out of favor that neither George I (who happened to be near Hanover at that time) nor any fellow courtier other than his personal secretary attended the funeral.",
"Even though Leibniz was a life member of the Royal Society and the Berlin Academy of Sciences, neither organization saw fit to honor his death.",
"His grave went unmarked for more than 50 years.",
"He was, however, eulogized by Fontenelle, before the French Academy of Sciences in Paris, which had admitted him as a foreign member in 1700.The eulogy was composed at the behest of the Duchess of Orleans, a niece of the Electress Sophia.===Personal life===Leibniz never married.",
"He proposed to an unknown woman at age 50, but changed his mind when she took too long to decide.",
"He complained on occasion about money, but the fair sum he left to his sole heir, his sister's stepson, proved that the Brunswicks had, by and large, paid him well.",
"In his diplomatic endeavors, he at times verged on the unscrupulous, as was all too often the case with professional diplomats of his day.",
"On several occasions, Leibniz backdated and altered personal manuscripts, actions which put him in a bad light during the calculus controversy.He was charming, well-mannered, and not without humor and imagination.",
"He had many friends and admirers all over Europe.",
"He was identified as a Protestant and a philosophical theist.",
"Leibniz remained committed to Trinitarian Christianity throughout his life."
],
[
"Philosophy",
"Leibniz's philosophical thinking appears fragmented, because his philosophical writings consist mainly of a multitude of short pieces: journal articles, manuscripts published long after his death, and many letters to many correspondents.",
"He wrote only two book-length philosophical treatises, of which only the ''Théodicée'' of 1710 was published in his lifetime.Leibniz dated his beginning as a philosopher to his ''Discourse on Metaphysics'', which he composed in 1686 as a commentary on a running dispute between Nicolas Malebranche and Antoine Arnauld.",
"This led to an extensive and valuable correspondence with Arnauld; it and the ''Discourse'' were not published until the 19th century.",
"In 1695, Leibniz made his public entrée into European philosophy with a journal article titled \"New System of the Nature and Communication of Substances\".",
"Between 1695 and 1705, he composed his ''New Essays on Human Understanding'', a lengthy commentary on John Locke's 1690 ''An Essay Concerning Human Understanding'', but upon learning of Locke's 1704 death, lost the desire to publish it, so that the ''New Essays'' were not published until 1765.The ''Monadologie'', composed in 1714 and published posthumously, consists of 90 aphorisms.Leibniz also wrote a short paper, \"Primae veritates\" (\"First Truths\"), first published by Louis Couturat in 1903 (pp.",
"518–523) summarizing his views on metaphysics.",
"The paper is undated; that he wrote it while in Vienna in 1689 was determined only in 1999, when the ongoing critical edition finally published Leibniz's philosophical writings for the period 1677–90.Couturat's reading of this paper was the launching point for much 20th-century thinking about Leibniz, especially among analytic philosophers.",
"But after a meticulous study of all of Leibniz's philosophical writings up to 1688—a study the 1999 additions to the critical edition made possible—Mercer (2001) begged to differ with Couturat's reading; the jury is still out.Leibniz met Spinoza in 1676, read some of his unpublished writings, and had since been influenced by some of Spinoza's ideas.",
"While Leibniz befriended him and admired Spinoza's powerful intellect, he was also forthrightly dismayed by Spinoza's conclusions, especially when these were inconsistent with Christian orthodoxy.Unlike Descartes and Spinoza, Leibniz had a thorough university education in philosophy.",
"He was influenced by his Leipzig professor Jakob Thomasius, who also supervised his BA thesis in philosophy.",
"Leibniz also eagerly read Francisco Suárez, a Spanish Jesuit respected even in Lutheran universities.",
"Leibniz was deeply interested in the new methods and conclusions of Descartes, Huygens, Newton, and Boyle, but viewed their work through a lens heavily tinted by scholastic notions.",
"Yet it remains the case that Leibniz's methods and concerns often anticipate the logic, and analytic and linguistic philosophy of the 20th century.=== Principles ===Leibniz variously invoked one or another of seven fundamental philosophical Principles:* Identity/contradiction.",
"If a proposition is true, then its negation is false and vice versa.",
"* Identity of indiscernibles.",
"Two distinct things cannot have all their properties in common.",
"If every predicate possessed by x is also possessed by y and vice versa, then entities x and y are identical; to suppose two things indiscernible is to suppose the same thing under two names.",
"Frequently invoked in modern logic and philosophy, the \"identity of indiscernibles\" is often referred to as Leibniz's Law.",
"It has attracted the most controversy and criticism, especially from corpuscular philosophy and quantum mechanics.",
"* Sufficient reason.",
"\"There must be a sufficient reason for anything to exist, for any event to occur, for any truth to obtain.",
"\"* Pre-established harmony.",
"\"The appropriate nature of each substance brings it about that what happens to one corresponds to what happens to all the others, without, however, their acting upon one another directly.\"",
"(''Discourse on Metaphysics'', XIV) A dropped glass shatters because it \"knows\" it has hit the ground, and not because the impact with the ground \"compels\" the glass to split.",
"* Law of continuity.",
"''Natura non facit saltus'' (literally, \"Nature does not make jumps\").",
"* Optimism.",
"\"God assuredly always chooses the best.",
"\"* Plenitude.",
"Leibniz believed that the best of all possible worlds would actualize every genuine possibility, and argued in ''Théodicée'' that this best of all possible worlds will contain all possibilities, with our finite experience of eternity giving no reason to dispute nature's perfection.Leibniz would on occasion give a rational defense of a specific principle, but more often took them for granted.===Monads===A page from Leibniz's manuscript of the ''Monadology''Leibniz's best known contribution to metaphysics is his theory of monads, as exposited in ''Monadologie''.",
"He proposes his theory that the universe is made of an infinite number of simple substances known as monads.",
"Monads can also be compared to the corpuscles of the mechanical philosophy of René Descartes and others.",
"These simple substances or monads are the \"ultimate units of existence in nature\".",
"Monads have no parts but still exist by the qualities that they have.",
"These qualities are continuously changing over time, and each monad is unique.",
"They are also not affected by time and are subject to only creation and annihilation.",
"Monads are centers of force; substance is force, while space, matter, and motion are merely phenomenal.",
"It is said that he anticipated Albert Einstein by arguing, against Newton, that space, time, and motion are completely relative as he quipped, \"As for my own opinion, I have said more than once, that I hold space to be something merely relative, as time is, that I hold it to be an order of coexistences, as time is an order of successions.\"",
"Einstein, who called himself a \"Leibnizian\" even wrote in the introduction to Max Jammer's book ''Concepts of Space'' that Leibnizianism was superior to Newtonianism, and his ideas would have dominated over Newton's had it not been for the poor technological tools of the time; it has been argued that Leibniz paved the way for Einstein's theory of relativity.Leibniz's proof of God can be summarized in the ''Théodicée''.",
"Reason is governed by the principle of contradiction and the principle of sufficient reason.",
"Using the principle of reasoning, Leibniz concluded that the first reason of all things is God.",
"All that we see and experience is subject to change, and the fact that this world is contingent can be explained by the possibility of the world being arranged differently in space and time.",
"The contingent world must have some necessary reason for its existence.",
"Leibniz uses a geometry book as an example to explain his reasoning.",
"If this book was copied from an infinite chain of copies, there must be some reason for the content of the book.",
"Leibniz concluded that there must be the \"''monas monadum''\" or God.The ontological essence of a monad is its irreducible simplicity.",
"Unlike atoms, monads possess no material or spatial character.",
"They also differ from atoms by their complete mutual independence, so that interactions among monads are only apparent.",
"Instead, by virtue of the principle of pre-established harmony, each monad follows a pre-programmed set of \"instructions\" peculiar to itself, so that a monad \"knows\" what to do at each moment.",
"By virtue of these intrinsic instructions, each monad is like a little mirror of the universe.",
"Monads need not be \"small\"; e.g., each human being constitutes a monad, in which case free will is problematic.Monads are purported to have gotten rid of the problematic:* interaction between mind and matter arising in the system of Descartes;* lack of individuation inherent to the system of Spinoza, which represents individual creatures as merely accidental.===Theodicy and optimism===The ''Theodicy'' tries to justify the apparent imperfections of the world by claiming that it is optimal among all possible worlds.",
"It must be the best possible and most balanced world, because it was created by an all powerful and all knowing God, who would not choose to create an imperfect world if a better world could be known to him or possible to exist.",
"In effect, apparent flaws that can be identified in this world must exist in every possible world, because otherwise God would have chosen to create the world that excluded those flaws.Leibniz asserted that the truths of theology (religion) and philosophy cannot contradict each other, since reason and faith are both \"gifts of God\" so that their conflict would imply God contending against himself.",
"The ''Theodicy'' is Leibniz's attempt to reconcile his personal philosophical system with his interpretation of the tenets of Christianity.",
"This project was motivated in part by Leibniz's belief, shared by many philosophers and theologians during the Enlightenment, in the rational and enlightened nature of the Christian religion.",
"It was also shaped by Leibniz's belief in the perfectibility of human nature (if humanity relied on correct philosophy and religion as a guide), and by his belief that metaphysical necessity must have a rational or logical foundation, even if this metaphysical causality seemed inexplicable in terms of physical necessity (the natural laws identified by science).Because reason and faith must be entirely reconciled, any tenet of faith which could not be defended by reason must be rejected.",
"Leibniz then approached one of the central criticisms of Christian theism: if God is all good, all wise, and all powerful, then how did evil come into the world?",
"The answer (according to Leibniz) is that, while God is indeed unlimited in wisdom and power, his human creations, as creations, are limited both in their wisdom and in their will (power to act).",
"This predisposes humans to false beliefs, wrong decisions, and ineffective actions in the exercise of their free will.",
"God does not arbitrarily inflict pain and suffering on humans; rather he permits both ''moral evil'' (sin) and ''physical evil'' (pain and suffering) as the necessary consequences of ''metaphysical evil'' (imperfection), as a means by which humans can identify and correct their erroneous decisions, and as a contrast to true good.Further, although human actions flow from prior causes that ultimately arise in God and therefore are known to God as metaphysical certainties, an individual's free will is exercised within natural laws, where choices are merely contingently necessary and to be decided in the event by a \"wonderful spontaneity\" that provides individuals with an escape from rigorous predestination.=== ''Discourse on Metaphysics'' ===For Leibniz, \"God is an absolutely perfect being\".",
"He describes this perfection later in section VI as the simplest form of something with the most substantial outcome (VI).",
"Along these lines, he declares that every type of perfection \"pertains to him (God) in the highest degree\" (I).",
"Even though his types of perfections are not specifically drawn out, Leibniz highlights the one thing that, to him, does certify imperfections and proves that God is perfect: \"that one acts imperfectly if he acts with less perfection than he is capable of\", and since God is a perfect being, he cannot act imperfectly (III).",
"Because God cannot act imperfectly, the decisions he makes pertaining to the world must be perfect.",
"Leibniz also comforts readers, stating that because he has done everything to the most perfect degree; those who love him cannot be injured.",
"However, to love God is a subject of difficulty as Leibniz believes that we are \"not disposed to wish for that which God desires\" because we have the ability to alter our disposition (IV).",
"In accordance with this, many act as rebels, but Leibniz says that the only way we can truly love God is by being content \"with all that comes to us according to his will\" (IV).Because God is \"an absolutely perfect being\" (I), Leibniz argues that God would be acting imperfectly if he acted with any less perfection than what he is able of (III).",
"His syllogism then ends with the statement that God has made the world perfectly in all ways.",
"This also affects how we should view God and his will.",
"Leibniz states that, in lieu of God's will, we have to understand that God \"is the best of all masters\" and he will know when his good succeeds, so we, therefore, must act in conformity to his good will—or as much of it as we understand (IV).",
"In our view of God, Leibniz declares that we cannot admire the work solely because of the maker, lest we mar the glory and love God in doing so.",
"Instead, we must admire the maker for the work he has done (II).",
"Effectively, Leibniz states that if we say the earth is good because of the will of God, and not good according to some standards of goodness, then how can we praise God for what he has done if contrary actions are also praiseworthy by this definition (II).",
"Leibniz then asserts that different principles and geometry cannot simply be from the will of God, but must follow from his understanding.Leibniz wrote: \"Why is there something rather than nothing?",
"The sufficient reason ... is found in a substance which ... is a necessary being bearing the reason for its existence within itself.\"",
"Martin Heidegger called this question \"the fundamental question of metaphysics\".===Symbolic thought and rational resolution of disputes===Leibniz believed that much of human reasoning could be reduced to calculations of a sort, and that such calculations could resolve many differences of opinion:Leibniz's calculus ratiocinator, which resembles symbolic logic, can be viewed as a way of making such calculations feasible.",
"Leibniz wrote memoranda that can now be read as groping attempts to get symbolic logic—and thus his ''calculus''—off the ground.",
"These writings remained unpublished until the appearance of a selection edited by Carl Immanuel Gerhardt (1859).",
"Louis Couturat published a selection in 1901; by this time the main developments of modern logic had been created by Charles Sanders Peirce and by Gottlob Frege.Leibniz thought symbols were important for human understanding.",
"He attached so much importance to the development of good notations that he attributed all his discoveries in mathematics to this.",
"His notation for calculus is an example of his skill in this regard.",
"Leibniz's passion for symbols and notation, as well as his belief that these are essential to a well-running logic and mathematics, made him a precursor of semiotics.But Leibniz took his speculations much further.",
"Defining a character as any written sign, he then defined a \"real\" character as one that represents an idea directly and not simply as the word embodying the idea.",
"Some real characters, such as the notation of logic, serve only to facilitate reasoning.",
"Many characters well known in his day, including Egyptian hieroglyphics, Chinese characters, and the symbols of astronomy and chemistry, he deemed not real.",
"Instead, he proposed the creation of a ''characteristica universalis'' or \"universal characteristic\", built on an alphabet of human thought in which each fundamental concept would be represented by a unique \"real\" character:Complex thoughts would be represented by combining characters for simpler thoughts.",
"Leibniz saw that the uniqueness of prime factorization suggests a central role for prime numbers in the universal characteristic, a striking anticipation of Gödel numbering.",
"Granted, there is no intuitive or mnemonic way to number any set of elementary concepts using the prime numbers.Because Leibniz was a mathematical novice when he first wrote about the ''characteristic'', at first he did not conceive it as an algebra but rather as a universal language or script.",
"Only in 1676 did he conceive of a kind of \"algebra of thought\", modeled on and including conventional algebra and its notation.",
"The resulting ''characteristic'' included a logical calculus, some combinatorics, algebra, his ''analysis situs'' (geometry of situation), a universal concept language, and more.",
"What Leibniz actually intended by his ''characteristica universalis'' and calculus ratiocinator, and the extent to which modern formal logic does justice to calculus, may never be established.",
"Leibniz's idea of reasoning through a universal language of symbols and calculations remarkably foreshadows great 20th-century developments in formal systems, such as Turing completeness, where computation was used to define equivalent universal languages (see Turing degree).===Formal logic===Leibniz has been noted as one of the most important logicians between the times of Aristotle and Gottlob Frege.",
"Leibniz enunciated the principal properties of what we now call conjunction, disjunction, negation, identity, set inclusion, and the empty set.",
"The principles of Leibniz's logic and, arguably, of his whole philosophy, reduce to two:# All our ideas are compounded from a very small number of simple ideas, which form the alphabet of human thought.# Complex ideas proceed from these simple ideas by a uniform and symmetrical combination, analogous to arithmetical multiplication.The formal logic that emerged early in the 20th century also requires, at minimum, unary negation and quantified variables ranging over some universe of discourse.Leibniz published nothing on formal logic in his lifetime; most of what he wrote on the subject consists of working drafts.",
"In his ''History of Western Philosophy'', Bertrand Russell went so far as to claim that Leibniz had developed logic in his unpublished writings to a level which was reached only 200 years later.Russell's principal work on Leibniz found that many of Leibniz's most startling philosophical ideas and claims (e.g., that each of the fundamental monads mirrors the whole universe) follow logically from Leibniz's conscious choice to reject ''relations'' between things as unreal.",
"He regarded such relations as (real) ''qualities'' of things (Leibniz admitted unary predicates only): For him, \"Mary is the mother of John\" describes separate qualities of Mary and of John.",
"This view contrasts with the relational logic of De Morgan, Peirce, Schröder and Russell himself, now standard in predicate logic.",
"Notably, Leibniz also declared space and time to be inherently relational.Leibniz's 1690 discovery of his '''algebra of concepts''' (deductively equivalent to the Boolean algebra) and the associated metaphysics, are of interest in present-day computational metaphysics."
],
[
"Mathematics",
"Although the mathematical notion of function was implicit in trigonometric and logarithmic tables, which existed in his day, Leibniz was the first, in 1692 and 1694, to employ it explicitly, to denote any of several geometric concepts derived from a curve, such as abscissa, ordinate, tangent, chord, and the perpendicular (see History of the function concept).",
"In the 18th century, \"function\" lost these geometrical associations.",
"Leibniz also believed that the sum of an infinite number of zeros would be equal to one half using the analogy of the creation of the world from nothing.",
"Leibniz was also one of the pioneers in actuarial science, calculating the purchase price of life annuities and the liquidation of a state's debt.Leibniz's research into formal logic, also relevant to mathematics, is discussed in the preceding section.",
"The best overview of Leibniz's writings on calculus may be found in Bos (1974).Leibniz, who invented one of the earliest mechanical calculators, said of calculation: \"For it is unworthy of excellent men to lose hours like slaves in the labor of calculation which could safely be relegated to anyone else if machines were used.",
"\"===Linear systems===Leibniz arranged the coefficients of a system of linear equations into an array, now called a matrix, in order to find a solution to the system if it existed.",
"This method was later called Gaussian elimination.",
"Leibniz laid down the foundations and theory of determinants, although the Japanese mathematician Seki Takakazu also discovered determinants independently of Leibniz.",
"His works show calculating the determinants using cofactors.",
"Calculating the determinant using cofactors is named the Leibniz formula.",
"Finding the determinant of a matrix using this method proves impractical with large ''n'', requiring to calculate ''n!''",
"products and the number of n-permutations.",
"He also solved systems of linear equations using determinants, which is now called Cramer's rule.",
"This method for solving systems of linear equations based on determinants was found in 1684 by Leibniz (Cramer published his findings in 1750).",
"Although Gaussian elimination requires arithmetic operations, linear algebra textbooks still teach cofactor expansion before LU factorization.===Geometry===The Leibniz formula for states that:Leibniz wrote that circles \"can most simply be expressed by this series, that is, the aggregate of fractions alternately added and subtracted\".",
"However this formula is only accurate with a large number of terms, using 10,000,000 terms to obtain the correct value of to 8 decimal places.",
"Leibniz attempted to create a definition for a straight line while attempting to prove the parallel postulate.",
"While most mathematicians defined a straight line as the shortest line between two points, Leibniz believed that this was merely a property of a straight line rather than the definition.===Calculus===Leibniz is credited, along with Isaac Newton, with the discovery of calculus (differential and integral calculus).",
"According to Leibniz's notebooks, a critical breakthrough occurred on 11 November 1675, when he employed integral calculus for the first time to find the area under the graph of a function .",
"He introduced several notations used to this day, for instance the integral sign (), representing an elongated S, from the Latin word ''summa'', and the used for differentials (), from the Latin word ''differentia''.",
"Leibniz did not publish anything about his calculus until 1684.Leibniz expressed the inverse relation of integration and differentiation, later called the fundamental theorem of calculus, by means of a figure in his 1693 paper ''Supplementum geometriae dimensoriae...''.",
"However, James Gregory is credited for the theorem's discovery in geometric form, Isaac Barrow proved a more generalized geometric version, and Newton developed supporting theory.",
"The concept became more transparent as developed through Leibniz's formalism and new notation.",
"The product rule of differential calculus is still called \"Leibniz's law\".",
"In addition, the theorem that tells how and when to differentiate under the integral sign is called the Leibniz integral rule.Leibniz exploited infinitesimals in developing calculus, manipulating them in ways suggesting that they had paradoxical algebraic properties.",
"George Berkeley, in a tract called ''The Analyst'' and also in ''De Motu'', criticized these.",
"A recent study argues that Leibnizian calculus was free of contradictions, and was better grounded than Berkeley's empiricist criticisms.From 1711 until his death, Leibniz was engaged in a dispute with John Keill, Newton and others, over whether Leibniz had invented calculus independently of Newton.The use of infinitesimals in mathematics was frowned upon by followers of Karl Weierstrass, but survived in science and engineering, and even in rigorous mathematics, via the fundamental computational device known as the differential.",
"Beginning in 1960, Abraham Robinson worked out a rigorous foundation for Leibniz's infinitesimals, using model theory, in the context of a field of hyperreal numbers.",
"The resulting non-standard analysis can be seen as a belated vindication of Leibniz's mathematical reasoning.",
"Robinson's transfer principle is a mathematical implementation of Leibniz's heuristic law of continuity, while the standard part function implements the Leibnizian transcendental law of homogeneity.===Topology===Leibniz was the first to use the term ''analysis situs'', later used in the 19th century to refer to what is now known as topology.",
"There are two takes on this situation.",
"On the one hand, Mates, citing a 1954 paper in German by Jacob Freudenthal, argues:But Hideaki Hirano argues differently, quoting Mandelbrot:Thus the fractal geometry promoted by Mandelbrot drew on Leibniz's notions of self-similarity and the principle of continuity: ''Natura non facit saltus''.",
"We also see that when Leibniz wrote, in a metaphysical vein, that \"the straight line is a curve, any part of which is similar to the whole\", he was anticipating topology by more than two centuries.",
"As for \"packing\", Leibniz told his friend and correspondent Des Bosses to imagine a circle, then to inscribe within it three congruent circles with maximum radius; the latter smaller circles could be filled with three even smaller circles by the same procedure.",
"This process can be continued infinitely, from which arises a good idea of self-similarity.",
"Leibniz's improvement of Euclid's axiom contains the same concept."
],
[
"Science and engineering",
"Leibniz's writings are currently discussed, not only for their anticipations and possible discoveries not yet recognized, but as ways of advancing present knowledge.",
"Much of his writing on physics is included in Gerhardt's ''Mathematical Writings''.===Physics===Leibniz contributed a fair amount to the statics and dynamics emerging around him, often disagreeing with Descartes and Newton.",
"He devised a new theory of motion (dynamics) based on kinetic energy and potential energy, which posited space as relative, whereas Newton was thoroughly convinced that space was absolute.",
"An important example of Leibniz's mature physical thinking is his ''Specimen Dynamicum'' of 1695.Until the discovery of subatomic particles and the quantum mechanics governing them, many of Leibniz's speculative ideas about aspects of nature not reducible to statics and dynamics made little sense.",
"For instance, he anticipated Albert Einstein by arguing, against Newton, that space, time and motion are relative, not absolute: \"As for my own opinion, I have said more than once, that I hold space to be something merely relative, as time is, that I hold it to be an order of coexistences, as time is an order of successions.",
"\"Leibniz held a relationist notion of space and time, against Newton's substantivalist views.",
"According to Newton's substantivalism, space and time are entities in their own right, existing independently of things.",
"Leibniz's relationism, in contrast, describes space and time as systems of relations that exist between objects.",
"The rise of general relativity and subsequent work in the history of physics has put Leibniz's stance in a more favorable light.One of Leibniz's projects was to recast Newton's theory as a vortex theory.",
"However, his project went beyond vortex theory, since at its heart there was an attempt to explain one of the most difficult problems in physics, that of the origin of the cohesion of matter.The principle of sufficient reason has been invoked in recent cosmology, and his identity of indiscernibles in quantum mechanics, a field some even credit him with having anticipated in some sense.",
"In addition to his theories about the nature of reality, Leibniz's contributions to the development of calculus have also had a major impact on physics.====The ''vis viva''====Leibniz's ''vis viva'' (Latin for \"living force\") is , twice the modern kinetic energy.",
"He realized that the total energy would be conserved in certain mechanical systems, so he considered it an innate motive characteristic of matter.",
"Here too his thinking gave rise to another regrettable nationalistic dispute.",
"His ''vis viva'' was seen as rivaling the conservation of momentum championed by Newton in England and by Descartes and Voltaire in France; hence academics in those countries tended to neglect Leibniz's idea.",
"Leibniz knew of the validity of conservation of momentum.",
"In reality, both energy and momentum are conserved (in closed systems), so both approaches are valid.===Other natural science===By proposing that the earth has a molten core, he anticipated modern geology.",
"In embryology, he was a preformationist, but also proposed that organisms are the outcome of a combination of an infinite number of possible microstructures and of their powers.",
"In the life sciences and paleontology, he revealed an amazing transformist intuition, fueled by his study of comparative anatomy and fossils.",
"One of his principal works on this subject, ''Protogaea'', unpublished in his lifetime, has recently been published in English for the first time.",
"He worked out a primal organismic theory.",
"In medicine, he exhorted the physicians of his time—with some results—to ground their theories in detailed comparative observations and verified experiments, and to distinguish firmly scientific and metaphysical points of view.===Psychology===Psychology had been a central interest of Leibniz.",
"He appears to be an \"underappreciated pioneer of psychology\" He wrote on topics which are now regarded as fields of psychology: attention and consciousness, memory, learning (association), motivation (the act of \"striving\"), emergent individuality, the general dynamics of development (evolutionary psychology).",
"His discussions in the ''New Essays'' and ''Monadology'' often rely on everyday observations such as the behaviour of a dog or the noise of the sea, and he develops intuitive analogies (the synchronous running of clocks or the balance spring of a clock).",
"He also devised postulates and principles that apply to psychology: the continuum of the unnoticed ''petites perceptions'' to the distinct, self-aware apperception, and psychophysical parallelism from the point of view of causality and of purpose: \"Souls act according to the laws of final causes, through aspirations, ends and means.",
"Bodies act according to the laws of efficient causes, i.e.",
"the laws of motion.",
"And these two realms, that of efficient causes and that of final causes, harmonize with one another.\"",
"This idea refers to the mind-body problem, stating that the mind and brain do not act upon each other, but act alongside each other separately but in harmony.",
"Leibniz, however, did not use the term ''psychologia''.Leibniz's epistemological position—against John Locke and English empiricism (sensualism)—was made clear: \"Nihil est in intellectu quod non fuerit in sensu, nisi intellectu ipse.\"",
"– \"Nothing is in the intellect that was not first in the senses, except the intellect itself.\"",
"Principles that are not present in sensory impressions can be recognised in human perception and consciousness: logical inferences, categories of thought, the principle of causality and the principle of purpose (teleology).Leibniz found his most important interpreter in Wilhelm Wundt, founder of psychology as a discipline.",
"Wundt used the \"… nisi intellectu ipse\" quotation 1862 on the title page of his ''Beiträge zur Theorie der Sinneswahrnehmung'' (Contributions on the Theory of Sensory Perception) and published a detailed and aspiring monograph on Leibniz.",
"Wundt shaped the term apperception, introduced by Leibniz, into an experimental psychologically based apperception psychology that included neuropsychological modelling – an excellent example of how a concept created by a great philosopher could stimulate a psychological research program.",
"One principle in the thinking of Leibniz played a fundamental role: \"the principle of equality of separate but corresponding viewpoints.\"",
"Wundt characterized this style of thought (perspectivism) in a way that also applied for him—viewpoints that \"supplement one another, while also being able to appear as opposites that only resolve themselves when considered more deeply.",
"\"Much of Leibniz's work went on to have a great impact on the field of psychology.",
"Leibniz thought that there are many petites perceptions, or small perceptions of which we perceive but of which we are unaware.",
"He believed that by the principle that phenomena found in nature were continuous by default, it was likely that the transition between conscious and unconscious states had intermediary steps.",
"For this to be true, there must also be a portion of the mind of which we are unaware at any given time.",
"His theory regarding consciousness in relation to the principle of continuity can be seen as an early theory regarding the stages of sleep.",
"In this way, Leibniz's theory of perception can be viewed as one of many theories leading up to the idea of the unconscious.",
"Leibniz was a direct influence on Ernst Platner, who is credited with originally coining the term Unbewußtseyn (unconscious).",
"Additionally, the idea of subliminal stimuli can be traced back to his theory of small perceptions.",
"Leibniz's ideas regarding music and tonal perception went on to influence the laboratory studies of Wilhelm Wundt.===Social science===In public health, he advocated establishing a medical administrative authority, with powers over epidemiology and veterinary medicine.",
"He worked to set up a coherent medical training program, oriented towards public health and preventive measures.",
"In economic policy, he proposed tax reforms and a national insurance program, and discussed the balance of trade.",
"He even proposed something akin to what much later emerged as game theory.",
"In sociology he laid the ground for communication theory.===Technology===In 1906, Garland published a volume of Leibniz's writings bearing on his many practical inventions and engineering work.",
"To date, few of these writings have been translated into English.",
"Nevertheless, it is well understood that Leibniz was a serious inventor, engineer, and applied scientist, with great respect for practical life.",
"Following the motto ''theoria cum praxi'', he urged that theory be combined with practical application, and thus has been claimed as the father of applied science.",
"He designed wind-driven propellers and water pumps, mining machines to extract ore, hydraulic presses, lamps, submarines, clocks, etc.",
"With Denis Papin, he created a steam engine.",
"He even proposed a method for desalinating water.",
"From 1680 to 1685, he struggled to overcome the chronic flooding that afflicted the ducal silver mines in the Harz Mountains, but did not succeed.====Computation====Leibniz may have been the first computer scientist and information theorist.",
"Early in life, he documented the binary numeral system (base 2), then revisited that system throughout his career.",
"While Leibniz was examining other cultures to compare his metaphysical views, he encountered an ancient Chinese book ''I Ching''.",
"Leibniz interpreted a diagram which showed yin and yang and corresponded it to a zero and one.",
"More information can be found in the Sinophology section.",
"Leibniz had similarities with Juan Caramuel y Lobkowitz and Thomas Harriot, who independently developed the binary system, as he was familiar with their works on the binary system.",
"Juan Caramuel y Lobkowitz worked extensively on logarithms including logarithms with base 2.Thomas Harriot's manuscripts contained a table of binary numbers and their notation, which demonstrated that any number could be written on a base 2 system.",
"Regardless, Leibniz simplified the binary system and articulated logical properties such as conjunction, disjunction, negation, identity, inclusion, and the empty set.",
"He anticipated Lagrangian interpolation and algorithmic information theory.",
"His calculus ratiocinator anticipated aspects of the universal Turing machine.",
"In 1961, Norbert Wiener suggested that Leibniz should be considered the patron saint of cybernetics.",
"Wiener is quoted with \"Indeed, the general idea of a computing machine is nothing but a mechanization of Leibniz's Calculus Ratiocinator.",
"\"In 1671, Leibniz began to invent a machine that could execute all four arithmetic operations, gradually improving it over a number of years.",
"This \"stepped reckoner\" attracted fair attention and was the basis of his election to the Royal Society in 1673.A number of such machines were made during his years in Hanover by a craftsman working under his supervision.",
"They were not an unambiguous success because they did not fully mechanize the carry operation.",
"Couturat reported finding an unpublished note by Leibniz, dated 1674, describing a machine capable of performing some algebraic operations.",
"Leibniz also devised a (now reproduced) cipher machine, recovered by Nicholas Rescher in 2010.In 1693, Leibniz described a design of a machine which could, in theory, integrate differential equations, which he called \"integraph\".Leibniz was groping towards hardware and software concepts worked out much later by Charles Babbage and Ada Lovelace.",
"In 1679, while mulling over his binary arithmetic, Leibniz imagined a machine in which binary numbers were represented by marbles, governed by a rudimentary sort of punched cards.",
"Modern electronic digital computers replace Leibniz's marbles moving by gravity with shift registers, voltage gradients, and pulses of electrons, but otherwise they run roughly as Leibniz envisioned in 1679.===Librarian===Later in Leibniz's career (after the death of von Boyneburg), Leibniz moved to Paris and accepted a position as a librarian in the Hanoverian court of Johann Friedrich, Duke of Brunswick-Luneburg.",
"Leibniz's predecessor, Tobias Fleischer, had already created a cataloging system for the Duke's library but it was a clumsy attempt.",
"At this library, Leibniz focused more on advancing the library than on the cataloging.",
"For instance, within a month of taking the new position, he developed a comprehensive plan to expand the library.",
"He was one of the first to consider developing a core collection for a library and felt \"that a library for display and ostentation is a luxury and indeed superfluous, but a well-stocked and organized library is important and useful for all areas of human endeavor and is to be regarded on the same level as schools and churches\".",
"Leibniz lacked the funds to develop the library in this manner.",
"After working at this library, by the end of 1690 Leibniz was appointed as privy-councilor and librarian of the Bibliotheca Augusta at Wolfenbüttel.",
"It was an extensive library with at least 25,946 printed volumes.",
"At this library, Leibniz sought to improve the catalog.",
"He was not allowed to make complete changes to the existing closed catalog, but was allowed to improve upon it so he started on that task immediately.",
"He created an alphabetical author catalog and had also created other cataloging methods that were not implemented.",
"While serving as librarian of the ducal libraries in Hanover and Wolfenbüttel, Leibniz effectively became one of the founders of library science.",
"Seemingly, Leibniz paid a good deal of attention to the classification of subject matter, favoring a well-balance library covering a host of numerous subjects and interests.",
"Leibniz, for example, proposed the following classification system in the Otivm Hanoveranvm Sive Miscellanea (1737).Leibniz's Idea of Arranging a Narrower Library* Theology* Jurisprudence* Medicine* Intellectual Philosophy* Philosophy of the Imagination or Mathematics* Philosophy of Sensible Things or Physics* Philology or Language* Civil History* Literary History and Libraries* General and MiscellaneousHe also designed a book indexing system in ignorance of the only other such system then extant, that of the Bodleian Library at Oxford University.",
"He also called on publishers to distribute abstracts of all new titles they produced each year, in a standard form that would facilitate indexing.",
"He hoped that this abstracting project would eventually include everything printed from his day back to Gutenberg.",
"Neither proposal met with success at the time, but something like them became standard practice among English language publishers during the 20th century, under the aegis of the Library of Congress and the British Library.He called for the creation of an empirical database as a way to further all sciences.",
"His ''characteristica universalis'', calculus ratiocinator, and a \"community of minds\"—intended, among other things, to bring political and religious unity to Europe—can be seen as distant unwitting anticipations of artificial languages (e.g., Esperanto and its rivals), symbolic logic, even the World Wide Web.===Advocate of scientific societies===Leibniz emphasized that research was a collaborative endeavor.",
"Hence he warmly advocated the formation of national scientific societies along the lines of the British Royal Society and the French Académie Royale des Sciences.",
"More specifically, in his correspondence and travels he urged the creation of such societies in Dresden, Saint Petersburg, Vienna, and Berlin.",
"Only one such project came to fruition; in 1700, the Berlin Academy of Sciences was created.",
"Leibniz drew up its first statutes, and served as its first President for the remainder of his life.",
"That Academy evolved into the German Academy of Sciences, the publisher of the ongoing critical edition of his works."
],
[
"Law and Morality",
"Leibniz's writings on law, ethics, and politics were long overlooked by English-speaking scholars, but this has changed of late.While Leibniz was no apologist for absolute monarchy like Hobbes, or for tyranny in any form, neither did he echo the political and constitutional views of his contemporary John Locke, views invoked in support of liberalism, in 18th-century America and later elsewhere.",
"The following excerpt from a 1695 letter to Baron J. C. Boyneburg's son Philipp is very revealing of Leibniz's political sentiments:In 1677, Leibniz called for a European confederation, governed by a council or senate, whose members would represent entire nations and would be free to vote their consciences; this is sometimes considered an anticipation of the European Union.",
"He believed that Europe would adopt a uniform religion.",
"He reiterated these proposals in 1715.But at the same time, he arrived to propose an interreligious and multicultural project to create a universal system of justice, which required from him a broad interdisciplinary perspective.",
"In order to propose it, he combined linguistics (especially sinology), moral and legal philosophy, management, economics, and politics.===Law===Leibniz trained as a legal academic, but under the tutelage of Cartesian-sympathiser Erhard Weigel we already see an attempt to solve legal problems by rationalist mathematical methods (Weigel's influence being most explicit in the Specimen Quaestionum Philosophicarum ex Jure collectarum (An Essay of Collected Philosophical Problems of Right)).",
"For example, the Inaugural Disputation on Perplexing Cases uses early combinatorics to solve some legal disputes, while the 1666 Dissertation on the Combinatorial Art includes simple legal problems by way of illustration.The use of combinatorial methods to solve legal and moral problems seems, via Athanasius Kircher and Daniel Schwenter to be of Llullist inspiration: Ramón Llull attempted to solve ecumenical disputes through recourse to a combinatorial mode of reasoning he regarded as universal (a mathesis universalis).In the late 1660s the enlightened Prince-Bishop of Mainz Johann Philipp von Schönborn announced a review of the legal system and made available a position to support his current law commissioner.",
"Leibniz left Franconia and made for Mainz before even winning the role.",
"On reaching Frankfurt am Main Leibniz penned The New Method of Teaching and Learning the Law, by way of application.",
"The text proposed a reform of legal education and is characteristically syncretic, integrating aspects of Thomism, Hobbesianism, Cartesianism and traditional jurisprudence.",
"Leibniz's argument that the function of legal teaching was not to impress rules as one might train a dog, but to aid the student in discovering their own public reason, evidently impressed von Schönborn as he secured the job.Leibniz's next major attempt to find a universal rational core to law and so found a legal \"science of right\", came when Leibniz worked in Mainz from 1667–72.Starting initially from Hobbes' mechanistic doctrine of power, Leibniz reverted to logico-combinatorial methods in an attempt to define justice.",
"As Leibniz's so-called Elementa Juris Naturalis advanced, he built in modal notions of right (possibility) and obligation (necessity) in which we see perhaps the earliest elaboration of his possible worlds doctrine within a deontic frame.",
"While ultimately the Elementa remained unpublished, Leibniz continued to work on his drafts and promote their ideas to correspondents up until his death.===Ecumenism===Leibniz devoted considerable intellectual and diplomatic effort to what would now be called an ecumenical endeavor, seeking to reconcile the Roman Catholic and Lutheran churches.",
"In this respect, he followed the example of his early patrons, Baron von Boyneburg and the Duke John Frederickboth cradle Lutherans who converted to Catholicism as adultswho did what they could to encourage the reunion of the two faiths, and who warmly welcomed such endeavors by others.",
"(The House of Brunswick remained Lutheran, because the Duke's children did not follow their father.)",
"These efforts included corresponding with French bishop Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet, and involved Leibniz in some theological controversy.",
"He evidently thought that the thoroughgoing application of reason would suffice to heal the breach caused by the Reformation."
],
[
"Philology",
"Leibniz the philologist was an avid student of languages, eagerly latching on to any information about vocabulary and grammar that came his way.",
"In 1710, he applied ideas of gradualism and uniformitarianism to linguistics in a short essay.",
"He refuted the belief, widely held by Christian scholars of the time, that Hebrew was the primeval language of the human race.",
"At the same time, he rejected the idea of unrelated language groups and considered them all to have a common source.",
"He also refuted the argument, advanced by Swedish scholars in his day, that a form of proto-Swedish was the ancestor of the Germanic languages.",
"He puzzled over the origins of the Slavic languages and was fascinated by classical Chinese.",
"Leibniz was also an expert in the Sanskrit language.He published the ''princeps editio'' (first modern edition) of the late medieval ''Chronicon Holtzatiae'', a Latin chronicle of the County of Holstein."
],
[
"Sinophology",
"A diagram of ''I Ching'' hexagrams sent to Leibniz from Joachim Bouvet.",
"The Arabic numerals were added by Leibniz.Leibniz was perhaps the first major European intellectual to take a close interest in Chinese civilization, which he knew by corresponding with, and reading other works by, European Christian missionaries posted in China.",
"He apparently read ''Confucius Sinarum Philosophus'' in the first year of its publication.",
"He came to the conclusion that Europeans could learn much from the Confucian ethical tradition.",
"He mulled over the possibility that the Chinese characters were an unwitting form of his universal characteristic.",
"He noted how the ''I Ching'' hexagrams correspond to the binary numbers from 000000 to 111111, and concluded that this mapping was evidence of major Chinese accomplishments in the sort of philosophical mathematics he admired.",
"Leibniz communicated his ideas of the binary system representing Christianity to the Emperor of China, hoping it would convert him.",
"Leibniz was one of the western philosophers of the time who attempted to accommodate Confucian ideas to prevailing European beliefs.Leibniz's attraction to Chinese philosophy originates from his perception that Chinese philosophy was similar to his own.",
"The historian E.R.",
"Hughes suggests that Leibniz's ideas of \"simple substance\" and \"pre-established harmony\" were directly influenced by Confucianism, pointing to the fact that they were conceived during the period when he was reading ''Confucius Sinarum Philosophus''."
],
[
"Polymath",
"While making his grand tour of European archives to research the Brunswick family history that he never completed, Leibniz stopped in Vienna between May 1688 and February 1689, where he did much legal and diplomatic work for the Brunswicks.",
"He visited mines, talked with mine engineers, and tried to negotiate export contracts for lead from the ducal mines in the Harz mountains.",
"His proposal that the streets of Vienna be lit with lamps burning rapeseed oil was implemented.",
"During a formal audience with the Austrian Emperor and in subsequent memoranda, he advocated reorganizing the Austrian economy, reforming the coinage of much of central Europe, negotiating a Concordat between the Habsburgs and the Vatican, and creating an imperial research library, official archive, and public insurance fund.",
"He wrote and published an important paper on mechanics."
],
[
"Posthumous reputation",
"Leibnizstrasse street sign BerlinWhen Leibniz died, his reputation was in decline.",
"He was remembered for only one book, the ''Théodicée'', whose supposed central argument Voltaire lampooned in his popular book ''Candide'', which concludes with the character Candide saying, \"''Non liquet''\" (it is not clear), a term that was applied during the Roman Republic to a legal verdict of \"not proven\".",
"Voltaire's depiction of Leibniz's ideas was so influential that many believed it to be an accurate description.",
"Thus Voltaire and his ''Candide'' bear some of the blame for the lingering failure to appreciate and understand Leibniz's ideas.",
"Leibniz had an ardent disciple, Christian Wolff, whose dogmatic and facile outlook did Leibniz's reputation much harm.",
"He also influenced David Hume, who read his ''Théodicée'' and used some of his ideas.",
"In any event, philosophical fashion was moving away from the rationalism and system building of the 17th century, of which Leibniz had been such an ardent proponent.",
"His work on law, diplomacy, and history was seen as of ephemeral interest.",
"The vastness and richness of his correspondence went unrecognized.Leibniz's reputation began to recover with the 1765 publication of the ''Nouveaux Essais''.",
"In 1768, Louis Dutens edited the first multi-volume edition of Leibniz's writings, followed in the 19th century by a number of editions, including those edited by Erdmann, Foucher de Careil, Gerhardt, Gerland, Klopp, and Mollat.",
"Publication of Leibniz's correspondence with notables such as Antoine Arnauld, Samuel Clarke, Sophia of Hanover, and her daughter Sophia Charlotte of Hanover, began.In 1900, Bertrand Russell published a critical study of Leibniz's metaphysics.",
"Shortly thereafter, Louis Couturat published an important study of Leibniz, and edited a volume of Leibniz's heretofore unpublished writings, mainly on logic.",
"They made Leibniz somewhat respectable among 20th-century analytical and linguistic philosophers in the English-speaking world (Leibniz had already been of great influence to many Germans such as Bernhard Riemann).",
"For example, Leibniz's phrase ''salva veritate'', meaning interchangeability without loss of or compromising the truth, recurs in Willard Quine's writings.",
"Nevertheless, the secondary literature on Leibniz did not really blossom until after World War II.",
"This is especially true of English speaking countries; in Gregory Brown's bibliography fewer than 30 of the English language entries were published before 1946.American Leibniz studies owe much to Leroy Loemker (1904–1985) through his translations and his interpretive essays in LeClerc (1973).",
"Leibniz's philosophy was also highly regarded by Gilles Deleuze, who in 1988 published The Fold: Leibniz and the Baroque, an important part of Deleuze's own corpus.Nicholas Jolley has surmised that Leibniz's reputation as a philosopher is now perhaps higher than at any time since he was alive.",
"Analytic and contemporary philosophy continue to invoke his notions of identity, individuation, and possible worlds.",
"Work in the history of 17th- and 18th-century ideas has revealed more clearly the 17th-century \"Intellectual Revolution\" that preceded the better-known Industrial and commercial revolutions of the 18th and 19th centuries.In Germany, various important institutions were named after Leibniz.",
"In Hanover in particular, he is the namesake for some of the most important institutions in the town:* ''Leibniz University Hannover''* ''Leibniz-Akademie'', Institution for academic and non-academic training and further education in the business sector* ''Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Bibliothek – Niedersächsische Landesbibliothek'', one of the largest regional and academic libraries in Germany and, alongside the Oldenburg State Library and the Herzog August Library in Wolfenbüttel, one of the three state libraries in Lower Saxony* ''Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz-Gesellschaft'', Society for the cultivation and dissemination of Leibniz's teachingsoutside of Hanover:* ''Leibniz Association'', Berlin* ''Leibniz-Sozietät der Wissenschaften zu Berlin'', Association of scientists founded in Berlin in 1993 with the legal form of a registered association; It continues the activities of the Academy of Sciences of the GDR with personnel continuity* ''Leibniz Kolleg'' of Tübingen University, central propaedeutic institution of the university, which aims to enable high school graduates to make a well-founded study decision through a ten-month, comprehensive general course of study and at the same time to introduce them to academic work* Leibniz Supercomputing Centre, Munich* more than 20 schools all over GermanyAwards:* ''Leibniz-Ring-Hannover'', Honor given since 1997 by the Hannover Press Club to personalities or institutions “who have drawn attention to themselves through an outstanding performance or have made a special mark through their life’s work.”* ''Leibniz-Medaille'' of the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities, established in 1906 and awarded previously by the Prussian Academy of Sciences and later the German Academy of Sciences at Berlin* ''Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz-Medaille'' of the Leibniz-Sozietät* ''Leibniz-Medaille der Akademie der Wissenschaften und der Literatur Mainz''In 1985, the German government created the Leibniz Prize, offering an annual award of 1.55 million euros for experimental results and 770,000 euros for theoretical ones.",
"It was the world's largest prize for scientific achievement prior to the Fundamental Physics Prize.The collection of manuscript papers of Leibniz at the Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Bibliothek – Niedersächische Landesbibliothek was inscribed on UNESCO's Memory of the World Register in 2007.===Cultural references===Leibniz still receives popular attention.",
"The Google Doodle for 1 July 2018 celebrated Leibniz's 372nd birthday.",
"Using a quill, his hand is shown writing \"Google\" in binary ASCII code.One of the earliest popular but indirect expositions of Leibniz was Voltaire's satire ''Candide'', published in 1759.Leibniz was lampooned as Professor Pangloss, described as \"the greatest philosopher of the Holy Roman Empire\".Leibniz also appears as one of the main historical figures in Neal Stephenson's series of novels ''The Baroque Cycle''.",
"Stephenson credits readings and discussions concerning Leibniz for inspiring him to write the series.Leibniz also stars in Adam Ehrlich Sachs's novel ''The Organs of Sense''.The German biscuit Choco Leibniz is named after Leibniz, a famous resident of Hanover where the manufacturer Bahlsen is based."
],
[
"Writings and publication",
"Leibniz mainly wrote in three languages: scholastic Latin, French and German.",
"During his lifetime, he published many pamphlets and scholarly articles, but only two \"philosophical\" books, the ''Combinatorial Art'' and the ''Théodicée''.",
"(He published numerous pamphlets, often anonymous, on behalf of the House of Brunswick-Lüneburg, most notably the \"De jure suprematum\" a major consideration of the nature of sovereignty.)",
"One substantial book appeared posthumously, his ''Nouveaux essais sur l'entendement humain'', which Leibniz had withheld from publication after the death of John Locke.",
"Only in 1895, when Bodemann completed his catalogue of Leibniz's manuscripts and correspondence, did the enormous extent of Leibniz's ''Nachlass'' become clear: about 15,000 letters to more than 1000 recipients plus more than 40,000 other items.",
"Moreover, quite a few of these letters are of essay length.",
"Much of his vast correspondence, especially the letters dated after 1700, remains unpublished, and much of what is published has appeared only in recent decades.",
"The more than 67,000 records of the Leibniz Edition's Catalogue cover almost all of his known writings and the letters from him and to him.",
"The amount, variety, and disorder of Leibniz's writings are a predictable result of a situation he described in a letter as follows:The extant parts of the critical edition of Leibniz's writings are organized as follows:* Series 1.",
"''Political, Historical, and General Correspondence''.",
"25 vols., 1666–1706.",
"* Series 2.",
"''Philosophical Correspondence''.",
"3 vols., 1663–1700.",
"* Series 3.",
"''Mathematical, Scientific, and Technical Correspondence''.",
"8 vols., 1672–1698.",
"* Series 4.''",
"Political Writings''.",
"9 vols., 1667–1702.",
"* Series 5.''",
"Historical and Linguistic Writings''.",
"In preparation.",
"* Series 6.",
"''Philosophical Writings''.",
"7 vols., 1663–90, and ''Nouveaux essais sur l'entendement humain''.",
"* Series 7.",
"''Mathematical Writings''.",
"6 vols., 1672–76.",
"* Series 8.",
"''Scientific, Medical, and Technical Writings''.",
"1 vol., 1668–76.The systematic cataloguing of all of Leibniz's ''Nachlass'' began in 1901.It was hampered by two world wars and then by decades of German division into two states with the Cold War's \"iron curtain\" in between, separating scholars, and also scattering portions of his literary estates.",
"The ambitious project has had to deal with writings in seven languages, contained in some 200,000 written and printed pages.",
"In 1985 it was reorganized and included in a joint program of German federal and state (''Länder'') academies.",
"Since then the branches in Potsdam, Münster, Hanover and Berlin have jointly published 57 volumes of the critical edition, with an average of 870 pages, and prepared index and concordance works.=== Selected works ===The year given is usually that in which the work was completed, not of its eventual publication.",
"* 1666 (publ.",
"1690).",
"''De Arte Combinatoria'' (''On the Art of Combination''); partially translated in Loemker §1 and Parkinson (1966)* 1667.",
"''Nova Methodus Discendae Docendaeque Iurisprudentiae'' (''A New Method for Learning and Teaching Jurisprudence'')* 1667.",
"\"Dialogus de connexione inter res et verba\"* 1671.",
"''Hypothesis Physica Nova'' (''New Physical Hypothesis''); Loemker §8.I (part)* 1673 ''Confessio philosophi'' (''A Philosopher's Creed''); an English translation is available online.",
"* Oct.",
"1684.",
"\"Meditationes de cognitione, veritate et ideis\" (\"Meditations on Knowledge, Truth, and Ideas\")* Nov.",
"1684.",
"\"Nova methodus pro maximis et minimis\" (\"New method for maximums and minimums\"); translated in Struik, D. J., 1969.",
"''A Source Book in Mathematics, 1200–1800''.",
"Harvard University Press: 271–81.",
"* 1686.",
"''Discours de métaphysique''; Martin and Brown (1988), Ariew and Garber 35, Loemker §35, Wiener III.3, Woolhouse and Francks 1* 1686.",
"''Generales inquisitiones de analysi notionum et veritatum'' (''General Inquiries About the Analysis of Concepts and of Truths'')* 1694.",
"\"De primae philosophiae Emendatione, et de Notione Substantiae\" (\"On the Correction of First Philosophy and the Notion of Substance\")* 1695.",
"''Système nouveau de la nature et de la communication des substances'' (''New System of Nature'')* 1700.",
"''Accessiones historicae''* 1703.",
"\"Explication de l'Arithmétique Binaire\" (\"Explanation of Binary Arithmetic\"); Carl Immanuel Gerhardt, ''Mathematical Writings'' VII.223.An English translation by Lloyd Strickland is available online.",
"* 1704 (publ.",
"1765).",
"''Nouveaux essais sur l'entendement humain''.",
"Translated in: Remnant, Peter, and Bennett, Jonathan, trans., 1996.",
"''New Essays on Human Understanding'' Langley translation 1896.Cambridge University Press.",
"Wiener III.6 (part)* 1707–1710.",
"''Scriptores rerum Brunsvicensium'' (3 Vols.",
")* 1710.",
"''Théodicée''; Farrer, A. M., and Huggard, E. M., trans., 1985 (1952).",
"Wiener III.11 (part).",
"An English translation is available online at Project Gutenberg.",
"* 1714.",
"\"Principes de la nature et de la Grâce fondés en raison\"* 1714.",
"''Monadologie''; translated by Nicholas Rescher, 1991.",
"''The Monadology: An Edition for Students''.",
"University of Pittsburgh Press.",
"Ariew and Garber 213, Loemker §67, Wiener III.13, Woolhouse and Francks 19.An English translation by Robert Latta is available online.==== Posthumous works ====''Commercium philosophicum et mathematicum'' (1745), a collection of letters between Leibnitz and Johann Bernoulli* 1717.",
"''Collectanea Etymologica'', edited by the secretary of Leibniz Johann Georg von Eckhart* 1749.",
"''Protogaea''* 1750.",
"''Origines Guelficae''=== Collections ===Six important collections of English translations are Wiener (1951), Parkinson (1966), Loemker (1969), Ariew and Garber (1989), Woolhouse and Francks (1998), and Strickland (2006).",
"The ongoing critical edition of all of Leibniz's writings is ''Sämtliche Schriften und Briefe''."
],
[
"See also",
"* General Leibniz rule* Leibniz Association* Leibniz operator* List of German inventors and discoverers* List of pioneers in computer science* List of things named after Gottfried Leibniz* ''Mathesis universalis''* Scientific revolution* Leibniz University Hannover* Bartholomew Des Bosses* Joachim Bouvet* Outline of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz* Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz bibliography"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References",
"=== Citations ====== Sources ======= Bibliographies ====* Bodemann, Eduard, ''Die Leibniz-Handschriften der Königlichen öffentlichen Bibliothek zu Hannover'', 1895, (anastatic reprint: Hildesheim, Georg Olms, 1966).",
"* Bodemann, Eduard, ''Der Briefwechsel des Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz in der Königlichen öffentliche Bibliothek zu Hannover'', 1895, (anastatic reprint: Hildesheim, Georg Olms, 1966).",
"* Cerqueiro, Daniel (2014).",
"''Leibnitz y la ciencia del infinito''.",
"Buenos Aires: Pequeña Venecia.",
"* Ravier, Émile, ''Bibliographie des œuvres de Leibniz'', Paris: Alcan, 1937 (anastatic reprint Hildesheim: Georg Olms, 1966).",
"* Heinekamp, Albert and Mertens, Marlen.",
"''Leibniz-Bibliographie.",
"Die Literatur über Leibniz bis 1980'', Frankfurt: Vittorio Klostermann, 1984.",
"* Heinekamp, Albert and Mertens, Marlen.",
"''Leibniz-Bibliographie.",
"Die Literatur über Leibniz.",
"Band II: 1981–1990'', Frankfurt: Vittorio Klostermann, 1996.An updated bibliography of more than 25.000 titles is available at Leibniz Bibliographie.==== Primary literature (chronologically) ====* Wiener, Philip, (ed.",
"), 1951.",
"''Leibniz: Selections''.",
"Scribner.",
"* Schrecker, Paul & Schrecker, Anne Martin, (eds.",
"), 1965.",
"''Monadology and other Philosophical Essays''.",
"Prentice-Hall.",
"* Parkinson, G. H. R.",
"(ed.",
"), 1966.",
"''Logical Papers''.",
"Clarendon Press.",
"* Mason, H. T. & Parkinson, G. H. R.",
"(eds.",
"), 1967.",
"''The Leibniz-Arnauld Correspondence''.",
"Manchester University Press.",
"* Loemker, Leroy, (ed.",
"), 1969 1956.",
"''Leibniz: Philosophical Papers and Letters''.",
"Reidel.",
"* Morris, Mary & Parkinson, G. H. R.",
"(eds.",
"), 1973.",
"''Philosophical Writings''.",
"Everyman's University Library.",
"* Riley, Patrick, (ed.",
"), 1988.",
"''Leibniz: Political Writings''.",
"Cambridge University Press.",
"* Niall, R. Martin, D. & Brown, Stuart (eds.",
"), 1988.",
"''Discourse on Metaphysics and Related Writings''.",
"Manchester University Press.",
"* Ariew, Roger and Garber, Daniel.",
"(eds.",
"), 1989.",
"''Leibniz: Philosophical Essays''.",
"Hackett.",
"* Rescher, Nicholas (ed.",
"), 1991.''G.",
"W. Leibniz's Monadology.",
"An Edition for Students'', University of Pittsburgh Press.",
"* Rescher, Nicholas, ''On Leibniz'', (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2013).",
"* Parkinson, G. H. R.",
"(ed.)",
"1992.",
"''De Summa Rerum.",
"Metaphysical Papers, 1675–1676''.",
"Yale University Press.",
"* Cook, Daniel, & Rosemont, Henry Jr., (eds.",
"), 1994.",
"''Leibniz: Writings on China''.",
"Open Court.",
"* Farrer, Austin (ed.",
"), 1995.",
"''Theodicy'', Open Court.",
"* Remnant, Peter, & Bennett, Jonathan, (eds.",
"), 1996 (1981).",
"''Leibniz: New Essays on Human Understanding''.",
"Cambridge University Press.",
"* Woolhouse, R. S., and Francks, R., (eds.",
"), 1997.",
"''Leibniz's 'New System' and Associated Contemporary Texts''.",
"Oxford University Press.",
"* Woolhouse, R. S., and Francks, R., (eds.",
"), 1998.",
"''Leibniz: Philosophical Texts''.",
"Oxford University Press.",
"* Ariew, Roger, (ed.",
"), 2000.''G.",
"W. Leibniz and Samuel Clarke: Correspondence''.",
"Hackett.",
"* Richard T. W. Arthur, (ed.",
"), 2001.",
"''The Labyrinth of the Continuum: Writings on the Continuum Problem, 1672–1686''.",
"Yale University Press.",
"* Richard T. W. Arthur, 2014.''Leibniz''.",
"John Wiley & Sons.",
"* Robert C. Sleigh Jr., (ed.",
"), 2005.",
"''Confessio Philosophi: Papers Concerning the Problem of Evil, 1671–1678''.",
"Yale University Press.",
"* Dascal, Marcelo (ed.",
"), 2006.''G.",
"W. Leibniz.",
"The Art of Controversies'', Springer.",
"* Strickland, Lloyd, 2006 (ed.).",
"''The Shorter Leibniz Texts: A Collection of New Translations''.",
"Continuum.",
"* Look, Brandon and Rutherford, Donald (eds.",
"), 2007.",
"''The Leibniz-Des Bosses Correspondence'', Yale University Press.",
"* Cohen, Claudine and Wakefield, Andre, (eds.",
"), 2008.''Protogaea''.",
"University of Chicago Press.",
"* Murray, Michael, (ed.)",
"2011.",
"''Dissertation on Predestination and Grace'', Yale University Press.",
"* Strickand, Lloyd (ed.",
"), 2011.",
"''Leibniz and the two Sophies.",
"The Philosophical Correspondence'', Toronto.",
"* Lodge, Paul (ed.",
"), 2013.",
"''The Leibniz-De Volder Correspondence: With Selections from the Correspondence Between Leibniz and Johann Bernoulli'', Yale University Press.",
"* Artosi, Alberto, Pieri, Bernardo, Sartor, Giovanni (eds.",
"), 2014.",
"''Leibniz: Logico-Philosophical Puzzles in the Law'', Springer.",
"* De Iuliis, Carmelo Massimo, (ed.",
"), 2017.",
"''Leibniz: The New Method of Learning and Teaching Jurisprudence'', Talbot, Clark NJ.==== Secondary literature up to 1950 ====* Du Bois-Reymond, Emil, 1912.",
"''Leibnizsche Gedanken in der neueren Naturwissenschaft'', Berlin: Dummler, 1871 (reprinted in ''Reden'', Leipzig: Veit, vol.",
"1).",
"* Couturat, Louis, 1901.",
"''La Logique de Leibniz''.",
"Paris: Felix Alcan.",
"* Heidegger, Martin, 1983.",
"''The Metaphysical Foundations of Logic''.",
"Indiana University Press (lecture course, 1928).",
"* Lovejoy, Arthur O., 1957 (1936).",
"\"Plenitude and Sufficient Reason in Leibniz and Spinoza\" in his ''The Great Chain of Being''.",
"Harvard University Press: 144–182.Reprinted in Frankfurt, H. G., (ed.",
"), 1972.",
"''Leibniz: A Collection of Critical Essays''.",
"Anchor Books 1972.",
"* Mackie, John Milton; Guhrauer, Gottschalk Eduard, 1845.",
"''Life of Godfrey William von ''.",
"Gould, Kendall and Lincoln.",
"* Russell, Bertrand, 1900, ''A Critical Exposition of the Philosophy of Leibniz'', Cambridge: The University Press.",
"* * Trendelenburg, F. A., 1857, \"Über Leibnizens Entwurf einer allgemeinen Charakteristik,\" ''Philosophische Abhandlungen der Königlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin.",
"Aus dem Jahr 1856'', Berlin: Commission Dümmler, pp. 36–69.",
"* (lecture)==== Secondary literature post-1950 ====* Adams, Robert Merrihew.",
"1994.",
"''Leibniz: Determinist, Theist, Idealist''.",
"New York: Oxford, Oxford University Press.",
"* Aiton, Eric J., 1985.",
"''Leibniz: A Biography''.",
"Hilger (UK).",
"* Antognazza, Maria Rosa, 2008.",
"''Leibniz: An Intellectual Biography''.",
"Cambridge Univ.",
"Press.",
"* * Borowski, Audrey, 2024.",
"''Leibniz in His World: The Making of a Savant''.",
"Princeton University Press.",
"(https://press.princeton.edu/books/hardcover/9780691260747/leibniz-in-his-world)* * Brown, Stuart (ed.",
"), 1999.",
"''The Young Leibniz and His Philosophy (1646–76)'', Dordrecht, Kluwer.",
"* Cerqueiro, Daniel.",
"''Leibnitz y la ciencia del infinito''(2014).Pequeña Venecia.",
"Buenos Aires.",
"* Connelly, Stephen, 2021.‘’Leibniz: A Contribution to the Archaeology of Power’’, Edinburgh University Press .",
"* Davis, Martin, 2000.",
"''The Universal Computer: The Road from Leibniz to Turing''.",
"WW Norton.",
"* Deleuze, Gilles, 1993.",
"''The Fold: Leibniz and the Baroque''.",
"University of Minnesota Press.",
"* Fahrenberg, Jochen, 2017.PsyDok ZPID The influence of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz on the Psychology, Philosophy, and Ethics of Wilhelm Wundt.",
"* Fahrenberg, Jochen, 2020.",
"''Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920).",
"Introduction, Quotations, Reception, Commentaries, Attempts at Reconstruction''.",
"Pabst Science Publishers, Lengerich 2020, .",
"* Finster, Reinhard & van den Heuvel, Gerd 2000.",
"''Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz''.",
"Mit Selbstzeugnissen und Bilddokumenten.",
"4.Auflage.",
"Rowohlt, Reinbek bei Hamburg (Rowohlts Monographien, 50481), .",
"* Grattan-Guinness, Ivor, 1997.",
"''The Norton History of the Mathematical Sciences''.",
"W W Norton.",
"* Hall, A. R., 1980.",
"''Philosophers at War: The Quarrel between Newton and Leibniz''.",
"Cambridge University Press.",
"* Hamza, Gabor, 2005.",
"\"Le développement du droit privé européen\".",
"ELTE Eotvos Kiado Budapest.",
"* * Hostler, John, 1975.",
"''Leibniz's Moral Philosophy''.",
"UK: Duckworth.",
"* Ishiguro, Hidé 1990.",
"''Leibniz's Philosophy of Logic and Language''.",
"Cambridge University Press.",
"* Jolley, Nicholas, (ed.",
"), 1995.",
"''The Cambridge Companion to Leibniz''.",
"Cambridge University Press.",
"* Kaldis, Byron, 2011.",
"''Leibniz' Argument for Innate Ideas'' in Just the Arguments: 100 of the Most Important Arguments in Western Philosophy edited by M Bruce & S Barbone.",
"Blackwell.",
"* * LeClerc, Ivor (ed.",
"), 1973.",
"''The Philosophy of Leibniz and the Modern World''.",
"Vanderbilt University Press.",
"* * Mates, Benson, 1986.",
"''The Philosophy of Leibniz: Metaphysics and Language''.",
"Oxford University Press.",
"* Mercer, Christia, 2001.",
"''Leibniz's Metaphysics: Its Origins and Development''.",
"Cambridge University Press.",
"* Perkins, Franklin, 2004.",
"''Leibniz and China: A Commerce of Light''.",
"Cambridge University Press.",
"* Riley, Patrick, 1996.",
"''Leibniz's Universal Jurisprudence: Justice as the Charity of the Wise''.",
"Harvard University Press.",
"* Rutherford, Donald, 1998.",
"''Leibniz and the Rational Order of Nature''.",
"Cambridge University Press.",
"* Schulte-Albert, H. G. (1971).",
"Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz and Library Classification.",
"''The Journal of Library History'' (1966–1972), (2).",
"133–152.",
"* Smith, Justin E. H., 2011.",
"''Divine Machines.",
"Leibniz and the Sciences of Life'', Princeton University Press.",
"* Wilson, Catherine, 1989.",
"''Leibniz's Metaphysics: A Historical and Comparative Study''.",
"Princeton University Press.",
"*"
],
[
"External links",
"* * * * * * * * Horn, Joshua.",
"* Jorarti, Julia.",
"* * * * Translations by Jonathan Bennett, of the ''New Essays'', the exchanges with Bayle, Arnauld and Clarke, and about 15 shorter works.",
"* Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz: Texts and Translations, compiled by Donald Rutherford, UCSD* Leibnitiana, links and resources edited by Gregory Brown, University of Houston* Philosophical Works of Leibniz translated by G.M.",
"Duncan (1890)* The Best of All Possible Worlds: Nicholas Rescher Talks About Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz's \"Versatility and Creativity\"* \"Protogæa\" (1693, Latin, in ''Acta eruditorum'') – Linda Hall Library* ''Protogaea'' (1749, German) – full digital facsimile from Linda Hall Library* Leibniz's (1768, 6-volume) ''Opera omnia'' – digital facsimile* Leibniz's arithmetical machine, 1710, online and analyzed on '' BibNum '' click 'à télécharger' for English analysis* Leibniz's binary numeral system, 'De progressione dyadica', 1679, online and analyzed on '' BibNum '' click 'à télécharger' for English analysis"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Gamma World"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''''Gamma World''''' is a post-apocalyptic science fantasy role-playing game in which player characters explore Earth centuries after the collapse of civilzation, searching for artifacts from the time before \"The Great Upheaval\".",
"The game was originally designed by James M. Ward and Gary Jaquet, and first published by TSR in 1978.It borrows heavily from Ward's earlier role-playing game, ''Metamorphosis Alpha''."
],
[
"Setting",
"''Gamma World'' takes place in the mid-25th century, more than a century after a second nuclear war had destroyed human civilization.",
"The war that destroyed civilization in ''Gamma World'' is only vaguely described in most editions of the game, and what details are provided change from version to version:* The first two editions explained that ever-increasing material prosperity and leisure had led to ever-more radical and violent social movements, culminating in a final war in the years AD 2309–2322, and ascribe the final annihilation to a terrorist group called \"The Apocalypse\" and the ensuing retaliation by surviving factions.Later versions altered the reason for the collapse.",
"* The 2000 Alternity version is due to alien arrival and nuclear response.",
"* The 2003 d20 Modern iteration is due to rampant use of nanotechnology and AI.",
"* The 2010 edition attributes the destruction of civilization to the activation of the Large Hadron Collider, which caused multiple realities to exchange features in an event known as \"The Big Mistake\".All editions, however, agree that the cataclysm destroyed all government and society beyond a village scale, plunging the world into a Dark Age.",
"In many editions of the game, technology is at best quasi-medieval (in the first edition, the crossbow is described as \"the ultimate weapon\" for most Gamma World societies).",
"Some, such as the 2003 and, to a lesser degree the 2010 edition, feature advanced technology that is well known and often easily available.",
"In contrast, super-science artifacts in earlier editions were risky to use due to the average Gamma World character not knowing how to properly operate such devices, or possibly even what the device is at all.",
"The post-apocalyptic inhabitants of Earth now refer to their planet as \"Gamma World\" (or \"Gamma Terra\" in later editions).Gamma World is a chaotic, dangerous environment that little resembles pre-apocalyptic Earth.",
"The weapons unleashed during the final war were strong enough to alter coastlines, level cities, and leave large areas of land lethally radioactive.",
"These future weapons bathed the surviving life of Earth in unspecified forms of radiation and biochemical agents, producing widespread, permanent mutations among humans, animals, and plants.",
"As a result, fantastic mutations such as extra limbs, super strength, and psychic powers are relatively common.",
"(Random tables of such improbable mutations are a hallmark of every edition of ''Gamma World''.)",
"Many animals and plants are sentient, semi-civilized species competing with surviving humans.",
"Both humans and non-humans have lost most knowledge of the pre-war humans, whom Gamma World's inhabitants refer to as \"the Ancients\".",
"The only group with significant knowledge of the Ancients are isolated robots and other artificial intelligences that survived the war—though these machines tend to be damaged, in ill repair, or hostile to organic beings.",
"''Gamma World'' player characters include unmutated humans (referred to as \"Pure Strain Humans\" in most editions), mutated humans, sentient animals or plants, and androids.",
"Characters explore Ancient ruins and strange post-apocalyptic societies to gain knowledge of the Ancients and social status for themselves.",
"Common adventure themes involve protecting fragile post-apocalypse societies, retrieving Ancient \"artifacts\" (science fiction gadgetry such as power armor, laser pistols, and anti-grav sleds), or mere survival against the multifarious dangers of the future (such as gun-toting mutant rabbits, rampaging ancient death machines, or other Gamma Worlders bent on mayhem).A recurrent source of conflict on Gamma World is the rivalry among the \"Cryptic Alliances\", semi-secret societies whose ideological agendas—usually verging on monomania—often bring them into conflict with the rest of the Gamma World.",
"For example, the Pure Strain Human \"Knights of Genetic Purity\" seek to exterminate all mutants, while the all-mutant \"Iron Society\" wants to eliminate unmutated humans.",
"Other rivalries involve attitudes towards Ancient technology, with some Alliances (such as \"The Restorationists\") seeking to rebuild Ancient society, while others (such as \"The Seekers\") want to destroy remaining artifacts."
],
[
"System",
"Throughout the game's many editions, ''Gamma World'' has almost always remained strongly compatible with the then-current edition of ''Dungeons & Dragons'' (''D&D'').",
"Attribute generation is much the same for instance with a range of 3 to 18, randomly generated by rolling three six-sided dice.",
"The attributes themselves are the same, but with occasional name changes such as Physical Strength instead of Strength and Mental Strength instead of Wisdom.",
"This allows Gamma World and D&D characters to potentially cross over genres.Character generation is mostly random, and features one of the game's most distinctive mechanics, the mutation tables.",
"Players who choose to play mutants roll dice to randomly determine their characters' mutations.",
"All versions of ''Gamma World'' eschew a realistic portrayal of genetic mutation to one degree or another, instead giving characters fantastic abilities like psychic powers, laser beams, force fields, life draining and others.",
"Other mutations are extensions or extremes of naturally existing features transposed from different species, such as electrical generation, infravision, quills, extra limbs, dual brains, carapaces, gills, etc.",
"These were offset with defects that also ranged from the fantastical—such as skin that dissolves in water, or a scent that attracts monsters—to the mundane, such as seizures, madness and phobias.Characters in most versions of ''Gamma World'' earn experience points during their adventures, which cause the character's Rank (in some editions, Level) to increase.",
"Unlike ''D&D'', however, the first two editions of ''Gamma World'' do not use a concept of true level or character class, and increases in Rank do not affect the character's skills or combat abilities.",
"In fact, in the first three editions of the game, character rank is primarily a measure of the character's social prestige.The game mechanics used for resolving character actions, on the other hand, greatly varied between ''Gamma World'' editions.",
"The first two editions, like the early editions of ''D&D'', depend heavily on matrix-based mechanics, where two factors (one representing the actor or attacker, and one representing the opponent) are cross-referenced on a chart.",
"For some actions, such as attacks, the number located on the matrix represents a number the acting player must roll.",
"For other actions (such as determining the result of radiation exposure), the matrix result indicates a non-negotiable result.",
"''Gamma'' World's first two editions had a variety of specialized matrices for different situations (again, closely resembling ''D&D'').The third edition rules replace specialized matrices with the Action Control Table (ACT), a single, color-coded chart that allowed players to determine whether a character action succeeded, and the degree of success, with a single roll.",
"(The ACT concept is drawn from the ''Marvel Super Heroes'' game published by TSR shortly before development of ''Gamma World''s third edition.)",
"The ACT requires the referee to cross-reference the difficulty of a character action with the ability score used to complete that action, determining which column of the ACT is used for that action.",
"The character's player then rolls percentile dice; the result is compared to appropriate column, determining a degree of success or failure and eliminating the need for second result roll (e.g.",
"the damage roll that many games require after a successful combat action).The fourth edition was directly compatible with 2nd Edition AD&D with some minor differences in mechanics.",
"The fifth and sixth editions though would relegate Gamma World to that of a Campaign Setting and require the core books to play.",
"5th uses the Alternity system which is mostly represented in the book but required the core rules in order to resolve some factors.",
"6th Edition though was fully incomplete on its own and required the d20 Modern rulebook in order to play the game.The seventh version uses a streamlined version of ''D&D 4th edition'' mechanics.",
"Character generation choice though was nearly fully removed.",
"Instead of choosing a character class, a player had to roll a twenty-sided die two times and consult an accompanying character origin table.",
"For example, a player might obtain the result \"Radioactive Yeti\" and gain the powers associated with the \"Radioactive\" and \"Yeti\" origins.",
"Attributes, mutations, and skills were also randomly assigned.",
"Two decks of cards comprising the core of a ''Collectible Card Game'' are included with the game.",
"One deck represented random Alpha Mutations, which could be drawn to gain temporary powers, and the other contained various Omega Tech, powerful technological devices that could possibly backfire on those that used them.",
"Some 4th edition rules enhancements for the setting include new damage types such as \"Radiation\", Gamma World-specific skills, and increased lethality.",
"Despite these differences, it is possible to use characters and monsters from a ''D&D'' game in ''Gamma World'' and vice versa."
],
[
"History",
"===First Edition (1978)===The original ''Gamma World'' boxed set (containing a 56-page rulebook, a map of a devastated North America, and dice) was released in 1978.TSR went on to publish three accessories for the 1st edition of the game:*GW1, ''Legion of Gold'' by Gary Gygax, Luke Gygax, and Paul Reiche III*GW2, ''Famine in Far-Go'' by Michael Pierre Price*''Gamma World Referee's Screen''Grenadier Miniatures also supported the game, with a line of licensed miniatures.At least one other TSR product was announced -- ''Metamorphosis Alpha to Omega'', an adaptation of ''Metamorphosis Alpha's'' campaign setting to ''Gamma World's'' rules (Anon 1981).",
"Work on the adaptation was halted when a 2nd edition of ''Gamma World'' was announced.",
"This was later released as ''Metamorphosis Alpha to Omega'' using the ''Amazing Engine'' Rules.===Second Edition (1983)===The second edition ''Gamma World'' boxed set (with rules designed by Ward, Jaquet, and David James Ritchie) was released in 1983.Two modules and two accessories were released for this version:*GW3, ''The Cleansing War of Garik Blackhand'' by Michael Pierre Price & Garry Spiegle*GW4, ''The Mind Masters'' by Philip Taterczynski*GWAC1, ''Gamma World Referee's Screen and Mini-Module''*GWAC2, ''Gamma World Character Sheets''TSR also produced four packs of ''Gamma World'' miniatures.",
"TSR started production on a third adventure module, which was to be assigned the identification code GW5 and had the working title ''Rapture of the Deep''.",
"This module was not published.",
"However, a 'ghost' Second Edition GW5 ''Rapture of the Deep'' module was produced in 2007.===Third Edition (1986)===The 3rd edition of ''Gamma World'' was another boxed set, credited to James M. Ward.",
"It introduced the Action Control Table, a color-coded table used to resolve nearly all actions in the game.",
"(Color-coded tables were something of a trend at TSR in the mid-1980s.",
"After 1984's ''Marvel Super Heroes'' proved the viability of the concept, TSR revised ''Gamma World'', ''Star Frontiers'', and ''Top Secret'' to use similar tables.)",
"Unfortunately for TSR, this version of the rules became notorious for the number of editorial mistakes, including cross-references to rules that didn't appear in the boxed set.",
"The errors were serious enough that TSR published a ''Gamma World Rules Supplement'' containing the \"missing\" rules.",
"The ''Rules Supplement'' was sent to gamers who requested it by mail, and included in reprintings of the boxed set.The five modules TSR published for ''Gamma World's'' 3rd edition introduced the setting's first multi-module metaplot, which involved rebuilding an ancient 'sky chariot':*GW6, ''Alpha Factor'' by Kim Eastland*GW7, ''Beta Principle'' by Bruce Nesmith*GW8, ''Gamma Base'' by Kim Eastland*GW9, ''Delta Fragment'' by Kim Eastland*GW10, ''Epsilon Cyborgs'' by Kim EastlandTSR dropped the 3rd edition of ''Gamma World'' from its product line before the multi-module storyline could be completed.",
"In 2003 an unofficial conclusion to the series was published under the title GW11 ''Omega Project''.Despite its editorial issues, the 3rd edition rules were well-received enough to win the 1986/1987 Gamer's Choice Award for \"Best Science-Fiction Roleplaying Game\".Scott Taylor of ''Black Gate'' in 2015 rated the GW6-GW10 series as #7 in \"The Top 10 Campaign Adventure Module Series of All Time, saying \"if you are ever in the mood to crack out ''Gamma World'', or just have a great campaign setting for any post-apocalyptic campaign, this super series could be for you.",
"\"===Fourth Edition (1992)===The 4th edition of ''Gamma World'' was a 192-page softcover book, written by Bruce Nesmith and James M. Ward, published in May 1992 by TSR.",
"This version of the game abandoned the 3rd edition's Action Control Table for mechanics resembling ''2nd Edition Advanced Dungeons & Dragons''.",
"TSR published five accessories for the 4th edition:*GWA1, ''Treasures of the Ancients'' by Dale \"Slade\" Henson ()*GWA2, ''The Overlord of Bonparr'' by Jack A. Barker ()*GWQ1, ''Mutant Master'' by Bruce Nesmith ()*GWQ2, ''All Animals Are Equal'' by Dale \"Slade\" Henson ()*GWQ3, ''Home Before the Sky Falls'' by Tim Beach, Paul Riegel, Drew Bittner, and Kim Eastland ()TSR's ''Gamma World'' development team announced at Gen Con 1993 that no further products would be released for the 4th edition.",
"They also announced that TSR had restarted development of ''Metamorphosis Alpha to Omega'', but that the manuscript would be completed using the ''Amazing Engine'' rules.===Fifth Edition (2000)===The 5th version of ''Gamma World'' was a supplement for the science-fiction game ''Alternity''.",
"(In a nod to ''Gamma World'''s reputation for being repeatedly revised, the book's back cover states \"That's right, it's the return of the ''Gamma World''\".)",
"The ''Gamma World Campaign Setting'' () was a 192-page softcover book written by Andy Collins and Jeff Grubb, published in 2000 by Wizards of the Coast (WOTC), only a month after WOTC announced its cancellation of the ''Alternity'' line.",
"This version of ''Gamma World'' is unique as the only one not to have accessories or supplements.===Omega World (2002)===In September 2002, ''Omega World'', a ''d20 System'' mini-game based on ''Gamma World'' and written by Jonathan Tweet, was published in ''Dungeon'' 94/''Polyhedron'' 153.Tweet does not plan any expansions for the game, although it received a warm reception from ''Gamma World'' fans and players new to the concept alike.===Sixth Edition (2003)===In November 2002, Sword & Sorcery Studios (SSS) announced that it had licensed the ''Gamma World'' setting from WOTC in order to produce a sixth version of the game.",
"SSS's version of the game, which reached the market in 2003, used the ''d20 Modern'' system, and mimicked ''D&D'''s \"three core book\" model with three hardcover manuals:*''Gamma World Player's Handbook'' by Bruce Baugh, Ian Eller, Mikko Rautalahti, and Geoff Skellams*''Gamma World Game Master's Guide'' by Bruce Baugh, Werner Hager, Lizard, and Doug Oglesby*''Gamma World Machines and Mutants'' by David Bolack, Gareth Hanrahan, Patrick O'Duffy, and Chuck WendigSword & Sorcery Studios also published three paperback supplements for the d20 version of ''Gamma World'':*''Gamma World Beyond the Horizon'' by Ellen Kiley*''Gamma World Cryptic Alliances and Unknown Enemies'' by Owen K.C.",
"Stephens, Alejandro Melchor, and Geoff Skellams*''Gamma World Out of the Vaults'' by James Maliszewski, John Snead, and Ellen P. KileyThis new version of the game presented a more sober and serious approach to the concept of a post-nuclear world, at odds with the more light-hearted and adventurous approach taken by previous editions; it was also the first edition of the game to include fantastical nanotechnology on a large scale.",
"In August 2005, White Wolf announced that it was reverting the rights to publish ''Gamma World'' products back to Wizards of the Coast, putting the game out of print again.",
"Several critics and fans considered Tweet's ''Omega World'' to be a superior d20 System treatment of the ''Gamma World'' concept.===Seventh Edition (2010)===At the Dungeons & Dragons Experience fan convention in early 2010, Wizards of the Coast announced a new version titled ''D&D Gamma World'', eventually released in October of that year.",
"The game is compatible with the D&D 4th Edition rules and the System Reference Document, but is not considered a separate D&D setting.The basic box included 80 non-random cards.",
"In addition, random \"boosters\" of \"Alpha Mutation\" and \"Omega Tech\" cards for players are sold separately in packs of eight.This edition of ''Gamma World'' includes the following three boxed sets (one core set and two expansion kits):*''D&D Gamma World Roleplaying Game'' by Richard Baker and Bruce R. Cordell*''D&D Gamma World Expansion Kit: Famine in Far-go'' by Robert J. Schwalb*''D&D Gamma World Expansion Kit: Legion of Gold'' by Richard Baker and Bruce CordellAdditional content was released for the 7th Edition of ''Gamma World'' at Game Day 2010 and at the 2010 Penny Arcade Expo, Trouble in Freesboro and Pax Extraterrestria respectively.",
"In addition, a Christmas themed adventure and vehicular combat rules were released online.Additionally, two novels were published in the setting.",
"''Sooner Dead'' by Mel Odom was published February 1, 2011, and ''Red Sails in the Fallout'' by Paul Kidd, published July 5, 2011."
],
[
"Reception",
"In Issue 41 of ''Moves'', Steve List reviewed the first edition and commented, \"''Gamma World'' is not a game for those who take their science fiction, science, or technology seriously, but it is a good set of rules for role-playing, provided an energetic referee can be found to run the show.",
"\"Don Turnbull reviewed the first edition of ''Gamma World'' for ''White Dwarf'' #10, giving it an overall rating of 9 out of 10, and stated that \"''Gamma World'' is good quality - let there be no mistake.",
"This has not been thrown together in haste by earnest amateurs over glasses of cheap booze.",
"It is a thoroughly professional job which deserves a place on the shelf (and the playing table) of anyone remotely interested in the science fiction game-setting.",
"\"In the 1979 book ''The Playboy Winner's Guide to Board Games, John Jackson reviewed the first edition, and noted that \"''Gama World'' could draw on a hundred science-fiction novels for material.",
"It seems to be better organized than its cousin ''Metamorphosis Alpha'', and the campaign map of an altered America is almost worth the cost of the game itself.",
"\"Ronald Pehr reviewed the first edition of ''Gamma World'' in ''The Space Gamer'' No.",
"32 and commented \"If you liked its progenitors, ''Gamma World'' is an interesting variant.",
"Beginning players should find it easy to learn, and referees are challenged to create a playable, balanced world.",
"It's somewhat expensive and the sudden-death power of futuristic weaponry and the lack of character 'levels' may put you off, but if the basic premise is appealing you'll probably enjoy ''Gamma World''.",
"\"In the July 1980 issue of ''Fantastic Science Fiction'', Greg Costikyan called the rules of the first edition \"reasonably well written, if poorly organized; they are sufficient to base a campaign upon.\"",
"However, Costikyan was appalled by the lack of hard science, calling the game \"idiotic pseudo-science\".",
"Costikyan concluded, \"I'm surprised that even TSR would attempt to foist junk like ''Gamma World'' off on an unsuspecting public.",
"\"In the 1980 book ''The Complete Book of Wargames'', game designer Jon Freeman reviewed the first edition and commented, \"This is in every sense an improved version of ''Metamorphosis Alpha''.",
"Rules have been tightened and elaborated, and the organization is clearly superior.\"",
"Freeman concluded, \"While it's not quite as open-ended in scope as ''Dungeons & Dragons'', it has plenty of potential.",
"It's hardly flawless, but ''Gamma World'' is one of the best things TSR has produced.",
"\"In Issue 11 of the French games magazine ''Jeu et Stratégie'', Michel Brassinne found the game mechanics only ordinary, but noted \"the mutation table is a gem worth its weight in gold, it is indeed sometimes hilarious.\"",
"Brassinne pointed out that because of similarities in rules, this game could theoretically be combined with other TSR games such as ''AD&D'', but he warned, \"be careful, because this is not a walk of pleasure — I experienced it with characters from ''D&D'' and I can assure you that I will not do it again soon.\"",
"Brassinne concluded, \"Given dice, cards, modules, pencils and time, the result will be long, exciting sleepless nights.",
"\"Chris Baylis reviewed the second edition for ''Imagine'' magazine, and stated that \"For a post nuclear holocaust role-playing game, ''Gamma World'' game has just about all the right ingredients, in the correct proportions.",
"It is a very good introduction into the fantasy world of role-playing, and should seriously rival all other RPGs.",
"\"In the August 1984 issue of ''Asimov's Science Fiction'', Dana Lombardy called the redesign of the 2nd edition \"so extensive it should be considered a new game ... ''Gamma World'' offers one of the more bizarre and hostile environments to role-play in.\"",
"Lombardy did note that \"the technology is disjointed.",
"You can have a dog-man with a spear fighting alongside a robot with a laser, allied against humanoids with pistols and swords.\"",
"Lombardy concluded, \"If you prefer more straightforward science fiction with known and approximately equal abilities and weapons, then ''Gamma World'' may not be for you.",
"It's a topsy-turvy world, where the average pure-strain human is hard-pressed to exist among plants and animals mutated by humanity's wars.",
"But if you like a challenge, and want to role-play something really different — ''Gamma World'' could be it.",
"\"In Issue 37 of the French games magazine ''Casus Belli'', Denis Beck found many improvements in the third edition, writing, \"Even if ''Gamma World'' sometimes reminds us of a transposition of ''AD&D'' into the future, this new version — where we do not find the many problems that handicapped the previous editions — really looks good alongside other post-apocalypse games.\"",
"Beck concluded, \"It may not be the game of the year, but fans of The Great Upheaval will find plenty to enjoy here.",
"\"In his 1990 book ''The Complete Guide to Role-Playing Games'', game critic Rick Swan reviewed the 3rd edition and commented \"Though ''Gamma World'' may sound like a loony-bin version of ''Twilight: 2000'', it makes for some exciting adventures as the PCs explore a high-tech wonderland of mysterious landmarks and artifacts\".",
"Swan concluded by giving the game a rating of 3 out of 4, saying, \"It's a bang-up job ... that is, if you don't take your nuclear holocausts too seriously.",
"\"Scott Taylor for ''Black Gate'' in 2013 rated ''Gamma World'' as #8 in the top ten role-playing games of all time, saying \"There seems to be an innate fascination with the end of the world, be it from a global thermal nuclear war, zombie outbreak, alien invasion, or super-bug and ''Gamma World'' finds a way to bring the fantastic to this type of setting.",
"It has survived seven editions and three companies, but still, ''Gamma World'' remains a fun and functional game in the current RPG marketplace.\""
],
[
"Other reviews and commentary",
"*''White Wolf'' #36 (1993)"
],
[
"Cancelled video game",
"In 2011, a video game adaptation was announced at E3 called ''Gamma World: Alpha Mutation'' for the Xbox 360, PlayStation 3 and PC.",
"It was to be developed by Bedlam Games and published by Atari.",
"Unfortunately, due to unknown reasons, it was cancelled."
],
[
"Legacy",
"The Swedish role playing game ''Mutant'', released in 1984 by Äventyrsspel, was first pitched to its future writer as \"Gamma World, set in Sweden\".The post-apocalyptic premise of the 1997 computer game ''Fallout'' was inspired by ''Gamma World.''",
"Game creator Tim Cain said it was not the most balanced RPG but it had a good spirit to it.Gamma World was cited as a source of inspiration for the procedurally generated word-building in Caves of Qud."
],
[
"See also",
"*''Aftermath!",
"''*''After The Bomb''*''d20 Apocalypse''*''d20 Future''*''Darwin's World''*''Gammarauders''*''Metamorphosis Alpha''*''The Morrow Project''*''Mutant Future''*''Rifts''*''Road Hogs''*''Traveller''*''Torg''*''Twilight 2000''*''Wasteland''"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"*Anon 1981.",
"'RPGA Interview with... Jim Ward.'",
"''RPGA News'', 3:6-12 (Winter 1981–82).",
"*Anon 1982.",
"'RPGA Interview with... \"Jake\" Jaquet.'",
"''Polyhedron'', 4:6-10 (1982).",
"***Rabe, Jean 1987.",
"'Notes from HQ,' ''Polyhedron'', 38:3,23 (1987).",
"*Ward, James and Harold Johnson 1986.",
"'Gamma III.'",
"''Dragon'', 117:76-80 (Jan 1986).",
"*Williams, Skip 1989.",
"'Advice for All Mutants.'",
"''Dragon'', 149:28-30 (Sep 1989)."
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Grimoire"
],
[
"Introduction",
"This design for an amulet comes from the ''Black Pullet'' grimoire.A '''grimoire''' () (also known as a \"'''book of spells'''\", \"'''magic book'''\", or a \"'''spellbook'''\") is a textbook of magic, typically including instructions on how to create magical objects like talismans and amulets, how to perform magical spells, charms, and divination, and how to summon or invoke supernatural entities such as angels, spirits, deities, and demons.",
"In many cases, the books themselves are believed to be imbued with magical powers, although in many cultures, other sacred texts that are not grimoires (such as the Bible) have been believed to have supernatural properties intrinsically.",
"The only contents found in a grimoire would be information on spells, rituals, the preparation of magical tools, and lists of ingredients and their magical correspondences.",
"In this manner, while all ''books on magic'' could be thought of as grimoires, not all ''magical books'' should be thought of as grimoires.While the term ''grimoire'' is originally European—and many Europeans throughout history, particularly ceremonial magicians and cunning folk, have used grimoires—the historian Owen Davies has noted that similar books can be found all around the world, ranging from Jamaica to Sumatra.",
"He also noted that in this sense, the world's first grimoires were created in Europe and the ancient Near East."
],
[
"Etymology",
"The etymology of ''grimoire'' is unclear.",
"It is most commonly believed that the term ''grimoire'' originated from the Old French word ''grammaire'' 'grammar', which had initially been used to refer to all books written in Latin.",
"By the 18th century, the term had gained its now common usage in France and had begun to be used to refer purely to books of magic.",
"Owen Davies presumed this was because \"many of them continued to circulate in Latin manuscripts\".However, the term ''grimoire'' later developed into a figure of speech among the French indicating something that was hard to understand.",
"In the 19th century, with the increasing interest in occultism among the British following the publication of Francis Barrett's ''The Magus'' (1801), the term entered English in reference to books of magic."
],
[
"History",
"===Ancient period===Page from the Greek Magical Papyri, a grimoire of antiquity.The earliest known written magical incantations come from ancient Mesopotamia (modern Iraq), where they have been found inscribed on cuneiform clay tablets that archaeologists excavated from the city of Uruk and dated to between the 5th and 4th centuries BC.",
"The ancient Egyptians also employed magical incantations, which have been found inscribed on amulets and other items.",
"The Egyptian magical system, known as heka, was greatly altered and expanded after the Macedonians, led by Alexander the Great, invaded Egypt in 332 BC.Under the next three centuries of Hellenistic Egypt, the Coptic writing system evolved, and the Library of Alexandria was opened.",
"This likely had an influence upon books of magic, with the trend on known incantations switching from simple health and protection charms to more specific things, such as financial success and sexual fulfillment.",
"Around this time the legendary figure of Hermes Trismegistus developed as a conflation of the Egyptian god Thoth and the Greek Hermes; this figure was associated with writing and magic and, therefore, of books on magic.The ancient Greeks and Romans believed that books on magic were invented by the Persians.",
"The 1st-century AD writer Pliny the Elder stated that magic had been first discovered by the ancient philosopher Zoroaster around the year 647 BC but that it was only written down in the 5th century BC by the magician Osthanes.",
"His claims are not, however, supported by modern historians.The ancient Jewish people were often viewed as being knowledgeable in magic, which, according to legend, they had learned from Moses, who had learned it in Egypt.",
"Among many ancient writers, Moses was seen as an Egyptian rather than a Jew.",
"Two manuscripts likely dating to the 4th century, both of which purport to be the legendary eighth Book of Moses (the first five being the initial books in the Biblical Old Testament), present him as a polytheist who explained how to conjure gods and subdue demons.Meanwhile, there is definite evidence of grimoires being used by certain—particularly Gnostic—sects of early Christianity.",
"In the ''Book of Enoch'' found within the Dead Sea Scrolls, for instance, there is information on astrology and the angels.",
"In possible connection with the ''Book of Enoch'', the idea of Enoch and his great-grandson Noah having some involvement with books of magic given to them by angels continued through to the medieval period.Israelite King Solomon was a Biblical figure associated with magic and sorcery in the ancient world.",
"The 1st-century Romano-Jewish historian Josephus mentioned a book circulating under the name of Solomon that contained incantations for summoning demons and described how a Jew called Eleazar used it to cure cases of possession.",
"The book may have been the ''Testament of Solomon'' but was more probably a different work.",
"The pseudepigraphic ''Testament of Solomon'' is one of the oldest magical texts.",
"It is a Greek manuscript attributed to Solomon and was likely written in either Babylonia or Egypt sometime in the first five centuries AD; over 1,000 years after Solomon's death.The work tells of the building of The Temple and relates that construction was hampered by demons until the archangel Michael gave the King a magical ring.",
"The ring, engraved with the Seal of Solomon, had the power to bind demons from doing harm.",
"Solomon used it to lock demons in jars and commanded others to do his bidding, although eventually, according to the ''Testament'', he was tempted into worshiping \"false gods\", such as Moloch, Baal, and Rapha.",
"Subsequently, after losing favour with God, King Solomon wrote the work as a warning and a guide to the reader.When Christianity became the dominant faith of the Roman Empire, the early Church frowned upon the propagation of books on magic, connecting it with paganism, and burned books of magic.",
"The New Testament records that after the unsuccessful exorcism by the seven sons of Sceva became known, many converts decided to burn their own magic and pagan books in the city of Ephesus; this advice was adopted on a large scale after the Christian ascent to power.===Medieval period===In the Medieval period, the production of grimoires continued in Christendom, as well as amongst Jews and the followers of the newly founded Islamic faith.",
"As the historian Owen Davies noted, \"while the Christian Church was ultimately successful in defeating pagan worship it never managed to demarcate clearly and maintain a line of practice between religious devotion and magic.\"",
"The use of such books on magic continued.",
"In Christianised Europe, the Church divided books of magic into two kinds: those that dealt with \"natural magic\" and those that dealt in \"demonic magic\".The former was acceptable because it was viewed as merely taking note of the powers in nature that were created by God; for instance, the Anglo-Saxon leechbooks, which contained simple spells for medicinal purposes, were tolerated.",
"Demonic magic was not acceptable, because it was believed that such magic did not come from God, but from the Devil and his demons.",
"These grimoires dealt in such topics as necromancy, divination and demonology.",
"Despite this, \"there is ample evidence that the mediaeval clergy were the main practitioners of magic and therefore the owners, transcribers, and circulators of grimoires,\" while several grimoires were attributed to Popes.An excerpt from ''Sefer Raziel HaMalakh'', featuring magical sigils (or סגולות, ''seguloth'', in Hebrew).One such Arabic grimoire devoted to astral magic, the 10th-century ''Ghâyat al-Hakîm'', was later translated into Latin and circulated in Europe during the 13th century under the name of the ''Picatrix''.",
"However, not all such grimoires of this era were based upon Arabic sources.",
"The 13th-century ''Sworn Book of Honorius'', for instance, was (like the ancient ''Testament of Solomon'' before it) largely based on the supposed teachings of the Biblical king Solomon and included ideas such as prayers and a ritual circle, with the mystical purpose of having visions of God, Hell, and Purgatory and gaining much wisdom and knowledge as a result.",
"Another was the Hebrew ''Sefer Raziel Ha-Malakh'', translated in Europe as the ''Liber Razielis Archangeli''.A later book also claiming to have been written by Solomon was originally written in Greek during the 15th century, where it was known as the ''Magical Treatise of Solomon'' or the ''Little Key of the Whole Art of Hygromancy, Found by Several Craftsmen and by the Holy Prophet Solomon''.",
"In the 16th century, this work had been translated into Latin and Italian, being renamed the ''Clavicula Salomonis'', or the ''Key of Solomon''.In Christendom during the medieval age, grimoires were written that were attributed to other ancient figures, thereby supposedly giving them a sense of authenticity because of their antiquity.",
"The German abbot and occultist Trithemius (1462–1516) supposedly had a ''Book of Simon the Magician'', based upon the New Testament figure of Simon Magus.Similarly, it was commonly believed by medieval people that other ancient figures, such as the poet Virgil, astronomer Ptolemy, and philosopher Aristotle, had been involved in magic, and grimoires claiming to have been written by them were circulated.",
"However, there were those who did not believe this; for instance, the Franciscan friar Roger Bacon (c. 1214–94) stated that books falsely claiming to be by ancient authors \"ought to be prohibited by law.",
"\"===Early modern period===As the early modern period commenced in the late 15th century, many changes began to shock Europe that would have an effect on the production of grimoires.",
"Historian Owen Davies classed the most important of these as the Protestant Reformation, and subsequent Catholic Counter-Reformation; The Witch-hunts, and the advent of printing.",
"The Renaissance saw the continuation of interest in magic that had been found in the Medieval period, and in this period, there was an increased interest in Hermeticism among occultists and ceremonial magicians in Europe, largely fueled by the 1471 translation of the ancient ''Corpus hermeticum'' into Latin by Marsilio Ficino (1433–99).Alongside this, there was a rise in interest in the Jewish mysticism known as the Kabbalah, which was spread across the continent by Pico della Mirandola and Johannes Reuchlin.",
"The most important magician of the Renaissance was Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa (1486–1535), who widely studied occult topics and earlier grimoires and eventually published his own, the ''Three Books of Occult Philosophy'', in 1533.A similar figure was the Swiss magician known as Paracelsus (1493–1541), who published ''Of the Supreme Mysteries of Nature'', in which he emphasised the distinction between good and bad magic.",
"A third such individual was Johann Georg Faust, upon whom several pieces of later literature were written, such as Christopher Marlowe's ''Doctor Faustus'', that portrayed him as consulting with demons.The idea of demonology had remained strong in the Renaissance, and several demonological grimoires were published, including ''The Fourth Book of Occult Philosophy'', which falsely claimed to having been authored by Cornelius Agrippa, and the ''Pseudomonarchia Daemonum'', which listed 69 demons.",
"To counter this, the Roman Catholic Church authorised the production of many works of exorcism, the rituals of which were often very similar to those of demonic conjuration.",
"Alongside these demonological works, grimoires on natural magic continued to be produced, including ''Magia Naturalis'', written by Giambattista Della Porta (1535–1615).Iceland held magical traditions in regional work as well, most remarkably the Galdrabók, where numerous symbols of mystic origin are dedicated to the practitioner.",
"These pieces give a perfect fusion of Germanic pagan and Christian influence, seeking splendid help from the Norse gods and referring to the titles of demons.A man inscribed in a pentagram, from Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa's ''De Occulta Philosophia'' (Eng., ''Three Books of Occult Philosophy'').",
"The signs on the perimeter are astrological.The advent of printing in Europe meant that books could be mass-produced for the first time and could reach an ever-growing literate audience.",
"Among the earliest books to be printed were magical texts.",
"The ''nóminas'' were one example, consisting of prayers to the saints used as talismans.",
"It was particularly in Protestant countries, such as Switzerland and the German states, which were not under the domination of the Roman Catholic Church, where such grimoires were published.Despite the advent of print, however, handwritten grimoires remained highly valued, as they were believed to contain inherent magical powers, and they continued to be produced.",
"With increasing availability, people lower down the social scale and women began to have access to books on magic; this was often incorporated into the popular folk magic of the average people and, in particular, that of the cunning folk, who were professionally involved in folk magic.",
"These works left Europe and were imported to the parts of Latin America controlled by the Spanish and Portuguese empires and the parts of North America controlled by the British and French empires.Throughout this period, the Inquisition, a Roman Catholic organisation, had organised the mass suppression of peoples and beliefs that they considered heretical.",
"In many cases, grimoires were found in the heretics' possessions and destroyed.",
"In 1599, the church published the ''Indexes of Prohibited Books'', in which many grimoires were listed as forbidden, including several mediaeval ones, such as the ''Key of Solomon'', which were still popular.In Christendom, there also began to develop a widespread fear of witchcraft, which was believed to be Satanic in nature.",
"The subsequent hysteria, known as The Witch-hunts, caused the death of around 40,000 people, most of whom were women.",
"Sometimes, those found with grimoires—particularly demonological ones—were prosecuted and dealt with as witches but, in most cases, those accused had no access to such books.",
"Iceland—which had a relatively high literacy rate—proved an exception to this, with a third of the 134 witch trials held involving people who had owned grimoires.",
"By the end of the Early Modern period, and the beginning of the Enlightenment, many European governments brought in laws prohibiting many superstitious beliefs in an attempt to bring an end to the Witch Hunts; this would invariably affect the release of grimoires.Meanwhile, Hermeticism and the Kabbalah would influence the creation of a mystical philosophy known as Rosicrucianism, which first appeared in the early 17th century, when two pamphlets detailing the existence of the mysterious Rosicrucian group were published in Germany.",
"These claimed that Rosicrucianism had originated with a Medieval figure known as Christian Rosenkreuz, who had founded the Brotherhood of the Rosy Cross; however, there was no evidence for the existence of Rosenkreuz or the Brotherhood.===18th and 19th centuries===The 18th century saw the rise of the Enlightenment, a movement devoted to science and rationalism, predominantly amongst the ruling classes.",
"However, amongst much of Europe, belief in magic and witchcraft persisted, as did the witch trials in certain areas.",
"Governments tried to crack down on magicians and fortune tellers, particularly in France, where the police viewed them as social pests who took money from the gullible, often in a search for treasure.",
"In doing so, they confiscated many grimoires.Beginning in the 17th century, a new, ephemeral form of printed literature developed in France; the ''Bibliothèque bleue''.",
"Many grimoires published through this circulated among a growing percentage of the populace; in particular, the ''Grand Albert'', the ''Petit Albert'' (1782), the ''Grimoire du Pape Honorius'', and the ''Enchiridion Leonis Papae''.",
"The ''Petit Albert'' contained a wide variety of magic; for instance, dealing in simple charms for ailments, along with more complex things, such as the instructions for making a Hand of Glory.In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, following the French Revolution of 1789, a hugely influential grimoire was published under the title of the ''Grand Grimoire'', which was considered particularly powerful, because it involved conjuring and making a pact with the devil's chief minister, Lucifugé Rofocale, to gain wealth from him.",
"A new version of this grimoire was later published under the title of the ''Dragon rouge'' and was available for sale in many Parisian bookstores.",
"Similar books published in France at this time included the ''Black Pullet'' and the ''Grimoirium Verum''.",
"The ''Black Pullet'', probably authored in late-18th-century Rome or France, differs from the typical grimoires in that it does not claim to be a manuscript from antiquity, but told by a man who was a member of Napoleon's armed expeditionary forces in Egypt.The widespread availability of printed grimoires in France—despite the opposition of both the rationalists and the church—soon spread to neighbouring countries, such as Spain and Germany.",
"In Switzerland, Geneva was commonly associated with the occult at the time, particularly by Catholics, because it had been a stronghold of Protestantism.",
"Many of those interested in the esoteric traveled from Roman Catholic nations to Switzerland to purchase grimoires or to study with occultists.",
"Soon, grimoires appeared that involved Catholic saints; one example that appeared during the 19th century, and became relatively popular—particularly in Spain—was the ''Libro de San Cipriano'', or ''The Book of St. Ciprian'', which falsely claimed to date from c. 1000.As with most grimoires of this period, it dealt with (among other things) how to discover treasure.The title page of the 1880 New York edition of ''The Sixth and Seventh Books of Moses''.In Germany, with the increased interest in folklore during the 19th century, many historians took an interest in magic and in grimoires.",
"Several published extracts of such grimoires in their own books on the history of magic, thereby helping to further propagate them.",
"Perhaps the most notable of these was the Protestant pastor Georg Conrad Horst (1779–1832) who, from 1821 to 1826, published a six-volume collection of magical texts in which he studied grimoires as a peculiarity of the Medieval mindset.Another scholar of the time interested in grimoires, the antiquarian bookseller Johann Scheible first published the ''Sixth and Seventh Books of Moses''; two influential magical texts that claimed to have been written by the ancient Jewish figure Moses.",
"''The Sixth and Seventh Books of Moses'' were among the works which later spread to the countries of Scandinavia, where—in Danish and Swedish—grimoires were known as black books and were commonly found among members of the army.In Britain, new grimoires continued to be produced throughout the 18th century, such as Ebenezer Sibly's ''A New and Complete Illustration of the Celestial Science of Astrology''.",
"In the last decades of that century, London experienced a revival of interest in the occult which was further propagated by Francis Barrett's publication of ''The Magus'' in 1801.",
"''The Magus'' contained many things taken from older grimoires—particularly those of Cornelius Agrippa—and, while not achieving initial popularity upon release, it gradually became an influential text.One of Barrett's pupils, John Parkin, created his own handwritten grimoire ''The Grand Oracle of Heaven, or, The Art of Divine Magic'', although it was never published, largely because Britain was at war with France, and grimoires were commonly associated with the French.",
"The only writer to publish British grimoires widely in the early 19th century was Robert Cross Smith, who released ''The Philosophical Merlin'' (1822) and ''The Astrologer of the Nineteenth Century'' (1825), but neither sold well.In the late 19th century, several of these texts (including ''The Book of Abramelin'' and the ''Key of Solomon'') were reclaimed by para-Masonic magical organisations, such as the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn and the Ordo Templi Orientis.===20th and 21st centuries===''The Secret Grimoire of Turiel'' claims to have been written in the 16th century, but no copy older than 1927 has been produced.A modern grimoire, the ''Simon Necronomicon'', takes its name from a fictional book of magic in the stories of H. P. Lovecraft which was inspired by Babylonian mythology and the ''Ars Goetia''—one of the five books that make up ''The'' ''Lesser Key of Solomon''—concerning the summoning of demons.",
"''The Azoëtia'' of Andrew D. Chumbley has been described by Gavin Semple as a modern grimoire.The neopagan religion of Wicca publicly appeared in the 1940s, and Gerald Gardner introduced the ''Book of Shadows'' as a Wiccan grimoire.The term grimoire commonly serves as an alternative name for a spell book or tome of magical knowledge in fantasy fiction and role-playing games.",
"The most famous fictional grimoire is the ''Necronomicon'', a creation of H. P. Lovecraft."
],
[
"See also",
"* Table of magical correspondences, a type of reference work used in ceremonial magic* Codex"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Bibliography",
"*"
],
[
"External links",
"* * * Internet Sacred Text Archives: Grimoires* Digitized Grimoires* * Scandinavian folklore"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Grand Guignol"
],
[
"Introduction",
"upright=.8'''''Le Théâtre du Grand-Guignol''''' (: \"The Theatre of the Great Puppet\")—known as the '''Grand Guignol'''–was a theatre in the Pigalle district of Paris (7, cité Chaptal).",
"From its opening in 1897 until its closing in 1962, it specialised in naturalistic horror shows.",
"Its name is often used as a general term for graphic, amoral horror entertainment, a genre popular from Elizabethan and Jacobean theatre (for instance Shakespeare's ''Titus Andronicus'', and Webster's ''The Duchess of Malfi'' and ''The White Devil''), to today's splatter films."
],
[
"Theatre",
"The former location of the Grand Guignol, now home to the ''Le Théâtre du Grand-Guignol'' was founded in 1897 by Oscar Méténier, who planned it as a space for naturalist performance.",
"With 293 seats, the venue was the smallest in Paris.A former chapel, the theatre's previous life was evident in the boxes – which looked like confessionals – and in the angels over the orchestra.",
"Although the architecture created frustrating obstacles, the design that was initially a predicament ultimately became beneficial to the marketing of the theatre.",
"The opaque furniture and gothic structures placed sporadically on the walls of the building exude a feeling of eeriness from the moment of entrance.",
"People came to this theatre for an experience, not only to see a show.",
"The audience at \"Le Théâtre du Grand-Guignol\" endured the terror of the shows because they wanted to be filled with strong \"feelings\" of something.",
"Many attended the shows to get a feeling of sexual arousal.",
"Underneath the balcony were boxes (originally built for nuns to watch church services) that were available for theatre-goers to rent during performances because they would get so aroused by the action happening on stage.",
"It has been said that audience members would get so boisterous in the boxes, that actors would sometimes break character and yell something such as \"Keep it down in there!\"",
"Conversely, there were audience members who could not physically handle the brutality of the actions taking place on stage.",
"Frequently, the \"special effects\" would be too realistic and often an audience member would faint or vomit during performances.",
"Theater director Max Maurey used the goriness to his advantage by hiring doctors to be at performances as a marketing ploy.The theatre owed its name to Guignol, a traditional Lyonnaise puppet character, joining political commentary with the style of Punch and Judy.The theatre's peak was between World War I and World War II, when it was frequented by royalty and celebrities in evening dress."
],
[
"Important people",
"Oscar MéténierOscar Méténier was the Grand Guignol's founder and original director.",
"Under his direction, the theatre produced plays about a class of people who were not considered appropriate subjects in other venues: prostitutes, criminals, street urchins and others at the lower end of Paris's social echelon.André Antoine was the founder of the Théâtre Libre and a collaborator of Méténier.",
"His theatre gave Méténier a basic model to use for The Grand Guignol Theatre.Max Maurey served as director from 1898 to 1914.Maurey shifted the theatre's emphasis to the horror plays it would become famous for and judged the success of a performance by the number of patrons who passed out from shock; the average was two faintings each evening.",
"Maurey discovered André de Lorde, who would become the most important playwright for the theatre.De Lorde was the theatre's principal playwright from 1901 to 1926.He wrote at least 100 plays for the Grand Guignol, such as ''The Old Woman'', ''The Ultimate Torture'', ''A Crime in the Mad House'' and more.",
"He collaborated with experimental psychologist Alfred Binet to create plays about insanity, one of the theatre's favourite and frequently recurring themes.Camille Choisy served as director from 1914 to 1930.He contributed his expertise in special effects and scenery to the theatre's distinctive style.",
"was one of the Grand Guignol's best-known performers.",
"From 1917 to the 1930s, she performed most frequently as a victim and was known as \"the most assassinated woman in the world.\"",
"During her career at the Grand Guignol, Maxa's characters were murdered more than 10,000 times in at least 60 different ways and raped at least 3,000 times.Jack Jouvin served as director from 1930 to 1937.He shifted the theatre's subject matter, focusing performances not on gory horror but psychological drama.",
"Under his leadership, the theatre's popularity waned and, after World War II, it was not well-attended.Charles Nonon was the theatre's last director."
],
[
"Plays",
"A 1937 scene from Grand GuignolIn a typical Grand Guignol performance patrons would see five or six short plays, all in a style that attempted to be brutally true to the theatre's naturalistic ideals.",
"The most popular and best-known were the horror plays, which featured a distinctly bleak worldview and gory special effects, particularly in their climaxes.",
"The horrors depicted at Grand Guignol were generally not supernatural; rather these plays often explored altered states like insanity, hypnosis, or panic.",
"To heighten the effect, the horror plays were often alternated with comedies, a lineup referred to as \"hot and cold showers.",
"\"Examples of Grand Guignol horror shows included:* ''Le Laboratoire des Hallucinations'', by André de Lorde: When a doctor finds his wife's lover in his operating room, he performs a graphic brain surgery, rendering the adulterer a hallucinating semi-zombie.",
"Now insane, the lover/patient hammers a chisel into the doctor's brain.",
"* ''Un Crime dans une Maison de Fous'', by André de Lorde: Two hags in an insane asylum use scissors to blind a pretty young fellow inmate out of jealousy.",
"* ''L'Horrible Passion'', by André de Lorde: A nanny strangles the children in her care.",
"* ''Le Baiser dans la Nuit'', by Maurice Level: A young woman visits the man whose face she horribly disfigured with acid, and he obtains his revenge."
],
[
"Closure",
"Audiences waned in the years following World War II, and the Grand Guignol closed its doors in 1962.Management attributed the closure in part to the fact that the theatre's faux horrors had been eclipsed by the actual events of the Holocaust two decades earlier.",
"\"We could never equal Buchenwald,\" said its final director, Charles Nonon.",
"\"Before the war, everyone felt that what was happening onstage was impossible.",
"Now we know that these things, and worse, are possible in reality.",
"\"The Grand Guignol building still exists.",
"It is occupied by the , a company devoted to presenting plays in sign language."
],
[
"Thematic and structural analysis",
"While the original Grand Guignol attempted to present naturalistic horror, the performances would seem melodramatic and heightened to today's audiences.",
"For this reason, the term is often applied to films and plays of a stylized nature with heightened acting, melodrama and theatrical effects such as ''Sweeney Todd'', ''Sleepy Hollow'', ''Quills'', and the Hammer Horror films that went before them.",
"''What Ever Happened to Baby Jane?",
"''; ''Hush...Hush, Sweet Charlotte''; ''What Ever Happened to Aunt Alice?",
"''; ''What's the Matter with Helen?",
"''; ''Night Watch'' and ''Whoever Slew Auntie Roo?''",
"form a sub-branch of the genre called Grande Dame Guignol for its use of aging A-list actresses in sensational horror films.Audiences had strong reactions to the new disturbing themes the horror plays presented.",
"One of the most prevalent themes staged at the Grand-Guignol was the demoralization and corruption of science.",
"The \"evil doctor\" was a recurring trope in the horror shows performed.",
"The popular show ''The System of Doctor Goudron and Professor Plume'' by André de Lorde displays a depiction of a doctor typical of the theater.",
"Dr. Goudron is portrayed as manic, insane, unreliable.",
"He is seen \"pacing nervously\" and \"jumping on a desk and gesticulating\".",
"Later Lorde depicts the scientist as violent, with Goudron attempting to carve out an eye and then bite the hands of guards.",
"During the time, curiosity and skepticism ravaged science and medicine.",
"The depiction of scientists at the Grand-Guignol reflected the public attitude of fear and disdain.",
"Medical science held a reputation of \"terror and peculiar infamy\".",
"Middle-class Parisian society believed science existed in a world of frivolity and falsehood, whereas art existed in a world of honesty.",
"Poet Matthew Arnold is an exemplary lens to use in order to understand these sympathies.The themes the Grand-Guignol introduced into the horror genre affected how the genre exists today.",
"The Grand-Guignol's introduction of naturalism into horror \"unmasked brutality of contemporary culture\".",
"Previously, horror served as escapism, dealing with the supernatural and unrelatable.",
"After the theater introduced relatable topics into the genre, the audience could visualize the plots taking place and thus experienced greater fear - the Grand-Guignol transformed the horror plot into something the audience could feel personally.",
"Horror became a vehicle for ideas and philosophy where deep \"insights gave way to spectacle, and spectacle to violence and gore, until in the end little was left but the gore\".",
"Today the horror genre begins with \"optimism and hope\", which \"wither before random, chaotic, and inevitable violence\"."
],
[
"Legacy and revivals",
"Grand Guignol flourished briefly in London in the early 1920s under the direction of Jose Levy, where it attracted the talents of Sybil Thorndike, Noël Coward, and Richard Hughes (whose one-act play ''The Sisters' Tragedy'' outshone even Coward's), and a series of short English \"Grand Guignol\" films (using original screenplays, not play adaptations) was made at the same time, directed by Fred Paul.",
"Several of the films exist at the BFI National Archive.The Grand Guignol was revived once again in London in 1945, under the direction of Frederick Witney, where it ran for two seasons at the Granville Theatre.",
"These included premiers of Witney's own work as well as adaptations of French originals.In recent years, English director-writer, Richard Mazda, has re-introduced New York audiences to the Grand Guignol.",
"His acting troupe, The Queens Players, have produced six mainstage productions of Grand Guignol plays, and Mazda is writing new plays in the classic Guignol style.",
"The sixth production, ''Theatre of Fear'', included De Lorde's famous adaptation of Poe's ''The System of Doctor Tarr and Professor Fether'' (''Le Systéme du Dr Goudron et Pr Plume'') as well as two original plays, ''Double Crossed'' and ''The Good Death'' alongside ''The Tell Tale Heart''.The 1963 mondo film ''Ecco'' (Original title: ''Il mondo di notte numero 3'', directed byGianni Proia) includes a scene which may have been filmed at the Grand Guignol theatre during its final years.The Swiss theatre company Compagnie Pied de Biche has revisited the Grand Guignol genre in contemporary contexts since 2008.The company staged in 2010 a diptych ''Impact & Dr. Incubis'', based on original texts by Nicolas Yazgi and directed by Frédéric Ozier.",
"More than literal adaptations, the plays address violence, death, crime and fear in contemporary contexts, while revisiting many trope of the original Grand Guignol corpus, often with humour.Recently formed London-based Grand Guignol company Theatre of the Damned, brought their first production to the Camden Fringe in 2010 and produced the award nominated ''Grand Guignol'' in November of that year.",
"In 2011, they staged ''Revenge of the Grand Guignol'' at the Courtyard Theatre, London, as part of the London Horror Festival.Between 2011 and 2016, Baltimore-based Yellow Sign Theatre performed Grand Guignol productions (including a heavily updated version of ''Le Systéme du Dr Goudron et Pr Plume'') as well as integrating Guignol elements into other performance forms.In November 2014, 86 years after the last show of Alfredo Sainati's ''La Compagnia del Grand-Guignol'', founded in 1908 and which had been the only example of Grand Guignol in Italy, the Convivio d'Arte Company presented in Milan ''Grand Guignol de Milan: Le Cabaret des Vampires''.",
"The show was an original tribute to Grand Guignol, a horror vaudeville with various horror and grotesque performances such as monologues, live music and burlesque, with a satirical black humour conduction."
],
[
"Further reading",
"*Antona-Traversi, Cammillo.",
"''L'Histoire du Grand Guignol: Theatre de L'Epouvante et du Rire.''",
"Librarie theatrale, 1933.",
"*Brown, Frederick.",
"''Theater and Revolution: The Culture of the French Stage.''",
"New York, The Viking Press, 1980.",
"*Gordon, Mel.",
"''The Grand Guignol: Theatre of Fear and Terror.''",
"Da Capo Press, 1997.",
"*Fahy, Thomas.",
"''The Philosophy of Horror.''",
"University Press of Kentucky, 2010.",
"*Hand, Richard, and Michael Wilson.",
"''Grand-Guignol: The French Theatre of Horror.''",
"University of Exeter Press, 2002.",
"*Hand, Richard, and Michael Wilson.",
"''London's Grand-Guignol and the Theatre of Horror'' University of Exeter Press, 2007.",
"*Hand, Richard J., and Michael Wilson.",
"\"Transatlantic Terror!",
"French Horror Theater and American Pre-Code Comics.\"",
"''The Journal of Popular Culture'', vol.",
"45, no.",
"2, 2012.",
"*Negovan, Thomas.",
"''Grand Guignol: An Exhibition of Artworks Celebrating the Legendary Theater of Terror.''",
"Olympian Publishing, 2010.",
"*Ruff, Felicia J.",
"\"The Laugh Factory?",
"Humor and Horror at Le Théâtre du Grand Guignol.\"",
"Theatre Symposium: A Journal of the Southeastern Theatre Conference, vol.",
"16, 2008, pp.",
"65–74."
],
[
"Footnotes",
"'''Sources'''****"
],
[
"External links",
"* ** Aboutface Theatre Company, New York City; series of Grand Guignol plays and adaptations* Compagnie Pied de Biche, Swiss-based theatre company that revisits the Grand Guignol genre in contemporary contexts* Contortium Theatre Company, UK based Grand Guignol company."
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Great Plague of London"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Collecting the dead for burial during the Great PlagueThe '''Great Plague of London''', lasting from 1665 to 1666, was the last major epidemic of the bubonic plague to occur in England.",
"It happened within the centuries-long Second Pandemic, a period of intermittent bubonic plague epidemics that originated in Central Asia in 1331 (the first year of the Black Death), and included related diseases such as pneumonic plague and septicemic plague, which lasted until 1750.The Great Plague killed an estimated 100,000 people—almost a quarter of London's population—in 18 months.",
"The plague was caused by the ''Yersinia pestis'' bacterium, which is usually transmitted to a human by the bite of a flea or louse.The 1665–66 epidemic was on a much smaller scale than the earlier Black Death pandemic.",
"It became known afterwards as the \"great\" plague mainly because it was the last widespread outbreak of bubonic plague in England during the 400-year Second Pandemic."
],
[
"London in 1665",
"\"Woodcut\" map of London, dating from the 1560sMap of London by Wenceslaus Hollar, 1665The plague was endemic in 17th-century London, as it was in other European cities at the time.",
"The disease periodically erupted into massive epidemics.",
"There were 30,000 deaths due to the plague in 1603, 35,000 in 1625, 10,000 in 1636, and smaller numbers in other years.In late 1664, a bright comet was seen in the sky, and the people of London became fearful, wondering what evil event it portended.",
"London at that time was a city of about 448 acres surrounded by a city wall that had originally been built to keep out raiding bands, and, in the south, by the River Thames.",
"There were gates in the wall at Ludgate, Newgate, Aldersgate, Cripplegate, Moorgate, Bishopsgate and Aldgate, and the Thames was crossable at London Bridge.",
"In the poorer parts of the city, filled with overcrowded tenements and garrets, hygiene was impossible to maintain.",
"There was no sanitation, and open drains flowed along the centre of winding streets.",
"The cobbles were slippery with animal droppings, rubbish and the slops thrown out of the houses; they were muddy and buzzing with flies in summer, and awash with sewage in winter.",
"The City Corporation employed \"rakers\" to remove the worst of the filth, and it was transported to mounds outside the walls, where it accumulated and continued to decompose.",
"The stench was overwhelming, and people walked around with handkerchiefs or nosegays pressed against their nostrils.Some of the city's necessities, such as coal, arrived by barge, but most came by road.",
"Carts, carriages, horses and pedestrians were crowded together, and the gateways in the wall formed bottlenecks through which it was difficult to progress.",
"The nineteen-arch London Bridge was even more congested.",
"Those who were better-off used hackney carriages and sedan chairs to get to their destinations without getting filthy.",
"The poor walked, and might be drenched by water tossed up by wheeled vehicles, slops thrown into the street, or water pouring off overhanging roofs.",
"Another hazard was the choking black smoke belching forth from soap factories, breweries, iron smelters and about 15,000 households that were burning coal to heat their homes.Outside the city walls, shanty towns with wooden shacks and no sanitation had sprung up, providing homes for the craftsmen and tradespeople who had flocked to the already overcrowded city.",
"The government had tried to limit the development of these \"suburbs\", but had failed: Over a quarter of a million people lived in them.",
"When Royalists had fled the country during the Commonwealth, they had left many fine town houses vacant, and some immigrants to London had crowded into them, converting them into tenements that housed different families in every room.",
"These properties were soon vandalised and became rat-infested.The City of London proper was administered by the Lord Mayor, the Aldermen and the common councillors, but some parts of the greater metropolitan area were not legally part of the city.",
"Some of these areas, both inside the City walls and outside its boundaries, had long been organised into districts of various sizes, called \"liberties\", that had historically been granted rights to self-government.",
"(Many had originally been associated with the religious institutions that were abolished in the Dissolution of the Monasteries, whereupon their historic rights and property had been transferred to secular owners.",
")By 1665, the walled City was surrounded by a ring of liberties which had come under its authority, and these had come to be referred to collectively as 'the City and Liberties'.",
"However, this area was surrounded by additional suburbs with other independent administrations.",
"For example, Westminster was an independent town with its own liberties, joined to London by urban development, and the Tower of London was an independent liberty.",
"Areas that were not part of any of these various independent administrations came under the authority of the county of Middlesex if they were north of the river, and under the authority of Surrey if they were south of the river.At that time, bubonic plague was a much feared disease, but its cause was not understood.",
"Many mistakenly blamed emanations from the earth, \"pestilential effluvia\", unusual weather, sickness in livestock, abnormal behaviour of animals or an increase in the numbers of moles, frogs, mice or flies.",
"It was not until 1894 that its causal agent, the bacterium ''Yersinia pestis'', was identified by Alexandre Yersin, and its transmission by rat fleas became known.",
"Although the Great Plague in London was long assumed to be bubonic plague, caused by ''Yersinia pestis'', this was only confirmed (by DNA analysis) in 2016.It is now believed that human body lice also played a key role in causing infections, perhaps more so than rats."
],
[
"The recording of deaths",
"In order to judge the severity of an epidemic, it is first necessary to know how big the population was in which it occurred.",
"There was no official census of the population to provide this figure, and the best contemporary count comes from the work of John Graunt (1620–1674), who was one of the earliest Fellows of the Royal Society and one of the first demographers, bringing a scientific approach to the collection of statistics.",
"In 1662, he estimated that 384,000 people lived in the City of London, the Liberties, Westminster and the out-parishes, based on figures in the Bills of Mortality published each week in the capital.",
"These different districts with different administrations constituted the officially recognized extent of London as a whole.",
"In 1665, he revised his estimate to \"not above 460,000\".",
"Other contemporaries put the figure higher (the French Ambassador, for example, suggested 600,000), but with no mathematical basis to support their estimates.",
"The next largest city in the kingdom was Norwich, with a population of 30,000.There was no duty to report a death to anyone in authority.",
"Instead, each parish appointed two or more \"searchers of the dead\", whose duty was to inspect a corpse and determine the cause of death.",
"A searcher was entitled to charge a small fee from relatives for each death they reported, and so habitually the parish would appoint someone to the post who would otherwise be destitute and would be receiving support from the parish poor rate.",
"Typically, this meant searchers would be old women who were illiterate, might know little about identifying diseases and who would be open to dishonesty.",
"Searchers would typically learn about a death either from the local sexton who had been asked to dig a grave or from the tolling of a church bell.",
"Anyone who did not report a death to their local church, such as Quakers, Anabaptists, other non-Anglican Christians or Jews, frequently did not get included in the official records.",
"Searchers during times of plague were required to live apart from the community, avoid other people and carry a white stick to warn of their occupation when outdoors, and stay indoors except when performing their duties, to avoid spreading the diseases.",
"Searchers reported to the Parish Clerk, who made a return each week to the Company of Parish Clerks in Brode Lane.",
"Figures were then passed to the Lord Mayor and then to the Minister of State once plague became a matter of national concern.",
"The reported figures were used to compile the Bills of Mortality, which listed total deaths in each parish and whether by the plague.",
"The system of Searchers to report the cause of death continued until 1836.Graunt recorded the incompetence of the Searchers at identifying true causes of death, remarking on the frequent recording of 'consumption' rather than other diseases which were recognized then by physicians.",
"He suggested a cup of ale and a doubling of their fee to two groats rather than one was sufficient for Searchers to change the cause of death to one more convenient for the householders.",
"No one wished to be known as having had a death by plague in their household, and Parish Clerks, too, connived in covering up cases of plague in their official returns.",
"Analysis of the Bills of Mortality during the months plague took hold shows a rise in deaths other than by plague well above the average death rate, a tell-tale sign of misrepresentation of the true cause of death.",
"As plague spread, a system of quarantine was introduced, whereby any house where someone had died from plague would be locked up and no one allowed to enter or leave for 40 days.",
"This frequently led to the deaths of the other inhabitants, by neglect if not from the plague, and provided ample incentive not to report the disease.",
"The official returns record 68,596 cases of plague, but a reasonable estimate suggests this figure is 30,000 short of the true total.",
"A plague house was marked with a red cross on the door with the words \"Lord have mercy upon us\", and a watchman stood guard outside."
],
[
"Preventive measures",
"Reports of plague around Europe began to reach England in the 1660s, causing the Privy Council to consider what steps might be taken to prevent it crossing to England.",
"Quarantining (isolation) of ships had been used during previous outbreaks and was again introduced for ships coming to London in November 1663, following outbreaks in Amsterdam and Hamburg.",
"Two naval ships were assigned to intercept any vessels entering the Thames estuary.",
"Ships from infected ports were required to moor at Hole Haven on Canvey Island for a ''trentine'' – period of 30 days – before being allowed to travel up-river.",
"Ships from ports free of plague or completing their isolation period were given a certificate of health and allowed to travel on.",
"A second inspection line was established between the forts on opposite banks of the Thames at Tilbury and Gravesend with instructions to pass only ships with a certificate.The isolation period was increased to forty days – a ''quarantine'' – in May 1664 as the continental plague worsened, and the areas subject to quarantine changed with the news of the spread of plague to include all of Holland, Zeeland and Friesland (all regions of the Dutch Republic); restrictions on Hamburg were removed in November.",
"Quarantine measures against ships coming from the Dutch Republic were put in place in 29 other ports from May, starting with Great Yarmouth.",
"The Dutch ambassador objected at the constraint of trade with his country, but England responded that it had been one of the last countries introducing such restrictions.",
"Regulations were enforced quite strictly, so that people or houses where voyagers had come ashore without serving their quarantine were also subjected to 40 days of quarantine."
],
[
"Outbreak",
"Plague was one of the hazards of life in Britain from its dramatic appearance in 1348 with the Black Death.",
"The Bills of Mortality began to be published regularly in 1603, in which year 33,347 deaths were recorded from plague.",
"Between then and 1665, only four years had no recorded cases.",
"In 1563, a thousand people were reportedly dying in London each week.",
"In 1593, there were 15,003 deaths, 1625 saw 41,313 dead, between 1640 and 1646 came 11,000 deaths, culminating in 3,597 for 1647.The 1625 outbreak was recorded at the time as the 'Great Plague', until deaths from the plague of 1665 surpassed it.",
"These official figures are likely to under-report actual numbers.===Early days===''Rattus rattus'', the black rat.",
"Smaller than ''Rattus norvegicus'', the brown rat, which later supplanted it, it is also keener to live near humankind.",
"Timber houses and overcrowded slums provided excellent homes.",
"The link between the rat as reservoir of infection and host to fleas which could transfer to man was not understood.",
"Efforts were made to eliminate cats and dogs: if anything, this encouraged the rats.",
"Body lice were also important plague vectors.Plague was sufficiently uncommon that medical practitioners might have had no personal experience of seeing the disease; medical training varied from those who had attended the college of physicians, to apothecaries who also acted as doctors, to charlatans.",
"Other diseases abounded, such as an outbreak of smallpox the year before, and these uncertainties all added to difficulties identifying the true start of the epidemic.",
"Contemporary accounts suggest cases of plague occurred through the winter of 1664–65, some of which were fatal but a number of which did not display the virulence of the later epidemic.",
"The winter was cold, the ground frozen from December to March, river traffic on the Thames twice blocked by ice, and it may be that the cold weather held back its spread.This outbreak of bubonic plague in England is thought to have spread from the Netherlands, where the disease had been occurring intermittently since 1599.It is unclear exactly where the disease first struck but the initial contagion may have arrived with Dutch trading ships carrying bales of cotton from Amsterdam, which was ravaged by the disease in 1663–64, with a mortality given of 50,000.The first areas to be struck are believed to be the dock areas just outside London, and the parish of St Giles.",
"In both of these localities, poor workers were crowded into ill-kept structures.",
"Two suspicious deaths were recorded in St Giles parish in 1664 and another in February 1665.These did not appear as plague deaths on the Bills of Mortality, so no control measures were taken by the authorities, but the total number of people dying in London during the first four months of 1665 showed a marked increase.",
"By the end of April, only four plague deaths had been recorded, two in the parish of St. Giles, but total deaths per week had risen from around 290 to 398.There had been three official cases in April, a level of plague which in earlier years had not induced any official response, but the Privy Council now acted to introduce household quarantine.",
"Justices of the Peace in Middlesex were instructed to investigate any suspected cases and to shut up the house if it was confirmed.",
"Shortly after, a similar order was issued by the King's Bench to the City and Liberties.",
"A riot broke out in St. Giles when the first house was sealed up; the crowd broke down the door and released the inhabitants.",
"Rioters caught were punished severely.",
"Instructions were given to build pest-houses, which were essentially isolation hospitals built away from other people where the sick could be cared for (or stay until they died).",
"This official activity suggests that despite the few recorded cases, the government was already aware that this was a serious outbreak of plague.Two men discovering a dead woman in the streetWith the arrival of warmer weather, the disease began to take a firmer hold.",
"In the week 2–9 May, there were three recorded deaths in the parish of St Giles, four in neighbouring St Clement Danes and one each in St Andrew Holborn and St Mary Woolchurch Haw.",
"Only the last was actually inside the city walls.",
"A Privy Council committee was formed to investigate methods to best prevent the spread of plague, and measures were introduced to close some of the ale houses in affected areas and limit the number of lodgers allowed in a household.",
"In the city, the Lord Mayor issued a proclamation that all householders must diligently clean the streets outside their property, which was a householder's responsibility, not a state one (the city employed scavengers and rakers to remove the worst of the mess).",
"Matters just became worse, and Aldermen were instructed to find and punish those failing their duty.",
"As cases in St. Giles began to rise, an attempt was made to quarantine the area and constables were instructed to inspect everyone wishing to travel and contain inside vagrants or suspect persons.People began to be alarmed.",
"Samuel Pepys, who had an important position at the Admiralty, stayed in London and provided a contemporary account of the plague through his diary.",
"On 30 April he wrote: \"Great fears of the sickness here in the City it being said that two or three houses are already shut up.",
"God preserve us all!\"",
"Another source of information on the time is ''A Journal of the Plague Year'', which was written by Daniel Defoe and published in 1722.He had been only five when the plague struck but made use of his family's recollections (his uncle was a saddler in East London and his father a butcher in Cripplegate), interviews with survivors and sight of such official records as were available.The onset of the disease was recalled two years later by Puritan minister Thomas Vincent:===Exodus from the city===Scenes in London during the plagueBy July 1665, plague was rampant in the City of London.",
"The rich ran away, including King Charles II of England, his family and his court, who left the city for Salisbury, moving on to Oxford in September when some cases of plague occurred in Salisbury.",
"The aldermen and most of the other city authorities opted to stay at their posts.",
"The Lord Mayor of London, Sir John Lawrence, also decided to stay in the city.",
"Businesses were closed when merchants and professionals fled.",
"Defoe wrote \"Nothing was to be seen but wagons and carts, with goods, women, servants, children, coaches filled with people of the better sort, and horsemen attending them, and all hurrying away\".",
"As the plague raged throughout the summer, only a small number of clergymen, physicians and apothecaries remained to cope with an increasingly large number of victims.",
"Ellen Cotes, author of ''London's Dreadful Visitation'', expressed the hope that \"Neither the Physicians of our Souls or Bodies may hereafter in such great numbers forsake us\".The poorer people were also alarmed by the contagion and some left the city, but it was not easy for them to abandon their accommodation and livelihoods for an uncertain future elsewhere.",
"Before exiting through the city gates, they were required to possess a certificate of good health signed by the Lord Mayor and these became increasingly difficult to obtain.",
"As time went by and the numbers of plague victims rose, people living in the villages outside London began to resent this exodus and were no longer prepared to accept townsfolk from London, with or without a certificate.",
"The refugees were turned back, were not allowed to pass through towns and had to travel across country, and were forced to live rough on what they could steal or scavenge from the fields.",
"Many died in wretched circumstances of starvation and dehydration in the hot summer that was to follow.===Height of the epidemic===Bill of Mortality for the plague in 1665In the last week of July, the London Bill of Mortality showed 3,014 deaths, of which 2,020 had died from the plague.",
"The number of deaths as a result of plague may have been underestimated, as deaths in other years in the same period were much lower, at around 300.As the number of victims affected mounted up, burial grounds became overfull, and pits were dug to accommodate the dead.",
"Drivers of dead-carts travelled the streets calling \"Bring out your dead\" and carted away piles of bodies.",
"The authorities became concerned that the number of deaths might cause public alarm and ordered that body removal and interment should take place only at night.",
"As time went on, there were too many victims, and too few drivers, to remove the bodies which began to be stacked up against the walls of houses.",
"Daytime collection was resumed and the plague pits became mounds of decomposing corpses.",
"In the parish of Aldgate, a great hole was dug near the churchyard, fifty feet long and twenty feet wide.",
"Digging was continued by labourers at one end while the dead-carts tipped in corpses at the other.",
"When there was no room for further extension it was dug deeper until ground water was reached at twenty feet.",
"When finally covered with earth it housed 1,114 corpses.Plague doctors traversed the streets diagnosing victims, many of them without formal medical training.",
"Several public health efforts were attempted.",
"Physicians were hired by city officials and burial details were carefully organized, but panic spread through the city and, out of the fear of contagion, bodies were hastily buried in overcrowded pits.",
"The means of transmission of the disease were not known but thinking they might be linked to the animals, the City Corporation ordered a cull of dogs and cats.",
"This decision may have affected the length of the epidemic since those animals could have helped keep in check the rat population carrying the fleas which transmitted the disease.",
"Thinking bad air was involved in transmission, the authorities ordered giant bonfires to be burned in the streets and house fires to be kept burning night and day, in the hope that the air would be cleansed.",
"Tobacco was thought to be a prophylactic and it was later said that no London tobacconist had died from the plague during the epidemic.Two women lying dead in a London streetTrade and business had dried up, and the streets were empty of people except for the dead-carts and the dying victims, as witnessed and recorded by Samuel Pepys in his diary: \"Lord!",
"How empty the streets are and how melancholy, so many poor sick people in the streets full of sores… in Westminster, there is never a physician and but one apothecary left, all being dead.\"",
"That people did not starve was down to the foresight of Sir John Lawrence and the Corporation of London who arranged for a commission of one farthing to be paid above the normal price for every quarter of corn landed in the Port of London.",
"Another food source was the villages around London which, denied of their usual sales in the capital, left vegetables in specified market areas, negotiated their sale by shouting, and collected their payment after the money had been left submerged in a bucket of vinegar to \"disinfect\" the coins.Records state that plague deaths in London and the suburbs crept up over the summer from 2,000 people per week to over 7,000 per week in September.",
"These figures are likely to be a considerable underestimate.",
"Many of the sextons and parish clerks who kept the records themselves died.",
"Quakers refused to co-operate and many of the poor were just dumped into mass graves unrecorded.",
"It is not clear how many people caught the disease and made a recovery because only deaths were recorded and many records were destroyed in the Great Fire of London the following year.",
"In the few districts where intact records remain, plague deaths varied between 30% and over 50% of the total population.Vincent wrote:The outbreak was concentrated in London, but it affected other areas as well.",
"Perhaps the best known example occurred in the village of Eyam in Derbyshire.",
"The plague allegedly arrived with a merchant carrying a parcel of cloth sent from London.",
"The villagers imposed a quarantine on themselves to stop the further spread of the disease.",
"This prevented the disease from moving into surrounding areas, but around 33% of the village's inhabitants died over a period of fourteen months.",
"Other places hit hard included Derby and Norwich.",
"In Bristol strenuous efforts by the City Council seems to have limited the death rate to c.0.6 per cent during an outbreak lasting from April to September 1666."
],
[
"Aftermath",
"Great Fire of LondonBy late autumn, the death toll in London and the suburbs began to slow until, in February 1666, it was considered safe enough for the King and his entourage to come back to the city.",
"With the return of the monarch, others began to return: The gentry returned in their carriages accompanied by carts piled high with their belongings.",
"The judges moved back from Windsor to sit in Westminster Hall; Parliament, which had been prorogued in April 1665, did not reconvene until September 1666.Trade recommenced and businesses and workshops opened up.",
"London was the goal of a new wave of people who flocked to the city in expectation of making their fortunes.",
"Writing at the end of March 1666, Lord Clarendon, the Lord Chancellor, stated \"... the streets were as full, the Exchange as much crowded, the people in all places as numerous as they had ever been seen ...\".Plague cases continued to occur sporadically at a modest rate until mid-1666.That September, the Great Fire of London destroyed much of the City of London, and some people believed that the fire put an end to the epidemic.",
"It is now thought that the plague had largely subsided before the fire took place.",
"Most of the later cases of plague were found in the suburbs, and it was the City of London that was destroyed by the fire.According to the Bills of Mortality, there were in total 68,596 deaths in London from the plague in 1665.Lord Clarendon estimated that the true number of mortalities was probably twice that figure.",
"1666 saw further deaths in other cities but on a lesser scale.",
"Dr Thomas Gumble, chaplain to the Duke of Albemarle, both of whom had stayed in London for the whole of the epidemic, estimated that the total death count for the country from plague during 1665 and 1666 was about 200,000.Among the more notable death victims were Samuel Fisher, John Godwin, John Lewger and George Starkey.The Great Plague of 1665/1666 was the last major outbreak of bubonic plague in Great Britain.",
"The last recorded death from plague came in 1679, and it was removed as a specific category in the Bills of Mortality after 1703.It spread to other towns in East Anglia and the southeast of England but fewer than ten per cent of parishes outside London had a higher than average death rate during those years.",
"Urban areas were more affected than rural ones; Norwich, Ipswich, Colchester, Southampton and Winchester were badly affected, while the west of England and areas of the English Midlands escaped altogether.The population of England in 1650 was approximately 5.25 million, which declined to about 4.9 million by 1680, recovering to just over 5 million by 1700.Other diseases, such as smallpox, took a high toll on the population without the contribution by plague.",
"The higher death rate in cities, both generally and specifically from the plague, was made up by continuous immigration, from small towns to larger ones and from the countryside to the towns.There were no contemporary censuses of London's population, but available records suggest that the population returned to its previous level within a couple of years.",
"Burials in 1667 had returned to 1663 levels, Hearth Tax returns had recovered, and John Graunt contemporarily analysed baptism records and concluded they represented a recovered population.",
"Part of this could be accounted for by the return of wealthy households, merchants and manufacturing industries, all of which needed to replace losses among their staff and took steps to bring in necessary people.",
"Colchester had suffered more severe depopulation, but manufacturing records for cloth suggested that production had recovered or even increased by 1669, and the total population had nearly returned to pre-plague levels by 1674.Other towns did less well: Ipswich was affected less than Colchester, but in 1674, its population had dropped by 18%, more than could be accounted for by the plague deaths alone.As a proportion of the population who died, the London death toll was less severe than in some other towns.",
"The total of deaths in London was greater than in any previous outbreak for 100 years, though as a proportion of the population, the epidemics in 1563, 1603 and 1625 were comparable or greater.",
"Perhaps around 2.5% of the English population died."
],
[
"Impact",
"Great Plague of London in 1665The plague in London largely affected the poor, as the rich were able to leave the city by either retiring to their country estates or residing with kin in other parts of the country.",
"The subsequent Great Fire of London ruined many city merchants and property owners.",
"As a result of these events, London was largely rebuilt and Parliament enacted the Rebuilding of London Act 1666.The street plan of the capital remained relatively unchanged, but some improvements were made: streets were widened, pavements were created, open sewers abolished, wooden buildings and overhanging gables forbidden, and the design and construction of buildings controlled.",
"The use of brick or stone was mandatory and many gracious buildings were constructed.",
"Not only was the capital rejuvenated, but it became a healthier environment in which to live.",
"Londoners had a greater sense of community after they had overcome the great adversities of 1665 and 1666.Rebuilding took over ten years and was supervised by Robert Hooke as Surveyor of London.",
"The architect Sir Christopher Wren was involved in the rebuilding of St Paul's Cathedral and more than fifty London churches.",
"King Charles II did much to foster the rebuilding work.",
"He was a patron of the arts and sciences and founded the Royal Observatory and supported the Royal Society, a scientific group whose early members included Robert Hooke, Robert Boyle and Sir Isaac Newton.",
"In fact, out of the fire and pestilence flowed a renaissance in the arts and sciences in England.Plague pits have been archaeologically excavated during underground construction work.",
"Between 2011 and 2015, 3,500 burials from the 'New Churchyard' or 'Bethlam burial ground' were discovered during the construction of the Crossrail railway at Liverpool Street.",
"''Yersinia pestis'' DNA was found in the teeth of individuals found buried in pits at the site, confirming they had died of bubonic plague."
],
[
"See also",
"*1563 London plague*1592–1593 London plague*Black Death in England*Derby plague of 1665*Great Fire of London*Great Plague of Vienna of 1679*''A Journal of the Plague Year'', a 1722 novel by Daniel Defoe about the Great Plague of London*''Loimologia'', a first-hand account of the 1665 plague by Dr. Nathaniel Hodges*Plague doctor contract*Plague doctor costume*''Old St. Paul's, A Tale of the Plague and the Fire'', novel by Harrison Ainsworth*''Plague!",
"The Musical'', a 2008 musical by David Massingham and Matt Townend about the Great Plague of London*\"Ring a Ring o' Roses\", a nursery rhyme, commonly believed to have arisen at this time*San Francisco plague of 1900–1904*Third Pandemic (1855–1960)"
],
[
"References",
"'''Notes''''''Bibliography'''******"
],
[
"External links",
"* History of the Plague in London by Daniel Defoe"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Graphical user interface"
],
[
"Introduction",
"A graphical user interface (GUI) showing various elements: radio buttons, checkboxes, and other elements.A '''graphical user interface''', or '''GUI''' ( ), is a form of user interface that allows users to interact with electronic devices through graphical icons and visual indicators such as secondary notation.",
"In many applications, GUIs are used instead of text-based UIs, which are based on typed command labels or text navigation.",
"GUIs were introduced in reaction to the perceived steep learning curve of command-line interfaces (CLIs), which require commands to be typed on a computer keyboard.The actions in a GUI are usually performed through direct manipulation of the graphical elements.",
"Beyond computers, GUIs are used in many handheld mobile devices such as MP3 players, portable media players, gaming devices, smartphones and smaller household, office and industrial controls.",
"The term ''GUI'' tends not to be applied to other lower-display resolution types of interfaces, such as video games (where head-up displays (''HUDs'') are preferred), or not including flat screens like volumetric displays because the term is restricted to the scope of 2D display screens able to describe generic information, in the tradition of the computer science research at the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center."
],
[
"GUI and interaction design",
"touch UIs popular on small mobile devices are an overlay of the visual output to the visual input.Designing the visual composition and temporal behavior of a GUI is an important part of software application programming in the area of human–computer interaction.",
"Its goal is to enhance the efficiency and ease of use for the underlying logical design of a stored program, a design discipline named ''usability''.",
"Methods of user-centered design are used to ensure that the visual language introduced in the design is well-tailored to the tasks.",
"The visible graphical interface features of an application are sometimes referred to as ''chrome'' or ''GUI''.",
"Typically, users interact with information by manipulating visual widgets that allow for interactions appropriate to the kind of data they hold.",
"The widgets of a well-designed interface are selected to support the actions necessary to achieve the goals of users.",
"A model–view–controller allows flexible structures in which the interface is independent of and indirectly linked to application functions, so the GUI can be customized easily.",
"This allows users to select or design a different ''skin'' at will, and eases the designer's work to change the interface as user needs evolve.",
"Good GUI design relates to users more, and to system architecture less.Large widgets, such as windows, usually provide a frame or container for the main presentation content such as a web page, email message, or drawing.",
"Smaller ones usually act as a user-input tool.A GUI may be designed for the requirements of a vertical market as application-specific GUIs.",
"Examples include automated teller machines (ATM), point of sale (POS) touchscreens at restaurants, self-service checkouts used in a retail store, airline self-ticket and check-in, information kiosks in a public space, like a train station or a museum, and monitors or control screens in an embedded industrial application which employ a real-time operating system (RTOS).Cell phones and handheld game systems also employ application specific touchscreen GUIs.",
"Newer automobiles use GUIs in their navigation systems and multimedia centers, or navigation multimedia center combinations."
],
[
"Examples",
"File:GNOME Shell.png|GNOME ShellFile:KDE Plasma 5.16.png|KDE Plasma 5File:Ubuntu Mate 18.04.1 with MATE 1.20.1.png|MATEFile:Wayland demo 2.png|Windows on example Wayland compositorFile:XFCE-4.12-Desktop-standard.png|XfceFile:E17 bw screenshot.png|EnlightenmentFile:Sugar-home-view-0.82.jpg|SugarFile:X-Window-System.png|A twm X Window System environmentFile:Dwm-shot.png|The dwm tiling window managerFile:Linux Mint 19.1 \"Tessa\" (Cinnamon).png|CinnamonFile:Phosh 0.14.0.png|Phosh"
],
[
"Components",
"Layers of a GUI based on a windowing systemA GUI uses a combination of technologies and devices to provide a platform that users can interact with, for the tasks of gathering and producing information.A series of elements conforming a visual language have evolved to represent information stored in computers.",
"This makes it easier for people with few computer skills to work with and use computer software.",
"The most common combination of such elements in GUIs is the ''windows, icons, text fields, canvases, menus, pointer'' (WIMP) paradigm, especially in personal computers.The WIMP style of interaction uses a virtual input device to represent the position of a pointing device's interface, most often a mouse, and presents information organized in windows and represented with icons.",
"Available commands are compiled together in menus, and actions are performed making gestures with the pointing device.",
"A window manager facilitates the interactions between windows, applications, and the windowing system.",
"The windowing system handles hardware devices such as pointing devices, graphics hardware, and positioning of the pointer.In personal computers, all these elements are modeled through a desktop metaphor to produce a simulation called a desktop environment in which the display represents a desktop, on which documents and folders of documents can be placed.",
"Window managers and other software combine to simulate the desktop environment with varying degrees of realism.Entries may appear in a list to make space for text and details, or in a grid for compactness and larger icons with little space underneath for text.",
"Variations inbetween exist, such as a list with multiple columns of items and a grid of items with rows of text extending sideways from the icon.Multi-row and multi-column layouts commonly found on the web are \"shelf\" and \"waterfall\".",
"The former is found on image search engines, where images appear with a fixed height but variable length, and is typically implemented with the CSS property and parameter display: inline-block;.",
"A waterfall layout found on Imgur and Tweetdeck with fixed width but variable height per item is usually implemented by specifying column-width:."
],
[
"Post-WIMP interface",
"Smaller app mobile devices such as personal digital assistants (PDAs) and smartphones typically use the WIMP elements with different unifying metaphors, due to constraints in space and available input devices.",
"Applications for which WIMP is not well suited may use newer interaction techniques, collectively termed ''post-WIMP'' UIs.As of 2011, some touchscreen-based operating systems such as Apple's iOS (iPhone) and Android use the class of GUIs named post-WIMP.",
"These support styles of interaction using more than one finger in contact with a display, which allows actions such as pinching and rotating, which are unsupported by one pointer and mouse."
],
[
"Interaction",
"Human interface devices, for the efficient interaction with a GUI include a computer keyboard, especially used together with keyboard shortcuts, pointing devices for the cursor (or rather pointer) control: mouse, pointing stick, touchpad, trackball, joystick, virtual keyboards, and head-up displays (translucent information devices at the eye level).There are also actions performed by programs that affect the GUI.",
"For example, there are components like inotify or D-Bus to facilitate communication between computer programs."
],
[
"History",
"=== Early efforts ===Ivan Sutherland developed Sketchpad in 1963, widely held as the first graphical computer-aided design program.",
"It used a light pen to create and manipulate objects in engineering drawings in realtime with coordinated graphics.",
"In the late 1960s, researchers at the Stanford Research Institute, led by Douglas Engelbart, developed the On-Line System (NLS), which used text-based hyperlinks manipulated with a then-new device: the mouse.",
"(A 1968 demonstration of NLS became known as \"The Mother of All Demos.\")",
"In the 1970s, Engelbart's ideas were further refined and extended to graphics by researchers at Xerox PARC and specifically Alan Kay, who went beyond text-based hyperlinks and used a GUI as the main interface for the Smalltalk programming language, which ran on the Xerox Alto computer, released in 1973.Most modern general-purpose GUIs are derived from this system.The Xerox PARC GUI consisted of graphical elements such as windows, menus, radio buttons, and check boxes.",
"The concept of icons was later introduced by David Canfield Smith, who had written a thesis on the subject under the guidance of Kay.",
"The PARC GUI employs a pointing device along with a keyboard.",
"These aspects can be emphasized by using the alternative term and acronym for ''windows, icons, menus, pointing device'' (WIMP).",
"This effort culminated in the 1973 Xerox Alto, the first computer with a GUI, though the system never reached commercial production.The first commercially available computer with a GUI was the 1979 PERQ workstation, manufactured by Three Rivers Computer Corporation.",
"Its design was heavily influenced by the work at Xerox PARC.",
"In 1981, Xerox eventually commercialized the ideas from the Alto in the form of a new and enhanced system – the Xerox 8010 Information System – more commonly known as the Xerox Star.",
"These early systems spurred many other GUI efforts, including Lisp machines by Symbolics and other manufacturers, the Apple Lisa (which presented the concept of menu bar and window controls) in 1983, the Apple Macintosh 128K in 1984, and the Atari ST with Digital Research's GEM, and Commodore Amiga in 1985.Visi On was released in 1983 for the IBM PC compatible computers, but was never popular due to its high hardware demands.",
"Nevertheless, it was a crucial influence on the contemporary development of Microsoft Windows.Apple, Digital Research, IBM and Microsoft used many of Xerox's ideas to develop products, and IBM's Common User Access specifications formed the basis of the GUIs used in Microsoft Windows, IBM OS/2 Presentation Manager, and the Unix Motif toolkit and window manager.",
"These ideas evolved to create the interface found in current versions of Microsoft Windows, and in various desktop environments for Unix-like operating systems, such as macOS and Linux.",
"Thus most current GUIs have largely common idioms.An Apple Lisa (1983) demonstrating the Lisa Office System (LisaOS), which featured Apple Computer's first commercially available GUI.=== Popularization ===HP LX System Manager running on a HP 200LX.GUIs were a hot topic in the early 1980s.",
"The Apple Lisa was released in 1983, and various windowing systems existed for DOS operating systems (including PC GEM and PC/GEOS).",
"Individual applications for many platforms presented their own GUI variants.",
"Despite the GUIs advantages, many reviewers questioned the value of the entire concept, citing hardware limits, and problems in finding compatible software.In 1984, Apple released a television commercial which introduced the Apple Macintosh during the telecast of Super Bowl XVIII by CBS, with allusions to George Orwell's noted novel ''Nineteen Eighty-Four''.",
"The goal of the commercial was to make people think about computers, identifying the user-friendly interface as a personal computer which departed from prior business-oriented systems, and becoming a signature representation of Apple products.Windows 95, accompanied by an extensive marketing campaign, was a major success in the marketplace at launch and shortly became the most popular desktop operating system.In 2007, with the iPhone and later in 2010 with the introduction of the iPad, Apple popularized the post-WIMP style of interaction for multi-touch screens, and those devices were considered to be milestones in the development of mobile devices.The GUIs familiar to most people as of the mid-late 2010s are Microsoft Windows, macOS, and the X Window System interfaces for desktop and laptop computers, and Android, Apple's iOS, Symbian, BlackBerry OS, Windows Phone/Windows 10 Mobile, Tizen, WebOS, and Firefox OS for handheld (smartphone) devices."
],
[
"Comparison to other interfaces",
"=== Command-line interfaces ===A modern Command-Line Interface (CLI)Since the commands available in command line interfaces can be many, complex operations can be performed using a short sequence of words and symbols.",
"Custom functions may be used to facilitate access to frequent actions.",
"Command-line interfaces are more lightweight, as they only recall information necessary for a task; for example, no preview thumbnails or graphical rendering of web pages.",
"This allows greater efficiency and productivity once many commands are learned.",
"But reaching this level takes some time because the command words may not be easily discoverable or mnemonic.",
"Also, using the command line can become slow and error-prone when users must enter long commands comprising many parameters or several different filenames at once.",
"However, ''windows, icons, menus, pointer'' (WIMP) interfaces present users with many widgets that represent and can trigger some of the system's available commands.GUIs can be made quite hard when dialogs are buried deep in a system or moved about to different places during redesigns.",
"Also, icons and dialog boxes are usually harder for users to script.WIMPs extensively use modes, as the meaning of all keys and clicks on specific positions on the screen are redefined all the time.",
"Command-line interfaces use modes only in limited forms, such as for current directory and environment variables.Most modern operating systems provide both a GUI and some level of a CLI, although the GUIs usually receive more attention.=== GUI wrappers ===GUI wrappers find a way around the command-line interface versions (CLI) of (typically) Linux and Unix-like software applications and their text-based UIs or typed command labels.",
"While command-line or text-based applications allow users to run a program non-interactively, GUI wrappers atop them avoid the steep learning curve of the command-line, which requires commands to be typed on the keyboard.",
"By starting a GUI wrapper, users can intuitively interact with, start, stop, and change its working parameters, through graphical icons and visual indicators of a desktop environment, for example.",
"Applications may also provide both interfaces, and when they do the GUI is usually a WIMP wrapper around the command-line version.",
"This is especially common with applications designed for Unix-like operating systems.",
"The latter used to be implemented first because it allowed the developers to focus exclusively on their product's functionality without bothering about interface details such as designing icons and placing buttons.",
"Designing programs this way also allows users to run the program in a shell script."
],
[
"Three-dimensional graphical user interface",
"Many environments and games use the methods of 3D graphics to project 3D GUI objects onto the screen.",
"The use of 3D graphics has become increasingly common in mainstream operating systems (ex.",
"Windows Aero, and Aqua (MacOS)) to create attractive interfaces, termed eye candy (which includes, for example, the use of drop shadows underneath windows and the cursor), or for functional purposes only possible using three dimensions.",
"For example, user switching is represented by rotating a cube with faces representing each user's workspace, and window management is represented via a Rolodex-style flipping mechanism in Windows Vista (see Windows Flip 3D).",
"In both cases, the operating system transforms windows on-the-fly while continuing to update the content of those windows.The GUI is usually WIMP-based, although occasionally other metaphors surface, such as those used in Microsoft Bob, 3dwm, File System Navigator, File System Visualizer, 3D Mailbox, and GopherVR.",
"Zooming (ZUI) is a related technology that promises to deliver the representation benefits of 3D environments without their usability drawbacks of orientation problems and hidden objects.",
"In 2006, Hillcrest Labs introduced the first ZUI for television.",
"Other innovations include the menus on the PlayStation 2, the menus on the Xbox, Sun's Project Looking Glass, Metisse, which was similar to Project Looking Glass, BumpTop, where users can manipulate documents and windows with realistic movement and physics as if they were physical documents, Croquet OS, which is built for collaboration, and compositing window managers such as Enlightenment and Compiz.",
"Augmented reality and virtual reality also make use of 3D GUI elements.=== In science fiction ===3D GUIs have appeared in science fiction literature and films, even before certain technologies were feasible or in common use.",
"* In prose fiction, 3D GUIs have been portrayed as immersible environments, coined as William Gibson's \"cyberspace\" and Neal Stephenson's \"metaverse\" and \"avatars\".",
"* The 1993 American film ''Jurassic Park'' features Silicon Graphics' 3D file manager File System Navigator, a real-life file manager for Unix operating systems.",
"* The film ''Minority Report'' has scenes of police officers using specialized 3D data systems."
],
[
"See also",
"* ''Apple Computer, Inc. v. Microsoft Corp.''* Console user interface* Computer icon* Distinguishable interfaces* General Graphics Interface (software project)* GUI tree* Human factors and ergonomics* Look and feel* Natural user interface* Ncurses* Object-oriented user interface* Organic user interface* Rich web application* Skeuomorph* Skin (computing)* Theme (computing)* Text entry interface* Transportable Applications Environment* User experience design* User interface design* Vector-based graphical user interface"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* Evolution of Graphical User Interface in last 50 years by Raj Lal* The men who really invented the GUI by Clive Akass* Graphical User Interface Gallery, screenshots of various GUIs* Marcin Wichary's GUIdebook, Graphical User Interface gallery: over 5500 screenshots of GUI, application and icon history* The Real History of the GUI by Mike Tuck* In The Beginning Was The Command Line by Neal Stephenson* 3D Graphical User Interfaces (PDF) by Farid BenHajji and Erik Dybner, Department of Computer and Systems Sciences, Stockholm University* Topological Analysis of the Gibbs Energy Function (Liquid-Liquid Equilibrium Correlation Data).",
"Including a Thermodinamic Review and a Graphical User Interface (GUI) for Surfaces/Tie-lines/Hessian matrix analysis – University of Alicante (Reyes-Labarta et al.",
"2015–18)* Innovative Ways to Use Information Visualization across a Variety of Fields by Ryan Erwin Digital marketing specialist (CLLAX) (2022-05)"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Gamete"
],
[
"Introduction",
"A '''gamete''' (; , ultimately ) is a haploid cell that fuses with another haploid cell during fertilization in organisms that reproduce sexually.",
"Gametes are an organism's '''reproductive cells''', also referred to as '''sex cells'''.",
"The name gamete was introduced by the German cytologist Eduard Strasburger.Gametes of both mating individuals can be the same size and shape, a condition known as isogamy.",
"By contrast, in the majority of species, the gametes are of different sizes, a condition known as anisogamy or heterogamy that applies to humans and other mammals.",
"The human ovum has approximately 100,000 times the volume of a single human sperm cell.",
"The type of gamete an organism produces determines its sex and sets the basis for the sexual roles and sexual selection.",
"In humans and other species that produce two morphologically distinct types of gametes, and in which each individual produces only one type, a female is any individual that produces the larger type of gamete called an ovum, and a male produces the smaller type, called a sperm cell or spermatozoon.",
"Sperm cells are small and motile due to the presence of a tail-shaped structure, the flagellum, that provides propulsion.",
"In contrast, each egg cell or ovum is relatively large and non-motile.",
"Oogenesis, the process of female gamete formation in animals, involves meiosis (including meiotic recombination) of a diploid primary oocyte to produce a haploid ovum.",
"Spermatogenesis, the process of male gamete formation in animals, involves meiosis in a diploid primary spermatocyte to produce haploid spermatozoa.",
"In animals, ova are produced in the ovaries of females and sperm develop in the testes of males.",
"During fertilization, a spermatozoon and an ovum, each carrying half of the genetic information of an individual, unite to form a zygote that develops into a new diploid organism."
],
[
"Evolution",
"It is generally accepted that isogamy is the ancestral state from which anisogamy and oogamy evolved, although its evolution has left no fossil records.",
"There are almost invariably only two gamete types, all analyses showing that intermediate gamete sizes are eliminated due to selection.",
"Since intermediate sized gametes do not have the same advantages as small or large ones, they do worse than small ones in mobility and numbers, and worse than large ones in supply."
],
[
"Differences between gametes and somatic cells",
"In contrast to a gamete, which has only one set of chromosomes, a diploid somatic cell has two sets of homologous chromosomes, one of which is a copy of the chromosome set from the sperm and one a copy of the chromosome set from the egg cell.",
"Recombination of the genes during meiosis ensures that the chromosomes of gametes are not exact duplicates of either of the sets of chromosomes carried in the parental diploid chromosomes but a mixture of the two.A human spermatozoon penetrating a human ovum.",
"The spermatozoon is approximately 100,000 times smaller in size than the human ovum."
],
[
"Sex determination in mammals and birds",
"Most mammals, including humans, use the XY sex-determination system in which a normal ovum can carry only an X chromosome whereas a sperm may carry either an X or a Y.",
"Thus the male sperm determines the sex of any resulting zygote.",
"If the zygote has two X chromosomes it will develop into a female.",
"If it has an X and a Y chromosome, it will develop into a male.For birds, the female ovum determines the sex of the offspring, through the ZW sex-determination system."
],
[
"Artificial gametes",
"Artificial gametes, also known as in vitro derived gametes (IVD), stem cell-derived gametes (SCDGs), and in vitro generated gametes (IVG), are gametes derived from stem cells.",
"The use of such artificial gametes would \"necessarily require IVF techniques\".",
"Research shows that artificial gametes may be a reproductive technique for same-sex male couples, although a surrogate mother would still be required for the gestation period.",
"Women who have passed menopause may be able to produce eggs and bear genetically related children with artificial gametes.",
"Robert Sparrow wrote, in the Journal of Medical Ethics, that embryos derived from artificial gametes could be used to derive new gametes and this process could be repeated to create multiple human generations in the laboratory.",
"This technique could be used to create cell lines for medical applications and for studying the heredity of genetic disorders.",
"Additionally, this technique could be used for human enhancement by selectively breeding for a desired genome or by using recombinant DNA technology to create enhancements that have not arisen in nature."
],
[
"Plants",
"Plants that reproduce sexually also produce gametes.",
"However, since plants have a life cycle involving alternation of diploid and haploid generations some differences from animal life cycles exist.",
"Plants use meiosis to produce spores that develop into multicellular haploid gametophytes which produce gametes by mitosis.",
"In animals there is no corresponding multicellular haploid phase.",
"The sperm of plants that reproduce using spores are formed by mitosis in an organ of the gametophyte known as the antheridium and the egg cells by mitosis in a flask-shaped organ called the archegonium.",
"Plant sperm cells are their only motile cells, often described as flagellate, but more correctly as ciliate.",
"Bryophytes have 2 flagella, horsetails have up to 200 and the mature spermatozoa of the cycad ''Zamia pumila'' has up to 50,000 flagella.",
"Cycads and ''Ginkgo biloba'' are the only gymnosperms with motile sperm.",
"In the flowering plants, the female gametophyte is produced inside the ovule within the ovary of the flower.",
"When mature, the haploid gametophyte produces female gametes which are ready for fertilization.",
"The male gametophyte is produced inside a pollen grain within the anther and is non-motile, but can be distributed by wind, water or animal vectors.",
"When a pollen grain lands on a mature stigma of a flower it germinates to form a pollen tube that grows down the style into the ovary of the flower and then into the ovule.",
"The pollen then produces non-motile sperm nuclei by mitosis that are transported down the pollen tube to the ovule where they are released for fertilization of the egg cell."
],
[
"See also",
"* Coenogamete"
],
[
"Notes and references"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"George R. R. Martin"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''George Raymond Richard Martin''' (born '''George Raymond Martin'''; September 20, 1948), also known as '''GRRM''', is an American novelist, screenwriter, television producer, and short story writer.",
"He is the author of the series of epic fantasy novels ''A Song of Ice and Fire'', which were adapted into the Emmy Award-winning HBO series ''Game of Thrones'' (2011–2019) and its prequel series ''House of the Dragon'' (2022–present).",
"He also helped create the ''Wild Cards'' anthology series, and contributed worldbuilding for ''Elden Ring''.In 2005, Lev Grossman of ''Time'' called Martin \"the American Tolkien\", and in 2011, he was included on the annual ''Time'' 100 list of the most influential people in the world.",
"He is a longtime resident of Santa Fe, New Mexico, where he helped fund Meow Wolf and owns the Jean Cocteau Cinema.",
"The city commemorates March 29 as George R. R. Martin Day."
],
[
"Early life",
"George Raymond Martin (he adopted the confirmation name Richard at 13 years old) was born on September 20, 1948, in Bayonne, New Jersey, the son of longshoreman Raymond Collins Martin and Margaret Brady Martin.",
"His mother's family had once been wealthy, owning a successful construction business, but lost it all in the Great Depression, something Martin was reminded about every day when he passed what used to be his family's dock and house.",
"He has two younger sisters, Darleen and Jane.",
"He is predominantly of Irish descent; a DNA test on the series ''Finding Your Roots'' showed him to be 53.6% \"British and Irish\", 22.4% Ashkenazi Jewish, and 15.6% \"Broadly Northwestern European\".The family first lived in a house on Broadway belonging to Martin's great-grandmother.",
"In 1953, they moved to a federal housing project near the Bayonne docks.",
"During Martin's childhood, his world consisted predominantly of \"First Street to Fifth Street\", between his grade school and his home.",
"This limited world made him want to travel and experience other places, but the only way of doing so was through his imagination, and he became a voracious reader.Martin began writing and selling monster stories for pennies to other neighborhood children, dramatic readings included.",
"He had to stop once a customer's mother complained about her child's nightmares.",
"He also wrote stories about a mythical kingdom populated by his pet turtles — the turtles died frequently in their toy castle, so he decided they were killing each other off in \"sinister plots\".",
"Martin had a habit of starting \"endless stories\" that he never completed, as they did not turn out as well on paper as he had imagined them.Martin attended Mary Jane Donohoe School and later Marist High School.",
"While there, he became an avid comic-book fan, developing a strong interest in the superheroes being published by Marvel Comics, and later credited Stan Lee for being one of his greatest literary influences; \"Maybe Stan Lee is the greatest literary influence on me, even more than Shakespeare or Tolkien.\"",
"A letter Martin wrote to the editor of ''Fantastic Four'' was printed in issue #20 (November 1963); it was the first of many sent, e.g., ''Fantastic Four'' #32, #34, and others.",
"Fans who read his letters wrote him letters in turn, and through such contacts, Martin joined the fledgling comics fandom of the era, writing fiction for various fanzines; he bought the first ticket to the world's first Comic-Con, held in New York in 1964.In 1965, Martin won comic fandom's Alley Award for Best Fan Fiction for his prose superhero story \"Powerman vs.",
"The Blue Barrier\".In 1970, Martin earned a B.S.",
"in journalism with a minor in history from Northwestern University's Medill School of Journalism in Evanston, Illinois, graduating ''summa cum laude''; he went on to complete his M.S.",
"in Journalism in 1971, also from Medill.",
"Eligible for the draft during the Vietnam War, to which he objected, Martin applied for and obtained conscientious objector status; he instead did alternative service work for two years (1972–1974) as a VISTA volunteer, attached to the Cook County Legal Assistance Foundation."
],
[
"Career",
"=== Early writing career ===Martin began selling science fiction short stories professionally in 1970, at age 21.His first sale was \"The Hero\", sold to ''Galaxy'' magazine and published in its February 1971 issue; other sales soon followed.",
"His first story to be nominated for the Hugo Award and Nebula Awards was \"With Morning Comes Mistfall\", published in 1973 in ''Analog'' magazine.",
"In 1975 his story \"...for a single yesterday\" about a post-apocalyptic timetripper was selected for inclusion in ''Epoch'', a science fiction anthology edited by Roger Elwood and Robert Silverberg.",
"His first novel, ''Dying of the Light'', was completed in 1976 right before he moved to Dubuque and published in 1977.That same year the enormous success of ''Star Wars'' had a huge impact on the publishing industry and science fiction, and he sold the novel for the same amount he would make in three years of teaching.The short stories he was able to sell in his early 20s gave him some profit but not enough to pay his bills, which prevented him from becoming the full-time writer he wanted to be.",
"The need for a day job occurred simultaneously with the American chess craze which followed Bobby Fischer's victory in the 1972 world chess championship.",
"Martin's own chess skills and experience allowed him to be hired as a tournament director for the Continental Chess Association, which ran chess tournaments on the weekends.",
"This gave him a sufficient income, and because the tournaments only ran on Saturdays and Sundays, it allowed him to work as a writer five days a week from 1973 to 1976.By the time the chess bubble subsequently burst and no longer provided an income, he had become much better established as a writer.=== Teaching ===In the mid-1970s, Martin met English professor George Guthridge from Dubuque, Iowa, at a science fiction convention in Milwaukee.",
"Martin persuaded Guthridge (who later said that at that time he despised science fiction and fantasy) not only to give speculative fiction a second look, but also to write in the field himself.",
"Guthridge has since been a finalist for the Hugo Award and twice for the Nebula Award for science fiction and fantasy.",
"In 1998, Guthridge and Janet Berliner won the Bram Stoker Award for Superior Achievement in the Novel for their ''Children of the Dusk''.In turn, Guthridge helped Martin in finding a job at Clarke University (then Clarke College).",
"Martin \"wasn't making enough money to stay alive\" from writing and the chess tournaments, says Guthridge.",
"From 1976 to 1978, Martin was an English and journalism instructor at Clarke, and he became Writer In Residence at the college from 1978 to 1979.=== Concentration on writing ===While he enjoyed teaching, the sudden death of friend and fellow author Tom Reamy in late 1977 made Martin reevaluate his own life, and he eventually decided to try to become a full-time writer.",
"In 1979 he resigned from his job and moved from Dubuque to Santa Fe, New Mexico at the end of the year.",
"There he would live alone for almost three years, a period he described as tremendously productive in regard of writing.Martin is a member of the Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America (SFWA); he served as the organization's Southwest Regional Director from 1977 to 1979, and as its vice-president from 1996 to 1998.In 1976, for Kansas City's MidAmeriCon, the 34th World Science Fiction Convention (Worldcon), Martin and his friend and fellow writer-editor Gardner Dozois conceived of and organized the first Hugo Losers' Party for the benefit of all past and present Hugo-losing writers on the evening following the convention's Hugo Awards ceremony.",
"Martin was nominated for two Hugos that year but lost both awards, for the novelette \"...and Seven Times Never Kill Man\" and the novella ''The Storms of Windhaven'', co-written with Lisa Tuttle.",
"Although Martin often writes fantasy or horror, a number of his earlier works are science fiction tales occurring in a loosely defined future history, known informally as \"The Thousand Worlds\" or \"The Manrealm\".In 2017, Martin recalled that he had started writing science fiction-horror hybrids in the late 1970s to disprove a statement from a critic claiming that science fiction and horror were opposites and therefore incompatible.",
"Martin considered ''Sandkings'' (1979) the best known of these.",
"Another was the novella ''Nightflyers'' (1980), whose screen and television rights were purchased by Vista in 1984, which produced a 1987 film adaptation, ''Nightflyers'', with a screenplay co-written by Martin.",
"Martin was unhappy about having to cut plot elements in order to accommodate the film's small budget.",
"While not a hit at theatres, Martin believes that the film saved his career, and that everything he has written since exists in large part because of it.",
"He has also written at least one piece of political-military fiction, \"Night of the Vampyres\", collected in Harry Turtledove's anthology ''The Best Military Science Fiction of the 20th Century'' (2001).In 1982, Martin published a vampire novel titled ''Fevre Dream'' set in the 19th century on the Mississippi River.",
"Unlike traditional vampire novels, in ''Fevre Dream'' vampires are not supernatural creatures, but are rather a different species related to humans created by evolution with superhuman powers.",
"Critic Don D'Amassa has praised ''Fevre Dream'' for its strong 19th century atmosphere and wrote: \"This is without question one of the greatest vampire novels of all time\".",
"Martin followed up ''Fevre Dream'' with another horror novel, ''The Armageddon Rag'' (1983).",
"The unexpected commercial failure of ''The Armageddon Rag'' \"essentially destroyed my career as a novelist at the time\", he recalled, and made him consider going into real estate instead.In 1984, the new editor of Baen Books, Betsy Mitchell, called Martin to ask him if he had considered doing a collection of Haviland Tuf adventures.",
"Martin, who had several favorite series characters like Solomon Kane, Elric, Nicholas van Rijn and Magnus Ridolph, had made an attempt to create such a character on his own in the 1970s with his Tuf stories.",
"He was interested, but was too occupied with the writing of his next book, the never-completed novel ''Black and White and Red All Over'', which occupied most of his writing time the same year.",
"But after the failure of ''The Armageddon Rag'', all editors rejected his upcoming novel, and desperate for money, he accepted Mitchell's offer and wrote some more Tuf stories which were collected in ''Tuf Voyaging'', which sold well enough for Mitchell to suggest a sequel.",
"Martin was willing and agreed to do it, but before he got started he got an offer from Hollywood, where producer Philip DeGuere Jr. wanted to adapt ''The Armageddon Rag'' into a film.",
"The film adaptation did not happen, but they stayed in touch, and when DeGuere became the producer for the revival of ''The Twilight Zone'', Martin was offered a job as a writer.",
"Working for television paid a lot better than writing literature, so he decided to move to Hollywood to seek a new career.",
"At first he worked as staff writer for the show, and then as an executive story consultant.After the CBS series was cancelled, Martin migrated over to the already-underway satirical science fiction series ''Max Headroom''.",
"He worked on scripts and created the show's \"Ped Xing\" character.",
"However, before his scripts could go into production, the ABC show was cancelled in the middle of its second season.",
"Martin was hired as a writer-producer on the new dramatic fantasy series ''Beauty and the Beast''; in 1989, he became the show's co-supervising producer and wrote 14 of its episodes.In 1987, Martin published a collection of short horror stories in ''Portraits of His Children''.",
"During this same period, Martin continued working in print media as a book-series editor, this time overseeing the development of the multi-author ''Wild Cards'' book series, which takes place in a shared universe in which a small slice of post–World War II humanity gains superpowers after the release of an alien-engineered virus; new titles are published in the ongoing series from Tor Books.",
"In ''Second Person'', Martin \"gives a personal account of the close-knit role-playing game (RPG) culture that gave rise to his ''Wild Cards'' shared-world anthologies\".",
"An important element in the creation of the multiple author series was a campaign of Chaosium's role-playing game ''Superworld'' (1983) that Martin ran in Albuquerque.",
"Admitting he became completely obsessed with the game, he stopped writing literature for most of 1983, which he refers to as his \"lost year\", but his shrinking bank accounts made him realize he had to come up with something, and got the idea that perhaps the stories and characters created in ''Superworld'' could somehow become profitable.",
"Martin's own contributions to ''Wild Cards'' have included Thomas Tudbury, \"The Great and Powerful Turtle\", a powerful psychokinetic whose flying \"shell\" consisted of an armored VW Beetle.",
", 21 ''Wild Cards'' volumes had been published in the series; earlier that same year, Martin signed the contract for the 22nd volume, ''Low Ball'' (2014), published by Tor Books.",
"In early 2012, Martin signed another Tor contract for the 23rd ''Wild Cards'' volume, ''High Stakes'', which was released in August 2016.In August 2016, Martin announced that Universal Cable Productions had acquired the rights to adapt the ''Wild Cards'' novels into a television series.",
"He noted that he himself would not write for the adaptation due to focusing on ''A Song of Ice and Fire''.=== ''A Song of Ice and Fire'' ===Teaching at Clarion West, 1998In 1991, Martin briefly returned to writing novels.",
"He had grown frustrated that his TV pilots and screenplays were not getting made and that TV-related production limitations like budgets and episode lengths were forcing him to cut characters and trim battle scenes.",
"This pushed Martin back towards writing books, where he did not have to worry about compromising his imagination.",
"Admiring the works of J. R. R. Tolkien in his childhood, he wanted to write an epic fantasy, though he did not have any specific ideas.His epic fantasy series, ''A Song of Ice and Fire'', was inspired by the Wars of the Roses, ''The Accursed Kings'' and ''Ivanhoe''.",
"Though Martin originally conceptualized it as being three volumes, it is currently slated to comprise seven.",
"The first, ''A Game of Thrones'', was published in 1996, followed by ''A Clash of Kings'' in 1998 and ''A Storm of Swords'' in 2000.In November 2005, ''A Feast for Crows'', the fourth novel in this series, became ''The New York Times'' No.",
"1 Bestseller.",
"The fifth book, ''A Dance with Dragons'', was published July 12, 2011, and became an international bestseller, including achieving a No.",
"1 spot on the ''New York Times'' Bestseller List and many others; it remained on the ''New York Times'' list for 88 weeks.In 2012, ''A Dance With Dragons'' made the final ballot for science fiction and fantasy's Hugo Award, World Fantasy Award, Locus Poll Award, and the British Fantasy Award; the novel went on to win the Locus Poll Award for Best Fantasy Novel.",
"Two more novels are planned in the series: ''The Winds of Winter'' and the final volume ''A Dream of Spring''.On April 25, 2018, Martin announced the release date of his new book, ''Fire & Blood'', dealing with the history of House Targaryen, which was released on November 20, 2018.Should Martin die before finishing the ''A Song of Ice and Fire'' series, former collaborators have said that they will not conclude the series for him.==== HBO adaptation of ''A Song of Ice and Fire'' ====HBO Productions purchased the television rights for the ''A Song of Ice and Fire'' series in 2007.Although busy completing ''A Dance With Dragons'' and other projects, George R. R. Martin was heavily involved in the production of the television series adaptation of his books.",
"Martin's involvement included the selection of a production team and participation in scriptwriting; the opening credits list him as a co-executive producer of the series.",
"The original pilot was shot between October 24 and November 19, 2009, on location in Northern Ireland, Scotland and Morocco.",
"It was received so poorly by HBO executives that they did not make a decision for four months after the pilot was delivered.",
"In March 2010, HBO's decision to greenlight the series was announced, with the production of the series scheduled to start June 2010.HBO however demanded the first episode be reshot, and wanted all the scenes from Morocco scrapped.",
"The first episode (\"''Winter Is Coming''\") premiered on HBO in the United States and Canada on April 17, 2011.It was seen initially by 2.2 million viewers.",
"The first season was nominated for 13 Emmy Awards, ultimately winning two: one for its opening title credits, and one for Peter Dinklage as Best Supporting Actor.HBO ordered a second season of ''Game of Thrones'' on April 19, 2011, two days after the series premiere.",
"The second season obtained a 15% increase in budget in order to be able to stage the war's most important battle, the Battle of the Blackwater, in episode nine which was written by George R. R. Martin.",
"Filming took place during 106 shooting days.",
"During three-quarters of those, two crews (\"Dragon\" and \"Wolf\") were working simultaneously in different locations.",
"Alan Taylor was promoted to co-executive producer and directed four episodes, including the season premiere and finale.",
"David Petrarca and David Nutter each directed two episodes, while series cinematographer Alik Sakharov and filmmaker Neil Marshall directed the remaining two.",
"The second season premiered in the United States on HBO on April 1, 2012, and concluded on June 3, 2012.U.S.",
"viewership rose by approximately 8% over the course of the season, from 3.9 million to 4.2 million by the season finale.",
"The second season won six of the twelve Emmy Awards for which it was nominated.",
"''Game of Thrones'' rapidly became a critical and commercial success after the second season.",
"HBO renewed the series for a third season on April 10, 2012, nine days after the second season's premiere.",
"Production began in July 2012 and concluded with the wrap of the unit filming in Iceland on November 24, 2012.The third season is based on the first half of the novel ''A Storm of Swords''.",
"Benioff had previously said that ''A Storm of Swords'' would need to be adapted in two seasons on account of its length.",
"Benioff and Weiss also noted that they thought of ''Game of Thrones'' as an adaptation of the series as a whole, rather than of individual novels, which gave them the liberty to move scenes back and forth across novels according to the requirements of the screen adaptation.",
"Season 3 saw the first significant use of the Valyrian languages, spoken in doomed Valyria and its former colonies in Essos.",
"The constructed languages were developed by linguist David J. Peterson based on the few words Martin invented for the novels.",
"Peterson had previously developed the Dothraki language, used principally in season 1.The third season premiered on HBO on March 31, 2013, and concluded on June 9, 2013.The third season was seen by 14.2 million viewers.",
"It won 2 of the 16 Emmy Awards for which it was nominated.Two days after third season premiere, HBO ordered the fourth season on April 2, 2013, which began filming in July 2013.The season is adapted primarily from the second half of ''A Storm of Swords'', along with elements of ''A Feast for Crows'' and ''A Dance with Dragons.''",
"Showrunners David Benioff and D. B. Weiss co-wrote seven out of ten episodes.",
"The remaining three episodes were written by Bryan Cogman (two episodes), and George R. R. Martin (one episode).",
"For this season, the filming lasted 136 days and was completed on November 21, 2013.The fourth season premiered in the United States on HBO on April 6, 2014, and concluded on June 15, 2014.The season was met with largely positive reviews.",
"It won 4 of the 19 Emmy Awards for which it was nominated.",
"With its fourth season, ''Game of Thrones'' has become the most-watched HBO series in history (surpassing the fourth season of ''The Sopranos'' which had a gross audience of 18.2 million viewers), averaging 18.4 million viewers across multiple platforms, including live viewing, encores, DVR views, HBO GO and On Demand views.Up until the fourth season, Martin wrote one episode for each season.",
"In 2022, Martin said that he had been estranged from the show during the production process of the last 4 seasons (starting with season 5).",
"In the early seasons, Martin wrote and read scripts, consulted on casting decisions and visited sets.",
"Over time, however, as he stepped back to focus on his long-delayed next “Thrones” novel, ''\"The Winds of Winter\"''.",
"Following the gargantuan success of the fourth season, HBO ordered the fifth season on April 8, 2014, together with the sixth season, which began filming in July 2014.The season primarily adapts the storylines from ''A Feast for Crows'' and ''A Dance with Dragons,'' also with original content not found in Martin's novels.",
"This season set a Guinness World Record for winning the highest number of Emmy Awards for a series in a single season and year, winning 12 out of 24 nominations, including Outstanding Drama Series.With a budget over $100 million for the whole season, filming for the sixth season began in July 2015 and ended on December.",
"The season filmed in five different countries: Northern Ireland, Spain, Croatia, Iceland, and Canada.",
"This season saw the overall plot of the show diverging from the source material.",
"Some of the season's storyline is derived from content not yet published in Martin's ''A Song of Ice and Fire'' series, although a significant amount of material from ''A Feast for Crows'', ''A Dance with Dragons'' and the upcoming sixth novel ''The Winds of Winter'', which Martin previously outlined to showrunners David Benioff and D.B.",
"Weiss, was used.",
"The season was largely met with positive reviews.",
"The \"Battle of the Bastards\" episode received immense critical acclaim, with many calling it one of the best television episodes of all time.",
"U.S. viewership rose compared to the previous season, and by approximately 13 percent over its course, from 7.9 million to 8.9 million by the finale.",
"The season won 12 of the 23 Emmy Awards for which it was nominated.Three days before the premiere of the episode \"The Red Woman\", HBO ordered the seventh season.",
"Due to necessary weather conditions required for filming, the production of the penultimate season of the show was delayed that year.",
"Filming began only on August 31, 2016, at Titanic Studios in Belfast, and ended in February 2017.Unlike previous seasons, the seventh and eighth seasons largely consisted of original content not found in the source material.",
"This season comprised only seven episodes.",
"The showrunners stated that they were unable to produce 10 episodes in the show's usual 12 to 14 month time frame, as Weiss said \"It's crossing out of a television schedule into more of a mid-range movie schedule\".",
"The average runtime of an episode in this season was approximately 63 minutes.",
"The series received 22 nominations for the 70th Primetime Emmy Awards and won 9 of them, including \"Outstanding Drama Series\".Unlike its prior seasons, the final one took a year gap for its production and filming.",
"The eighth season consisted of only six episodes, though the average runtime of an episode was 68 minutes, the longest of all seasons, with \"The Long Night\" consisting of 81 minutes.",
"The season was met with mixed reviews from critics, with the performances, production values and music score were praised, criticism was mainly directed at the shorter runtime of the season as well as numerous creative decisions made by the showrunners.",
"Many commentators deemed it to be a disappointing conclusion to the series.",
"The season received 32 nominations at the 71st Primetime Emmy Awards, the most for a single season of television in history.",
"It won twelve, including Outstanding Drama Series and Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series for Peter Dinklage.Three years after the show ended, a prequel series, ''House of the Dragon'', premiered on HBO in August 21, 2022.Based on parts of the novel ''Fire & Blood'', the series is set about 200 years before the events of ''Game of Thrones.''",
"Ryan Condal and Miguel Sapochnik served as the showrunners for the first season.",
"Five days after its premiere, the series was renewed for a second season by HBO.",
"On September 1, Sapochnik departed as showrunner, with another veteran Game of Thrones director Alan Taylor replacing him as the co-showrunner for the upcoming second season.In June 2022, it was reported that a Jon Snow sequel series with Kit Harington to reprise his role was in early development at HBO.",
"The working title is ''Snow'' and Martin confirmed his involvement with the project and that Harington initiated the idea.",
"Also in June, Martin said there were still three other live-action series in development: ''10,000 Ships'' (written by Amanda Segal), ''9 Voyages'' aka ''Sea Snake'' (written by Bruno Heller), and the Dunk & Egg prequel series (written by Steven Conrad), tentatively titled either ''The Hedge Knight'' or ''Knight of the Seven Kingdoms.",
"''In January 2021, an animated drama series was announced as in development at HBO Max.",
"In July 2021, two more animated series were in development at HBO Max, with one being set in Yi Ti, a nation in Essos loosely based on Imperial China.=== Themes ===Martin's work has been described as having \"complex story lines, fascinating characters, great dialogue, perfect pacing\" by literary critic Jeff VanderMeer.",
"Dana Jennings of the ''New York Times'' described Martin's work as \"fantasy for grown ups\" and Lev Grossman wrote that it was dark and cynical.",
"Martin's first novel, ''Dying of the Light'', set the tone for some of his future work; it unfolds on a mostly abandoned planet that is slowly becoming uninhabitable as it moves away from its sun.",
"This story has a strong sense of melancholy.",
"His characters are often unhappy or, at least, unsatisfied, in many cases holding on to idealisms in spite of an otherwise chaotic and ruthless world, and often troubled by their own self-seeking or violent actions, even as they undertake them.",
"Many have elements of tragic heroes or antiheroes in them; reviewer T. M. Wagner writes: \"Let it never be said Martin doesn't share Shakespeare's fondness for the senselessly tragic.",
"\"Martin in November 2016The overall gloominess of ''A Song of Ice and Fire'' can be an obstacle for some readers; the Inchoatus Group writes that, \"If this absence of joy is going to trouble you, or you're looking for something more affirming, then you should probably seek elsewhere.\"",
"However, for many fans, it is precisely this level of \"realness\" and \"completeness\"–including many characters' imperfections, moral and ethical ambiguity, and (often sudden) consequential plot twists that is endearing about Martin's work.",
"Many find that this is what makes the series' story arcs compelling enough to keep following despite its sheer brutality and intricately messy and interwoven plotlines; as TM Wagner points out:There's great tragedy here, but there's also excitement, humor, heroism even in weaklings, nobility even in villains, and, now and then, a taste of justice after all.",
"It's a rare gift when a writer can invest his story with that much humanity.Martin's characters are multifaceted, each with intricate pasts, aspirations, and ambitions.",
"''Publishers Weekly'' writes of his ongoing epic fantasy ''A Song of Ice and Fire'': \"The complexity of characters such as Daenerys, Arya and the Kingslayer will keep readers turning even the vast number of pages contained in this volume, for the author, like Tolkien or Jordan, makes us care about their fates.\"",
"Misfortune, injury, and death (including false death and reanimation) often befall major or minor characters, no matter how attached the reader has become.",
"Martin has described his penchant for killing off important characters as being necessary for the story's depth: \"when my characters are in danger, I want you to be afraid to turn the page, (so) you need to show right from the beginning that you're playing for keeps\".In distinguishing his work from others, Martin makes a point of emphasizing realism and plausible social dynamics above an over-reliance on magic and a simplistic \"good versus evil\" dichotomy, for which contemporary fantasy writing is often criticized.",
"Notably, Martin's work makes a sharp departure from the prevalent \"heroic knights and chivalry\" schema that has become a mainstay in fantasy as derived from J. R. R. Tolkien's ''The Lord of the Rings''.",
"He specifically critiques the oversimplification of Tolkien's themes and devices by imitators in ways that he has humorously described as \"Disneyland Middle Ages\", which gloss over or ignore major differences between medieval and modern societies, particularly social structures, ways of living, and political arrangements.",
"Martin has been described as \"the American Tolkien\" by literary critics.",
"While Martin finds inspiration in Tolkien's legacy, he aims to go beyond what he sees as Tolkien's \"medieval philosophy\" of \"if the king was a good man, the land would prosper\" to delve into the complexities, ambiguities, and vagaries of real-life power: \"We look at real history and it's not that simple... Just having good intentions doesn't make you a wise king.\"",
"Per this fact Martin has been credited with the rise of grimdark fantasy, a modern form of an \"anti-Tolkien\" approach to fantasy writing which, according to British science fiction and fantasy novelist Adam Roberts, is characterized by its reaction to Tolkien's idealism even though it owes a lot to Tolkien's work.",
"The Canadian fantasy writer R. Scott Bakker \"says he wouldn't have been able to publish his fantasy novels without the success George R. R. Martin achieved first\".",
"Similarly, Mark Lawrence, author of ''Prince of Thorns'', was inspired by Martin and impressed by his Red Wedding scene.The author makes a point of grounding his work on a foundation of historical fiction, which he channels to evoke important social and political elements of primarily the European medieval era that differ markedly from elements of modern times, including the multigenerational, rigid, and often brutally consequential nature of the hierarchical class system of feudal societies that is in many cases overlooked in fantasy writing.",
"Even as ''A Song of Ice and Fire'' is a fantasy series that employs magic and the surreal as central to the genre, Martin is keen to ensure that magic is merely one element of many that moves his work forward, not a generic deus ex machina that is itself the focus of his stories, which is something he has been very conscious about since reading Tolkien; \"If you look at ''The Lord of the Rings'', what strikes you, it certainly struck me, is that although the world is infused with this great sense of magic, there is very little onstage magic.",
"So you have a sense of magic, but it's kept under very tight control, and I really took that to heart when I was starting my own series.\"",
"Martin's ultimate aim is an exploration of the internal conflicts that define the human condition, which, in deriving inspiration from William Faulkner, he ultimately describes as the only reason to read any literature, regardless of genre.In 2018, Martin called ''The Lord of the Rings'', ''The Great Gatsby'', ''Gone with the Wind'', ''Great Expectations'', ''Lonesome Dove'', ''Catch-22'', and ''Charlotte's Web'' \"favorites all, towering masterpieces, books that changed my life\"."
],
[
"Producing",
"In 2017, Martin confirmed he would serve as an executive producer of the HBO television series adaptation of the 2010 science fantasy novel ''Who Fears Death'' by Nnedi Okorafor.",
"Martin also contributed to the 2022 video game titled ''Elden Ring'', writing the worldbuilding aspects for it.",
"In February 2021, it was reported that Martin and Kalinda Vazquez were developing a TV adaptation of ''Roadmarks'' by Roger Zelazny, which Martin pitched to HBO in 2020.Martin will be an executive producer, Vazquez the showrunner, writer and executive producer.",
"In March 2021, he signed an overall deal with HBO.",
"Martin will serve as an executive producer of the Peacock TV adaptation in development of his ''Wild Cards'' book series, together with Melinda M. Snodgrass and Vince Gerardis, Martin's manager.",
"He will serve as an executive producer of the 2022 AMC series ''Dark Winds'' based on Tony Hillerman's Leaphorn & Chee books, together with the creator Graham Roland, the showrunner Vince Calandra, the lead Zahn McClarnon, Kiowa Gordon, Chris Eyre, Robert Redford, Tina Elmo and Vince Gerardis.",
"In 2021, Martin served as one of the producers of the short film ''Night of the Cooters'' based on the eponymous short story by Howard Waldrop."
],
[
"Relationship with fans",
"Martin signing books in a bookstore in Ljubljana, Slovenia (June 2011)Martin actively contributes to his blog, ''Not a Blog''; in April 2018, he moved his blog from Livejournal to his own website.Martin's official fan club is the \"Brotherhood Without Banners\", which has a regular posting board at the Forum of the website westeros.org, which is focused on his ''A Song of Ice and Fire'' fantasy series.",
"At the annual World Science Fiction Convention every year, the Brotherhood Without Banners hosts a large, on-going hospitality suite that is open to all members of the Worldcon.Martin is opposed to fan fiction, which he views as copyright infringement and a bad exercise for aspiring writers in terms of developing skills in worldbuilding and character development.=== Conventions ===Martin is known for his regular attendance at science fiction conventions and comics conventions, and his accessibility to fans.",
"In the early 1980s, critic and writer Thomas Disch identified Martin as a member of the \"Labor Day Group\", writers who regularly congregated at the annual Worldcon, usually held on or around the Labor Day weekend.",
"Since the early 1970s, he has also attended regional science fiction conventions; further, since 1986, Martin has participated annually in Albuquerque's smaller regional convention Bubonicon, near his New Mexico home.",
"He was the Guest of Honor at the 61st World Science Fiction Convention in Toronto, held in 2003.In December 2016, Martin was a key speaker at the Guadalajara International Book Fair 2016 in Mexico where the author provided hints about the next two books in the series ''A Song of Ice and Fire''.In 2020, Martin fulfilled his duties as “toastmaster” of the Hugo Awards.",
"During the event, he mispronounced several names, including that of R. F. Kuang, which she considered a microaggression.",
"Martin later apologized for mispronouncing the names.=== Criticism ===Martin has been criticized by some of his readers for the long periods between books in the ''A Song of Ice and Fire'' series, notably the six-year gap between the fourth volume, ''A Feast for Crows'' (2005), and the fifth volume, ''A Dance with Dragons'' (2011).",
"In 2010, Martin had responded to fan criticisms by saying he was unwilling to write only his ''A Song of Ice and Fire'' series, noting that working on other prose and compiling and editing different book projects have always been part of his working process."
],
[
"Personal life",
"Martin at LoneStarCon 3 (the 71st World Science Fiction Convention), 2013In the early 1970s, Martin was in a relationship with fellow science fiction/fantasy author Lisa Tuttle, with whom he co-wrote ''Windhaven''.",
"While attending an East Coast science fiction convention he met his first wife, Gale Burnick; they were married in 1975 and moved from their Chicago apartment and into a house in Dubuque in 1976.Both of them grew tired of the hard winters there, and when she graduated from Clarke in June 1979, he resigned from his job and they decided to move to New Mexico.",
"The year before they had \"fallen in love\" with Santa Fe on their way to the worldcon in Phoenix.",
"His wife went down and bought a house while Martin stayed behind to sell their home and finish the semester.",
"The marriage ended in divorce in 1979, before they could be reunited in Santa Fe.",
"Instead he settled there alone from December that same year until September 1981, when what would be his longtime partner Parris McBride moved in with him.",
"On February 15, 2011, Martin married McBride during a small ceremony at their Santa Fe home.",
"On August 19, 2011, they held a larger wedding ceremony and reception at Renovation, the 69th World Science Fiction Convention.He and McBride are supporters of the Wild Spirit Wolf Sanctuary in New Mexico.",
"In early 2013, he purchased Santa Fe's Jean Cocteau Cinema and Coffee House, which had been closed since 2006.He had the property completely restored, including both its original 35mm capability to which was added digital projection and sound; the Cocteau officially reopened for business on August 9, 2013.In 2019, he opened a bookstore named Beastly Books, after Beauty and the Beast, next to Jean Cocteau.",
"Martin has also supported Meow Wolf, an arts collective in Santa Fe, having pledged $2.7 million toward a new art space in January 2015.In response to a question on his religious views, Martin replied: \"I suppose I'm a lapsed Catholic.",
"You would consider me an atheist or agnostic.",
"I find religion and spirituality fascinating.",
"I would like to believe this isn't the end and there's something more, but I can't convince the rational part of me that makes any sense whatsoever.",
"\"Martin is a fan of the New York Jets, the New York Giants and the New York Mets.",
"He is also a fan of the Grateful Dead, and says that the band's music may have influenced his work.Martin made a guest appearance as himself in an episode, \"El Skeletorito\", of the Adult Swim show ''Robot Chicken''.",
"He also appeared in SyFy's ''Z Nation'' as a zombie version of himself in season two's \"The Collector\", where he is still signing copies of his new novel.",
"In ''Sharknado 3: Oh Hell No!",
"'', he is killed when watching a movie at the theatre."
],
[
"Philanthropy",
"In 2014, Martin launched a campaign on Prizeo to raise funds for Wild Spirit Wolf Sanctuary and the Food Depot of Santa Fe.",
"As part of the campaign, Martin offered one donor the chance to accompany him on a trip to the wolf sanctuary, including a helicopter ride and dinner.",
"Martin also offered those donating $20,000 or more the opportunity to have a character named after them and \"killed off\" in an upcoming ''A Song of Ice and Fire'' novel.",
"The campaign garnered media attention and raised a total of $502,549.In 2017, Martin announced that he was funding The Miskatonic Scholarship.",
"The Miskatonic Scholarship allows a writer of Lovecraftian cosmic horror to attend the Odyssey Writing Workshop, a six-week writing workshop held at Saint Anselm College in Manchester, New Hampshire."
],
[
"Politics",
"Growing up, Martin avoided the draft to the Vietnam War by being a conscientious objector and did two years of alternative service.",
"He generally opposes war and thought the Vietnam War was a \"terrible mistake for America\".While he did not endorse Barack Obama in 2008, Martin endorsed him for re-election in 2012 calling Obama the most intelligent president since Jimmy Carter.",
"In 2014, Martin endorsed Democratic Senator Tom Udall of New Mexico.In the midst of pressure to pull the 2014 feature film ''The Interview'' from theaters, the Jean Cocteau Cinema in Santa Fe, New Mexico, which has been owned by Martin since 2013, decided to show the film.",
"Theater manager Jon Bowman told the ''Santa Fe New Mexican'', \"Martin feels strongly about the First Amendment and the idea of artists having the ability to speak their minds and not having to worry about being targets.",
"\"Immediately following Bernie Sanders' defeat in the U.S. Democratic primary elections, he supported Democratic nominee Hillary Clinton in the general 2016 United States presidential election, and criticized Donald Trump during the election and following her defeat, commenting that Trump would \"become the worst president in American history\".",
"In response to fans of Martin who compared Trump favorably to characters from ''A Song of Ice and Fire'', Martin doubled-down on his criticism of Trump by making the case to his fans that Trump shares many personality traits in common with King Joffrey, a near-universally hated character from the series, concluding that \"Trump is a Grown-Up Joffrey.",
"\"In May 2019, Martin endorsed Joe Biden for president in 2020."
],
[
"Awards and honors",
"=== Awards and nominations === Award Year Category Recipient(s) Result Notes Bram Stoker Award 1988 Best Long Fiction ''The Pear-Shaped Man'' British Fantasy Award 2006 Robert Holdstock Award for Best Fantasy Novel ''A Feast for Crows'' Goodreads Choice Awards 2011 Best Fantasy ''A Dance with Dragons'' Hugo Award 1975 Best Novella ''A Song for Lya'' 1980 Best Novelette ''Sandkings'' Best Short Story ''The Way of Cross and Dragon'' 1997 Best Novella ''Blood of the Dragon'' 2001 Best Novel ''A Storm of Swords'' 2006 ''A Feast for Crows'' 2012 ''A Dance with Dragons'' Best Dramatic Presentation, Long Form ''Game of Thrones'' (Season 1) writer 2013 Best Dramatic Presentation, Short Form ''Game of Thrones'' (Episode: \"Blackwater\") screenwriter Locus Award 1976 Best Novella ''The Storms of Windhaven'' co-authored with Lisa Tuttle 1977 Best Author Collection ''A Song for Lya and Other Stories'' 1980 Best Novelette ''Sandkings'' Best Short Story ''The Way of Cross and Dragon'' 1981 Best Novella ''Nightflyers'' 1982 Best Novelette ''Guardians'' Best Single Author Collection ''Sandkings'' 1984 Best Novelette ''The Monkey Treatment'' 1997 Best Fantasy Novel ''A Game of Thrones'' 1999 ''A Clash of Kings'' 2001 ''A Storm of Swords'' 2011 Best Original Anthology ''Warriors'' co-edited with Gardner Dozois 2012 Best Fantasy Novel ''A Dance with Dragons'' 2014 Best Original Anthology ''Old Mars'' co-edited with Gardner Dozois 2015 ''Rogues'' co-edited with Gardner Dozois 2016 ''Old Venus'' co-edited with Gardner Dozois Nebula Award 1979 Best Novelette ''Sandkings'' 1985 ''Portraits of His Children'' 1997 Best Novel ''A Game of Thrones'' 1999 ''A Clash of Kings'' 2001 ''A Storm of Swords'' An Post Irish Book Awards 2019 International Recognition Award Himself Honorary award Premio Ignotus 2003 Best Foreign Novel ''A Game of Thrones'' 2004 ''A Clash of Kings'' 2006 ''A Storm of Swords'' Primetime Emmy Awards 1988 Outstanding Drama Series ''Beauty and the Beast'' (Season 1) producer 1989 ''Beauty and the Beast'' (Season 2) producer 2011 ''Game of Thrones'' (Season 1) co-executive producer 2012 ''Game of Thrones'' (Season 2) co-executive producer 2013 ''Game of Thrones'' (Season 3) co-executive producer 2014 ''Game of Thrones'' (Season 4) co-executive producer 2015 ''Game of Thrones'' (Season 5) co-executive producer 2016 ''Game of Thrones'' (Season 6) co-executive producer 2018 ''Game of Thrones'' (Season 7) co-executive producer 2019 ''Game of Thrones'' (Season 8) co-executive producer 2024 ''House of the Dragon'' (Season 1) co-executive producer Quill Award 2006 Best Novel (Science Fiction & Fantasy) ''A Feast for Crows'' World Fantasy Award 1989 Best Novella ''The Skin Trade'' 2012 Life Achievement Himself Honorary award 2014 Best Original Anthology ''Dangerous Women'' co-edited with Gardner Dozois=== State and academic honors ===+ State and academic honors for Martin Country or organization Year Award New Jersey Hall of Fame 2019 Arts & Entertainment Northwestern University 2015 Medill Hall of Achievement Award 2021 Doctor of Humane Letters"
],
[
"Bibliography",
"=== Works === Title Year Type Note \"The Hero\" 1971 Short story ''Galaxy Magazine'' \"The Second Kind of Loneliness\" 1972 ''Analog Science Fiction and Fact'' \"Override\" 1973 ''With Morning Comes Mistfall'' ''A Song for Lya'' 1974 Novella Hugo Award for Best Novella 1975 \"And Seven Times Never Kill Man\" 1975 Short story''Analog Science Fiction and Fact'' \"The Lonely Songs of Laren Dorr\" 1976 Short story''Fantastic Stories'' ''A Song for Lya'' Short story collection \"Nobody Leaves New Pittsburg\" Short story ''Amazing Science Fiction Stories'' \"This Tower of Ashes\" ''Analog Annual'' ''Dying of the Light'' 1977 Novel ''Songs of Stars and Shadows'' Short story collection \"Sandkings\" 1979 Novelette Hugo Award & Nebula Award for Best Novelette 1980 \"The Way of Cross and Dragon\" Short story Hugo Award for Best Short Story 1980 \"The Ice Dragon\" 1980 Young adult fiction Illustrated by Alicia Austin as part of ''Dragons of Light'', and Anne Yvonne Gilbert in 2006 ''Nightflyers'' Novella ''Windhaven'' 1981 Fix-up novel with Lisa Tuttle ''Sandkings'' Short story collection ''Fevre Dream'' 1982 Novel \"In the Lost Lands\" Short story ''Amazons II'' anthologyTo be adapted into a film ''Songs the Dead Men Sing'' 1983 Short story collection ''The Armageddon Rag'' Novel ''Nightflyers and Other Stories'' 1985 Short story collection ''Heroes for Hope'' Comic-book script X-Men comic fundraiser ''Tuf Voyaging'' 1986 ''Fix-up'' novel \"The Glass Flower\" Short story ''Portraits of His Children'' 1987 Short story collection ''The Skin Trade'' 1989 Novella ''Dark Visions'' compilation ''Blood of the Dragon'' 1996 Novella Chapter set book of ''A Song of Ice and Fire'' ''A Game of Thrones'' 1996 Novel ''A Song of Ice and Fire'' ''The Hedge Knight'' 1998 Novella ''Tales of Dunk and Egg'' (''A Song of Ice and Fire'' prequel) ''A Clash of Kings'' Novel ''A Song of Ice and Fire'' ''A Storm of Swords'' 2000 ''Path of the Dragon'' 2000 Novella Chapter set book of ''A Song of Ice and Fire'' ''Quartet'' 2001 Short story collection ''Arms of the Kraken'' 2002 Novella Chapter set book of ''A Song of Ice and Fire'' ''GRRM: A RRetrospective'' 2003 Short story & essay collection ''The Sworn Sword'' Novella ''Tales of Dunk and Egg'' (''A Song of Ice and Fire'' prequel) ''A Feast for Crows'' 2005 Novel ''A Song of Ice and Fire'' ''Hunter's Run'' 2007 with Gardner Dozois & Daniel Abraham ''The Mystery Knight'' 2010 Novella ''Tales of Dunk and Egg'' (''A Song of Ice and Fire'' prequel) ''A Dance with Dragons'' 2011 Novel ''A Song of Ice and Fire'' ''The Lands of Ice and Fire'' 2012 Map collection from the ''A Song of Ice and Fire'' world ''The Wit and Wisdom of Tyrion Lannister'' 2013 Quote collection from ''A Song of Ice and Fire'' ''The Princess and the Queen'' Novella ''A Song of Ice and Fire'' prequels ''The Rogue Prince'' 2014 Novelette ''The World of Ice & Fire'' Reference book The history of Westeros, with Elio M. García Jr. and Linda Antonsson ''The Ice Dragon'' Young adult illustrated novella Reworked version of the original novella published in 1980, illustrated by Luis Royo ''A Knight of the Seven Kingdoms'' 2015 Collection compilation of the first three ''Tales of Dunk and Egg'' ''The Sons of the Dragon'' 2017 Novella ''A Song of Ice and Fire'' prequel ''Fire & Blood'' 2018 novella collection/ ''Fix-up'' novel The history of House Targaryen ''The Rise of the Dragon'' 2022 Reference book The history of House Targaryen, with Elio M. García Jr. and Linda Antonsson ''The Winds of Winter'' TBD Novel ''A Song of Ice and Fire'' ''A Dream of Spring'' ''Blood & Fire'' novella collection/ ''Fix-up'' novel Second volume of ''Fire & Blood'' ''The She-Wolves of Winterfell'' Novella Conceived as future installments of ''Tales of Dunk and Egg'' ''The Village Hero'' ''The Sellsword'' ''The Champion'' ''The Kingsguard'' ''The Lord Commander''==== Novels ====''A Song of Ice and Fire'' universe:* ''A Song of Ice and Fire'' series:*# ''A Game of Thrones'' (1996)*# ''A Clash of Kings'' (1998)*# ''A Storm of Swords'' (2000)*# ''A Feast for Crows'' (2005)*# ''A Dance with Dragons'' (2011)*# ''The Winds of Winter'' (forthcoming)*# ''A Dream of Spring'' (planned)* Prequels:** ''Tales of Dunk and Egg'' series:**# ''A Knight of the Seven Kingdoms'' (2015), collection of 3 novellas:**## ''The Hedge Knight'' (1998)**## ''The Sworn Sword'' (2003)**## ''The Mystery Knight'' (2010)** ''The Rogue Prince & The Princess'' series:**# ''The Princess and the Queen, or, the Blacks and the Greens'' (2013), novella**# ''The Rogue Prince, or, a King's Brother'' (2014), prequel, novelette**# ''The Sons of the Dragon'' (2017), novella** ''Fire & Blood'' (2018)** ''Blood & Fire'' (forthcoming)* Companion Books:** ''The Lands of Ice and Fire'' (2012)** ''The Wit & Wisdom of Tyrion Lannister'' (2013)** ''The World of Ice & Fire'' (2014), with Elio M. García Jr. and Linda Antonsson** ''The Rise of the Dragon'' (2022), with Elio M. García Jr. and Linda Antonsson* Chapter Sets:** ''Blood of the Dragon'' (1996)** ''Path of the Dragon'' (2000)** ''Arms of the Kraken'' (2002)Stand-alones:* ''Dying of the Light'' (1977)* ''Windhaven'' (1981), with Lisa Tuttle, fix-up novel of 3 novellas:*: \"Storms\", \"One-Wing\", \"The Fall\"* ''Fevre Dream'' (1982)* ''The Armageddon Rag'' (1983)* ''Tuf Voyaging'' (1986), fix-up novel of 7 novellas/novelettes:*: \"The Plague Star\" (novella), \"Loaves and Fishes\" (novella), \"Guardians\" (novelette), \"Second Helpings\" (novelette), \"A Beast for Norn\" (novelette), \"Call Him Moses\" (novelette), \"Manna from Heaven\" (novella)* ''Hunter's Run'' (2007), with Daniel Abraham and Gardner Dozois, a heavily rewritten and expanded version of an earlier novella called ''Shadow Twin''==== Children's novels ====* \"The Ice Dragon\", novelette==== Short stories ====Collections:* ''A Song for Lya'', or ''A Song for Lya and Other Stories'' (1976), collection of 8 short stories and 2 novellas/novelettes:*: \"With Morning Comes Mistfall\", \"The Second Kind of Loneliness\", \"Override\" (novelette), \"Dark, Dark Were the Tunnels\", \"The Hero\", \"FTA\", \"Run to Starlight\", \"The Exit to San Breta\", \"Slide Show\", \"A Song for Lya\" (novella)* ''Songs of Stars and Shadows'' (1977), collection of 8 short stories and 1 novelette:*: \"This Tower of Ashes\", \"Patrick Henry, Jupiter, and the Little Red Brick Spaceship\", \"Men of Greywater Station\", \"The Lonely Songs of Laren Dorr\", \"Night of the Vampyres\", \"The Runners\", \"Night Shift\", \"...For a Single Yesterday\", \"And Seven Times Never Kill Man\" (novelette)* ''Sandkings'' (1981), collection of 3 short stories and 4 novelettes:*: \"The Way of Cross and Dragon\" (novelette), \"Bitterblooms\" (novelette), \"In the House of the Worm\", \"Fast-Friend\", \"The Stone City\" (novelette), \"Starlady\", \"Sandkings\" (novelette)* ''Songs the Dead Men Sing'' (1983), collection of 5 short stories and 4 novelettes/novellas:*: \"The Monkey Treatment\" (novelette), \"...For a Single Yesterday\", \"In the House of the Worm\", \"The Needle Men\", \"Meathouse Man\" (novelette), \"Sandkings\" (novelette), \"This Tower of Ashes\", \"Nightflyers\" (novella), \"Remembering Melody\"* ''Nightflyers'', or ''Nightflyers and Other Stories'' (1985), collection of 6 novelettes/novellas:*: \"Nightflyers\" (novella), \"Override\" (novelette), \"Weekend in a War Zone\" (novelette), \"And Seven Times Never Kill Man\" (novelette), \"Nor the Many-Colored Fires of a Star Ring\" (novelette), \"A Song for Lya\" (novella)* ''Portraits of His Children'' (1987), collection of 5 short stories and 6 novelettes/novellas:*: \"With Morning Comes Mistfall\", \"The Second Kind of Loneliness\", \"The Last Super Bowl\" (novelette), \"The Lonely Songs of Laren Dorr\", \"The Ice Dragon\" (novelette), \"In the Lost Lands\", \"Unsound Variations\" (novella), \"Closing Time\", \"Under Siege\" (novelette), \"The Glass Flower\" (novelette), \"Portraits of His Children\" (novelette)* ''Quartet'' (2001), collection of 1 short story and 3 novellas:*: \"Blood of the Dragon\" (novella part of ''A Game of Thrones''), \"Black and White and Red All Over\", \"Starport\" (novella), \"Skin Trade\" (novella)* ''Dreamsongs: A RRetrospective'', or ''GRRM: A RRetrospective'' (2003), collection of 11 short stories, 21 novelettes/novellas and 2 screenplays:*: A Four-Color Fanboy: \"Only Kids Are Afraid of the Dark\", \"The Fortress\", \"And Death His Legacy\"*: The Filthy Pro: \"The Hero\", \"The Exit to San Breta\", \"The Second Kind of Loneliness\", \"With Morning Comes Mistfall\"*: The Light of Distant Stars: \"A Song for Lya\" (novella), \"This Tower of Ashes\", \"And Seven Times Never Kill Man\" (novelette), \"The Stone City\" (novelette), \"Bitterblooms\" (novelette), \"The Way of Cross and Dragon\" (novelette)*: The Heirs of Turtle Castle: \"The Lonely Songs of Laren Dorr\", \"The Ice Dragon\" (novelette), \"In the Lost Lands\"*: Hybrids and Horrors: \"Meathouse Man\" (novelette), \"Remembering Melody\", \"Sandkings\" (novelette), \"Nightflyers\" (novella), \"The Monkey Treatment\" (novelette), \"The Pear-Shaped Man\" (novelette)*: A Taste of Tuf: \"A Beast for Norn\" (novelette part of ''Tuf Voyaging''), \"Guardians\" (novelette part of ''Tuf Voyaging'')*: The Siren Song of Hollywood: \"The Road Less Traveled\" (screenplay), \"Doorways\" (screenplay)*: Doing the Wild Card Shuffle: \"Shell Games\" (novelette), \"From the Journal of Xavier Desmond\" (novella)*: The Heart in Conflict: \"Under Siege\" (novelette), \"The Skin Trade\" (novella), \"Unsound Variations\" (novella), \"The Glass Flower\" (novelette), \"The Hedge Knight\" (novella; series ''A Knight of the Seven Kingdoms'' #1), \"Portraits of His Children\" (novelette)Uncollected short stories:* \"Nobody Leaves New Pittsburg\" (1976)=== Editor ===* ''New Voices in Science Fiction'' (1977: new stories by the John W. Campbell Award winners)* ''New Voices in Science Fiction 2'' (1979: more new stories by the John W. Campbell Award winners)* ''New Voices in Science Fiction 3'' (1980: more new stories by the John W. Campbell Award winners)* ''New Voices in Science Fiction 4'' (1981: more new stories by the John W. Campbell Award winners)* ''The Science Fiction Weight Loss Book'' (1983) edited with Isaac Asimov and Martin H. Greenberg (\"Stories by the Great Science Fiction Writers on Fat, Thin, and Everything in Between\")* ''The John W. Campbell Awards, Volume 5'' (1984, continuation of the ''New Voices in Science Fiction'' series)* ''Night Visions 3'' (1986)==== ''Wild Cards'' series editor (also contributor to many volumes) ====* ''Wild Cards'' (1987; contents expanded in 2010 edition with three new stories/authors)* ''Wild Cards II: Aces High'' (1987)* ''Wild Cards III: Jokers Wild'' (1987)* ''Wild Cards IV: Aces Abroad'' (1988; Book I of the Puppetman Quartet; contents expanded in 2015 edition with two new stories/authors)* ''Wild Cards V: Down & Dirty'' (1988; Book II of the Puppetman Quartet)* ''Wild Cards VI: Ace in the Hole'' (1990; Book III of the Puppetman Quartet)* ''Wild Cards VII: Dead Man's Hand'' (1990; Book IV of the Puppetman Quartet)* ''Wild Cards VIII: One-Eyed Jacks'' (1991; Book I of the Rox Triad)* ''Wild Cards IX: Jokertown Shuffle'' (1991; Book II of the Rox Triad)* ''Wild Cards X: Double Solitaire'' (1992)* ''Wild Cards XI: Dealer's Choice'' (1992; Book III of the Rox Triad)* ''Wild Cards XII: Turn of the Cards'' (1993)* ''Wild Cards XIII: Card Sharks'' (1993; Book I of the Card Shark Triad)* ''Wild Cards XIV: Marked Cards'' (1994; Book II of the Card Shark Triad)* ''Wild Cards XV: Black Trump'' (1995; Book III of the Card Shark Triad)* ''Wild Cards XVI: Deuces Down'' (2002)* ''Wild Cards XVII: Death Draws Five'' (2006; solo novel by John J. Miller)* ''Wild Cards XVIII: Inside Straight'' (2008; Book I of ''The Committee'' triad)* ''Wild Cards XIX: Busted Flush'' (2008; Book II of ''The Committee'' triad)* ''Wild Cards XX: Suicide Kings'' (2009; Book III of ''The Committee'' triad)* ''Wild Cards XXI: Fort Freak'' (2011; Book I of the Mean Streets Triad)* ''Wild Cards XXII: Lowball'' (2014; Book II of the Mean Streets Triad)* ''Wild Cards XXIII: High Stakes'' (2016; Book III of the Mean Streets Triad)* ''Wild Cards XXIV: Mississippi Roll'' (2017; Book I of the American Triad)* ''Wild Cards XXV: Low Chicago'' (2018; Book II of the American Triad)* ''Wild Cards XXVI: Texas Hold 'Em'' (2018; Book III of the American Triad)* ''Wild Cards XXVII: Knaves Over Queens'' (2019; Book I of the British Arc)* ''Wild Cards XXVIII: Three Kings'' (2020; Book II of the British Arc)* ''Wild Cards XXIX: Joker Moon'' (2021)* ''Wild Cards XXX: Full House'' (2022)* ''Wild Cards XXXI: Pairing Up'' (TBA)==== Cross-genre anthologies edited (with Gardner Dozois) ====* ''Songs of the Dying Earth'' (2009; a tribute anthology to Jack Vance's ''Dying Earth'' series, first published by Subterranean Press)* ''Warriors'' (2010; a cross-genre anthology featuring stories about war and warriors; winner of the 2011 Locus Poll Award for Best Original Anthology)* ''Songs of Love and Death'' (2010; a cross-genre anthology featuring stories of romance in fantasy and science fiction settings, originally entitled ''Star Crossed Lovers'')* ''Down These Strange Streets'' (2011; a cross-genre anthology that blends classic detective stories with fantasy and science fiction)* ''Old Mars'' (2013; a science fiction anthology featuring all new, retro-themed stories about the Red Planet)* ''Dangerous Women'' (2013; a cross-genre anthology focusing on women warriors and strong female characters, originally titled ''Femmes Fatale'')* ''Rogues'' (2014; a cross-genre anthology featuring new stories about assorted rogues)* ''Old Venus'' (2015 publication; an anthology of all new, retro-themed Venus science fiction stories)"
],
[
"Filmography",
"=== Film === Year Title Actor Writer Producer Notes1987 ''Nightflyers'' 2015 ''Sharknado 3: Oh Hell No!''",
"Himself2018 ''Meow Wolf: Origin Story'' Documentary, Himself and executive producer=== Television === Year Title Actor Writer Producer Notes1984 ''The Hitchhiker'' based on Short Story ''Remembering Melody''1986 ''The Twilight Zone'' five episodes1987–1990 ''Beauty and the Beast'' wrote 13 episodes, producer and co-supervising producer, role: Restaurant Patron1992 ''Doorways'' unaired pilot, executive producer1995, 2002 ''The Outer Limits'' episodes ''The Sandkings'' and ''Final Appeal'' based on Sandkings2011–2019 ''Game of Thrones'' wrote \"The Pointy End\", \"Blackwater\", \"The Bear and the Maiden Fair\", \"The Lion and the Rose\", co-executive producer, cameo in original unaired pilot2014 ''Robot Chicken'' roles: George R. R. Martin/Father (voices)2015 ''Z Nation'' Himself2018 ''Nightflyers'' based on the novella and series of short stories of the same name; executive producer2022–present ''House of the Dragon'' creator and executive producer2022–present''Dark Winds'' Executive producer=== Video games === Year Title Actor Writer Producer Notes2012 ''Game of Thrones'' Executive producer2022 ''Elden Ring'' Worldbuilding"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* * * * * * George R. R. Martin at the Encyclopedia of Fantasy* George R. R. Martin at the Encyclopedia of Science Fiction"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"A Song of Ice and Fire"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''''A Song of Ice and Fire''''' is a series of epic fantasy novels by the American novelist and screenwriter George R. R. Martin.",
"He began writing the first volume, ''A Game of Thrones'', in 1991, publishing it in 1996.Martin originally envisioned the series as a trilogy but has released five out of a planned seven volumes.",
"The fifth and most recent entry in the series, ''A Dance with Dragons'', was published in 2011.Martin continues to write the sixth novel, titled ''The Winds of Winter''.",
"A seventh novel, ''A Dream of Spring'', is planned to follow.",
"''A Song of Ice and Fire'' depicts a violent world dominated by political realism.",
"What little supernatural power that remains is confined to the margins of the known world.",
"Moral ambiguity pervades the books and their stories continually raise questions concerning loyalty, pride, human sexuality, piety, and the morality of violence.The novels are set on the fictional continents of Westeros and Essos.",
"The story unfolds through a rotating set of subjective points of view, the success or survival of any one of which is never assured.",
"Each chapter is told from a limited third-person perspective, drawn from a group of characters that grows from nine in the first novel to 31 by the fifth.The work as a whole consists of three interwoven plots:# A dynastic war among several families for control of Westeros, # The growing threat posed by powerfully supernatural Others from the northernmost region of Westeros, # The ambition of the daughter of the deposed Westerosi king to return from her exile in Essos and assume the Iron Throne.Martin's stated inspirations for the series include the Wars of the Roses and ''The Accursed Kings,'' a series of French historical novels by Maurice Druon.As of more than 90 million copies in 47 languages had been sold.",
"The fourth and fifth volumes both reached the top of the ''New York Times'' Best Seller lists when published in 2005 and 2011.Among the many derived works number several prequel novellas, two series for television, a comic book adaptation, and several card, board, and video games."
],
[
"Plot synopsis",
"''A Song of Ice and Fire'' takes place in a fictional world in which seasons last for years and end unpredictably.",
"Nearly three centuries before the events of the first novel, the Seven Kingdoms of Westeros were united under the Targaryen dynasty, establishing military supremacy through their control of dragons.",
"The Targaryens ruled for three hundred years, continuing beyond the extinction of the dragons.",
"Their dynasty eventually ended with a rebellion led by Lord Robert Baratheon, in which Aerys II \"the Mad King\" Targaryen was killed and Robert proclaimed king of the Seven Kingdoms.",
"At the beginning of ''A Game of Thrones'', 15 years have passed since Robert's rebellion, with a nine-year-long summer coming to an end.The principal story chronicles the power struggle for the Iron Throne among the great Houses of Westeros following the death of King Robert in ''A Game of Thrones''.",
"Robert's heir apparent, the 13-year-old Joffrey, is immediately proclaimed king through the machinations of his mother, Queen Cersei Lannister.",
"When Lord Eddard \"Ned\" Stark, Robert's closest friend and chief advisor, discovers that Joffrey and his siblings are the product of incest between Cersei and her twin brother Ser Jaime Lannister, Eddard attempts to unseat Joffrey, but is betrayed and executed for treason.",
"In response, Robert's brothers Stannis and Renly lay separate claims to the throne.",
"During this period of instability, two of the Seven Kingdoms of Westeros attempt to become independent from the Iron Throne: Eddard's eldest son Robb is proclaimed King in the North, while Lord Balon Greyjoy desires to recover the sovereignty of his region, the Iron Islands.",
"The so-called \"War of the Five Kings\" is in full progress by the middle of the second book, ''A Clash of Kings''.The second part of the story takes place in the far north of Westeros, where an 8,000-year-old wall of ice, simply called \"the Wall\", defends the Seven Kingdoms from supernatural creatures known as the Others.",
"The Wall's sentinels, the Sworn Brotherhood of the Night's Watch, also protect the realm from incursions by the \"wildlings\" or \"Free Folk\", a number of human tribes living on the north side of the Wall.",
"The Night's Watch story is told primarily through the point of view of Jon Snow, Lord Eddard Stark's bastard son.",
"Jon follows the footsteps of his uncle Benjen Stark and joins the Watch at a young age, rising quickly through the ranks.",
"He eventually becomes Lord Commander of the Night's Watch.",
"In the third volume, ''A Storm of Swords'', the Night's Watch storyline becomes increasingly entangled with the War of the Five Kings.The third storyline follows Daenerys Targaryen, daughter of Aerys II, the last Targaryen king.",
"On the continent of Essos, east of Westeros across the Narrow Sea, Daenerys is married off by her elder brother Viserys Targaryen to a powerful warlord, but slowly becomes an independent and intelligent ruler in her own right.",
"Her rise to power is aided by the historic birth of three dragons, hatched from eggs given to her as wedding gifts.",
"The three dragons soon become not only a symbol of her bloodline and her claim to the throne, but also devastating weapons of war, which help her in the conquest of Slaver's Bay.",
"The story follows her year-long conflict with the region's city states, in which she aims to consolidate power, disrupt the Essosi slave trade, and gather support for her ambitions to reclaim Westeros."
],
[
"Publishing history",
"===Overview===Books in the ''A Song of Ice and Fire'' series are first published in hardcover and are later re-released as paperback editions.",
"In the UK, Harper Voyager publishes special slipcased editions.",
"The series has also been translated into more than 30 languages.",
"All page totals given below are for the US first editions.#TitlePagesChaptersWordsAudioUS release1''A Game of Thrones''69473292,72733 h 53 minAugust 19962''A Clash of Kings''76870318,90337 h 17 minFebruary 19993''A Storm of Swords''97382414,60447 h 37 minNovember 20004''A Feast for Crows''75346295,03231 h 10 minNovember 20055''A Dance with Dragons''105673414,78848 h 56 minJuly 20116''The Winds of Winter''''Forthcoming''7''A Dream of Spring''''Forthcoming''Total 4,244 344 1,736,054 198 h 53 min 1996–present===First three novels (1991–2000)===George R. R. Martin at Archipelacon in Mariehamn, Åland, 2015George R. R. Martin was already a successful fantasy and sci-fi author and TV writer before writing his ''A Song of Ice and Fire'' book series.",
"Martin had published his first short story in 1971 and his first novel in 1977.By the mid-1990s, he had won three Hugo Awards, two Nebula Awards, and other awards for his short fiction.",
"Although his early books were well-received within the fantasy fiction community, his readership remained relatively small and Martin took on jobs as a writer in Hollywood in the mid-1980s.",
"He worked principally on the revival of ''The Twilight Zone'' throughout 1986 and on ''Beauty and the Beast'' until 1990, but he also developed his own TV pilots and wrote feature film scripts.",
"He grew frustrated that his pilots and screenplays were not getting made and that TV-related production limitations like budgets and episode lengths were forcing him to cut characters and trim battle scenes.",
"This pushed Martin back towards writing books, where he did not have to worry about compromising the size of his imagination.",
"Admiring the works of J. R. R. Tolkien in his childhood, he wanted to write an epic fantasy, though he did not have any specific ideas.When Martin was between Hollywood projects in the summer of 1991, he started writing a new science fiction novel called ''Avalon''.",
"After three chapters, he had a vivid idea of a boy seeing a man's beheading and finding direwolves in the snow, which would eventually become the first non-prologue chapter of ''A Game of Thrones''.",
"Putting ''Avalon'' aside, Martin finished this chapter in a few days and grew certain that it was part of a longer story.",
"After a few more chapters, Martin perceived his new book as a fantasy story and started making maps and genealogies.",
"However, the writing of this book was interrupted for a few years when Martin returned to Hollywood to produce his TV series ''Doorways'' that ABC had ordered but ultimately never aired.In 1994, Martin gave his agent, Kirby McCauley, the first 200 pages and a two-page story projection as part of a planned trilogy with the novels ''A Dance with Dragons'' and ''The Winds of Winter'' intended to follow.",
"When Martin had still not reached the novel's end at 1,400 manuscript pages, he felt that the series needed to be four and eventually six books long, which he imagined as two linked trilogies of one long story.",
"Martin chose ''A Song of Ice and Fire'' as the overall series title: Martin saw the struggle of the cold Others and the fiery dragons as one possible meaning for \"Ice and Fire\", whereas the word \"song\" had previously appeared in Martin's book titles ''A Song for Lya'' and ''Songs the Dead Men Sing'', stemming from his obsessions with songs.",
"Martin also named Robert Frost's 1920 poem \"Fire and Ice\" and cultural associations such as passion versus betrayal as possible influences for the series' title.The revised finished manuscript for ''A Game of Thrones'' was 1,088 pages long (without the appendices), with the publication following in August 1996.",
"''The Wheel of Time ''author Robert Jordan had written a short endorsement for the cover that was influential in ensuring the book's and hence series' early success with fantasy readers.",
"''Blood of the Dragon'', a pre-release sample novella drawn from Daenerys's chapters, went on to win the 1997 Hugo Award for Best Novella.",
"The first book was marketed as part of the \"''Song of Ice and Fire'' trilogy\" in 1996, but by the second book's release, the \"trilogy\" suffix had been dropped and the series was retitled to ''A Song of Ice and Fire''.The 300 pages removed from the ''A Game of Thrones'' manuscript served as the opening of the second book, entitled ''A Clash of Kings''.",
"It was released in February 1999 in the United States, with a manuscript length (without appendices) of 1,184 pages.",
"''A Clash of Kings'' was the first book of the ''A Song of Ice and Fire'' series to make the best-seller lists, reaching 13 on ''The New York Times'' Best Seller list in 1999.After the success of ''The Lord of the Rings'' films, Martin received his first inquiries to the rights of the ''A Song of Ice and Fire'' series from various producers and filmmakers.Martin was several months late turning in the third book, ''A Storm of Swords''.",
"The last chapter he had written was about the \"Red Wedding\", a pivotal scene notable for its violence (see Themes: Violence and death).",
"''A Storm of Swords'' was 1,521 pages in manuscript (without appendices), causing problems for many of Martin's publishers around the world.",
"Bantam Books published ''A Storm of Swords'' in a single volume in the United States in November 2000, whereas some other-language editions were divided into two, three, or even four volumes.",
"''A Storm of Swords'' debuted at number 12 in the ''New York Times'' bestseller list.===Bridging the timeline gap (2000–2011) ===After ''A Game of Thrones'', ''A Clash of Kings'', and ''A Storm of Swords'', Martin originally intended to write three more books.",
"The fourth book, tentatively titled ''A Dance with Dragons'', was to focus on Daenerys Targaryen's return to Westeros and the associated conflicts.",
"Martin wanted to set this story five years after ''A Storm of Swords'' so that the younger characters could grow older and the dragons grow larger.",
"Agreeing with his publishers early on that the new book should be shorter than ''A Storm of Swords'', Martin set out to write the novel closer in length to ''A Clash of Kings''.",
"A long prologue was to establish what had happened in the meantime, initially just as one chapter of Aeron Damphair on the Iron Islands at the Kingsmoot.",
"Since the events on the Iron Islands were to have an impact in the book and could not be told with existing POV characters, Martin eventually introduced three new viewpoints.In 2001, Martin was still optimistic that the fourth installment might be released in the last quarter of 2002.However, the five-year gap did not work for all characters during writing.",
"On one hand, Martin was unsatisfied with covering the events during the gap solely through flashbacks and internal retrospection.",
"On the other hand, it was implausible to have nothing happen for five years.",
"After working on the book for about a year, Martin realized he needed an additional interim book, which he called ''A Feast for Crows''.",
"The book would pick up the story immediately after the third book, and Martin scrapped the idea of a five-year gap.",
"The material of the written 250-page prologue was mixed in as new viewpoint characters from Dorne and the Iron Islands.",
"These expanded storylines and the resulting story interactions complicated the plot for Martin.The manuscript length of ''A Feast for Crows'' eventually surpassed ''A Storm of Swords''.",
"Martin was reluctant to make the necessary deep cuts to get the book down to publishable length, as that would have compromised the story he had in mind.",
"Printing the book in \"microtype on onion skin paper and giving each reader a magnifying glass\" was also not an option for him.",
"On the other hand, Martin rejected the publishers' idea of splitting the narrative chronologically into ''A Feast for Crows'', Parts One and Two.",
"Being already late with the book, Martin had not even started writing all characters' stories, and also objected to ending the first book without any resolution for its many viewpoint characters as in previous books.With the characters spread out across the world, a friend suggested that Martin divide the story geographically into two volumes, of which ''A Feast for Crows'' would be the first.",
"This approach would give Martin the room to complete his commenced story arcs as he had originally intended, which he still felt was the best approach years later.",
"Martin moved the unfinished characters' stories set in the east (Essos) and north (Winterfell and the Wall) into the next book, ''A Dance with Dragons'', and left ''A Feast for Crows'' to cover the events in King's Landing, the Riverlands, Dorne, and the Iron Islands.",
"Both books begin immediately after the end of ''A Storm of Swords'', running in parallel instead of sequentially, and involve different casts of characters with only little overlap.",
"Martin split Arya's chapters into both books after having already moved the three other most popular characters (Jon Snow, Tyrion, and Daenerys) into ''A Dance with Dragons''.Upon its release in October 2005 in the UK and November 2005 in the US, ''A Feast for Crows'' went straight to the top of ''The New York Times'' bestseller list.",
"Among the positive reviewers was Lev Grossman of ''Time'', who dubbed Martin \"the American Tolkien\".",
"However, fans and critics alike were disappointed with the story split that left the fates of several popular characters unresolved after ''A Storm of Swords'' cliffhanger ending.",
"With ''A Dance with Dragons'' said to be half-finished, Martin mentioned in the epilogue of ''A Feast for Crows'' that the next volume would be released by the next year.",
"However, planned release dates were repeatedly pushed back.",
"Meanwhile, HBO acquired the rights to turn ''A Song of Ice and Fire'' into a fantasy drama series in 2007 and aired the first of ten episodes covering ''A Game of Thrones'' in April 2011.With around 1600 pages in manuscript length, ''A Dance with Dragons'' was eventually published in July 2011 after six years of writing, longer in page count and writing time than any of the preceding four novels.",
"The story of ''A Dance with Dragons'' catches up with and goes beyond ''A Feast for Crows'' around two-thirds into the book, but nevertheless covers less story than Martin had intended, omitting at least one planned large battle sequence and leaving several character threads ending in cliff-hangers.",
"Martin attributed the delay mainly to his untangling \"the Meereenese knot\", which the interviewer understood as \"making the chronology and characters mesh up as various threads converged on Daenerys\".",
"Martin also acknowledged spending too much time on rewriting and perfecting the story, but soundly rejected the theories of some of his critics that he had lost interest in the series or would bide his time to make more money.===Planned novels and future (2011–present)===Martin believes the last two volumes of the series will be large books of 1500 manuscript pages each.",
"The sixth book will be called ''The Winds of Winter'', taking the title of the last book of the originally planned trilogy.",
"Displeased with the provisional title ''A Time for Wolves'' for the final volume, Martin ultimately announced ''A Dream of Spring'' as the title for the seventh book in 2006.Martin said in March 2012 that the final two novels will take readers farther north than any of the previous books, and that the Others will appear.",
"Martin indicated he would not permit another writer to finish the book series.====''The Winds of Winter''====''The Winds of Winter'' will resolve the cliffhangers from ''A Dance with Dragons'' early on and \"will open with the two big battles that the fifth book was building up to, the battle in the ice and the battle ... of Slaver's Bay.",
"And then take it from there.\"",
"By the middle of 2010, Martin had already finished five chapters of ''The Winds of Winter'' from the viewpoints of Sansa Stark, Arya Stark, Arianne Martell, and Aeron Greyjoy, coming to around 100 completed pages.",
"After the publication of ''A Dance with Dragons'' in 2011, Martin announced he would return to writing in January 2012.He spent the meantime on book tours, conventions, and continued working on his ''The World of Ice & Fire'' companion guide and a new ''Tales of Dunk and Egg'' novella.",
"In December 2011, Martin posted a chapter from ''The Winds of Winter'' from the viewpoint of Theon Greyjoy; several other chapters have been made public since.",
"Four hundred pages of the sixth novel had been written , although Martin considered only 200 as \"really finished\"; the rest needed revising.",
"During the Guadalajara International Book Fair in Mexico in early December 2016, Martin offered the following hint as to the tone of this book: \"There are a lot of dark chapters right now ...",
"I've been telling you for 20 years that winter was coming.",
"Winter is the time when things die, and cold and ice and darkness fill the world, so this is not going to be the happy feel-good that people may be hoping for.",
"Some of the characters are in very dark places.\"",
"Martin did not intend to separate the characters geographically again.In 2011, Martin gave three years as a realistic estimate for finishing the sixth book at a good pace, but said ultimately the book \"will be done when it's done\", acknowledging that his publication estimates had been too optimistic in the past.",
"In 2015 there were indications that the book would be published before the sixth season of the HBO show but in early January 2016 Martin confirmed that he had not met an end-of-year deadline that he had established with his publisher for release of the book before the sixth season.",
"He also revealed there had been a previous deadline of October 2015 that he had considered achievable in May 2015, and that in September 2015 he had still considered the end-of-year deadline achievable.",
"He further confirmed that some of the plot of the book might be revealed in the upcoming season of ''Game of Thrones''.",
"In February 2016, Martin stated that he dropped all his editing projects except for ''Wild Cards'', and that he would not be writing any teleplays, screenplays, short stories, introductions or forewords before delivering ''The Winds of Winter''.",
"In March 2020, Martin stated that he was writing ''The Winds of Winter'' every day, and in June he hoped to be done with it in 2021.In October 2022, Martin said that he had written approximately three quarters of the book.====''A Dream of Spring''====Martin is only firm about ending the series with the seventh novel \"until I decide not to be firm\".",
"With his stated goal of telling the story from beginning to end, he will not truncate the story to fit into an arbitrary number of volumes.",
"He knows the ending in broad strokes as well as the future of the main characters, and will finish the series with bittersweet elements where not everyone will live happily ever after.",
"Martin hopes to write an ending similar to ''The Lord of the Rings'' that he felt gave the story a satisfying depth and resonance.",
"On the other hand, Martin noted the challenge to avoid a situation like the finale of the TV series ''Lost'', which left some fans disappointed by deviating too far from their own theories and desires.",
"In 2012, Martin had acknowledged his concerns about ''A Dream of Spring'' not being completed by the time the TV series ''Game of Thrones'' catches up in its storyline to the novels.In 2015, Martin said that he was not writing ''A Dream of Spring'' together with ''The Winds of Winter'', and in early 2016, he said he did not believe ''A Dream of Spring'' would be published before the last season of the HBO show.",
"In April 2018, Martin commented he had not started working on the book, and in November he said that after ''The Winds of Winter'' he would decide what to do next: ''A Dream of Spring'' or the second volume of ''Fire & Blood'' or one or two stories for the ''Tales of Dunk and Egg''.",
"In May 2019, he reiterated he had not started writing ''A Dream of Spring'' and would not do so before finishing ''The Winds of Winter''.During a question-and-answer session at the 2016 Guadalajara International Book Fair, Martin said, \"I'm not going to tell you how I'm going to end my book, but I suspect the overall flavor is going to be as much bittersweet as it is happy.",
"\"====Other writings====Regarding ''A Song of Ice and Fire'' as his masterpiece, Martin stated he would never write anything on this scale again and would only return to this fictional universe in the context of stand-alone novels.",
"He prefers to write stories about characters from other ''A Song of Ice and Fire'' periods of history such as his ''Tales of Dunk and Egg'' project, instead of continuing the series directly.",
"Martin said he would love to return to writing short stories, novellas, novelettes, and stand-alone novels from diverse genres such as science fiction, horror, fantasy, or even a murder mystery."
],
[
"Inspiration and writing",
"===Genre===George R. R. Martin believes the most profound influences to be the ones experienced in childhood.",
"Having read H. P. Lovecraft, Robert E. Howard, Robert A. Heinlein, Eric Frank Russell, Andre Norton, Isaac Asimov, Fritz Leiber, and Mervyn Peake in his youth, Martin never categorized these authors' literature into science fiction, fantasy, or horror and will write from any genre as a result.",
"Martin classified ''A Song of Ice and Fire'' as \"epic fantasy\", and specifically named Tad Williams' high fantasy epic ''Memory, Sorrow, and Thorn'' as very influential for the writing of the series.",
"One of his favorite authors is Jack Vance, although Martin considered the series not particularly Vancean.Martin experienced some harsh winters when living in Dubuque a few years in the 1970s, and suspects these winters had an influence on his writing; \"I think a lot of the stuff in ''A Game of Thrones'', the snow and ice and freezing, comes from my memories of Dubuque\".The medieval setting has been the traditional background for epic fantasy.",
"However, where historical fiction leaves versed readers knowing the historical outcome, original characters may increase suspense and empathy for the readers.",
"Yet Martin felt historical fiction, particularly when set during the Middle Ages, had an excitement, grittiness, and a realness to it that was absent in fantasy with a similar backdrop.",
"Thus, he wanted to combine the realism of historical fiction with the magic appeal of the best fantasies, subduing magic in favor of battles and political intrigue.",
"He also decided to avoid the conventional good versus evil setting typical for the genre, using the fight between Achilles and Hector in Homer's ''Iliad'', where no one stands out as either a hero or a villain, as an example of what he wants to achieve with his books.Martin is widely credited with broadening the fantasy fiction genre for adult content.",
"Writing for ''The Atlantic'', Amber Taylor assessed the novels as hard fantasy with vulnerable characters to which readers become emotionally attached.",
"CNN found in 2000 that Martin's mature descriptions were \"far more frank than those found in the works of other fantasy authors\", although Martin assessed the fantasy genre to have become rougher-edged a decade later and that some writers' work was going beyond the mature themes of his novels.",
"Adam Roberts called Martin's series the most successful and popular example of the emerging subgenre of grimdark fantasy.===Writing process===''A Song of Ice and Fire'' series was partly inspired by the Wars of the Roses, a series of dynastic civil wars for the throne of England.",
"This painting by Richard Burchett portrays Edward IV demanding that his defeated enemies be taken from Tewkesbury Abbey.Setting out to write something on an epic scale, Martin projected to write three books of 800 manuscript pages in the very early stages of the series.",
"His original 1990s contract specified one-year deadlines for his previous literary works, but Martin only realized later that his new books were longer and hence required more writing time.",
"In 2000, Martin planned to take 18 months to two years for each volume and projected the last of the planned six books to be released five or six years later.",
"However, with ''A Song of Ice and Fire'' series evolving into the biggest and most ambitious story he has ever attempted writing, he still has two more books to finish .",
"Martin said he needed to be in his own office in Santa Fe, New Mexico to immerse himself in the fictional world and write.",
", Martin was still typing his fiction on an IBM PC compatible computer running MS-DOS with WordStar 4.0.He begins each day at 10 am with rewriting and polishing the previous day's work, and may write all day or struggle to write anything.",
"Excised material and previous old versions are saved to be possibly re-inserted at a later time.",
"Martin does not consider ''A Song of Ice and Fire'' a \"series\" but a single story published in several volumes.Martin set the ''A Song of Ice and Fire'' story in a secondary world inspired by Tolkien's writing.",
"Unlike Tolkien, who created entire languages, mythologies, and histories for Middle-earth long before writing ''The Lord of the Rings'', Martin usually starts with a rough sketch of an imaginary world that he improvises into a workable fictional setting along the way.",
"He described his writing as coming from a subconscious level in \"almost a daydreaming process\", and his stories, which have a mythic rather than a scientific core, draw from emotion instead of rationality.",
"Martin employs maps and a cast list topping 60 pages in the fourth volume, but keeps most information in his mind.",
"His imagined backstory remains subject to change until published, and only the novels count as canon.",
"Martin does not intend to publish his private notes after the series is finished.Martin drew much inspiration from actual history for the series, having several bookcases filled with medieval history for research and visiting historic European landmarks.",
"For an American who speaks only English, the history of England proved the easiest source of medieval history for him, giving the series a British rather than a German or Spanish historic flavor.",
"For example, Ned and Robb Stark resemble Richard, 3rd Duke of York, and his son Edward IV, and Queen Cersei resembles both Margaret of Anjou and Elizabeth Woodville.",
"Martin immersed himself in many diverse medieval topics such as clothing, food, feasting, and tournaments to have the facts at hand if needed during writing.",
"The series was in particular influenced by the Hundred Years' War, the Crusades, the Albigensian Crusade, and the Wars of the Roses, although Martin refrained from making any direct adaptations.",
"Martin was also inspired by the French historical novels ''The Accursed Kings'' by Maurice Druon, which are about the French monarchy in the 13th and 14th centuries.",
"Martin has also said that important events of the narrative are based on events in Scottish history such as the Black Dinner of 1440 and the Massacre of Glencoe in 1692.Martin has also drawn from Roman history for inspiration, comparing Stannis Baratheon to the Roman emperor Tiberius.",
"Martin has sourced the Massacre of Glencoe and Black Dinner as inspiration for the \"Red Wedding\", a crucial twist in ''A Storm of Swords''.The story is written to follow principal landmarks with an ultimate destination, but leaves Martin room for improvisation.",
"On occasion, improvised details significantly affected the planned story.",
"By the fourth book, Martin kept more private notes than ever before to keep track of the many subplots, which became so detailed and sprawling by the fifth book as to be unwieldy.",
"Martin's editors, copy editors, and readers monitor for accidental mistakes, although some errors have slipped into publication.",
"For instance, Martin has inconsistently referred to certain characters' eye colors, and has described a horse as being of one sex and then another.===Narrative structure===+Number of chapters per point-of-view character POV character ''Game'' ''Clash'' ''Storm'' ''Feast'' ''Dance'' (''Winds'') '''Sum''' Bran Stark 7 7 4 3 21 Catelyn Stark 11 7 7 25 Daenerys Targaryen 10 5 6 10 31 Eddard Stark 15 15 Jon Snow 9 8 12 13 42 Arya Stark 5 10 13 3 2 Tyrion Lannister 9 15 11 12 Sansa Stark 6 8 7 3 Davos Seaworth 3 6 4 13 Theon Greyjoy 6 7 Jaime Lannister 9 7 1 17 Samwell Tarly 5 5 10 Aeron Greyjoy 2 Areo Hotah 1 1 Cersei Lannister 10 2 12 Brienne of Tarth 8 8 Asha Greyjoy 1 3 4 Arys Oakheart 1 1 Victarion Greyjoy 2 2 Arianne Martell 2 Quentyn Martell 4 4 Jon Connington 2 2 Melisandre 1 1 Barristan Selmy 4 Prologue/Epilogue Total (characters) 73 (9) 70 (10) 82 (12) 46 (13) 73 (18) Appears as a POV character Appears as a non-POV character No appearanceThe books are divided into chapters, each one narrated in the third person limited through the eyes of a point of view character, an approach Martin learned himself as a young journalism student.",
"Beginning with nine POV characters in ''A Game of Thrones'', the number of POV characters grows to a total of 31 in ''A Dance with Dragons'' (see table).",
"The short-lived one-time POV characters are mostly restricted to the prologues and epilogues.",
"David Orr of ''The New York Times'' noted the story importance of \"the Starks (good guys), the Targaryens (at least one good guy, or girl), the Lannisters (conniving), the Greyjoys (mostly conniving), the Baratheons (mixed bag), the Tyrells (unclear), and the Martells (ditto), most of whom are feverishly endeavoring to advance their ambitions and ruin their enemies, preferably unto death\".",
"However, as ''Time'' Lev Grossman noted, readers \"experience the struggle for Westeros from all sides at once\", such that \"every fight is both triumph and tragedy ... and everybody is both hero and villain at the same time\".Modeled on ''The Lord of the Rings'', the story of ''A Song of Ice and Fire'' begins with a tight focus on a small group (with everyone in Winterfell, except Daenerys) and then splits into separate stories.",
"The storylines are to converge again, but finding the turning point in this complex series has been difficult for Martin and has slowed down his writing.",
"Depending on the interview, Martin is said to have reached the turning point in ''A Dance with Dragons'', or to not quite have reached it yet in the books.",
"The series' structure of multiple POVs and interwoven storylines was inspired by ''Wild Cards'', a multi-authored shared universe book series edited by Martin since 1985.As the sole author, Martin begins each new book with an outline of the chapter order and may write a few successive chapters from a single character's viewpoint instead of working chronologically.",
"The chapters are later rearranged to optimize character intercutting, chronology, and suspense.Influenced by his television and film scripting background, Martin tries to keep readers engrossed by ending each ''A Song of Ice and Fire'' chapter with a tense or revelational moment, a twist or a cliffhanger, similar to a TV act break.",
"Scriptwriting has also taught him the technique of \"cutting out the fat and leaving the muscle\", which is the final stage of completing a book, a technique that brought the page count in ''A Dance with Dragons'' down almost eighty pages.",
"Dividing the continuous ''A Song of Ice and Fire'' story into books is much harder for Martin.",
"Each book shall represent a phase of the journey that ends in closure for most characters.",
"A smaller portion of characters is left with clear-cut cliffhangers to make sure readers come back for the next installment, although ''A Dance with Dragons'' had more cliffhangers than Martin originally intended.",
"Both one-time and regular POV characters are designed to have full character arcs ending in tragedy or triumph, and are written to hold the readers' interest and not be skipped in reading.",
"Main characters are killed off so that the reader will not rely on the hero to come through unscathed and will instead feel the character's fear with each page turn.The unresolved larger narrative arc encourages speculation about future story events.",
"According to Martin, much of the key to ''A Song of Ice and Fire'' future lies over a dozen years in the fictional past, of which each volume reveals more.",
"Events planned from the beginning are foreshadowed, although Martin is careful not to make the story predictable.",
"The viewpoint characters, who serve as unreliable narrators, may clarify or provide different perspectives on past events.",
"Therefore, what the readers believe to be true may not necessarily be true.===Character development===Regarding the characters as the heart of the story, Martin planned the epic ''A Song of Ice and Fire'' to have a large cast of characters and many different settings from the beginning.",
"''A Feast for Crows'' has a 63-page list of characters, with many of the thousands of characters mentioned only in passing or disappearing from view for long stretches.",
"When Martin adds a new family to the ever-growing number of genealogies in the appendices, he devises a secret about the personality or fate of the family members.",
"However, their backstory remains subject to change until written down in the story.",
"Martin drew most character inspiration from history (without directly translating historical figures) and his own experiences, but also from the manners of his friends, acquaintances, and people of public interest.",
"Martin aims to \"make my characters real and to make them human, characters who have good and bad, noble and selfish well-mixed in their natures\".",
"Jeff VanderMeer of the ''Los Angeles Times'' remarked that \"Martin's devotion to fully inhabiting his characters, for better or worse, creates the unstoppable momentum in his novels and contains an implied criticism of Tolkien's moral simplicity\" (see Themes: Moral ambiguity).Martin deliberately ignored the writing rule of never giving two characters names starting with the same letter.",
"Instead, character names reflect the naming systems in various European family histories, where particular names were associated with specific royal houses and where even the secondary families assigned the same names repeatedly.",
"The story of ''A Song of Ice and Fire'' therefore has children called \"Robert\" in honor of King Robert of House Baratheon, a \"Brandon\" in every other generation of the Starks in commemoration of Brandon the Builder (of the Wall), and the syllable \"Ty\" commonly occurring in given names of House Lannister.",
"Confident that readers would pay attention, Martin distinguished people sharing a given name by adding numbers or locations to their given names (e.g.",
"Henry V of England).",
"The family names were designed in association with ethnic groups (see backstory): the First Men in the North of Westeros had very simply descriptive names like Stark and Strong, whereas the descendants of the Andal invaders in the South have more elaborate, undescriptive house names like Lannister or Arryn, and the Targaryens and Valyrians from the Eastern continent have the most exotic names with the letter Y.All characters are designed to speak with their own internal voices to capture their views of the world.",
"''The Atlantic'' pondered whether Martin ultimately intended the readers to sympathize with characters on both sides of the Lannister–Stark feud long before plot developments force them to make their emotional choices.",
"Contrary to most conventional epic fantasies, the characters of ''A Song of Ice and Fire'' are vulnerable so that, according to ''The Atlantic'', the reader \"cannot be sure that good shall triumph, which makes those instances where it does all the more exulting.\"",
"Martin gets emotionally involved in the characters' lives during writing, which makes the chapters with dreadful events sometimes very difficult to write.",
"Seeing the world through the characters' eyes requires a certain amount of empathy with them, including the villains, all of whom he has said he loves as if they were his own children.",
"Martin found that some characters had minds of their own and took his writing in different directions.",
"He returns to the intended story if it does not work out, but these detours sometimes prove more rewarding for him.Arya Stark, Tyrion Lannister, Jon Snow, and Daenerys Targaryen generate the most feedback from readers.",
"They are also four of the \"big six\" main characters of the series, according to Martin (the other two being Sansa Stark and Bran Stark).",
"Martin has stated that Tyrion is his personal favorite, as the grayest of the gray characters, with his cunning and wit making him the most fun to write.",
"Martin has also said that Bran Stark is the hardest character to write.",
"As the character most deeply involved in magic, Bran's story needs to be handled carefully within the supernatural aspects of the books.",
"Bran is also the youngest viewpoint character, and has to deal with the series' adult themes like grief, loneliness, and anger.",
"Martin set out to have the young characters grow up faster between chapters, but, as it was implausible for a character to take two months to respond, a finished book represents very little time passed.",
"Martin hoped the planned five-year break would ease the situation and age the children to almost adults in terms of the Seven Kingdoms, but he later dropped the five-year gap (see section Bridging the timeline gap)."
],
[
"Themes",
"Although involving dragons and sorcery, ''A Song of Ice and Fire'' series de-emphasizes magic as compared to many other epic fantasy works (emblem of J. Allen St. John's 1905 fantasy work ''The Face in the Pool'').Modern fantasy may often embrace strangeness, but ''A Song of Ice and Fire'' series is generally praised for what is perceived as a sort of medieval realism.",
"Believing that magic should be used moderately in the epic fantasy genre, Martin set out to make the story feel more like historical fiction than contemporary fantasy, with less emphasis on magic and sorcery and more on battles, political intrigue, and the characters.",
"Though the amount of magic has gradually increased throughout the story, the series is still to end with less overt magic than most contemporary fantasies.",
"In Martin's eyes, literary effective magic needs to represent strange and dangerous forces beyond human comprehension, not advanced alien technologies or formulaic spells.",
"As such, the characters understand only the natural aspects of their world, but not the magical elements like the Others.Since Martin drew on historical sources to build the world of ''A Song of Ice and Fire'', Damien G. Walter of ''The Guardian'' saw a strong resemblance between Westeros and England in the period of the Wars of the Roses.",
"''The Atlantic'' Adam Serwer regarded ''A Song of Ice and Fire'' as \"more a story of politics than one of heroism, a story about humanity wrestling with its baser obsessions than fulfilling its glorious potential\", where the emergent power struggle stems from the feudal system's repression and not from the fight between good and evil.",
"Martin not only wanted to reflect the frictions of the medieval class structures in the novels, but also explore the consequences of the leaders' decisions, as general goodness does not automatically make competent leaders and vice versa.A common theme in the fantasy genre is the battle between good and evil, which Martin rejects for not mirroring the real world.",
"Attracted to gray characters, Martin instead endorses William Faulkner's view that only the human heart in conflict with itself was worth writing about.",
"Martin explores the questions of redemption and character change in the ''A Song of Ice and Fire'' series.",
"The multiple viewpoint structure allows characters to be explored from many sides, such that the supposed villains can provide their viewpoint.Although fantasy comes from an imaginative realm, Martin sees an honest necessity to reflect the real world where people, even beloved people, sometimes die ugly deaths.",
"Main characters are killed off so that the reader will not expect the supposed hero to survive, and instead will feel the same tension and fear that the characters might.",
"The novels also reflect the substantial death rates in war.",
"The deaths of supernumerary extras, or of orcs or their equivalents, have no major effect on readers, whereas a friend's death has much more emotional impact.",
"Martin prefers a hero's sacrifice to say something profound about human nature.According to Martin, the fantasy genre rarely focuses on sex and sexuality, instead often treating sexuality in a juvenile way or neglecting it completely.",
"Martin, however, considers sexuality an important driving force in human life that should not be excluded from the narrative.",
"Providing sensory detail for an immersive experience is more important than plot advancement for Martin, who aims to let the readers experience the novels' sex scenes, \"whether it's a great transcendent, exciting, mind blowing sex, or whether it's disturbing, twisted, dark sex, or disappointing perfunctory sex.\"",
"Martin was fascinated by medieval contrasts where knights venerated their ladies with poems and wore their favors in tournaments while their armies mindlessly raped women in wartime.",
"The non-existent concept of adolescence in the Middle Ages served as a model for Daenerys' sexual activity at the age of 13 in the books.",
"The novels also allude to the incestuous practices in the Ptolemaic dynasty of Ancient Egypt to keep their bloodlines pure.Martin provides a variety of female characters to explore the place of women in a patriarchal society.",
"Writing all characters as human beings with the same basic needs, dreams, and influences, his female characters are to cover the same wide spectrum of human traits as the males."
],
[
"Reception",
"===Critical response===''Science Fiction Weekly'' stated in 2000 that \"few would dispute that Martin's most monumental achievement to date has been the groundbreaking ''A Song of Ice and Fire'' historical fantasy series\", for which reviews have been \"orders of magnitude better\" than for his previous works, as Martin described to ''The New Yorker''.",
"In 2007, ''Weird Tales'' magazine described the series as a \"superb fantasy saga\" that \"raised Martin to a whole new level of success\".",
"Shortly before the release of ''A Dance with Dragons'' in 2011, Bill Sheehan of ''The Washington Post'' was sure that \"no work of fantasy has generated such anticipation since Harry Potter's final duel with Voldemort\", and Ethan Sacks of ''Daily News'' saw the series turning Martin into a darling of literary critics as well as mainstream readers, which was \"rare for a fantasy genre that's often dismissed as garbage not fit to line the bottom of a dragon's cage\".",
"Salon.com's Andrew Leonard stated:''Publishers Weekly'' noted in 2000 that \"Martin may not rival Tolkien or Robert Jordan, but he ranks with such accomplished medievalists of fantasy as Poul Anderson and Gordon Dickson.\"",
"After the fourth volume came out in 2005, ''Time'' Lev Grossman considered Martin a \"major force for evolution in fantasy\" and proclaimed him \"the American Tolkien\", explaining that, although Martin was \"not the best known of America's straight-up fantasy writers\" at the time and would \"never win a Pulitzer or a National Book Award ... his skill as a crafter of narrative exceeds that of almost any literary novelist writing today\".",
"As Grossman said in 2011, the phrase ''American Tolkien'' \"has stuck to Martin, as it was meant to\", being picked up by the media including ''The New York Times'' (\"He's much better than that\"), the ''New Yorker'', ''Entertainment Weekly'' (\"an acclaim that borders on fantasy blasphemy\"), ''The Globe and Mail'', and ''USA Today''.",
"''Time'' magazine named Martin one of the 100 most influential people in the world in 2011, and ''USA Today'' named George R.R.",
"Martin their Author of the Year 2011.According to ''The Globe and Mail'' John Barber, Martin manages simultaneously to master and transcend the genre so that \"Critics applaud the depth of his characterizations and lack of cliché in books that are nonetheless replete with dwarves and dragons\".",
"''Publishers Weekly'' gave favorable reviews to the first three ''A Song of Ice and Fire'' novels at their points of release, saying that ''A Game of Thrones'' had \"superbly developed characters, accomplished prose and sheer bloody-mindedness\", that ''A Clash of Kings'' was \"notable particularly for the lived-in quality of their fictional world and for the comparatively modest role of magic\", and that ''A Storm of Swords'' was one \"of the more rewarding examples of gigantism in contemporary fantasy\".",
"However, they found that ''A Feast For Crows'' as the fourth installment \"sorely misses its other half.",
"The slim pickings here are tasty, but in no way satisfying.\"",
"Their review for ''A Dance with Dragons'' repeated points of criticism for the fourth volume, and said that, although \"The new volume has a similar feel to ''Feast''\", \"Martin keeps it fresh by focusing on popular characters who were notably absent from the previous book.",
"\"According to the ''Los Angeles Times'', \"Martin's brilliance in evoking atmosphere through description is an enduring hallmark of his fiction, the settings much more than just props on a painted stage\", and the novels captivate readers with \"complex storylines, fascinating characters, great dialogue, perfect pacing, and the willingness to kill off even his major characters\".",
"CNN remarked that \"the story weaves through differing points of view in a skillful mix of observation, narration and well-crafted dialogue that illuminates both character and plot with fascinating style\", and David Orr of ''The New York Times'' found that \"All of his hundreds of characters have grace notes of history and personality that advance a plot line.",
"Every town has an elaborately recalled series of triumphs and troubles.\"",
"Salon.com's Andrew Leonard \"couldn't stop reading Martin because my desire to know what was going to happen combined with my absolute inability to guess what would happen and left me helpless before his sorcery.",
"At the end, I felt shaken and exhausted.\"",
"''The Christian Science Monitor'' advised reading the novels with an ''A Song of Ice and Fire'' encyclopedia at hand to \"catch all the layered, subtle hints and details that Martin leaves throughout his books.",
"If you pay attention, you will be rewarded and questions will be answered.",
"\"Among the most critical voices were Sam Jordison and Michael Hann, both of ''The Guardian''.",
"Jordison detailed his misgivings about ''A Game of Thrones'' in a 2009 review and summarized \"It's daft.",
"It's unsophisticated.",
"It's cartoonish.",
"And yet, I couldn't stop reading ....",
"Archaic absurdity aside, Martin's writing is excellent.",
"His dialogue is snappy and frequently funny.",
"His descriptive prose is immediate and atmospheric, especially when it comes to building a sense of deliciously dark foreboding of the long impending winter.\"",
"Hann did not consider the novels to stand out from the general fantasy genre, despite Martin's alterations to fantasy convention, although he rediscovered his childhood's views:===Sales===Sales performance of ''A Song of Ice and Fire'' series in the ''New York Times'' combined print and e-book fiction bestseller list in 2011 between the airing of the ''Game of Thrones'' pilot episode and the publication of ''A Dance with Dragons''.The reported overall sales figures of the ''A Song of Ice and Fire'' series vary.",
"''The New Yorker'' said in April 2011 (before the publication of ''A Dance with Dragons'') that more than 15 million ''A Song of Ice and Fire'' books had been sold worldwide, a figure repeated by ''The Globe and Mail'' in July 2011.Reuters reported in September 2013 that the books including print, digital and audio versions have sold more than 24 million copies in North America.",
"''The Wall Street Journal'' reported more than six million sold copies in North America by May 2011.",
"''USA Today'' reported 8.5 million copies in print and digital overall in July 2011, and over 12 million sold copies in print in December 2011.The series has been translated into more than 20 languages; ''USA Today'' reported the fifth book to be translated into over 40 languages.",
"''Forbes'' estimated that Martin was the 12th highest-earning author worldwide in 2011 at $15 million.Martin's publishers initially expected ''A Game of Thrones'' to be a best-seller, but the first installment did not even reach any lower positions in the bestseller list.",
"This left Martin unsurprised, as it is \"a fool's game to think anything is going to be successful or to count on it\".",
"However, the book slowly won the passionate advocacy of independent booksellers and the book's popularity grew by word of mouth.",
"The series' popularity skyrocketed in subsequent volumes, with the second and third volumes making ''The New York Times'' Best Seller lists in 1999 and 2000, respectively.",
"The series gained Martin's old writings new attention, and Martin's American publisher Bantam Spectra was to reprint his out-of-print solo novels.The fourth installment, ''A Feast for Crows'', was an immediate best-seller at its 2005 release, hitting number one on \"The New York Times\" hardcover fiction bestseller list November 27, 2005, which for a fantasy novel suggested that Martin's books were attracting mainstream readers.",
"The paperback edition of ''A Game of Thrones'' reached its 34th printing in 2010, surpassing the one million mark.",
"Before it even premiered, the TV series had boosted sales of the book series, with ''A Song of Ice and Fire'' approaching triple-digit growth in year-on-year sales.",
"Bantam was looking forward to seeing the tie-ins boost sales further, and Martin's British publisher Harper Voyager expected readers to rediscover their other epic fantasy literature.",
"With a reported 4.5 million copies of the first four volumes in print in early 2011, the four volumes re-appeared on the paperback fiction bestseller lists in the second quarter of 2011.At its point of publication in July 2011, ''A Dance with Dragons'' was in its sixth print with more than 650,000 hardbacks in print.",
"It also had the highest single and first-day sales of any new fiction title published in 2011 at that point, with 170,000 hardcovers, 110,000 e-books, and 18,000 audio books reportedly sold on the first day.",
"''A Dance with Dragons'' reached the top of ''The New York Times'' bestseller list on July 31, 2011.Unlike most other big titles, the fifth volume sold more physical than digital copies early on, but nevertheless, Martin became the tenth author to sell 1 million Amazon Kindle e-books.",
"All five volumes and the four-volume boxed set were among the top 100 best-selling books in the United States in 2011 and 2012.The TV series has contributed significantly boosting sales of both the books and collectibles like box-sets, merchandise, and other items.",
"The TV series also contributed in increasing the geographic coverage of the books, introducing new customers in emerging countries like India and Brazil to the book series.",
"All this has significantly increased the overall book sales.",
"As of April 2019, the book series has sold 90million copies worldwide.===Fandom===During the 1980s and early 1990s, Martin's novels had slowly earned him a reputation in science fiction circles, although he said to only have received a few fans' letters a year in the pre-internet days.",
"The publication of ''A Game of Thrones'' caused Martin's following to grow, with fan sites springing up and a Trekkie-like society of followers evolving that meet regularly.",
"Westeros.org, one of the main ''A Song of Ice and Fire'' fansites with about seventeen thousand registered members , was co-founded in 1999 by a Swedish-based fan of Cuban descent, Elio M. García Jr., as well as Linda Antonsson, who introduced him to the series; their involvement with Martin's work has now become semi-professional.",
"The Brotherhood Without Banners, an unofficial fan club operating globally, was formed in 2001.Their founders and other longtime members are among Martin's good friends.Martin runs an official website and administers a lively blog with the assistance of Ty Franck.",
"He also interacts with fandom by answering emails and letters, although he stated in 2005 that their sheer numbers might leave them unanswered for years.",
"Since there are different types of conventions nowadays, he tends to go to three or four science-fiction conventions a year simply to go back to his roots and meet friends.",
"He does not read message boards anymore, so that his writing will not be influenced by fans foreseeing twists and interpreting characters differently from what he intended.While Martin calls the majority of his fans \"great\", and enjoys interacting with them, he lost some of them because of the six years it took to release ''A Dance with Dragons''.",
"A movement of disaffected fans called GRRuMblers formed in 2009, creating sites such as ''Finish the Book, George'' and ''Is Winter Coming?''",
"When fans' vocal impatience for ''A Dance with Dragons'' peaked shortly after, Martin issued a statement called \"To My Detractors\" on his blog that received media attention.",
"''The New York Times'' noted that it was not uncommon for Martin to be mobbed at book signings.",
"''The New Yorker'' called this \"an astonishing amount of effort to devote to denouncing the author of books one professes to love.",
"Few contemporary authors can claim to have inspired such passion.",
"\"===Awards and nominations===* ''A Game of Thrones'' (1996) – Locus Award winner, World Fantasy Award and Nebula Award nominee, 1997* ''A Clash of Kings'' (1998) – Locus Award winner, Nebula Award nominee, 1999* ''A Storm of Swords'' (2000) – Locus Award winner, Hugo Award and Nebula Awards nominee, 2001* ''A Feast for Crows'' (2005) – Hugo, Locus, and British Fantasy Awards nominee, 2006* ''A Dance with Dragons'' (2011) – Locus Award winner, Hugo Award and World Fantasy Award nominee, 2012"
],
[
"Derived works",
"===Novellas===Martin has written several prequel novellas.",
"The ''Tales of Dunk and Egg'' series, three novellas set 90 years before the events of the novel series, feature the adventures of Ser Duncan the Tall and his squire \"Egg\", who later became King Aegon V Targaryen.",
"The stories have no direct connection to the plot of ''A Song of Ice and Fire'', although both characters are mentioned, in ''A Storm of Swords'' and ''A Feast for Crows'' respectively.",
"The first installment, ''The Hedge Knight'', was published in the 1998 anthology ''Legends''.",
"''The Sworn Sword'' followed in 2003, published in ''Legends II''.",
"Both were later adapted into graphic novels.",
"The third novella, ''The Mystery Knight'', was first published in the 2010 anthology ''Warriors'' and in 2017 it was adapted as a graphic novel, as well.",
"In 2015, the first three novellas were published as one illustrated collection, ''A Knight of the Seven Kingdoms''.The novella ''The Princess and the Queen, or, the Blacks and the Greens'' appeared in Tor Books's 2013 anthology ''Dangerous Women'' and explains some of the Targaryen backstory two centuries before the events of the novels.",
"''The Rogue Prince, or, a King's Brother'', published in the 2014 anthology ''Rogues'', is itself a prequel to the events of ''The Princess and the Queen''.",
"The novella ''The Sons of the Dragon'', published in the 2017 anthology ''The Book of Swords'', is the story of Aegon the Conqueror's two sons Aenys I and Maegor I \"The Cruel\".",
"All three of these stories were incorporated as parts of ''Fire & Blood'', a book chronicling the history of the Targaryen line.Chapter sets from the novels were also compiled into three novellas that were released between 1996 and 2003 by ''Asimov's Science Fiction'' and ''Dragon'':* ''Blood of the Dragon'' (July 1996), taken from the Daenerys chapters in ''A Game of Thrones''* ''Path of the Dragon'' (December 2000), taken from the Daenerys chapters in ''A Storm of Swords''* ''Arms of the Kraken'' (March 2003), based on the Iron Islands chapters from ''A Feast for Crows''===''Fire & Blood''===''Fire & Blood'' is Martin's complete history of House Targaryen, to be released in two volumes.",
"The first volume was released on November 20, 2018.===Television series===With the popularity of the series growing, HBO optioned ''A Song of Ice and Fire'' for a television adaptation in 2007.A pilot episode was produced in late 2009, and a series commitment for nine further episodes was made in March 2010.The series, titled ''Game of Thrones'', premiered in April 2011 to great acclaim and ratings (see ''Game of Thrones'' § Reception).",
"The network picked up the show for a second season covering ''A Clash of Kings'' two days later.",
"Shortly after the conclusion of the first season, the show received 13 Emmy Award nominations, including Outstanding Drama Series, winning Outstanding Main Title Design and Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series for Peter Dinklage's portrayal of Tyrion Lannister.",
"HBO announced a renewal for a third season in April 2012, ten days after the season 2 premiere.",
"Due to the length of the corresponding book, the third season only covered roughly the first half of ''A Storm of Swords''.Early during the development of the TV series, Martin told major plot points to producers David Benioff and D. B. Weiss.",
"Martin was confident he would have published at least ''The Winds of Winter'' before the TV series overtook him.",
"Nevertheless, there were general concerns about whether Martin would be able to stay ahead of the show.",
"As a result, head writers Benioff and Weiss learned more future plot points from Martin in 2013 to help them set up the show's new possible seasons.",
"This included the end stories for all the core characters.",
"Deviations from the books' storylines were considered, but a two-year hiatus to wait for new books was not an option for them (as the child actors continue to grow and the show's popularity would wane).Shortly after the season 3 premiere in March 2013, the network announced that ''Game of Thrones'' would be returning for a fourth season, which would cover the second half of ''A Storm of Swords ''along with the beginnings of ''A Feast for Crows ''and ''A Dance With Dragons''.",
"''Game of Thrones'' was nominated for 15 Emmy Awards for season 3.Two days after the fourth season premiered in April 2014, HBO renewed ''Game of Thrones'' for a fifth and sixth season.",
"Season 5 premiered on April 12, 2015, and set a Guinness World Records for winning the highest number of Emmy Awards for a series in a single season and year, winning 12 out of 24 nominations, including Outstanding Drama Series.These episodes were watched by 8 million viewers, setting a record number for the series.",
"On January 2, 2016, Martin confirmed that the sixth volume would not be published before the start of the sixth season of the HBO series.",
"The sixth season premiered on April 24, 2016.These episodes received the most nominations for the 68th Primetime Emmy Awards with 23, winning 12, including the award for Outstanding Drama Series.",
"The seventh season premiered on July 16, 2017.The eighth and final season premiered on April 14, 2019.A spin-off prequel series, ''House of the Dragon'', was later developed based on Martin's ''Fire & Blood''.",
"The first season premiered on August 21, 2022.===Other works===''A Song of Ice and Fire'' has spawned an industry of spin-off products.",
"Fantasy Flight Games released a collectible card game, a board game, and two collections of artwork inspired by ''A Song of Ice and Fire'' series.",
"Various roleplaying game products were released by Guardians of Order and Green Ronin.",
"Dynamite Entertainment adapted ''A Game of Thrones'' into a same-titled monthly comic in 2011.Several video games are available or in production, including ''A Game of Thrones: Genesis'' (2011) and ''Game of Thrones'' (2012) by Cyanide; both received mediocre ratings from critics.",
"A social network game titled ''Game of Thrones Ascent'' (2013) by Disruptor Beam allows players to live the life of a noble during the series' period setting.",
"Random House released an official map book called ''The Lands of Ice and Fire'', which includes old and new maps of the ''Ice and Fire'' world.",
"The companion book ''The World of Ice & Fire'' by Martin and the Westeros.org owners Elio M. García Jr. and Linda Antonsson was published in October 2014.Other licensed products include full-sized weapon reproductions, a range of collectable figures, Westeros coinage reproductions, and a large number of gift and collectible items based on the HBO television series.",
"The popularity of the HBO series has made its version of the Iron Throne an icon of the entire media franchise."
],
[
"See also",
"* Outline of ''A Song of Ice and Fire'' franchise"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* George R. R. Martin's official website* So Spake Martin, Collection of statements, correspondences and interviews by George R. R. Martin* * *"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"World of A Song of Ice and Fire"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The fictional world in which the ''A Song of Ice and Fire'' novels by George R. R. Martin take place is divided into several continents, known collectively as The Known World.Most of the story takes place on the continent of Westeros and in a large political entity known as the Seven Kingdoms.",
"Those kingdoms are spread across nine regions: the North, the Iron Islands, the Riverlands, the Vale, the Westerlands, the Stormlands, the Reach, the Crownlands, and Dorne.",
"A massive wall of ice and old magic separates the Seven Kingdoms from the largely unmapped area to the north.",
"The vast continent of Essos is located east of Westeros, across the Narrow Sea.",
"The closest foreign nations to Westeros are the Free Cities, a collection of nine independent city-states along the western edge of Essos.",
"The lands along the southern coastline of Essos are called the Lands of the Summer Sea and include Slaver's Bay and the ruins of Valyria.",
"The latter is the former home of the ancestors of House Targaryen.",
"To the south of Essos are the continents of Sothoryos and Ulthos, which in the narrative are largely unexplored.The planet experiences erratic seasons of unpredictable duration that can last for many years.",
"At the beginning of ''A Song of Ice and Fire'', Westeros has enjoyed a decade-long summer, and many fear that an even longer and harsher winter will follow.George R. R. Martin set the ''Ice and Fire'' story in an alternative world of Earth, a \"secondary world\".",
"Martin has also suggested that world may be larger than the real world planet Earth.",
"The ''Ice and Fire'' narrative is set in a post-magic world where people no longer believe in supernatural things such as the Others.",
"Although the characters understand the natural aspects of their world, they do not know or understand its magical elements.",
"Religion, though, has a significant role in the life of people, and the characters practice many different religions."
],
[
"Maps",
" Map ''Game'' ''Clash'' ''Storm'' ''Feast'' ''Dance'' (''Lands'') The North of Westeros US The South of Westeros US King's Landing city map Beyond the Wall Slaver's Bay, Valyria, and Sothoryos The Iron Islands The Free Cities ''A Game of Thrones'', the first installment of the ''A Song of Ice and Fire'' series, has two maps of Westeros.",
"Each new book has added one or two maps so that, as of ''A Dance with Dragons'', seven maps of the fictional world are available in the books.",
"Martin said in 2003 that complete world maps were not made available so that readers may better identify with people of the real Middle Ages who were uneducated about distant places.",
"He also did not \"subscribe to the theory put forth in ''The Tough Guide To Fantasyland'' ... that eventually the characters must visit every place shown on The Map.\"",
"He conceded, however, that readers may be able to piece together a world map by the end of the series.",
"He was intentionally vague about the size of the ''Ice and Fire'' world, omitting a scale on the maps to discourage prediction of travel lengths based on measured distances.",
"A new map artist was used in ''A Dance with Dragons'' so that the maps are available in two versions by James Sinclair and Jeffrey L. Ward, depending on the book.",
"The old maps were redone to match the style of the new ones.A set of foldout maps was published on October 30, 2012, as ''The Lands of Ice and Fire'' ().",
"The illustrator and cartographer Jonathan Roberts drew the maps, based on drafts by Martin.",
"The twelve maps in the set are entitled \"The Known World\", \"The West\", \"Central Essos\", \"The East\", \"Westeros\", \"Beyond The Wall\", \"The Free Cities\", \"Slaver's Bay\", \"The Dothraki Sea\", \"King's Landing\", \"Braavos\", and \"Journeys\".",
"The latter tracks the paths taken by the novels' characters."
],
[
"Westeros {{anchor|Westeros}}",
"The story takes place primarily on an elongated continent called '''Westeros''', which is roughly the size of South America.",
"The continent is home to the '''Seven Kingdoms''', also known as \"the Realm\" or the \"Sunset Kingdom\", located to the south side of the Wall, a massive man-made ice wall (allegedly fused with magic) 700 feet in height and spanning east–west for 300 miles from coast to coast.",
"The Seven Kingdoms are further divided into the so-called \"North\" and \"South\" by a swamp-rich isthmus called '''the Neck'''.",
"The land north of the Wall still makes up a large chunk (being roughly the size of Canada) of Westeros, but remains largely unmapped and unexplored, especially the ice field region north and west of a massive mountain range called the Frostfangs, which marks the farthest geographic limit of human settlements.",
"The northern extent of the continent is therefore unknown, although thought to be continuous with a polar ice cap north of the Shivering Sea known as the White Waste.At the novel's beginning, the majority of Westeros is united under the rule of a single king, whose seat is the \"Iron Throne\" in the city of King's Landing.",
"The king has direct rule over an area known as the Crownlands, surrounding King's Landing; each of the other regions is functionally controlled by a different major noble house, who all wield significant power in their own lands, while owing fealty to the Iron Throne.",
"Martin here drew inspiration from medieval European history, in particular the Hundred Years' War, the Crusades, the Albigensian Crusade, and the Wars of the Roses.The first inhabitants of the continent were the Children of the Forest, a nature-worshipping Stone Age anthropoid species who carved the faces of their gods in weirwood trees.",
"Some time later, Bronze Age human settlers, known as the First Men, migrated from Essos via a land bridge at the southeastern end of the continent and gradually spread to the entire continent.",
"The First Men's attempts to chop down forests and cultivate the land led to a millennia-long war with the Children of the Forest, that eventually was settled by an agreement known as \"The Pact\".",
"This was the beginning of the Age of Heroes, during which the First Men adopted the religion of the Children of the Forest.",
"Those gods later became known in Westeros as the Old Gods.Eight thousand years before the events of the novels, an enigmatic arctic humanoid species called the Others emerged from the Land of Always Winter, the northernmost part of Westeros, during the decades-long winter known as \"The Long Night\".",
"The Children of the Forest and the First Men allied to repel the Others, and then built the Wall barring passage from the far north.",
"The region north of the Wall was since collectively known as the land \"Beyond the Wall\", and settled by tribal descendants of the First Men known as the Wildlings or Free Folk.Sometime later, the Iron Age humans from Essos called the Andals invaded Westeros, bringing along the Faith of the Seven.",
"One by one, kingdoms of the First Men south of the Neck fell to the Andals, and only the North remained unconquered.",
"The Children of the Forest were slaughtered and disappeared from Andal lands.",
"Over time, seven relatively stable feudal kingdoms were forged across Westeros, although their territories fluctuated over the next few thousand years through constant warfare, and no kingdom remained dominant for long:* The Kingdom of the North, ruled by House Stark of Winterfell* The Kingdom of the Isles and the Rivers, ruled by House Hoare of Harrenhal* The Kingdom of Mountain and Vale, ruled by House Arryn of the Eyrie* The Kingdom of the Rock, ruled by House Lannister of Casterly Rock* The Storm Kingdom, ruled by House Durrandon of Storm's End* The Kingdom of the Reach, ruled by House Gardener of Highgarden* The Principality of Dorne, ruled by House Martell of Sunspear.Three hundred years before the novels begin, the Targaryen dragonlord Aegon the Conqueror and his two sister-wives Visenya and Rhaenys, whose ancestors migrated from Valyria to Dragonstone a century prior, invaded the Westerosi mainland and landed his army at the mouth of the Blackwater Rush.",
"The three assembled a temporary bastion called \"Aegonfort\", which later grew into the massive capital city known as King's Landing.",
"Aided by their three formidable fire-breathing dragons, the Targaryen armies subdued six of the Seven Kingdoms through conquest or treaty, wiping out three of the seven ruling houses (Durrandon, Hoare and Gardener) that refused to bend their knees, replacing them with houses Baratheon, Tully and Tyrell respectively.",
"Only the defiant Dorne remained independent for almost another two hundred years through asymmetric guerrilla resistance, until it was finally absorbed under the Iron Throne through a marriage-alliance by King Daeron II in 187 AC.",
"The Targaryens built the Iron Throne, forged from the swords of their defeated enemies by dragonfire.",
"They also annexed the land regions of the riverlands and stormlands around the Blackwater Bay as the Crownlands.",
"House Targaryen ruled as the sole monarchy of the Seven Kingdoms for almost three centuries until overthrown by a rebellion led by Robert Baratheon in 283 AC.Martin took the name Westeros from the Scottish region Wester Ross.===The North ===The North consists of the northern half of the Seven Kingdoms and is ruled by House Stark from their castle at Winterfell.",
"The North is sparsely populated, but nearly as big as the other six southern kingdoms combined.",
"Martin compared the North to Scotland.",
"The climate is cold overall, with hard winters and mild snows common regardless of the season.",
"Beyond the wall in the far north, the climate is polar with heavy snow while further south, it is milder with more rain.",
"The region's northern border is the Gift, a stretch of land 50 leagues wide given to the possession of the Night's Watch.An isthmus called The Neck separates the North from the South.",
"It is dominated by swamplands and is home to short, marsh-dwelling crannogmen ruled by House Reed of Greywater Watch, loyal bannermen of House Stark.",
"The Neck's difficult wetland terrain is infested by predatory lizard-lions, restricting the only dryland passage to a causeway commanded by the almost impenetrable stronghold of Moat Cailin, which protected the North from land invasion from the south for thousands of years.",
"The city of White Harbor, located at the mouth of the White Knife river, is a thriving port and the fifth largest settlement in the Seven Kingdoms.Illegitimate children born of a noble parent in the North are given the surname Snow.====Winterfell====Winterfell is the ancestral castle of House Stark and the political capital of the North.",
"Located at the geographical center of the North, it has a cold, subarctic climate with snowy winters and cool summers.",
"The castle was built over a natural hot spring, whose scalding water runs inside the castle walls and warms its halls and rooms as well as the glass garden at its northwestern corner.",
"There are several open pools where heated water collects within the godswood.",
"The hot spring also prevents the ground from freezing.",
"The castle has deep catacombs called \"the crypt\", where bodies of deceased Starks are entombed behind statues in their likeness with a direwolf at their feet and their swords in their hands.",
"The tombs have been used since the old kings of the North, known as the Kings of Winter, were in power.",
"They ruled since before the arrival of the Andals.To depict Winterfell, both the pilot and season 1 of the television adaptation used the 16th century clock tower and ancient courtyard of Castle Ward in County Down, Northern Ireland.",
"Doune Castle in Stirling, Scotland, which was previously featured as Castle Anthrax in the film ''Monty Python and the Holy Grail'', was also used for exterior scenes.",
"Saintfield Estates stood in as Winterfell's godswood, an enclosed wooded area where characters can worship the old gods beside trees with faces carved in their bark.",
"A car park stood in for Winterfell's courtyard, and a wine cellar was used to depict the Stark family crypt.",
"Tollymore Forest featured prominently in the prologue of the pilot episode and in the pivotal scene where the Starks first find the direwolves.",
"Cairncastle, meanwhile, served as the location where Ned Stark beheads the deserter Will.",
"The interior of Winterfell, such as the Tower of the First Keep, the Great Hall, and Catelyn's bedchamber, were filmed at The Paint Hall studio.",
"Set designer Gemma Jackson said, \"Winterfell was based on a Scottish castle.",
"\"====The Wall====The Wall in the ''Ice and Fire'' series was inspired by Hadrian's Wall in the North of England.The Wall is a huge structure of stone, ice, and magic on the northern border of the Seven Kingdoms.",
"It is home to the Night's Watch, a brotherhood sworn to protect the realms of men from the threats beyond the Wall.The Wall was inspired by Martin's visit to Hadrian's Wall, in the North of England close to the border with Scotland.",
"Looking out over the hills, Martin wondered what a Roman centurion from the Mediterranean would feel, not knowing what threats might come from the north.",
"This experience was so profound that a decade later, in 1991, he wanted to \"write a story about the people guarding the end of the world\", and ultimately \"the things that come out of the fictional north are a good deal more terrifying than Scotsmen or Picts\".Martin adjusted the size, length, and magical nature of the Wall for genre demands; Jon Snow's chapters describe it as approximately long and high in general, rising up to a perceived in spots due to huge foundation blocks.",
"The top is wide enough for a dozen mounted knights to ride abreast (approximately 30 ft or 10 m), while the base is so thick that the Wall's gates are more like tunnels through the ice.The novels' legends claim that the First Men, or more specifically Brandon the Builder with the possible help of children of the forest and giants, constructed the Wall some 8,000 years before the events of the series.The Wall has since been maintained by the Night's Watch to guard the realms of men against threats from beyond, originally the Others, and later against wildling raids.A strip of land known as \"the Gift\", now stretching 50 leagues (about ) south of the wall, was given to them in perpetuity thousands of years earlier for cultivation.",
"In ''A Game of Thrones'', of the nineteen castles built along the wall, only three are still manned: Castle Black with 600 men, and the Shadow Tower and Eastwatch-by-the-Sea with 200 men each.",
"Parts of Castle Black have fallen into ruin.The TV series' Castle Black and the Wall were filmed in the abandoned Magheramorne Quarry near Belfast, Northern Ireland, whereas the scenes shot atop the wall were filmed inside Paint Hall Studios.",
"The composite set (with both exteriors and interiors) consisted of a large section of Castle Black including the courtyard, the ravenry, the mess hall, and the barracks, and used the stone wall of the quarry as the basis for the ice wall that protects Westeros from the dangers that dwell beyond.",
"They also made a functional elevator to lift the rangers to the top of the Wall.",
"A castle with real rooms and a working elevator were built near a cliff high.",
"\"Working construction lifts were discovered at a nearby work site and rise 18 feet; CGI fills in the rest to make the wall appear 700 feet high.\"",
"The area around the elevator was painted white to make it look like ice.",
"Martin was surprised by the height and thought: \"Oh I may have made the wall too big!\"",
"Martin observed: \"It's a pretty spectacular, yet miserable location.",
"It is wet and rainy, and the mud is thick....it really gets the actors in the mood of being at the end of the world in all of this cold and damp and chill.",
"\"====Beyond the Wall====Season 2 of the TV adaptation featured scenes set north of the Wall that were filmed on the Vatnajökull glacier in Iceland.",
"''A Clash of Kings'' takes the story to the lands Beyond the Wall, although the first five books do not explore \"what lies really north ... but we will in the last two books\".",
"The TV adaptation used Iceland as filming location for the lands Beyond the Wall.",
"Martin, who has never been to Iceland, said Beyond the Wall was \"considerably larger than Iceland and the area closest to my Wall is densely forested, so in that sense it's more like Canada Hudson Bay or the Canadian forests just north of Michigan.",
"And then as you get further and further north, it changes.",
"You get into tundra and ice fields and it becomes more of an arctic environment.",
"You have plains on one side and a very high range of mountains on the other.",
"Of course, once again this is fantasy, so my mountains are more like the Himalayas.\"",
"In an HBO featurette, Martin stated the lands beyond the wall make up a big part of Westeros, being roughly the size of Canada.",
"The Valley of Thenn is one such location beyond the Wall, and north of that is the Lands of Always Winter, where the Others come from.During the first season, the HBO team used places that they could decorate with artificial snow for the north of the Wall, but a bigger landscape was chosen for Season 2.",
"\"Primary filming for these scenes, which encompass both the Frostfangs and the Fist of the First Men, occurred at the Svínafellsjökull calving glacier in Skaftafell, Iceland, followed by shooting near Smyrlabjörg and Vík í Mýrdal on Höfðabrekkuheiði.",
"Benioff said, \"We always knew we wanted something shatteringly beautiful and barren and brutal for this part of Jon's journey, because he's in the true North now.",
"It's all real.",
"It's all in camera.",
"We're not doing anything in postproduction to add mountains or snow or anything.",
"\"===The Iron Islands===The Iron Islands are a group of seven islands to the west of Westeros – Pyke, Great Wyk, Old Wyk, Harlaw, Saltcliffe, Blacktyde, and Orkmont – in Ironman's Bay off the west coast of the continent.",
"Ruled by House Greyjoy of Pyke, the isles are described as bare and barren, with the local weather being \"windy and cold, and damp\".",
"The members of this seafaring nation are known in the rest of Westeros as Ironmen, and to themselves as Ironborn.",
"Illegitimate children born in the Iron Islands are given the surname Pyke.For fierce raids, the Ironmen are titled the \"terror of the seas\".",
"They worship the Drowned God, who \"had made them to reave and rape, to carve out kingdoms and write their names in fire and blood and song\".",
"The appendix of ''A Game of Thrones'' summarizes that the Ironmen once ruled over the Riverlands and much of the western coast of Westeros.",
"When Aegon the Conqueror extinguished Harren the Black's line, he chose House Greyjoy as the new rulers of the Ironmen.====Pyke====For the TV adaptation, the harbour of Ballintoy in Northern Ireland was redressed as the port of Pyke.Pyke is the seat of House Greyjoy.",
"The television adaptation filmed the scenes of Pyke's port at Lordsport Harbour in Ballintoy Harbour, in Northern Ireland's County Antrim.",
"The sea has worn away much of the rock on which Pyke originally stood, so the castle now consists mostly of a main keep on the main island and smaller towers perched on rocks surrounded by sea.====Old Wyk====Old Wyk is the smallest and holiest island in the Iron Islands.",
"It is where Kingsmoots are held, and where the Grey King slew Nagga, a sea dragon, and made a court of his bones.===The Riverlands===The Riverlands are the populous and fertile areas surrounding the forks of the river Trident on Westeros.",
"While they form one of the nine regions of Westeros, the Riverlands' central location and geographic features made the region an inter-kingdom battle zone that changed hands rather than becoming its own 'eighth' kingdom of the Seven Kingdoms.",
"Centrally located between the Westerlands, the Crownlands, the Vale, and the North and lacking the natural defenses of other regions, they have seen frequent warfare.",
"The first ruler to unite the Riverlands was Benedict Justman, but the Justman dynasty died out three centuries later.",
"The Durrandons conquered the Riverlands, but lost rule of it to Harwyn \"Hardhand\" Hoare, King of the Iron Islands.",
"At the time of Aegon's conquest, the Riverlands were ruled by Harwyn's grandson, Harren the Black, king of the Iron Islands, and the Tullys were local nobles who rebelled against him by joining Aegon the Conqueror.",
"As with Westerosi customs to give bastards a surname showing their origins, illegitimate children born in the Riverlands are given the surname Rivers.====Harrenhal====Harrenhal is an enormous ruined castle and is the site of many important events in the novels.",
"Harrenhal was built by Harren the Black, after his conquest of the Riverlands, intending to make it the largest fortification ever built in Westeros.",
"The castle has been described as so large that an entire army was needed to garrison it.",
"The Great Hall had 35 hearths and seated thousands.",
"Shortly after the castle was completed, Aegon the Conqueror's dragon slew Harren, his sons, and his entire army by setting the castle alight.Since then, the ruins of the castle have been occupied by a variety of houses, all of which eventually became extinct.",
"As a result, the people of Westeros believe the castle is cursed.",
"The logistical and economic difficulties inherent in keeping such an enormous castle maintained and garrisoned has made it something of a white elephant.",
"At the start of the War of the Five Kings, the castle is in ruin, with only a fraction of it habitable, and held by Lady Shella Whent, the last of her House, who is stripped of Harrenhal when the Lannisters seize her castle.",
"The castle changes hands repeatedly over the course of the novels, many of those holding it meeting unpleasant ends.====Riverrun====Riverrun is the ancestral stronghold of House Tully.",
"The castle is located along one of the \"forks\" of the Trident and controls access to the interior of Westeros.",
"The castle is bordered on two sides by the Tumblestone River and the Red Fork.",
"The third side fronts on a massive manmade ditch.",
"It was built by Ser Axel Tully on land he received from the Andal King Armistead Vance.The castle is the location of Robb Stark's great victory over House Lannister and the site of his crowning.",
"By the end of ''A Feast for Crows'', Brynden Tully surrenders the castle to Jaime Lannister to spare further bloodshed.",
"Riverrun then passed into the hands of Emmon Frey, an ally of House Lannister.====The Twins====The Twins is a large double castle straddling the Green Fork river; the two halves of the castle are connected by a bridge that is the only crossing of the river for hundreds of miles.",
"The Twins is the seat of House Frey, which has grown wealthy by charging a toll of all those who cross for the past six centuries.",
"Because the Freys are both wealthy and numerous, theirs is one of the most powerful houses sworn to House Tully.",
"The castle's strategic position gives House Frey enormous importance in times of war.When Robb Stark goes to The Twins to repair his alliance with House Frey, the Freys massacre him, his mother, and his army (and in the TV adaptation, his wife): an event known as \"The Red Wedding\", which violates native customs of guest right and incurs enmity throughout the Seven Kingdoms, especially in the Riverlands and North.===The Vale of Arryn===For the TV adaptation, images of the Greek rock formations of Meteora were used for the composite views of the Vale.The Vale is the area surrounded almost completely by the Mountains of the Moon in the east of Westeros.",
"The Vale is under the rulership of House Arryn, one of the oldest lines of Andal nobility and formerly Kings of Mountain and Vale.",
"Their seat, the Eyrie, is a castle high in the mountains, small but considered unassailable.",
"The only way to reach the Vale is by a mountain road teeming with animals called 'shadowcats', rock slides, and dangerous mountain clans.",
"The mountain road ends at the Vale's sole entrance, the Bloody Gate: a pair of twin watchtowers, connected by a covered bridge, on the rocky mountain slopes over a very narrow path.",
"The protection of the surrounding mountains gives the Vale itself a temperate climate, fertile meadows, and woods.",
"The snowmelt from the mountains and a constant waterfall that never freezes, named Alyssa's Tears, provide plentiful water.",
"The Vale has rich black soil, wide slow-moving rivers, and hundreds of small lakes.",
"Illegitimate children born in the Vale are given the surname Stone.====The Eyrie====castle of Neuschwanstein, on which the Eyrie is basedBased on the German castle of Neuschwanstein, the Eyrie is the seat of House Arryn.",
"It is situated on the Giant's Lance and reachable only by a narrow mule trail, guarded by the Gates of the Moon and three small castles, titled Stone, Snow, and Sky.",
"Travelers must enter the Gates of the Moon and its upper bailey before reaching the narrow path up the mountain.",
"The steps up the Giant's Lance starts directly behind the Gates of the Moon.",
"The Eyrie clings to the mountain and is six hundred feet above Sky.",
"The last part of the climb to the Eyrie is something of a cross between a chimney and a stone ladder, which leads to the Eyrie's cellar entrance.",
"Due to the Mountains of the Moon's harsh winters, travel to and from the Eyrie is possible through the mountains only in summer.The Eyrie is the smallest of the great castles in the story, consisting of seven slim towers bunched tightly together.",
"It has no stables, kennels, or smithies, but the towers can house 500 men, and the granary can sustain a small household for a year or more.",
"The Eyrie does not keep livestock on hand; all dairy produce, meats, fruits, vegetables, etc., must be brought from the Vale below.",
"Its cellars hold six great winches with long iron chains to draw supplies and occasionally guests from below.",
"Oxen are used to raise and lower them.",
"Winter snows can make supplying the fortress impossible.",
"The Eyrie's dungeons, known as \"sky cells\", are left open to the sky on one side and have sloping floors that put prisoners in danger of slipping or rolling off the edge.",
"Executions in the Eyrie are carried out via the Moon Door, which opens from the high hall onto a 600-foot drop.The Eyrie is made of pale stone and primarily decorated with the blue and white colors of House Arryn.",
"Elegant details provide warmth and comfort through plentiful fireplaces, carpets, and luxurious fabrics.",
"Many of the chambers have been described to be warm and comfortable, with magnificent views of the Vale, the Mountains of the Moon, or the waterfall.",
"The Maiden's Tower is the easternmost of the seven slender towers, so all the Vale can be seen from its windows and balconies.",
"The apartments of the Lady of the Eyrie open over a small garden planted with blue flowers and ringed by white towers, containing grass and scattered statuary, with the central statue of a weeping woman believed to be Alyssa Arryn, around low, flowering shrubs.",
"The lord's chambers have doors of solid oak, and plush velvet curtains covering windows of small rhomboid panes of glass.",
"The High Hall has a blue silk carpet leading to the carved weirwood thrones of the Lord and Lady Arryn.",
"The floors and walls are of milk-white marble veined with blue.",
"Daylight enters down through high narrow arched windows along the eastern wall, and there are some fifty high iron sconces where torches may be lit.The Eyrie was held by Lord Jon Arryn, who fostered Ned Stark and Robert Baratheon prior to Robert's Rebellion (also known as the War of the Usurper).",
"After the war, Lord Arryn served as King Robert I Baratheon's Hand of the King (prime minister).",
"After Lord Arryn was assassinated, his wife, Lady Lysa Arryn, took her sickly child, Robin, and fled to the Eyrie.",
"Lysa refused to align herself with any of the claimants during the War of the Five Kings, but eventually pretends to a possible alliance with House Lannister after Lord Petyr Baelish agrees to marry her.",
"Later Baelish kills Lysa after she attempts to murder her niece, Sansa Stark.",
"As of ''Feast for Crows'', Baelish rules in the Eyrie as the Lord Protector and Regent for the sickly, epileptic Lord Robert \"Robin\" Arryn, and plans for Sansa to marry Harold Harding, who will become heir to the Eyrie and the Vale in the event of young Robin Arryn's death.For the CGI compositions of the Vale of Arryn in the TV series, as seen in the establishing shot of the Eyrie and from the sky cells, the visual effects team used images and textures from the Greek rock formations of Meteora.",
"Initially they had been considering the Zhangjiajie Mountains in China, but because the landscape base plates were shot in Northern Ireland, using Meteora resulted a better option.",
"Set designer Gemma Jackson said, \"A lot of the mosaics in the Eyrie were based on a beautiful chapel I visited in Rome.\"",
"The interior of the High Hall of the Arryns was filmed at The Paint Hall, occupying one of the four soundstages there.",
"Martin acknowledged that the set differed significantly from its presentation in the books: \"In the books, the room is long and rectangular.",
"But The Paint Hall soundstage had essentially a square space, which they chose to put a round hall in, with a staircase curving up to a throne that was high above.",
"\"===The Westerlands===The Westerlands are the Westerosi lands to the west of the Riverlands and north of the Reach.",
"They are ruled by House Lannister of Casterly Rock, formerly Kings of the Rock.",
"People of this region are often called \"Westermen.\"",
"Lannisport, lying hard by Casterly Rock, is the chief town of the region and one of the great ports and cities of Westeros.",
"The Westerlands are rich in precious metals, mostly gold, which is the source of their wealth.",
"Keeping with Westerosi customs to give bastards a surname showing their origins, illegitimate children born in the Westerlands are given the surname Hill.====Casterly Rock====Casterly Rock was inspired by the Rock of Gibraltar (pictured).A stronghold carved from a mountain overlooking the harbor city of Lannisport and the sea beyond, Casterly Rock is the ancestral seat of House Lannister.",
"According to popular legend, the hero known as Lann the Clever tricked the Casterlys into giving up the Rock, and took it for himself.",
"The Rock is renowned as the wealthiest region due to its abundance of gold mining resources, and it is one of the strongest castles of the Seven Kingdoms.",
"It has never been taken in battle, despite attacks by the Iron Islanders and the plans of Robb Stark in the War of the Five Kings.",
"It was held by Lord Tywin Lannister before the War of the Five Kings, but after his death, Queen Regent Cersei Lannister made one of her cousins castellan of the castle.",
"As of ''A Dance with Dragons'', the narrative has not actually taken place in Casterly Rock, yet descriptions of it have been offered by the Lannisters in the POV chapters.West of Casterly Rock is the coastal city of Lannisport.",
"A busy port under the governance of the Lannisters of Casterly Rock, Lannisport thrives as a protected and wealthy city.",
"The city is also home to many lesser Lannisters and other people with similar surnames, such as Lannys.George R. R. Martin stated on his blog that he drew inspiration for Casterly Rock from the Rock of Gibraltar.===The Reach===The Castle of Almodóvar del Río in Córdoba, Spain, which represented Highgarden in ''Game of Thrones''The Reach is the southwestern region of Westeros along the valleys of the Mander (the largest river in Westeros) and the Honeywine.",
"It is the second-largest of the kingdoms in terms of geographical area (behind only the North) and is the most fertile and heavily populated region of Westeros.",
"The wealth and power of the Reach comes from its warm, sunny climate, which grants bountiful harvests of farm foods and the most sought-after wines.",
"During times of war, the expansive lands of the Reach and its abundance of foods protects their inhabitants from initial famine and sickness.",
"The Reach is considered the home of chivalry in Westeros, and is the place where knighthood is looked upon with the greatest reverence, and where the rules for tourneys are the most stringent and managed.",
"The most prominent population center in the Reach is Oldtown, Westeros's oldest and second largest city and port as well as the home to the Maesters' Citadel and the former religious seat of the Faith of the Seven, situated at the mouth of the Honeywine estuary.The Reach was historically known as the Green Realm, ruled by King of the Reach from House Gardener in Highgarden.",
"During Aegon's conquest, the last Gardener King, Mern IX, was killed along with all his heirs and kins on the Field of Fire.",
"House Tyrell, the stewards to House Gardener, surrendered Highgarden to Aegon and were rewarded with both the castle and the position of overlords of the Reach.",
"Illegitimate children born in the Reach are given the surname Flowers.During the reign of House Baratheon as the ruler of Westeros, the Reach is the second wealthiest region in the Seven Kingdom, behind only the mine-rich Westerlands.",
"During the War of the Five Kings, in a significant political maneuver during the civil war, House Tyrell provides the starving populace of King's Landing with hundreds of carts of food, ensuring the positive image of House Tyrell foremost, and the alliance for the Iron Throne with House Baratheon as secondary.",
"However, the Tyrells were responsible for the starvation in the first place, as part of their plan to help the pretender Renly Baratheon contend for the Iron Throne.====Oldtown====The Hightower of Oldtown bears similarities to the Lighthouse of Alexandria (3D reconstruction pictured)Oldtown is one of the largest cities in Westeros and is by far the oldest, built by the First Men before the Andal Invasion.",
"It survived the invasion by welcoming the Andals rather than resisting them.",
"The city is located in the southwestern part of Westeros, at the mouth of the River Honeywine, where it opens onto Whispering Sound and the Sunset Sea beyond.Oldtown is primarily known as the location of the Citadel, home of the order of Maesters who serve as councillors, doctors, scientists, and postmasters for the Seven Kingdoms.",
"The city's Starry Sept was the seat of the Faith of the Seven until the construction of the Great Sept of Baelor in King's Landing.",
"Aegon the Conqueror's reign is dated from his entrance into the city of Oldtown and his acknowledgment as king by the High Septon.Oldtown is the second most important port in the Seven Kingdoms after King's Landing: trading ships from the Summer Islands, the Free Cities, the eastern cities, and the rest of Westeros constantly crowd into its harbors.",
"The city itself is described as stunningly beautiful with a warm climate.",
"Many rivers and canals crisscross its cobbled streets, and breathtaking stone mansions are common.",
"The city lacks the squalor of King's Landing, which usurped its position as the preeminent city of Westeros.The largest structure in the city, and the tallest structure in Westeros, is the Hightower, a massive stepped lighthouse which extends some into the sky and is topped by a huge beacon which can be seen for many miles out to sea.",
"Oldtown is ruled from the Hightower by House Hightower.",
"Originally kings in their own right, they later swore fealty to the Gardeners of Highgarden, and became vassals of the Tyrells after the Conquest.",
"The Hightowers are known for their loyalty and stalwartness.",
"The current ruler of the city is Lord Leyton Hightower.Oldtown remained aloof from the War of the Five Kings, but late in the war the Ironborn under King Euron Greyjoy launched a massive raid along the coast, conquering the Shield Islands and parts of the Arbor before trying to blockade the mouth of the Honeywine.",
"An attempt to attack the city harbor was repulsed by the city's defenders.",
"Oldtown remains under threat from the Ironborn.===The Stormlands===The Stormlands are the large cape between the Blackwater Bay and the Sea of Dorne and the cape's associated western hinterlands, named for the severe weathers in the coastal areas.",
"The region is bordered in the east by the Narrow Sea, especially a large semi-enclosed bay known as the Shipbreaker Bay behind the island of Tarth; from King's Landing and the Crownlands in the north by a large forest known as the Kingswood; from the Reach in the west by the headwaters of the Mander River; and Dorne in the south by the expansive Red Mountains.",
"The southwestern Stormlands are a borderland area historically contested among the Stormlands, the Reach and Dorne, known as the Dornish Marches.Before Aegon's conquest, the Stormlands were ruled by the Storm Kings of House Durrandon founded by the legendary Durran Godsgrief.",
"When Aegon the Conqueror invaded Westeros, his bastard half-brother Orys Baratheon slew the last Storm King in a duel and married the latter's daughter to establish House Baratheon, which has ruled the Stormlands as lord paramount afterwards.",
"Highborn illegitimate children born in the Stormlands are given the surname Storm.====Storm's End====Storm's End is the seat of House Baratheon and, before them, the ancestral seat of the Storm Kings extending back many thousands of years.",
"According to legend, the first Storm King in the age of the First Men was Durran, who married Elenei, the daughter of the sea god and the goddess of the wind.",
"In a rage her parents sent vast storms to shatter his keep and kill his wedding guests and family; whereupon Durran declared war against the gods and raised several castles over Shipbreaker Bay, each larger and more formidable than the last.",
"Finally, the seventh castle stayed in place and resisted the storms.",
"Some believe the Children of the Forest took a hand in its construction; others suggest that Brandon Stark, the builder of the Wall, advised Durran on its construction.",
"The truth of the matter is unknown.Storm's End has never fallen to either siege or storm.",
"Its outer defenses consist of a huge curtain wall, tall and thick on its thinnest side, nearly thick on its seaward side.",
"The wall consists of a double course of stones with an inner core of sand and rubble.",
"The wall is smooth and curving, the stones so well placed that the wind cannot enter.",
"On the seaward side, there is a drop below the wall into the sea.The castle itself consists of one huge drum tower crowned with formidable battlements, and so large that it can comfortably contain stables, barracks, armory and lord's chambers in the same structure.",
"Although never taken in battle, Storm's End has endured several sieges and battles in recent history.",
"The last Storm King, Argilac the Arrogant, abandoned his impressive defenses to meet the Targaryen commander, Orys Baratheon, in open battle during Aegon Targaryen's War of Conquest, and lost.",
"This led to Orys Baratheon marrying Argilac's daughter and becoming Lord of Storm's End.During the War of the Usurper, Storm's End was besieged for a year by the host of Lord Mace Tyrell, who commanded the landward forces, while Paxter Redwyne's fleet of the Arbor kept the castle cut off by sea.",
"Stannis Baratheon, commanding the defense, refused to yield and his men were reduced to eating rats.",
"A smuggler named Davos ran the blockade to resupply the castle and Stannis rewarded him by knighting him and giving him lands, thus founding House Seaworth, but he also cut off the fingertips of his left hand as punishment for all his previous smuggling.",
"After the war, Stannis was furious when his brother Robert, now king, gave the castle to their younger brother Renly and placed Stannis in command of Dragonstone.",
"This led to many years of bitterness on Stannis' part.During the War of the Five Kings, Storm's End supported Renly when he attempted to usurp the crown, and was besieged by Stannis.",
"When the castellan, Cortnay Penrose, refused to yield even after Renly's death, he was killed by Stannis' ally, the priestess Melisandre, and the castle surrendered.",
"Later, the castle was besieged by a strong army under Mace Tyrell, but he abandoned the siege after a few weeks to return to King's Landing after the arrest of his daughter Margaery by the High Septon.",
"As of ''A Dance with Dragons'', the castle remains in the hands of Stannis Baratheon.At the end of ''A Dance with Dragons'' an army lands in the Stormlands led by Jon Connington and a young man claiming to be Aegon Targaryen, the son of Rhaegar Targaryen and Elia Martell and heir to the Iron Throne.",
"To attract support, Aegon plans to conquer Storm's End and raise the banner of House Targaryen above the battlements.In the TV adaptation, scenes in the Stormlands were filmed in Larrybane, Northern Ireland.",
"The scene where Stannis' red priestess Melisandre gave birth to a shadow creature was filmed in the Cushendun Caves, also in Northern Ireland.===The Crownlands===The Crownlands are the lands in Westeros surrounding King's Landing, ruled directly by the crown of the Iron Throne.",
"The Targaryen kings consolidated this as one of the nine regions of Westeros, after their conquest of the Seven Kingdoms, from sparsely populated pieces of the Riverlands and Stormlands.",
"The Crownlands form the entire coastline of Blackwater Bay, and include the original Targaryen homeland on the island of Dragonstone, at the Narrow Sea entrance to Blackwater Bay.",
"Besides King's Landing, which is the largest city in Westeros, the Crownlands include many towns and castles.",
"The illegitimate children born in the Crownlands are given the surname Waters.====Dragonstone====Dragonstone was once the westernmost outpost of the ancient Freehold of Valyria.",
"A century before the Doom, the Targaryen family moved to Dragonstone.",
"When the Doom came upon Valyria, House Targaryen survived along with the last of the Valyrian dragons.",
"Another century later, Aegon Targaryen and his sisters Rhaenys and Visenya launched a massive campaign of conquest from the island and eventually conquered all of Westeros except for Dorne, and North of the Wall.",
"Aegon's progeny reigned as kings of the Seven Kingdoms for centuries.Dragonstone is a massive, forbidding fortress, taking up a large portion of the island of the same name.",
"The castle is unique in that the builders and sorcerers of Valyria carved its towers and keeps into the shapes of dragons and made ferocious gargoyles to cover its walls using both magic and masonry.",
"The castle's lower levels are warmed by residual volcanic activity deep below the keep.",
"There is a small port and town outside of the castle.",
"Additionally, in a cave at the beachfront of the castle, huge deposits of Dragonglass can be found.During the War of the Usurper, before the sack of King's Landing, the Targaryen Queen Rhaella, who was pregnant, and her son Viserys were sent to Dragonstone along with part of the Targaryen fleet and a garrison of loyal soldiers.",
"But after King's Landing fell, Robert Baratheon dispatched his brother Stannis to take the island stronghold.",
"After a storm destroyed the royalist fleet, the Targaryen garrison tried to betray Viserys and his newborn sister, Daenerys, to Stannis (the queen had died in childbirth).",
"But Targaryen loyalists led by Ser Willem Darry took the children away.",
"Stannis conquered Dragonstone easily, and King Robert granted him ownership of the castle.",
"Stannis felt slighted because his younger brother Renly then inherited Storm's End, the ancient seat of House Baratheon.",
"Ser Axell Florent, one of the uncles of Stannis' wife Selyse Florent, acted as castellan.Upon Robert's death, Stannis declared himself king of the Seven Kingdoms and condemned the queen's children as bastards born of incest, as he had discovered with Jon Arryn.",
"Dragonstone became his main seat.",
"He returned there after the disastrous Battle of the Blackwater.",
"His councilor, the red priestess Melisandre of Asshai, tried to convince him to let her raise the \"stone dragon\" of the castle through blood magic, but Lord Davos Seaworth convinced Stannis to go north to the Wall to help the Night's Watch instead.",
"After Stannis abandoned Dragonstone, leaving the Bastard of Nightsong Rolland Storm as castellan, Queen Regent Cersei Lannister dispatched a fleet to barricade it.",
"However, Ser Loras Tyrell, impatient to free the fleet to protect his home castle of Highgarden, attacked Dragonstone directly.",
"He took the castle but lost a thousand men and was himself reportedly gravely wounded.",
"As of ''A Dance with Dragons'', Dragonstone is now controlled by troops loyal to House Tyrell, and theoretically, once again under control of the Iron Throne.One scene set at Dragonstone, in which Stannis burns wooden sculptures of the Seven gods, was filmed at the beach of Downhill Strand.",
"In Season 7 of the show, filming for Dragonstone took place at several locations in the Basque region of Spain: the islet of Gaztelugatxe in Bermeo, Itzurun Beach in Zumaia, and Muriola Beach in Barrika.====King's Landing====King's Landing is the royal capital of Westeros and the Seven Kingdoms.",
"King's Landing has an estimated population of 1 million people, making it the most populous city in Westeros.",
"It is situated on the Blackwater river on the spot where Aegon the Conqueror landed in Westeros to begin his conquest.",
"The main city is surrounded by a wall, which is manned by the City Watch of King's Landing, which is nicknamed the gold cloaks, after the cloaks they wear.",
"Within the walls, the city's natural landscape is dominated by three hills, named after Aegon and his two sister-wives Rhaenys and Visenya.",
"Poorer smallfolk (commoners) build shanty settlements outside the city.",
"King's Landing is described as extremely populous but unsightly and dirty.",
"The stench of the city's waste can be smelled far beyond its walls and there is a vast divide between the city's poor and the wealthy elite.The royal castle, called the Red Keep, sits on Aegon's Hill.",
"It is the seat of the royal court.",
"The Keep holds the Iron Throne.",
"Aegon commissioned the throne's construction from the swords of his defeated enemies.",
"According to legend, he kept the blades sharp because he believed that no ruler should ever sit comfortably.",
"Centuries later, kings still cut themselves on the throne.",
"It is a common belief that one who cuts himself on the throne has been \"rejected\" by the throne and is therefore not fit to rule.The city also holds the Great Sept of Baelor, where the Most Devout convene with the High Septon.",
"It is the holiest sept of the Seven.",
"The slums of King's Landing are called Flea Bottom, where residents are so poor they regularly subsist on \"bowls of brown\", a mystery stew that can include the meat of puppies and murder victims.",
"King’s Landing has a temperate, mediterranean climate with long, warm, sunny summers and mild winters although snow does occasionally occur.Martin compared King's Landing to medieval Paris or London.",
"It was inspired by the view of Staten Island from his childhood home in Bayonne, New Jersey.The first season of the TV adaptation used Malta's former capital Mdina to represent King's Landing.",
"\"Like King's Landing, Mdina is a walled medieval city built upon a hill, but unlike King's Landing, Mdina is an inland city so the production was limited to interior shots such as side streets and the town gate, which can be seen when Ned Stark arrives.",
"Nearby Fort Manoel doubled as the great Sept of Baelor,\" which can be seen when Ned Stark is executed.",
"Various other locations around Malta represent the Red Keep, \"including the real-life residence of the president of Malta, San Anton Palace.",
"The gates of Fort Ricasoli doubled as the Red Keep's gates; Fort St. Angelo was used for the scenes of Arya Stark chasing cats; and St. Dominic monastery stood in for the scene where Ned Stark confronts Cersei Lannister in the godswood.",
"\"\"In season two, filming for King's Landing and the Red Keep shifted from Malta to the historic parts of Dubrovnik and the Minčeta, Bokar, and Lovrijenac fortresses in Croatia, which allowed for more exterior shots of an authentic walled medieval city.\"",
"Parts of Season three were filmed there, too, as well as in nearby Trsteno.",
"\"Known as ''the Pearl of the Adriatic'', the city proved to share many characteristics with the fictional capital: it had a well-preserved medieval look, with high walls and the sea at its side.",
"According to David Benioff, executive producer of the show, \"King's Landing might be the single most important location in the entire show, and it has to look right\", and \"The minute we started walking around the city walls we knew that was it.",
"You read the descriptions in the book and you come to Dubrovnik and that's what the actual city is.",
"It has the sparkling sea, sun and beautiful architecture.\"",
"Co-Executive Producer D.B.",
"Weiss added \"To find a full-on, immaculately preserved medieval walled city that actually looks uncannily like King's Landing where the bulk of our show is set, that was in and of itself such an amazing find\".",
"The Tourney of the Hand in season 1 was filmed in Shane's Castle, Northern Ireland.The Red Keep interior are filmed at Belfast's studio The Paint Hall.",
"Set designer Gemma Jackson said, \"When I was thinking about King's Landing, the whole red aspect of it, that immediately made me think of Rajasthan.",
"The floor at King's Landing was from the Pantheon in Rome.\"",
"Martin said that \"Our throne room is a spectacular throne room – we actually redressed a throne room built for another film.",
"And again, it occupied a quarter of the Paint Hall, so it's very big, but in my mind in the books, it's Westminster Abbey, it's St. Paul's Cathedral.",
"\"===Dorne===Castle of Zafra in Guadalajara, Spain, which portrayed the Tower of Joy in Dorne in ''Game of Thrones''Dorne is the southernmost and least populated land of Westeros.",
"The capital, Sunspear, is the seat of the ruling House Martell.",
"As of the first five books, Doran Nymeros Martell is the Prince of Dorne and Lord of Sunspear.",
"Doran's sister, Princess Elia, was married in a political alliance to Prince Rhaegar Targaryen, the Prince of Dragonstone and heir to the Iron Throne.",
"They had two children, a daughter, Rhaenys, and a son, Aegon.",
"During the Sack of King's Landing at the end of Robert's Rebellion, Princess Elia was raped and murdered by Gregor Clegane, a House Lannister bannerman (vassal).",
"Her children were also killed in front of her.",
"Prince Doran and his wife, Princess Mellaria, have three children, Arianne, Quentyn and Trystane.",
"During the War of the Five Kings, Tyrion Lannister, as Hand of the King, turns the historical enmity of House Martell and Dorne into an alliance by sending King Joffrey's middle sibling and sister, Myrcella Baratheon, as the betrothed future bride to Trystane, the youngest child of Prince Doran, who is about her own age.",
"The eldest child of Prince Doran, Arianne, is heir to House Martell, Sunspear and the rule of Dorne.",
"The wealth of Dorne comes from their famous Sand Steeds, purebred horses of endurance, speed, and grace, and from spices, wines, fishing, fabrics, and textiles.Dorne is bordered by the Sea of Dorne to the north, the islands known as the Stepstones to the east, and stretches from the high mountains of the Dornish marches, the Red Mountains, separating Dorne from the remainder of the Seven Kingdoms by land.",
"The two major passes through the Red Mountains that connect Dorne with the rest of the continent are the Stone Way Pass and the Prince's Pass.",
"The Prince's Pass leads to the Reach, while the Stone Way exits the mountains near Summerhall.",
"The southern coast of the continent is bordered by the Summer Sea.",
"Described as tropical in climate by George R. R. Martin, Dorne has the highest temperatures of any kingdom in Westeros, and is arid, with a rocky, mountainous, terrain that includes the only desert on the continent.",
"Its rivers provide some fertile lands and during a long summer there is enough rain and other supplies of water to keep Dorne habitable.",
"Inland water is almost as valuable as gold, and wells are jealously guarded.",
"Notable locations of Dorne are Starfall, the seat of House Dayne, and Yronwood, the seat of House Yronwood, the most powerful of the Martell bannermen.",
"Planky Town is a trade port town at the mouth of the River Greenblood.Dornishmen have a reputation for hot-bloodedness.",
"They differ both culturally and ethnically from other Westerosi due to the historical mass immigration of Rhoynish people.",
"They have adopted many Rhoynish customs as well, including equal primogeniture.",
"Dorne was the only kingdom in Westeros to successfully resist Aegon's conquest, even killing one of his dragons during the war.",
"It was conquered by Daeron I over a century after the Targaryen invasion, but rose against him leading to his death.",
"Finally under Daeron's cousin Daeron II they joined through marriage.",
"This accomplishment has allowed Dorne to retain a measure of independence.",
"Lords of the ruling House Martell still style themselves \"Prince\" and \"Princess\" in the Rhoynish fashion.",
"Unlike most of the rest of Westeros, illegitimate children born in Dorne are treated nearly the same as legal offspring and given the surname Sand, as with Westerosi customs to give bastards a surname showing their origins.According to ''A Storm of Swords'', \"There were three sorts of Dornishmen ....",
"There were the salty Dornishmen who lived along the coasts, the sandy Dornishmen of the deserts and long river valleys, and the stony Dornishmen who made their fastnesses in the passes and heights of the Red Mountains.",
"The salty Dornishmen had the most Rhoynish blood, the stony Dornishmen the least.",
"All three sorts seemed well represented in Doran’s retinue.",
"The salty Dornishmen were lithe and dark, with smooth olive skin and long black hair streaming in the wind.",
"The sandy Dornishmen were even darker, their faces burned brown by the hot Dornish sun.",
"They wound long bright scarfs around their helms to ward off sunstroke.",
"The stony Dornishmen were biggest and fairest, sons of the Andals and the First Men, brownhaired or blond, with faces that freckled or burned in the sun instead of browning.",
"\"In the show, Dornish scenes were filmed in the Alcázar of Seville, Seville, Spain."
],
[
"Summer Sea",
"=== Basilisk Isles ===East of Naath, the Basilisk Isles have been a festering sore of the Summer Sea, and a safe haven for pirates, slavers, sellswords, and outlaws.",
"Ruins have been found on the Isle of Tears, the Isle of Toads, and Ax Island.",
"The Isle of Tears is the largest island, with steep valleys and black bogs.",
"It was conquered by the Ghiscari and it was called Gorgai for two centuries, until the dragonlords of Valyria captured it and renamed it Gorgossos.",
"It was used as a prison by the Freehold, a place where they sent their most despicable criminals.=== Naath ===Naath, also known as the Isle of Butterflies, is an island off the north-west coast of Sothoryos that lies west of the Basilisk Isles.",
"The Naathi people have dark skin and golden eyes.",
"They practice extreme pacifism, making music instead of war and refusing to eat meat, only fruit.",
"This makes them especially vulnerable to slavers from Essos.",
"Daenerys' interpreter Missandei is from Naath.=== Summer Islands ===As indicated on a map in ''A Storm of Swords'', the Summer Islands are a group of tropical islands situated to the south of Westeros, with a local fauna of talking birds, apes, and monkeys.",
"The novels describe the island natives as dark-skinned people who speak their own language.",
"They wear colored feathery clothes and live on fruit and fish.",
"From their port city named Tall Trees Town, the Summer Isles export rare goods to Westeros such as wine, spices, feathers, but also a special kind of wood from which bows are made that have a longer range than most others.",
"People of the Seven Kingdoms call the Summer Islanders' great vessels ''swan ships'', \"for their billowing white sails and for their figureheads, most of which depicted birds\".",
"Samwell Tarly, who spends two chapters in ''A Feast for Crows'' aboard a swan ship, describes the Summer Islander women as wanton, and their gods as strange; they \"revered the elderly and celebrated their dead\" through sexual intercourse.",
"As a prostitute explains to Tyrion in ''A Clash of Kings'', the Summer Islanders regard their sexuality as the gods' gift to worship them through mating, and hence many of their highborn youths and maidens serve in pleasure houses for a few years to honor the gods."
],
[
"Essos",
"Part of the narrative in ''A Song of Ice and Fire'' lies across the Narrow Sea from Westeros, an area comprising the large eastern continent named Essos.",
"Being roughly the size of Eurasia, Essos has geography and climate that vary greatly.",
"The western coastline is characterized by green rolling hills, the massive Forest of Qohor, and extensive island chains such as Braavos and Lys.",
"The middle of the continent is covered by the flat grasslands of the Dothraki Sea and the arid lands known as the Red Waste to the east.",
"Beyond the Red Waste lies the city of Qarth.",
"The south is dominated by dry rolling hills and has a Mediterranean climate, with a coastline along the Summer Sea and Slaver's Bay.",
"The north coast of the mainland is separated from the polar cap by the Shivering Sea.",
"To the south, across the Summer Sea, lies the uncharted jungle continent of Sothoryos.Much of the fictional history of Essos relates to Valyria, a city located on a peninsula in southern Essos and the origin of House Targaryen before the destruction of the Valyrian Empire in an unspecified cataclysm.",
"After the destruction of Valyria, the cities of Astapor, Yunkai, and Meereen regained independence and ruled their respective areas as city-states.",
"The area is known in the books as Slaver's Bay.===Free Cities and vicinity ===Across the Narrow sea on the western side of Essos lie the nine Free Cities, independent city-states that are mostly on islands or along the coast.",
"They are Lys, Myr, Pentos, Braavos, Lorath, Norvos, Qohor, Volantis and Tyrosh.",
"Although most Free Cities are named early in the first novel, the books only provide a map of this region in ''A Dance with Dragons''.",
"Mountains to the east separate the coast from the plains of the Dothraki Sea, though gaps in the mountain range provide the Dothraki people some access to the Free Cities.",
"The Free Cities were colonies built by the ancient Valyrian Freehold, and later declared independence after the Doom of Valyria.",
"An exception to this is Braavos, which was founded by refugees fleeing Valyrian expansion, escaped slaves and other rabble.",
"The languages of the Free Cities are derivatives of High Valyrian.The Free Cities span an area characterized by the river Rhoyne, which the local character Yandry describes as \"the greatest river in the world\".",
"Its banks are the homeland of the Rhoynar, who worship the river as \"Mother Rhoyne\".",
"As mapped in ''A Dance with Dragons'', the Rhoyne originates from the conjunction of two of its tributaries, the Upper Rhoyne and the Little Rhoyne, southeast of the ruins of Ghoyan Drohe.",
"The headwaters of the Upper Rhoyne lie in Andalos, the homeland of the Andals between Braavos and Pentos.",
"The Rhoyne's course runs southeast to turn due south after Dagger Lake, where river pirates hide on and around the many lake islands.",
"The Rhoyne gains in width considerably as it gets fed by more tributaries, until it opens into the Summer Sea in a delta near the Free City of Volantis.====Braavos====Unique among the Free Cities, Braavos was not a Valyrian colony, but a secret refuge from Valyrian expansion.",
"It is a city spread over hundreds of tiny islands in a lagoon on the northwestern end of Essos, where the Narrow Sea and Shivering Sea meet.",
"Braavos is home to the 'Iron Bank', one of the wealthiest banks in the known world.",
"Braavos is also known for its swordsmen known as 'bravos', and its mysterious assassins, the Faceless Men.",
"It is also famed for the Titan of Braavos, both a fortress and a statue.",
"The ruler of Braavos is known as the Sealord and it is from the sea that the city's power and wealth flows.",
"The hulls of Braavosi ships are painted purple and their merchant ships sail to many distant lands and bring their trade and wealth back home.",
"Braavos has many moneylenders and the Iron Bank of Braavos lends money to foreign nations, especially The Crown, which has borrowed millions.Braavosi dress in flashy colors while the very rich and powerful dress in black and in blues that are almost black.",
"Officials of Braavos, called keyholders and justiciars, wear drab coats of brown or grey.",
"The city is also renowned worldwide for its courtesans.",
"Every courtesan has her own barge and servants to work them.",
"The beauty of famed courtesans has inspired many a song.",
"They are showered with gifts from goldsmiths and craftsmen beg for their custom.",
"Nobility and rich merchants pay the courtesans large amounts of money to appear alongside them at events, and bravos are known to kill each other in their names.",
"The character Syrio Forel, former first sword of the Sealord of Braavos, introduces Arya Stark to a unique form of Braavosi sword fighting, called Water Dancing.",
"The style is a refined form of fencing in which the practitioner stands sideways and wields a slender blade.",
"Pugnacious bravos fill the city, frequently dueling to display their skill.Braavos was inspired by Venice, Italy.",
"It was filmed in Croatian towns of Šibenik, and Kaštel Gomilica In the TV series, locations used as Braavos included the Croatian town of Šibenik and the Spanish town of Girona.====Pentos====The TV series filmed Illyrio's mansion in Pentos at Verdala Palace in Malta.Pentos is a major trading port on a bay of the western coast.",
"Dominated by an architecture of square brick towers, it is headed by a Prince who is chosen by the de facto rulers of the city, known as Magisters.",
"Khalasars occasionally make their way this far from the Dothraki Sea, but the Pentoshi are spared much of the raiding and invasions by paying tribute to their khals.",
"Men from Pentos wear dyed and forked beards.",
"As in many Free Cities, slavery is outlawed, but the wealthy and powerful members of the city have the ability to flout these laws by keeping servants collared in bronze.In the television adaptation, Daenerys's scenes in the pilot episode were filmed in Morocco.",
"The production redressed and repainted the Jerusalem sets of ''Kingdom of Heaven'' near Ouarzazate, Morocco, to serve as the courtyard of Illyrio's mansion where Daenerys first meets Khal Drogo.",
"When the pilot was delivered, HBO scrapped all of the footage shot in Morocco, and the Pentos scenes were re-shot in Malta.",
"The exterior scenes at Illyrio's mansion in Pentos were shot at Verdala Palace, the 16th century summer palace of the president of Malta.",
"The Azure Window, on the island of Gozo in Malta, was used for the location of Daenerys's wedding to Khal Drogo.When Pentos reappeared in Season 5, it was filmed in Croatia.====Volantis====Volantis is a port on the southern coast of Essos, and is the oldest and proudest of the Free Cities.",
"A fortification known as the Black Wall protects the oldest parts of the city.",
"The city is ruled by three triarchs, who are elected every year by free landholders of Volantis, and defended by slave soldiers called the \"Tiger cloaks\".",
"Volantis is incredibly important to the slave market, and in the city there are five slaves to every free man.",
"All Volantene slaves have facial tattoos denoting their profession: for instance, sex slaves have tears tattooed on their faces, and the tiger cloaks have tiger stripes.",
"The worship of R'hllor is the most influential religion of Volantis, especially among slaves.The TV adaptation used locations in Córdoba, Spain.====Other Free Cities ====* '''Lorath''' is a port city on a group of northern islands.",
"The character Jaqen H'ghar poses as a Lorathi in ''A Clash of Kings'', wearing long hair dyed red on one side and white on the other.",
"* '''Lys''' sits astride a series of southern islands.",
"The Lysene have a tendency to be tall and fair of skin and eyes, unlike most inhabitants of the Free Cities.",
"Lys is well known for its pleasure houses, training slaves in the arts of love and selling them as concubines and bed-slaves.",
"Lys also frequently fights over control of the Stepstones and the Disputed Lands.",
"There appears to be a love goddess whose worship is peculiar to Lys.",
"Dany's handmaiden Doreah and the pirate Salladhor Saan are Lysene.",
"* '''Myr''' is a coastal city renowned for their master lenscrafters, intricate lace, and fine carpets.",
"The dark eyed and dark skinned Myrmen are similar to Norvosi and Pentoshi in that they are ruled by magisters that are known to pay tribute to passing Dothraki khalasars.",
"Myr is a hub of trade in both slaves and their signature green nectar wines.",
"Myr frequently fights over control of the Disputed Lands.",
"* '''Norvos''' sits on the main continent in two parts, one atop a high hill and the other beside a low river.",
"The city has three large bells, each with its own name and distinctive voice, that are rung frequently.",
"The surrounding area is a land of rolling hills, terraced farms, and white-stucco villages.",
"The climate is fairly mild.",
"Norvosi can be recognized by their dyed and upswept mustaches.",
"The city is run by a council of magisters that are known to pay tribute to passing Dothraki khalasars.",
"It is also home to a group of bearded priests that train elite guardsmen.",
"These guardsmen swear oaths of duty and consider themselves wedded to their distinctive long axes.",
"* '''Qohor''' is situated on the main continent, in the vast Forest of Qohor.",
"It is known for its fine tapestries and its smiths, who have the rare ability to reforge Valyrian steel, even directly infusing the metal with a variety of different colors.",
"The Black Goat is a prominent god in the city.",
"Qohor's city guard has been composed solely of Unsullied eunuch slave soldiers ever since the Battle of the Three Thousand, when 3,000 Unsullied soldiers successfully defended the city against over 25,000 Dothraki horsemen.",
"Guardsmen tie braids of human hair to their spears to commemorate the Dothraki cutting their braids in salute to Qohor's defenders.",
"* '''Tyrosh''', a coastal city-state ruled by an Archon, is infamous for its avarice.",
"Traders deal extensively in slaves and Tyroshi pear brandy.",
"The city features an abundance of pleasure houses, but they are not as highly regarded as those in Lys.",
"Tyroshi master armorsmiths make intricate armor in fantastic shapes.",
"Tyrosh is a popular center for the hiring of sellswords.",
"The city is often drawn into the ongoing conflicts over the Disputed Lands and the Stepstones.",
"The Tyroshi often wear forked beards and pointed mustaches dyed in bright colors.",
"The character Daario Naharis is from Tyrosh.===Central Essos===This section covers the Essos locations east of the Free Cities that Daenerys Targaryen passes through on her travels in ''A Game of Thrones'' and ''A Clash of Kings'' before moving on to Slaver's Bay.====Valyria====Valyria is a peninsula in South-Central Essos, west of Slaver's Bay.",
"Before the Doom of Valyria, it was the seat of the Valyrian Freehold, a massive empire thousands of years old.",
"The Valyrians are characterized by their silver hair and violet eyes.",
"Valyria was called the Freehold because every man who owned land was allowed to vote for their leaders.",
"The Valyrians also used slaves to mine the Fourteen Flames, a series of volcanoes rich with ore.",
"They subjugated the Ghiscari and the Rhoynar and established all of the Free Cities, save Braavos.",
"They did this through their knowledge of dragonlore.",
"Twoscore noble dynasties, known as dragonlords, rode and controlled dragons.",
"Eventually, an event known as the Doom of Valyria, apparently involving a violent eruption of the Fourteen Flames, destroyed the Freehold and made Valyria an archipelago in the newly-formed Smoking Sea.",
"The Targaryens are descendants of Old Valyria who escaped after Daenys the Dreamers' dream foretold of the eruption.",
"The other noble families of Valyria mocked them, believing Daenys to be mad.",
"Her father, Aenar Targaryen, believed her and successfully relocated the family to Dragonstone, an island on the east coast of Westeros, making them the only surviving dragonlords after the Doom.====Dothraki Sea ====The Dothraki Sea is a vast, flat grassland on Essos.",
"It is inhabited by the Dothraki people, a copper-skinned race of warlike nomads with their own language and unique culture.",
"The Dothraki live in hordes called khalasars, each led by a chief called a khal.",
"Khalasars are broken into groups, called khas, which are each led by one of the khal's captains, called kos.",
"Each khal and his khalasar owe fealty to a ruling council of royal priestesses, called the dosh khaleen, whose members are each a former khal's consort, called a khaleesi during the reign of her husband, one who became part of the dosh khaleen following his death.Dothraki are expert riders and their horses are of prime importance in their culture, used for food, transportation, raw materials, warfare, and establishing social standing.",
"They regularly raid other peoples.George R. R. Martin said \"The Dothraki were actually fashioned as an amalgam of a number of steppe and plains cultures ... Mongols and Huns, certainly, but also Alans, Sioux, Cheyenne, and various other Amerindian tribes ... seasoned with a dash of pure fantasy.",
"So any resemblance to Arabs or Turks is coincidental.",
"Well, except to the extent that the Turkic peoples|historic Turks were also originally horsemen of the steppes, not unlike the Alans, Huns, and the rest.\"",
"He also noted that \"In general, though, while I do draw inspiration from history, I try to avoid direct one-for-one transplants, so it would not be correct to say that the Dothraki are Mongols.\"",
"There are several similarities with another fearsome, nomadic warriors – the Scythians.The Dothraki have only one permanent city, called Vaes Dothrak, which serves as their capital.",
"The Dosh Khaleen hold the city as their seat.",
"It is filled with statues stolen from other cities the Dothraki conquered or raided.",
"There is a law that no Dothraki may shed blood within the boundaries of Vaes Dothrak and that those who do are cursed.",
"Two gigantic bronze stallions, whose hooves meet midair, form an arch above the entryway to the city.",
"For the first season of the TV adaptation, Sandy Brae in the Mourne Mountains of Northern Ireland was chosen to stand in for Vaes Dothrak.",
"The bronze stallions making up the Horse Gate as the main entrance of Vaes Dothrak, were later added using CGI on two pedestals erected on location.====Lhazar====Lhazar is an area of the semi-arid lands south of the Dothraki Sea.",
"A region of pastures and hills, it is inhabited by the Lhazareen, a peaceful people with bronze skin, flat faces, and almond eyes.",
"They are predominantly shepherds, called the Lamb Men by the Dothraki, who frequently prey on them.",
"They worship a god called the Great Shepherd and believe that all of humanity is part of a single flock.",
"The scenes at the village of the Lamb Men that is sacked by the Dothraki were filmed in Malta, at the farming town of Manikata.===Slaver's Bay ===Slaver's Bay is a marginal sea of the Summer Sea, lying to the south of the Dothraki Sea, to the west of Lhazar and thousands of leagues to the east of the Free Cities.",
"The climate is very hot.",
"After a first mention in ''A Game of Thrones'' in relation to slavery, Daenerys Targaryen conquers the three great Slaver's Bay port city-states Astapor, Yunkai, and Meereen in ''A Storm of Swords''.",
"She stays in Meereen throughout most of ''A Dance with Dragons''.The cities were built from the rubble of Old Ghis, an ancient rival of Valyria that was crushed by Valyria thousands of years before the series' events.",
"The economies of the cities are largely based on slave labor and the slave trade.",
"Treatment of slaves is often harsh, while citizens live in relative luxury.",
"Professional soldiers of all three cities wear outlandish costumes and hairstyles that limit their usefulness in battle.",
"The cities' militaries are highly dependent on additional slave and mercenary armies for the actual fighting.Present inhabitants of the bay are a mixed race that no longer speak the old Ghiscari tongue but variations of High Valyrian with a characteristic growl.",
"The ancient folk of Ghis, who name themselves the harpy's sons in Astapor, are said to have bristly red-black hair.",
"The Good Masters of Astapor all appear alike to Daenerys as \"thick fleshy men with amber skin, broad noses, dark eyes.",
"Their wiry hair was black or a dark red, or that queer mixture of red and black that was peculiar to Ghiscari\".",
"Only the freeborn men of Astapor are permitted to wear garments called tokars, whose fringes display their status.",
"Many Astapori women veil their face for the dust.",
"The Astapori are drenched in sweet perfumes.====Astapor====Astapor lies on the banks of the Worm River, a wide, slow, and crooked stream with wooded islands.",
"Entering Astapor at the beginning of ''A Storm of Swords'', Daenerys experiences it as an ancient and dilapidated city that has long passed its glory days.",
"The city is dominated by its red brick architecture, and Arstan Whitebeard explains to Daenerys that the saying \"Brick and blood built Astapor, ... and brick and blood her people\" refers to the slaves who make the bricks.",
"Astapor's stepped pyramids, its fighting pits, streets, the surrounding walls and the Plaza of Pride are all made of red bricks.",
"The so-called Plaza of Punishment at Astapor's main gates is even larger than the Plaza of Pride.The Plaza of Pride, which has a red-brick fountain and a huge bronze harpy statue in its center, serves as an open air slave market and a marshaling area for the Unsullied, elite eunuch spearmen known for discipline and effectiveness.",
"Astapor is the only city to sell Unsullied, but also sells bed slaves, fieldhands, scribes, craftsmen, and tutors.",
"The Unsullied require a huge investment in both time and money by the Astapori who raise and train them, but they earn the most profitable of returns for the Good Masters of Astapor.",
"The Unsullied wear spiked bronze hats, and they obey at all costs, even if it demands their death.",
"They are given new slave names each day to be reminded of their worthlessness.",
"In times of attack, unsold Unsullied are deployed to the massive, crumbling red-brick walls that the Astapori no longer man.Daenerys decides to buy all of Astapor's trained and untrained Unsullied, over 8600 in number, and tells them to kill all adult Astapori slavers and soldiers when she leaves the city.",
"She gives the power over Astapor to a council of former slaves led by a healer, a scholar and a priest, and tens of thousands of former slaves join her on her travels to Yunkai.",
"A former butcher named Cleon fends off a scheme to have the Good Masters re-established, and was crowned as the King of Astapor in reward.The TV show used the coastal town of Essaouira, Morocco to film scenes in Astapor.====Yunkai====The smallest of the three cities, Yunkai, like Meereen, does not trade in Unsullied but is known for its fighting pits and its pleasure houses, both of which turn out slaves at a brisk pace.",
"The city is similar to Astapor in architecture except for its smaller size and its use of yellow brick in its buildings instead of red.",
"The slavers of Yunkai are known as the Wise Masters.",
"Because of the city's lack of Unsullied, it relies on a mixed professional and slave army of approximately 4,000 with at least 1,000 mercenaries.",
"Typical for Ghiscari, Yunkai soldiers wear impractical armor and oiled hair teased into enormous shapes, limiting their effectiveness.Yunkish scenes were filmed in Aït Benhaddou, Morocco in the TV show.====Meereen====The largest of the three slaver cities, Meereen has a population equaling that of Astapor and Yunkai combined.",
"The city has architecture similar to that of its neighbors, but it is made of bricks of many colors.",
"Its landscape is dominated by a massive pyramid, named the Great Pyramid, and the Temple of Graces, which is capped by a golden dome.",
"Meereen is unique among the Ghiscari cities in that it is filled with many temples and pyramids.",
"The slavers of Meereen are known as the Great Masters.",
"It is built on the banks of the river Skahadhazan.For the HBO television series, many of the scenes in Meereen were filmed in Split and the Fortress of Klis, Croatia.",
"In Season 5, Daznak's Pit in the city was shot in the Plaza de Toros in Osuna, Spain.=== Eastern Essos =======Red Waste ====The Red Waste is a great desert-like area in the eastern part of Essos.",
"Not much is known about it, since it was only briefly seen in ''A Clash of Kings'' when Daenerys Targaryen and her ''khalasar'' crossed it.",
"The only known settlement in the region, Vaes Tolorro, is in ruins.====Qarth====First mentioned in ''A Game of Thrones'', the city of Qarth has not yet appeared on any maps in the books.",
"However, the HBO ''Viewer's Guide'' world map and the opening titles of the TV series' second season show Qarth located at a strait between the Summer Sea and the Jade Sea in the south-east of Essos.",
"Upon Daenerys' first visit to Qarth in ''A Clash of Kings'', the warlock Pyat Pree describes his city as the center of the world and as a gateway of commerce and culture between the east and west, and the north and south.",
"The reader learns through Daenerys's eyes that the city is surrounded by three graded walls of thirty to fifty feet in height, respectively engraved with portraits of animals, war, and lovemaking.",
"The city's buildings are of many colors, including rose, violet, and umber.",
"Slender towers rise throughout the city, fountains adorn every square, and thousands of colored birds, blooming trees and flowers fill the city.",
"The TV adaptation filmed Qarth on the island of Lokrum near Dubrovnik and constructed a set at the Dubac quarry in Croatia to double for the gates of Qarth.The Qartheen are described as \"tall pale folk in linen and samite and tiger fur\", with the women wearing gowns that leave one breast bare, while the men sport beaded silk skirts.",
"Daenerys perceives them as \"nothing if not polite\".",
"Slaves serve their needs.",
"The Pureborn, descendants of the city's ancient kings and queens, govern Qarth and also command the city's defenses.",
"Three principal merchant groups battle amongst themselves and against the Pureborn for dominance of the city: the Thirteen, the Ancient Guild of Spicers, and the Tourmaline Brotherhood.",
"Qarth's warlocks, whose lips are turned blue from a potion called \"the shade of the evening\", are said to brood over these factions; they are still feared although their power and prestige have waned over the years.",
"Qarth is also home to the Sorrowful Men, a guild of assassins named so for whispering \"I am so sorry,\" before killing their victims.",
"Daenerys leaves Qarth again at the end of ''A Clash of Kings''.=== Unvisited lands =======Asshai and the Shadow Lands ====Asshai and the Shadow Lands are mysterious locations in the ''Ice and Fire'' world.",
"They are first mentioned in ''A Game of Thrones'' and were first mapped in ''The Lands of Ice and Fire'', lying on the far east of the known world.",
"Martin is unsure if the books will ever take the readers to Asshai, but said that readers may learn more through the POV character Melisandre (who originates from Asshai) or through the memories and mentions of other characters.",
"Jorah Mormont describes Asshai as a port city far to the south of the Dothraki sea, at the end of the known world.",
"Asshai exports such goods as black amethysts, amber, and dragonglass.",
"At another time, Jorah Mormont tells Daenerys of great kingdoms to the east of the Red Waste, and lists Asshai by the Shadow as one of the cities full of wonders there.",
"According to Martin, all ship travels between Westeros and Asshai go via the Summer Sea and the Jade Sea through the straits at Qarth, and that the common folk still believe the world to be flat.",
"However, according to Martin, \"Asshai is not nearly important to trade as Yi Ti, and the rich port cities of Yi Ti (and Leng) and more easily reached via Qarth.\"",
"Quaithe of the Shadow prophesies Daenerys in Qarth that \"To go north, you must journey south.",
"To reach the west, you must go east ... and to touch the light you must pass beneath the shadow.\"",
"When Daenerys interprets this to mean she must go to Asshai, Quaithe says she would find the truth there.There are many tales about the Shadow Lands, though how much truth they hold is unclear.",
"The Dothraki believe that ghost grass covers the Shadow Lands, with stalks that glow in the dark and grow taller than a man on horseback.",
"Daenerys heard that \"spellsingers, warlocks, and aeromancers practiced their arts openly in Asshai, while shadowbinders and bloodmages worked terrible sorceries in the black of night\".",
"There are also Westerosi maesters in Asshai.",
"The mages of Asshai teach others their healing powers, but also their spells requiring blood sacrifice.",
"Ancient books of Asshai record the Azor Ahai prophecy followed by members of the R'hllor faith.",
"Daenerys heard that dragons themselves originated from the Shadow Lands beyond Asshai and the islands of the Jade Sea, and they possibly still live there.",
"Bran dreams of flying Dragons in Asshai.",
"The petrified dragon eggs Illyrio gives to Daenerys are said to come from the Shadow Lands.",
"The \"dour and frightening\" Shadow Men cover their bodies in tattoos and wear lacquered wooden masks, and the appearance of the Asshai'i is described as dark and solemn.",
"The Dothraki believe the Asshai'i to be the spawn of shadows.",
"The Asshai'i have a language of their own.====Ibben====Ibben is a collection of islands north of Essos in the Bay of Whales.",
"The largest of these islands is Ib, which contains the cities Port of Ibben and Ib Nor.",
"Until the Doom of Valyria, Ibben was ruled by a God-King.",
"Now power is held by the Shadow Council, which is made up of nobles, priests, and wealthy guildsmen.",
"Ibben is first mentioned in ''A Game of Thrones'', where Tyrion talks of rumors that mammoths \"roam the cold wastes beyond the Port of Ibben\".",
"In 2002, Martin said the narrative would \"probably not\" take readers to Ibben, which he described as a \"cold, mountainous, Iceland-sized island\" (i.e.",
"40,000 square miles) in the Shivering Sea, with the Port of Ibben as the major city; some Ibbenese also live on smaller islands nearby or in colonies on Essos.",
"Ibben is unmapped in the books as of ''A Dance with Dragons'', but similar to Martin's descriptions, the HBO ''Viewer's Guide'' world map gives the island's location as to the north-east of Essos.",
"Martin said that due to a large whale population in the Shivering sea, many of the Ibbenses were whalers.",
"The Ibbenses are known to chew whale blubber in order to maintain their metabolism in the cold climate.",
"Several characters see Ibbenese whalers and cogs at the ports of King's Landing, Braavos, Maidenpool, Eastwatch-by-the-Sea, and the Iron Islands.",
"The novels describe the people of Ibben as squat and hairy; Arya even meets an Ibbenese woman with a mustache.",
"Tyrion and Varys meet foul-smelling Ibbenese, who \"were as fond of axes as they were of each other\".",
"Arya sees \"a dark brutal axeman from Ib\" in her dreams.",
"The Ibbenese are said to speak with low, raspy voices and to have their own language.====Yi Ti ====The novels repeatedly describe Yi Ti as an empire with cities full of wonder, lying in the far east.",
"As of ''A Dance with Dragons'', Yi Ti has not appeared on any maps in the books, but Martin specified that \"Yi Ti is to the south east of Qarth, generally, across the Jade Sea.\"",
"The empire is first mentioned in ''A Game of Thrones'', talking of rumors that \"basilisks infested the jungles of Yi Ti\".",
"Sailor stories presented in ''A Feast for Crows'' mention that a grey plague has hit Yi Ti.",
"The god of the people of Yi Ti is called the Lion of Night.",
"Daenerys sees people of Yi Ti as bright-eyed men in monkey-tail hats in the markets of Vaes Dothrak.",
"Yi Ti has more cities than any other land in the known world, and according to Lomas Longstrider they are much larger and more splendid than cities in the west.",
"According to Colloquo Votar there are three older cities buried beneath every YiTish city.",
"The capital of the Golden Empire of Yi Ti is Yin, along the Jade Sea.",
"Martin is unsure \"to what extent those peoples like of Yi Ti will ever enter this present story, however... their lands are very far away.",
"\"====Plains of Jogos Nhai====North of Yi Ti, the Plains of Jogos Nhai are windswept, with rolling hills.",
"They are dominated by a race of mounted warriors called the Jogos Nhai.",
"The Jogos Nhai live in yurts and tents, and are a nomadic people.",
"They are short, squat, and have large heads and small faces.",
"Men and women both have pointed skulls, a result of their custom of binding the heads of newborns.",
"They also ride zorses, a striped mount that can withstand much more than average horse.",
"The Jogos Nhai do not fight among themselves and live in small clans bound by blood.",
"They live in a state of perpetual war with outsiders and had been raiding many YiTish cities and have reduced around a hundred towns to ruin.",
"Each tribe is commanded by a ''jhat'', or war chief, and a moonsinger, who is a priestess, healer, and judge.",
"Moonsingers are generally female, and ''jhats'' are mostly male.",
"(Paraphrased from ''The World of Ice and Fire)''"
],
[
"Sothoryos {{anchor|Sothoryos|Sothoros|Sothyros}}",
"To the south of Essos is the continent of Sothoryos (mistakenly spelled Sothoros in early novels).",
"Sothoryos is the third continent of the known world, and is vast, plague-ridden, covered in jungles, and largely unexplored.",
"It is reported to be as large as Essos and described as a \"land without end\" by Jaenara Belaerys, a Valyrian dragonlord from before the Doom of Valyria.The continent is first named on a map in ''A Storm of Swords'' (2000), showing the cities of Yeen and Zamettar on it.",
"The narrative itself first refers to the continent in ''A Feast for Crows'' (2005).",
"Martin had described Sothoryos in 2002 as \"the southern continent, roughly equivalent to Africa, jungly, plague-ridden, and largely unexplored.\"",
"The novels provide little other information.",
"The swampy nature of Sothoryos is briefly referenced by Victarion in ''A Dance with Dragons'', and teak from Sothoryos is said to be used to build ships.",
"A corsair's road runs along the continent's northern coast.",
"''A Dance with Dragons'' refers to the diseases on Sothoryos in regards to the wealthy but sick Yunkai slave trader Yezzan zo Qaggaz.",
"Victarion describes some people as \"squat and hairy as the apes of Sothoros\", and some people fighting in Daznak's Pit for Daenerys's entertainment in ''A Dance with Dragons'' are described as \"brindle-skinned half-men from the jungles of Sothoros\".",
"Martin said that, unlike other peoples in the novels, the brindled men of Sothoryos were pure fantasy constructs."
],
[
"Ulthos {{anchor|Ulthos}}",
"The map collection ''The Lands of Ice and Fire'' also shows the north tip of a landmass named \"Ulthos\" to the south of Essos and east of Sothoryos.",
"Asked whether this was another continent, Martin replied, \"Well, it's a large landmass.",
"I am a little unclear on the formal definition of 'continent' as opposed to 'big island.'",
"Also on the size of Ulthos, which after all sits at the edge of the known world.",
"Terra incognita and all that.\""
],
[
"References",
"===Secondary sources======Primary sources======Bibliography===* * * * * * * *"
],
[
"External links",
"* Wiki of Ice and Fire, Geography"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Grandmaster (chess)"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Grandmaster''' ('''GM''') is a title awarded to chess players by the world chess organization FIDE.",
"Apart from World Champion, Grandmaster is the highest title a chess player can attain.",
"Once achieved, the title is held for life, though exceptionally the title can be revoked for cheating.The title of Grandmaster, along with the lesser FIDE titles of International Master (IM), FIDE Master (FM), and Candidate Master (CM), is open to all players regardless of gender.",
"The great majority of grandmasters are men, but 41 women have been awarded the GM title as of 2024, out of a total of about 2000 grandmasters.",
"There is also a Woman Grandmaster title with lower requirements awarded only to women.There are also Grandmaster titles for composers and solvers of chess problems, awarded by the World Federation for Chess Composition (see List of grandmasters for chess composition).",
"The International Correspondence Chess Federation (ICCF) awards the title of International Correspondence Chess Grandmaster (ICCGM).",
"Both of these bodies are now independent of FIDE, but work in co-operation with it.",
"\"Super grandmaster\" is an informal term to refer to the world's elite players.",
"In the past this would refer to players with an Elo rating of over 2600, but as the average Elo rating of the top players has increased it has typically come to refer to players with an Elo rating of over 2700.Super GMs, the number of whom has grown considerably over the years, have some name recognition in the world of sport and are typically the highest earners in chess.FIDE titles are only awarded at the quarterly FIDE Council meetings.",
"Players who have qualified for the GM title but have not yet been awarded it are informally referred to as \"GM-elect\"."
],
[
"History",
"Usage of ''grandmaster'' for an expert in some field is recorded from 1590.The first known use of the term ''grandmaster'' in connection with chess was in the 18 February 1838 issue of ''Bell's Life'', in which a correspondent referred to William Lewis as \"our past grandmaster\".",
"Subsequently, George Walker and others referred to Philidor as a grandmaster, and the term was also applied to a few other players.===Early tournament use===Siegbert Tarrasch (1862–1934)The Ostend tournament of 1907 was divided into two sections: the Championship Tournament and the Masters' Tournament.",
"The Championship section was for players who had previously won an international tournament.",
"Siegbert Tarrasch won the Championship section, over Carl Schlechter, Dawid Janowski, Frank Marshall, Amos Burn, and Mikhail Chigorin.",
"These players were described as grandmasters for the purposes of the tournament.The San Sebastián 1912 tournament won by Akiba Rubinstein was a designated grandmaster event.",
"Rubinstein won with 12½ points out of 19.Tied for second with 12 points were Aron Nimzowitsch and Rudolf Spielmann.By some accounts, in the St. Petersburg 1914 chess tournament, the title Grandmaster was formally conferred by Russian Tsar Nicholas II, who had partially funded the tournament.",
"The Tsar reportedly awarded the title to the five finalists: Emanuel Lasker, José Raúl Capablanca, Alexander Alekhine, Siegbert Tarrasch, and Frank Marshall.",
"Chess historian Edward Winter has questioned this, stating that the earliest known sources that support this story are an article by Robert Lewis Taylor in the June 15, 1940, issue of ''The New Yorker'' and Marshall's autobiography ''My 50 Years of Chess'' (1942).===Informal and Soviet usage before 1950===Before 1950, the term grandmaster was sometimes informally applied to world class players.",
"The Fédération Internationale des Échecs (FIDE, or International Chess Federation) was formed in Paris in 1924, but at that time did not award formal titles.In 1927, the Soviet Union's Chess Federation established the title of Grandmaster of the Soviet Union, in the form of the German loan word \"Großmeister\".",
"At the time Soviet players were not competing outside their own country.",
"This title was abolished in 1931, after having been awarded to Boris Verlinsky, who won the 1929 Soviet Championship.",
"The title was brought back in 1935, and awarded to Mikhail Botvinnik, who thus became the first \"official\" Grandmaster of the USSR.",
"Verlinsky did not get his title back.===Official status (1950 onwards)===Akiba Rubinstein (1880–1961)In 1950 FIDE created the titles of Grandmaster (GM), International Master (IM) and Woman Master (WM, later known as Woman International Master or WIM).",
"The grandmaster title is sometimes called \"International Grandmaster\" (IGM), possibly to distinguish it from similar national titles, but the shortened form is far more common today.Titles were awarded by a resolution of the FIDE General Assembly and the Qualification Committee, with no formal written criteria.",
"FIDE first awarded the Grandmaster title in 1950 to 27 players.",
"These players were:* The top players of the day: world champion Mikhail Botvinnik, and those who had qualified for (or been seeded into) the inaugural Candidates Tournament in 1950: Isaac Boleslavsky, Igor Bondarevsky, David Bronstein, Max Euwe, Reuben Fine, Salo Flohr, Paul Keres, Alexander Kotov, Andor Lilienthal, Miguel Najdorf, Samuel Reshevsky, Vasily Smyslov, Gideon Ståhlberg, and László Szabó.",
"* Players still living who, though past their best in 1950, were recognised as having been world class when at their peak: Ossip Bernstein, Oldřich Duras, Ernst Grünfeld, Boris Kostić, Grigory Levenfish, Géza Maróczy, Jacques Mieses, Viacheslav Ragozin, Akiba Rubinstein, Friedrich Sämisch, Savielly Tartakower, and Milan Vidmar.Since FIDE did not award the Grandmaster title posthumously, world-class players who died prior to 1950, including World Champions Steinitz, Lasker, Capablanca, and Alekhine, never received the title.",
"A few strong still living players such as British India's Mir Sultan Khan, Germany's Paul Lipke and France's Eugene Znosko-Borovsky were not awarded titles.",
"Sultan Khan was awarded the GM title posthumously in 2024.====1953 regulations====Jacques Mieses (1865–1954), one of the first FIDE GrandmastersTitle awards under the original regulations were subject to political concerns.",
"Efim Bogoljubow, who had emigrated from the Soviet Union to Germany, was not entered in the first class of Grandmasters, even though he had played two matches for the World Championship with Alekhine.",
"He received the title in 1951, by a vote of thirteen to eight with five abstentions.",
"Yugoslavia supported his application, but all other Communist countries opposed it.",
"In 1953, FIDE abolished the old regulations, although a provision was maintained that allowed older masters who had been overlooked to be awarded titles.",
"The new regulations awarded the title of International Grandmaster of the FIDE to players meeting any of the following criteria:# The world champion.# Masters who have the absolute right to play in the World Championship Candidates Tournament, or any player who replaces an absent contestant and earns at least a 50 percent score.# The winner of an international tournament meeting specified standards, and any player placing second in two such tournaments within a span of four years.",
"The tournament must be at least eleven rounds with seven or more players, 80 percent or more being International Grandmasters or International Masters.",
"Additionally, 30 percent of the players must be Grandmasters who have the absolute right to play in the next World Championship Candidates Tournament, or who have played in such a tournament in the previous ten years.# A player who demonstrates ability manifestly equal to that of (3) above in an international tournament or match.",
"Such titles must be approved by the Qualification Committee with the support of at least five members.====1957 regulations====After FIDE issued the 1953 title regulations, it was recognized that they were somewhat haphazard, and work began to revise the regulations.",
"The FIDE Congress in Vienna in 1957 adopted new regulations, called the FAV system, in recognition of the work done by International Judge Giovanni Ferrantes (Italy), Alexander (probably Conel Hugh O'Donel Alexander), and Giancarlo Dal Verme (Italy).",
"Under the 1957 regulations, the title of International Grandmaster of the FIDE was automatically awarded to:# The world champion.# Any player qualifying from the Interzonal tournament to play in the Candidates Tournament, even if he did not play in the Candidates for any reason.# Any player who would qualify from the Interzonal to play in the Candidates but who was excluded because of a limitation on the number of participants from his Federation.# Any player who actually plays in a Candidates Tournament and scores at least 33⅓ percent.The regulations also allowed titles to be awarded by a FIDE Congress on recommendation by the Qualification Committee.",
"Recommendations were based on performance in qualifying tournaments, with the required score depending on the percentage of Grandmasters and International Masters in the tournament.====1965 regulations====Concerns were raised that the 1957 regulations were too lax.",
"At the FIDE Congress in 1961, GM Milan Vidmar said that the regulations \"made it possible to award international titles to players without sufficient merit\".",
"At the 1964 Congress in Tel Aviv, a subcommittee was formed to propose changes to the regulations.",
"The subcommittee recommended that the automatic award of titles be abolished, criticized the methods used for awarding titles based on qualifying performances, and called for a change in the makeup of the Qualification Committee.",
"Several delegates supported the subcommittee recommendations, including GM Miguel Najdorf who felt that existing regulations were leading to an inflation of international titles.",
"At the 1965 Congress in Wiesbaden FIDE raised the standards required for international titles.",
"The International Grandmaster title regulations were:* 1.Any World Champion is automatically awarded the GM title* 2a.",
"Anyone who scores at least 40 percent in a quarter-final match in the Candidates Tournament* 2b.",
"Scores at least the number of points in a tournament corresponding to the total of a 55 percent score against Grandmasters plus 75 percent against International Masters (IM) plus 85 percent against other players (a GM \"norm\").To fulfill requirement 2b, the candidate must score one GM norm in a category 1a tournament or two norms within a three-year period in two Category 1b tournaments, or one Category 2a tournament and one Category 1b tournament.The categories of tournaments are:* 1a—at least sixteen players, at least 50 percent are GMs and 70 percent at least IMs* 1b—at least twelve players, at least 33⅓ percent GMs and 70 percent IMs* 2a—at least fifteen players, at least 50 percent IMs* 2b—ten to fourteen players, at least 50 percent IMs.Since FIDE titles are for life, a GM or IM does not count for the purposes of this requirement if he had not had a GM or IM result in the five years prior to the tournament.In addition, no more than 50 percent plus one of the players can be from the same country for tournaments of 10 to 12 players, or no more than 50 percent plus two for larger tournaments.Seventy-four GM titles were awarded in 1951 through 1968.During that period, ten GM titles were awarded in 1965, but only one in 1966 and in 1968.====1970 regulations====The modern system for awarding FIDE titles evolved from the \"Dorazil\" proposals, presented to the 1970 Siegen Chess Olympiad FIDE Congress.",
"The proposals were put together by Wilfried Dorazil (then FIDE Vice-President) and fellow Committee members Grandmaster Svetozar Gligorić and Professor Arpad Elo.",
"The recommendations of the Committee report were adopted in full.In essence, the proposals built on the work done by Professor Elo in devising his Elo rating system.",
"The establishment of an updated list of players and their Elo rating enabled significantly strong international chess tournaments to be allocated a ''Category'', based on the average rating of the contestants.",
"For instance, it was decided that 'Category 1' status would apply to tournaments with an average Elo rating of participants falling within the range 2251–2275; similarly Category 2 would apply to the range 2276–2300 etc.",
"The higher the tournament Category, the stronger the tournament.Another vital component involved the setting of meritorious norms for each Category of tournament.",
"Players must meet or surpass the relevant score to demonstrate that they had performed at Grandmaster (GM) or International Master (IM) level.",
"Scores were expressed as percentages of a perfect maximum score and decreased as the tournament Category increased, thereby reflecting the strength of a player's opposition and the relative difficulty of the task.Tournament organisers could then apply the percentages to their own tournament format and declare in advance the actual score that participants must achieve to attain a GM or IM result (nowadays referred to as a norm).",
": Cat.",
"Avg.",
"Elo Score (GM) Score (IM) 1 2251–2275 85% 76% 2 2276–2300 83% 73% 3 2301–2325 81% 70% 4 2326–2350 78% 67% 5 2351–2375 76% 64%: Cat.",
"Avg.",
"Elo Score (GM) Score (IM) 6 2376–2400 73% 60% 7 2401–2425 70% 57% 8 2426–2450 67% 53% 9 2451–2475 64% 50% 10 2476–2500 60% 47%: Cat.",
"Avg.",
"Elo Score (GM) Score (IM) 11 2501–2525 57% 43% 12 2526–2550 53% 40% 13 2551–2575 50% 36% 14 2576–2600 47% 33% 15 2601–2625 43% 30%To qualify for the Grandmaster title, a player needed to achieve three such GM results within a rolling period of three years.",
"Exceptionally, if a player's contributory games totalled 30 or more, then the title could be awarded on the basis of two such results.",
"There were also circumstances where the system could be adapted to fit team events and other competitions.The full proposals included many other rules and regulations, covering such topics as:* Eligible tournament formats* Eligible participants* Unrated participants* Registration of tournaments with FIDE* Calculations, including the handling of fractions"
],
[
"Current regulations",
"To become a grandmaster, a player must achieve both of the following:* Favorable results (called norms) from a total of at least 27 games in tournaments.",
"With some exceptions, to receive a norm in a tournament:** The player's rating performance at the end of the tournament must be at least 2600.",
"(Tournaments are no longer classified in categories.",
")** At least 33% of the player's opponents must be Grandmasters.",
"** At least 50% of the player's opponents must hold a FIDE title other than Candidate Master and Woman Candidate Master.",
"** The player's opponents must have an average rating of at least 2380.",
"** The player's opponents must come from at least 3 different chess federations, which can include the player's own federation.",
"*** A maximum of 60% of a player's opponents can come from the player's own federation.",
"*** A maximum of 66% of a player's opponents can come from a single federation.",
"** At least one norm must be scored at a Swiss tournament with at least 40 participants of average rating of 2000 and above.",
"* An Elo rating of at least 2500 at any point (although they need not maintain this level to obtain or keep the title).",
"** The rating requirement can be fulfilled even if the player starts a tournament rated below 2500 and then reaches or exceeds a 2500 rating during the tournament but eventually concludes the tournament with a rating lower than 2500.The Grandmaster title is also automatically conferred, without needing to fulfill the above criteria, when reaching the final 16 in the World Cup, winning the Women's World Cup, the World Junior Championship, or the World Senior Championship, or a Continental Chess Championship, given that the player's peak FIDE rating is at least 2300.Current regulations can be found in the FIDE Handbook.FIDE titles including the grandmaster title are valid for life, but FIDE regulations allow a title to be revoked for \"use of a FIDE title or rating to subvert the ethical principles of the title or rating system\" or if a player is found to have violated the anti-cheating regulations in a tournament on which the title application was based.Exact regulations can be found in the FIDE Handbook."
],
[
"Title inflation",
"Number of new grandmasters per yearEvolution of the number of grandmastersA report prepared by Bartłomiej Macieja for the Association of Chess Professionals mentions discussion at the FIDE congress of 2008 regarding a perceived decrease in value of the grandmaster title.",
"The number of grandmasters had increased greatly between 1972 and 2008, but according to Macieja, the number of registered players rated over 2200 had increased even faster.",
"Since that FIDE congress, discussion of the value of the grandmaster title has occasionally continued."
],
[
"Honorary grandmasters",
"Starting from 1977, FIDE awarded honorary Grandmaster titles to 32 players based on their past performances or other contributions to chess.",
"Since 2007, no distinction has been made between an \"honorary\" grandmaster and a full grandmaster.",
"The following players have been awarded honorary Grandmaster titles.",
"Marić and Honfi were awarded the title posthumously in the year of their death, and Sultan Khan 58 years later.",
"* 1977 – Julio Bolbochán, Esteban Canal, Borislav Milić, Carlos Torre Repetto* 1981 – Arnold Denker* 1982 – Lodewijk Prins, Raúl Sanguineti* 1983 – Vladimir Alatortsev, Alexander Konstantinopolsky, Erik Lundin* 1984 – Eero Böök, Stojan Puc* 1985 – Harry Golombek, Mario Monticelli, Jaroslav Šajtar* 1986 – Arthur Dake, Theodor Ghițescu* 1987 – Vladimir Makogonov, Vladas Mikėnas, Bogdan Śliwa* 1988 – George Koltanowski* 1990 – Andrija Fuderer, Rudolf Marić (posthumously)* 1991 – Dragoljub Minić* 1992 – Heinz Lehmann, Rudolf Teschner* 1993 – Jonathan Penrose* 1996 – Károly Honfi (posthumously), Enrico Paoli* 1999 – Péter Dely* 2003 – Elmārs Zemgalis* 2024 – Sultan Khan (posthumously), Andreas Dückstein, Iivo Nei"
],
[
"See also",
"* Chess title* List of chess grandmasters** List of female chess grandmasters** List of youngest grandmasters* Comparison of top chess players throughout history"
],
[
"References",
"'''Bibliography'''*"
],
[
"External links",
"* \"Requirements for FIDE Titles\" from the FIDE Handbook* \"World Top Chess players\" FIDE* \"Chess Grandmasters\" by Edward Winter"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Gotthold Ephraim Lessing"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Gotthold Ephraim Lessing''' (, ; 22 January 1729 – 15 February 1781) was a German philosopher, dramatist, publicist and art critic, and a representative of the Enlightenment era.",
"His plays and theoretical writings substantially influenced the development of German literature.",
"He is widely considered by theatre historians to be the first dramaturg in his role at Abel Seyler's Hamburg National Theatre."
],
[
"Life",
"Lessing, 1771Lessing was born in Kamenz, a small town in Saxony, to Johann Gottfried Lessing (1693―1770) and Justine Salome Feller (1703―1777).",
"His father was a Lutheran minister and wrote on theology.",
"Young Lessing studied at the Latin School in Kamenz from 1737 to 1741.With a father who wanted his son to follow in his footsteps, Lessing next attended the Fürstenschule St. Afra in Meissen.",
"After completing his education at St. Afra's, he enrolled at Leipzig University where he pursued a degree in theology, medicine, philosophy, and philology (1746–1748).It was here that his relationship with Karoline Neuber, a famous German actress, began.",
"He translated several French plays for her, and his interest in theatre grew.",
"During this time, he wrote his first play, ''The Young Scholar.''",
"Neuber eventually produced the play in 1748.From 1748 to 1760, Lessing lived in Leipzig and Berlin.",
"He began to work as a reviewer and editor for the ''Vossische Zeitung'' and other periodicals.",
"Lessing formed a close connection with his cousin, Christlob Mylius, and decided to follow him to Berlin.",
"In 1750, Lessing and Mylius teamed together to begin a periodical publication named ''Beiträge zur Historie und Aufnahme des Theaters''.",
"The publication ran only four issues, but it caught the public's eye and revealed Lessing to be a serious critic and theorist of drama.In 1752, he took his master's degree in Wittenberg.",
"From 1760 to 1765, he worked in Breslau (now Wrocław) as secretary to General Tauentzien during the Seven Years' War between Britain and France, which had effects in Europe.",
"It was during this time that he wrote his famous .In 1765, Lessing returned to Berlin, leaving in 1767 to work for three years at the Hamburg National Theatre.",
"Actor-manager Konrad Ackermann began construction of Germany's first permanent national theatre in Hamburg, established by .",
"The owners of the new Hamburg National Theatre hired Lessing as the theatre's critic of plays and acting, an activity later known as dramaturgy (based on his own words), making Lessing the very first dramaturge.",
"The theatre's main backer was Abel Seyler, a former currency speculator who since became known as \"the leading patron of German theatre.\"",
"There he met Eva König, his future wife.",
"His work in Hamburg formed the basis of his pioneering work on drama, titled ''Hamburgische Dramaturgie''.",
"Unfortunately, because of financial losses due to pirated editions of the ''Hamburgische Dramaturgie'', the Hamburg Theatre closed just three years later.In 1770, Lessing became librarian at the ducal library, now the Herzog August Library (''Herzog-August-Bibliothek'', ''Bibliotheca Augusta''), in Wolfenbüttel under the commission of the Duke of Brunswick.",
"His tenure there was energetic, if interrupted by many journeys.",
"In 1775, for example, he accompanied Prince Leopold to Italy.",
"Follower of Spinoza's philosophy, on 14 October 1771, Lessing was initiated into Freemasonry in the lodge \"Zu den drei Goldenen Rosen\" in Hamburg.In 1773, he discovered Archimedes' cattle problem in a Greek manuscript containing a poem of 44 lines, in the Herzog August Library in Wolfenbüttel.",
"This problem would remain unsolved until 1880.In 1776, he married Eva König, who was then a widow, in Jork (near Hamburg).",
"She died in 1778 after giving birth to a short-lived son.",
"On 15 February 1781, Lessing, aged 52, died during a visit to the wine dealer Angott in Brunswick.Lessing was also famous for his friendship with Jewish-German philosopher Moses Mendelssohn.",
"A 2003 biography of Mendelssohn's grandson, Felix, describes their friendship as one of the most \"illuminating metaphors for the clarion call of the Enlightenment for religious tolerance\".",
"It was this relationship that sparked his interest in popular religious debates of the time.",
"He began publishing heated pamphlets on his beliefs which were eventually banned.",
"It was this banishment that inspired him to return to theatre to portray his views and to write ''Nathan the Wise''."
],
[
"Works",
"Early in his life, Lessing showed interest in the theatre.",
"In his theoretical and critical writings on the subject—as in his own plays—he tried to contribute to the development of a new type of theatre in Germany.",
"With this he especially turned against the then predominant literary theory of Gottsched and his followers.",
"Lessing's ''Hamburgische Dramaturgie'' ran critiques of plays that were performed in the Hamburg Theatre, but after dealing with dissatisfied actors and actresses, Lessing redirected his writings to more of an analysis on the proper uses of drama.",
"Lessing advocated the outline of drama in Aristotle's ''Poetics''.",
"He believed the French Academy had devalued the uses of drama through their neoclassical rules of form and separation of genres.",
"His repeated opinions on this issue influenced theatre practitioners who began the movement of rejecting theatre rules known as ''Sturm und Drang'' (\"Storm and Stress\").",
"He also supported serious reception of Shakespeare's works.",
"He worked with many theatre groups (e.g.",
"the one of the Neuberin).Eva LessingHome, WolfenbüttelIn Hamburg he tried with others to set up the German National Theatre.",
"Today his own works appear as prototypes of the later developed bourgeois German drama.",
"Scholars see ''Miss Sara Sampson'' and ''Emilia Galotti'' as amongst the first bourgeois tragedies, ''Minna von Barnhelm'' (Minna of Barnhelm) as the model for many classic German comedies, ''Nathan the Wise'' (''Nathan der Weise'') as the first German drama of ideas (\"Ideendrama\").",
"His theoretical writings ''Laocoön'' and ''Hamburg Dramaturgy'' (''Hamburgische Dramaturgie'') set the standards for the discussion of aesthetic and literary theoretical principles.",
"Lessing advocated that dramaturgs should carry their work out working directly with theatre companies rather than in isolation.In his religious and philosophical writings he defended the faithful Christian's right for freedom of thought.",
"He argued against the belief in revelation and the holding on to a literal interpretation of the Bible by the predominant orthodox doctrine through a problem later to be called '''Lessing's Ditch'''.",
"Lessing outlined the concept of the religious \"Proof of Power\": How can miracles continue to be used as a base for Christianity when we have no proof of miracles?",
"Historical truths which are in doubt cannot be used to prove metaphysical truths (such as God's existence).",
"As Lessing says it: \"That, then, is the ugly great ditch which I cannot cross, however often and however earnestly I have tried to make that leap.",
"\"In the final leg of his life, Lessing threw himself into an intense evaluation of theology and religion.",
"He did much of his studying by reading manuscripts he found while working as a librarian.",
"While working for the Duke, he formed a close friendship with a family by the name of Reimarus.",
"The family held an unpublished manuscript by Hermann Samuel Reimarus which attacked the historicity of Christian revelation.",
"Despite discouragement from his brother Karl Gotthelf Lessing, he began publishing pieces of the manuscript in pamphlets known as ''Fragments from an Unnamed Author''.",
"The controversial pamphlets resulted in a heated debate between him and another theologian, Johann Melchior Goeze.",
"In concern for tarnishing his reputation, Goeze requested the government put an end to the feud, and Lessing was silenced through a law that took away his freedom from censorship.In response, Lessing relied upon his skills as a playwright to write what is undoubtedly his most influential play, ''Nathan the Wise''.",
"In the play, Lessing set up tension between Judaism, Islam, and Christianity by having one character ask Nathan which religion was the most genuine.",
"Nathan avoids the question by telling the parable of the three rings, which implies the idea that no specific religion is the \"correct religion.\"",
"The Enlightenment ideas to which Lessing held tight were portrayed through his \"ideal of humanity,\" stating that religion is relative to the individual's ability to reason.",
"''Nathan the Wise'' is considered to be the first example of the German \"literature of humanity\".",
"As a child of the Enlightenment he trusted in a \"Christianity of Reason\", which oriented itself by the spirit of religion.",
"He believed that human reason (initiated by criticism and dissent) would develop, even without help by a divine revelation.",
"In his writing ''The Education of Humankind'' (''Die Erziehung des Menschengeschlechts'') he extensively and coherently lays out his position.The idea of freedom (for the theatre against the dominance of its French model; for religion from the church's dogma) is his central theme throughout his life.",
"Therefore, he also stood up for the liberation of the upcoming middle and upper class from the nobility making up their minds for them.In his own literary existence he also constantly strove for independence.",
"But his ideal of a possible life as a free author was hard to keep up against the economic constraints he faced.",
"His project of authors self-publishing their works, which he tried to accomplish in Hamburg with C. J.",
"Bode, failed.Lessing is important as a literary critic for his work ''Laocoon: An Essay on the Limits of Painting and Poetry''.",
"In this work, he argues against the tendency to take Horace's ''ut pictura poesis'' (as painting, so poetry) as prescriptive for literature.",
"In other words, he objected to trying to write poetry using the same devices as one would in painting.",
"Instead, poetry and painting each has its character (the former is extended in time; the latter is extended in space).",
"This is related to Lessing's turn from French classicism to Aristotelian mimesis, discussed above."
],
[
"Attack by Johann Daniel Müller",
"The Radical Pietist (born 1716 in Wissenbach/Nassau, today part of Eschenburg, deceased after 1785) published the following anonymous book against Lessing and Reimarus:* Johann Daniel Müller: ''Der Sieg der Wahrheit des Worts Gottes über die Lügen des Wolfenbüttelschen Bibliothecarii,'' Gotthold ''Ephraim Lessing, und seines Fragmenten-Schreibers'' i. e. Hermann Samuel Reimarus ''in ihren Lästerungen gegen Jesum Christum, seine Jünger, Apostel, und die ganze Bibel.''",
"1780.",
"* Cf.",
"Reinhard Breymayer: Ein unbekannter Gegner Gotthold Ephraim Lessings.",
"Der ehemalige Frankfurter Konzertdirektor Johann Daniel Müller aus Wissenbach/Nassau (1716 bis nach 1785), Alchemist im Umkreis Johann Wolfgang Goethes, Kabbalist, separatistischer Chiliast, Freund der Illuminaten von Avignon (\"Elias / Elias Artista\") Dietrich Meyer (Ed.",
"): ''Pietismus'' – ''Herrnhutertum'' – ''Erweckungsbewegung''.",
"''Festschrift für Erich Beyreuther''.",
"Köln Pulheim-Brauweiler and Bonn 1982 (''Schriftenreihe des Vereins für Rheinische Kirchengeschichte'', volume 70), pp.",
"109–145, and p. 108 Silhouette of Johann Daniel Müller."
],
[
"Selected works",
"Brunswick* Second edition of Nathan the Wise in its first year of publication 1779.In the Jewish Museum of Switzerland's collection.",
"''Der junge Gelehrte'' (''The Young Scholar'') (1748)* ''Der Freigeist'' (''The Freethinker'') (1749)* ''Die Juden'' (''The Jews'') (1749)* ''Miss Sara Sampson'' (1755)* ''Philotas'' (1759)* ''Fabeln'' (''Fables'') (1759)* ''Laokoön oder Über die Grenzen der Malerei und Poesie'' (Laocoön) (1767)* ''Minna von Barnhelm'' (Minna of Barnhelm) (1767)* ''Hamburgische Dramaturgie'' (1767–69)* ''Emilia Galotti'' (1772)* ''Anti-Goeze'' (1778) (written against Johann Melchior Goeze, pastor in Hamburg)* ''Nathan der Weise'' (''Nathan the Wise'') (1779)* ''Ernst und Falk – Gespräche für Freymäurer'' (1776–1778)* ''Die Erziehung des Menschengeschlechts'' (''The Education of the Human Race'') (1780)===English translations===An 1886 edition of Lessing's collected works* ''Fables and epigrams''.",
"London, Printed for J.& H.L.",
"Hunt, 1825.",
"* ''Laocoon: or, The limits of Poetry and Painting'', translated by William Ross.",
"London, Ridgeway, 1836.",
"* ''Nathan the Wise: a dramatic poem in five acts'', translated by Adolph Reich.",
"London, A. W. Bennett, 1860.",
"* ''Nathan, the Wise.",
"A dramatic poem of five acts'', translated by Dr. Isidor Kalisch.",
"New York, Waldheimer & Zenn, 1869.",
"* ''The Education of the Human Race'', translated by Fred W. Robertson, M.A.. London, C.K.",
"Paul & Co., 1881.",
"* ''Plays of Lessing: Nathan the Wise and Minna von Barnhelm'', translated by Ernest Bell.",
"London, G. Bell, 1888.",
"* ''Selected prose works of G. E. Lessing'', translated by E. C. Beasley, B.",
"A., and Helen Zimmern.",
"London, G. Bell and sons, 1890.",
"* ''Lessing’s Emilia Galotti'', with footnotes and vocabulary; New York, Hinds & Noble, 1899.",
"* ''Lessing’s Nathan der Weise'', with footnotes and vocabulary.",
"New York, Hinds & Noble, 1899.",
"* ''Laocoon.",
"An essay upon the limits of painting and poetry: With remarks illustrative of various points in the history of ancient art'', translated by Ellen Frothingham.",
"Boston, Little, Brown, 1904.",
"* ''Laocoon'', translated by Sir Robert Phillimore, London, G. Routledge & sons, 1905.",
"* ''Minna von Barnhelm'', edited with an introduction, German questions, notes and vocabulary, by Philip Schuyler Allen.",
"New York, Charles E. Merrill Co., 1907.",
"* ''Minna von Barnhelm; or, Soldier’s fortune'' translated by Otto Heller.",
"New York, H. Holt and company, 1917.",
"* ''Nathan the Wise; a dramatic poem in five acts'', translated and edited by Leo Markun.",
"Girard, Kan., Haldeman-Julius Co., 1926.",
"* ''Laocoon, Nathan the Wise, Minna von Barnhelm'', translated by William A.",
"Steel.",
"London, J. M. Dent & sons, ltd.; New York, E. P. Dutton & co., inc., 1930.",
"* ''Nathan the Wise'', translated by Berthold August Eisenlohr.",
"Ann Arbor, Mich., Lithoprinted by Edwards Brothers, inc., 1942.",
"* ''Nathan the Wise'', translated by Guenther Reinhardt.",
"Brooklyn, Barron's Educational Series, inc., 1950.",
"* ''Nathan the Wise; a dramatic poem in five acts'', translated into English verse by Bayard Quincy Morgan.",
"New York, Ungar, 1955.",
"* ''Theological Writings; Selections in Translation with an Introductory Essay'', by Henry Chadwick.",
"London, A.",
"& C. Black, 1956.",
"* ''Lessing's Theological Writings''.",
"Selections in Translation, edited by Henry Chadwick.",
"Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1957.",
"* ''Emilia Galotti: a tragedy in five acts'', translated by Anna Johanna Gode von Aesch.",
"Great Neck, N.Y., Barron's Educational Series, inc., 1959.",
"* ''Emilia Galotti, a tragedy in five acts'', translated by Edward Dvoretzky.",
"New York, Ungar, 1962, reprinted German Book Center, 2003.",
"* ''Hamburg dramaturgy'', translated by Victor Lange.",
"New York, Dover Publications, 1962.Reprint of Helen Zimmern's 1890 translation.",
"* ''Laocoon: an essay on the limits of painting and poetry'', translated by Edward Allen McCormick.",
"Indianapolis, Bobbs-Merrill, 1962.",
"* ''Minna von Barnhelm: a comedy in five acts'', translated by Kenneth J. Northcott.",
"Chicago, University of Chicago Press 1972* ''Nathan the Wise, Minna von Barnhelm, and Other Plays and Writings'', edited by Peter Demetz with a foreword by Hannah Arendt.",
"New York: Continuum, 1991.",
"* ''Nathan the Wise, with Related Documents'', translated, edited, and with an introduction by Ronald Schechter.",
"Boston/New York: Bedford/St.",
"Martin's, 2004.",
"* ''Philosophical and Theological Writings'', edited by H. B. Nisbet.",
"Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005."
],
[
"See also",
"* Fable* Greek revival* Lessing Monument, Tiergarten, Berlin* Lessing Theater* Pantheism controversy"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* Hazard, Paul.",
"''European thought in the eighteenth century from Montesquieu to Lessing'' (1954).",
"pp 416–34 on his deism.",
"* Nisbet, Hugh Barr.",
"Gotthold Ephraim Lessing: His Life, Works and Thought, Oxford University Press, 2013* Liptzin, Sol.",
"Historical Survey of German Literature.",
"New York: Cooper Square Publishers, 1936.",
"* Priest, George.",
"A Brief History of German Literature.",
"New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1909.",
"* Robertson, John.",
"A History of German Literature.",
"New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1902.",
"* Rose, Ernst.",
"A History of German Literature.",
"New York: New York University, 1960.",
"* *"
],
[
"External links",
"* * * * ''Minna von Barnhelm'', by Gotthold Ephraim Lessing * Literary and Philosophical Essays: French, German and Italian, 1910, includes ''The Education of the Human Race'', by Gotthold Ephraim Lessing * ''Nathan the Wise'', by Gotthold Ephraim Lessing * ''The Parable of the Ring'' * ''Laocoon'' * The Dramatic Works of G.E.",
"Lessing * ''Gotthold Ephraim Lessing: His Life and his Works'' (1878) by Helen Zimmern* * Works by Gotthold Ephraim Lessing at Projekt Gutenberg * All poems of Gotthold Ephraim Lessing * Coin to commemorate his 200th birth anniversary"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Geotechnical engineering"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Boston's Big Dig presented geotechnical challenges in an urban environment.Precast concrete retaining wallA typical cross-section of a slope used in two-dimensional analyzes.",
"'''Geotechnical engineering''', also known as '''geotechnics''', is the branch of civil engineering concerned with the engineering behavior of earth materials.",
"It uses the principles of soil mechanics and rock mechanics to solve its engineering problems.",
"It also relies on knowledge of geology, hydrology, geophysics, and other related sciences.",
"Geotechnical engineering has applications in military engineering, mining engineering, petroleum engineering, coastal engineering, and offshore construction.",
"The fields of geotechnical engineering and engineering geology have overlapping knowledge areas.",
"However, while geotechnical engineering is a specialty of civil engineering, engineering geology is a specialty of geology."
],
[
"History",
"Humans have historically used soil as a material for flood control, irrigation purposes, burial sites, building foundations, and construction materials for buildings.",
"Dykes, dams, and canals dating back to at least 2000 BCE—found in parts of ancient Egypt, ancient Mesopotamia, the Fertile Crescent, and the early settlements of Mohenjo Daro and Harappa in the Indus valley—provide evidence for early activities linked to irrigation and flood control.",
"As cities expanded, structures were erected and supported by formalized foundations.",
"The ancient Greeks notably constructed pad footings and strip-and-raft foundations.",
"Until the 18th century, however, no theoretical basis for soil design had been developed, and the discipline was more of an art than a science, relying on experience.Several foundation-related engineering problems, such as the Leaning Tower of Pisa, prompted scientists to begin taking a more scientific-based approach to examining the subsurface.",
"The earliest advances occurred in the development of earth pressure theories for the construction of retaining walls.",
"Henri Gautier, a French royal engineer, recognized the \"natural slope\" of different soils in 1717, an idea later known as the soil's angle of repose.",
"Around the same time, a rudimentary soil classification system was also developed based on a material's unit weight, which is no longer considered a good indication of soil type.The application of the principles of mechanics to soils was documented as early as 1773 when Charles Coulomb, a physicist and engineer, developed improved methods to determine the earth pressures against military ramparts.",
"Coulomb observed that, at failure, a distinct slip plane would form behind a sliding retaining wall and suggested that the maximum shear stress on the slip plane, for design purposes, was the sum of the soil cohesion, , and friction , where is the normal stress on the slip plane and is the friction angle of the soil.",
"By combining Coulomb's theory with Christian Otto Mohr's 2D stress state, the theory became known as Mohr-Coulomb theory.",
"Although it is now recognized that precise determination of cohesion is impossible because is not a fundamental soil property, the Mohr-Coulomb theory is still used in practice today.In the 19th century, Henry Darcy developed what is now known as Darcy's Law, describing the flow of fluids in a porous media.",
"Joseph Boussinesq, a mathematician and physicist, developed theories of stress distribution in elastic solids that proved useful for estimating stresses at depth in the ground.",
"William Rankine, an engineer and physicist, developed an alternative to Coulomb's earth pressure theory.",
"Albert Atterberg developed the clay consistency indices that are still used today for soil classification.",
"In 1885, Osborne Reynolds recognized that shearing causes volumetric dilation of dense materials and contraction of loose granular materials.Modern geotechnical engineering is said to have begun in 1925 with the publication of ''Erdbaumechanik'' by Karl von Terzaghi, a mechanical engineer and geologist.",
"Considered by many to be the father of modern soil mechanics and geotechnical engineering, Terzaghi developed the principle of effective stress, and demonstrated that the shear strength of soil is controlled by effective stress.",
"Terzaghi also developed the framework for theories of bearing capacity of foundations, and the theory for prediction of the rate of settlement of clay layers due to consolidation.",
"Afterwards, Maurice Biot fully developed the three-dimensional soil consolidation theory, extending the one-dimensional model previously developed by Terzaghi to more general hypotheses and introducing the set of basic equations of Poroelasticity.",
"In his 1948 book, Donald Taylor recognized that the interlocking and dilation of densely packed particles contributed to the peak strength of the soil.",
"Roscoe, Schofield, and Wroth, with the publication of ''On the Yielding of Soils'' in 1958, established the interrelationships between the volume change behavior (dilation, contraction, and consolidation) and shearing behavior with the theory of plasticity using critical state soil mechanics.",
"Critical state soil mechanics is the basis for many contemporary advanced constitutive models describing the behavior of soil.",
"In 1960, Alec Skempton carried out an extensive review of the available formulations and experimental data in the literature about the effective stress validity in soil, concrete, and rock in order to reject some of these expressions, as well as clarify what expressions were appropriate according to several working hypotheses, such as stress-strain or strength behavior, saturated or non-saturated media, and rock, concrete or soil behavior."
],
[
"Roles",
"=== Geotechnical investigation ===Geotechnical engineers investigate and determinate the properties of subsurface conditions and materials.",
"They also design corresponding earthworks and retaining structures, tunnels, and structure foundations, and may supervise and evaluate sites, which may further involve site monitoring as well as the risk assessment and mitigation of natural hazards.Geotechnical engineers and engineering geologists perform geotechnical investigations to obtain information on the physical properties of soil and rock underlying, and adjacent to, a site to design earthworks and foundations for proposed structures and for the repair of distress to earthworks and structures caused by subsurface conditions.",
"Geotechnical investigations involve both surface and subsurface exploration of a site, often including subsurface sampling and laboratory testing of soil samples retrieved.",
"Sometimes, geophysical methods are also used to obtain data, which include measurement of seismic waves (pressure, shear, and Rayleigh waves), surface-wave methods and downhole methods, and electromagnetic surveys (magnetometer, resistivity, and ground-penetrating radar).",
"Electrical tomography can be used to survey soil and rock properties and existing underground infrastructure in construction projects.Surface exploration can include on-foot surveys, geologic mapping, geophysical methods, and photogrammetry.",
"Geologic mapping and interpretation of geomorphology are typically completed in consultation with a geologist or engineering geologist.",
"Subsurface exploration usually involves in-situ testing (for example, the standard penetration test and cone penetration test).",
"The digging of test pits and trenching (particularly for locating faults and slide planes) may also be used to learn about soil conditions at depth.",
"Large-diameter borings are rarely used due to safety concerns and expense but are sometimes used to allow a geologist or engineer to be lowered into the borehole for direct visual and manual examination of the soil and rock stratigraphy.A variety of soil samplers exists to meet the needs of different engineering projects.",
"The standard penetration test, which uses a thick-walled split spoon sampler, is the most common way to collect disturbed samples.",
"Piston samplers, employing a thin-walled tube, are most commonly used for the collection of less disturbed samples.",
"More advanced methods, such as the Sherbrooke block sampler, are superior, but expensive.",
"Coring frozen ground provides high-quality undisturbed samples from any ground conditions, such as fill, sand, moraine, and rock fracture zones.",
"Geotechnical centrifuge modeling is another method of testing physical scale models of geotechnical problems.",
"The use of a centrifuge enhances the similarity of the scale model tests involving soil because the strength and stiffness of soil are very sensitive to the confining pressure.",
"The centrifugal acceleration allows a researcher to obtain large (prototype-scale) stresses in small physical models.=== Foundation design ===The foundation of a structure's infrastructure transmits loads from the structure to the earth.",
"Geotechnical engineers design foundations based on the load characteristics of the structure and the properties of the soils and bedrock at the site.",
"In general, geotechnical engineers first estimate the magnitude and location of loads to be supported, before developing an investigation plan to explore the subsurface and also determining the necessary soil parameters through field and lab testing.",
"Following which, they may begin the design of an engineering foundation.",
"The primary considerations for a geotechnical engineer in foundation design are bearing capacity, settlement, and ground movement beneath the foundations.",
"=== Earthworks ===A compactor/roller operated by U.S. Navy SeabeesGeotechnical engineers are also involved in the planning and execution of earthworks, which include ground improvement, slope stabilization, and stope stability analysis.",
"====Ground improvement====Various geotechnical engineering methods can be used for ground improvement, including reinforcement geosynthetics such as geocells and geogrids, which disperse loads over a larger area, increasing the load-bearing capacity of soil.",
"Through these methods, geotechnical engineers can reduce direct and long-term costs.====Slope stabilization====Simple slope slip section.Geotechnical engineers can analyze and improve the stability of slopes using engineering methods.",
"Slope stability is determined by the balance of shear stress and shear strength.",
"A previously stable slope may be initially affected by various factors, making the slope unstable.",
"Nonetheless, geotechnical engineers can design and implement engineered slopes to increase stability.=====Slope stability analysis=====Stability analysis is needed for the design of engineered slopes and for estimating the risk of slope failure in natural or designed slopes by determining the conditions under which the topmost mass of soil will slip relative to the base of soil and lead to slope failure.",
"If the interface between the mass and the base of a slope has a complex geometry, slope stability analysis is difficult and numerical solution methods are required.",
"Typically, the exact geometry of the interface is not known and a simplified interface geometry is assumed.",
"Finite slopes require three-dimensional models to be analyzed, so most slopes are analyzed assuming that they are infinitely wide and can be represented by two-dimensional models."
],
[
"Sub-disciplines",
"=== Geosynthetics ===A collage of geosynthetic products.Geosynthetics are a type of plastic polymer products used in geotechnical engineering that improve engineering performance while reducing costs.",
"This includes geotextiles, geogrids, geomembranes, geocells, and geocomposites.",
"The synthetic nature of the products make them suitable for use in the ground where high levels of durability are required.",
"Their main functions include drainage, filtration, reinforcement, separation, and containment.",
"Geosynthetics are available in a wide range of forms and materials, each to suit a slightly different end-use, although they are frequently used together.",
"Some reinforcement geosynthetics, such as geogrids and more recently, cellular confinement systems, have shown to improve bearing capacity, modulus factors and soil stiffness and strength.",
"These products have a wide range of applications and are currently used in many civil and geotechnical engineering applications including roads, airfields, railroads, embankments, piled embankments, retaining structures, reservoirs, canals, dams, landfills, bank protection and coastal engineering.=== Offshore ===Platforms offshore Mexico.",
"''Offshore'' (or ''marine'') ''geotechnical engineering'' is concerned with foundation design for human-made structures in the sea, away from the coastline (in opposition to ''onshore'' or ''nearshore'' engineering).",
"Oil platforms, artificial islands and submarine pipelines are examples of such structures.There are a number of significant differences between onshore and offshore geotechnical engineering.",
"Notably, site investigation and ground improvement on the seabed are more expensive; the offshore structures are exposed to a wider range of geohazards; and the environmental and financial consequences are higher in case of failure.",
"Offshore structures are exposed to various environmental loads, notably wind, waves and currents.",
"These phenomena may affect the integrity or the serviceability of the structure and its foundation during its operational lifespan and need to be taken into account in offshore design.In subsea geotechnical engineering, seabed materials are considered a two-phase material composed of rock or mineral particles and water.",
"Structures may be fixed in place in the seabed—as is the case for piers, jetties and fixed-bottom wind turbines—or may comprise a floating structure that remains roughly fixed relative to its geotechnical anchor point.",
"Undersea mooring of human-engineered floating structures include a large number of offshore oil and gas platforms and, since 2008, a few floating wind turbines.",
"Two common types of engineered design for anchoring floating structures include tension-leg and catenary loose mooring systems."
],
[
"Observational method",
"First proposed by Karl Terzaghi and later discussed in a paper by Ralph B. Peck, the observational method is a managed process of construction control, monitoring, and review, which enables modifications to be incorporated during and after construction.",
"The objective of the method is to achieve a greater overall economy, without compromising safety, by creating designs based on the most probable conditions rather than the most unfavorable.",
"Using the observational method, gaps in available information are filled by measurements and investigation, which aid in assessing the behavior of the structure during construction, which in turn can be modified in accordance with the findings.",
"The method was described by Peck as \"learn-as-you-go\".The observational method may be described as follows:# General exploration sufficient to establish the rough nature, pattern, and properties of deposits.#Assessment of the most probable conditions and the most unfavorable conceivable deviations.",
"#Creating the design based on a working hypothesis of behavior anticipated under the most-probable conditions.#Selection of quantities to be observed as construction proceeds, and calculation of their anticipated values based on the working hypothesis and under the most unfavorable conditions.#Selection, in advance, of a course of action or design modification for every foreseeable significant deviation of the observational findings from those predicted.#Measurement of quantities and evaluation of actual conditions.#Design modification in accordance with actual conditionsThe observational method is suitable for construction that has already begun when an unexpected development occurs, or when a failure or accident looms or has already occurred.",
"It is unsuitable for projects whose design cannot be altered during construction."
],
[
"See also",
"* Civil engineering* Deep Foundations Institute* Earthquake engineering* Earth structure* Effective stress* Engineering geology* Geological Engineering* Geoprofessions* Hydrogeology* International Society for Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering* Karl von Terzaghi* Land reclamation* Landfill* List of publications in geotechnical engineering* Mechanically stabilized earth* Offshore geotechnical engineering* Rock mass classifications* Sediment control* Seismology* Soil mechanics* Soil physics* Soil science"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References",
"* Bates and Jackson, 1980, Glossary of Geology: American Geological Institute.",
"* Krynine and Judd, 1957, Principles of Engineering Geology and Geotechnics: McGraw-Hill, New York.",
"*Holtz, R. and Kovacs, W. (1981), ''An Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering'', Prentice-Hall, Inc. *Bowles, J.",
"(1988), ''Foundation Analysis and Design'', McGraw-Hill Publishing Company.",
"*Cedergren, Harry R. (1977), ''Seepage, Drainage, and Flow Nets'', Wiley.",
"*Kramer, Steven L. (1996), ''Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering'', Prentice-Hall, Inc. *Freeze, R.A. & Cherry, J.A., (1979), ''Groundwater'', Prentice-Hall.",
"*Lunne, T. & Long, M.,(2006), ''Review of long seabed samplers and criteria for new sampler design'', Marine Geology, Vol 226, p. 145–165*Mitchell, James K. & Soga, K. (2005), ''Fundamentals of Soil Behavior'' 3rd ed., John Wiley & Sons, Inc. *Rajapakse, Ruwan., (2005), \"Pile Design and Construction\", 2005.",
"*Fang, H.-Y.",
"and Daniels, J.",
"(2005) ''Introductory Geotechnical Engineering : an environmental perspective'', Taylor & Francis.",
"* NAVFAC (Naval Facilities Engineering Command) (1986) ''Design Manual 7.01, Soil Mechanics'', US Government Printing Office* NAVFAC (Naval Facilities Engineering Command) (1986) ''Design Manual 7.02, Foundations and Earth Structures'', US Government Printing Office*NAVFAC (Naval Facilities Engineering Command) (1983) ''Design Manual 7.03, Soil Dynamics, Deep Stabilization and Special Geotechnical Construction'', US Government Printing Office*Terzaghi, K., Peck, R.B.",
"and Mesri, G. (1996), ''Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice'' 3rd Ed., John Wiley & Sons, Inc. *Santamarina, J.C., Klein, K.A., & Fam, M.A.",
"(2001), \"Soils and Waves: Particulate Materials Behavior, Characterization and Process Monitoring\", Wiley, *Firuziaan, M. and Estorff, O., (2002), \"Simulation of the Dynamic Behavior of Bedding-Foundation-Soil in the Time Domain\", Springer Verlag."
],
[
"External links",
"* Worldwide Geotechnical Literature Database"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Gustave Flaubert"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Gustave Flaubert''' ( , , ; 12 December 1821 – 8 May 1880) was a French novelist.",
"He has been considered the leading exponent of literary realism in his country and abroad.",
"According to the literary theorist Cornelius Quassus, \"in Flaubert, realism strives for formal perfection, so the presentation of reality tends to be neutral, emphasizing the values and importance of style as an objective method of presenting reality\".",
"He is known especially for his debut novel ''Madame Bovary'' (1857), his ''Correspondence'', and his scrupulous devotion to his style and aesthetics.",
"The celebrated short story writer Guy de Maupassant was a protégé of Flaubert."
],
[
"Life",
"===Early life and education===Flaubert's birthplace, now a museumFlaubert was born in Rouen, in the Seine-Maritime department of Upper Normandy, in northern France.",
"He was the second son of Anne Justine Caroline (née Fleuriot; 1793–1872) and Achille-Cléophas Flaubert (1784–1846), director and senior surgeon of the major hospital in Rouen.",
"He began writing at an early age, as early as eight according to some sources.He was educated at the Lycée Pierre-Corneille in Rouen, and did not leave until 1840, whereby he went to Paris to study law.",
"In Paris, he was an indifferent student and found the city distasteful.",
"He made a few acquaintances, including Victor Hugo.",
"Toward the end of 1840, he travelled in the Pyrenees and Corsica.",
"In 1846, after an attack of epilepsy, he left Paris and abandoned the study of law.===Personal life===From 1846 to 1854, Flaubert had a relationship with the poet Louise Colet; his letters to her have survived.",
"After leaving Paris, he returned to Croisset, near the Seine, close to Rouen, and lived there for the rest of his life.",
"He did however make occasional visits to Paris and England, where he apparently had a mistress.Politically, Flaubert described himself as a \"romantic and liberal old dunce\" (''vieille ganache romantique et libérale''), an \"enraged liberal\" (''libéral enragé''), a hater of all despotism, and someone who celebrated every protest of the individual against power and monopolies.With his lifelong friend Maxime Du Camp, he travelled in Brittany in 1846.In 1849–50 he went on a long journey to the Middle East, visiting Greece and Egypt.",
"In Beirut he contracted syphilis.",
"He spent five weeks in Istanbul in 1850.He visited Carthage in 1858 to conduct research for his novel ''Salammbô''.Flaubert never married and never had children.",
"His reason for not having children is revealed in a letter he sent to Colet, dated 11 December 1852.In it he revealed that he was opposed to childbirth, saying he would \"transmit to no one the aggravations and the disgrace of existence\".Flaubert was very open about his sexual activities with prostitutes in his writings on his travels.",
"He suspected that a chancre on his penis was from a Maronite or a Turkish girl.",
"He also engaged in intercourse with male prostitutes in Beirut and Egypt; in one of his letters, he describes a \"pockmarked young rascal wearing a white turban\".According to his biographer Émile Faguet, his affair with Louise Colet was his only serious romantic relationship.Flaubert was a diligent worker and often complained in his letters to friends about the strenuous nature of his work.",
"He was close to his niece, Caroline Commanville, and had a close friendship and correspondence with George Sand.",
"He occasionally visited Parisian acquaintances, including Émile Zola, Alphonse Daudet, Ivan Turgenev, and Edmond and Jules de Goncourt.The 1870s were a difficult time for Flaubert.",
"Prussian soldiers occupied his house during the War of 1870, and his mother died in 1872.After her death, he fell into financial difficulty due to business failures on the part of his niece's husband.",
"Flaubert lived with venereal diseases most of his life.",
"His health declined and he died at Croisset of a cerebral hemorrhage in 1880 at the age of 58.He was buried in the family vault in the cemetery of Rouen.",
"A monument to him by Henri Chapu was unveiled at the museum of Rouen.As a devoted Spinozist, Flaubert was significantly influenced by Spinoza's thought.",
"He was also a pantheist.===Writing career===Portrait by Eugène Giraud, 1856His first finished work was ''November'', a novella, which was completed in 1842.In September 1849, Flaubert completed the first version of a novel, ''The Temptation of Saint Anthony.''",
"He read the novel aloud to Louis Bouilhet and Maxime Du Camp over the course of four days, not allowing them to interrupt or give any opinions.",
"At the end of the reading, his friends told him to throw the manuscript in the fire, suggesting instead that he focus on day-to-day life rather than fantastic subjects.In 1850, after returning from Egypt, Flaubert began work on ''Madame Bovary''.",
"The novel, which took five years to write, was serialized in the ''Revue de Paris'' in 1856.The government brought an action against the publisher and author on the charge of immorality, which was heard during the following year, but both were acquitted.",
"When ''Madame Bovary'' appeared in book form, it met with a warm reception.In 1858, Flaubert travelled to Carthage to gather material for his next novel, ''Salammbô''.",
"The novel was completed in 1862 after four years of work.Drawing on his youth, Flaubert next wrote ''L'Éducation sentimentale'' (''Sentimental Education''), an effort that took seven years.",
"This was his last complete novel, published in the year 1869.The story focuses on the romantic life of a young man named Frédéric Moreau at the time of the French Revolution of 1848 and the founding of the Second French Empire.He wrote an unsuccessful drama, ''Le Candidat'', and published a reworked version of ''The Temptation of Saint Anthony'', portions of which had been published as early as 1857.He devoted much of his time to an ongoing project, ''Les Deux Cloportes (The Two Woodlice)'', which later became ''Bouvard et Pécuchet'', breaking the obsessive project only to write the ''Three Tales'' in 1877.This book comprises three stories: ''Un Cœur simple'' (''A Simple Heart''), ''La Légende de Saint-Julien l'Hospitalier'' (''The Legend of St. Julian the Hospitaller''), and ''Hérodias'' (''Herodias'').",
"After the publication of the stories, he spent the remainder of his life toiling on the unfinished ''Bouvard et Pécuchet'', which was posthumously printed in 1881.It was a grand satire on the futility of human knowledge and the ubiquity of mediocrity.",
"He believed the work to be his masterpiece, though the posthumous version received lukewarm reviews.",
"Flaubert was a prolific letter writer, and his letters have been collected in several publications.At the time of his death, he may have been working on a further historical novel, based on the Battle of Thermopylae."
],
[
"Perfectionist style",
"Flaubert famously avoided the inexact, the abstract and the vaguely inapt expression, and scrupulously eschewed the cliché.",
"In a letter to George Sand he said that he spent his time \"trying to write harmonious sentences, avoiding assonances\".Flaubert believed in and pursued the principle of finding \"''le mot juste''\" (\"the right word\"), which he considered as the key means to achieve high quality in literary art.",
"He worked in sullen solitude, sometimes occupying a week in the completion of one page, never satisfied with what he had composed.",
"In Flaubert's correspondence he intimates this, explaining correct prose did not flow out of him and that his style was achieved through work and revision.",
"Flaubert said he wished to forge a style \"that would be rhythmic as verse, precise as the language of the sciences, undulant, deep-voiced as a cello, tipped with flame: a style that would pierce your idea like a dagger, and on which your thought would sail easily ahead over a smooth surface, like a skiff before a good tail wind.\"",
"He famously said that \"an author in his book must be like God in the universe, present everywhere and visible nowhere.",
"\"This painstaking style of writing is also evident when one compares Flaubert's output over a lifetime to that of his peers (for example Balzac or Zola).",
"Flaubert published much less prolifically than was the norm for his time and never got near the pace of a novel a year, as his peers often achieved during their peaks of activity.",
"Walter Pater famously called Flaubert the \"martyr of style\"."
],
[
"Legacy",
"In the assessment of critic James Wood:As a writer, other than a pure stylist, Flaubert was nearly equal parts romantic and realist.",
"Hence, members of various schools, especially realists and formalists, have traced their origins to his work.",
"The exactitude with which he adapts his expressions to his purpose can be seen in all parts of his work, especially in the portraits he draws of the figures in his principal romances.",
"The degree to which Flaubert's fame has extended since his death presents \"an interesting chapter of literary history in itself\".",
"He is also credited with spreading the popularity of the color Tuscany Cypress, a color often mentioned in his chef-d'œuvre ''Madame Bovary''.Flaubert's lean and precise writing style has had a large influence on 20th-century writers such as Franz Kafka and J. M. Coetzee.",
"As Vladimir Nabokov discussed in his famous lecture series:The greatest literary influence upon Kafka was Flaubert's.",
"Flaubert who loathed pretty-pretty prose would have applauded Kafka's attitude towards his tool.",
"Kafka liked to draw his terms from the language of law and science, giving them a kind of ironic precision, with no intrusion of the author's private sentiments; this was exactly Flaubert's method through which he achieved a singular poetic effect.",
"The legacy of his work habits can best be described, therefore, as paving the way towards a slower and more introspective manner of writing.The publication of ''Madame Bovary'' in 1856 was followed by more scandal than admiration; it was not understood at first that this novel was the beginning of something new: the scrupulously truthful portraiture of life.",
"Gradually, this aspect of his genius was accepted, and it began to crowd out all others.",
"At the time of his death, he was widely regarded as the most influential French Realist.",
"Under this aspect Flaubert exercised an extraordinary influence over Guy de Maupassant, Edmond de Goncourt, Alphonse Daudet, and Émile Zola.",
"Even after the decline of the Realist school, Flaubert did not lose prestige in the literary community; he continues to appeal to other writers because of his deep commitment to aesthetic principles, his devotion to style, and his indefatigable pursuit of the perfect expression.His ''Œuvres Complètes'' (8 vols., 1885) were printed from the original manuscripts, and included, besides the works mentioned already, the two plays ''Le Candidat'' and ''Le Château des cœurs''.",
"Another edition (10 vols.)",
"appeared in 1873–85.Flaubert's correspondence with George Sand was published in 1884 with an introduction by Guy de Maupassant.He has been admired or written about by almost every major literary personality of the 20th century, including philosophers and sociologists such as Michel Foucault, Roland Barthes, Pierre Bourdieu, and Jean-Paul Sartre, the latter of whose partially psychoanalytic portrait of Flaubert in ''The Family Idiot'' was published in 1971.Georges Perec named ''Sentimental Education'' as one of his favourite novels.",
"The Peruvian novelist Mario Vargas Llosa is another great admirer of Flaubert.",
"Apart from ''Perpetual Orgy'', which is solely devoted to Flaubert's art, one can find lucid discussions in Vargas Llosa's ''Letters to a Young Novelist'' (published 2003).",
"In a public lecture in May 1966 at the Kaufmann Art Gallery in New York, Marshall McLuhan claimed: \"I derived all my knowledge of media from people like Flaubert and Rimbaud and Baudelaire.",
"\"On the occasion of Flaubert's 198th birthday (12 December 2019), a group of researchers at CNRS published a neural language model under his name."
],
[
"Bibliography",
"===Prose Fiction===*''November'' (1842) - novella published posthumously (1928)*''The Temptation of Saint Anthony'' (1849, 1856, 1872, and 1874) - prose poem*''Madame Bovary'' (1857)*''Salammbô'' (1862)*''Sentimental Education'' (1869)*''Three Tales'' (1877) - short story collection*''Bouvard et Pécuchet'' (1881) - unfinished novel, posthumously published===Other works===*''La Peste à Florence'' (1836)*''Rêve d'enfer'' (1837)*''Memoirs of a Madman'' (1838)*''Le Candidat'' (1874)*''Le Château des cœurs'' (1880)*''Dictionary of Received Ideas'' (1911)*''Souvenirs, notes et pensées intimes'' (1965)===Adaptations===* The opera ''Hérodiade'' by Jules Massenet, based on Flaubert's novella ''Hérodias''* The opera ''Madame Bovary'' by Emmanuel Bondeville, based on Flaubert's novel* The unfinished opera ''Salammbo'' by Modest Mussorgsky, orchestrated by Zoltán Peskó, based on Flaubert's novel.",
"* Eight films titled ''Madame Bovary''.",
"* ''La légende de Saint-Julien l'Hospitalier'' (1888), an opera by Camille Erlanger===Correspondence (in English)===*Selections:**''Selected Letters'' (ed.",
"Francis Steegmuller, 1953, 2001)**''Selected Letters'' (ed.",
"Geoffrey Wall, 1997)*''Flaubert in Egypt: A Sensibility on Tour'' (1972)*''Flaubert and Turgenev, a Friendship in Letters: The Complete Correspondence'' (ed.",
"Barbara Beaumont, 1985)*Correspondence with George Sand:**''The George Sand–Gustave Flaubert Letters'', translated by Aimée G. Leffingwell McKenzie (A. L. McKenzie), introduced by Stuart Sherman (1921), available at the Gutenberg website as E-text No.",
"5115** ''Flaubert–Sand: The Correspondence'' (1993)===Biographical and other related publications===* Allen, James Sloan, ''Worldly Wisdom: Great Books and the Meanings of Life,'' Frederic C. Beil, 2008.",
"* Brown, Frederick, ''Flaubert: a Biography'', Little, Brown; 2006.",
"* Hennequin, Émile, ''Quelques écrivains français Flaubert, Zola, Hugo, Goncourt, Huysmans, etc.",
"'', available at the Gutenberg website as E-text No.",
"12289* Barnes, Julian, ''Flaubert's Parrot'', London: J. Cape; 1984 * Fleming, Bruce, ''Saving Madame Bovary: Being Happy With What We Have,'' Frederic C. Beil, 2017.",
"* Max, Gerry, \"Gustave Flaubert: The Book As Artifact and Idea: Bibliomane and Bibliology,\" Dalhousie French Studies, Spring-Summer, 1992.",
"* Patton, Susannah, '' A Journey into Flaubert's Normandy'', Roaring Forties Press, 2007.",
"* Sartre, Jean-Paul.",
"''The Family Idiot: Gustave Flaubert, 1821–1857'', Volumes 1–5.University of Chicago Press, 1987.",
"* Steegmuller, Francis, '' Flaubert and Madame Bovary: a Double Portrait'', New York: Viking Press; 1939.",
"* Tooke, Adrianne, ''Flaubert and the Pictorial Arts: from image to text'', Oxford University Press; 2000.",
"* Troyat, Henri, ''Flaubert'', Viking, 1992.",
"* Wall, Geoffrey, ''Flaubert: a Life'', Faber and Faber; 2001.",
"* Various authors, ''The Public vs. M. Gustave Flaubert'', available at the Gutenberg website as E-text No.",
"10666."
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* * * * * Audiobook (MP3): ''La femme du monde'' (taken from Flaubert's early works) * Flaubert's works: text, concordances and frequency list* Gustave Flaubert, his work in audio version * * Site of the Centre Flaubert at Rouen * Flaubert entry at the Johns Hopkins University Guide to Literary Theory and Criticism* Bibliomania page* A comprehensive site in French * Flaubert 'Bookweb' on literary website The Ledge, with suggestions for further reading* \"The Martyr of Letters\", essay on ''The Letters of Gustave Flaubert'', F. L. Lucas, ''Studies French and English'' (1934), pp.",
"242–266"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Gregory Chaitin"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Gregory John Chaitin''' ( ; born 25 June 1947) is an Argentine-American mathematician and computer scientist.",
"Beginning in the late 1960s, Chaitin made contributions to algorithmic information theory and metamathematics, in particular a computer-theoretic result equivalent to Gödel's incompleteness theorem.",
"He is considered to be one of the founders of what is today known as algorithmic (Solomonoff–Kolmogorov–Chaitin, Kolmogorov or program-size) complexity together with Andrei Kolmogorov and Ray Solomonoff.",
"Along with the works of e.g.",
"Solomonoff, Kolmogorov, Martin-Löf, and Leonid Levin, algorithmic information theory became a foundational part of theoretical computer science, information theory, and mathematical logic.",
"It is a common subject in several computer science curricula.",
"Besides computer scientists, Chaitin's work draws attention of many philosophers and mathematicians to fundamental problems in mathematical creativity and digital philosophy."
],
[
"Mathematics and computer science",
"Gregory Chaitin is Jewish and he attended the Bronx High School of Science and City College of New York, where he (still in his teens) developed the theory that led to his independent discovery of algorithmic complexity.Chaitin has defined Chaitin's constant Ω, a real number whose digits are equidistributed and which is sometimes informally described as an expression of the probability that a random program will halt.",
"Ω has the mathematical property that it is definable, with asymptotic approximations from below (but not from above), but not computable.Chaitin is also the originator of using graph coloring to do register allocation in compiling, a process known as Chaitin's algorithm.He was formerly a researcher at IBM's Thomas J. Watson Research Center in New York.",
"He has written more than 10 books that have been translated to about 15 languages.",
"He is today interested in questions of metabiology and information-theoretic formalizations of the theory of evolution, and is a member of the Institute for Advanced Studies at Mohammed VI Polytechnic University."
],
[
"Other scholarly contributions",
"Chaitin also writes about philosophy, especially metaphysics and philosophy of mathematics (particularly about epistemological matters in mathematics).",
"In metaphysics, Chaitin claims that algorithmic information theory is the key to solving problems in the field of biology (obtaining a formal definition of 'life', its origin and evolution) and neuroscience (the problem of consciousness and the study of the mind).In recent writings, he defends a position known as digital philosophy.",
"In the epistemology of mathematics, he claims that his findings in mathematical logic and algorithmic information theory show there are \"mathematical facts that are true for no reason, that are true by accident\".",
"Chaitin proposes that mathematicians must abandon any hope of proving those mathematical facts and adopt a quasi-empirical methodology."
],
[
"Honors",
"In 1995 he was given the degree of doctor of science ''honoris causa'' by the University of Maine.",
"In 2002 he was given the title of honorary professor by the University of Buenos Aires in Argentina, where his parents were born and where Chaitin spent part of his youth.",
"In 2007 he was given a Leibniz Medal by Wolfram Research.",
"In 2009 he was given the degree of doctor of philosophy ''honoris causa'' by the National University of Córdoba.",
"He was formerly a researcher at IBM's Thomas J. Watson Research Center and a professor at the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro."
],
[
"Criticism",
"Some philosophers and logicians disagree with the philosophical conclusions that Chaitin has drawn from his theorems related to what Chaitin thinks is a kind of fundamental arithmetic randomness.The logician Torkel Franzén criticized Chaitin's interpretation of Gödel's incompleteness theorem and the alleged explanation for it that Chaitin's work represents."
],
[
"Bibliography",
"*''Information, Randomness & Incompleteness'' (World Scientific 1987) ( online)*''Algorithmic Information Theory'' (Cambridge University Press 1987) ( online)*''Information-theoretic Incompleteness'' (World Scientific 1992) ( online)*''The Limits of Mathematics'' (Springer-Verlag 1998) ( online)*''The Unknowable'' (Springer-Verlag 1999) ( online)*''Exploring Randomness'' (Springer-Verlag 2001) ( online)*''Conversations with a Mathematician'' (Springer-Verlag 2002) ( online)*''From Philosophy to Program Size'' ( Tallinn Cybernetics Institute 2003)*''Meta Math!",
": The Quest for Omega'' (Pantheon Books 2005) (reprinted in UK as ''Meta Maths: The Quest for Omega'', Atlantic Books 2006) ()*''Teoria algoritmica della complessità'' ( G. Giappichelli Editore 2006)*''Thinking about Gödel & Turing'' (World Scientific 2007) ( online)*''Mathematics, Complexity and Philosophy'' ( Editorial Midas 2011)*''Gödel's Way'' (CRC Press 2012)*''Proving Darwin: Making Biology Mathematical'' (Pantheon Books 2012) ( online)*''Building the World from Information & Computation'' (Academia.edu 2023) ( online)*''Philosophical Mathematics: Infinity, Incompleteness, Irreducibility '' (Academia.edu 2023) ( online)"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* * *"
],
[
"External links",
"* G J Chaitin Home Page from academia.edu* G J Chaitin Home Page from UMaine.edu in the Internet Archive * List of publications of G J Chaitin** Video of lecture on \"Leibniz, complexity and incompleteness\"* New Scientist article (March, 2001) on Chaitin, Omegas and Super-Omegas* A short version of Chaitin's proof* Gregory Chaitin extended film interview and transcripts for the 'Why Are We Here?'",
"documentary series* Chaitin Lisp on github"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Goran Bregović"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Goran Bregović''' (born 22 March 1950) is a recording artist from Bosnia and Herzegovina.",
"He is one of the most internationally known modern musicians and composers of the Slavic-speaking countries in the Balkans, and is one of the few former Yugoslav musicians who has performed at major international venues such as Carnegie Hall, Royal Albert Hall and L'Olympia.A Sarajevo native, Bregović started out with Kodeksi and Jutro, but rose to prominence as the main creative mind and lead guitarist of Bijelo Dugme, widely considered one of the most popular and influential recording acts ever to exist in the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.",
"After Bijelo Dugme split up, he embarked on several critically and commercially successful projects, and started composing film scores.",
"Among his better known film scores are three of Emir Kusturica's films (''Time of the Gypsies'', ''Arizona Dream'' and ''Underground'').",
"For ''Time of the Gypsies'', Bregović won a Golden Arena Award at the Pula Film Festival in 1990, among other awards.",
"He had also composed for the Academy Award-nominated film ''La Reine Margot'' and the Cannes-entered film ''The Serpent's Kiss''.Bregović, during his five-decade long career, has composed for critically acclaimed singers, including Sezen Aksu, Kayah, Iggy Pop, Šaban Bajramović, George Dalaras and Cesária Évora."
],
[
"Early life",
"Born in Sarajevo, PR Bosnia-Herzegovina, FPR Yugoslavia to a Croatian father Franjo Bregović and Serbian mother Borka Perišić, Goran grew up with two younger siblings — sister Dajana and brother Predrag.",
"Their father was from the Croatian region of Prigorje, specifically Sveti Petar Čvrstec village near Križevci, while their mother was born in Virovitica to parents that had shortly before her birth arrived in the nearby village of Čemernica, settling there from the village of Kazanci near Gacko in East Herzegovina.",
"Goran's maternal grandfather fought in the Royal Serbian Army at the Salonica front during World War I and as a reward received land in Slavonia where he soon moved his family.Goran's parents met shortly after World War II in Virovitica where his mother Borka lived and his father Franjo (who fought on the Partisan side during the war) attended a Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) military school.",
"Franjo Bregović soon got his first job, teaching ballistics at a military school in Sarajevo, so the couple that at the time moved there.",
"Goran, their first child, was born in 1950 in Sarajevo.Goran was 10 years old when his parents divorced.",
"In later interviews, he mentioned his father's alcoholism as the reason for the breakdown of their marriage.",
"Soon after the split, his father moved to Livno, taking Goran's younger brother Predrag with him while Goran remained living with his mother in Sarajevo, visiting his father and brother every summer in Livno.",
"Their father soon retired and eventually moved back to his home village in Zagorje while Goran's brother Predrag later moved back to Sarajevo for university studies.Goran played violin in a music school.",
"However, deemed untalented, he was thrown out during second grade.",
"His musical education was thus reduced to what his friend taught him until Goran's mother bought him his first guitar in his early teens.",
"Bregović wanted to enroll in a fine arts high school, but his aunt told his mother that it was supposedly full of homosexuals, which precipitated his mother's decision to send him to a technical (traffic) school.",
"As a compromise for not getting his way, she allowed him to grow his hair long."
],
[
"Early career",
"Upon entering high school, teenage Bregović joined the school band Izohipse where he began on bass guitar.",
"Soon, however, he was kicked out of that school too (this time for misbehavior – he crashed into a school-owned Mercedes-Benz).",
"Bregović then entered grammar school and its school band Beštije (again as a bass guitar player).",
"When he was 16, his mother left him and moved to the coast, meaning that other than having a few relatives to rely on, he mostly had to take care of himself.",
"He did that by playing folk music in a kafana in Konjic, working on construction sites, and selling newspapers.Spotting him at a Beštije gig in 1969, Željko Bebek invited eighteen-year-old Bregović to play bass guitar in his band Kodeksi, which Goran gladly accepted.===Kodeksi===Eventually, Kodeksi shifted setup so Bregović moved from bass to lead guitar, resulting in Kodeksi having the following line-up during summer 1970: Goran Bregović, Željko Bebek, Zoran Redžić and Milić Vukašinović.",
"All of them would eventually become members of Bijelo Dugme at some point in the future.",
"At the time, they were largely influenced by Led Zeppelin and Black Sabbath.",
"During the fall of 1970, this resulted in the departure of Željko Bebek, who (both as rhythm guitar player and singer) got phased out of the band.",
"At the end of the year, Goran's mother and Zoran's brother arrived in Naples and took them back to Sarajevo.===Jutro===Then, in the autumn of 1971, Bregović enrolled at the University of Sarajevo's Faculty of Philosophy, studying philosophy and sociology.",
"He soon quit, however.",
"At the same time, Milić Vukašinović left for London, so Bregović formed a band with Nuno Arnautalić called Jutro (Morning), which Redžić soon joined as well.",
"Over the next few years, the band changed lineups frequently, and on 1 January 1974 modified its name to Bijelo Dugme (\"White Button\")."
],
[
"Bijelo Dugme",
"Bregović in 1980 during Bijelo Dugme's new wave phaseFrom 1974 until 1989, Bregović played lead guitar and was the main creative force behind Bijelo Dugme (''White Button'').",
"For years they stood as one of the most popular bands in SFR Yugoslavia.",
"Just as with Jutro previously, he continued as Bijelo Dugme's undisputed leader and decision-maker as well as its public face in the Yugoslav print and electronic media once the band started taking off commercially.Over the band's fifteen-year run, in addition to their enormous popularity at home, led by Bregović, Bijelo Dugme made several attempts at expanding their prominence outside of Yugoslavia.",
"In late 1975, while recording their second album ''Šta bi dao da si na mom mjestu'' in London, they additionally recorded an English language track called \"Playing the Part\" (translated version of their Serbo-Croatian track \"Šta bi dao da si na mom mjestu\", itself an uncredited cover of Argent's 1972 track \"I Am the Dance of Ages\") that was packaged as a promo single for English music journalists.",
"Never officially released for mass distribution, the track quickly fell into oblivion.Bijelo Dugme had somewhat better luck with touring abroad, which almost entirely took place in the Eastern Bloc countries as part of their respective cultural exchange programs with SFR Yugoslavia.",
"The band briefly toured the Polish People's Republic during April 1977, a 9-concert leg as part of the tour in support of their third album ''Eto!",
"Baš hoću!''.",
"During their 10-day Polish tour, the band played two concerts on back-to-back nights in Warsaw, followed by Olsztyn, Zielona Góra, three shows on back-to-back days in Poznań, and finally two shows on the same day in Kalisz.",
"While in Poland, they also shot a 30-minute television special for TVP3 Katowice, a regional Katowice-based branch of the state-owned Telewizja Polska.",
"Later that year, following the tour's culmination at a triumphant open-air concert at Hajdučka Česma in Belgrade, Bregović went to serve his mandatory Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) stint.",
"Assigned to a Niš-based unit, the twenty-seven-year-old reported for service on 3 November 1977 and would spend the following year away from music, a period during which the band was also on hiatus.During early 1982, as part of an event bringing together past and future Winter Olympic hosts, the band played in Innsbruck, Austria as representatives of the city of Sarajevo and SFR Yugoslavia, the site of the upcoming Winter Olympics.",
"On return to Yugoslavia from Innsbruck, the band had its baggage confiscated by the Yugoslav customs after undeclared musical equipment was found among their luggage.",
"Some six months later, during summer 1982, Bijelo Dugme went on an impromptu tour of the People's Republic of Bulgaria, playing 41 shows throughout the country from 15 July until 31 August 1982.Despite the tour in support of their latest studio album ''Doživjeti stotu'' being over for more than a year, and having no new material to promote, the band reportedly accepted the tour of Bulgaria in order to recover some of the funds they had lost after getting fined by the Yugoslav customs over the attempt to bring undeclared musical equipment into the country.In summer 1985, following a decade of continuous rejection for tours of the Soviet Union by the cultural attaché of the Soviet embassy in Yugoslavia, Bijelo Dugme was finally approved and booked to play in Moscow on 28 July 1985, on the same bill with fellow Yugoslav rock act Bajaga i Instruktori, at a huge open-air concert at Gorky Park as part of the 12th World Festival of Youth and Students.",
"Ahead of the show, Bregović decided to sequester the band in Budva for two weeks in order to rehearse for the Moscow show, an indication of the seriousness with which they approached this particular concert.",
"However, once in Moscow, due to overcrowding at Gorky Park and resulting safety concerns, the event was interrupted around 10 p.m. after the Bajaga i Instruktori set before Bijelo Dugme even had a chance to take the stage.",
"Two days later on 30 July 1985, instead at the marquee Gorky Park in central Moscow, Bijelo Dugme got to play the Dynamo Arena on the city outskirts at an unpopular noon-hour time slot.===Guest appearances, collaborations and business venture===In between Bijelo Dugme's studio releases and tours, in-demand Bregović worked on various side projects in Yugoslavia.",
"These included releasing a solo record in 1976 and composing two movie soundtracks—1977's ''Leptirov oblak'' and 1979's ''Lične stvari''.He also tried his hand at music production, producing Idoli's 1980 seven-inch single \"Maljčiki\" / \"Retko te viđam sa devojkama\" and co-producing, alongside Kornelije Kovač, Zdravko Čolić's fourth studio album ''Malo pojačaj radio'' in 1981.Bregović furthermore made guest appearances on guitar on various studio recordings by different Yugoslav pop, folk, and rock acts: Neda Ukraden's track \"Tri djevojke\" (together with Bijelo Dugme bandmates Vlado Pravdić and Zoran Redžić) off her 1976 album ''Ko me to od nekud doziva'', Hanka Paldum's track \"Zbog tebe\" off her 1980 album ''Čežnja'', \"Ne da/ne nego i/ili\" track by Kozmetika off their 1983 eponymous album, Valentino's track \"Pazi na ritam\" off their 1983 debut album ''ValentiNo1'', Riblja Čorba's track \"Disko mišić\" off their 1985 album ''Istina'', Merlin's 1986 album ''Teško meni sa tobom (a još teže bez tebe)'', Mjesečari track \"Gdje izlaziš ovih dana\" off their 1988 album ''One šetaju od 1 do 2'', and Piloti track \"Tiho, tiho\" off their 1990 album ''Nek te Bog čuva za mene''.During his time leading Bijelo Dugme, Bregović also became involved in the financial and organizational side of the music business.",
"In 1984, dissatisfied with their respective financial terms at the state-owned Jugoton label, Bijelo Dugme bandleader Bregović and one of Yugoslavia's biggest pop stars Zdravko Čolić got together to establish their own music label Kamarad, which—via a deal with state-owned Diskoton and later another newly-established private label Komuna—would end up co-releasing all of Bijelo Dugme's subsequent studio albums including three of Čolić's studio albums from 1984 until 1990.Considered an unusual move at the time in a communist country with nearly across-the-board public ownership that had just recently began allowing certain modes of private entrepreneurship, starting a privately-owned record label—combined with Bregović's and Čolić's high public profile in Yugoslavia—got them both a lot of additional attention in the country's press.",
"The company was registered in Radomlje near Domžale in SR Slovenia.",
"Due to not having its own production facilities and distribution network, the new label entered into a co-releasing agreement with Diskoton thus essentially functioning as the legal entity that holds the licensing rights to the works of Bijelo Dugme and Zdravko Čolić.",
"Kamarad's debut co-release was Čolić's 1984 studio album ''Ti si mi u krvi'' followed by Bijelo Dugme's self-titled studio album later that year with new vocalist Mladen \"Tifa\" Vojičić.",
"The label would also co-release many of Dugme's and Čolić's later 'best of' compilations in addition to Bregović's movie soundtrack albums as well as Vesna Zmijanac's 1992 album ''Ako me umiriš sad''."
],
[
"Solo career",
"Bregović performing at Carnegie Hall in New York City on 19 October 2011During the late 1980s, a period that would turn out to be the final years of Bijelo Dugme, Bregović entered the world of film music.",
"His first project was Emir Kusturica's ''Time of the Gypsies'' (1989) and it turned out to be a great success (both the film and the soundtrack).",
"Bregović's collaboration with Kusturica continued as the musician composed the soundtrack (which was performed by Iggy Pop) for Kusturica's next film ''Arizona Dream'' (1993).",
"During the Bosnian War, Bregović relocated to Paris, but also lived in Belgrade.",
"His next major project, music for Patrice Chéreau's ''Queen Margot'' was a great success as well, and as a result, the film won two awards on the 1994 Cannes Film Festival.",
"The next year's Golden Palm award went to ''Underground'', for which Goran Bregović composed the music.In 1997, he worked with Turkish singer Sezen Aksu on her album ''Düğün ve Cenaze'' (''Wedding and Funeral'').",
"After that album, he continued making composite albums with other musicians that were based on his music and singers' lyrics.He made an album with George Dalaras in 1999 named ''Thessaloniki – Yannena with Two Canvas Shoes''.",
"In the same year, Bregović recorded an album called ''Kayah i Bregović'' (Kayah and Bregović) with popular Polish singer Kayah which sold over 700,000 copies in Poland (seven times platinum record).In 2001, he recorded another album with another Polish singer, Krzysztof Krawczyk, titled \"Daj mi drugie życie\" (\"Give Me Second Life\").In 2005, Bregović took part in three large farewell concerts of Bijelo Dugme.A number of works created by Bregović can be heard on the soundtrack to the 2006 film ''Borat: Cultural Learnings of America for Make Benefit Glorious Nation of Kazakhstan'', most notably \"Đurđevdan\".",
"The film itself actually features more Bregović samples than the soundtrack.Two musical numbers by Bregović, \"Ne Siam Kurve Tuke Sijam Prostitutke,\" and \"Gas, Gas\" were featured in the soundtrack of the 2012 Brazilian telenovela, ''Salve Jorge'', on the television network Rede Globo.===Wedding and Funeral Orchestra===Bregović at concert in Tbilisi, Georgia on 3 October 2007For many years Bregović performed with a large ensemble of musicians: a brass band, bagpipes, a string ensemble, a tuxedo-clad all-male choir from Belgrade, women wearing traditional Bulgarian costumes, and Roma singers make up his 40-piece band and orchestra.Since 1998, and until about 2012, Bregović has been performing his music mainly in the form of concerts all over the world with his Wedding and Funeral Orchestra.",
"This consists of 10 people (in the small version) or 37 (in the large version, although, in some instances, this number varies, depending on participants from the host country).Since 2012 the orchestra consists of 9 people (in the small version) or 19 (in the large version), as it played in New York at the Lincoln Center on 15 and 16 July 2016.The small orchestra consists of Muharem \"Muki\" Rexhepi (vocals, drums), Bokan Stanković (first trumpet), Dragić Velićović (second trumpet), Stojan Dimov (sax, clarinet), Aleksandar Rajković (first trombone, glockenspiel), Miloš Mihajlović (second trombone), female vocals Bulgarian singers Daniela Radkova-Aleksandrova and Ljudmila Radkova-Trajkova, and Goran himself.",
"The large orchestra includes also string quartet: Ivana Mateijć (first violin), Bojana Jovanović-Jotić (second violin), Saša Mirković (viola), and Tatjana Jovanović-Mirković, as well as sextet of male voices: Dejan Pesić (first tenor), Milan Panić and Ranko Jović (second tenors), Aleksandar Novaković (baritone), Dušan Ljubinković and Siniša Dutina (basses).In previous years, in the orchestra the following musicians have performed: Ogi Radivojević and Alen Ademović (vocals, drums), Dalibor Lukić (second trumpet), Dejan Manigodić (tuba), Vaska Jankovska (vocals).In 2013, as part of his Asia-Pacific tour (including Australia, New Zealand, and Hong Kong), Bregović performed with a string quartet, a male choir, Bulgarian singers and half of a brass band.",
"The other part of the brass band – including bass and percussions – were being played from his computer.",
"In 2017, he was a guest artist on Puerto Rican rapper Residente's album ''Residente'' on the song \"El Futuro Es Nuestro\" (Spanish for \"The Future is Ours\").===Eurovision===During the Eurovision 2008 final in Belgrade Arena, Serbia, he played as the interval act.",
"He also composed the Serbian entry for the Eurovision Song Contest 2010; 'Ovo Je Balkan' sung by Milan Stanković."
],
[
"Musical style",
"Bregović's compositions, extending Balkan musical inspirations to innovative extremes, draw upon European classicism and Balkan rhythms.Bregović's music carries: Yugoslav, Bulgarian, Romani, Greek, Romanian, Albanian, Italian, Turkish and Polish themes and is a fusion of popular music, with traditional polyphonic music from the Balkans, tango and brass bands."
],
[
"Personal life",
"During the early 1970s, Bregović's first child, daughter Željka, was born out of wedlock from a brief relationship with a Sarajevo-based dancer named Jasenka.",
"Željka lives in Austria where she gave birth to Goran's granddaughter, Bianca.With Bijelo Dugme's mid-1970s breakout commercial success and Bregović's increased public profile in Yugoslavia, details of his lifestyle and romantic relationships also became fodder for the country's press.",
"Throughout the late 1970s and early 1980s, various Yugoslav print media outlets documented his high-profile relationship with Serbian model Ljiljana Tica who reportedly inspired his song \"Bitanga i princeza\" off Bijelo Dugme's eponymous 1979 album.In 1993, Bregović married his long-time girlfriend Dženana Sudžuka, a Bosniak model.",
"The wedding ceremony held in Paris featured film director Emir Kusturica as the groom's best man and longtime Bijelo Dugme backing vocal Amila Sulejmanović as the bride's maid of honour.The couple has three daughters: Ema (born in March 1995), Una (February 2002), and Lulu (May 2004).On 12 June 2008, fifty-eight-year-old Bregović sustained a spinal injury in Belgrade, breaking vertebrae by falling four meters from a cherry tree in the garden of his Senjak home.",
"After being assessed by doctors, his condition was stated to be \"stable without neurological complications.\"",
"Following surgery, he made a quick recovery and, within a month on 8 and 9 July, held two big concerts in New York City, proving for more than two hours each night his performance skills had not suffered from the accident.Bregović's siblings, brother Predrag and sister Dajana, live in New York City and Split, respectively.===Political views===In 1971, twenty-one-year-old Bregović—a student at the University of Sarajevo's Faculty of Philosophy—got accepted into the Yugoslav Communist League (SKJ), the only party in SFR Yugoslavia's political system.Throughout the mid-to-late 1970s, by now a famous rock musician in SFR Yugoslavia, Bregović often publicly expressed personal support for the communist ideology while underscoring importance of being active in the party.In 1990—with the dissolution of the SKJ and reinstatement of multi-party political system in Yugoslavia—Bregović expressed public support for Ante Marković's Union of Reform Forces of Yugoslavia (SRSJ), a centre-left social-democrat political party opposing ethnic nationalism and advocating for reform of Yugoslav communism into liberal market capitalism.",
"Furthermore, he actively participated in the party's election campaign ahead of the general elections in the SR Bosnia and Herzegovina constituent unit of SFR Yugoslavia, lending his celebrity and contributing to the campaign in creative capacity.",
"Despite securing public support, endorsements, and even active campaign participation from many prominent public figures in SR Bosnia and Herzegovina such as Emir Kusturica, Nele Karajlić, Branko Đurić, etc., the party got only 8.9% of the total vote.On 2 April 1999—a week into the NATO bombing of Yugoslavia—alongside Greek performers George Dalaras, Stavros Kouyioumtzis, and Alkistis Protopsalti as well as a number of others from different parts of the Balkans, Bregović played at an anti-war open-air concert at Thessaloniki's Aristotelous Square.In the years following the Yugoslav Wars and breakup of Yugoslavia, Bregović has described himself as Yugonostalgic.",
"In 2009, he stated: \"Yugoslavia is the intersection of so many worlds: Orthodox, Catholic, Muslim.",
"With music, I don't have to represent anyone, except myself – because I speak the first language of the world, the one everyone understands: music.",
"\"===Real estate===Bregović owns real estate all over the world, but divides most of his time between Belgrade where he does most of his musical recording work and Paris where his spouse lives with their three daughters.",
"He reportedly owns properties in Paris, Istanbul, Belgrade, Zagreb, on Mount Jahorina, and Perast, many of which are used for commercial purposes such as touristic rentals, studio recording, and filming locations.",
"In Belgrade, Bregović owns multiple properties in the upscale Senjak neighbourhood.",
"Some of his Belgrade properties in the neighbourhoods of Senjak and Dedinje were leased out as shooting locations for Serbian television series '''', '''', and ''''."
],
[
"Controversy",
"Bregović has frequently been accused of plagiarizing other performers' works, as well as republishing his own previously released material as new.===Enrico Macias plagiarism lawsuit===In the mid-2000s, French singer-songwriter Enrico Macias reportedly sued Bregović over Bregović's song \"In the Deathcar\" off the ''Arizona Dream'' soundtrack album, claiming it plagiarized Macias' song \"Solenzara\".",
"Media outlets in the Balkans reported in 2015 that the French court ruled in Macias' favour, ordering Bregović to pay Macias €1 million in damages.In response, via a press release distributed to media outlets throughout the Balkans, Bregović's representative Svetlana Strunić claimed that there never was a plagiarism court process against Bregović in France.===2015 cancelled concert in Poland===In March 2015, Bregović performed a concert in Crimea after it was annexed by Russia in the previous year.",
"The following month, the Life Festival in Oświęcim, Poland canceled an appearance by Bregović, saying that his statements were \"contrary to the values cherished by the Life Festival founders.",
"\"===2023 denial of entry into Moldova===Because of his open support for the Russian president, Vladimir Putin, and the 2015 performance in Crimea, in August 2023, Bregović was denied from entering Moldova.",
"He intended to play in a music festival in the country."
],
[
"List of film scores",
"Goran Bregović Wedding and Funeral Orchestra in Donetsk; 15 March 2006*1977 – ''Butterfly cloud'' (Leptirov oblak) – Directed by: Zdravko Randić*1979 – ''Personal Affairs'' (Lične stvari) – Directed by: Aleksandar Mandić*1988 – ''Time of the Gypsies'' (Dom za vešanje) – Directed by: Emir Kusturica*1989 – ''Kuduz'' – Directed by: Ademir Kenović*1990 – ''Silent Gunpowder'' (Gluvi barut) – Directed by: Bahrudin Čengić*1991 – '''' (Das Serbische Mädchen) – Directed by: *1991 – ''The Little One'' (Mala) – Directed by: Predrag Antonijević*1991 – ''Čaruga'' – Directed by: Rajko Grlić*1993 – ''Arizona Dream'' – Directed by: Emir Kusturica*1993 – ''Toxic Affair'' – Directed by: Philoméne Esposito*1993 – ''La Nuit sacrée'' – Directed by: Nicolas Klotz*1993 – ''Le Nombril du monde'' – Directed by: Ariel Zeitoun*1993 – ''Kika'' – Directed by: Pedro Almodóvar*1994 – soundtrack for ''La Reine Margot'' – Directed by: Patrice Chéreau*1995 – ''Underground'' – Directed by: Emir Kusturica*1997 – ''Music for Weddings and Funerals'' (Musik för bröllop och begravningar) – Directed by: Unni Straume*1997 – ''A Chef in Love'' (Shekvarebuli kulinaris ataserti retsepti) – Directed by: Nana Djordjadze*1997 – ''The Serpent's Kiss'' – Directed by: Philippe Rousselot*1997 – ''XXL'' – Directed by: Ariel Zeitoun*1998 – ''Train de Vie'' – Directed by: Radu Mihaileanu*1999 – ''The Lost Son'' – Directed by: Chris Menges*1999 – ''Tuvalu'' – Directed by: Veit Helmer*1999 – ''Operation Simoom (Operacja Samum)'' – Directed by Władysław Pasikowski*2000 – ''27 Missing Kisses'' – Directed by: Nana Djordjadze*2000 – ''Je li jasno prijatelju?''",
"– Directed by: Dejan Ačimović*2005 – ''The Turkish Gambit'' (Турецкий гамбит) – Directed by: Dzhanik Faiziyev*2005 – ''I giorni dell'abbandono'' – Directed by: Roberto Faenza*2006 – ''Karaula'' – Directed by: Rajko Grlić (This is not true)*2006 – ''Le Lièvre de Vatanen'' – Directed by: Marc Rivière*2006 – ''Borat: Cultural Learnings of America for Make Benefit Glorious Nation of Kazakhstan'' (non-original music; \"Ederlezi\" from Dom za vešanje)*2007 – ''Fly by Rossinant'' – Directed by: Jacky Stoév*2008 – ''Mustafa'' – Directed by: Can Dündar*2011 – '''' – Directed by Veit Helmer"
],
[
"Discography",
"===With Bijelo dugme======Original movies soundtracks===:''Not all his soundtracks compositions are commercially available.",
"''*1988: ''Time of the Gypsies'' (Kamarad, Diskoton, PolyGram, Komuna)*1989: ''Kuduz'' (Diskoton)*1993: ''Toxic affair'' (Polygram / Universal)*1993: ''Arizona Dream'' (Kamarad, PolyGram, Komuna)*1994: ''La Reine Margot'' (Kamarad, PolyGram, Komuna)*1995: ''Underground'' (Kamarad, PolyGram, Komuna)*1995: ''A Chef in Love'' (Kamarad)*2000: ''Tuvalu'' avec Jürgen Knieper (United One Records)*2005: ''I giorni dell'abbandono'' with Carmen Consoli*2006: ''Le Lièvre de Vatanen'' (PolyGram)*2008: ''Mustafa'' (Sony Music Entertainment)===Compilations===:''His compilations include soundtracks from different works.",
"''*1996: ''PS'' (Komuna)*1998: ''Ederlezi'' (PolyGram)*1999: ''Magic book'' (Bravo Records)*2000: ''Songbook'' (Mercury Records, Universal)*2000: ''Music for films'' (PolyGram)*2009: ''Welcome to Bregović'' (Wrasse Records)===Other albums===*1976: ''Goran Bregović'' (PGP RTB)*1991: ''Paradehtika'' with Alkistis Protopsalti (Polydor)*1997: ''Düğün ve Cenaze'' with Sezen Aksu (Raks Müzik)*1997: ''Thessaloniki – Yannena with Two Canvas Shoes'' with George Dalaras (Minos-EMI)*1998: ''Silence of the Balkans'', live in Thessaloniki (Mercury Records)*1999: ''Kayah & Bregović'' with Kayah (ZIC-ZAC)*2000: ''Balkanica'' with Athens Symphony Orchestra (FM Records)*2001: ''Krawczyk & Bregović Daj mi drugie życie'' with Krzysztof Krawczyk (BMG Poland, Rada)*2002: ''Tales and Songs from Weddings and Funerals'' (Mercury)*2007: ''Goran Bregović's Karmen with a Happy End'' (Mercury)*2009: ''Alkohol: Šljivovica & Champagne'' (Kamarad, Mercury)*2012: ''Ederlezi x Four'' (FM Records)*2012: ''Champagne for Gypsies'' (Kamarad, Mercury)*2017: ''Three Letters from Sarajevo, Opus 1'' (Wrasse Records)=== Guest performances ===*2017: \"El Futuro Es Nuestro\" (''Residente''), by Residente"
],
[
"Honours and awards",
"*On 31 June 2006, he received a copy of the key of the city of Tirana by Edi Rama on the occasion of his visit to Albania.",
"*In 2021, he was awarded the Order of Karađorđe's Star by President Aleksandar Vučić on the occasion of Statehood Day of Serbia."
],
[
"Annotations"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"**Marković, Aleksandra.",
"\"Goran Bregović, the Balkan Music Composer.\"",
"Ethnologia Balkanica 12 (2008): 9–23."
],
[
"External links",
"**"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Gestation"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Drawing of a fetus in utero.",
"'''Gestation''' is the period of development during the carrying of an embryo, and later fetus, inside viviparous animals (the embryo develops within the parent).",
"It is typical for mammals, but also occurs for some non-mammals.",
"Mammals during pregnancy can have one or more gestations at the same time, for example in a multiple birth.The time interval of a gestation is called the ''gestation period''.",
"In obstetrics, ''gestational age'' refers to the time since the onset of the last menses, which on average is fertilization age plus two weeks."
],
[
"Mammals",
"In mammals, pregnancy begins when a zygote (fertilized ovum) implants in the female's uterus and ends once the fetus leaves the uterus during labor or an abortion (whether induced or spontaneous).===Humans===Timeline of human fertilizationIn humans, pregnancy can be defined clinically or biochemically.",
"Clinically, pregnancy starts from first day of the mother's last period.",
"Biochemically, pregnancy starts when a woman's human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) levels rise above 25 mIU/mL.Human pregnancy can be divided into three trimesters, each approximately three months long: the first, second, and third trimester.",
"The first trimester is from the last menstrual period through the 13th week, the second trimester is 14th–28/29th week, and the third trimester is 29/30th–42nd week.",
"Birth normally occurs at a gestational age of about 40 weeks, though it is common for births to occur from 37 to 42 weeks.",
"Labor occurring prior to 37 weeks gestation is considered preterm labor and can result from multiple factors, including previous preterm deliveries.Prenatal care is important for the maintenance of a healthy pregnancy and surveillance of related complications.",
"In high-income countries, prenatal care typically involves monthly visits during the first two trimesters, with an increasing number of visits closer to delivery.",
"At these visits, healthcare providers will evaluate a variety of parental and fetal metrics, including fetal growth and heart rate, birth defects, maternal blood pressure, among others.After birth, health care providers will measure the baby's weight, vital signs, reflexes, head circumference, muscle tone, and posture to help determine the gestational age.Various factors can influence the duration of gestation, including diseases in pregnancy and adequate prenatal care.",
"The rates of morbidity and pre-existing diseases that predispose mothers to life-threatening, pregnancy-related complications in the United States are increasing.",
"The brunt of this burden is experienced by non-Hispanic Black women.",
"Inaccessibility of prenatal care may partially explain this ongoing disparity.",
"Other factors that affect prenatal care utilization include socioeconomic status, insurance status, childcare, social support, housing, and immigration status."
],
[
"Non-mammals",
"Pregnant scorpionIn viviparous animals, the embryo develops inside the body of the mother, as opposed to outside in an egg (oviparity).",
"The mother then gives live birth.",
"The less developed form of viviparity is called ovoviviparity, in which the mother carries embryos inside eggs.",
"Most vipers exhibit ovoviviparity.",
"The more developed form of viviparity is called placental viviparity; mammals are the best example, but it has also evolved independently in other animals, such as in scorpions, some sharks, and in velvet worms.",
"Viviparous offspring live independently and require an external food supply from birth.",
"Certain lizards also employ this method such as the genera ''Tiliqua'' and ''Corucia.''",
"The placenta is attached directly to the mother in these lizards which is called viviparous matrotrophy.Ovoviviparous animals develop within eggs that remain within the mother's body up until they hatch or are about to hatch.",
"It is similar to viviparity in that the embryo develops within the mother's body.",
"Unlike the embryos of viviparous species, ovoviviparous embryos are nourished by the egg yolk rather than by the mother's body.",
"However, the mother's body does provide gas exchange.",
"The young of ovoviviparous amphibians are sometimes born as larvae, and undergo metamorphosis outside the body of the mother.The fish family Syngnathidae has the unique characteristic whereby females lay their eggs in a brood pouch on the male's chest, and the male incubates the eggs.",
"Fertilization may take place in the pouch or before implantation in the water.",
"Included in Syngnathidae are seahorses, the pipefish, and the weedy and leafy sea dragons.",
"Syngnathidae is the only family in the animal kingdom to which the term \"male pregnancy\" has been applied."
],
[
"See also",
"*Evolution of mammals (for the evolution of gestation-related features in humans and other mammals)*Male pregnancy*Nesting instinct*Pregnancy*Pregnancy in fish*Prenatal development*Prenatal nutrition and birth weight"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* NSRL.ttu.edu* Table listing average animal gestation periods"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Gamma function"
],
[
"Introduction",
"In mathematics, the '''gamma function''' (represented by , the capital letter gamma from the Greek alphabet) is one commonly used extension of the factorial function to complex numbers.",
"The gamma function is defined for all complex numbers except the non-positive integers.",
"For every positive integer , Derived by Daniel Bernoulli, for complex numbers with a positive real part, the gamma function is defined via a convergent improper integral:The gamma function then is defined as the analytic continuation of this integral function to a meromorphic function that is holomorphic in the whole complex plane except zero and the negative integers, where the function has simple poles.The gamma function has no zeros, so the reciprocal gamma function is an entire function.",
"In fact, the gamma function corresponds to the Mellin transform of the negative exponential function:Other extensions of the factorial function do exist, but the gamma function is the most popular and useful.",
"It is a component in various probability-distribution functions, and as such it is applicable in the fields of probability and statistics, as well as combinatorics."
],
[
"Motivation",
" interpolates the factorial function to non-integer values.The gamma function can be seen as a solution to the following interpolation problem:: \"Find a smooth curve that connects the points given by at the positive integer values for .",
"\"A plot of the first few factorials suggests that such a curve can be drawn, but it would be preferable to have a formula that precisely describes the curve.",
"The simple formula for the factorial, , cannot be used directly for non-integer values of since it is only valid when is a natural number (or positive integer).",
"There are, relatively speaking, no such simple solutions for factorials; no finite combination of sums, products, powers, exponential functions, or logarithms will suffice to express ; but it is possible to find a general formula for factorials using tools such as integrals and limits from calculus.",
"A good solution to this is the gamma function.There are infinitely many continuous extensions of the factorial to non-integers: infinitely many curves can be drawn through any set of isolated points.",
"The gamma function is the most useful solution in practice, being analytic (except at the non-positive integers), and it can be defined in several equivalent ways.",
"However, it is not the only analytic function that extends the factorial, as adding to it any analytic function that is zero on the positive integers, such as for an integer , will give another function with that property.",
"Such a function is known as a pseudogamma function, the most famous being the Hadamard function.The gamma function, in blue, plotted along with in green.",
"Notice the intersection at positive integers.",
"Both are valid extensions of the factorials to a meromorphic function on the complex plane.A more restrictive property than satisfying the above interpolation is to satisfy the recurrence relation defining a translated version of the factorial function,for any positive real number .",
"But this would allow for multiplication by any function satisfying both for all real numbers and , such as the function .",
"One of several ways to resolve the ambiguity comes from the Bohr–Mollerup theorem.",
"It states that when the condition that be logarithmically convex (or \"super-convex\", meaning that is convex) is added, it uniquely determines for positive, real inputs.",
"From there, the gamma function can be extended to all real and complex values (except the negative integers and zero) by using the unique analytic continuation of ."
],
[
"Definition",
"=== Main definition ===The notation is due to Legendre.",
"If the real part of the complex number is strictly positive (), then the integralconverges absolutely, and is known as the '''Euler integral of the second kind'''.",
"(Euler's integral of the first kind is the beta function.)",
"Using integration by parts, one sees that:Absolute value (vertical) and argument (color) of the gamma function on the complex planeRecognizing that as We can calculate Thus we can show that for any positive integer by induction.",
"Specifically, the base case is that , and the induction step is that The identity can be used (or, yielding the same result, analytic continuation can be used) to uniquely extend the integral formulation for to a meromorphic function defined for all complex numbers , except integers less than or equal to zero.",
"It is this extended version that is commonly referred to as the gamma function.=== Alternative definitions ===There are many equivalent definitions.==== Euler's definition as an infinite product ====For a fixed integer , as the integer increases, we have that If is not an integer then it is not possible to say whether this equation is true because we have not yet (in this section) defined the factorial function for non-integers.",
"However, we do get a unique extension of the factorial function to the non-integers by insisting that this equation continue to hold when the arbitrary integer is replaced by an arbitrary complex number ,Multiplying both sides by givesThis infinite product, which is due to Euler, converges for all complex numbers except the non-positive integers, which fail because of a division by zero.",
"Intuitively, this formula indicates that is approximately the result of computing for some large integer , multiplying by to approximate , and using the relationship backwards times to get an approximation for ; and furthermore that this approximation becomes exact as increases to infinity.==== Weierstrass's definition ====The definition for the gamma function due to Weierstrass is also valid for all complex numbers except the non-positive integers:where is the Euler–Mascheroni constant.",
"This is the Hadamard product of in a rewritten form.",
"The utility of this definition cannot be overstated as it appears in a certain identity involving pi.",
"'''Equivalence of the integral definition and Weierstrass definition'''By the integral definition, the relation and Hadamard factorization theorem,for some constants since is an entire function of order .",
"Since as , (or an integer multiple of ) and since ,Whence for some integer .",
"Since for , we have and'''Equivalence of the Weierstrass definition and Euler definition'''LetandThenandthereforeThenand taking gives the desired result."
],
[
"Properties",
"=== General ===Besides the fundamental property discussed above:other important functional equations for the gamma function are Euler's reflection formulawhich impliesand the Legendre duplication formula'''Proof 1'''We can use Euler's infinite productto computewhere the last equality is a known result.",
"A similar derivation begins with Weierstrass's definition.",
"'''Proof 2'''First we prove thatConsider the positively oriented rectangular contour with vertices at , , and where .",
"Then by the residue theorem,Letand let be the analogous integral over the top side of the rectangle.",
"Then as and .",
"If denotes the right vertical side of the rectangle, thenfor some constant and since , the integral tends to as .",
"Analogously, the integral over the left vertical side of the rectangle tends to as .",
"Thereforefrom whichThenandProving the reflection formula for all proves it for all by analytic continuation.The beta function can be represented asSetting yieldsAfter the substitution we getThe function is even, henceNow assumeThenThis impliesSincethe Legendre duplication formula follows:The duplication formula is a special case of the multiplication theorem (see Eq.",
"5.5.6):A simple but useful property, which can be seen from the limit definition, is:In particular, with , this product isIf the real part is an integer or a half-integer, this can be finitely expressed in closed form:First, consider the reflection formula applied to .Applying the recurrence relation to the second term, we havewhich with simple rearrangement givesSecond, consider the reflection formula applied to .Formulas for other values of for which the real part is integer or half-integer quickly follow by induction using the recurrence relation in the positive and negative directions.Perhaps the best-known value of the gamma function at a non-integer argument iswhich can be found by setting in the reflection or duplication formulas, by using the relation to the beta function given below with , or simply by making the substitution in the integral definition of the gamma function, resulting in a Gaussian integral.",
"In general, for non-negative integer values of we have:where the double factorial .",
"See Particular values of the gamma function for calculated values.It might be tempting to generalize the result that by looking for a formula for other individual values where is rational, especially because according to Gauss's digamma theorem, it is possible to do so for the closely related digamma function at every rational value.",
"However, these numbers are not known to be expressible by themselves in terms of elementary functions.",
"It has been proved that is a transcendental number and algebraically independent of for any integer and each of the fractions .",
"In general, when computing values of the gamma function, we must settle for numerical approximations.The derivatives of the gamma function are described in terms of the polygamma function, :For a positive integer the derivative of the gamma function can be calculated as follows:Colors showing the argument of the gamma function in the complex plane from to where H(m) is the mth harmonic number and is the Euler–Mascheroni constant.For the th derivative of the gamma function is:(This can be derived by differentiating the integral form of the gamma function with respect to , and using the technique of differentiation under the integral sign.",
")Using the identitywhere is the Riemann zeta function, and is a partition of given bywe have in particular the Laurent series expansion of the gamma function === Inequalities ===When restricted to the positive real numbers, the gamma function is a strictly logarithmically convex function.",
"This property may be stated in any of the following three equivalent ways:* For any two positive real numbers and , and for any , * For any two positive real numbers and , and > * For any positive real number , The last of these statements is, essentially by definition, the same as the statement that , where is the polygamma function of order 1.To prove the logarithmic convexity of the gamma function, it therefore suffices to observe that has a series representation which, for positive real , consists of only positive terms.Logarithmic convexity and Jensen's inequality together imply, for any positive real numbers and ,There are also bounds on ratios of gamma functions.",
"The best-known is Gautschi's inequality, which says that for any positive real number and any ,=== Stirling's formula === is also displayed.3-dimensional plot of the absolute value of the complex gamma functionThe behavior of for an increasing positive real variable is given by Stirling's formulawhere the symbol means asymptotic convergence: the ratio of the two sides converges to 1 in the limit This growth is faster than exponential, , for any fixed value of .Another useful limit for asymptotic approximations for is:When writing the error term as an infinite product, Stirling's formula can be used to define the gamma function: === Residues ===The behavior for non-positive is more intricate.",
"Euler's integral does not converge for but the function it defines in the positive complex half-plane has a unique analytic continuation to the negative half-plane.",
"One way to find that analytic continuation is to use Euler's integral for positive arguments and extend the domain to negative numbers by repeated application of the recurrence formula,choosing such that is positive.",
"The product in the denominator is zero when equals any of the integers .",
"Thus, the gamma function must be undefined at those points to avoid division by zero; it is a meromorphic function with simple poles at the non-positive integers.For a function of a complex variable , at a simple pole , the residue of is given by:For the simple pole we rewrite recurrence formula as:The numerator at isand the denominator So the residues of the gamma function at those points are:The gamma function is non-zero everywhere along the real line, although it comes arbitrarily close to zero as .",
"There is in fact no complex number for which , and hence the reciprocal gamma function is an entire function, with zeros at .=== Minima and maxima ===On the real line, the gamma function has a local minimum at where it attains the value .",
"The gamma function rises to either side of this minimum.",
"The solution to is and the common value is .",
"The positive solution to is , the golden ratio, and the common value is .The gamma function must alternate sign between its poles at the non-positive integers because the product in the forward recurrence contains an odd number of negative factors if the number of poles between and is odd, and an even number if the number of poles is even.",
"The values at the local extrema of the gamma function along the real axis between the non-positive integers are:: ,: ,: ,: ,: , etc.=== Integral representations ===There are many formulas, besides the Euler integral of the second kind, that express the gamma function as an integral.",
"For instance, when the real part of is positive,andwhere the three integrals respectively follow from the substitutions , and in Euler's second integral.",
"The last integral in particular makes clear the connection between the gamma function at half integer arguments and the Gaussian integral: if we let we get .Binet's first integral formula for the gamma function states that, when the real part of is positive, then:The integral on the right-hand side may be interpreted as a Laplace transform.",
"That is,Binet's second integral formula states that, again when the real part of is positive, then:Let be a Hankel contour, meaning a path that begins and ends at the point on the Riemann sphere, whose unit tangent vector converges to at the start of the path and to at the end, which has winding number 1 around , and which does not cross .",
"Fix a branch of by taking a branch cut along and by taking to be real when is on the negative real axis.",
"Assume is not an integer.",
"Then Hankel's formula for the gamma function is:where is interpreted as .",
"The reflection formula leads to the closely related expression again valid whenever is not an integer.=== Continued fraction representation ===The gamma function can also be represented by a sum of two continued fractions:where .=== Fourier series expansion ===The logarithm of the gamma function has the following Fourier series expansion for which was for a long time attributed to Ernst Kummer, who derived it in 1847.However, Iaroslav Blagouchine discovered that Carl Johan Malmsten first derived this series in 1842.=== Raabe's formula ===In 1840 Joseph Ludwig Raabe proved thatIn particular, if thenThe latter can be derived taking the logarithm in the above multiplication formula, which gives an expression for the Riemann sum of the integrand.",
"Taking the limit for gives the formula.=== Pi function ===An alternative notation that was originally introduced by Gauss is the -function, which, in terms of the gamma function, isso that for every non-negative integer .Using the pi function the reflection formula takes on the formwhere is the normalized sinc function, while the multiplication theorem takes on the formWe also sometimes findwhich is an entire function, defined for every complex number, just like the reciprocal gamma function.",
"That is entire entails it has no poles, so , like , has no zeros.The volume of an -ellipsoid with radii can be expressed as=== Relation to other functions ===* In the first integral above, which defines the gamma function, the limits of integration are fixed.",
"The upper and lower incomplete gamma functions are the functions obtained by allowing the lower or upper (respectively) limit of integration to vary.",
"* The gamma function is related to the beta function by the formula * The logarithmic derivative of the gamma function is called the digamma function; higher derivatives are the polygamma functions.",
"* The analog of the gamma function over a finite field or a finite ring is the Gaussian sums, a type of exponential sum.",
"* The reciprocal gamma function is an entire function and has been studied as a specific topic.",
"* The gamma function also shows up in an important relation with the Riemann zeta function, .",
"It also appears in the following formula: which is valid only for .",
"The logarithm of the gamma function satisfies the following formula due to Lerch: where is the Hurwitz zeta function, is the Riemann zeta function and the prime () denotes differentiation in the first variable.",
"* The gamma function is related to the stretched exponential function.",
"For instance, the moments of that function are === Particular values ===Including up to the first 20 digits after the decimal point, some particular values of the gamma function are:(See sequences , , , , , and in the OEIS.",
"The values presented here are truncated rather than rounded.",
")The complex-valued gamma function is undefined for non-positive integers, but in these cases the value can be defined in the Riemann sphere as .",
"The reciprocal gamma function is well defined and analytic at these values (and in the entire complex plane):"
],
[
"Log-gamma function",
"The analytic function Because the gamma and factorial functions grow so rapidly for moderately large arguments, many computing environments include a function that returns the natural logarithm of the gamma function (often given the name lgamma or lngamma in programming environments or gammaln in spreadsheets); this grows much more slowly, and for combinatorial calculations allows adding and subtracting logs instead of multiplying and dividing very large values.",
"It is often defined asThe digamma function, which is the derivative of this function, is also commonly seen.In the context of technical and physical applications, e.g.",
"with wave propagation, the functional equationLogarithmic gamma function in the complex plane from −2 − 2i to 2 + 2i with colorsis often used since it allows one to determine function values in one strip of width 1 in from the neighbouring strip.",
"In particular, starting with a good approximation for a with large real part one may go step by step down to the desired .",
"Following an indication of Carl Friedrich Gauss, Rocktaeschel (1922) proposed for an approximation for large :This can be used to accurately approximate for with a smaller via (P.E.Böhmer, 1939)A more accurate approximation can be obtained by using more terms from the asymptotic expansions of and , which are based on Stirling's approximation.",
": as at constant .",
"(See sequences and in the OEIS.",
")In a more \"natural\" presentation:: as at constant .",
"(See sequences and in the OEIS.",
")The coefficients of the terms with of in the last expansion are simplywhere the are the Bernoulli numbers.The gamma function also has Stirling Series (derived by Charles Hermite in 1900) equal to=== Properties ===The Bohr–Mollerup theorem states that among all functions extending the factorial functions to the positive real numbers, only the gamma function is log-convex, that is, its natural logarithm is convex on the positive real axis.",
"Another characterisation is given by the Wielandt theorem.The gamma function is the unique function that simultaneously satisfies# ,# for all complex numbers except the non-positive integers, and,# for integer , for all complex numbers .In a certain sense, the function is the more natural form; it makes some intrinsic attributes of the function clearer.",
"A striking example is the Taylor series of around 1:with denoting the Riemann zeta function at .So, using the following property:we can find an integral representation for the function:or, setting to obtain an integral for , we can replace the term with its integral and incorporate that into the above formula, to get:There also exist special formulas for the logarithm of the gamma function for rational .",
"For instance, if and are integers with and thensee.This formula is sometimes used for numerical computation, since the integrand decreases very quickly.=== Integration over log-gamma ===The integralcan be expressed in terms of the Barnes -function (see Barnes -function for a proof):where .It can also be written in terms of the Hurwitz zeta function:When it follows thatand this is a consequence of Raabe's formula as well.",
"O. Espinosa and V. Moll derived a similar formula for the integral of the square of :where is .D.",
"H. Bailey and his co-authors gave an evaluation forwhen in terms of the Tornheim–Witten zeta function and its derivatives.In addition, it is also known that"
],
[
"Approximations",
"Comparison gamma (blue line) with the factorial (blue dots) and Stirling's approximation (red line)Complex values of the gamma function can be approximated using Stirling's approximation or the Lanczos approximation, This is precise in the sense that the ratio of the approximation to the true value approaches 1 in the limit as goes to infinity.The gamma function can be computed to fixed precision for by applying integration by parts to Euler's integral.",
"For any positive number the gamma function can be writtenWhen and , the absolute value of the last integral is smaller than .",
"By choosing a large enough , this last expression can be made smaller than for any desired value .",
"Thus, the gamma function can be evaluated to bits of precision with the above series.A fast algorithm for calculation of the Euler gamma function for any algebraic argument (including rational) was constructed by E.A.",
"Karatsuba.For arguments that are integer multiples of , the gamma function can also be evaluated quickly using arithmetic–geometric mean iterations (see particular values of the gamma function)."
],
[
"Practical Implementations",
"Unlike many other functions, such as a Normal Distribution, no obvious fast, accurate implementation that is easy to implement for the Gamma Function , is easily found.",
"Therefore, it is worth investigating potential solutions.",
"If speed is important but accuracy is not, published tables for are easily found in an Internet search, such as the Online Wiley Library may be used with linear interpolation.",
"Greater accuracy is obtainable with the use of cubic interpolation at the cost of more computational overhead.",
"Since tables are usually published for argument values between 1 and 2, the property may be used to quickly and easily translate all z 2 into the range 1<=z<=2, such that only tabulated values of z between 1 and 2 need be used.If interpolation tables are not desirable, then the Lanczos approximation mentioned above works well for 1 to 2 digits of accuracy for small, commonly used values of z.",
"If the Lanczos approximation not sufficiently accurate, the Sterling's formula for the Gamma Function may be used.",
"A more complete and accurate solution to Sterling's Approximation may be found it Math2.org, and is reproduced below in terms of for the first 8 () terms.",
"Based on experimental findings against known values of for 1, 1.5, and 2 (1, , and 1 respectively), this solution is accurate to 9 digits for values of z above 5 and 16 digits for z above 20.Smaller values of z are less accurate, but the simple translation of may be used to easily translate higher, more accurate values of to lower values when needed.",
"Less accurate needs may also be accommodated by simply using fewer terms of the infinite series.Stirling's Asymptotic Series for '''''' using the first 8 terms:"
],
[
"Applications",
"One author describes the gamma function as \"Arguably, the most common special function, or the least 'special' of them.",
"The other transcendental functions … are called 'special' because you could conceivably avoid some of them by staying away from many specialized mathematical topics.",
"On the other hand, the gamma function is most difficult to avoid.",
"\"=== Integration problems ===The gamma function finds application in such diverse areas as quantum physics, astrophysics and fluid dynamics.",
"The gamma distribution, which is formulated in terms of the gamma function, is used in statistics to model a wide range of processes; for example, the time between occurrences of earthquakes.The primary reason for the gamma function's usefulness in such contexts is the prevalence of expressions of the type which describe processes that decay exponentially in time or space.",
"Integrals of such expressions can occasionally be solved in terms of the gamma function when no elementary solution exists.",
"For example, if is a power function and is a linear function, a simple change of variables gives the evaluationThe fact that the integration is performed along the entire positive real line might signify that the gamma function describes the cumulation of a time-dependent process that continues indefinitely, or the value might be the total of a distribution in an infinite space.It is of course frequently useful to take limits of integration other than 0 and to describe the cumulation of a finite process, in which case the ordinary gamma function is no longer a solution; the solution is then called an incomplete gamma function.",
"(The ordinary gamma function, obtained by integrating across the entire positive real line, is sometimes called the ''complete gamma function'' for contrast.",
")An important category of exponentially decaying functions is that of Gaussian functionsand integrals thereof, such as the error function.",
"There are many interrelations between these functions and the gamma function; notably, the factor obtained by evaluating is the \"same\" as that found in the normalizing factor of the error function and the normal distribution.The integrals we have discussed so far involve transcendental functions, but the gamma function also arises from integrals of purely algebraic functions.",
"In particular, the arc lengths of ellipses and of the lemniscate, which are curves defined by algebraic equations, are given by elliptic integrals that in special cases can be evaluated in terms of the gamma function.",
"The gamma function can also be used to calculate \"volume\" and \"area\" of -dimensional hyperspheres.=== Calculating products ===The gamma function's ability to generalize factorial products immediately leads to applications in many areas of mathematics; in combinatorics, and by extension in areas such as probability theory and the calculation of power series.",
"Many expressions involving products of successive integers can be written as some combination of factorials, the most important example perhaps being that of the binomial coefficient.",
"For example, for any complex numbers and , with , we can writewhich closely resembles the binomial coefficient when is a non-negative integer,The example of binomial coefficients motivates why the properties of the gamma function when extended to negative numbers are natural.",
"A binomial coefficient gives the number of ways to choose elements from a set of elements; if , there are of course no ways.",
"If , is the factorial of a negative integer and hence infinite if we use the gamma function definition of factorials—dividing by infinity gives the expected value of 0.We can replace the factorial by a gamma function to extend any such formula to the complex numbers.",
"Generally, this works for any product wherein each factor is a rational function of the index variable, by factoring the rational function into linear expressions.",
"If and are monic polynomials of degree and with respective roots and , we haveIf we have a way to calculate the gamma function numerically, it is very simple to calculate numerical values of such products.",
"The number of gamma functions in the right-hand side depends only on the degree of the polynomials, so it does not matter whether equals 5 or 105.By taking the appropriate limits, the equation can also be made to hold even when the left-hand product contains zeros or poles.By taking limits, certain rational products with infinitely many factors can be evaluated in terms of the gamma function as well.",
"Due to the Weierstrass factorization theorem, analytic functions can be written as infinite products, and these can sometimes be represented as finite products or quotients of the gamma function.",
"We have already seen one striking example: the reflection formula essentially represents the sine function as the product of two gamma functions.",
"Starting from this formula, the exponential function as well as all the trigonometric and hyperbolic functions can be expressed in terms of the gamma function.More functions yet, including the hypergeometric function and special cases thereof, can be represented by means of complex contour integrals of products and quotients of the gamma function, called Mellin–Barnes integrals.=== Analytic number theory ===An application of the gamma function is the study of the Riemann zeta function.",
"A fundamental property of the Riemann zeta function is its functional equation:Among other things, this provides an explicit form for the analytic continuation of the zeta function to a meromorphic function in the complex plane and leads to an immediate proof that the zeta function has infinitely many so-called \"trivial\" zeros on the real line.",
"Borwein ''et al.''",
"call this formula \"one of the most beautiful findings in mathematics\".",
"Another contender for that title might beBoth formulas were derived by Bernhard Riemann in his seminal 1859 paper \"''Ueber die Anzahl der Primzahlen unter einer gegebenen Größe''\" (\"On the Number of Primes Less Than a Given Magnitude\"), one of the milestones in the development of analytic number theory—the branch of mathematics that studies prime numbers using the tools of mathematical analysis."
],
[
"History",
"The gamma function has caught the interest of some of the most prominent mathematicians of all time.",
"Its history, notably documented by Philip J. Davis in an article that won him the 1963 Chauvenet Prize, reflects many of the major developments within mathematics since the 18th century.",
"In the words of Davis, \"each generation has found something of interest to say about the gamma function.",
"Perhaps the next generation will also.",
"\"=== 18th century: Euler and Stirling ===Daniel Bernoulli's letter to Christian Goldbach, October 6, 1729The problem of extending the factorial to non-integer arguments was apparently first considered by Daniel Bernoulli and Christian Goldbach in the 1720s.",
"In particular, in a letter from Bernoulli to Goldbach dated 6 October 1729 Bernoulli introduced the product representationwhich is well defined for real values of other than the negative integers.Leonard Euler later gave two different definitions: the first was not his integral but an infinite product that is well defined for all complex numbers other than the negative integers,of which he informed Goldbach in a letter dated 13 October 1729.He wrote to Goldbach again on 8 January 1730, to announce his discovery of the integral representationwhich is valid when the real part of the complex number is strictly greater than (i.e., ).",
"By the change of variables , this becomes the familiar Euler integral.",
"Euler published his results in the paper \"De progressionibus transcendentibus seu quarum termini generales algebraice dari nequeunt\" (\"On transcendental progressions, that is, those whose general terms cannot be given algebraically\"), submitted to the St. Petersburg Academy on 28 November 1729.Euler further discovered some of the gamma function's important functional properties, including the reflection formula.James Stirling, a contemporary of Euler, also attempted to find a continuous expression for the factorial and came up with what is now known as Stirling's formula.",
"Although Stirling's formula gives a good estimate of , also for non-integers, it does not provide the exact value.",
"Extensions of his formula that correct the error were given by Stirling himself and by Jacques Philippe Marie Binet.=== 19th century: Gauss, Weierstrass and Legendre ===The first page of Euler's paperCarl Friedrich Gauss rewrote Euler's product asand used this formula to discover new properties of the gamma function.",
"Although Euler was a pioneer in the theory of complex variables, he does not appear to have considered the factorial of a complex number, as instead Gauss first did.",
"Gauss also proved the multiplication theorem of the gamma function and investigated the connection between the gamma function and elliptic integrals.Karl Weierstrass further established the role of the gamma function in complex analysis, starting from yet another product representation,where is the Euler–Mascheroni constant.",
"Weierstrass originally wrote his product as one for , in which case it is taken over the function's zeros rather than its poles.",
"Inspired by this result, he proved what is known as the Weierstrass factorization theorem—that any entire function can be written as a product over its zeros in the complex plane; a generalization of the fundamental theorem of algebra.The name gamma function and the symbol were introduced by Adrien-Marie Legendre around 1811; Legendre also rewrote Euler's integral definition in its modern form.",
"Although the symbol is an upper-case Greek gamma, there is no accepted standard for whether the function name should be written \"gamma function\" or \"Gamma function\" (some authors simply write \"-function\").",
"The alternative \"pi function\" notation due to Gauss is sometimes encountered in older literature, but Legendre's notation is dominant in modern works.It is justified to ask why we distinguish between the \"ordinary factorial\" and the gamma function by using distinct symbols, and particularly why the gamma function should be normalized to instead of simply using \"\".",
"Consider that the notation for exponents, , has been generalized from integers to complex numbers without any change.",
"Legendre's motivation for the normalization does not appear to be known, and has been criticized as cumbersome by some (the 20th-century mathematician Cornelius Lanczos, for example, called it \"void of any rationality\" and would instead use ).",
"Legendre's normalization does simplify some formulae, but complicates others.",
"From a modern point of view, the Legendre normalization of the gamma function is the integral of the additive character against the multiplicative character with respect to the Haar measure on the Lie group .",
"Thus this normalization makes it clearer that the gamma function is a continuous analogue of a Gauss sum.=== 19th–20th centuries: characterizing the gamma function ===It is somewhat problematic that a large number of definitions have been given for the gamma function.",
"Although they describe the same function, it is not entirely straightforward to prove the equivalence.",
"Stirling never proved that his extended formula corresponds exactly to Euler's gamma function; a proof was first given by Charles Hermite in 1900.Instead of finding a specialized proof for each formula, it would be desirable to have a general method of identifying the gamma function.One way to prove would be to find a differential equation that characterizes the gamma function.",
"Most special functions in applied mathematics arise as solutions to differential equations, whose solutions are unique.",
"However, the gamma function does not appear to satisfy any simple differential equation.",
"Otto Hölder proved in 1887 that the gamma function at least does not satisfy any ''algebraic'' differential equation by showing that a solution to such an equation could not satisfy the gamma function's recurrence formula, making it a transcendentally transcendental function.",
"This result is known as Hölder's theorem.A definite and generally applicable characterization of the gamma function was not given until 1922.Harald Bohr and Johannes Mollerup then proved what is known as the ''Bohr–Mollerup theorem'': that the gamma function is the unique solution to the factorial recurrence relation that is positive and ''logarithmically convex'' for positive and whose value at 1 is 1 (a function is logarithmically convex if its logarithm is convex).",
"Another characterisation is given by the Wielandt theorem.The Bohr–Mollerup theorem is useful because it is relatively easy to prove logarithmic convexity for any of the different formulas used to define the gamma function.",
"Taking things further, instead of defining the gamma function by any particular formula, we can choose the conditions of the Bohr–Mollerup theorem as the definition, and then pick any formula we like that satisfies the conditions as a starting point for studying the gamma function.",
"This approach was used by the Bourbaki group.Borwein & Corless review three centuries of work on the gamma function.=== Reference tables and software ===Although the gamma function can be calculated virtually as easily as any mathematically simpler function with a modern computer—even with a programmable pocket calculator—this was of course not always the case.",
"Until the mid-20th century, mathematicians relied on hand-made tables; in the case of the gamma function, notably a table computed by Gauss in 1813 and one computed by Legendre in 1825.Jahnke and .Tables of complex values of the gamma function, as well as hand-drawn graphs, were given in ''Tables of Functions With Formulas and Curves'' by Jahnke and , first published in Germany in 1909.According to Michael Berry, \"the publication in J&E of a three-dimensional graph showing the poles of the gamma function in the complex plane acquired an almost iconic status.",
"\"There was in fact little practical need for anything but real values of the gamma function until the 1930s, when applications for the complex gamma function were discovered in theoretical physics.",
"As electronic computers became available for the production of tables in the 1950s, several extensive tables for the complex gamma function were published to meet the demand, including a table accurate to 12 decimal places from the U.S. National Bureau of Standards.Reproduction of a famous complex plot by Janhke and Emde (Tables of Functions with Formulas and Curves, 4th ed., Dover, 1945) of the gamma function from −4.5 − 2.5i to 4.5 + 2.5iDouble-precision floating-point implementations of the gamma function and its logarithm are now available in most scientific computing software and special functions libraries, for example TK Solver, Matlab, GNU Octave, and the GNU Scientific Library.",
"The gamma function was also added to the C standard library (math.h).",
"Arbitrary-precision implementations are available in most computer algebra systems, such as Mathematica and Maple.",
"PARI/GP, MPFR and MPFUN contain free arbitrary-precision implementations.",
"In some software calculators, e.g.",
"Windows Calculator and GNOME Calculator, the factorial function returns Γ(''x'' + 1) when the input ''x'' is a non-integer value."
],
[
"See also",
"* Ascending factorial* Cahen–Mellin integral* Elliptic gamma function* Gauss's constant* Hadamard's gamma function* Inverse gamma function* Lanczos approximation* Multiple gamma function* Multivariate gamma function* -adic gamma function* Pochhammer -symbol* -gamma function* Ramanujan's master theorem* Spouge's approximation* Stirling's approximation"
],
[
"Notes",
"*"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* * * * * * * * * * * *"
],
[
"External links",
"* NIST Digital Library of Mathematical Functions:Gamma function* Pascal Sebah and Xavier Gourdon.",
"''Introduction to the Gamma Function''.",
"In PostScript and HTML formats.",
"* C++ reference for std::tgamma* Examples of problems involving the gamma function can be found at Exampleproblems.com.",
"* * Wolfram gamma function evaluator (arbitrary precision)* * Volume of n-Spheres and the Gamma Function at MathPages"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Georges Braque"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Georges Braque''' ( , ; 13 May 1882 – 31 August 1963) was a major 20th-century French painter, collagist, draughtsman, printmaker and sculptor.",
"His most notable contributions were in his alliance with Fauvism from 1905, and the role he played in the development of Cubism.",
"Braque's work between 1908 and 1912 is closely associated with that of his colleague Pablo Picasso.",
"Their respective Cubist works were indistinguishable for many years, yet the quiet nature of Braque was partially eclipsed by the fame and notoriety of Picasso."
],
[
"Early life",
"Georges Braque was born on 13 May 1882 in Argenteuil, Val-d'Oise.",
"He grew up in Le Havre and trained to be a house painter and decorator like his father and grandfather.",
"However, he also studied artistic painting during evenings at the École supérieure d'art et design Le Havre-Rouen, previously known as the École supérieure des Arts in Le Havre, from about 1897 to 1899.In Paris, he apprenticed with a decorator and was awarded his certificate in 1902.The next year, he attended the Académie Humbert, also in Paris, and painted there until 1904.It was here that he met Marie Laurencin and Francis Picabia."
],
[
"Fauvism",
"Georges Braque, 1906, ''L'Olivier près de l'Estaque'' (''The Olive tree near l'Estaque'').",
"At least four versions of this scene were painted by Braque, one of which was stolen from the Musée d'Art Moderne de la Ville de Paris in May, 2010.Georges Braque, 1907–08, ''The Viaduct at L'Estaque'' (''Le Viaduc de l'Estaque''), oil on canvas, 65.1 x 80.6 cm, Minneapolis Institute of ArtsGeorges Braque, 1908, ''Maisons et arbre'' (''Houses at l'Estaque''), oil on canvas, 40.5 x 32.5 cm, Lille Métropole Museum of Modern, Contemporary and Outsider ArtGeorges Braque, 1908, ''Le Viaduc de L'Estaque'' (''Viaduct at L'Estaque''), oil on canvas, 73 x 60 cm, Tel Aviv Museum of ArtGeorges Braque, 1908, ''Baigneuse'' (''Le Grand Nu, Large Nude''), oil on canvas, 140 × 100 cm, Musée National d'Art Moderne, Centre Pompidou, ParisBraque's earliest works were impressionistic, but after seeing the work exhibited by the artistic group known as the \"Fauves\" (Beasts) in 1905, he adopted a Fauvist style.",
"The Fauves, a group that included Henri Matisse and André Derain among others, used brilliant colors to represent emotional response.",
"Braque worked most closely with the artists Raoul Dufy and Othon Friesz, who shared Braque's hometown of Le Havre, to develop a somewhat more subdued Fauvist style.",
"In 1906, Braque traveled with Friesz to L'Estaque, to Antwerp, and home to Le Havre to paint.In May 1907, he successfully exhibited works of the Fauve style in the Salon des Indépendants.",
"The same year, Braque's style began a slow evolution as he became influenced by Paul Cézanne who had died in 1906 and whose works were exhibited in Paris for the first time in a large-scale, museum-like retrospective in September 1907.The 1907 Cézanne retrospective at the Salon d'Automne greatly affected the avant-garde artists of Paris, resulting in the advent of Cubism."
],
[
"Cubism",
"Georges Braque, late 1909, ''Still Life with Metronome'' (''Still Life with Mandola and Metronome''), oil on canvas, 81 x 54.1 cm, Metropolitan Museum of Art.",
"Gift from the Leonard A. Lauder Cubist CollectionGeorges Braque, 1909–10, ''La guitare (Mandora, La Mandore)'', oil on canvas, 71.1 x 55.9 cm, Tate Modern, LondonGeorges Braque, 1910, ''Violin and Candlestick'', San Francisco Museum of Modern ArtBraque's paintings of 1908–1912 reflected his new interest in geometry and simultaneous perspective.",
"He conducted an intense study of the effects of light and perspective and the technical means that painters use to represent these effects, seeming to question the most standard of artistic conventions.",
"In his village scenes, for example, Braque frequently reduced an architectural structure to a geometric form approximating a cube, yet rendered its shading so that it looked both flat and three-dimensional by fragmenting the image.",
"He showed this in the painting ''Houses at l'Estaque''.Beginning in 1909, Braque began to work closely with Pablo Picasso who had been developing a similar proto-Cubist style of painting.",
"At the time, Pablo Picasso was influenced by Gauguin, Cézanne, African masks and Iberian sculpture while Braque was interested mainly in developing Cézanne's ideas of multiple perspectives.",
"“A comparison of the works of Picasso and Braque during 1908 reveals that the effect of his encounter with Picasso was more to accelerate and intensify Braque’s exploration of Cézanne’s ideas, rather than to divert his thinking in any essential way.” Braque's essential subject is the ordinary objects he has known practically forever.",
"Picasso celebrates animation, while Braque celebrates contemplation.",
"Thus, the invention of Cubism was a joint effort between Picasso and Braque, then residents of Montmartre, Paris.",
"These artists were the style's main innovators.",
"After meeting in October or November 1907, Braque and Picasso, in particular, began working on the development of Cubism in 1908.Both artists produced paintings of monochromatic color and complex patterns of faceted form, now termed Analytic Cubism.A decisive time of its development occurred during the summer of 1911, when Georges Braque and Pablo Picasso painted side by side in Céret in the French Pyrenees, each artist producing paintings that are difficult—sometimes virtually impossible—to distinguish from those of the other.",
"In 1912, they began to experiment with collage and Braque invented the ''papier collé'' technique.On 14 November 1908, the French art critic Louis Vauxcelles, in his review of Georges Braque's exhibition at Kahnweiler's gallery called Braque a daring man who despises form, \"reducing everything, places and a figures and houses, to geometric schemas, to cubes\".Vauxcelles, on 25 March 1909, used the terms \"bizarreries cubiques\" (cubic oddities) after seeing a painting by Braque at the Salon des Indépendants.The term 'Cubism', first pronounced in 1911 with reference to artists exhibiting at the Salon des Indépendants, quickly gained wide use but Picasso and Braque did not adopt it initially.",
"Art historian Ernst Gombrich described Cubism as \"the most radical attempt to stamp out ambiguity and to enforce one reading of the picture—that of a man-made construction, a colored canvas.\"",
"The Cubist style spread quickly throughout Paris and then Europe.The two artists' productive collaboration continued and they worked closely together until the beginning of World War I in 1914, when Braque enlisted with the French Army.",
"In May 1915, Braque received a severe head injury in battle at Carency and suffered temporary blindness.",
"He was trepanned, and required a long period of recuperation."
],
[
"Later work",
"Braque resumed painting in late 1916.Working alone, he began to moderate the harsh abstraction of cubism.",
"He developed a more personal style characterized by brilliant color, textured surfaces, and—after his relocation to the Normandy seacoast—the reappearance of the human figure.",
"He painted many still life subjects during this time, maintaining his emphasis on structure.",
"One example of this is his 1943 work ''Blue Guitar'', which hangs in the Allen Memorial Art Museum.",
"During his recovery he became a close friend of the cubist artist Juan Gris.He continued to work during the remainder of his life, producing a considerable number of paintings, graphics, and sculptures.",
"Braque, along with Matisse, is credited for introducing Pablo Picasso to Fernand Mourlot, and most of the lithographs and book illustrations he himself created during the 1940s and '50s were produced at the Mourlot Studios.",
"In 1952–53 he also produced ''The Birds'', a ceiling painting for a room in the Louvre.",
"In 1962 Braque worked with master printmaker Aldo Crommelynck to create his series of etchings and aquatints titled ''L’Ordre des Oiseaux'' (''The Order of Birds''), which was accompanied by the poet Saint-John Perse's text.Braque died on 31 August 1963 in Paris.",
"He is buried in the cemetery of the Church of St. Valery in Varengeville-sur-Mer, Normandy whose windows he designed.",
"Braque's work is in most major museums throughout the world."
],
[
"Style",
"Braque believed that an artist experienced beauty \"… in terms of volume, of line, of mass, of weight, and through that beauty he interprets his subjective impression...” He described \"objects shattered into fragments... as a way of getting closest to the object...Fragmentation helped me to establish space and movement in space”.",
"He adopted a monochromatic and neutral color palette in the belief that such a palette would emphasize the subject matter.Although Braque began his career painting landscapes, during 1908 he, alongside Picasso, discovered the advantages of painting still lifes instead.",
"Braque explained that he“... began to concentrate on still lifes, because in the still-life you have a tactile, I might almost say a manual space...",
"This answered to the hankering I have always had to touch things and not merely see them...",
"In tactile space you measure the distance separating you from the object, whereas in visual space you measure the distance separating things from each other.",
"This is what led me, long ago, from landscape to still-life” A still life was also more accessible, in relation to perspective, than landscape, and permitted the artist to see the multiple perspectives of the object.",
"Braque's early interest in still lifes revived during the 1930s.During the period between the wars, Braque exhibited a freer, more relaxed style of Cubism, intensifying his color use and a looser rendering of objects.",
"However, he still remained committed to the cubist method of simultaneous perspective and fragmentation.",
"In contrast to Picasso, who continuously reinvented his style of painting, producing both representational and cubist images, and incorporating surrealist ideas into his work, Braque continued in the Cubist style, producing luminous, other-worldly still life and figure compositions.",
"By the time of his death in 1963, he was regarded as one of the elder statesmen of the School of Paris, and of modern art."
],
[
"2010 theft",
"On 20 May 2010, the Musée d'Art Moderne de la Ville de Paris reported the overnight theft of five paintings from its collection.",
"The paintings taken were ''Le pigeon aux petits pois'' (''The Pigeon with the Peas'') by Pablo Picasso, ''La Pastorale'' by Henri Matisse, ''L'Olivier Près de l'Estaque'' (''Olive Tree near Estaque'') by Georges Braque, '''' (''Woman with a Fan'') by Amedeo Modigliani and ''Nature Morte aux Chandeliers'' (''Still Life with Chandeliers'') by Fernand Léger and were valued at ( ).",
"A window had been smashed and CCTV footage showed a masked man taking the paintings.",
"Authorities believe the thief acted alone.",
"The man carefully removed the paintings from their frames, which he left behind."
],
[
"Gallery",
"File:Georges Braque, 1908, Plate and Fruit Dish, oil on canvas, 46 x 55 cm, private collection.jpg|Georges Braque, 1908, ''Plate and Fruit Dish'', oil on canvas, 46 × 55 cm, private collectionFile:Georges Braque, 1908, Cinq bananes et deux poires (Five Bananas and Two Pears), oil on canvas, 24 x 33 cm, Musée National d'Art Moderne.jpg|Georges Braque, 1908, ''Cinq bananes et deux poires'' (''Five Bananas and Two Pears''), oil on canvas, 24 × 33 cm, Musée National d'Art ModerneFile:Georges Braque, 1908, Maisons à l'Estaque (Houses at L'Estaque), oil on canvas, 73 x 59.5 cm, Kunst Museum Bern.jpg|Georges Braque, 1908, ''Maisons à l'Estaque'' (''Houses at l'Estaque''), oil on canvas, 73 × 59.5 cm, Kunstmuseum BernFile:Georges Braque, 1908-09, Fruit Dish, oil on canvas, 54 x 65 cm.JPG|Georges Braque, 1908–09, ''Fruit Dish'', oil on canvas, 54 × 65 cm, Moderna Museet, StockholmFile:Georges Braque, 1909, Port en Normandie (Little Harbor in Normandy), 81.1 x 80.5 cm (32 x 31.7 in), The Art Institute of Chicago.jpg|Georges Braque, 1909, ''Port en Normandie'' (''Little Harbor in Normandy''), 81.1 × 80.5 cm, The Art Institute of ChicagoFile:Georges Braque, 1909, La Roche-Guyon, le château (The Castle at Roche-Guyon), oil on canvas, 80 x 59.5 cm, Moderna Museet, Stockholm.jpg|Georges Braque, 1909, ''La Roche-Guyon, le château'' (''The Castle at Roche-Guyon''), oil on canvas, 80 × 59.5 cm, Moderna Museet, StockholmFile:Georges Braque, 1909 (September), Violin and Palette (Violon et palette, Dans l'atelier), oil on canvas, 91.7 x 42.8 cm, Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum.jpg|Georges Braque, 1909 (September), ''Violin and Palette'' (''Violon et palette, Dans l'atelier''), oil on canvas, 91.7 × 42.8 cm, Solomon R. Guggenheim MuseumFile:Georges Braque, 1909-10, Pitcher and Violin, oil on canvas, 116.8 x 73.2 cm, Kunstmuseum Basel.jpg|Georges Braque, 1909–10, ''Pitcher and Violin'', oil on canvas, 116.8 × 73.2 cm, Kunstmuseum BaselFile:Georges Braque, spring 1910, Femme tenant une Mandoline, 92 x 73 cm, Bayerische Staatsgemäldesammlungen, Munich...jpg|Georges Braque, 1910, ''Femme tenant une Mandoline'', 92 × 73 cm, Bavarian State Painting CollectionsFile:Georges Braque, 1910, Portrait of a Woman, Female Figure (Torso Ženy), oil on canvas, 91 x 61 cm, private collection.jpg|Georges Braque, 1910, ''Portrait of a Woman'', ''Female Figure'' (''Torso Ženy''), oil on canvas, 91 × 61 cm, private collectionFile:Georges Braque, 1911, Nature morte (Still Life), Reproduced in Du Cubisme, 1912.jpg|Georges Braque, 1911, ''Nature morte (Still Life)'', Reproduced in ''Du \"Cubisme\"'', by Albert Gleizes and Jean Metzinger, 1912File:Georges Braque, 1911, Nature Morte (The Pedestal Table), oil on canvas, 116.5 x 81.5 cm, Georges Pompidou Center, Paris.jpg|Georges Braque, 1911, ''Nature Morte (The Pedestal Table)'', oil on canvas, 116.5 × 81.5 cm, Georges Pompidou Center, ParisFile:Georges Braque, 1911-12, Girl with a Cross, oil on canvas, 55 x 43 cm, Kimbell Art Museum, Fort Worth, Texas.jpg|Georges Braque, 1911–12, ''Girl with a Cross'', oil on canvas, 55 × 43 cm, Kimbell Art Museum, Fort Worth, TexasFile:Georges Braque, 1911-12, Man with a Guitar (Figure, L’homme à la guitare), oil on canvas, 116.2 x 80.9 cm (45.75 x 31.9 in), Museum of Modern Art, New York.jpg|Georges Braque, 1911–12, ''Man with a Guitar (Figure, L'homme à la guitare)'', oil on canvas, 116.2 × 80.9 cm (45.75 × 31.9 in), Museum of Modern Art, New YorkFile:Georges Braque, 1912, Violin, Mozart Kubelick, oil on canvas, 45.7 x 61 cm (18 x 24 in), Metropolitan Museum of Art.jpg|Georges Braque, 1912, ''Violin: \"Mozart Kubelick\"'', oil on canvas, 45.7 × 61 cm, Metropolitan Museum of ArtFile:Georges Braque, 1913, Nature morte (Fruit Dish, Ace of Clubs), oil, gouache and charcoal on canvas, 81 x 60 cm (31.8 x 23.6 in), Musée National d'Art Moderne, Centre Georges Pompidou, Paris.jpg|Georges Braque, 1913, ''Nature morte (Fruit Dish, Ace of Clubs)'', oil, gouache and charcoal on canvas, 81 × 60 cm (31.8 × 23.6 in), Musée National d'Art Moderne, Centre Georges Pompidou, ParisFile:Georges Braque, 1913, Femme à la guitare (Woman with Guitar), oil and charcoal on canvas, 130 × 73 cm, Musée National d'Art Moderne, Centre Pompidou.jpg|Georges Braque, 1913, ''Femme à la guitare'' (''Woman with Guitar''), oil and charcoal on canvas, 130 × 73 cm, Musée National d'Art Moderne, Centre Pompidou, ParisFile:Georges Braque, 1913-14, Still Life on a Table (Duo pour Flute), oil on canvas, 45.7 × 55.2 cm, Lauder Cubist Collection, Metropolitan Museum of Art.jpg|Georges Braque, 1913–14, ''Still Life on a Table'' (''Duo pour Flute''), oil on canvas, 45.7 × 55.2 cm, Lauder Cubist Collection, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New YorkFile:Georges Braque, 1914, Violin and Glass, oil, charcoal and pasted paper on canvas, oval, 116 x 81 cm, Kunstmuseum Basel.jpg|Georges Braque, 1914, ''Violon et verre'' (''Violin and Glass''), oil, charcoal and pasted paper on canvas, oval, 116 × 81 cm, Kunstmuseum BaselFile:Georges Braque, 1914, Man With a Guitar, oil on canvas, 130 x 73 cm, Musée National d'Art Moderne, Centre Georges Pompidou, Paris.jpg|Georges Braque, 1914, ''Man With a Guitar'', oil on canvas, 130 × 73 cm, Musée National d'Art Moderne, Centre Georges Pompidou, ParisFile:Georges Braque, 1918, Rhum et guitare, oil on canvas, 60 x 73 cm, Abelló Collection, Madrid.jpg|Georges Braque, 1918, ''Rhum et guitare'' (''Rum and Guitar''), oil on canvas, 60 × 73 cm, Colección Abelló, MadridFile:Still Life with Grapes and Clarinet.jpeg|Georges Braque, 1927, ''Still Life with Grapes and Clarinet'', oil on canvas, The Phillips Collection, Washington, D.C."
],
[
"See also",
"*Crystal Cubism"
],
[
"References and sources",
";References;Sources*Clement, Russell T. (1994).",
"''Georges Braque: A Bio-bibliography.''",
"Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press.",
"*Orozco, Miguel (2018) \" The Complete Prints of Georges Braque.",
"Catalogue raisonné\".",
"Academia.edu*Fry, Edward F. (1966).",
"\"Cubism 1907-1908: An Early Eyewitness Account\".",
"''Art Bulletin'' '''48''': 71–73.",
"*Mullins, Edwin (1968).",
"''The Art of Georges Braque''.",
"New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc.* Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum*Picasso, P., Rubin, W. S., & Fluegel, J.",
"(1980).",
"''Pablo Picasso, a retrospective''.",
"New York: Museum of Modern Art."
],
[
"External links",
"* * Artcyclopedia - Links to Braque's works and information* Georges Braque works at insecula.com* Site du ministère de la culture et de la communication* * Georges Braque, L'Esprit nouveau: revue internationale d'esthétique, 1920.Gallica, Bibliothèque nationale de France"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Gilbert Cesbron"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Gilbert Cesbron in 1947Commemorative plaque at 126 Boulevard Saint-Germain, 6th arrondissement of Paris, where Gilbert Cesbron lived from 1946 to 1979.",
"'''Gilbert Cesbron''' (13 January 1913, Paris – 12 August 1979, Paris) was a French novelist."
],
[
"Biography",
"'''Gilbert Cesbron''' (13 January 1913, Paris – 12 August 1979, Paris) was a French novelist.",
"Born in Paris, Cesbron attended what is now known as Lycée Condorcet.",
"In 1944 he published his first novel, ''Les innocents de Paris'' (\"''The Innocent of Paris''\"), in Switzerland.",
"He first achieved wide public acclaim with the publication of ''Notre prison est un royaume'' (\"''Our Prison is a Kingdom''\") in 1948 and ''Il est minuit, docteur Schweitzer'' (\"''It is midnight, Doctor Schweitzer''\") in 1950.In his works Cesbron tended to illustrate and describe relevant social topics such as juvenile delinquency in ''Chiens perdus sans collier'' (\"''Lost Dogs Without Collars''\"), violence in ''Entre chiens et loups'' (\"''Between Dogs and Wolves''\"), euthanasia in ''Il est plus tard que tu ne penses'' (\"''It is Later than You Think''\") and working priests in ''Les Saints vont en enfer'' (\"''Saints go to Hell''\").In 1955, Cesbron's book ''Chiens perdus sans collier'', the story of an orphan boy and a benevolent judge, was made starring Jean Gabin and Robert Dalban.He died on 12 August 1979 at his home at 126 Boulevard Saint-Germain in the 6th arrondissement of Paris.",
"He is buried in Bourré, Loir-et-Cher.",
"His widow, Dominique, died in 2003."
],
[
"Works",
"=== Novels ===* ''Les Innocents de Paris'' , 1944.",
"* ''On croit rêver'' (1945).",
"* ''La Tradition Fontquernie'' (1947).",
"* ''Notre prison est un royaume'' (1948).",
"* ''La Souveraine'' (1949).",
"* ''Bois mort où l'oiseau chante'' (1950).",
"* ''Les saints vont en enfer'' (1952).",
"* ''Chiens perdus sans collier'' (1954).",
"* ''Vous verrez le ciel ouvert'' (1956).",
"* ''Il est plus tard que tu ne penses'' (1958).",
"* ''Avoir été'' (1960).",
"* ''Entre chiens et loups'' (1962).",
"* ''Une abeille contre la vitre'' (1964).",
"* ''C’est Mozart qu’on assassine'' (1966).",
"* ''Je suis mal dans ta peau'' (1969).",
"* ''Voici le temps des imposteurs'' (1972).",
"* ''Don Juan en automne'' (1975).",
"* ''Mais moi je vous aimais'' (1977).",
"* ''Compagnons de la nuit'' (1938, published in 1995).=== Tales and short stories ===* ''D’Outremonde'' (23 tales), (1949).",
"* ''Traduit du vent'' (1951).",
"* ''Tout dort et je veille'' (1959).",
"* ''La Ville couronnée d’épines'' (1964).",
"* ''Des enfants aux cheveux gris'' (1968).",
"* ''Un vivier sans eau'' (1979).",
"* ''Leur pesant d’écume'' (1980) ;* ''Tant d’amour perdu'' (1981).=== Essays ===* ''Chasseur maudit'' (1953).",
"* ''Ce siècle appelle au secours'' (1955).",
"* ''Libérez Barabbas '' (1957).",
"* ''Une sentinelle attend l’aurore'' (1965).",
"* ''Lettre ouverte à une jeune fille morte'' (1968).",
"* ''Ce que je crois'' (1970).",
"* ''Des leçons d’abîme'' (1971).",
"* ''Mourir étonné'' (1976) ;* ''Huit paroles pour l’éternité'' (1978).",
"* ''Passé un certain âge'' (1980).",
"* ''La regarder en face'' (1982).=== Plays ===* ''Il est minuit, docteur Schweitzer'' (1952)* ''Briser la statue'' (1952), raconte la vie de Sainte Thérèse de Lisieux.",
"* ''L’Homme seul'' (1961).",
"* ''Phèdre à Colombes'' (1961).",
"* ''Dernier Acte'' (1961).",
"* ''Mort le premier'' (1970).",
"* ''Pauvre Philippe'' (1970)=== Other ===* ''Torrent'' (poèmes) (1934).",
"* ''Les Petits des Hommes'' (album de photos avec texte) (1954).",
"* ''Il suffit d’aimer'' (récit de la vie de Sainte Bernadette Soubirous (1960).",
"* ''Journal sans date'' (tome 1) (1963).",
"* '' Journal sans date, (tome 2).",
"Tant qu’il fait jour'' (1967).",
"* '' Journal sans date, (tome 3).",
"Un miroir en miettes'' (1973) ;* ''Merci l’oiseau !''",
"(poèmes) (1976) ;* ''Ce qu’on appelle vivre'' (interviewed by the journalist Maurice Chavardès)(1977).",
"* ''Bonheur de rien'' (1979).",
"* ''Un désespoir allègre'' (1983)."
],
[
"Adaptations",
"=== Films ===* 1952 : ''Il est minuit, Docteur Schweitzer'' director André Haguet, with Jean Debucourt, Pierre Fresnay, Jeanne Moreau, Jean Lanier.",
"* 1955 : ''Chiens perdus sans collier'', director Jean Delannoy, avec Jean Gabin, Robert Dalban, Jean-Jacques Delbo.",
"* 1960 : ''Il suffit d'aimer'', director Robert Darene, script and dialogue Gilbert Cesbron, avec Madeleine Sologne, musique Maurice Thiriet.===Television ===* 1962 : ''Il est minuit, Docteur Schweitzer'', director Gilbert Pineau.",
"* 1977 : ''C’est Mozart qu’on assassine'', director Pierre Goutas, with Cyril Brisse, Henri Garcin, Catherine Rich, Louis Seigner.",
"* 1979 : ''Avoir été'', director Roland-Bernard."
],
[
"Notes and references"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"GNU Compiler Collection"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''GNU Compiler Collection''' ('''GCC''') is an optimizing compiler produced by the GNU Project supporting various programming languages, hardware architectures and operating systems.",
"The Free Software Foundation (FSF) distributes GCC as free software under the GNU General Public License (GNU GPL).",
"GCC is a key component of the GNU toolchain and the standard compiler for most projects related to GNU and the Linux kernel.",
"With roughly 15 million lines of code in 2019, GCC is one of the biggest free programs in existence.",
"It has played an important role in the growth of free software, as both a tool and an example.When it was first released in 1987 by Richard Stallman, GCC 1.0 was named the '''GNU C Compiler''' since it only handled the C programming language.",
"It was extended to compile C++ in December of that year.",
"Front ends were later developed for Objective-C, Objective-C++, Fortran, Ada, D, Go and Rust, among others.",
"The OpenMP and OpenACC specifications are also supported in the C and C++ compilers.GCC has been ported to more platforms and instruction set architectures than any other compiler, and is widely deployed as a tool in the development of both free and proprietary software.",
"GCC is also available for many embedded systems, including ARM-based and Power ISA-based chips.As well as being the official compiler of the GNU operating system, GCC has been adopted as the standard compiler by many other modern Unix-like computer operating systems, including most Linux distributions.",
"Most BSD family operating systems also switched to GCC shortly after its release, although since then, FreeBSD, OpenBSD and Apple macOS have moved to the Clang compiler, largely due to licensing reasons.",
"GCC can also compile code for Windows, Android, iOS, Solaris, HP-UX, AIX and DOS."
],
[
"History",
"In late 1983, in an effort to bootstrap the GNU operating system, Richard Stallman asked Andrew S. Tanenbaum, the author of the Amsterdam Compiler Kit (also known as the ''Free University'' ''Compiler Kit'') for permission to use that software for GNU.",
"When Tanenbaum advised him that the compiler was not free, and that only the university was free, Stallman decided to work on a different compiler.",
"His initial plan was to rewrite an existing compiler from Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory from Pastel to C with some help from Len Tower and others.",
"Stallman wrote a new C front end for the Livermore compiler, but then realized that it required megabytes of stack space, an impossibility on a 68000 Unix system with only 64 KB, and concluded he would have to write a new compiler from scratch.",
"None of the Pastel compiler code ended up in GCC, though Stallman did use the C front end he had written.GCC was first released March 22, 1987, available by FTP from MIT.",
"Stallman was listed as the author but cited others for their contributions, including Tower for \"parts of the parser, RTL generator, RTL definitions, and of the Vax machine description\", Jack Davidson and Christopher W. Fraser for the idea of using RTL as an intermediate language, and Paul Rubin for writing most of the preprocessor.",
"Described as the \"first free software hit\" by Peter H. Salus, the GNU compiler arrived just at the time when Sun Microsystems was unbundling its development tools from its operating system, selling them separately at a higher combined price than the previous bundle, which led many of Sun's users to buy or download GCC instead of the vendor's tools.",
"While Stallman considered GNU Emacs as his main project, by 1990 GCC supported thirteen computer architectures, was outperforming several vendor compilers, and was used commercially by several companies.=== EGCS fork ===As GCC was licensed under the GPL, programmers wanting to work in other directions—particularly those writing interfaces for languages other than C—were free to develop their own fork of the compiler, provided they meet the GPL's terms, including its requirements to distribute source code.",
"Multiple forks proved inefficient and unwieldy, however, and the difficulty in getting work accepted by the official GCC project was greatly frustrating for many, as the project favored stability over new features.",
"The FSF kept such close control on what was added to the official version of GCC 2.x (developed since 1992) that GCC was used as one example of the \"cathedral\" development model in Eric S. Raymond's essay ''The Cathedral and the Bazaar''.In 1997, a group of developers formed the ''Experimental/Enhanced GNU Compiler System (EGCS)'' to merge several experimental forks into a single project.",
"The basis of the merger was a development snapshot of GCC (taken around the 2.7.2 and later followed up to 2.8.1 release).",
"Mergers included g77 (Fortran), PGCC (P5 Pentium-optimized GCC), many C++ improvements, and many new architectures and operating system variants.While both projects followed each other's changes closely, EGCS development proved considerably more vigorous, so much so that the FSF officially halted development on their GCC 2.x compiler, blessed EGCS as the official version of GCC, and appointed the EGCS project as the GCC maintainers in April 1999.With the release of GCC 2.95 in July 1999 the two projects were once again united.",
"GCC has since been maintained by a varied group of programmers from around the world under the direction of a steering committee.GCC 3 (2002) removed a front-end for CHILL due to a lack of maintenance.Before version 4.0 the Fortran front end was g77, which only supported FORTRAN 77, but later was dropped in favor of the new GNU Fortran front end that supports Fortran 95 and large parts of Fortran 2003 and Fortran 2008 as well.As of version 4.8, GCC is implemented in C++.Support for Cilk Plus existed from GCC 5 to GCC 7.GCC has been ported to a wide variety of instruction set architectures, and is widely deployed as a tool in the development of both free and proprietary software.",
"GCC is also available for many embedded systems, including Symbian (called ''gcce''), ARM-based, and Power ISA-based chips.",
"The compiler can target a wide variety of platforms, including video game consoles such as the PlayStation 2, Cell SPE of PlayStation 3, and Dreamcast.",
"It has been ported to more kinds of processors and operating systems than any other compiler."
],
[
"Supported languages",
" GCC includes front ends for C (gcc), C++ (g++), Objective-C and Objective-C++, Fortran (gfortran), Ada (GNAT), Go (gccgo), D (gdc, since 9.1), and Modula-2 (gm2, since 13.1) programming languages, with the OpenMP and OpenACC parallel language extensions being supported since GCC 5.1.Versions prior to GCC 7 also supported Java (gcj), allowing compilation of Java to native machine code.Regarding language version support for C++ and C, since GCC 11.1 the default target is ''gnu++17'', a superset of C++17, and ''gnu11'', a superset of C11, with strict standard support also available.",
"GCC also provides experimental support for C++20 and C++23.Third-party front ends exist for many languages, such as Pascal (gpc), Modula-3, and VHDL (GHDL).",
"A few experimental branches exist to support additional languages, such as the GCC UPC compiler for Unified Parallel C or Rust."
],
[
"Design",
"Overview of GCC's extended compilation pipeline, including specialized programs like the preprocessor, assembler and linker.GCC follows the 3-stage architecture typical of multi-language and multi-CPU compilers.",
"All program trees are converted to a common abstract representation at the \"middle end\", allowing code optimization and binary code generation facilities to be shared by all languages.GCC's external interface follows Unix conventions.",
"Users invoke a language-specific driver program (gcc for C, g++ for C++, etc.",
"), which interprets command arguments, calls the actual compiler, runs the assembler on the output, and then optionally runs the linker to produce a complete executable binary.Each of the language compilers is a separate program that reads source code and outputs machine code.",
"All have a common internal structure.",
"A per-language front end parses the source code in that language and produces an abstract syntax tree (\"tree\" for short).These are, if necessary, converted to the middle end's input representation, called ''GENERIC'' form; the middle end then gradually transforms the program towards its final form.",
"Compiler optimizations and static code analysis techniques (such as FORTIFY_SOURCE, a compiler directive that attempts to discover some buffer overflows) are applied to the code.",
"These work on multiple representations, mostly the architecture-independent GIMPLE representation and the architecture-dependent RTL representation.",
"Finally, machine code is produced using architecture-specific pattern matching originally based on an algorithm of Jack Davidson and Chris Fraser.GCC was written primarily in C except for parts of the Ada front end.",
"The distribution includes the standard libraries for Ada and C++ whose code is mostly written in those languages.",
"On some platforms, the distribution also includes a low-level runtime library, '''libgcc''', written in a combination of machine-independent C and processor-specific machine code, designed primarily to handle arithmetic operations that the target processor cannot perform directly.GCC uses many additional tools in its build, many of which are installed by default by many Unix and Linux distributions (but which, normally, aren't present in Windows installations), including Perl, Flex, Bison, and other common tools.",
"In addition, it currently requires three additional libraries to be present in order to build: GMP, MPC, and MPFR.In May 2010, the GCC steering committee decided to allow use of a C++ compiler to compile GCC.",
"The compiler was intended to be written mostly in C plus a subset of features from C++.",
"In particular, this was decided so that GCC's developers could use the destructors and generics features of C++.In August 2012, the GCC steering committee announced that GCC now uses C++ as its implementation language.",
"This means that to build GCC from sources, a C++ compiler is required that understands ISO/IEC C++03 standard.On May 18, 2020, GCC moved away from ISO/IEC C++03 standard to ISO/IEC C++11 standard (i.e.",
"needed to compile, bootstrap, the compiler itself; by default it however compiles later versions of C++).=== Front ends ===preprocessing, lexical analysis, syntactic analysis (parsing) and semantic analysis.",
"The goals of compiler front ends are to either accept or reject candidate programs according to the language grammar and semantics, identify errors and handle valid program representations to later compiler stages.",
"This example shows the lexer and parser steps performed for a simple program written in C.Each front end uses a parser to produce the abstract syntax tree of a given source file.",
"Due to the syntax tree abstraction, source files of any of the different supported languages can be processed by the same back end.",
"GCC started out using LALR parsers generated with Bison, but gradually switched to hand-written recursive-descent parsers for C++ in 2004, and for C and Objective-C in 2006.As of 2021 all front ends use hand-written recursive-descent parsers.Until GCC 4.0 the tree representation of the program was not fully independent of the processor being targeted.",
"The meaning of a tree was somewhat different for different language front ends, and front ends could provide their own tree codes.",
"This was simplified with the introduction of GENERIC and GIMPLE, two new forms of language-independent trees that were introduced with the advent of GCC 4.0.GENERIC is more complex, based on the GCC 3.x Java front end's intermediate representation.",
"GIMPLE is a simplified GENERIC, in which various constructs are ''lowered'' to multiple GIMPLE instructions.",
"The C, C++, and Java front ends produce GENERIC directly in the front end.",
"Other front ends instead have different intermediate representations after parsing and convert these to GENERIC.In either case, the so-called \"gimplifier\" then converts this more complex form into the simpler SSA-based GIMPLE form that is the common language for a large number of powerful language- and architecture-independent global (function scope) optimizations.=== GENERIC and GIMPLE ===''GENERIC'' is an intermediate representation language used as a \"middle end\" while compiling source code into executable binaries.",
"A subset, called ''GIMPLE'', is targeted by all the front ends of GCC.The middle stage of GCC does all of the code analysis and optimization, working independently of both the compiled language and the target architecture, starting from the GENERIC representation and expanding it to register transfer language (RTL).",
"The GENERIC representation contains only the subset of the imperative programming constructs optimized by the middle end.In transforming the source code to GIMPLE, complex expressions are split into a three-address code using temporary variables.",
"This representation was inspired by the SIMPLE representation proposed in the McCAT compiler by Laurie J. Hendren for simplifying the analysis and optimization of imperative programs.=== Optimization ===Optimization can occur during any phase of compilation; however, the bulk of optimizations are performed after the syntax and semantic analysis of the front end and before the code generation of the back end; thus a common, though somewhat self-contradictory, name for this part of the compiler is the \"middle end.",
"\"The exact set of GCC optimizations varies from release to release as it develops, but includes the standard algorithms, such as loop optimization, jump threading, common subexpression elimination, instruction scheduling, and so forth.",
"The RTL optimizations are of less importance with the addition of global SSA-based optimizations on GIMPLE trees, as RTL optimizations have a much more limited scope, and have less high-level information.Some of these optimizations performed at this level include dead-code elimination, partial-redundancy elimination, global value numbering, sparse conditional constant propagation, and scalar replacement of aggregates.",
"Array dependence based optimizations such as automatic vectorization and automatic parallelization are also performed.",
"Profile-guided optimization is also possible.=== C++ Standard Library (libstdc++) ===The GCC project includes an implementation of the C++ Standard Library called libstdc++, licensed under the GPLv3 License with an exception to link non-GPL applications when sources are built with GCC.=== Other features ===Some features of GCC include:; Link-time optimization: Link-time optimization optimizes across object file boundaries to directly improve the linked binary.",
"Link-time optimization relies on an intermediate file containing the serialization of some ''Gimple'' representation included in the object file.",
"The file is generated alongside the object file during source compilation.",
"Each source compilation generates a separate object file and link-time helper file.",
"When the object files are linked, the compiler is executed again and uses the helper files to optimize code across the separately compiled object files.",
"; Plugins: Plugins extend the GCC compiler directly.",
"Plugins allow a stock compiler to be tailored to specific needs by external code loaded as plugins.",
"For example, plugins can add, replace, or even remove middle-end passes operating on ''Gimple'' representations.",
"Several GCC plugins have already been published, notably::* The Python plugin, which links against libpython, and allows one to invoke arbitrary Python scripts from inside the compiler.",
"The aim is to allow GCC plugins to be written in Python.",
":* The MELT plugin provides a high-level Lisp-like language to extend GCC.",
": The support of plugins was once a contentious issue in 2007.; C++ transactional memory: The C++ language has an active proposal for transactional memory.",
"It can be enabled in GCC 6 and newer when compiling with -fgnu-tm.",
"; Unicode identifiers: Although the C++ language requires support for non-ASCII Unicode characters in identifiers, the feature has only been supported since GCC 10.As with the existing handling of string literals, the source file is assumed to be encoded in UTF-8.The feature is optional in C, but has been made available too since this change.",
"; C extensions: GNU C extends the C programming language with several non-standard-features, including nested functions and typeof expressions."
],
[
"Architectures",
"Hello World on WindowsThe primary supported (and best tested) processor families are 64- and 32-bit ARM, 64- and 32-bit x86_64 and x86 and 64-bit PowerPC and SPARC.",
"GCC target processor families as of version 11.1 include:* AArch64* Alpha* ARM* AVR* Blackfin* eBPF* Epiphany (GCC 4.8)* H8/300* HC12* IA-32 (x86)* IA-64 (Intel Itanium)* MIPS* Motorola 68000* MSP430* Nvidia GPU* Nvidia PTX* PA-RISC* PDP-11* PowerPC* R8C / M16C / M32C* RISC-V* SPARC* SuperH* System/390 / zSeries* VAX* x86-64Lesser-known target processors supported in the standard release have included:* 68HC11* A29K* C6x* CR16* D30V* DSP16xx* ETRAX CRIS* FR-30* FR-V* IBM ROMP* Intel i960* IP2000* M32R* MCORE* MIL-STD-1750A* MMIX* MN10200* MN10300* Motorola 88000* NS32K* RL78* Stormy16* V850* XtensaAdditional processors have been supported by GCC versions maintained separately from the FSF version:* Cortus APS3* ARC* AVR32* C166 and C167* D10V* EISC* eSi-RISC* Hexagon* LatticeMico32* LatticeMico8* MeP* MicroBlaze* Motorola 6809* MSP430* NEC SX architecture* Nios II and Nios* OpenRISC* PDP-10* PIC24/dsPIC* PIC32* Propeller* Saturn (HP48XGCC)* System/370* TIGCC (m68k variant)* TMS9900* TriCore* Z8000* ZPUThe GCJ Java compiler can target either a native machine language architecture or the Java virtual machine's Java bytecode.",
"When retargeting GCC to a new platform, bootstrapping is often used.",
"Motorola 68000, Zilog Z80, and other processors are also targeted in the GCC versions developed for various Texas Instruments, Hewlett Packard, Sharp, and Casio programmable graphing calculators."
],
[
"License",
"GCC is licensed under the GNU General Public License version 3.The ''GCC runtime exception'' permits compilation of proprietary programs (in addition to free software) with GCC.",
"This does not impact the license terms of GCC source code."
],
[
"See also",
"* List of compilers* MinGW* LLVM/Clang"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* '' Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)'', Free Software Foundation, 2008.",
"* '' GNU Compiler Collection (GCC) Internals'', Free Software Foundation, 2008.",
"* '' An Introduction to GCC'', Network Theory Ltd., 2004 (Revised August 2005).",
".",
"* Arthur Griffith, ''GCC: The Complete Reference''.",
"McGraw Hill / Osborne, 2002.."
],
[
"External links",
"=== Official ===* * GCC Release Timeline* GCC Development Plan=== Other ===* Collection of GCC 4.0.2 architecture and internals documents at I.I.T.",
"Bombay* * * From Source to Binary: The Inner Workings of GCC, by Diego Novillo, ''Red Hat Magazine'', December 2004* A 2003 paper on GENERIC and GIMPLE* Marketing Cygnus Support, an essay covering GCC development for the 1990s, with 30 monthly reports for in the \"Inside Cygnus Engineering\" section near the end* EGCS 1.0 announcement* EGCS 1.0 features list* Fear of Forking, an essay by Rick Moen recording seven well-known forks, including the GCC/EGCS one"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Galen"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Aelius Galenus''' or '''Claudius Galenus''' (; September 129 – 216 AD), often anglicized as '''Galen''' () or '''Galen of Pergamon''', was a Roman and Greek physician, surgeon and philosopher.",
"Considered to be one of the most accomplished of all medical researchers of antiquity, Galen influenced the development of various scientific disciplines, including anatomy, physiology, pathology, pharmacology, and neurology, as well as philosophy and logic.The son of Aelius Nicon, a wealthy Greek architect with scholarly interests, Galen received a comprehensive education that prepared him for a successful career as a physician and philosopher.",
"Born in the ancient city of Pergamon (present-day Bergama, Turkey), Galen traveled extensively, exposing himself to a wide variety of medical theories and discoveries before settling in Rome, where he served prominent members of Roman society and eventually was given the position of personal physician to several emperors.Galen's understanding of anatomy and medicine was principally influenced by the then-current theory of the four humors: black bile, yellow bile, blood, and phlegm, as first advanced by the author of ''On the Nature of Man'' in the Hippocratic corpus.",
"Galen's views dominated and influenced Western medical science for more than 1,300 years.",
"His anatomical reports were based mainly on the dissection of Barbary apes.",
"However, when he discovered that their facial expressions were too much like those of humans, he switched to other animals, such as pigs.",
"The reason for using animals to discover the human body was due to the fact that, while dissections and vivisections on humans were practised in Alexandria at this time, Galen did not have Imperial permission to perform his own.",
"Galen would encourage his students to go look at dead gladiators or bodies that washed up in order to get better acquainted with the human body.",
"His anatomical reports remained uncontested until 1543, when printed descriptions and illustrations of human dissections were published in the seminal work ''De humani corporis fabrica'' by Andreas Vesalius, where Galen's physiological theory was accommodated to these new observations.",
"Galen's theory of the physiology of the circulatory system remained unchallenged until , when Ibn al-Nafis published his book ''Sharh tashrih al-qanun li' Ibn Sina'' (''Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon''), in which he reported his discovery of pulmonary circulation.Galen saw himself as both a physician and a philosopher, as he wrote in his treatise titled ''That the Best Physician Is Also a Philosopher''.",
"Galen was very interested in the debate between the rationalist and empiricist medical sects, and his use of direct observation, dissection, and vivisection represents a complex middle ground between the extremes of those two viewpoints.",
"Many of his works have been preserved and/or translated from the original Greek, although many were destroyed and some credited to him are believed to be spurious.",
"Although there is some debate over the date of his death, he was no younger than seventy when he died."
],
[
"Biography",
"Galen's Greek name (''Galēnós'') comes from the adjective (''galēnós'') 'calm'.",
"Galen's Latin name (Aelius or Claudius) implies he had Roman citizenship.Galen describes his early life in ''On the affections of the mind''.",
"He was born in September 129 AD.",
"His father, Aelius Nicon, was a wealthy patrician, an architect and builder, with eclectic interests including philosophy, mathematics, logic, astronomy, agriculture and literature.",
"Galen describes his father as a \"highly amiable, just, good and benevolent man\".",
"At that time Pergamon (modern-day Bergama, Turkey) was a major cultural and intellectual centre, noted for its library, second only to that in Alexandria, as well as being the site of a large temple to the healing god Asclepius.",
"The city attracted both Stoic and Platonic philosophers, to whom Galen was exposed at age 14.His studies also took in each of the principal philosophical systems of the time, including Aristotelian and Epicurean.",
"His father had planned a traditional career for Galen in philosophy or politics and took care to expose him to literary and philosophical influences.",
"However, Galen states that in around 145 his father had a dream in which the god Asclepius appeared and commanded Nicon to send his son to study medicine.===Medical education===Following his earlier liberal education, Galen at age 16 began his studies at the prestigious local healing temple or asclepeion as a θεραπευτής (''therapeutes'', or attendant) for four years.",
"There he came under the influence of men like Aeschrion of Pergamon, Stratonicus and Satyrus.",
"Asclepiea functioned as spas or sanitoria to which the sick would come to seek the ministrations of the priesthood.",
"Romans frequented the temple at Pergamon in search of medical relief from illness and disease.",
"It was also the haunt of notable people such as the historian Claudius Charax, the orator Aelius Aristides, the sophist Polemo, and the consul Cuspius Rufinus.Galen's father died in 148, leaving Galen independently wealthy at the age of 19.He then followed the advice he found in Hippocrates' teaching and traveled and studied widely including such destinations as Smyrna (now İzmir), Corinth, Crete, Cilicia (now Çukurova), Cyprus, and finally the great medical school of Alexandria, exposing himself to the various schools of thought in medicine.",
"In 157, aged 28, he returned to Pergamon as physician to the gladiators of the High Priest of Asia, one of the most influential and wealthy men in Asia.",
"Galen claims that the High Priest chose him over other physicians after he eviscerated an ape and challenged other physicians to repair the damage.",
"When they refused, Galen performed the surgery himself and in so doing won the favor of the High Priest of Asia.",
"Over his four years there, he learned the importance of diet, fitness, hygiene, and preventive measures, as well as living anatomy, and the treatment of fractures and severe trauma, referring to their wounds as \"windows into the body\".",
"Only five deaths among the gladiators occurred while he held the post, compared to sixty in his predecessor's time, a result that is in general ascribed to the attention he paid to their wounds.",
"At the same time he pursued studies in theoretical medicine and philosophy.===Rome===Galen dissecting a monkey, as imagined by Veloso Salgado in 1906Galen went to Rome in 162 and made his mark as a practicing physician.",
"His public demonstrations and impatience with alternative views on medicine brought him into conflict with other doctors practicing in the city.",
"When the Peripatetic philosopher Eudemus became ill with quartan fever, Galen felt obliged to treat him \"since he was my teacher and I happened to live nearby\".",
"He wrote: \"I return to the case of Eudemus.",
"He was thoroughly attacked by the three attacks of quartan ague, and the doctors had given him up, as it was now mid-winter.\"",
"Some Roman physicians criticized Galen for his use of the prognosis in his treatment of Eudemus.",
"This practice conflicted with the then-current standard of care, which relied upon divination and mysticism.",
"Galen retaliated against his detractors by defending his own methods.",
"Garcia-Ballester quotes Galen as saying: \"In order to diagnose, one must observe and reason.",
"This was the basis of his criticism of the doctors who proceeded alogos and askeptos.",
"\"However, Eudemus warned Galen that engaging in conflict with these physicians could lead to his assassination.",
"\"Eudemus said this, and more to the same effect; he added that if they were not able to harm me by unscrupulous conduct they would proceed to attempts at poisoning.",
"Among other things he told me that, some ten years before, a young man had come to the city and had given, like me practical demonstrations of the resources of our art; this young man was put to death by poison, together with two servants who accompanied him.\"",
"When Galen's animosity with the Roman medical practitioners became serious, he feared he might be exiled or poisoned, so he left the city.Rome was engaged in foreign wars in 161; Marcus Aurelius and his colleague Lucius Verus were in the north fighting the Marcomanni.",
"During the autumn of 169 when Roman troops were returning to Aquileia, a great plague broke out, and the emperor summoned Galen back to Rome.",
"He was ordered to accompany Marcus and Verus to Germany as the court physician.",
"The following spring Marcus was persuaded to release Galen after receiving a report that Asclepius was against the project.",
"He was left behind to act as physician to the imperial heir Commodus.",
"It was here in court that Galen wrote extensively on medical subjects.",
"Ironically, Lucius Verus died in 169, and Marcus Aurelius himself died in 180, both victims of the plague.Galen was the physician to Commodus for much of the emperor's life and treated his common illnesses.",
"According to Dio Cassius 72.14.3–4, in about 189, under Commodus' reign, a pestilence occurred which at its height killed 2,000 people a day in Rome.",
"This was most likely the same plague that struck Rome during Marcus Aurelius' reign.",
"Galen was also physician to Septimius Severus during his reign in Rome.",
"He complimented Severus and Caracalla on keeping a supply of drugs for their friends and mentioned three cases in which they had been of use in 198.===The Antonine Plague===The Antonine Plague was named after Marcus Aurelius' family name of Antoninus.",
"It was also known as the Plague of Galen and held an important place in medicinal history because of its association with Galen.",
"He had first-hand knowledge of the disease, and was present in Rome when it first struck in 166, and was also present in the winter of 168–69 during an outbreak among troops stationed at Aquileia.",
"He had experience with the epidemic, referring to it as very long lasting, and described its symptoms and his treatment of it.",
"His references to the plague are scattered and brief.",
"Galen was not trying to present a description of the disease so that it could be recognized in future generations; he was more interested in the treatment and physical effects of the disease.",
"For example, in his writings about a young man afflicted with the plague, he concentrated on the treatment of internal and external ulcerations.",
"According to Niebuhr, \"this pestilence must have raged with incredible fury; it carried off innumerable victims.",
"The ancient world never recovered from the blow inflicted upon it by the plague that visited it in the reign of M.",
"Aurelius.",
"\"The mortality rate of the plague was 7–10 percent; the outbreak in 165–168 would have caused approximately 3.5 to 5 million deaths.",
"Otto Seeck believes that over half the population of the empire perished.",
"J. F. Gilliam believes that the Antonine plague probably caused more deaths than any other epidemic during the empire before the mid-3rd century.",
"Although Galen's description is incomplete, it is sufficient to enable a firm identification of the disease as smallpox.Galen notes that the exanthema covered the victim's entire body and was usually black.",
"The exanthem became rough and scabby where there was no ulceration.",
"He states that those who were going to survive developed a black exanthem.",
"According to Galen, it was black because of a remnant of blood putrefied in a fever blister that was pustular.",
"His writings state that raised blisters were present in the Antonine plague, usually in the form of a blistery rash.",
"Galen states that the skin rash was close to the one Thucydides described.",
"Galen describes symptoms of the alimentary tract via a patient's diarrhea and stools.",
"If the stool was very black, the patient died.",
"He says that the amount of black stools varied.",
"It depended on the severity of the intestinal lesions.",
"He observes that in cases where the stool was not black, the black exanthema appeared.",
"Galen describes the symptoms of fever, vomiting, fetid breath, catarrh, cough, and ulceration of the larynx and trachea.===Later years===Galen continued to work and write in his final years, finishing treatises on drugs and remedies as well as his compendium of diagnostics and therapeutics, which would have much influence as a medical text both in the Latin Middle Ages and Medieval Islam.The 11th-century ''Suda'' lexicon states that Galen died at the age of 70, which would place his death in about the year 199.However, there is a reference in Galen's treatise ''\"On Theriac to Piso\"'' (which may, however, be spurious) to events of 204.There are also statements in Arabic sources that he died in Sicily at age 87, after 17 years studying medicine and 70 practicing it, which would mean he died about 216.According to these sources, the tomb of Galenus in Palermo was still well preserved in the tenth century.",
"Nutton believes that ''\"On Theriac to Piso\"'' is genuine, that the Arabic sources are correct, and that the ''Suda'' has erroneously interpreted the 70 years of Galen's career in the Arabic tradition as referring to his whole lifespan.",
"Boudon-Millot more or less concurs and favors a date of 216."
],
[
"Medicine",
"Galen contributed a substantial amount to the understanding of pathology.",
"Under the Hippocratic bodily humors theory, differences in human moods come as a consequence of imbalances in one of the four bodily fluids: blood, yellow bile, black bile, and phlegm.",
"Galen promoted this theory and the typology of human temperaments.",
"In Galen's view, an imbalance of each humor corresponded with a particular human temperament (bloodsanguine, black bilemelancholic, yellow bilecholeric, and phlegmphlegmatic).",
"Thus, individuals with sanguine temperaments are extroverted and social; choleric people have energy, passion, and charisma; melancholics are creative, kind, and considerate; and phlegmatic temperaments are characterised by dependability, kindness, and affection.Galen was also a skilled surgeon, operating on human patients.",
"Many of his procedures and techniques would not be used again for centuries, such as the procedures he performed on brains and eyes.",
"To correct cataracts in patients, Galen performed an operation similar to a modern one.",
"Using a needle-shaped instrument, Galen attempted to remove the cataract-affected lens of the eye.",
"His surgical experiments included ligating the arteries of living animals.",
"Although many 20th-century historians have claimed that Galen believed the lens to be in the exact center of the eye, Galen actually understood that the crystalline lens is located in the anterior aspect of the human eye.At first reluctantly but then with increasing vigor, Galen promoted Hippocratic teaching, including venesection and bloodletting, then unknown in Rome.",
"This was sharply criticized by the Erasistrateans, who predicted dire outcomes, believing that it was not blood but ''pneuma'' that flowed in the veins.",
"Galen, however, staunchly defended venesection in his three books on the subject and in his demonstrations and public disputations.",
"Galen's work on anatomy remained largely unsurpassed and unchallenged up until the 16th century in Europe.",
"In the middle of the 16th century, the anatomist Andreas Vesalius challenged the anatomical knowledge of Galen by conducting dissections on human cadavers.",
"These investigations allowed Vesalius to refute aspects of Galen's theories regarding anatomy.===Anatomy===An interpretation of Galen's human \"physiological system\"Galen's interest in human anatomy ran afoul of Roman law that prohibited the dissection of human cadavers since roughly 150 BC.",
"Because of this restriction, Galen performed anatomical dissections on living (vivisection) and dead animals, mostly focusing on primates.",
"Galen believed that the anatomical structures of these animals closely mirrored those of humans.",
"Galen clarified the anatomy of the trachea and was the first to demonstrate that the larynx generates the voice.",
"In one experiment, Galen used bellows to inflate the lungs of a dead animal.",
"Galen's research on physiology was largely influenced by previous works of philosophers Plato and Aristotle, as well as from the physician Hippocrates.",
"He was one of the first people to use experiments as a method of research for his medical findings.",
"Doing so allowed him to explore various parts of the body and its functions.Among Galen's major contributions to medicine was his work on the circulatory system.",
"He was the first to recognize that there are distinct differences between venous (dark) and arterial (bright) blood.",
"In addition to these discoveries, Galen postulated much more about the nature of the circulatory system.",
"He believed that blood originated in the liver, which follows the teachings of Hippocrates.",
"The liver converted nutrients gathered from ingested food into blood to be used in the circulatory system.",
"The blood created in the liver would eventually flow unidirectionally into the right ventricle of the heart via the great vein.",
"Galen also proposed a theory on how blood receives air from the lungs to be distributed throughout the body.",
"He declared that the venous artery carried air from the lungs into the left ventricle of the heart to mix with created blood from the liver.",
"This same venous artery allowed for an exchange of waste products from the blood back into the lungs to be exhaled.",
"In order to receive air from the lungs in the left ventricle, the new blood needed to get there from the right ventricle.",
"Thus, Galen asserted that there are small holes in the septum dividing the left and right sides of the heart; these holes allowed the blood to pass through easily to receive air and exchange the aforementioned waste products.",
"Although his anatomical experiments on animal models led him to a more complete understanding of the circulatory system, nervous system, respiratory system, and other structures, his work contained scientific errors.",
"Galen believed the circulatory system to consist of two separate one-way systems of distribution, rather than a single unified system of circulation.",
"He believed venous blood to be generated in the liver, from where it was distributed and consumed by all organs of the body.",
"He posited that arterial blood originated in the heart, from where it was distributed and consumed by all organs of the body.",
"The blood was then regenerated in either the liver or the heart, completing the cycle.",
"Galen also believed in the existence of a group of blood vessels he called the rete mirabile in the carotid sinus.",
"Both of these theories of the circulation of blood were later (beginning with works of Ibn al-Nafis published ) shown to be incorrect.Galen was also a pioneer in research about the human spine.",
"His dissections and vivisections of animals led to key observations that helped him accurately describe the human spine, spinal cord, and vertebral column.",
"Galen also played a major role in the discoveries of the central nervous system.",
"He was also able to describe the nerves that emerge from the spine, which is integral to his research about the nervous system.",
"Galen went on to be the first physician to study what happens when the spinal cord is transected on multiple different levels.",
"He worked with pigs and studied their neuroanatomy by severing different nerves either totally or partially to see how it affected the body.",
"He even dealt with diseases affecting the spinal cord and nerves.",
"In his work ''De motu musculorum'', Galen explained the difference between motor and sensory nerves, discussed the concept of muscle tone, and explained the difference between agonists and antagonists.Galen's work on animals led to some inaccuracies, most notably his anatomy of the uterus which largely resembled a dog's.",
"Though incorrect in his studies of human reproduction and reproductive anatomy, he came very close to identifying the ovaries as analogous to the male testes.",
"Reproduction was a controversial topic in Galen's lifetime, as there was much debate over if the male was solely responsible for the seed, or if the woman was also responsible.Through his vivisection practices, Galen also proved that the voice was controlled by the brain.",
"One of the most famous experiments that he recreated in public was the squealing pig: Galen would cut open a pig, and while it was squealing he would tie off the recurrent laryngeal nerve, or vocal cords, showing they controlled the making of sound.",
"He used the same method to tie off the ureters to prove his theories of kidney and bladder function.",
"Galen believed the human body had three interconnected systems that allowed it to work.",
"The first system that he theorized consisted of the brain and the nerves, responsible for thought and sensation.",
"The second theorized system was the heart and the arteries, which Galen believed to be responsible for providing life-giving energy.",
"The last theorized system was the liver and veins, which Galen theorized were responsible for nutrition and growth.",
"Galen also theorized that blood was made in the liver and sent out around the body.===Localization of function===One of Galen's major works, ''On the Doctrines of Hippocrates and Plato'', sought to demonstrate the unity of the two subjects and their views.",
"Using their theories, combined with Aristotle's, Galen developed a tripartite soul consisting of similar aspects.",
"He used the same terms as Plato, referring to the three parts as rational, spiritual, and appetitive.",
"Each corresponded to a localized area of the body.",
"The rational soul was in the brain, the spiritual soul was in the heart, and the appetitive soul was in the liver.",
"Galen was the first scientist and philosopher to assign specific parts of the soul to locations in the body because of his extensive background in medicine.",
"This idea is now referred to as localization of function.",
"Galen's assignments were revolutionary for the time period, which set the precedent for future localization theories.Galen believed each part of this tripartite soul controlled specific functions within the body and that the soul, as a whole, contributed to the health of the body, strengthening the \"natural functioning capacity of the organ or organs in question\".",
"The rational soul controlled higher level cognitive functioning in an organism, for example, making choices or perceiving the world and sending those signals to the brain.",
"He also listed \"imagination, memory, recollection, knowledge, thought, consideration, voluntary motion, and sensation\" as being found within the rational soul.",
"The functions of \"growing or being alive\" resided in the spirited soul.",
"The spirited soul also contained our passions, such as anger.",
"These passions were considered to be even stronger than regular emotions, and, as a consequence, more dangerous.",
"The third part of the soul, or the appetitive spirit, controlled the living forces in our body, most importantly blood.",
"The appetitive spirit also regulated the pleasures of the body and was moved by feelings of enjoyment.",
"This third part of the soul is the animalistic, or more natural, side of the soul; it deals with the natural urges of the body and survival instincts.",
"Galen proposed that when the soul is moved by too much enjoyment, it reaches states of \"incontinence\" and \"licentiousness\", the inability to willfully cease enjoyment, which was a negative consequence of too much pleasure.In order to unite his theories about the soul and how it operated within the body, he adapted the theory of the pneuma, which he used to explain how the soul operated within its assigned organs, and how those organs, in turn, interacted together.",
"Galen then distinguished the vital pneuma, in the arterial system, from the psychic pneuma, in the brain and nervous system.",
"Galen placed the vital pneuma in the heart and the psychic pneuma (''spiritus animalis'') within the brain.",
"He conducted many anatomical studies on animals, most famously an ox, to study the transition from vital to psychic pneuma.",
"Although highly criticized for comparing animal anatomy to human anatomy, Galen was convinced that his knowledge was abundant enough in both anatomies to base one on the other.In his treatise ''On the usefulness of the parts of the body'', Galen argued that the perfect suitability of each part of the body to its function indicated the role of an intelligent creator.",
"His creationism was anticipated by the anatomical examples of Socrates and Empedocles."
],
[
"Philosophy",
"PergamonAlthough the main focus of his work was on medicine, anatomy, and physiology, Galen also wrote about logic and philosophy.",
"His writings were influenced by earlier Greek and Roman thinkers, including Plato, Aristotle, the Stoics, and the Pyrrhonists.",
"Galen was concerned to combine philosophical thought with medical practice, as in his brief work ''That the Best Physician is also a Philosopher'' he took aspects from each group and combined them with his original thought.",
"He regarded medicine as an interdisciplinary field that was best practiced by utilizing theory, observation, and experimentation in conjunction.Galen combined his observations of his dissections with Plato's theory about the soul.",
"Plato believed that the body and the soul were separate entities, rivaling the Stoics.",
"Plato proclaimed that the soul is immortal, so it must exist before one is born, beyond the human body.",
"This influenced Galen's thinking that the soul had to be acquired because the soul does not always reside within the human body.",
"Plato's influence in Galen's model showed itself most prominently in what Galen dubbed arterial blood, which is a mixture of nutritious blood from the liver and the vital spirit (the soul) which was attained from the lungs.",
"The vital spirit within this medium was necessary for the body to function and eventually completely absorbed.",
"This process was then repeated indefinitely, according to Galen, so that the body could be replenished with the soul, or the vital spirit.Several schools of thought existed within the medical field during Galen's lifetime, the main two being the Empiricists and Rationalists (also called Dogmatists or Philosophers), with the Methodists being a smaller group.",
"The Empiricists emphasized the importance of physical practice and experimentation or \"active learning\" in the medical discipline.",
"In direct opposition to the Empiricists were the Rationalists, who valued the study of established teachings in order to create new theories in the name of medical advancements.",
"The Methodists formed somewhat of a middle ground, as they were not as experimental as the Empiricists, nor as theoretical as the Rationalists.",
"The Methodists mainly utilized pure observation, showing greater interest in studying the natural course of ailments than making efforts to find remedies.",
"Galen's education had exposed him to the five major schools of thought (Platonists, Peripatetics, Stoics, Epicureans, Pyrrhonists), with teachers from the Rationalist sect and from the Empiricist sect.===Opposition to the Stoics===Galen was well known for his advancements in medicine and the circulatory system, but he was also concerned with philosophy.",
"He developed his own tripartite soul model following the examples of Plato; some scholars refer to him as a Platonist.",
"Galen developed a theory of personality based on his understanding of fluid circulation in humans, and he believed that there was a physiological basis for mental disorders.",
"Galen connected many of his theories to the pneuma and he opposed the Stoics' definition of and use of the pneuma.The Stoics, according to Galen, failed to give a credible answer for the localization of functions of the psyche, or the mind.",
"Through his use of medicine, he was convinced that he came up with a better answer, the brain.",
"The Stoics only recognized the soul as having one part, which was the rational soul and they claimed it would be found in the heart.",
"Galen, following Plato's idea, came up with two more parts to the soul.Galen also rejected Stoic propositional logic and instead embraced a hypothetical syllogistic which was strongly influenced by the Peripatetics and based on elements of Aristotelian logic."
],
[
"Psychology",
"===Mind–body problem===Galen believed there is no sharp distinction between the mental and the physical.",
"This was a controversial argument at the time, and Galen agreed with some Greek philosophical schools in believing that the mind and body were not separate faculties.",
"He believed that this could be scientifically shown.",
"This was where his opposition to the Stoics became most prevalent.",
"Galen proposed organs within the body to be responsible for specific functions.",
"According to Galen, the Stoics' lack of scientific justification discredited their claims of the separateness of mind and body, which is why he spoke so strongly against them.",
"There is an intense scholarly debate about soul-body relations in Galen's psychological writings.",
"In his brief treatise ''Quod animi mores'', Galen says both that the soul \"follows\" the mixtures of the body, and that the soul is a bodily mixture.",
"Scholars have offered ways of reconciling these claims, arguing for a materialist reading of Galen's philosophy of mind.",
"According to this materialist reading, Galen identifies the soul with the mixtures of the body.===Psychotherapy===Another one of Galen's major works, ''On the Diagnosis and Cure of the Soul's Passion'', discussed how to approach and treat psychological problems.",
"This was Galen's early attempt at what would later be called psychotherapy.",
"His book contained directions on how to provide counsel to those with psychological issues to prompt them to reveal their deepest passions and secrets, and eventually cure them of their mental deficiency.",
"The leading individual, or therapist, had to be a male, preferably of an older, wiser, age, as well as free from the control of the passions.",
"These passions, according to Galen, caused the psychological problems that people experienced."
],
[
"Published works",
"''De curandi ratione''Galen may have produced more work than any author in antiquity, rivaling the quantity of work issued from Augustine of Hippo.",
"So profuse was Galen's output that the surviving texts represent nearly half of all the extant literature from ancient Greece.",
"It has been reported that Galen employed twenty scribes to write down his words.",
"Galen may have written as many as 500 treatises, amounting to some 10 million words.",
"Although his surviving works amount to some 3 million words, this is thought to represent less than a third of his complete writings.",
"In 191, or more likely in 192, a fire in the Temple of Peace destroyed many of his works, in particular treatises on philosophy.Because Galen's works were not translated into Latin in the ancient period, and because of the collapse of the Roman Empire in the West, the study of Galen, along with the Greek medical tradition as a whole, went into decline in Western Europe during the Early Middle Ages, when very few Latin scholars could read Greek.",
"However, in general, Galen and the ancient Greek medical tradition continued to be studied and followed in the Eastern Roman Empire, commonly known as the Byzantine Empire.",
"All of the extant Greek manuscripts of Galen were copied by Byzantine scholars.",
"In the Abbasid period (after 750) Arab Muslims began to be interested in Greek scientific and medical texts for the first time, and had some of Galen's texts translated into Arabic, often by Syrian Christian scholars (see below).",
"As a result, some texts of Galen exist only in Arabic translation, while others exist only in medieval Latin translations of the Arabic.",
"In some cases scholars have even attempted to translate from the Latin or Arabic back into Greek where the original is lost.",
"For some of the ancient sources, such as Herophilus, Galen's account of their work is all that survives.Even in his own time, forgeries and unscrupulous editions of his work were a problem, prompting him to write ''On His Own Books''.",
"Forgeries in Latin, Arabic or Greek continued until the Renaissance.",
"Some of Galen's treatises have appeared under many different titles over the years.",
"Sources are often in obscure and difficult-to-access journals or repositories.",
"Although written in Greek, by convention the works are referred to by Latin titles, and often by merely abbreviations of those.",
"No single authoritative collection of his work exists, and controversy remains as to the authenticity of a number of works attributed to Galen.",
"As a consequence, research on Galen's work is fraught with hazard.Various attempts have been made to classify Galen's vast output.",
"For instance Coxe (1846) lists a Prolegomena, or introductory books, followed by 7 classes of treatise embracing Physiology (28 vols.",
"), Hygiene (12), Aetiology (19), Semeiotics (14), Pharmacy (10), Blood letting (4) and Therapeutics (17), in addition to 4 of aphorisms, and spurious works.",
"The most complete compendium of Galen's writings, surpassing even modern projects like the ''Corpus Medicorum Graecorum'', is the one compiled and translated by Karl Gottlob Kühn of Leipzig between 1821 and 1833.This collection consists of 122 of Galen's treatises, translated from the original Greek into Latin (the text is presented in both languages).",
"Over 20,000 pages in length, it is divided into 22 volumes, with 676 index pages.",
"Many of Galen's works are included in the ''Thesaurus Linguae Graecae'', a digital library of Greek literature started in 1972.Another useful modern source is the French Bibliothèque interuniversitaire de médecine (BIUM)."
],
[
"Legacy",
"===Late antiquity===A group of physicians in an image from the Vienna Dioscurides; Galen is depicted top center.In his time, Galen's reputation as both physician and philosopher was legendary, the emperor Marcus Aurelius describing him as \"Primum sane medicorum esse, philosophorum autem solum\" (first among doctors and unique among philosophers ''Praen 14: 660'').",
"Other contemporary authors in the Greek world confirm this including Theodotus the Shoemaker, Athenaeus and Alexander of Aphrodisias.",
"The 7th-century poet George of Pisida went so far as to refer to Christ as a second and neglected Galen.",
"Galen continued to exert an important influence over the theory and practice of medicine until the mid-17th century in the Byzantine and Arabic worlds and Europe.",
"A few centuries after Galen, Palladius Iatrosophista stated in his commentary on Hippocrates that Hippocrates sowed and Galen reaped.Galen summarized and synthesized the work of his predecessors, and it is in Galen's words (Galenism) that Greek medicine was handed down to subsequent generations, such that Galenism became the means by which Greek medicine was known to the world.",
"Often, this was in the form of restating and reinterpreting, such as in Magnus of Nisibis' 4th-century work on urine, which was in turn translated into Arabic.",
"Yet the full importance of his contributions was not appreciated until long after his death.",
"Galen's rhetoric and prolificity were so powerful as to convey the impression that there was little left to learn.",
"The term Galenism has subsequently taken on both a positive and pejorative meaning as one that transformed medicine in late antiquity yet so dominated subsequent thinking as to stifle further progress.After the collapse of the Western Empire the study of Galen and other Greek works almost disappeared in the Latin West.",
"In contrast, in the predominantly Greek-speaking eastern half of the Roman empire (Byzantium), many commentators of the subsequent centuries, such as Oribasius, physician to the emperor Julian who compiled a ''Synopsis'' in the 4th century, preserved and disseminated Galen's works, making them more accessible.",
"Nutton refers to these authors as the \"medical refrigerators of antiquity\".",
"In late antiquity, medical writing veered increasingly in the direction of the theoretical at the expense of the practical, with many authors merely debating Galenism.",
"Magnus of Nisibis was a pure theorist, as were John of Alexandria and Agnellus of Ravenna with their lectures on Galen's ''De Sectis''.",
"So strong was Galenism that other authors such as Hippocrates began to be seen through Galen's eyes, while his opponents became marginalised and other medical sects such as Asclepiadism slowly disappeared.Greek medicine was part of Greek culture, and Syrian Christians came in contact with it while the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantium) ruled Syria and western Mesopotamia, regions that were conquered in the 7th century by the Arabs.",
"After 750, these Syrian Christians made the first translations of Galen into Syriac and Arabic.",
"From then on, Galen and the Greek medical tradition in general became assimilated into the medieval and early modern Islamic Middle East.",
"Job of Edessa is said to have translated 36 of Galen's works into Syriac, some of which were later translated into Arabic by Hunain ibn Ishaq.===Medieval Islam===Galen () in ''Kitab al-Dariyak'', 1225-1250, Syria.",
"Vienna AF 10, Syria.",
"Vienna AF 10The ''Kitab al-Dariyak'' was allegedly based on the work of Galen.",
"Here, Andromachus the Elder on horseback, questionning a patient who has received a snake bite.",
"''Kitab al-Dariyak'', 1198-1199, Syria.Galen's approach to medicine became and remains influential in the Islamic world.",
"The first major translator of Galen into Arabic was the Arab Christian Hunayn ibn Ishaq.",
"He translated () 129 works of \"Jalinos\" into Arabic.",
"Arabic sources, such as Muhammad ibn Zakarīya al-Rāzi (AD 865–925), continue to be the source of discovery of new or relatively inaccessible Galenic writings.",
"One of Hunayn's Arabic translations, ''Kitab ila Aglooqan fi Shifa al Amrad'', which is extant in the Library of Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine & Sciences, is regarded as a masterpiece of Galen's literary works.",
"A part of the Alexandrian compendium of Galen's work, this 10th-century manuscript comprises two parts that include details regarding various types of fevers (Humyat) and different inflammatory conditions of the body.",
"More important is that it includes details of more than 150 single and compound formulations of both herbal and animal origin.",
"The book provides an insight into understanding the traditions and methods of treatment in the Greek and Roman eras.",
"In addition, this book provides a direct source for the study of more than 150 single and compound drugs used during the Greco-Roman period.As the title of ''Doubts on Galen'' by al-Rāzi implies, as well as the writings of physicians such as Ibn Zuhr and Ibn al-Nafis, the works of Galen were not accepted unquestioningly, but as a challengeable basis for further inquiry.",
"A strong emphasis on experimentation and empiricism led to new results and new observations, which were contrasted and combined with those of Galen by writers such as al-Rāzi, Ali ibn Abbas al-Majusi, Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi, Ibn Sina (Avicenna), Ibn Zuhr and Ibn al-Nafis.",
"For example, Ibn al-Nafis' discovery of the pulmonary circulation contradicted the Galenic theory on the heart.The influence of Galen's writings, including humorism, remains strong in modern Unani medicine, now closely identified with Islamic culture, and widely practiced from India (where it is officially recognized) to Morocco.Maimonides was influenced by Galen, whom he cited most often in his medical works, and whom he considered to be the greatest physician of all time.",
"In India many Hindu physicians studied Persian and Urdu languages and learnt Galenic medicine.",
"This trend of studies among Hindu physicians began in 17th century and lasted until the early 20th century (Speziale 2018).===Middle Ages===''De Pulsibus'' (c.1550), Galen's treatise on the pulse, in Greek and Latin.From the 11th century onwards, Latin translations of Islamic medical texts began to appear in the West, alongside the Salerno school of thought, and were soon incorporated into the curriculum at the universities of Naples and Montpellier.",
"From that time, Galenism took on a new, unquestioned authority, Galen even being referred to as the \"Medical Pope of the Middle Ages\".",
"Constantine the African was amongst those who translated both Hippocrates and Galen from Arabic.",
"In addition to the more numerous translations of Arabic texts in this period, there were a few translations of Galenic works directly from the Greek, such as Burgundio of Pisa's translation of ''De complexionibus''.",
"Galen's works on anatomy and medicine became the mainstay of the medieval physician's university curriculum, alongside Ibn Sina's ''The Canon of Medicine'', which elaborated on Galen's works.",
"Unlike pagan Rome, Christian Europe did not exercise a universal prohibition of the dissection and autopsy of the human body and such examinations were carried out regularly from at least the 13th century.",
"However, Galen's influence was so great that when dissections discovered anomalies compared with Galen's anatomy, the physicians often tried to fit these into the Galenic system.",
"An example of this is Mondino de Liuzzi, who describes rudimentary blood circulation in his writings but still asserts that the left ventricle should contain air.",
"Some cited these changes as proof that human anatomy had changed since the time of Galen.The most important translator of Galen's works into Latin was Niccolò di Deoprepio da Reggio, who spent several years working on Galen.",
"Niccolò worked at the Angevin Court during the reign of king Robert of Naples.",
"Among Niccolò's translations is a piece from a medical treatise by Galen, of which the original text is lost.===Renaissance===The first edition of Galen's complete works in Latin translation was edited by Diomede Bonardo of Brescia and printed at Venice by Filippo Pinzi in 1490.The Renaissance, and the fall of the Byzantine Empire (1453), were accompanied by an influx of Greek scholars and manuscripts to the West, allowing direct comparison between the Arabic commentaries and the original Greek texts of Galen.",
"This New Learning and the Humanist movement, particularly the work of Linacre, promoted ''literae humaniores'' including Galen in the Latin scientific canon, ''De Naturalibus Facultatibus'' appearing in London in 1523.Debates on medical science now had two traditions, the more conservative Arabian and the liberal Greek.",
"The more extreme liberal movements began to challenge the role of authority in medicine, as exemplified by Paracelsus' symbolically burning the works of Avicenna and Galen at his medical school in Basle.",
"Nevertheless, Galen's pre-eminence amongst the great thinkers of the millennium is exemplified by a 16th-century mural in the refectory of the Great Lavra of Mt Athos.",
"It depicts pagan sages at the foot of the Tree of Jesse, with Galen between the Sibyl and Aristotle.Galenism's final defeat came from a combination of the negativism of Paracelsus and the constructivism of the Italian Renaissance anatomists, such as Vesalius in the 16th century.",
"In the 1530s, the Flemish anatomist and physician Andreas Vesalius took on a project to translate many of Galen's Greek texts into Latin.",
"Vesalius' most famous work, ''De humani corporis fabrica'', was greatly influenced by Galenic writing and form.",
"Seeking to examine critically Galen's methods and outlook, Vesalius turned to human cadaver dissection as a means of verification.",
"Galen's writings were shown by Vesalius to describe details present in monkeys but not in humans, and he demonstrated Galen's limitations through books and hands-on demonstrations despite fierce opposition from orthodox pro-Galenists such as Jacobus Sylvius.",
"Since Galen states that he is using observations of monkeys (human dissection was prohibited) to give an account of what the body looks like, Vesalius could portray himself as using Galen's approach of description of direct observation to create a record of the exact details of the human body, since he worked in a time when human dissection was allowed.",
"Galen argued that monkey anatomy was close enough to humans for physicians to learn anatomy with monkey dissections and then make observations of similar structures in the wounds of their patients, rather than trying to learn anatomy only from wounds in human patients, as would be done by students trained in the Empiricist model.",
"The examinations of Vesalius also disproved medical theories of Aristotle and Mondino de Liuzzi.",
"One of the best known examples of Vesalius' overturning of Galenism was his demonstration that the interventricular septum of the heart was not permeable, as Galen had taught (''Nat Fac III xv'').",
"However, this had been revealed two years before by Michael Servetus in his fateful \"''Christianismi restitutio''\" (1553) with only three copies of the book surviving, but these remaining hidden for decades; the rest were burned shortly after its publication because of persecution of Servetus by religious authorities.Michael Servetus, using the name \"Michel de Villeneuve\" during his stay in France, was Vesalius' fellow student and the best Galenist at the University of Paris, according to Johann Winter von Andernach, who taught both.",
"In the Galenism of the Renaissance, editions of the ''Opera Omnia'' by Galen were very important, beginning from the Aldine Press' editio princeps in Venice in 1525.It was followed in Venice in 1541–1542 by the Giunta.",
"There were fourteen editions of the book from that date until 1625.Just one edition was produced from Lyon between 1548 and 1551.The Lyon edition has commentaries on breathing and blood streaming that correct the work of earlier renowned authors such as Vesalius, Caius, or Janus Cornarius.",
"\"Michel De Villeneuve\" had contracts with Jean Frellon for that work, and the Servetus scholar-researcher Francisco Javier González Echeverría presented research that became an accepted communication in the International Society for the History of Medicine, which concluded that Michael De Villeneuve (Michael Servetus) is the author of the commentaries of this edition of Frellon, in Lyon.Another convincing case where understanding of the body was extended beyond where Galen had left it came from these demonstrations of the nature of human circulation and the subsequent work of Andrea Cesalpino, Fabricio of Acquapendente and William Harvey.",
"Some Galenic teaching, such as his emphasis on bloodletting as a remedy for many ailments, however, remained influential until well into the 19th century.===Contemporary scholarship===Galenic scholarship remains an intense and vibrant field, following renewed interest in his work, dating from the German encyclopedia ''Realencyclopädie der Classischen Altertumswissenschaft''.Copies of his works translated by Robert M. Green are held at the National Library of Medicine in Bethesda, Maryland.In 2018, the University of Basel discovered that a mysterious Greek papyrus with mirror writing on both sides, which was at the collection of Basilius Amerbach, a professor of jurisprudence at the University of Basel in the 16th century, is an unknown medical document of Galen or an unknown commentary on his work.",
"The medical text describes the phenomenon of \"hysterical apnea'."
],
[
"See also",
"*Abascantus*Galenic formulation*Timeline of medicine and medical technology*History of medicine"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"Sources",
"::''The works of Galen are listed in Galenic corpus.",
"''*Algra K (ed.)",
"''The Cambridge History of Hellenistic Philosophy''.",
"Cambridge University Press, 2005.",
"* Boudon-Millot V (ed.",
"and trans.)",
"''Galien: Introduction générale; Sur l'ordre de ses propres livres; Sur ses propres livres; Que l'excellent médecin est aussi philosophe'' Paris: Les Belles Lettres.",
"2007, * Boylen M. Galen.",
"Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy*Brodersen K. ''Galenos, Die verbrannte Bibliothek: Peri Alypias''.",
"Marix, Wiesbaden 2015, * Debru A.",
"\"Galen on Pharmacology: Philosophy, History, and Medicine : Proceedings of the Vth International Galen Colloquium\", Lille, 16–18 March 1995 Brill, 1997, * Dunn PM.",
"''Galen (AD 129–200) of Pergamun: anatomist and experimental physiologist''.",
"Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed.",
"2003 Sep;88(5):F441–443.",
"* Everson S.",
"(ed.)",
"''Language''.",
"Cambridge University Press, 1994, * French RK.",
"''Medicine Before Science: The Rational and Learned Doctor from the Middle Ages to the Enlightenment''.",
"Cambridge University Press, 2003.",
"* Gleason MW.",
"''Shock and Awe: The Performance Dimension of Galen's Anatomy Demonstrations''.",
"Princeton/Stanford Working Papers in Classics January 2007*Gleason MW.",
"''Making Men: Sophists and Self-Presentation in Ancient Rome''.",
"Princeton 1995* Hankinson RJ (ed.)",
"The Cambridge Companion to Galen.",
"CUP 2008 *Hankinson R.J. ''Cause and explanation in ancient Greek thought''.",
"Oxford University Press, 1998, **Johannes Ilberg.",
"\"Aus Galens Praxis.",
"Neue Jahrbücher für das Klassische Altertum\", Geschichte und Deutsche Literatur 15: 276–312, 1905*Hakim Syed Zillur Rahman (ed.).",
"''Jawami Kitab Al-Nabd Al-Saghir by Galen'' (2007), Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine & Sciences, Aligarh, India; *Hakim Syed Zillur Rahman (ed.).",
"''Kitab fi Firaq al Tibb by Galen'' (2008), Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine & Sciences, Aligarh, India; *Hakim Syed Zillur Rahman (ed.).",
"''Kitab al Anasir by Galen'' (2008), Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine & Sciences, Aligarh, India; *Hakim Syed Zillur Rahman (ed.).",
"''Kitab al Mizaj of Galen'' (2008), Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine & Sciences, Aligarh, India, *Kotrc RF, Walters KR.",
"\"A bibliography of the Galenic Corpus.",
"A newly researched list and arrangement of the titles of the treatises extant in Greek, Latin, and Arabic\".",
"Trans Stud Coll Physicians Phila.",
"1979 December;1(4):256–304* Mattern SP.",
"Physicians and the Roman Imperial Aristocracy: The Patronage of Therapeutics.",
"Bulletin of the History of Medicine.",
"Volume 73, Number 1, Spring 1999, pp.",
"1–18* Metzger BM.",
"New Testament Studies: Philological, Versional, and Patristic.",
"Brill, 1980, * Muhaqqiq M. Medical Sects in Islam.",
"al-Tawhid Islamic Journal, vol.",
"VIII, No.2*Nutton V. \"Roman Medicine, 250 BC to AD 200, and Medicine in Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages\", in Lawrence C.(ed.)",
"''The Western Medical Tradition: 800–1800 A.D.'' 1995* Nutton V. ''Ancient Medicine''.",
"Routledge, 2004, * Osler W. ''The Evolution of Modern Medicine'' 1913.Plain Label Books 1987.Chapter II: Greek Medicine*Peterson DW.",
"\"Observations on the chronology of the Galenic Corpus\".",
"Bull Hist Med 51(3): 484, 1977*Siegel RE.",
"''Galen's System of Physiology and Medicine'', Basel 1968 (this text is not regarded highly by most Galen scholars)*Siegel RE.",
"''Galen on Sense Perception, His Doctrines, Observations and Experiments on Vision, Hearing, Smell, Taste, Touch and Pain, and Their Historical Sources''.",
"Karger, Basel 1970 (this text is not regarded highly by most Galen scholars)*Siegel RE.",
"''Galen on Psychology, Psychopathology, and Function and Diseases of the Nervous System'' 1973 (this text is not regarded highly by most Galen scholars)* Smith WG.",
"''Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology''.",
"J Walton 1849*Stakelum JW, ''Galen and the Logic of Proposition'', Rome, Angelicum, 1940*Taylor HO.",
"''Greek Biology And Medicine''.",
"Marshall Jones 1922.Chapter 5: The Final System – Galen*Temkin O.",
"''Galenism: Rise and Decline of a Medical Philosophy''.",
"Cornell University Press, Ithaca 1973* ''The Cambridge Ancient History'': Second Edition.",
"XI The High Empire A.D. 70–192 Cambridge University Press, 2000, * ''Thesaurus Linguae Graecae'': TLG* van der Eijk P. ''Medicine and Philosophy in Classical Antiquity: Doctors and Philosophers on Nature, Soul, Health and Disease''.",
"Cambridge University Press, 2005, * Watson PB.",
"''Marcus Aurelius Antoninus''.",
"Harper & brothers, 1884"
],
[
"Further reading",
"**Boudon-Millot, V. ''Introduction Générale, Sur L'ordre de ses Propres Livres, Sur ses Propres Livres, Que L'excellent Médecin est Aussi Philosophe'' Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 2007.",
"*Garcia Ballester, Luis.",
"2002.G''alen and Galenism.",
"Theory and Medical Practice from Antiquity to the European Renaissance.''",
"Collected Studies Series 710.Aldershot, UK: Ashgate Variorum.",
"*Gilbert, N. Ward.",
"1960.",
"''Renaissance Concepts of Method.''",
"New York: Columbia University Press.",
"*Gill, Christopher, Tim Whitmarsh, and John Wilkins, eds.",
"2012.",
"''Galen and the World of Knowledge.''",
"Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ.",
"Press.",
"*Kudlien, Fridolf, and Richard J Durling.",
"1991.",
"''Galen's Method of Healing: Proceedings of the 1982 Galen Symposium.''",
"Leiden: E.J.",
"Brill.",
"*Lloyd, G. E. R.",
"1991.",
"''Methods and Problems in Greek Science.''",
"Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.",
"*Mattern, Susan P.",
"2013.",
"''The Prince of Medicine: Galen In the Roman Empire.''",
"New York: Oxford University Press.",
"*Nutton, Vivian.",
"2004.",
"''Ancient Medicine.''",
"London and New York: Routledge.",
"*Rocca, Julius.",
"2003.",
"''Galen on the Brain: Anatomical Knowledge and Physiological Speculation in the Second Century A.D.'' Studies in Ancient Medicine 26.Leiden, The Netherlands, and Boston: Brill.",
"*Rosen, Ralph M.",
"2013.",
"\"Galen on Poetic Testimony\" In ''Writing Science: Medical and Mathematical Authorship in Ancient Greece.''",
"Edited by M. Asper, 177–189.Berlin: De Gruyter.",
"*Rosen, Ralph M.",
"2013.",
"\"Galen, Plato, and the Physiology of Eros.\"",
"In ''Eros'' Edited by E. Sanders, C. Carey and N. Lowe, 111–127.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.",
"*Sarton, George.",
"1954.",
"''Galen of Pergamon.''",
"Lawrence: University of Kansas Press.",
"*Schlange-Schöningen, H. ''Die römische Gesellschaft bei Galen.",
"Biographie und Sozialgeschichte'' (= ''Untersuchungen zur antiken Literatur und Geschichte'', Bd.",
"65) Berlin: de Gruyter, 2003*Walzer, Richard.",
"1949.",
"''Galen On Jews and Christians.''",
"London: Oxford University Press.",
"*Fabrizio Speziale.",
"''Culture persane et médecine ayurvédique an Asie du Sud'', Leiden – Boston, E. J. Brill, Islamic Philosophy, Theology and Science.",
"Texts and Studies, 2018..===Primary sources===**"
],
[
"External links",
"** Works by Galen at the Corpus Medicorum Graecorum with links to digitized editions, manuscripts and modern translations.",
"**** Galen entry in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy* Classicsindex: Galen * Works by Galen at Perseus Digital Library* Online Editions by the ''Corpus Medicorum Graecorum''* Gerhard Fichtner, Galen bibliography * University of Virginia: Health Sciences Library.",
"Galen * Channel 4 – History – Ancient surgery* The Empire's Physician: Prosperity, Plague, and Healing in Ancient Rome, NYU's Institute for the Study of the Ancient World* Lienhard JH.",
"Engines of our Ingenuity, Number 2097 – Constantine the African* Nutton V. Galen of Pergamum, Encyclopædia Britannica* Pearcy L. Galen: A biographical sketch.",
"Medicina Antiqua* Taylor HO.",
"Greek Biology and Medicine 1922: Chapter 5 – \"The Final System: Galen\"* Galenus von Pergamon – Leben und Werk.",
"''Includes alphabetical list of Latin Titles''* Galien's works digitized by the BIUM (Bibliothèque interuniversitaire de médecine et d'odontologie, Paris), see its digital library Medic@.",
"* Galeni opera varia – Mscr.Dresd.Db.93 Digital Version of the Manuscript at the Saxon State and University Library, Dresden (SLUB)* Hypertexts – Medicina Antiqua, University College London ''(Commentary on Hippocrates' On the Nature of Man; On the Natural Faculties; Exhortation to Study the Arts: To Menodotus; On Diagnosis from Dreams)''* Michael Servetus Research Website with a study on the ''Opera Omnia of Galen'' by the galenist Michael de Villanueva, and also the first description of the pulmonary circulation in his Manuscript of Paris in 1546.",
"*''Claudii Galeni opera omnia'' in ''Medicorum graecorum opera quae exstant, editionem curavit D. Carolus Gottlob Kühn, Lipsiae prostat in officina libraria Car.",
"Cnoblochii'', 1821–1833 in 20 volumines.",
"* ''Discussion of Galens on BBC Radio 4's programme \"In Our Time\"''.",
"* Digital edition: Galeni septima Classis (1550) by the University and State Library Düsseldorf* The Galen Syriac Palimpsest – On the Mixtures and Powers of Simple Drugs"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Speaking in tongues"
],
[
"Introduction",
"An icon depicting the Theotokos with the apostles filled with the Holy Spirit, indicated by \"cloven tongues like as of fire\" () above their heads.",
"'''Speaking in tongues''', also known as '''glossolalia''' (Greek: γλωσσολαλία), is an activity or practice in which people utter words or speech-like sounds, often thought by believers to be languages unknown to the speaker.",
"One definition used by linguists is the fluid vocalizing of speech-like syllables that lack any readily comprehended meaning.",
"In some cases, as part of religious practice, some believe it to be a divine language unknown to the speaker.",
"Glossolalia is practiced in Pentecostal and charismatic Christianity, as well as in other religions.Sometimes a distinction is made between \"glossolalia\" and \"xenolalia\" or \"xenoglossy\", which specifically relates to the belief that the language being spoken is a natural language previously unknown to the speaker."
],
[
"Etymology",
"''Glossolalia'' is a borrowing of the (), which is a compound of the () and () .",
"The Greek expression (in various forms) appears in the New Testament in the books of Acts and First Corinthians.",
"In Acts 2, the followers of Christ receive the Holy Spirit and speak in the languages of at least fifteen countries or ethnic groups.The exact phrase ''speaking in tongues'' has been used at least since the translation of the New Testament into Middle English in the Wycliffe Bible in the 14th century.",
"Frederic Farrar first used the word ''glossolalia'' in 1879."
],
[
"Linguistics",
"In 1972, William J. Samarin, a linguist from the University of Toronto, published a thorough assessment of Pentecostal glossolalia that became a classic work on its linguistic characteristics.",
"His assessment was based on a large sample of glossolalia recorded in public and private Christian meetings in Italy, the Netherlands, Jamaica, Canada, and the United States over the course of five years; his wide range of subjects included the Puerto Ricans of the Bronx, the snake handlers of the Appalachians and the spiritual Christians from Russia in Los Angeles (''Pryguny, Dukh-i-zhizniki'').Samarin found that glossolalic speech does resemble human language in some respects.",
"The speaker uses accent, rhythm, intonation and pauses to break up the speech into distinct units.",
"Each unit is itself made up of syllables, the syllables being formed from consonants and vowels found in a language known to the speaker:It is verbal behaviour that consists of using a certain number of consonants and vowels ... in a limited number of syllables that in turn are organized into larger units that are taken apart and rearranged pseudogrammatically ... with variations in pitch, volume, speed and intensity.Glossolalia consists of strings of syllables, made up of sounds taken from all those that the speaker knows, put together more or less haphazardly but emerging nevertheless as word-like and sentence-like units because of realistic, language-like rhythm and melody.That the sounds are taken from the set of sounds already known to the speaker is confirmed by others.",
"Felicitas Goodman, a psychological anthropologist and linguist, also found that the speech of glossolalists reflected the patterns of speech of the speaker's native language.",
"These findings were confirmed by Kavan (2004).Samarin found that the resemblance to human language was merely on the surface and so concluded that glossolalia is \"only a facade of language\".",
"He reached this conclusion because the syllable string did not form words, the stream of speech was not internally organized, and – most importantly of all – there was no systematic relationship between units of speech and concepts.",
"Humans use language to communicate but glossolalia does not.",
"Therefore, he concluded that glossolalia is not \"a specimen of human language because it is neither internally organized nor systematically related to the world man perceives\".",
"On the basis of his linguistic analysis, Samarin defined Pentecostal glossolalia as \"meaningless but phonologically structured human utterance, believed by the speaker to be a real language but bearing no systematic resemblance to any natural language, living or dead\".Felicitas Goodman studied a number of Pentecostal communities in the United States, the Caribbean, and Mexico; these included English-, Spanish- and Mayan-speaking groups.",
"She compared what she found with recordings of non-Christian rituals from Africa, Borneo, Indonesia and Japan.",
"She took into account both the segmental structure (such as sounds, syllables, phrases) and the supra-segmental elements (rhythm, accent, intonation) and concluded that there was no distinction between what was practised by the Pentecostal Protestants and the followers of other religions."
],
[
"History",
"===Classical antiquity===It was a commonplace idea within the Ancient world that divine beings spoke languages different from human languages, and historians of religion have identified references to esoteric speech in Greco-Roman literature that resemble glossolalia, sometimes explained as angelic or divine language.",
"An example is the account in the Testament of Job, a non-canonical elaboration of the Book of Job, where the daughters of Job are described as being given sashes enabling them to speak and sing in angelic languages.According to Dale B. Martin, glossolalia was accorded high status in the ancient world due to its association with the divine.",
"Alexander of Abonoteichus may have exhibited glossolalia during his episodes of prophetic ecstasy.",
"Neoplatonist philosopher Iamblichus linked glossolalia to prophecy, writing that prophecy was divine spirit possession that \"emits words which are not understood by those that utter them; for they pronounce them, as it is said, with an insane mouth (''mainomenό stomati'') and are wholly subservient, and entirely yield themselves to the energy of the predominating God\".In his writings on early Christianity, the Greek philosopher Celsus includes an account of Christian glossolalia.",
"Celsus describes prophecies made by several Christians in Palestine and Phoenicia of which he writes, \"Having brandished these threats they then go on to add incomprehensible, incoherent, and utterly obscure utterances, the meaning of which no intelligent person could discover: for they are meaningless and nonsensical, and give a chance for any fool or sorcerer to take the words in whatever sense he likes\".References to speaking in tongues by the Church fathers are rare.",
"Except for Irenaeus' 2nd-century reference to many in the church speaking all kinds of languages \"through the Spirit\", and Tertullian's reference in 207 AD to the spiritual gift of interpretation of tongues being encountered in his day, there are no other known first-hand accounts of glossolalia, and very few second-hand accounts among their writings.===1100 to 1900===* 12th century – Bernard of Clairvaux explained that speaking tongues be no longer present because there be greater miracles – the transformed lives of believers.",
"* 12th century – Hildegard of Bingen is said to have possessed the gift of visions and prophecy and to have been able to speak and write in Latin without having learned the language.",
"* 1265 – Thomas Aquinas wrote about the gift of tongues in the New Testament, which he understood to be an ability to speak every language, given for the purposes of missionary work.",
"He explained that Christ did not have this gift because his mission was to the Jews, \"nor does each one of the faithful now speak save in one tongue\"; for \"no one speaks in the tongues of all nations, because the Church herself already speaks the languages of all nations\".",
"* 15th century – The Moravians are referred to by detractors as having spoken in tongues.",
"John Roche, a contemporary critic, claimed that the Moravians \"commonly broke into some disconnected Jargon, which they often passed upon the vulgar, 'as the exuberant and resistless Evacuations of the Spirit'\".",
"* 17th century – The French Prophets: The Camisards also spoke sometimes in languages that were unknown: \"Several persons of both Sexes\", James Du Bois of Montpellier recalled, \"I have heard in their Extasies pronounce certain words, which seem'd to the Standers-by, to be some Foreign Language\".",
"These utterances were sometimes accompanied by the gift of interpretation exercised, in Du Bois' experience, by the same person who had spoken in tongues.",
"* 17th century – Early Quakers, such as Edward Burrough, make mention of tongues-speaking in their meetings: \"We spoke with new tongues, as the Lord gave us utterance, and His Spirit led us\".",
"* 1817 – In Germany, Gustav von Below, an aristocratic officer of the Prussian Guard, and his brothers, founded a religious movement based on their estates in Pomerania, which may have included speaking in tongues.",
"* 19th century – Edward Irving and the Catholic Apostolic Church.",
"Edward Irving, a minister in the Church of Scotland, writes of a woman who would \"speak at great length, and with superhuman strength, in an unknown tongue, to the great astonishment of all who heard, and to her own great edification and enjoyment in God\".",
"Irving further stated that \"tongues are a great instrument for personal edification, however mysterious it may seem to us\".",
"* 19th century – The history of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), contains extensive references to the practice of speaking in tongues by Brigham Young, Joseph Smith and many others.",
"Sidney Rigdon had disagreements with Alexander Campbell regarding speaking in tongues, and later joined the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.",
"Speaking in tongues was recorded in contemporary sources, both hostile and sympathetic to Mormonism, by at least 1830.The practice was soon widespread amongst Mormons, with many rank and file church members believing they were speaking the language of Adam; some of the hostility towards Mormons stemmed from those of other faiths regarding speaking in tongues unfavorably, especially when practiced by children.",
"At the 1836 dedication of the Kirtland Temple the dedicatory prayer asked that God grant them the gift of tongues and at the end of the service Brigham Young spoke in tongues, another elder interpreted it and then gave his own exhortation in tongues.",
"Many other worship experiences in the Kirtland Temple prior to and after the dedication included references to people speaking and interpreting tongues.",
"In describing the beliefs of the church in the Wentworth letter (1842), Joseph Smith identified a belief of the \"gift of tongues\" and \"interpretation of tongues\".",
"The practice of glossolalia by the Latter-day Saints was widespread but after an initial burst of enthusiastic growth circa 1830–34, seems to have been somewhat more restrained than in many other contemporary religious movements.",
"Young, Smith, and numerous other early leaders frequently cautioned against the public exercise of glossolalia unless there be someone who could exercise the corresponding spiritual gift of interpretation of tongues, so that listeners could be edified by what had been said.",
"Although the Latter-day Saints believe that speaking in tongues and the interpretation of tongues is alive and well in the Church, modern Mormons are much more likely to point to the way in which LDS missionaries are trained and learn foreign languages quickly, and are able to communicate rapidly on their missions, as evidence of the manifestation of this gift.",
"This interpretation stems from a 1900 General Conference sermon by Joseph F. Smith which discouraged glossolalia; subsequent leaders echoed this recommendation for about a decade afterwards and subsequently the practice had largely died out amongst Mormons by the 1930s and '40s.===20th century===Headline about the \"Weird babel of tongues\" and other behavior at Azusa Street, from a 1906 Los Angeles Times newspaper.During the 20th century, glossolalia primarily became associated with Pentecostalism and the later charismatic movement.",
"Preachers in the Holiness Movement preachers Charles Parham and William Seymour are credited as co-founders of the movement.",
"Parham and Seymour taught that \"baptism of the Holy Spirit was not the blessing of sanctification but rather a third work of grace that was accompanied by the experience of tongues\".",
"It was Parham who formulated the doctrine of \"initial evidence\".",
"After studying the Bible, Parham came to the conclusion that speaking in tongues was the Bible evidence that one had received the baptism with the Holy Spirit.In 1900, Parham opened Bethel Bible College in Topeka, Kansas, America, where he taught initial evidence, a Charismatic belief about how to initiate the practice.",
"During a service on 1 January 1901, a student named Agnes Ozman asked for prayer and the laying on of hands to specifically ask God to fill her with the Holy Spirit.",
"She became the first of many students to experience glossolalia, in the first hours of the 20th century.",
"Parham followed within the next few days.",
"Parham called his new movement the apostolic faith.",
"In 1905, he moved to Houston and opened a Bible school there.",
"One of his students was William Seymour, an African-American preacher.",
"In 1906, Seymour traveled to Los Angeles where his preaching ignited the Azusa Street Revival.",
"This revival is considered the birth of the global Pentecostal movement.",
"According to the first issue of William Seymour's newsletter, ''The Apostolic Faith'', from 1906:Parham and his early followers believed that speaking in tongues was xenoglossia, and some followers traveled to foreign countries and tried to use the gift to share the Gospel with non-English-speaking people.",
"From the time of the Azusa Street revival and among early participants in the Pentecostal movement, there were many accounts of individuals hearing their own languages spoken 'in tongues'.",
"The majority of Pentecostals and Charismatics consider speaking in tongues to primarily be divine, or the \"language of angels\", rather than human languages.",
"In the years following the Azusa Street revival Pentecostals who went to the mission field found that they were unable to speak in the language of the local inhabitants at will when they spoke in tongues in strange lands.The revival at Azusa Street lasted until around 1915.From it grew many new Pentecostal churches as people visited the services in Los Angeles and took their newfound beliefs to communities around the United States and abroad.",
"During the 20th century, glossolalia became an important part of the identity of these religious groups.",
"During the 1960s, the charismatic movement within the mainline Protestant churches and among charismatic Roman Catholics adopted some Pentecostal beliefs, and the practice of glossolalia spread to other Christian denominations.",
"The discussion regarding tongues has permeated many branches of Protestantism, particularly since the widespread charismatic movement in the 1960s.",
"Many books have been published either defending or attacking the practice."
],
[
"Christianity",
"===Theological explanations===In Christianity, a supernatural explanation for glossolalia is advocated by some and rejected by others.",
"Proponents of each viewpoint use the biblical writings and historical arguments to support their positions.",
"* '''Glossolalists''' could, apart from those practicing glossolalia, also mean all those Christians who believe that the Pentecostal/charismatic glossolalia practiced today is the \"speaking in tongues\" described in the New Testament.",
"They believe that it is a miraculous charism or spiritual gift.",
"Glossolalists claim that these tongues can be both real, unlearned languages (i.e., xenoglossia) as well as a \"language of the spirit\", a \"heavenly language\", or perhaps the language of angels.",
"* '''Cessationists''' believe that all the miraculous gifts of the Holy Spirit ceased to occur early in Christian history, and therefore that the speaking in tongues as practiced by Charismatic Christians is the learned utterance of non-linguistic syllables.",
"According to this belief, it is neither xenoglossia nor miraculous, but rather taught behavior, possibly self-induced.",
"These believe that what the New Testament described as \"speaking in tongues\" was xenoglossia, a miraculous spiritual gift through which the speaker could communicate in natural languages not previously studied.",
"*A third position claims that glossolalia does exist, but it is a form of prelest, not the \"speaking in tongues\" described in the New Testament.",
"It believes glossolalia is part of a mediumistic technique where practitioners are manifesting genuine spiritual power, but this power is not necessarily of the Holy Spirit.",
"* A fourth position conceivably exists, which believes the practice of \"glossolalia\" to be a folk practice and different from the legitimate New Testament spiritual gift of speaking/interpreting real languages.",
"It is therefore not out of a belief that \"miracles have ceased\" (i.e., cessationism) that causes this group to discredit the supernatural origins of particular modern expressions of \"glossolalia\", but it is rather out of a belief that glossolalists have misunderstood Scripture and wrongly attributed to the Holy Spirit something that may be explained naturalistically.===Biblical practice===There are five places in the New Testament where speaking in tongues is referred to explicitly:* Mark 16:17 (though this is a disputed text), which records the instructions of Christ to the apostles, including his description that \"they will speak with new tongues\" as a sign that would follow \"them that believe\" in him.",
"* Acts 2, which describes an occurrence of speaking in tongues in Jerusalem at Pentecost, though with various interpretations.",
"Specifically, \"every man ''heard them'' speak in his own language\" and wondered \"how hear we every man in our own tongue, wherein we were born?",
"\"* Acts 10:46, when the household of Cornelius in Caesarea spoke in tongues, and those present compared it to the speaking in tongues that occurred at Pentecost.",
"* Acts 19:6, when a group of approximately a dozen men spoke in tongues in Ephesus as they received the Holy Spirit while the apostle Paul laid his hands upon them.",
"* 1 Cor 12, 13, 14, where Paul discusses speaking in \"various kinds of tongues\" as part of his wider discussion of the gifts of the Spirit; his remarks shed some light on his own speaking in tongues as well as how the gift of speaking in tongues was to be used in the church.Other verses by inference may be considered to refer to \"speaking in tongues\", such as Isaiah 28:11, Romans 8:26 and Jude 20.The biblical account of Pentecost in the second chapter of the book of Acts describes the sound of a mighty rushing wind and \"divided tongues like fire\" coming to rest on the apostles.",
"The text further describes that \"they were all filled with the Holy Spirit, and began to speak in other languages\".",
"It goes on to say in verses 5–11 that when the Apostles spoke, each person in attendance \"heard their own language being spoken\".",
"Therefore, the gift of speaking in tongues refers to the Apostles' speaking languages that the people listening heard as \"them telling in our own tongues the mighty works of God\".",
"Glossolalists and cessationists both recognize this as xenoglossia, a miraculous ability that marked their baptism in the Holy Spirit.",
"Something similar (although perhaps not xenoglossia) took place on at least two subsequent occasions, in Caesarea and Ephesus.Glossolalists and cessationists generally agree that the primary purpose of the gift of speaking in tongues was to mark the Holy Spirit being poured out.",
"At Pentecost the Apostle Peter declared that this gift, which was making some in the audience ridicule the disciples as drunks, be the fulfilment of the prophecy of Joel, which described that God would pour out his Spirit on all flesh (Acts 2:17).Despite these commonalities, there are significant variations in interpretation.",
"* '''Universal'''.",
"The traditional Pentecostal view is that every Christian should expect to be baptized in the Holy Spirit, the distinctive mark of which is glossolalia.",
"While most Protestants agree that baptism in the Holy Spirit is integral to being a Christian, others believe that it is not separable from conversion and no longer marked by glossolalia.",
"Pentecostals appeal to the declaration of the Apostle Peter at Pentecost, that \"the gift of the Holy Spirit\" was \"for you and for your children and for all who are far off\" (Acts 2:38–39).",
"Cessationists reply that the gift of speaking in tongues was never for all (1 Cor 12:30).",
"In response to those who say that the baptism in the Holy Spirit be not a separate experience from conversion, Pentecostals appeal to the question asked by the Apostle Paul to the Ephesian believers \"Have ye received the Holy Ghost ''since'' ye believed?\"",
"(Acts 19:2).",
"* '''One gift'''.",
"Different aspects of speaking in tongues appear in Acts and 1 Corinthians, such that the Assemblies of God declare that the gift in Acts \"is the same in essence as the gift of tongues\" in 1 Corinthians \"but different in purpose and use\".",
"They distinguish between (private) speech in tongues when receiving the gift of the Spirit, and (public) speech in tongues for the benefit of the church.",
"Others assert that the gift in Acts was \"not a different phenomenon\" but the same gift being displayed under varying circumstances.",
"The same description\"speaking in tongues\"is used in both Acts and 1 Corinthians, and in both cases the speech is in an unlearned language.",
"* '''Direction'''.",
"The New Testament describes tongues largely as speech addressed to God, but also as something that can potentially be interpreted into human language, thereby \"edifying the hearers\" (1 Cor 14:5, 13).",
"At Pentecost and Caesarea the speakers were praising God (Acts 2:11; 10:46).",
"Paul referred to praying, singing praise, and giving thanks in tongues (1 Cor 14:14–17), as well as to the interpretation of tongues (1 Cor 14:5), and instructed those speaking in tongues to pray for the ability to interpret their tongues so that others could understand them (1 Cor 14:13).",
"While some people limit speaking in tongues to speech addressed to God\"prayer or praise\", others claim that speaking in tongues be the revelation from God to the church, and when interpreted into human language by those embued with the gift of interpretation of tongues for the benefit of others present, may be considered equivalent to prophecy.",
"* '''Music'''.",
"Musical interludes of glossolalia are sometimes described as singing in the Spirit.",
"Some hold that singing in the Spirit is identified with singing in tongues in 1 Corinthians 14:13–19, which they hold to be \"spiritual or spirited singing\", as opposed to \"communicative or impactive singing\" which Paul refers to as \"singing with the understanding\".",
"* '''Sign for unbelievers''' (1 Cor 14:22).",
"Some assume that tongues are \"a sign for unbelievers that they might believe\", and so advocate it as a means of evangelism.",
"Others point out that Paul quotes Isaiah to show that \"when God speaks to people in language they cannot understand, it is quite evidently a sign of God's judgment\"; so if unbelievers are baffled by a church service they cannot understand because tongues are spoken without being interpreted, that is a \"sign of God's attitude\", \"a sign of judgment\".",
"Some identify the tongues in Acts 2 as the primary example of tongues as signs for unbelievers.",
"* '''Comprehension'''.",
"Some say that speaking in tongues was \"not understood by the speaker\".",
"Others assert that \"the tongues-speaker normally understood his own foreign-language message\".",
"This last comment seems to have been made by someone confusing the \"gift of tongues\" with the \"gift of the interpretation of tongues\" , which is specified as a different gift in the New Testament, but one that can be given to a person who also has the gift of tongues.",
"In that case, a person understands a message in tongues that he has previously spoken in an unknown language.===Pentecostal and charismatic practices===People speaking in Portuguese and languages during a Christian prayer as an assembly of gods on a hill in Tingua, Rio de JaneiroBaptism with the Holy Spirit is regarded by the Holiness Pentecostals as being the third work of grace, following the new birth (first work of grace) and entire sanctification (second work of grace).",
"Holiness Pentecostals teach that this third work of grace is accompanied with glossolalia.Because Pentecostal and charismatic beliefs are not monolithic, there is not complete theological agreement on speaking in tongues.",
"Generally, followers believe that speaking in tongues is a spiritual gift that can be manifested as either a human language or a heavenly supernatural language in three ways:* The \"sign of tongues\" refers to xenoglossia, wherein followers believe someone is speaking a language they have never learned.",
"* The \"gift of tongues\" refers to a glossolalic utterance spoken by an individual and addressed to a congregation of, typically, other believers.",
"* \"Praying in the spirit\" is typically used to refer to glossolalia as part of personal prayer.Many Pentecostals and charismatics quote Paul's words in 1 Corinthians 14 which established guidelines on the public use of glossolalia in the church at Corinth although the exegesis of this passage and the extent to which these instructions are followed is a matter of academic debate.The gift of tongues is often referred to as a \"message in tongues\".",
"Practitioners believe that this use of glossolalia requires an interpretation so that the gathered congregation can understand the message, which is accomplished by the interpretation of tongues.",
"There are two schools of thought concerning the nature of a message in tongues:* One school of thought believes it is always directed ''to'' God as prayer, praise, or thanksgiving but is spoken in for the hearing and edification of the congregation.",
"* The other school of thought believes that a message in tongues can be a prophetic utterance inspired by the Holy Spirit.",
"In this case, the speaker delivers a message to the congregation on behalf of God.In addition to praying in the Spirit, many Pentecostal and charismatic churches practice what is known as singing in the Spirit.===Interpretation of tongues===In Christian theology, the ''interpretation of tongues'' is one of the spiritual gifts listed in 1 Corinthians 12.This gift is used in conjunction with that of the gift of tonguesthe supernatural ability to speak in a language (tongue) unknown to the speaker.",
"The gift of interpretation is the supernatural enablement to express in an intelligible language an utterance spoken in an unknown tongue.",
"This is not learned but imparted by the Holy Spirit; therefore, it should not be confused with the acquired skill of language interpretation.",
"While cessationist Christians believe that this miraculous charism has ceased, Charismatic and Pentecostal Christians believe that this gift continues to operate within the church.",
"Much of what is known about this gift was recorded by St. Paul in 1 Corinthians 14.In this passage, guidelines for the proper use of the gift of tongues were given.",
"In order for the gift of tongues to be beneficial to the edification of the church, such supernatural utterances were to be interpreted into the language of the gathered Christians.",
"If no one among the gathered Christians possessed the gift of interpretation, then the gift of tongues was not to be publicly exercised.",
"Those possessing the gift of tongues were encouraged to pray for the ability to interpret."
],
[
"Non-Christian practice",
"Other religious groups have been observed to practice some form of theopneustic glossolalia.",
"It is perhaps most commonly in Paganism, Shamanism, and other mediumistic religious practices.",
"In Japan, the God Light Association believed that glossolalia could cause adherents to recall past lives.Glossolalia has been postulated as an explanation for the Voynich manuscript.In the 19th century, Spiritism was developed by the work of Allan Kardec, and the practice was seen as one of the self-evident manifestations of spirits.",
"Spiritists argued that some cases were actually cases of xenoglossia."
],
[
"Medical research",
"Glossolalia is classified as a non-neurogenic language disorder.",
"Most people exhibiting glossolalia do not have a neuropsychiatric disorder.Neuroimaging of brain activity during glossolalia does not show activity in the language areas of the brain.",
"In other words, it may be characterized by a specific brain activity and it can be a learned behaviour.A 1973 experimental study highlighted the existence of two basic types of glossolalia: a static form which tends to a somewhat coaction to repetitiveness and a more dynamic one which tends to free association of speech-like elements.A study done by the ''American Journal of Human Biology'' found that speaking in tongues is associated with both a reduction in circulatory cortisol, and enhancements in alpha-amylase enzyme activitytwo common biomarkers of stress reduction that can be measured in saliva.",
"Several sociological studies report various social benefits of engaging in Pentecostal glossolalia, such as an increase in self-confidence.As of April 2021, further studies are needed to corroborate the 1980s view of glossolaly with more sensitive measures of outcome, by using the more recent techniques of neuroimaging."
],
[
"Criticism",
"Analysis of glossolalics reveals a pseudo-language that lacks consistent syntax, semantic meaning, usually rhythmic or poetic in nature and is similar to the speaker's native tongue.",
"Samples of glossolalia show a lack of consistency needed for meaningful comparison or translation.",
"It also is not used to communicate between fellow glossolalia speakers, although the meaning might be translated by the leader involved, in line with and supportive of whatever message or teaching had been given that day, in some way giving divine legitimacy to what is said.",
"However it's more common that others than the leader translate.Various Christian groups have criticized the Pentecostal and charismatic movement for paying too much attention to mystical manifestations, such as glossolalia.In certain evangelical and other Protestant Churches, this experience was understood as a gift to speak foreign languages without having learned them (xenoglossy) for evangelization, the end of which was prophesied in the First Epistle to the Corinthians in chapter 13, an end which would correspond to the end of the writing of the Bible.Theologians have recalled that on the day of Pentecost, the disciples who received a baptism of the Holy Spirit, did not speak in unknown tongues, but praised God in other tongues that non-believers in various parts of the world could understand, making it a useful gift for evangelism."
],
[
"See also",
"* * * * * * * * * * * * *"
],
[
"References",
"===Bibliography===*"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *"
],
[
"External links",
"* Gerlach, Joel C., ''\"Glossolalia\"'' (from a Confessional Lutheran perspective)* Video recorded during a Sunday Prayer Meeting; 10 February 2008; Cochin, India, Kerala; this prayer group functions under the Catholic Charismatic Renewal in India.",
"* Example of singing in tongues with a music recording in mp3; 2014; message-for-you.net; charismatic movement* \"Gift of Tongues\".",
"T. Reilly.",
"''The Catholic Encyclopedia''.",
"Vol.",
"14.1912.",
"* \"Tongues\".",
"by John Salza, bible verses and the Catholic Church fathers on speaking in tongues* \"Glossolalia\".",
"bible411.com.",
"(Cessationist perspective)* \"Glossolalia as Foreign Language\".",
"D. William Faupel.",
"''Wesleyan Theological Journal'' Vol.",
"31 No.",
"1 (Spring 1996): pp. 95–109.",
"(Historical study of Pentecostal beliefs)* \"Questions about Tongues\".",
"Assemblies of God USA.",
"(Pentecostal perspective)* \"The Function of Tongue-Speaking for the Individual: A Psycho-Theological Model\".",
"Daniel A. Tappeiner.",
"''Journal of American Scientific Affiliation''.",
"Vol.",
"26.March 1974.pp. 29–32.",
"* Andrei Bely's ''Glossalolia'' {sic} with an English translation* ''Esperimenti di Glossolalia''.",
"A case of glossolalia in theatre.",
"* \"Lalia\".",
"Extreme episode of glossolalia captured in modern music."
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Gustav Kirchhoff"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Gustav Robert Kirchhoff''' (; 12 March 1824 – 17 October 1887) was a German physicist who contributed to the fundamental understanding of electrical circuits, spectroscopy, and the emission of black-body radiation by heated objects.He coined the term black-body radiation in 1860.Several different sets of concepts are named \"Kirchhoff's laws\" after him, which include Kirchhoff's circuit laws, Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation, and Kirchhoff's law of thermochemistry.The Bunsen–Kirchhoff Award for spectroscopy is named after Kirchhoff and his colleague, Robert Bunsen."
],
[
"Life and work",
"Gustav Kirchhoff was born on 12 March 1824 in Königsberg, Prussia, the son of Friedrich Kirchhoff, a lawyer, and Johanna Henriette Wittke.",
"His family were Lutherans in the Evangelical Church of Prussia.",
"He graduated from the Albertus University of Königsberg in 1847 where he attended the mathematico-physical seminar directed by Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi, Franz Ernst Neumann and Friedrich Julius Richelot.",
"In the same year, he moved to Berlin, where he stayed until he received a professorship at Breslau.",
"Later, in 1857, he married Clara Richelot, the daughter of his mathematics professor Richelot.",
"The couple had five children.",
"Clara died in 1869.He married Luise Brömmel in 1872.Kirchhoff (left) and alt= Black-and-white image of two middle-aged men, either one leaning with one elbow on a wooden column in the middle.",
"Both wear long jackets, and the shorter man on the left has a beard.",
"Kirchhoff formulated his circuit laws, which are now ubiquitous in electrical engineering, in 1845, while he was still a student.",
"He completed this study as a seminar exercise; it later became his doctoral dissertation.",
"He was called to the University of Heidelberg in 1854, where he collaborated in spectroscopic work with Robert Bunsen.",
"In 1857, he calculated that an electric signal in a resistanceless wire travels along the wire at the speed of light.",
"He proposed his law of thermal radiation in 1859, and gave a proof in 1861.Together Kirchhoff and Bunsen invented the spectroscope, which Kirchhoff used to pioneer the identification of the elements in the Sun, showing in 1859 that the Sun contains sodium.",
"He and Bunsen discovered caesium and rubidium in 1861.At Heidelberg he ran a mathematico-physical seminar, modelled on Franz Ernst Neumann's, with the mathematician Leo Koenigsberger.",
"Among those who attended this seminar were Arthur Schuster and Sofia Kovalevskaya.He contributed greatly to the field of spectroscopy by formalizing three laws that describe the spectral composition of light emitted by incandescent objects, building substantially on the discoveries of David Alter and Anders Jonas Ångström.",
"In 1862, he was awarded the Rumford Medal for his researches on the fixed lines of the solar spectrum, and on the inversion of the bright lines in the spectra of artificial light.",
"In 1875 Kirchhoff accepted the first chair dedicated specifically to theoretical physics at Berlin.He also contributed to optics, carefully solving the wave equation to provide a solid foundation for Huygens' principle (and correct it in the process).In 1864, he was elected as a member of the American Philosophical Society.In 1884, he became foreign member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences.Kirchhoff died in 1887, and was buried in the St Matthäus Kirchhof Cemetery in Schöneberg, Berlin (just a few meters from the graves of the Brothers Grimm).",
"Leopold Kronecker is buried in the same cemetery.===Kirchhoff's circuit laws===Kirchhoff's first law is that the algebraic sum of currents in a network of conductors meeting at a point (or node) is zero.",
"The second law is that in a closed circuit, the directed sums of the voltages in the system is zero.=== Kirchhoff's three laws of spectroscopy ===left#A solid, liquid, or dense gas excited to emit light will radiate at all wavelengths and thus produce a continuous spectrum.#A low-density gas excited to emit light will do so at specific wavelengths, and this produces an emission spectrum.",
"# If light composing a continuous spectrum passes through a cool, low-density gas, the result will be an absorption spectrum.Kirchhoff did not know about the existence of energy levels in atoms.",
"The existence of discrete spectral lines was known since Fraunhofer discovered them in 1814.And that the lines formed a discrete mathematical pattern was described by Johann Balmer in 1885.Joseph Larmor explained the splitting of the spectral lines in a magnetic field known as the Zeeman Effect by the oscillation of electrons.",
"But these discrete spectral lines were not explained as electron transitions until the Bohr model of the atom in 1913, which helped lead to quantum mechanics.=== Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation ===It was Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation in which he proposed an unknown universal law for radiation that led Max Planck to the discovery of the quantum of action leading to quantum mechanics.=== Kirchhoff's law of thermochemistry ===Kirchhoff showed in 1858 that, in thermochemistry, the variation of the heat of a chemical reaction is given by the difference in heat capacity between products and reactants::.Integration of this equation permits the evaluation of the heat of reaction at one temperature from measurements at another temperature."
],
[
"Works",
"* * * ''Vorlesungen über mathematische Physik''.",
"4 vols., B. G. Teubner, Leipzig 1876–1894.",
"** Vol.",
"1: ''Mechanik''.",
"1.Auflage, B. G. Teubner, Leipzig 1876 ( online).",
"** Vol.",
"2: ''Mathematische Optik''.",
"B. G. Teubner, Leipzig 1891 (Herausgegeben von Kurt Hensel, online).",
"** Vol.",
"3: ''Electricität und Magnetismus''.",
"B. G. Teubner, Leipzig 1891 (Herausgegeben von Max Planck, online).",
"** Vol.",
"4: ''Theorie der Wärme''.",
"B. G. Teubner, Leipzig 1894, Herausgegeben von Max Planck"
],
[
"See also",
"* Kirchhoff equations* Kirchhoff integral theorem* Kirchhoff matrix* Kirchhoff stress tensor* Kirchhoff transformation* Kirchhoff's diffraction formula* Kirchhoff's perfect black bodies* Kirchhoff's theorem* Kirchhoff–Helmholtz integral* Kirchhoff–Love plate theory* Piola–Kirchhoff stress* Saint Venant–Kirchhoff model* Stokes–Kirchhoff attenuation formula* Circuit rank* Computational aeroacoustics* Flame emission spectroscopy* Spectroscope* Kirchhoff Institute of Physics* List of German inventors and discoverers"
],
[
"Notes",
"Gustav Robert Kirchhoff, “IV.",
"Ueber das Verhältniß zwischen dem Emissionsvermögen und dem Absorptionsvermögen der Körper für Wärme und Licht,” Annalen der Physik 185(2), 275-301 (1860).",
"(coinage of term “blackbody”) On the relationship between the emissivity and the absorptivity of bodies for heat and light"
],
[
"References",
"**** HathiTrust full text.",
"Partial English translation available in Magie, William Francis, ''A Source Book in Physics'' (1963).",
"Cambridge: Harvard UP.",
"p. 354-360."
],
[
"Further reading",
"* * * * Klaus Hentschel: Gustav Robert Kirchhoff und seine Zusammenarbeit mit Robert Wilhelm Bunsen, in: Karl von Meyenn (Hrsg.)",
"''Die Grossen Physiker'', Munich: Beck, vol.",
"1 (1997), pp.",
"416–430, 475–477, 532–534.",
"* Klaus Hentschel: ''Mapping the Spectrum.",
"Techniques of Visual Representation in Research and Teaching'', Oxford: OUP, 2002.",
"* Kirchhoff's 1857 paper on the speed of electrical signals in a wire*"
],
[
"External links",
"*** Open Library"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"G. K. Chesterton"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Gilbert Keith Chesterton''' (29 May 1874 – 14 June 1936) was an English writer, philosopher, Christian apologist, and literary and art critic.Chesterton created the fictional priest-detective Father Brown, and wrote on apologetics.",
"Even some of those who disagree with him have recognised the wide appeal of such works as ''Orthodoxy'' and ''The Everlasting Man''.",
"Chesterton routinely referred to himself as an orthodox Christian, and came to identify this position more and more with Catholicism, eventually converting from high church Anglicanism.",
"Biographers have identified him as a successor to such Victorian authors as Matthew Arnold, Thomas Carlyle, John Henry Newman and John Ruskin.He has been referred to as the \"prince of paradox\".",
"Of his writing style, ''Time'' observed: \"Whenever possible, Chesterton made his points with popular sayings, proverbs, allegories—first carefully turning them inside out.\"",
"His writings were an influence on Jorge Luis Borges, who compared his literature with that of Edgar Allan Poe."
],
[
"Biography",
"=== Early life ===Chesterton at the age of 17Chesterton was born in Campden Hill in Kensington, London, the son of Edward Chesterton (1841–1922), an estate agent, and Marie Louise, née Grosjean, of Swiss French origin.",
"Chesterton was baptised at the age of one month into the Church of England, though his family themselves were irregularly practising Unitarians.",
"According to his autobiography, as a young man he became fascinated with the occult and, along with his brother Cecil, experimented with Ouija boards.",
"He was educated at St Paul's School, then attended the Slade School of Art to become an illustrator.",
"The Slade is a department of University College London, where Chesterton also took classes in literature, but he did not complete a degree in either subject.",
"He married Frances Blogg in 1901; the marriage lasted the rest of his life.",
"Chesterton credited Frances with leading him back to Anglicanism, though he later considered Anglicanism to be a \"pale imitation\".",
"He entered in full communion with the Catholic Church in 1922.The couple were unable to have children.A friend from schooldays was Edmund Clerihew Bentley, inventor of the clerihew, a whimsical four-line biographical poem.",
"Chesterton himself wrote clerihews and illustrated his friend's first published collection of poetry, ''Biography for Beginners'' (1905), which popularised the clerihew form.",
"He became godfather to Bentley's son, Nicolas, and opened his novel ''The Man Who Was Thursday'' with a poem written to Bentley.===Career===In September 1895, Chesterton began working for the London publisher George Redway, where he remained for just over a year.",
"In October 1896, he moved to the publishing house T. Fisher Unwin, where he remained until 1902.During this period he also undertook his first journalistic work, as a freelance art and literary critic.",
"In 1902, ''The Daily News'' gave him a weekly opinion column, followed in 1905 by a weekly column in ''The Illustrated London News'', for which he continued to write for the next thirty years.Early on Chesterton showed a great interest in and talent for art.",
"He had planned to become an artist, and his writing shows a vision that clothed abstract ideas in concrete and memorable images.",
"Father Brown is perpetually correcting the incorrect vision of the bewildered folks at the scene of the crime and wandering off at the end with the criminal to exercise his priestly role of recognition, repentance and reconciliation.",
"For example, in the story \"The Flying Stars\", Father Brown entreats the character Flambeau to give up his life of crime: \"There is still youth and honour and humour in you; don't fancy they will last in that trade.",
"Men may keep a sort of level of good, but no man has ever been able to keep on one level of evil.",
"That road goes down and down.",
"The kind man drinks and turns cruel; the frank man kills and lies about it.",
"Many a man I've known started like you to be an honest outlaw, a merry robber of the rich, and ended stamped into slime.",
"\"Caricature by Max BeerbohmChesterton loved to debate, often engaging in friendly public disputes with such men as George Bernard Shaw, H. G. Wells, Bertrand Russell and Clarence Darrow.",
"According to his autobiography, he and Shaw played cowboys in a silent film that was never released.",
"On 7 January 1914 Chesterton (along with his brother Cecil and future sister-in-law Ada) took part in the mock-trial of John Jasper for the murder of Edwin Drood.",
"Chesterton was Judge and George Bernard Shaw played the role of foreman of the jury.Chesterton was a large man, standing tall and weighing around .",
"His girth gave rise to an anecdote during the First World War, when a lady in London asked why he was not \"out at the Front\"; he replied, \"If you go round to the side, you will see that I am.\"",
"On another occasion he remarked to his friend George Bernard Shaw, \"To look at you, anyone would think a famine had struck England.\"",
"Shaw retorted, \"To look at you, anyone would think you had caused it.\"",
"P. G. Wodehouse once described a very loud crash as \"a sound like G. K. Chesterton falling onto a sheet of tin\".",
"Chesterton usually wore a cape and a crumpled hat, with a swordstick in hand, and a cigar hanging out of his mouth.",
"He had a tendency to forget where he was supposed to be going and miss the train that was supposed to take him there.",
"It is reported that on several occasions he sent a telegram to his wife Frances from an incorrect location, writing such things as \"Am in Market Harborough.",
"Where ought I to be?\"",
"to which she would reply, \"Home\".",
"Chesterton himself told this story, omitting, however, his wife's alleged reply, in his autobiography.In 1931, the BBC invited Chesterton to give a series of radio talks.",
"He accepted, tentatively at first.",
"However, from 1932 until his death, Chesterton delivered over 40 talks per year.",
"He was allowed (and encouraged) to improvise on the scripts.",
"This allowed his talks to maintain an intimate character, as did the decision to allow his wife and secretary to sit with him during his broadcasts.",
"The talks were very popular.",
"A BBC official remarked, after Chesterton's death, that \"in another year or so, he would have become the dominating voice from Broadcasting House.\"",
"Chesterton was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1935.Chesterton was part of the Detection Club, a society of British mystery authors founded by Anthony Berkeley in 1928.He was elected as the first president and served from 1930 to 1936 till he was succeeded by E. C. Bentley.=== Death ===Telegram sent by Cardinal Eugenio Pacelli (the future Pius XII) on behalf of Pope Pius XI to the people of England following the death of ChestertonChesterton died of congestive heart failure on 14 June 1936, aged 62, at his home in Beaconsfield, Buckinghamshire.",
"His last words were a greeting of good morning spoken to his wife Frances.",
"The sermon at Chesterton's Requiem Mass in Westminster Cathedral, London, was delivered by Ronald Knox on 27 June 1936.Knox said, \"All of this generation has grown up under Chesterton's influence so completely that we do not even know when we are thinking Chesterton.\"",
"He is buried in Beaconsfield in the Catholic Cemetery.",
"Chesterton's estate was probated at £28,389, .Near the end of Chesterton's life, Pope Pius XI invested him as Knight Commander with Star of the Papal Order of St. Gregory the Great (KC*SG).",
"The Chesterton Society has proposed that he be beatified."
],
[
"Writing",
"Chesterton wrote around 80 books, several hundred poems, some 200 short stories, 4,000 essays (mostly newspaper columns), and several plays.",
"He was a literary and social critic, historian, playwright, novelist, and Catholic theologian and apologist, debater, and mystery writer.",
"He was a columnist for the ''Daily News'', ''The Illustrated London News'', and his own paper, ''G.",
"K.'s Weekly''; he also wrote articles for the ''Encyclopædia Britannica'', including the entry on Charles Dickens and part of the entry on Humour in the 14th edition (1929).",
"His best-known character is the priest-detective Father Brown, who appeared only in short stories, while ''The Man Who Was Thursday'' is arguably his best-known novel.",
"He was a convinced Christian long before he was received into the Catholic Church, and Christian themes and symbolism appear in much of his writing.",
"In the United States, his writings on distributism were popularised through ''The American Review'', published by Seward Collins in New York.Of his nonfiction, ''Charles Dickens: A Critical Study'' (1906) has received some of the broadest-based praise.",
"According to Ian Ker (''The Catholic Revival in English Literature, 1845–1961'', 2003), \"In Chesterton's eyes Dickens belongs to Merry, not Puritan, England\"; Ker treats Chesterton's thought in chapter 4 of that book as largely growing out of his true appreciation of Dickens, a somewhat shop-soiled property in the view of other literary opinions of the time.",
"The biography was largely responsible for creating a popular revival for Dickens's work as well as a serious reconsideration of Dickens by scholars.Chesterton's writings consistently displayed wit and a sense of humour.",
"He employed paradox, while making serious comments on the world, government, politics, economics, philosophy, theology and many other topics.T.",
"S. Eliot summed up his work as follows:Eliot commented further that \"His poetry was first-rate journalistic balladry, and I do not suppose that he took it more seriously than it deserved.",
"He reached a high imaginative level with ''The Napoleon of Notting Hill'', and higher with ''The Man Who Was Thursday'', romances in which he turned the Stevensonian fantasy to more serious purpose.",
"His book on Dickens seems to me the best essay on that author that has ever been written.",
"Some of his essays can be read again and again; though of his essay-writing as a whole, one can only say that it is remarkable to have maintained such a high average with so large an output.",
"\"In 2022, a three-volume bibliography of Chesterton was published, listing 9000 contributions he made to newspapers, magazines, and journals, as well as 200 books and 3000 articles about him."
],
[
"Contemporaries",
"===\"Chesterbelloc\"===George Bernard Shaw, Hilaire Belloc, and G. K. ChestertonChesterton is often associated with his close friend, the poet and essayist Hilaire Belloc.",
"George Bernard Shaw coined the name \"Chesterbelloc\" for their partnership, and this stuck.",
"Though they were very different men, they shared many beliefs; in 1922, Chesterton joined Belloc in the Catholic faith, and both voiced criticisms of capitalism and socialism.",
"They instead espoused a third way: distributism.",
"''G. K.",
"'s Weekly'', which occupied much of Chesterton's energy in the last 15 years of his life, was the successor to Belloc's ''New Witness'', taken over from Cecil Chesterton, Gilbert's brother, who died in World War I.In his book ''On the Place of Gilbert Chesterton in English Letters'', Belloc wrote that \"Everything he wrote upon any one of the great English literary names was of the first quality.",
"He summed up any one pen (that of Jane Austen, for instance) in exact sentences; sometimes in a single sentence, after a fashion which no one else has approached.",
"He stood quite by himself in this department.",
"He understood the very minds (to take the two most famous names) of Thackeray and of Dickens.",
"He understood and presented Meredith.",
"He understood the supremacy in Milton.",
"He understood Pope.",
"He understood the great Dryden.",
"He was not swamped as nearly all his contemporaries were by Shakespeare, wherein they drown as in a vast sea – for that is what Shakespeare is.",
"Gilbert Chesterton continued to understand the youngest and latest comers as he understood the forefathers in our great corpus of English verse and prose.",
"\"=== Wilde===In his book ''Heretics'', Chesterton said this of Oscar Wilde: \"The same lesson of the pessimistic pleasure-seeker was taught by the very powerful and very desolate philosophy of Oscar Wilde.",
"It is the carpe diem religion; but the carpe diem religion is not the religion of happy people, but of very unhappy people.",
"Great joy does not gather the rosebuds while it may; its eyes are fixed on the immortal rose which Dante saw.\"",
"More briefly, and with a closer approximation to Wilde's own style, he wrote in his 1908 book ''Orthodoxy'' concerning the necessity of making symbolic sacrifices for the gift of creation: \"Oscar Wilde said that sunsets were not valued because we could not pay for sunsets.",
"But Oscar Wilde was wrong; we can pay for sunsets.",
"We can pay for them by not being Oscar Wilde.",
"\"===Shaw===Chesterton and George Bernard Shaw were famous friends and enjoyed their arguments and discussions.",
"Although rarely in agreement, they each maintained good will toward, and respect for, the other.",
"In his writing, Chesterton expressed himself very plainly on where they differed and why.",
"In ''Heretics'' he writes of Shaw:"
],
[
"Views",
"=== Advocacy of Catholicism ===Chesterton's views, in contrast to Shaw and others, became increasingly focused towards the Church.",
"In ''Orthodoxy'' he wrote: \"The worship of will is the negation of will...",
"If Mr Bernard Shaw comes up to me and says, 'Will something', that is tantamount to saying, 'I do not mind what you will', and that is tantamount to saying, 'I have no will in the matter.'",
"You cannot admire will in general, because the essence of will is that it is particular.",
"\"Chesterton's ''The Everlasting Man'' contributed to C. S. Lewis's conversion to Christianity.",
"In a letter to Sheldon Vanauken (14 December 1950), Lewis called the book \"the best popular apologetic I know\", and to Rhonda Bodle he wrote (31 December 1947) \"the very best popular defence of the full Christian position I know is G. K. Chesterton's ''The Everlasting Man''\".",
"The book was also cited in a list of 10 books that \"most shaped his vocational attitude and philosophy of life\".Chesterton's hymn \"O God of Earth and Altar\" was printed in ''The Commonwealth'' and then included in ''The English Hymnal'' in 1906.Several lines of the hymn appear in the beginning of the song \"Revelations\" by the British heavy metal band Iron Maiden on their 1983 album ''Piece of Mind''.",
"Lead singer Bruce Dickinson in an interview stated \"I have a fondness for hymns.",
"I love some of the ritual, the beautiful words, ''Jerusalem'' and there was another one, with words by G. K. Chesterton ''O God of Earth and Altar'' – very fire and brimstone: 'Bow down and hear our cry'.",
"I used that for an Iron Maiden song, \"Revelations\".",
"In my strange and clumsy way I was trying to say look it's all the same stuff.",
"\"Étienne Gilson praised Chesterton's book on Thomas Aquinas: \"I consider it as being, without possible comparison, the best book ever written on Saint Thomas... the few readers who have spent twenty or thirty years in studying St. Thomas Aquinas, and who, perhaps, have themselves published two or three volumes on the subject, cannot fail to perceive that the so-called 'wit' of Chesterton has put their scholarship to shame.",
"\"Archbishop Fulton J. Sheen, the author of 70 books, identified Chesterton as the stylist who had the greatest impact on his own writing, stating in his autobiography ''Treasure in Clay'', \"the greatest influence in writing was G. K. Chesterton who never used a useless word, who saw the value of a paradox, and avoided what was trite.\"",
"Chesterton wrote the introduction to Sheen's book ''God and Intelligence in Modern Philosophy; A Critical Study in the Light of the Philosophy of Saint Thomas''.===Common Sense===Chesterton has been called \"The Apostle of Common Sense\".",
"He was critical of the thinkers and popular philosophers of the day, who though very clever, were saying things that were nonsensical.",
"This is illustrated again in ''Orthodoxy'': \"Thus when Mr H. G. Wells says (as he did somewhere), 'All chairs are quite different', he utters not merely a misstatement, but a contradiction in terms.",
"If all chairs were quite different, you could not call them 'all chairs'.",
"\"Chesterton was an early member of the Fabian Society but resigned at the time of the Boer War.",
"He is often identified as a traditionalist conservative due to his staunch support of tradition, expressed in ''Orthodoxy'' and other works with Burkean quotes such as the following:Chesterton also called himself \"the last liberal\".===On War===Chesterton first emerged as a journalist just after the turn of the 20th century.",
"His great, and very lonely, opposition to the Second Boer War, set him very much apart from most of the rest of the British press.",
"Chesterton was a Little Englander, opposed to imperialism, British or otherwise.",
"Chesterton thought that Great Britain betrayed her own principles in the Boer Wars.",
"In vivid contrast to his opposition to the Boer Wars, Chesterton vigorously defended and encouraged the Allies in World War I.",
"\"The war was in Chesterton's eyes a crusade, and he was certain that England was right to fight as she had been wrong in fighting the Boers.\"",
"Chesterton saw the roots of the war in Prussian militarism.",
"He was deeply disturbed by Prussia's unprovoked invasion and occupation of neutral Belgium and by reports of shocking atrocities the Imperial German Army was allegedly committing in Belgium.",
"Over the course of the War, Chesterton wrote hundreds of essays defending it, attacking pacifism, and exhorting the public to persevere until victory.",
"Some of these essays were collected in the 1916 work, ''The Barbarism of Berlin''.One of Chesterton's most successful works in support of the War was his 1915 tongue-in-cheek ''The Crimes of England''.",
"The work is masterfully ironic, supposedly apologizing and trying to help a fictitious Prussian professor named Whirlwind make the case for Prussia in WWI, while actually attacking Prussia throughout.",
"Part of the book's humorous impact is the conceit that Professor Whirlwind never realizes how his supposed benefactor is undermining Prussia at every turn.",
"Chesterton \"blames\" England for historically building up Prussia against Austria, and for its pacifism, especially among wealthy British Quaker political donors, who prevented Britain from standing up to past Prussian aggression.===Accusations of antisemitism===Chesterton faced accusations of antisemitism during his lifetime, saying in his 1920 book ''The New Jerusalem'' that it was something \"for which my friends and I were for a long period rebuked and even reviled\".",
"Despite his protestations to the contrary, the accusation continues to be repeated.",
"An early supporter of Captain Dreyfus, by 1906 he had turned into an anti-dreyfusard.",
"From the early 20th century, his fictional work included caricatures of Jews, stereotyping them as greedy, cowardly, disloyal and communists.",
"Martin Gardner suggests that ''Four Faultless Felons'' was allowed to go out of print in the United States because of the \"anti-Semitism which mars so many pages.",
"\"The Marconi scandal of 1912–1913 brought issues of anti-Semitism into the political mainstream.",
"Senior ministers in the Liberal government had secretly profited from advance knowledge of deals regarding wireless telegraphy, and critics regarded it as relevant that some of the key players were Jewish.",
"According to historian Todd Endelman, who identified Chesterton as among the most vocal critics, \"The Jew-baiting at the time of the Boer War and the Marconi scandal was linked to a broader protest, mounted in the main by the Radical wing of the Liberal Party, against the growing visibility of successful businessmen in national life and their challenge to what were seen as traditional English values.",
"\"In a work of 1917, titled ''A Short History of England'', Chesterton considers the royal decree of 1290 by which Edward I expelled Jews from England, a policy that remained in place until 1655.Chesterton writes that popular perception of Jewish moneylenders could well have led Edward I's subjects to regard him as a \"tender father of his people\" for \"breaking the rule by which the rulers had hitherto fostered their bankers' wealth\".",
"He felt that Jews, \"a sensitive and highly civilized people\" who \"were the capitalists of the age, the men with wealth banked ready for use\", might legitimately complain that \"Christian kings and nobles, and even Christian popes and bishops, used for Christian purposes (such as the Crusades and the cathedrals) the money that could only be accumulated in such mountains by a usury they inconsistently denounced as unchristian; and then, when worse times came, gave up the Jew to the fury of the poor\".In ''The New Jerusalem'' Chesterton dedicated a chapter to his views on the Jewish question: the sense that Jews were a distinct people without a homeland of their own, living as foreigners in countries where they were always a minority.",
"He wrote that in the past, his position:In the same place he proposed the thought experiment (describing it as \"a parable\" and \"a flippant fancy\") that Jews should be admitted to any role in English public life on condition that they must wear distinctively Middle Eastern garb, explaining that \"The point is that we should know where we are; and he would know where he is, which is in a foreign land.",
"\"Chesterton, like Belloc, openly expressed his abhorrence of Adolf Hitler's rule almost as soon as it started.",
"As Rabbi Stephen Samuel Wise wrote in a posthumous tribute to Chesterton in 1937:In ''The Truth About the Tribes'' Chesterton attacked Nazi racial theories, writing: \"the essence of Nazi Nationalism is to preserve the purity of a race in a continent where all races are impure\".The historian Simon Mayers points out that Chesterton wrote in works such as ''The Crank'', ''The Heresy of Race'', and ''The Barbarian as Bore'' against the concept of racial superiority and critiqued pseudo-scientific race theories, saying they were akin to a new religion.",
"In ''The Truth About the Tribes'' Chesterton wrote, \"the curse of race religion is that it makes each separate man the sacred image which he worships.",
"His own bones are the sacred relics; his own blood is the blood of St. Januarius\".",
"Mayers records that despite \"his hostility towards Nazi antisemitism … it is unfortunate that he made claims that 'Hitlerism' was a form of Judaism, and that the Jews were partly responsible for race theory\".",
"In ''The Judaism of Hitler'', as well as in ''A Queer Choice'' and ''The Crank'', Chesterton made much of the fact that the very notion of \"a Chosen Race\" was of Jewish origin, saying in ''The Crank'': \"If there is one outstanding quality in Hitlerism it is its Hebraism\" and \"the new Nordic Man has all the worst faults of the worst Jews: jealousy, greed, the mania of conspiracy, and above all, the belief in a Chosen Race\".Mayers also shows that Chesterton portrayed Jews not only as culturally and religiously distinct, but racially as well.",
"In ''The Feud of the Foreigner'' (1920) he said that the Jew \"is a foreigner far more remote from us than is a Bavarian from a Frenchman; he is divided by the same type of division as that between us and a Chinaman or a Hindoo.",
"He not only is not, but never was, of the same race\".In ''The Everlasting Man'', while writing about human sacrifice, Chesterton suggested that medieval stories about Jews killing children might have resulted from a distortion of genuine cases of devil worship.",
"Chesterton wrote:The American Chesterton Society has devoted a whole issue of its magazine, ''Gilbert'', to defending Chesterton against charges of antisemitism.",
"Likewise, Ann Farmer, author of ''Chesterton and the Jews: Friend, Critic, Defender'', writes, \"Public figures from Winston Churchill to Wells proposed remedies for the 'Jewish problem' – the seemingly endless cycle of anti-Jewish persecution – all shaped by their worldviews.",
"As patriots, Churchill and Chesterton embraced Zionism; both were among the first to defend the Jews from Nazism\", concluding that \"A defender of Jews in his youth – a conciliator as well as a defender – GKC returned to the defence when the Jewish people needed it most.",
"\"===Opposition to eugenics===In ''Eugenics and Other Evils'', Chesterton attacked eugenics as Parliament was moving towards passage of the Mental Deficiency Act 1913.Some backing the ideas of eugenics called for the government to sterilise people deemed \"mentally defective\"; this view did not gain popularity but the idea of segregating them from the rest of society and thereby preventing them from reproducing did gain traction.",
"These ideas disgusted Chesterton who wrote, \"It is not only openly said, it is eagerly urged that the aim of the measure is to prevent any person whom these propagandists do not happen to think intelligent from having any wife or children.\"",
"He condemned the proposed wording for such measures as being so vague as to apply to anyone, including \"Every tramp who is sulk, every labourer who is shy, every rustic who is eccentric, can quite easily be brought under such conditions as were designed for homicidal maniacs.",
"That is the situation; and that is the point... we are already under the Eugenist State; and nothing remains to us but rebellion.\"",
"He derided such ideas as founded on nonsense, \"as if one had a right to dragoon and enslave one's fellow citizens as a kind of chemical experiment\".",
"Chesterton mocked the idea that poverty was a result of bad breeding: \"it is a strange new disposition to regard the poor as a race; as if they were a colony of Japs or Chinese coolies...",
"The poor are not a race or even a type.",
"It is senseless to talk about breeding them; for they are not a breed.",
"They are, in cold fact, what Dickens describes: 'a dustbin of individual accidents,' of damaged dignity, and often of damaged gentility.",
"\"===Chesterton's fence===\"Chesterton's fence\" is the principle that reforms should not be made until the reasoning behind the existing state of affairs is understood.",
"The quotation is from Chesterton's 1929 book, ''The Thing: Why I Am a Catholic'', in the chapter, \"The Drift from Domesticity\":===Distributism===distributist slogan \"Three acres and a cow\"Inspired by Leo XIII's encyclical ''Rerum novarum'', Chesterton's brother Cecil and his friend, Hilaire Belloc were instrumental in developing the economic philosophy of distributism, a word Belloc coined.",
"Gilbert embraced their views and, particularly after Cecil's death in World War I, became one of the foremost distributists and the newspaper whose care he inherited from Cecil, which ultimately came to be named ''G. K.",
"'s Weekly'', became its most consistent advocate.",
"Distributism stands as a third way, against both unrestrained capitalism, and socialism, advocating a wide distribution of both property and political power.=== Scottish and Irish Nationalism ===Despite his criticisms of Nazism, Chesterton was not an opponent of nationalism in general and gave a degree of support to the Scottish and Irish home rule movements.",
"He endorsed Cunninghame Graham and Compton Mackenzie for the post of Lord Rector of Glasgow University in 1928 and 1931 respectively, had praised Scottish Catholics as \"patriots\" contra the Anglophilia of John Knox.",
"Chesterton was also a supporter of Irish home rule and maintained friendships with members of the Irish Parliamentary Party.",
"This was in part due to his belief that Irish Catholics had a naturally distributist outlook on property ownership."
],
[
"Legacy",
"James Parker, in ''The Atlantic'', gave a modern appraisal:===Possible sainthood===The Bishop Emeritus of Northampton, Peter Doyle, in 2012 had opened a preliminary investigation into possibly launching a cause for beatification and then canonization (for possible sainthood).",
"but eventually decided not to open the cause.",
"The current Bishop of Northampton, David Oakley, has agreed to preach at a Mass during a Chesterton pilgrimage in England (the route goes through London and Beaconsfield, which are both connected to his life), and some have speculated he may be more favourable to the idea.",
"If the cause is actually opened at the diocesan level (the Vatican must also give approval, that nothing stands in the way – the \"''nihil obstat''\"), then he could be given the title \"Servant of God\".",
"It is not known if his alleged anti-Semitism (which would be considered a serious matter by the Church if it is true) may have played a role.",
"His life and writings and views and what he did for others would be closely examined, in any case.===Literary===Chesterton's socio-economic system of Distributism affected the sculptor Eric Gill, who established a commune of Catholic artists at Ditchling in Sussex.",
"The Ditchling group developed a journal called ''The Game'', in which they expressed many Chestertonian principles, particularly anti-industrialism and an advocacy of religious family life.",
"His novel ''The Man Who Was Thursday'' inspired the Irish Republican leader Michael Collins with the idea that \"If you didn't seem to be hiding nobody hunted you out.\"",
"Collins's favourite work of Chesterton was ''The Napoleon of Notting Hill'', and he was \"almost fanatically attached to it\", according to his friend Sir William Darling.",
"His column in ''The Illustrated London News'' on 18 September 1909 had a profound effect on Mahatma Gandhi.",
"P. N. Furbank asserts that Gandhi was \"thunderstruck\" when he read it, while Martin Green notes that \"Gandhi was so delighted with this that he told ''Indian Opinion'' to reprint it\".",
"Another convert was Canadian media theorist Marshall McLuhan, who said that the book ''What's Wrong with the World'' changed his life in terms of ideas and religion.",
"The author Neil Gaiman stated that he grew up reading Chesterton in his school's library, and that ''The Napoleon of Notting Hill'' influenced his own book ''Neverwhere''.",
"Gaiman based the character Gilbert from the comic book ''The Sandman'' on Chesterton, and ''Good Omens'', the novel Gaiman co-wrote with Terry Pratchett, is dedicated to Chesterton.",
"The Argentine author and essayist Jorge Luis Borges cited Chesterton as influential on his fiction, telling interviewer Richard Burgin that \"Chesterton knew how to make the most of a detective story\".===Education===Chesterton's many references to education and human formation have inspired a variety of educators including the 44 schools of the Chesterton Schools Network, which includes the Chesterton Academy founded by Dale Ahlquist.",
"and the Italian Scuola Libera G. K. Chesterton in San Benedetto del Tronto, Marche.",
"The publisher and educator Christopher Perrin (who completed his doctoral work on Chesterton) makes frequent reference to Chesterton in his work with classical schools.=== Namesakes ===In 1974, Ian Boyd, founded ''The Chesterton Review'', a scholarly journal devoted to Chesterton and his circle.",
"The journal is published by the G. K. Chesterton Institute for Faith and Culture based in Seton Hall University, South Orange, New Jersey.In 1996, Dale Ahlquist founded the American Chesterton Society to explore and promote Chesterton's writings.In 2008, a Catholic high school, Chesterton Academy, opened in the Minneapolis area.",
"In the same year Scuola Libera Chesterton opened in San Benedetto del Tronto, Italy.In 2012, a crater on the planet Mercury was named Chesterton after the author.In 2014, G. K. Chesterton Academy of Chicago, a Catholic high school, opened in Highland Park, Illinois.A fictionalised G. K. Chesterton is the central character in the ''Young Chesterton Chronicles'', a series of young adult adventure novels by John McNichol, and in the ''G K Chesterton Mystery series'', a series of detective novels by the Australian author Kel Richards."
],
[
"Major works",
"===Books===* * * * * * * * * * * (detective fiction)* * * * * * * * * * ===Short stories===* \"The Trees of Pride\", 1922* \"The Crime of the Communist\", ''Collier's Weekly'', July 1934.",
"* \"The Three Horsemen\", ''Collier's Weekly'', April 1935.",
"* \"The Ring of the Lovers\", ''Collier's Weekly'', April 1935.",
"* \"A Tall Story\", ''Collier's Weekly'', April 1935.",
"* \"The Angry Street – A Bad Dream\", ''Famous Fantastic Mysteries'', February 1947.=== Plays ===* ''Magic'', 1913."
],
[
"References",
"=== Citations ====== Sources ==='''Cited biographies'''* * * *"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* * * Belmonte, Kevin (2011).",
"''Defiant Joy: The Remarkable Life and Impact of G. K. Chesterton''.",
"Nashville, Tenn.: Thomas Nelson.",
"* Blackstock, Alan R. (2012).",
"''The Rhetoric of Redemption: Chesterton, Ethical Criticism, and the Common Man''.",
"New York.",
"Peter Lang Publishing.",
"* Braybrooke, Patrick (1922).",
"''Gilbert Keith Chesterton''.",
"London: Chelsea Publishing Company.",
"* Cammaerts, Émile (1937).",
"''The Laughing Prophet: The Seven Virtues nd G. K. Chesterton''.",
"London: Methuen & Co., Ltd.* Campbell, W. E. (1908).",
"\"G. K. Chesterton: Inquisitor and Democrat\", ''The Catholic World'', Vol.",
"LXXXVIII, pp. 769–782.",
"* Campbell, W. E. (1909).",
"\"G. K. Chesterton: Catholic Apologist\" ''The Catholic World'', Vol.",
"LXXXIX, No.",
"529, pp. 1–12.",
"* Chesterton, Cecil (1908).",
"''G. K.",
"Chesterton: A Criticism''.",
"London: Alston Rivers (Rep. by John Lane Company, 1909).",
"* Clipper, Lawrence J.",
"(1974).",
"''G. K.",
"Chesterton''.",
"New York: Twayne Publishers.",
"* Coates, John (1984).",
"''Chesterton and the Edwardian Cultural Crisis''.",
"Hull University Press.",
"* Coates, John (2002).",
"''G. K.",
"Chesterton as Controversialist, Essayist, Novelist, and Critic''.",
"Lewiston, New York: Edwin Mellen Press.",
"* Conlon, D. J.",
"(1987).",
"''G. K.",
"Chesterton: A Half Century of Views''.",
"Oxford University Press.",
"* * * Corrin, Jay P. (1981).",
"''G. K.",
"Chesterton & Hilaire Belloc: The Battle Against Modernity''.",
"Ohio University Press.",
"* Ervine, St. John G. (1922).",
"\"G. K. Chesterton\".",
"In: ''Some Impressions of my Elders''.",
"New York: The Macmillan Company, pp. 90–112.",
"* * ''Gilbert Magazine'' (November/December 2008).",
"Vol.",
"12, No.",
"2-3, ''Special Issue: Chesterton & The Jews''.",
"* Haldane, John.",
"'Chesterton's Philosophy of Education', philosophy, Vol.",
"65, No.",
"251 (Jan. 1990), pp. 65–80.",
"* Hitchens, Christopher (2012).",
"\"The Reactionary\", ''The Atlantic''.",
"* Herts, B. Russell (1914).",
"\"Gilbert K. Chesterton: Defender of the Discarded\".",
"In: ''Depreciations''.",
"New York: Albert & Charles Boni, pp. 65–86.",
"* Hollis, Christopher (1970).",
"''The Mind of Chesterton''.",
"London: Hollis & Carter.",
"* Hunter, Lynette (1979).",
"''G. K.",
"Chesterton: Explorations in Allegory''.",
"London: Macmillan Press.",
"* Jaki, Stanley (1986).",
"''Chesterton: A Seer of Science''.",
"University of Illinois Press.",
"* Jaki, Stanley (1986).",
"\"Chesterton's Landmark Year\".",
"In: ''Chance or Reality and Other Essays''.",
"University Press of America.",
"* Kenner, Hugh (1947).",
"''Paradox in Chesterton''.",
"New York: Sheed & Ward.",
"* Kimball, Roger (2011).",
"\"G. K. Chesterton: Master of Rejuvenation\", ''The New Criterion'', Vol.",
"XXX, p. 26.",
"* Kirk, Russell (1971).",
"\"Chesterton, Madmen, and Madhouses\", ''Modern Age'', Vol.",
"XV, No.",
"1, pp. 6–16.",
"* Knight, Mark (2004).",
"''Chesterton and Evil''.",
"Fordham University Press.",
"* Lea, F. A.",
"(1947).",
"\"G. K. Chesterton\".",
"In: Donald Attwater (ed.)",
"''Modern Christian Revolutionaries''.",
"New York: Devin-Adair Co.* McCleary, Joseph R. (2009).",
"''The Historical Imagination of G. K. Chesterton: Locality, Patriotism, and Nationalism''.",
"Taylor & Francis.",
"* McLuhan, Marshall (January 1936), \"G. K. Chesterton: A Practical Mystic\", ''Dalhousie Review'', '''15''' (4): 455–464.",
"* * Oddie, William (2010).",
"''Chesterton and the Romance of Orthodoxy: The Making of GKC, 1874–1908''.",
"Oxford University Press.",
"* Orage, Alfred Richard.",
"(1922).",
"\"G. K. Chesterton on Rome and Germany\".",
"In: ''Readers and Writers (1917–1921)''.",
"London: George Allen & Unwin, pp. 155–161.",
"* Oser, Lee (2007).",
"''The Return of Christian Humanism: Chesterton, Eliot, Tolkien, and the Romance of History''.",
"University of Missouri Press.",
"* * * Peck, William George (1920).",
"\"Mr. G. K. Chesterton and the Return to Sanity\".",
"In: ''From Chaos to Catholicism''.",
"London: George Allen & Unwin, pp. 52–92.",
"* Raymond, E. T. (1919).",
"\"Mr. G. K. Chesterton\".",
"In: ''All & Sundry''.",
"London: T. Fisher Unwin, pp. 68–76.",
"* Schall, James V. (2000).",
"''Schall on Chesterton: Timely Essays on Timeless Paradoxes''.",
"Catholic University of America Press.",
"* Scott, William T. (1912).",
"''Chesterton and Other Essays''.",
"Cincinnati: Jennings & Graham.",
"* Seaber, Luke (2011).",
"''G. K.",
"Chesterton's Literary Influence on George Orwell: A Surprising Irony''.",
"Lewiston, New York: Edwin Mellen Press.",
"* Sheed, Wilfrid (1971).",
"\"Chesterbelloc and the Jews\", ''The New York Review of Books'', Vol.",
"XVII, No.",
"3.",
"* Shuster, Norman (1922).",
"\"The Adventures of a Journalist: G. K. Chesterton\".",
"In: ''The Catholic Spirit in Modern English Literature''.",
"New York: The Macmillan Company, pp. 229–248.",
"* Slosson, Edwin E. (1917).",
"\"G. K. Chesterton: Knight Errant of Orthodoxy\".",
"In: ''Six Major Prophets''.",
"Boston: Little, Brown and Company, pp. 129–189.",
"* Smith, Marion Couthouy (1921).",
"\"The Rightness of G. K. Chesterton\", ''The Catholic World'', Vol.",
"CXIII, No.",
"678, pp. 163–168.",
"* Stapleton, Julia (2009).",
"''Christianity, Patriotism, and Nationhood: The England of G. K. Chesterton''.",
"Lanham, MD: Lexington Books.",
"* * Tonquédec, Joseph de (1920).",
"''G. K.",
"Chesterton, ses Idées et son Caractère'', Nouvelle Librairie National.",
"* Ward, Maisie (1952).",
"''Return to Chesterton'', London: Sheed & Ward.",
"* West, Julius (1915).",
"''G. K.",
"Chesterton: A Critical Study''.",
"London: Martin Secker.",
"*"
],
[
"External links",
"* * * * * * * Works by G. K. Chesterton, at HathiTrust* * What's Wrong: GKC in Periodicals Articles by G. K. Chesterton in periodicals, with critical annotations.",
"* .",
"* G. K. Chesterton: Quotidiana* G. K. Chesterton research collection at The Marion E. Wade Center at Wheaton College* G. K. Chesterton Archival Collection at the University of St. Michael's College at the University of Toronto* * *"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"God Save the King"
],
[
"Introduction",
"\"'''God Save the King'''\" (alternatively \"'''God Save the Queen'''\" when the British monarch is female) is the national anthem of the United Kingdom and the royal anthem of each of the British Crown Dependencies, one of two national anthems of New Zealand since 1977, and the royal anthem of most Commonwealth realms.",
"The author of the tune is unknown and it may originate in plainchant, but an attribution to the composer John Bull has sometimes been made.In countries not part of the British Empire, the tune of \"God Save the King\" has provided the basis for various patriotic songs, though still generally connected with royal ceremony.",
"The melody continues to be used for the national anthem of Liechtenstein, \"\", and the royal anthem of Norway, \"\".",
"The melody is used for the American patriotic song \"My Country, 'Tis of Thee\" (also known as \"America\").",
"The melody was also used for the national anthem \"\" (\"Hail to thee in the Victor's Crown\") of the Kingdom of Prussia from 1795 and of the German Empire from 1871 to 1918 and as \"The Prayer of Russians\", the imperial anthem of Russia from 1816 to 1833.In Switzerland, it is known as \"\".Beyond its first verse, which is consistent, \"God Save the King\" has many historic and extant versions.",
"Since its first publication, different verses have been added and taken away and, even today, different publications include various selections of verses in various orders.",
"In general, only one verse is sung.",
"Sometimes two verses are sung and, on certain occasions, three.The entire composition is the musical salute for the monarch and royal consort, while other members of the royal family who are entitled to royal salute (such as the Prince of Wales, along with his spouse) receive just the first six bars.",
"The first six bars also form all or part of the viceregal salute in some Commonwealth realms other than the UK (e.g., in Canada, governors general and lieutenant governors at official events are saluted with the first six bars of \"God Save the King\" followed by the first four and last four bars of \"O Canada\"), as well as the salute given to governors of British overseas territories."
],
[
"History",
"In ''The Oxford Companion to Music'', Percy Scholes points out the similarities to an early plainsong melody, although the rhythm is very distinctly that of a galliard, and he gives examples of several such dance tunes that bear a striking resemblance to \"God Save the King\".",
"Scholes quotes a keyboard piece by John Bull (1619) which has some similarities to the modern tune, depending on the placing of accidentals which at that time were unwritten in certain cases and left to the discretion of the player (see ).",
"He also points to several pieces by Henry Purcell, one of which includes the opening notes of the modern tune, setting the words \"God Save the King\".",
"Nineteenth-century scholars and commentators mention the widespread belief that an old Scots carol, \"Remember O Thou Man\", was the source of the tune.The first published version that resembles the present song appeared in 1744, with no title but the heading \"For two voices\", in an anthology originally named ''Harmonia Britannia'' but changed after only a few copies had been printed to ''Thesaurus Musicus''.",
"When the Jacobite pretender Charles Edward Stuart led the 1745 rising, the song spread among those loyal to King George II.",
"The tune published in ''The Gentleman's Magazine'' in 1745 departs from that used today at several points, one as early as the first bar, but is otherwise clearly a strong relative of the contemporary anthem.",
"It was recorded as being sung in London theatres in 1745, with, for example, Thomas Arne writing a setting of the tune for the Drury Lane Theatre.Scholes' analysis includes mention of \"untenable\" and \"doubtful\" claims, as well as \"an American misattribution\".",
"Some of these are:* James Oswald was a possible author of the ''Thesaurus Musicus'', so may have played a part in the history of the song, but is not a strong enough candidate to be cited as the composer of the tune.",
"* Henry Carey: Scholes refutes this attribution: first on the grounds that Carey himself never made such a claim; second, when the claim was made by Carey's son (in 1795), it was in support of a request for a pension from the British Government; and third, the younger Carey claimed that his father, who died in 1743, had written parts of the song in 1745.It has also been claimed that the work was first publicly performed by Carey during a dinner in 1740 in honour of Admiral Edward \"Grog\" Vernon, who had captured the Spanish harbour of Porto Bello (then in the Viceroyalty of New Granada, now in Panama) during the War of Jenkins' Ear.Scholes recommends the attribution \"traditional\" or \"traditional; earliest known version by John Bull (1562–1628)\".",
"The ''English Hymnal'' (musical editor Ralph Vaughan Williams) gives no attribution, stating merely \"17th or 18th cent.\""
],
[
"Use in the United Kingdom",
"The phrase \"God Save the King\" in use as a rallying cry to the support of the monarch and the UK's forces during the First World WarLike many aspects of British constitutional life, \"God Save the King\" derives its official status from custom and use, not from Royal Proclamation or Act of Parliament.",
"The variation in the UK of the lyrics to \"God Save the King\" is the oldest amongst those currently used, and forms the basis on which all other versions used throughout the Commonwealth are formed; though, again, the words have varied over time.England has no official national anthem of its own; \"God Save the King\" is treated as the English national anthem when England is represented at sporting events (though there are some exceptions to this rule, such as cricket where \"Jerusalem\" is used).",
"There is a movement to establish an English national anthem, with Blake and Parry's \"Jerusalem\" and Elgar's \"Land of Hope and Glory\" among the top contenders.",
"Wales has a single official national anthem, \"Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau\" (Land of my Fathers) while Scotland uses unofficial anthems (\"Scotland the Brave\" was traditionally used until the 1990s; since then, \"Flower of Scotland\" is more commonly used), these anthems are used formally at state and national ceremonies as well as international sporting events such as football and rugby union matches.",
"On all occasions in Northern Ireland, \"God Save the King\" is still used as the official anthem.In 2001, it was claimed that the phrase \"No surrender\" was occasionally sung in the bridge before \"Send her victorious\" by England football fans at matches.Since 2003, \"God Save the King\", considered an all-inclusive anthem for Great Britain and Northern Ireland, as well as other countries within the Commonwealth, has been dropped from the Commonwealth Games.",
"Northern Irish athletes receive their gold medals to the tune of the \"Londonderry Air\", popularly known as \"Danny Boy\".",
"In 2006, English winners heard Elgar's \"''Pomp and Circumstance March'' No.",
"1\", usually known as \"Land of Hope and Glory\", but after a poll conducted by the Commonwealth Games Council for England prior to the 2010 Games, \"Jerusalem\" was adopted as England's new Commonwealth Games anthem.",
"In sports in which the UK competes as one nation, most notably as Great Britain at the Olympics, the anthem is used to represent anyone or any team that comes from the United Kingdom.===Lyrics in the UK===Stratford-upon-Avon Town Hall (built 1767), bearing the painted slogan, \"God Save the King\".The phrase \"God Save the King\" is much older than the song, appearing, for instance, several times in the King James Bible.",
"A text based on the 1st Book of Kings Chapter 1: verses 38–40, \"And all the people rejoic'd, and said: God save the King!",
"Long live the King!",
"May the King live for ever, Amen\", has been sung and proclaimed at every coronation since that of King Edgar in 973.Scholes says that as early as 1545 \"God Save the King\" was a watchword of the Royal Navy, with the response being \"Long to reign over us\".",
"He also notes that the prayer read in churches on anniversaries of the Gunpowder Plot includes words which might have formed part of the basis for the former standard verse \"Scatter our enemies...assuage their malice and confound their devices\".In 1745, ''The Gentleman's Magazine'' published \"God save our lord the king: A new song set for two voices\", describing it \"As sung at both Playhouses\" (the Theatres Royal at Drury Lane and Covent Garden).",
"Traditionally, the first performance was thought to have been in 1745, when it was sung in support of King George II, after his defeat at the Battle of Prestonpans by the army of Charles Edward Stuart, son of James Francis Edward Stuart, the Jacobite claimant to the British throne.It is sometimes claimed that, ironically, the song was originally sung in support of the Jacobite cause: the word \"send\" in the line \"Send him victorious\" could imply that the king was absent.",
"However, the ''Oxford English Dictionary'' cites examples of \"God send (a person) safe, victorious, etc.\"",
"meaning \"God grant that he may be safe, etc.\".",
"There are also examples of early 18th-century drinking glasses which are inscribed with a version of the words and were apparently intended for drinking the health of King James II and VII.Scholes acknowledges these possibilities but argues that the same words were probably being used by both Jacobite and Hanoverian supporters and directed at their respective kings.In 1902, the musician William Hayman Cummings, quoting mid-18th century correspondence between Charles Burney and Sir Joseph Banks, suggested that the words had been based on a Latin verse composed for King James II at the Chapel Royal.====Standard version in the United Kingdom====\"God Save the King\" performed with each of its three verses (originally released on a Victor Record phonograph c. 1910)Note that currently the reigning monarch is Charles III, thus the male version of the anthem is used.'''",
"When the current monarch is male '''When the monarch of the time is female, \"King\" is replaced with \"Queen\" and all masculine pronouns are replaced with their feminine equivalents.'''",
"When the monarch is female'''There is no definitive version of the lyrics.",
"However, the version consisting of the two above verses has the best claim to be regarded as the \"standard\" British version as referenced on the Royal Family website The song with an additional verse appears not only in the 1745 ''Gentleman's Magazine'', but also in publications such as ''The Book of English Songs: From the Sixteenth to the Nineteenth Century'' (1851), ''National Hymns: How They Are Written and How They Are Not Written'' (1861), ''Household Book of Poetry'' (1882), and ''Hymns Ancient and Modern, Revised Version'' (1982).The same version with appears in publications including ''Scouting for Boys'' (1908), and on the Royal Family website.According to Alan Michie's ''The Crown and the People'', which was published in 1952, after the death of King George VI but before the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II, when the first General Assembly of the United Nations was held in London in January 1946 the King, in honour of the occasion, \"ordered the belligerent imperious second stanza of 'God Save the King' to be rewritten to bring it more into the spirit of the brotherhood of nations.",
"\"In the UK, the first verse is typically sung alone, even on official occasions, although the second verse is sometimes sung in addition on certain occasions such as during the opening ceremonies of the 2012 Summer Olympics, 2012 Summer Paralympics, and the 2022 Commonwealth Games and usually at the Last Night of the Proms.",
"The second verse was also sung during the Coronation of King Charles III and Queen Camilla.====Standard version of the music====\"God Save the Queen\" sung by the public at St Giles' Fair, Oxford, 2007The standard version of the melody and its key of G major are still those of the originally published version, although the start of the anthem is often signalled by an introductory timpani roll of two bars length.",
"The bass line of the standard version differs little from the second voice part shown in the original, and there is a standard version in four-part harmony for choirs.",
"The first three lines (six bars of music) are soft, ending with a short ''crescendo'' into \"Send him victorious\", and then is another ''crescendo'' at \"over us:\" into the final words \"God save the King\".In the early 20th century there existed a Military Band version in the higher key of B, because it was easier for brass instruments to play in that key, though it had the disadvantage of being more difficult to sing: however now most Bands play it in the correct key of concert G.Since 1953, the anthem is sometimes preceded by a fanfare composed by Gordon Jacob for the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II.====Alternative British versions====There have been several attempts to rewrite the words.",
"In the nineteenth century there was some lively debate about the national anthem as verse two was considered by some to be slightly offensive in its use of the phrase \"scatter her enemies\".",
"Some thought it placed better emphasis on the respective power of Parliament and the Crown to change \"her enemies\" to \"our enemies\"; others questioned the theology and proposed \"thine enemies\" instead.",
"Sydney G. R. Coles wrote a completely new version, as did Canon F. K. Harford.=====O Lord Our God Arise=====An additional stanza sung second was previously considered part of the standard lyrics in the UK:These lyrics appeared in some works of literature prior the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II, but only the version mentioned in the Standard Version in the United Kingdom was used at her Coronation, and ever since on all official occasions when two stanzas have been sung.=====William Hickson's alternative version=====St Nicholas' Church, Charlwood, Surrey.In 1836, William Edward Hickson wrote an alternative version, of which the first, third, and fourth verses gained some currency when they were appended to the national anthem in ''The English Hymnal'' (1906).",
"The fourth Hickson verse was sung after the traditional first verse at Queen Elizabeth II's Golden Jubilee National Service of Thanksgiving in 2002, and during the raising of the Union Flag during the 2008 Summer Olympics closing ceremony, in which London took the baton from Beijing to host the 2012 Summer Olympics.",
"This verse is currently used as the final verse by the Church of Scotland.=====Samuel Reynolds Hole's alternative version=====To mark the celebration of the Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria, a modified version of the second verse was written by the Dean of Rochester, the Very Reverend Samuel Reynolds Hole.",
"A four-part harmony setting was then made by Frederick Bridge, and published by Novello.The ''Musical Times'' commented: \"There are some conservative minds who may regret the banishment of the 'knavish tricks' and aggressive spirit of the discarded verse, but it must be admitted that Dean Hole's lines are more consonant with the sentiment of modern Christianity.\"",
"Others reactions were more negative, one report describing the setting as \"unwarrantable liberties...worthy of the severest reprobation\", with \"too much of a Peace Society flavour about it...If we go about pleading for peace, other nations will get it into their heads that we are afraid of fighting.\"",
"Perhaps unsurprisingly, Hole's version failed to replace the existing verse permanently.=====Official peace version=====A less militaristic version of the song, titled \"Official peace version, 1919\", was first published in the hymn book ''Songs of Praise'' in 1925.This was \"official\" in the sense that it was approved by the British Privy Council in 1919.However, despite being reproduced in some other hymn books, it is largely unknown today.====Historic Jacobite and anti-Jacobite alternative verses====Around 1745, anti-Jacobite sentiment was captured in a verse appended to the song, with a prayer for the success of Field Marshal George Wade's army then assembling at Newcastle.",
"These words attained some short-term use, although they did not appear in the published version in the October 1745 ''Gentleman's Magazine''.",
"This verse was first documented as an occasional addition to the original anthem by Richard Clark in 1814, and was also mentioned in a later article on the song, published by the ''Gentleman's Magazine'' in October 1836.Therein, it is presented as an \"additional verse... though being of temporary application only... stored in the memory of an old friend... who was born in the very year 1745, and was thus the associate of those who heard it first sung\", the lyrics given being:The 1836 article and other sources make it clear that this verse was quickly abandoned after 1745 (Wade was replaced as Commander-in-Chief within a year following the Jacobite invasion of England), and it was certainly not used when the song became accepted as the British national anthem in the 1780s and 1790s.",
"It was included as an integral part of the song in the ''Oxford Book of Eighteenth-Century Verse'' of 1926, although erroneously referencing the \"fourth verse\" to the ''Gentleman's Magazine'' article of 1745.On the opposing side, Jacobite beliefs were demonstrated in an alternative verse used during the same period:In May 1800, following an attempt to assassinate King George III at London's Drury Lane theatre, playwright Richard Sheridan immediately composed an additional verse, which was sung from the stage the same night:Various other attempts were made during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries to add verses to commemorate particular royal or national events.",
"For example, according to Fitzroy Maclean, when Jacobite forces bypassed Wade's force and reached Derby, but then retreated and when their garrison at Carlisle Castle surrendered to a second government army led by King George's son, the Duke of Cumberland, another verse was added.",
"Other short-lived verses were notably anti-French, such as the following, quoted in the book ''Handel'' by Edward J. Dent:However, none of these additional verses survived into the twentieth century.",
"Updated \"full\" versions including additional verses have been published more recently, including the standard three verses, Hickson's fourth verse, Sheridan's verse and the Marshal Wade verse.====Historic republican alternative====A version from 1794 composed by the American republican and French citizen Joel Barlow celebrated the power of the guillotine to liberate:===Performance in the UK===The style most commonly heard in official performances was proposed as the \"proper interpretation\" by King George V, who considered himself something of an expert (in view of the number of times he had heard it).",
"An Army Order was duly issued in 1933, which laid down regulations for tempo, dynamics and orchestration.",
"This included instructions such as that the opening \"six bars will be played quietly by the reed band with horns and basses in a single phrase.",
"Cornets and side-drum are to be added at the little scale-passage leading into the second half of the tune, and the full brass enters for the last eight bars\".",
"The official tempo for the opening section is a metronome setting of 60, with the second part played in a broader manner, at a metronome setting of 52.In recent years the prescribed sombre-paced introduction is often played at a faster and livelier tempo.Until the latter part of the 20th century, theatre and concert goers were expected to stand while the anthem was played after the conclusion of a show.",
"In cinemas this brought a tendency for audiences to rush out while the end credits played to avoid this formality.",
"(This can be seen in the 1972 ''Dad's Army'' episode \"A Soldier's Farewell\".",
")The anthem continues to be played at some traditional events such as Wimbledon, Royal Variety Performance, the Edinburgh Tattoo, Royal Ascot, Henley Royal Regatta and The Proms as well as at Royal events.The anthem was traditionally played at close-down on the BBC, and with the introduction of commercial television to the UK this practice was adopted by some ITV companies (with the notable exceptions of Granada, Thames Television, Central Television, Border Television, and Yorkshire Television).",
"BBC Two also never played the anthem at close-down, and ITV dropped the practice in the late 1980s when the network switched to 24 hour broadcasting, but it continued on BBC One until 8 November 1997 (thereafter BBC One began to simulcast with BBC News after end of programmes).",
"The tradition is carried on, however, by BBC Radio 4, which plays the anthem each night as a transition piece between the end of the Radio 4 broadcasting and the move to BBC World Service.",
"BBC Radio 4 and BBC Radio 2 also play the National Anthem just before the 0700 and 0800 news bulletins on the actual and official birthdays of the King and the birthdays of senior members of the Royal Family.",
"On 17 January 2022, the GB News Channel started playing the anthem at 05:59 every morning at the beginning of the day's programming.The UK's national anthem usually prefaces The Sovereign's Christmas Message (although in 2007 it appeared at the end, taken from a recording of the 1957 television broadcast), and important royal announcements, such as of royal deaths, when it is played in a slower, sombre arrangement.====Performance in Lancashire=======Other British anthems===Frequently, when an anthem is needed for one of the constituent countries of the United Kingdom at an international sporting event, for instance an alternative song is used:* England generally uses \"God Save the King\", but \"Jerusalem\", \"Rule, Britannia!\"",
"and \"Land of Hope and Glory\" have also been used.",
"** At international test cricket matches, England has, since 2004, used \"Jerusalem\" as the anthem.",
"** At international rugby league matches, England uses \"God Save the King\" and also \"Jerusalem\".",
"** At international rugby union and football matches, England uses \"God Save the King\".",
"** At the Commonwealth Games, Team England uses \"Jerusalem\" as their victory anthem.",
"* Scotland uses \"Flower of Scotland\" as their anthem for most sporting occasions.",
"* Wales uses \"Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau\" (\"Land of My Fathers\") for governmental ceremonies and sporting occasions.",
"At official occasions, especially those with royal connections, \"God Save the King\" is also played.",
"* Northern Ireland uses \"God Save the King\" as its national anthem.",
"However, many Irish nationalists feel unrepresented by the British anthem and seek an alternative.",
"Northern Ireland also uses the \"Londonderry Air\" as its victory anthem at the Commonwealth Games.",
"When sung, the \"Londonderry Air\" has the lyrics to \"Danny Boy\".",
"At international rugby union matches, where Northern Irish players compete alongside those from the Republic of Ireland as part of an All-Ireland team, \"Ireland's Call\" is used.",
"* The British and Irish Lions rugby union tour of 2005 used the song \"The Power of Four\", but this experiment has not been repeated.The London 2012 Olympics Opening Ceremony provided a conscious use of three of the four anthems listed above; the ceremony began with a rendition of the first verse of \"Jerusalem\", before a choir in Northern Ireland sang \"Danny Boy\" and a choir in Edinburgh performed part of \"Flower of Scotland\".",
"Notably, Wales was represented by the hymn \"Bread of Heaven\", not \"Hen Wlad Fy Nhadhau\".In April 2007, there was an early day motion, number 1319, to the British Parliament to propose that there should be a separate England anthem: \"That this House ... believes that all English sporting associations should adopt an appropriate song that English sportsmen and women, and the English public, would favour when competing as England\".",
"An amendment (EDM 1319A3) was proposed by Evan Harris that the song \"should have a bit more oomph than ''God Save The Queen'' and should also not involve God.",
"\"For more information see also:* National anthem of England* National anthem of Scotland* Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau* National anthem of Northern Ireland===Use in media===On 3 November 2016, Conservative MP Andrew Rosindell argued for a return to the broadcasting of \"God Save the Queen\" at the end of BBC One transmissions each day.",
"The practice was dropped in 1997 (ostensibly due to BBC One adopting 24-hour broadcasting by simulcasting BBC News 24 overnight, rendering closedown obsolete).Since 18 January 2022, GB News has played \"God Save the Queen\" at the start of live programming every day."
],
[
"Use in other Commonwealth countries",
"\"God Save the King\" was exported around the world via the expansion of the British Empire, serving as each country's national anthem.",
"Throughout the Empire's evolution into the Commonwealth of Nations, the song declined in use in most states which became independent.",
"In New Zealand, it remains one of the official national anthems.===Australia===In Australia, the song has standing through a Royal Proclamation issued by Governor-General Sir Ninian Stephen on 19 April 1984.It declared \"God Save the Queen\" to be the Royal Anthem and that it is to be played when the Australian monarch or a member of the Royal Family is present, though not exclusively in such circumstances.",
"The same proclamation made \"Advance Australia Fair\" the national anthem and the basis for the \"Vice-Regal Salute\" (the first four and last two bars of the anthem).Prior to 1984, \"God Save the Queen\" was the national anthem of Australia.",
"In 1975, former Prime Minister Gough Whitlam, dismissed by Governor-General Sir John Kerr, alluded to the anthem in his comment \"Well may we say 'God save the Queen', because nothing will save the Governor-General!",
"\".===Belize===\"God Save the King\" is the royal anthem of Belize.",
"The Vice-Regal Salute to the Belizean governor general is composed of the first verse of \"God Save the King\" and the chorus of National Anthem, \"Land of the Free\".===Canada===Percival Price performs \"O Canada\" and \"God Save the King\" on the Peace Tower Carillon, 1927By convention, \"God Save the King\" (, when a Queen) is the royal anthem of Canada.",
"It is sometimes played or sung together with the national anthem, \"O Canada\", at private and public events organised by groups such as the Government of Canada, the Royal Canadian Legion, police services, and loyal groups.",
"The governor general and provincial lieutenant governors are accorded the \"Viceregal Salute\", comprising the first three lines of \"God Save the King\", followed by the first and last lines of \"O Canada\".",
"\"God Save the King\" has been sung in Canada since the late 1700s and by the mid 20th century was, along with \"O Canada\", one of the country's two national anthems, the first and last verses of the standard British version being used.",
"By-laws and practices governing the use of either song during public events in municipalities varied; in Toronto, \"God Save the King\" was employed, while in Montreal it was \"O Canada\".",
"Prime Minister Lester B. Pearson in 1964 said one song would have to be chosen as the country's national anthem and, three years later, he advised Governor General Georges Vanier to appoint the Special Joint Committee of the Senate and House of Commons on the National and Royal Anthems.",
"Within two months, on 12 April 1967, the committee presented its conclusion that \"God Save the Queen\" (as this was during the reign of Queen Elizabeth II), whose music and lyrics were found to be in the public domain, should be designated as the royal anthem of Canada and \"O Canada\" as the national anthem, one verse from each, in both official languages, to be adopted by parliament.",
"The group was then charged with establishing official lyrics for each song; for \"God Save the Queen\", the English words were those inherited from the United Kingdom and the French words were taken from those that had been adopted in 1952 for the coronation of Elizabeth II.",
"When the bill pronouncing \"O Canada\" as the national anthem was put through parliament, the joint committee's earlier recommendations regarding \"God Save the Queen\" were not included.The Department of National Defence and the Canadian Forces regulates that \"God Save the King\" be played as a salute to the monarch of Canada and other members of the Canadian royal family, though it may also be used as a hymn or prayer.",
"The words are not to be sung when the song is played as a military royal salute and is abbreviated to the first three lines, while arms are being presented.",
"Elizabeth II stipulated that the arrangement in G major by Lieutenant Colonel Basil H. Brown be used in Canada.",
"The authorised version to be played by pipe bands is ''Mallorca''.====Lyrics in Canada====\"God Save the King\" has been translated into French, but this translation does not fit the music and cannot be sung.",
"Nevertheless, this translation has been adapted into a bilingual version that can be sung when the monarch is male, and has been sung during public ceremonies, such as the National Remembrance Day Ceremony at the National War Memorial in Ottawa:A special singable one-verse adaptation is used when a singable French version is required, such as when royalty is present at an official occasion:There is a special Canadian verse in English which was once commonly sung in addition to the two standing verses:===Channel Islands===\"God Save the King\" is used by both Bailiwicks of the Channel Islands as an alternative to their respective national anthems.",
"Its use case and popular version is generally similar to how it is used in the United Kingdom.",
"However, the anthem has been translated in Jèrriais:The meaning is broadly similar to the first paragraph of the English version, except for the first two lines which say \"God save our Duke\" and \"Long live our Duke\".===New Zealand===\"God Save the King\" was the sole official national anthem until 1977 when \"God Defend New Zealand\" was added as a second.",
"Since then, \"God Save the King\" is most often only played when the sovereign, governor-general or other member of the Royal Family is present, or on some occasions such as Anzac Day.",
"The Māori-language version was written by Edward Marsh Williams under the title, \"\".There is a special New Zealand verse in English which was once commonly sung to replace the second and third verses:====Lyrics in Māori====All verses of \"God Save the King\" have been translated into Māori.",
"The first verse is shown below:===Rhodesia===When Rhodesia issued its Unilateral Declaration of Independence from the UK on 11 November 1965, it did so while still maintaining loyalty to Queen Elizabeth II as the Rhodesian head of state, despite the non-recognition of the Rhodesian government by the United Kingdom and the United Nations; \"God Save the Queen\" therefore remained the Rhodesian national anthem.",
"This was supposed to demonstrate the continued allegiance of the Rhodesian people to the monarch, but the retention in Rhodesia of a song so associated with the UK while the two countries were at loggerheads regarding its constitutional status caused Rhodesian state occasions to have \"a faintly ironic tone\", in the words of ''The Times''.",
"Nevertheless, \"God Save the Queen\" remained Rhodesia's national anthem until March 1970, when the country formally declared itself a republic.",
"\"Rise, O Voices of Rhodesia\" was adopted in its stead in 1974 and remained in use until the country returned to the UK's control in December 1979.Since the internationally recognised independence of the Republic of Zimbabwe in April 1980, \"God Save the King\" has had no official status there.===Saint Vincent and the Grenadines===\"God Save the King\" is the royal anthem of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines.",
"It is played on royal and vice-regal occasions.",
"The Vice-Regal Salute to the governor general is composed of the chorus of \"God Save the King\" and followed by that of the National Anthem, \"Saint Vincent, Land so Beautiful\".All proclamations in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines end with the phrase: \"God Save the King\".===Solomon Islands===\"God Save the King\" was translated into the Lau language in 1945:===South Africa===\"God Save the King\" (, when a Queen) was a co-national anthem of South Africa from 1938 until 1957, when it was formally replaced by \"\" as the sole national anthem.",
"The latter served as a sort of co-national anthem alongside the former until 1938."
],
[
"Use elsewhere",
"The melody has often been used, with lyrics slightly or significantly altered, for royal or national anthems of other countries.During the 19th century, it was used officially in Sweden, and in Iceland.",
"It was also in official usage for brief periods in Imperial Russia, in Greece and in the Kingdom of Hawaii.In Germany, it was used by the kingdoms of Prussia, Hanover, Saxony and Bavaria, and was adopted as anthem of the German Empire (\"Heil dir im Siegerkranz\") after unification in 1871.It remains as the national anthem of Liechtenstein, and was used by Switzerland until 1961."
],
[
"Musical adaptations",
"===Composers===About 140 composers have used the tune in their compositions.Ludwig van Beethoven composed a set of seven piano variations in the key of C major to the theme of \"God Save the King\", catalogued as WoO 78 (1802–1803).",
"He also quotes it in his orchestral work ''Wellington's Victory''.",
"It is also the first song arranged in the collection WoO 157.Muzio Clementi used the theme to \"God Save the King\" in his Symphony No.",
"3 in G major, often called the \"Great National Symphony\", catalogued as WoO 34.Clementi paid a high tribute to his adopted homeland (the United Kingdom) where he grew up and stayed most of his lifetime.",
"He based the symphony (about 1816–1824) on \"God Save the King\", which is hinted at earlier in the work, not least in the second movement, and announced by the trombones in the finale.Johann Christian Bach composed a set of variations on \"God Save the King\" for the finale to his sixth keyboard concerto (Op.",
"1) written .Joseph Haydn was impressed by the use of \"God Save the King\" as a national anthem during his visit to London in 1794, and on his return to Austria composed a different tune, \"\" (\"God Save Emperor Francis\"), for the birthday of the last Holy Roman Emperor and Roman-German King, Francis II, which became the basis for the anthem of the later Austrian Empire, and ultimately for the German national anthem.Franz Liszt wrote a piano paraphrase on the anthem (S.259 in the official catalogue, c. 1841).Johann Strauss I quoted \"God Save the Queen\" in full at the end of his waltz \"\" (Homage to Queen Victoria of Great Britain), Op.",
"103, where he also quoted \"Rule, Britannia!\"",
"in full at the beginning of the piece.Siegfried August Mahlmann in the early 19th century wrote alternate lyrics to adapt the hymn for the Kingdom of Saxony, as \"\" (\"God Bless Saxony\").Christian Heinrich Rinck wrote two sets of variations on the anthem: the last movement of his Piano Trio, Op.",
"34, No.",
"1 (1815) is a set of five variations and a concluding coda; and Theme (Andante) and (12) Variations in C major on \"\" (God Save the King), Op.",
"55.Heinrich Marschner used the anthem in his \"\", Op.",
"78 (1842).Gaetano Donizetti used this anthem in his opera \"Roberto Devereux\".Joachim Raff used this anthem in his Jubelouverture, Op.",
"103 (1864) dedicated to Adolf, Duke of Nassau, on the 25th anniversary of his reign.Gioachino Rossini used this anthem in the last scene of his , when all the characters, coming from many different European countries, sing a song which recalls their own homeland.",
"Lord Sidney, bass, sings \"\" on the notes of \"God Save the King\".",
"Samuel Ramey used to interpolate a spectacular virtuoso cadenza at the end of the song.Fernando Sor used the anthem in his 12 Studies, Op.",
"6: No.",
"10 in C major in the section marked 'Maestoso.",
"'Arthur Sullivan quotes the anthem at the end of his ballet ''Victoria and Merrie England''.Claude Debussy opens with a brief introduction of \"God Save the King\" in one of his Preludes, ''Hommage à S. Pickwick Esq.",
"P.P.M.P.C.''.",
"The piece draws its inspiration from the main character of the Charles Dickens novel ''The Pickwick Papers''.Niccolò Paganini wrote a set of highly virtuosic variations on \"God Save the King\" as his Op.",
"9.Max Reger wrote ''Variations and Fugue on '' (God Save the King)'' for organ in 1901 after the death of Queen Victoria.",
"It does not have an opus number.A week before the Coronation Ode was due to be premiered at the June 1902 \"Coronation Gala Concert\" at Covent Garden (it was cancelled, owing to the King's illness), Sir Edward Elgar introduced an arrangement of \"Land of Hope and Glory\" as a solo song performed by Clara Butt at a \"Coronation Concert\" at the Albert Hall.",
"Novello seized upon the prevailing patriotism and requested that Elgar arrange the National Anthem as an appropriate opening for a concert performed in front of the Court and numerous British and foreign dignitaries.",
"This version for orchestra and chorus, which is enlivened by use of and marcato effects, was also performed at the opening of the British Empire Exhibition at Wembley on St. George's Day, 1924, and recorded under the composer's baton in 1928, with the London Symphony Orchestra and the Philharmonic Choir.",
"Elgar also used the first verse of the anthem as the climax of a short \"Civic Procession and Anthem\", written to accompany the mayoral procession at the opening of the Hereford Music Festival on 4 September 1927.This premiere performance was recorded, and is today available on CD; the score was lost following the festival, and Elgar reconstructed it by ear from the recording.Carl Maria von Weber uses the \"God Save the King\" theme at the end of his \"Jubel Overture\".Giuseppe Verdi included \"God Save the Queen\" in his \"\" (Hymn of the Nations), composed for the London 1862 International Exhibition.Benjamin Britten arranged \"God Save the Queen\" in 1961 for the Leeds Festival.",
"This version has been programmed several times at the Last Night of the Proms.Charles Ives wrote ''Variations on \"America\"'' for organ in 1891 at age seventeen.",
"It included a polytonal section in three simultaneous keys, though this was omitted from performances at his father's request, because \"it made the boys laugh out loud\".",
"Ives was fond of the rapid pedal line in the final variation, which he said was \"almost as much fun as playing baseball\".",
"The piece was not published until 1949; the final version includes an introduction, seven variations and a polytonal interlude.",
"The piece was adapted for orchestra in 1963 by William Schuman.",
"This version became popular during the bicentennial celebrations, and is often heard at pops concerts.Muthuswami Dikshitar (1776–1835), one of the musical trinity in South Indian classical (Carnatic) music composed some Sanskrit pieces set to Western tunes.",
"These are in the raga Sankarabharanam and are referred to as \"\".",
"Among these, the composition \"\" is set to the tune of \"God Save the Queen\".Sigismond Thalberg (1812–1871), Swiss composer and one of the most famous virtuoso pianists of the 19th century, wrote a fantasia on \"God Save the Queen\".Johan Nepomuk Hummel (1778–1837) wrote ''Variations on God Save the King in D major'', Op.",
"10 and quoted the tune briefly in his ''Freudenfest-Ouverture in D major'', S 148.Jan Ladislav Dussek wrote a set of theme with 5 variations for piano on God Save the King.Adolphe Blanc wrote a set of variations for piano six hands on this theme.Adrien-François Servais (1807–66) and Joseph Ghys (1801–48) wrote '' \"God Save the King\"'', Op.",
"38, for violin and cello and performed it in London and St Petersburg.Georges Onslow (1784–1853) used the tune in his String Quartet No.",
"7 in G minor, Op.",
"9, second movement.Hans Huber used the melody (\"\") in the first movement of his Symphony no 3 in C minor, Op.",
"118 (\"Heroic\").Ferdinando Carulli used the melody in , for recorder & guitar, Op.",
"102.Louis Drouet composed \"Variations on the air God save the King\" for flute and piano.Gordon Jacob wrote a choral arrangement of \"God Save the Queen\" with a trumpet fanfare introduction, for the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II in 1953.===Rock adaptations===Jimi Hendrix played an impromptu version of \"God Save the Queen\" to open his set at the Isle of Wight Festival 1970.Just before walking onto the stage, he asked \"How does it the anthem go again?\".",
"Hendrix gave the same sort of distortion and improvisation of \"God Save the Queen\", as he had done with \"The Star-Spangled Banner\" at the Woodstock Festival, 1969.The rock band Queen recorded an instrumental version of \"God Save the Queen\" for their 1975 album ''A Night at the Opera''.",
"Guitarist Brian May adapted the melody using his distinctive layers of overdubbed electric guitars.",
"This recorded version was played at the end of every Queen concert from the end of 1974 to 1986, while vocalist Freddie Mercury walked around the stage wearing a crown and a cloak on their Magic Tour in 1986.The song was played whilst all the Queen members would take their bows.",
"On 3 June 2002, during the Queen's Golden Jubilee, Brian May performed the anthem on his Red Special electric guitar for Party at the Palace from the roof of Buckingham Palace which is featured on the 30th Anniversary DVD edition of ''A Night at the Opera''.In 1977, the Sex Pistols recorded a song titled \"God Save the Queen\" in open reference to the National Anthem and the Queen's Silver Jubilee celebrations that year, with the song intending to stand for sympathy for the working class and resentment of the monarchy.",
"They were banned from many venues, censored by mainstream media, and reached number 2 on the official U.K. singles charts and number 1 on the NME chart.A version of \"God Save the Queen\" by Madness features the melody of the song played on kazoos.",
"It was included on the compilation album ''The Business – the Definitive Singles Collection''.=== Computer music ===The anthem was the first piece of music played on a computer, and the first computer music to be recorded.Musical notes were first generated by a computer programmed by Alan Turing at the Computing Machine Laboratory of the University of Manchester in 1948.The first music proper, a performance of the National Anthem was programmed by Christopher Strachey on the Mark II Manchester Electronic Computer at same venue, in 1951.Later that year, short extracts of three pieces, the first being the National Anthem, were recorded there by a BBC outside broadcasting unit: the other pieces being \"Baa Baa Black Sheep\", and \"In the Mood\".",
"Researchers at the University of Canterbury, Christchurch restored the acetate master disc in 2016 and the results may be heard on SoundCloud."
],
[
"Reception",
"The philosopher and reformer Jeremy Bentham praised \"God Save the King\" in 1796: \"the melody recommending itself by beauty to the most polished ears, and by its simplicity to the rudest ear.",
"A song of this complexion, implanted by the habit of half a century in the mass of popular sentiment, can not be refused a place in the inventory of the national blessings.\"",
"Ludwig van Beethoven wrote \"I have to show the English a little of what a blessing 'God Save the King' is\".===Calls for a new national anthem(s)===There have been calls within the UK for a new national anthem, whether it be for the United Kingdom itself, Britain and/or England (which all currently use \"God Save the King\").",
"There are many reasons people cite for wishing for a new national anthem, such as: from a non-religious standpoint claims of \"God Save the King\" being long outdated and irrelevant in the 21st century, rejection of odes to promoting war and imperialism and rejection of praising the monarchy from a republican perspective.",
"A further reason is that England has no anthem of its own for sporting contests and the like, whereas Scotland, Northern Ireland, and Wales have unofficial anthems; \"Flower of Scotland\", \"Londonderry Air\", and \"Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau\" while England tends to use \"God Save the King\" exclusively and also unofficially."
],
[
"Notes and references",
"'''Notes''''''References'''"
],
[
"Further reading",
"*"
],
[
"External links",
"* * National Anthem at the Royal Family website* Streaming audio, lyrics and information about God Save the Queen* Department of Canadian Heritage – Royal anthem page* God Save Great George our King: – article discussing different versions of the lyrics* * A Point of View: Is it time for a new British national anthem?",
"BBC News.",
"Published 15 January 2016.Retrieved 17 July 2017.",
"* On some Philological Peculiarities in the English Authorized Version of the Bible.",
"By Thomas Watts, Esq."
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Gladiator"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Part of the Zliten mosaic from Libya (Leptis Magna), about 2nd century AD.",
"It shows (left to right) a ''thraex'' fighting a ''murmillo'', a ''hoplomachus'' standing with another ''murmillo'' (who is signaling his defeat to the referee), and one of a matched pair.A '''gladiator''' (, \"swordsman\", from , \"sword\") was an armed combatant who entertained audiences in the Roman Republic and Roman Empire in violent confrontations with other gladiators, wild animals, and condemned criminals.",
"Some gladiators were volunteers who risked their lives and their legal and social standing by appearing in the arena.",
"Most were despised as slaves, schooled under harsh conditions, socially marginalized, and segregated even in death.Irrespective of their origin, gladiators offered spectators an example of Rome's martial ethics and, in fighting or dying well, they could inspire admiration and popular acclaim.",
"They were celebrated in high and low art, and their value as entertainers was commemorated in precious and commonplace objects throughout the Roman world.The origin of gladiatorial combat is open to debate.",
"There is evidence of it in funeral rites during the Punic Wars of the 3rd century BC, and thereafter it rapidly became an essential feature of politics and social life in the Roman world.",
"Its popularity led to its use in ever more lavish and costly games.The gladiator games lasted for nearly a thousand years, reaching their peak between the 1st century BC and the 2nd century AD.",
"Christians disapproved of the games because they involved idolatrous pagan rituals, and the popularity of gladatorial contests declined in the fifth century, leading to their disappearance."
],
[
"History",
"===Origins===Relief of gladiators from Amphitheatre of Mérida, SpainEarly literary sources seldom agree on the origins of gladiators and the gladiator games.",
"In the late 1st century BC, Nicolaus of Damascus believed they were Etruscan.",
"A generation later, Livy wrote that they were first held in 310 BC by the Campanians in celebration of their victory over the Samnites.",
"Long after the games had ceased, the 7th century AD writer Isidore of Seville derived Latin ''lanista'' (manager of gladiators) from the Etruscan word for \"executioner\", and the title of \"Charon\" (an official who accompanied the dead from the Roman gladiatorial arena) from Charun, psychopomp of the Etruscan underworld.",
"This was accepted and repeated in most early modern, standard histories of the games.For some modern scholars, reappraisal of pictorial evidence supports a Campanian origin, or at least a borrowing, for the games and gladiators.",
"Campania hosted the earliest known gladiator schools (''ludi'').",
"Tomb frescoes from the Campanian city of Paestum (4th century BC) show paired fighters, with helmets, spears and shields, in a propitiatory funeral blood-rite that anticipates early Roman gladiator games.",
"Compared to these images, supporting evidence from Etruscan tomb-paintings is tentative and late.",
"The Paestum frescoes may represent the continuation of a much older tradition, acquired or inherited from Greek colonists of the 8th century BC.Livy places the first Roman gladiator games (264 BC) in the early stage of Rome's First Punic War, against Carthage, when Decimus Junius Brutus Scaeva had three gladiator pairs fight to the death in Rome's \"cattle market\" forum (''Forum Boarium'') to honor his dead father, Brutus Pera.",
"Livy describes this as a \"''munus''\" (plural: ''munera''), a gift, in this case a commemorative duty owed the manes (spirit, or shade) of a dead ancestor by his descendants.",
"The development of the gladiator ''munus'' and its gladiator types was most strongly influenced by Samnium's support for Hannibal and the subsequent punitive expeditions against the Samnites by Rome and its Campanian allies; the earliest, most frequently mentioned and probably most popular type was the Samnite.The war in Samnium, immediately afterwards, was attended with equal danger and an equally glorious conclusion.",
"The enemy, besides their other warlike preparation, had made their battle-line to glitter with new and splendid arms.",
"There were two corps: the shields of the one were inlaid with gold, of the other with silver ...",
"The Romans had already heard of these splendid accoutrements, but their generals had taught them that a soldier should be rough to look on, not adorned with gold and silver but putting his trust in iron and in courage ...",
"The Dictator, as decreed by the senate, celebrated a triumph, in which by far the finest show was afforded by the captured armour.",
"So the Romans made use of the splendid armour of their enemies to do honour to their gods; while the Campanians, in consequence of their pride and in hatred of the Samnites, equipped after this fashion the gladiators who furnished them entertainment at their feasts, and bestowed on them the name Samnites.Livy's account skirts the funereal, sacrificial function of early Roman gladiator combats and reflects the later theatrical ethos of the Roman gladiator show: splendidly, exotically armed and armoured barbarians, treacherous and degenerate, are dominated by Roman iron and native courage.",
"His plain Romans virtuously dedicate the magnificent spoils of war to the gods.",
"Their Campanian allies stage a dinner entertainment using gladiators who may not be Samnites, but play the Samnite role.",
"Other groups and tribes would join the cast list as Roman territories expanded.",
"Most gladiators were armed and armoured in the manner of the enemies of Rome.",
"The gladiator ''munus'' became a morally instructive form of historic enactment in which the only honourable option for the gladiator was to fight well, or else die well.===Development===In 216 BC, Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, late consul and augur, was honoured by his sons with three days of ''gladiatora munera'' in the Forum Romanum, using twenty-two pairs of gladiators.",
"Ten years later, Scipio Africanus gave a commemorative ''munus'' in Iberia for his father and uncle, casualties in the Punic Wars.",
"High status non-Romans, and possibly Romans too, volunteered as his gladiators.",
"The context of the Punic Wars and Rome's near-disastrous defeat at the Battle of Cannae (216 BC) link these early games to munificence, the celebration of military victory and the religious expiation of military disaster; these ''munera'' appear to serve a morale-raising agenda in an era of military threat and expansion.",
"The next recorded ''munus'', held for the funeral of Publius Licinius in 183 BC, was more extravagant.",
"It involved three days of funeral games, 120 gladiators, and public distribution of meat (''visceratio data'')—a practice that reflected the gladiatorial fights at Campanian banquets described by Livy and later deplored by Silius Italicus.The enthusiastic adoption of ''gladiatoria munera'' by Rome's Iberian allies shows how easily, and how early, the culture of the gladiator ''munus'' permeated places far from Rome itself.",
"By 174 BC, \"small\" Roman ''munera'' (private or public), provided by an ''editor'' of relatively low importance, may have been so commonplace and unremarkable they were not considered worth recording:Many gladiatorial games were given in that year, some unimportant, one noteworthy beyond the rest—that of Titus Flamininus which he gave to commemorate the death of his father, which lasted four days, and was accompanied by a public distribution of meats, a banquet, and scenic performances.",
"The climax of the show which was big for the time was that in three days seventy four gladiators fought.In 105 BC, the ruling consuls offered Rome its first taste of state-sponsored \"barbarian combat\" demonstrated by gladiators from Capua, as part of a training program for the military.",
"It proved immensely popular.",
"Thereafter, the gladiator contests formerly restricted to private ''munera'' were often included in the state games (''ludi'') that accompanied the major religious festivals.",
"Where traditional ''ludi'' had been dedicated to a deity, such as Jupiter, the ''munera'' could be dedicated to an aristocratic sponsor's divine or heroic ancestor.===Peak===A ''retiarius'' stabs at a ''secutor'' with his trident in this mosaic from the villa at Nennig, Germany, c. 2nd–3rd century AD.Roman glassware decorated with a gladiator, dated 52–125 AD and found at Begram, Afghanistan, a royal city of the Kushan Empire where, according to Warwick Ball, it was likely on its way to Han dynasty China via the Silk Road along with other glass items.Gladiatorial games offered their sponsors extravagantly expensive but effective opportunities for self-promotion, and gave their clients and potential voters exciting entertainment at little or no cost to themselves.",
"Gladiators became big business for trainers and owners, for politicians on the make and those who had reached the top and wished to stay there.",
"A politically ambitious ''privatus'' (private citizen) might postpone his deceased father's ''munus'' to the election season, when a generous show might drum up votes; those in power and those seeking it needed the support of the plebeians and their tribunes, whose votes might be won with the mere promise of an exceptionally good show.",
"Sulla, during his term as ''praetor'', showed his usual acumen in breaking his own sumptuary laws to give the most lavish ''munus'' yet seen in Rome, for the funeral of his wife, Metella.In the closing years of the politically and socially unstable Late Republic, any aristocratic owner of gladiators had political muscle at his disposal.",
"In 65 BC, newly elected ''curule aedile'' Julius Caesar held games that he justified as ''munus'' to his father, who had been dead for 20 years.",
"Despite an already enormous personal debt, he used 320 gladiator pairs in silvered armour.",
"He had more available in Capua but the senate, mindful of the recent Spartacus revolt and fearful of Caesar's burgeoning private armies and rising popularity, imposed a limit of 320 pairs as the maximum number of gladiators any citizen could keep in Rome.",
"Caesar's showmanship was unprecedented in scale and expense; he had staged a ''munus'' as memorial rather than funeral rite, eroding any practical or meaningful distinction between ''munus'' and ''ludi''.Gladiatorial games, usually linked with beast shows, spread throughout the republic and beyond.",
"Anti-corruption laws of 65 and 63 BC attempted but failed to curb the political usefulness of the games to their sponsors.",
"Following Caesar's assassination and the Roman Civil War, Augustus assumed imperial authority over the games, including ''munera'', and formalised their provision as a civic and religious duty.",
"His revision of sumptuary law capped private and public expenditure on ''munera'', claiming to save the Roman elite from the bankruptcies they would otherwise suffer, and restricting gladiator ''munera'' to the festivals of Saturnalia and Quinquatria.",
"Henceforth, an imperial praetor's official ''munus'' was allowed a maximum of 120 gladiators at a ceiling cost of 25,000 denarii; an imperial ''ludi'' might cost no less than 180,000 denarii.",
"Throughout the empire, the greatest and most celebrated games would now be identified with the state-sponsored imperial cult, which furthered public recognition, respect and approval for the emperor's divine ''numen'', his laws, and his agents.",
"Between 108 and 109 AD, Trajan celebrated his Dacian victories using a reported 10,000 gladiators and 11,000 animals over 123 days.",
"The cost of gladiators and ''munera'' continued to spiral out of control.",
"Legislation of 177 AD by Marcus Aurelius did little to stop it, and was completely ignored by his son, Commodus.===Decline===The decline of the gladiatorial ''munus'' was a far from straightforward process.",
"The crisis of the 3rd century imposed increasing military demands on the imperial purse, from which the Roman Empire never quite recovered, and lesser magistrates found their provision of various obligatory ''munera'' an increasingly unrewarding tax on the doubtful privileges of office.",
"Still, emperors continued to subsidize the games as a matter of undiminished public interest.",
"In the early 3rd century AD, the Christian writer Tertullian condemned the attendance of Christians: the combats, he said, were murder, their witnessing spiritually and morally harmful and the gladiator an instrument of pagan human sacrifice.",
"Carolyn Osiek comments:The reason, we would suppose, would be primarily the bloodthirsty violence, but his is different: the extent of religious ritual and meaning in them, which constitutes idolatry.",
"Although Tertullian states that these events are forbidden to believers, the fact that he writes a whole treatise to convince Christians that they should not attend (''De Spectaculis'') shows that apparently not everyone agreed to stay away from them.In the next century, Augustine of Hippo deplored the youthful fascination of his friend (and later fellow-convert and bishop) Alypius of Thagaste, with the ''munera'' spectacle as inimical to a Christian life and salvation.",
"Amphitheatres continued to host the spectacular administration of Imperial justice: in 315 Constantine the Great condemned child-snatchers ''ad bestias'' in the arena.",
"Ten years later, he forbade criminals being forced to fight to the death as gladiators:Bloody spectacles do not please us in civil ease and domestic quiet.",
"For that reason we forbid those people to be gladiators who by reason of some criminal act were accustomed to deserve this condition and sentence.",
"You shall rather sentence them to serve in the mines so that they may acknowledge the penalties of their crimes with blood.A 5th-century mosaic in the Great Palace of Constantinople depicts two ''venatores'' fighting a tigerThis has been interpreted as a ban on gladiatorial combat.",
"Yet, in the last year of his life, Constantine wrote a letter to the citizens of Hispellum, granting its people the right to celebrate his rule with gladiatorial games.In 365, Valentinian I (r. 364–375) threatened to fine a judge who sentenced Christians to the arena and in 384 attempted, like most of his predecessors, to limit the expenses of ''gladiatora munera''.In 393, Theodosius I (r. 379–395) adopted Nicene Christianity as the state religion of the Roman Empire and banned pagan festivals.",
"The ''ludi'' continued, very gradually shorn of their stubbornly pagan elements.",
"Honorius (r. 395–423) legally ended gladiator games in 399, and again in 404, at least in the Western Roman Empire.",
"According to Theodoret, the ban was in consequence of Saint Telemachus' martyrdom by spectators at a gladiator ''munus.''",
"Valentinian III (r. 425–455) repeated the ban in 438, perhaps effectively, though ''venationes'' continued beyond 536.By this time, interest in gladiator contests had waned throughout the Roman world.",
"In the Byzantine Empire, theatrical shows and chariot races continued to attract the crowds, and drew a generous imperial subsidy."
],
[
"Organisation",
"The earliest ''munera'' took place at or near the tomb of the deceased and these were organised by their ''munerator'' (who made the offering).",
"Later games were held by an ''editor'', either identical with the ''munerator'' or an official employed by him.",
"As time passed, these titles and meanings may have merged.",
"In the republican era, private citizens could own and train gladiators, or lease them from a ''lanista'' (owner of a gladiator training school).",
"From the ''principate'' onwards, private citizens could hold ''munera'' and own gladiators only with imperial permission, and the role of ''editor'' was increasingly tied to state officialdom.",
"Legislation by Claudius required that ''quaestors'', the lowest rank of Roman magistrate, personally subsidise two-thirds of the costs of games for their small-town communities—in effect, both an advertisement of their personal generosity and a part-purchase of their office.",
"Bigger games were put on by senior magistrates, who could better afford them.",
"The largest and most lavish of all were paid for by the emperor himself."
],
[
"The gladiators",
"A Cestus boxer and a rooster in a Roman mosaic at the National Archaeological Museum, Naples, 1st century ADThe earliest types of gladiator were named after Rome's enemies of that time: the Samnite, Thracian and Gaul.",
"The Samnite, heavily armed, elegantly helmed and probably the most popular type, was renamed secutor and the Gaul renamed murmillo, once these former enemies had been conquered then absorbed into Rome's Empire.",
"In the mid-republican ''munus'', each type seems to have fought against a similar or identical type.",
"In the later Republic and early Empire, various \"fantasy\" types were introduced, and were set against dissimilar but complementary types.",
"For example, the bareheaded, nimble retiarius (\"net-man\"), armoured only at the left arm and shoulder, pitted his net, trident and dagger against the more heavily armoured, helmeted Secutor.",
"Most depictions of gladiators show the most common and popular types.",
"Passing literary references to others has allowed their tentative reconstruction.",
"Other novelties introduced around this time included gladiators who fought from chariots or carts, or from horseback.",
"At an unknown date, cestus fighters were introduced to Roman arenas, probably from Greece, armed with potentially lethal boxing gloves.The trade in gladiators was empire-wide, and subjected to official supervision.",
"Rome's military success produced a supply of soldier-prisoners who were redistributed for use in State mines or amphitheatres and for sale on the open market.",
"For example, in the aftermath of the Jewish Revolt, the gladiator schools received an influx of Jews—those rejected for training would have been sent straight to the arenas as ''noxii'' (lit.",
"\"hurtful ones\").",
"The best—the most robust—were sent to Rome.",
"In Rome's military ethos, enemy soldiers who had surrendered or allowed their own capture and enslavement had been granted an unmerited gift of life.",
"Their training as gladiators would give them opportunity to redeem their honour in the ''munus''.Pollice Verso'' (\"With a Turned Thumb\"), an 1872 painting by Jean-Léon GérômeTwo other sources of gladiators, found increasingly during the Principate and the relatively low military activity of the Pax Romana, were slaves condemned to the arena (''damnati''), to gladiator schools or games (''ad ludum gladiatorium'') as punishment for crimes, and the paid volunteers (''auctorati'') who by the late Republic may have comprised approximately half—and possibly the most capable half—of all gladiators.",
"The use of volunteers had a precedent in the Iberian ''munus'' of Scipio Africanus; but none of those had been paid.For the poor, and for non-citizens, enrollment in a gladiator school offered a trade, regular food, housing of sorts and a fighting chance of fame and fortune.",
"Mark Antony chose a troupe of gladiators to be his personal bodyguard.",
"Gladiators customarily kept their prize money and any gifts they received, and these could be substantial.",
"Tiberius offered several retired gladiators 100,000 ''sesterces'' each to return to the arena.",
"Nero gave the gladiator Spiculus property and residence \"equal to those of men who had celebrated triumphs.",
"\"===Women===From the 60s AD female gladiators appear as rare and \"exotic markers of exceptionally lavish spectacle\".",
"In 66 AD, Nero had Ethiopian women, men and children fight at a ''munus'' to impress the King Tiridates I of Armenia.",
"Romans seem to have found the idea of a female gladiator novel and entertaining, or downright absurd; Juvenal titillates his readers with a woman named \"Mevia\", hunting boars in the arena \"with spear in hand and breasts exposed\", and Petronius mocks the pretensions of a rich, low-class citizen, whose ''munus'' includes a woman fighting from a cart or chariot.",
"A ''munus'' of 89 AD, during Domitian's reign, featured a battle between female gladiators, described as \"Amazons\".",
"In Halicarnassus, a 2nd-century AD relief depicts two female combatants named \"Amazon\" and \"Achillia\"; their match ended in a draw.",
"In the same century, an epigraph praises one of Ostia's local elite as the first to \"arm women\" in the history of its games.",
"Female gladiators probably submitted to the same regulations and training as their male counterparts.",
"Roman morality required that all gladiators be of the lowest social classes, and emperors who failed to respect this distinction earned the scorn of posterity.",
"Cassius Dio takes pains to point out that when the much admired emperor Titus used female gladiators, they were of acceptably low class.Some regarded female gladiators of any type or class as a symptom of corrupted Roman appetites, morals and womanhood.",
"Before he became emperor, Septimius Severus may have attended the Antiochene Olympic Games, which had been revived by the emperor Commodus and included traditional Greek female athletics.",
"Septimius' attempt to give Rome a similarly dignified display of female athletics was met by the crowd with ribald chants and cat-calls.",
"Probably as a result, he banned the use of female gladiators in 200 AD.===Emperors===Caligula, Titus, Hadrian, Lucius Verus, Caracalla, Geta and Didius Julianus were all said to have performed in the arena, either in public or private, but risks to themselves were minimal.",
"Claudius, characterised by his historians as morbidly cruel and boorish, fought a whale trapped in the harbor in front of a group of spectators.",
"Commentators invariably disapproved of such performances.Commodus was a fanatical participant at the ''ludi'', and compelled Rome's elite to attend his performances as gladiator, ''bestiarius'' or ''venator''.",
"Most of his performances as a gladiator were bloodless affairs, fought with wooden swords; he invariably won.",
"He was said to have restyled Nero's colossal statue in his own image as \"Hercules Reborn\", dedicated to himself as \"Champion of ''secutores''; only left-handed fighter to conquer twelve times one thousand men.\"",
"He was said to have killed 100 lions in one day, almost certainly from an elevated platform surrounding the arena perimeter, which allowed him to safely demonstrate his marksmanship.",
"On another occasion, he decapitated a running ostrich with a specially designed dart, carried the bloodied head and his sword over to the Senatorial seats and gesticulated as though they were next.",
"As reward for these services, he drew a gigantic stipend from the public purse."
],
[
"The games",
"===Preparations===mosaic from a Roman villa at Nennig, GermanyGladiator games were advertised well beforehand, on billboards that gave the reason for the game, its editor, venue, date and the number of paired gladiators (''ordinarii'') to be used.",
"Other highlighted features could include details of ''venationes'', executions, music and any luxuries to be provided for the spectators, such as an awning against the sun, water sprinklers, food, drink, sweets and occasionally \"door prizes\".",
"For enthusiasts and gamblers, a more detailed program (''libellus'') was distributed on the day of the ''munus'', showing the names, types and match records of gladiator pairs, and their order of appearance.",
"Left-handed gladiators were advertised as a rarity; they were trained to fight right-handers, which gave them an advantage over most opponents and produced an interestingly unorthodox combination.The night before the ''munus'', the gladiators were given a banquet and opportunity to order their personal and private affairs; Futrell notes its similarity to a ritualistic or sacramental \"last meal\".",
"These were probably both family and public events which included even the ''noxii'', sentenced to die in the arena the following day; and the ''damnati'', who would have at least a slender chance of survival.",
"The event may also have been used to drum up more publicity for the imminent game.===The ''ludi'' and ''munus''===Official ''munera'' of the early Imperial era seem to have followed a standard form (''munus legitimum'').",
"A procession (''pompa'') entered the arena, led by lictors who bore the fasces that signified the magistrate-''editor'''s power over life and death.",
"They were followed by a small band of trumpeters (''tubicines'') playing a fanfare.",
"Images of the gods were carried in to \"witness\" the proceedings, followed by a scribe to record the outcome, and a man carrying the palm branch used to honour victors.",
"The magistrate ''editor'' entered among a retinue who carried the arms and armour to be used; the gladiators presumably came in last.Musicians with trumpet (''tuba''), water organ (hydraulis), and horns (''cornua''), from the Nennig gladiator mosaicThe entertainments often began with ''venationes'' (beast hunts) and ''bestiarii'' (beast fighters).",
"Next came the ''ludi meridiani'', which were of variable content but usually involved executions of ''noxii'', some of whom were condemned to be subjects of fatal re-enactments, based on Greek or Roman myths.",
"Gladiators may have been involved in these as executioners, though most of the crowd, and the gladiators themselves, preferred the \"dignity\" of an even contest.",
"There were also comedy fights; some may have been lethal.",
"A crude Pompeian graffito suggests a burlesque of musicians, dressed as animals named ''Ursus tibicen'' (flute-playing bear) and ''Pullus cornicen'' (horn-blowing chicken), perhaps as accompaniment to clowning by ''paegniarii'' during a \"mock\" contest of the ''ludi meridiani''.===Armatures===The gladiators may have held informal warm-up matches, using blunted or dummy weapons—some ''munera'', however, may have used blunted weapons throughout.",
"The ''editor,'' his representative or an honoured guest would check the weapons (''probatio armorum'') for the scheduled matches.",
"These were the highlight of the day, and were as inventive, varied and novel as the ''editor'' could afford.",
"Armatures could be very costly—some were flamboyantly decorated with exotic feathers, jewels and precious metals.",
"Increasingly the ''munus'' was the ''editor'''s gift to spectators who had come to expect the best as their due.Image:Roman myrmillones gladiator helmet with relief depicting scenes from the Trojan War from Herculaneum 1st century CE Bronze 01.jpg|Murmillo gladiator helmet with relief depicting scenes from the Trojan War; from HerculaneumImage:Roman gladiator helmet found in the gladiator barracks in Pompeii 1st century CE.jpg|Helmet found in the gladiator barracks in PompeiiImage:Roman gladiator helmet from Herculaneum Iron 1st century CE.jpg|Iron gladiator helmet from HerculaneumImage:Gladiator helmet found in Pompeii and richly decorated with scenes of Greek mythology, Gladiators – Death and Triumph at the Colosseum exhibition, Museum und Park Kalkriese (9618142634).jpg|Gladiator helmet found in Pompeii, with scenes from Greek MythologyImage:Antica roma, elmo con cresta, I-III secolo ca.jpg|Helmet from 1st–3rd centuryImage:Ornate pair of gladiator shin guards depicting a procession of Bacchus from the gladiator barracks in Pompeii 01.jpg|Ornate gladiator shin guards from PompeiiImage:Gladiator shin guard depicting the goddess Athena from the gladiator barracks in Pompeii 1st century CE.jpg|Shin guard depicting the goddess AthenaImage:Gladiator shin guard depicting Venus Euploia protectress of seafarers sitting on a ship shaped like a dolphin from Pompeii 1st century CE.jpg|Shin guard depicting Venus Euploia (Venus of the \"fair voyage\") on a ship shaped like a dolphinImage:Heart-shaped spear head found in the gladiator barracks in Pompeii 1st century CE.jpg|Heart-shaped spear head found in the gladiator barracks in Pompeii===Combat===Lightly armed and armoured fighters, such as the retiarius, would tire less rapidly than their heavily armed opponents; most bouts would have lasted 10 to 15 minutes, or 20 minutes at most.",
"In late Republican ''munera'', between 10 and 13 matches could have been fought on one day; this assumes one match at a time in the course of an afternoon.Spectators preferred to watch highly skilled, well matched ''ordinarii'' with complementary fighting styles; these were the most costly to train and to hire.",
"A general ''melee'' of several, lower-skilled gladiators was far less costly, but also less popular.",
"Even among the ''ordinarii'', match winners might have to fight a new, well-rested opponent, either a ''tertiarius'' (\"third choice gladiator\") by prearrangement; or a \"substitute\" gladiator (''suppositicius'') who fought at the whim of the ''editor'' as an unadvertised, unexpected \"extra\".",
"This yielded two combats for the cost of three gladiators, rather than four; such contests were prolonged, and in some cases, more bloody.",
"Most were probably of poor quality, but the emperor Caracalla chose to test a notably skilled and successful fighter named Bato against first one ''supposicitius'', whom he beat, and then another, who killed him.",
"At the opposite level of the profession, a gladiator reluctant to confront his opponent might be whipped, or goaded with hot irons, until he engaged through sheer desperation.National Archaeological Museum in Madrid showing a retiarius named Kalendio (shown surrendering in the upper section) fighting a secutor named Astyanax.",
"The Ø sign by Kalendio's name implies he was killed after surrendering.Combats between experienced, well trained gladiators demonstrated a considerable degree of stagecraft.",
"Among the cognoscenti, bravado and skill in combat were esteemed over mere hacking and bloodshed; some gladiators made their careers and reputation from bloodless victories.",
"Suetonius describes an exceptional ''munus'' by Nero, in which no-one was killed, \"not even ''noxii'' (enemies of the state).",
"\"Trained gladiators were expected to observe professional rules of combat.",
"Most matches employed a senior referee (''summa rudis'') and an assistant, shown in mosaics with long staffs (''rudes'') to caution or separate opponents at some crucial point in the match.",
"Referees were usually retired gladiators whose decisions, judgement and discretion were, for the most part, respected; they could stop bouts entirely, or pause them to allow the combatants rest, refreshment and a rub-down.Ludi and ''munera'' were accompanied by music, played as interludes, or building to a \"frenzied crescendo\" during combats, perhaps to heighten the suspense during a gladiator's appeal; blows may have been accompanied by trumpet-blasts.",
"The Zliten mosaic in Libya (circa 80–100 AD) shows musicians playing an accompaniment to provincial games (with gladiators, ''bestiarii'', or ''venatores'' and prisoners attacked by beasts).",
"Their instruments are a long straight trumpet (''tubicen''), a large curved horn (''Cornu'') and a water organ (''hydraulis'').",
"Similar representations (musicians, gladiators and ''bestiari'') are found on a tomb relief in Pompeii.===Victory and defeat===A match was won by the gladiator who overcame his opponent, or killed him outright.",
"Victors received the palm branch and an award from the ''editor''.",
"An outstanding fighter might receive a laurel crown and money from an appreciative crowd but for anyone originally condemned ''ad ludum'' the greatest reward was manumission (emancipation), symbolised by the gift of a wooden training sword or staff (''rudis'') from the ''editor''.",
"Martial describes a match between Priscus and Verus, who fought so evenly and bravely for so long that when both acknowledged defeat at the same instant, Titus awarded victory and a ''rudis'' to each.",
"Flamma was awarded the ''rudis'' four times, but chose to remain a gladiator.",
"His gravestone in Sicily includes his record: \"Flamma, ''secutor'', lived 30 years, fought 34 times, won 21 times, fought to a draw 9 times, defeated 4 times, a Syrian by nationality.",
"Delicatus made this for his deserving comrade-in-arms.",
"\"A gladiator could acknowledge defeat by raising a finger (''ad digitum''), in appeal to the referee to stop the combat and refer to the ''editor'', whose decision would usually rest on the crowd's response.",
"In the earliest ''munera'', death was considered a righteous penalty for defeat; later, those who fought well might be granted remission at the whim of the crowd or the ''editor''.",
"During the Imperial era, matches advertised as ''sine missione'' (usually understood to mean \"without reprieve\" for the defeated) suggest that ''missio'' (the sparing of a defeated gladiator's life) had become common practice.",
"The contract between ''editor'' and his ''lanista'' could include compensation for unexpected deaths; this could be \"some fifty times higher than the lease price\" of the gladiator.Under Augustus' rule, the demand for gladiators began to exceed supply, and matches ''sine missione'' were officially banned; an economical, pragmatic development that happened to match popular notions of \"natural justice\".",
"When Caligula and Claudius refused to spare defeated but popular fighters, their own popularity suffered.",
"In general, gladiators who fought well were likely to survive.",
"At a Pompeian match between chariot-fighters, Publius Ostorius, with previous 51 wins to his credit, was granted missio after losing to Scylax, with 26 victories.",
"By common custom, the spectators decided whether or not a losing gladiator should be spared, and chose the winner in the rare event of a standing tie.",
"Even more rarely, perhaps uniquely, one stalemate ended in the killing of one gladiator by the ''editor'' himself.",
"In any event, the final decision of death or life belonged to the ''editor'', who signalled his choice with a gesture described by Roman sources as ''pollice verso'' meaning \"with a turned thumb\"; a description too imprecise for reconstruction of the gesture or its symbolism.",
"Whether victorious or defeated, a gladiator was bound by oath to accept or implement his editor's decision, \"the victor being nothing but the instrument of his editor's will.\"",
"Not all ''editors'' chose to go with the crowd, and not all those condemned to death for putting on a poor show chose to submit:Once a band of five ''retiarii'' in tunics, matched against the same number of ''secutores'', yielded without a struggle; but when their death was ordered, one of them caught up his trident and slew all the victors.",
"Caligula bewailed this in a public proclamation as a most cruel murder.===Death and disposal===A gladiator who was refused ''missio'' was despatched by his opponent.",
"To die well, a gladiator should never ask for mercy, nor cry out.",
"A \"good death\" redeemed the gladiator from the dishonourable weakness and passivity of defeat, and provided a noble example to those who watched:For death, when it stands near us, gives even to inexperienced men the courage not to seek to avoid the inevitable.",
"So the gladiator, no matter how faint-hearted he has been throughout the fight, offers his throat to his opponent and directs the wavering blade to the vital spot.",
"(Seneca.",
"''Epistles'', 30.8)Some mosaics show defeated gladiators kneeling in preparation for the moment of death.",
"Seneca's \"vital spot\" seems to have meant the neck.",
"Gladiator remains from Ephesus confirm this.A flask depicting the final phase of the fight between a ''murmillo'' (winning) and a ''thraex''The body of a gladiator who had died well was placed on a couch of Libitina and removed with dignity to the arena morgue, where the corpse was stripped of armour, and probably had its throat cut as confirmation of death.",
"The Christian author Tertullian, commenting on ''ludi meridiani'' in Roman Carthage during the peak era of the games, describes a more humiliating method of removal.",
"One arena official, dressed as the \"brother of Jove\", Dis Pater (god of the underworld) strikes the corpse with a mallet.",
"Another, dressed as Mercury, tests for life-signs with a heated \"wand\"; once confirmed as dead, the body is dragged from the arena.Whether these victims were gladiators or ''noxii'' is unknown.",
"Modern pathological examination confirms the probably fatal use of a mallet on some, but not all the gladiator skulls found in a gladiators' cemetery.",
"Kyle (1998) proposes that gladiators who disgraced themselves might have been subjected to the same indignities as ''noxii'', denied the relative mercies of a quick death and dragged from the arena as carrion.",
"Whether the corpse of such a gladiator could be redeemed from further ignominy by friends or ''familia'' is not known.The bodies of ''noxii'', and possibly some ''damnati'', were thrown into rivers or dumped unburied; Denial of funeral rites and memorial condemned the shade (''manes'') of the deceased to restless wandering upon the earth as a dreadful ''larva'' or ''lemur''.",
"Ordinary citizens, slaves and freedmen were usually buried beyond the town or city limits, to avoid the ritual and physical pollution of the living; professional gladiators had their own, separate cemeteries.",
"The taint of ''infamia'' was perpetual.Part of the Gladiator Mosaic, displayed at the Galleria Borghese.",
"It dates from approximately 320 AD.",
"The Ø symbol is the theta nigrum (\"black theta\") or theta infelix (\"unlucky theta\"), a symbol of death in Greek and Latin epigraphy.===Remembrance and epitaphs===Gladiators could subscribe to a union (''collegia''), which ensured their proper burial, and sometimes a pension or compensation for wives and children.",
"Otherwise, the gladiator's ''familia'', which included his ''lanista'', comrades and blood-kin, might fund his funeral and memorial costs, and use the memorial to assert their moral reputation as responsible, respectful colleagues or family members.",
"Some monuments record the gladiator's career in some detail, including the number of appearances, victories—sometimes represented by an engraved crown or wreath—defeats, career duration, and age at death.",
"Some include the gladiator's type, in words or direct representation: for example, the memorial of a retiarius at Verona included the engraving of a trident and sword.",
"A wealthy editor might commission artwork to celebrate a particularly successful or memorable show, and include named portraits of winners and losers in action; the Borghese Gladiator Mosaic is a notable example.",
"According to Cassius Dio, the emperor Caracalla gave the gladiator Bato a magnificent memorial and State funeral; more typical are the simple gladiator tombs of the Eastern Roman Empire, whose brief inscriptions include the following:\"The familia set this up in memory of Saturnilos.",
"\"\"For Nikepharos, son of Synetos, Lakedaimonian, and for Narcissus the secutor.",
"Titus Flavius Satyrus set up this monument in his memory from his own money.",
"\"\"For Hermes.",
"Paitraeites with his cell-mates set this up in memory\".Very little evidence survives of the religious beliefs of gladiators as a class, or their expectations of an afterlife.",
"Modern scholarship offers little support for the once-prevalent notion that gladiators, ''venatores'' and ''bestiarii'' were personally or professionally dedicated to the cult of the Graeco-Roman goddess Nemesis.",
"Rather, she seems to have represented a kind of \"Imperial Fortuna\" who dispensed Imperial retribution on the one hand, and Imperially subsidised gifts on the other—including the ''munera''.",
"One gladiator's tomb dedication clearly states that her decisions are not to be trusted.",
"Many gladiator epitaphs claim Nemesis, fate, deception or treachery as the instrument of their death, never the superior skills of the flesh-and-blood adversary who defeated and killed them.",
"Having no personal responsibility for his own defeat and death, the losing gladiator remains the better man, worth avenging.",
"\"I, Victor, left-handed, lie here, but my homeland was in Thessalonica.",
"Doom killed me, not the liar Pinnas.",
"No longer let him boast.",
"I had a fellow gladiator, Polyneikes, who killed Pinnas and avenged me.",
"Claudius Thallus set up this memorial from what I left behind as a legacy.",
"\"===Life expectancy===A gladiator might expect to fight in two or three ''munera'' annually, and an unknown number would have died in their first match.",
"Few gladiators survived more than 10 contests, though one survived an extraordinary 150 bouts; and another died at 90 years of age, presumably long after retirement.",
"A natural death following retirement is also likely for three individuals who died at 38, 45, and 48 years respectively.",
"George Ville, using evidence from 1st century gladiator headstones, calculated an average age at death of 27, and mortality \"among all who entered the arena\" at 19/100.Marcus Junkelmann disputes Ville's calculation for average age at death; the majority would have received no headstone, and would have died early in their careers, at 18–25 years of age.",
"Between the early and later Imperial periods the risk of death for defeated gladiators rose from 1/5 to 1/4, perhaps because ''missio'' was granted less often.",
"Hopkins and Beard tentatively estimate a total of 400 arenas throughout the Roman Empire at its greatest extent, with a combined total of 8,000 deaths per annum from executions, combats and accidents."
],
[
"Schools and training",
"The earliest named gladiator school (singular: ''ludus''; plural: ''ludi'') is that of Aurelius Scaurus at Capua.",
"He was ''lanista'' of the gladiators employed by the state circa 105 BC to instruct the legions and simultaneously entertain the public.",
"Few other ''lanistae'' are known by name: they headed their ''familia gladiatoria'', and had lawful power over life and death of every family member, including ''servi poenae'', ''auctorati'' and ancillaries.",
"Socially, they were ''infames'', on a footing with pimps and butchers and despised as price gougers.",
"No such stigma was attached to a gladiator owner (''munerarius'' or ''editor'') of good family, high status and independent means; Cicero congratulated his friend Atticus on buying a splendid troop—if he rented them out, he might recover their entire cost after two performances.The Spartacus revolt had originated in a gladiator school privately owned by Lentulus Batiatus, and had been suppressed only after a protracted series of costly, sometimes disastrous campaigns by regular Roman troops.",
"In the late Republican era, a fear of similar uprisings, the usefulness of gladiator schools in creating private armies, and the exploitation of ''munera'' for political gain led to increased restrictions on gladiator school ownership, siting and organisation.",
"By Domitian's time, many had been more or less absorbed by the State, including those at Pergamum, Alexandria, Praeneste and Capua.",
"The city of Rome itself had four; the ''Ludus Magnus'' (the largest and most important, housing up to about 2,000 gladiators), ''Ludus Dacicus'', ''Ludus Gallicus'', and the ''Ludus Matutinus'', which trained ''bestiarii''.In the Imperial era, volunteers required a magistrate's permission to join a school as ''auctorati''.",
"If this was granted, the school's physician assessed their suitability.",
"Their contract (''auctoramentum'') stipulated how often they were to perform, their fighting style and earnings.",
"A condemned bankrupt or debtor accepted as novice (''novicius'') could negotiate with his ''lanista'' or ''editor'' for the partial or complete payment of his debt.",
"Faced with runaway re-enlistment fees for skilled ''auctorati'', Marcus Aurelius set their upper limit at 12,000 ''sesterces''.All prospective gladiators, whether volunteer or condemned, were bound to service by a sacred oath (''sacramentum'').",
"Novices (''novicii'') trained under teachers of particular fighting styles, probably retired gladiators.",
"They could ascend through a hierarchy of grades (singular: ''palus'') in which ''primus palus'' was the highest.",
"Lethal weapons were prohibited in the schools—weighted, blunt wooden versions were probably used.",
"Fighting styles were probably learned through constant rehearsal as choreographed \"numbers\".",
"An elegant, economical style was preferred.",
"Training included preparation for a stoical, unflinching death.",
"Successful training required intense commitment.Those condemned ''ad ludum'' were probably branded or marked with a tattoo (''stigma'', plural ''stigmata'') on the face, legs and/or hands.",
"These ''stigmata'' may have been text—slaves were sometimes thus marked on the forehead until Constantine banned the use of facial stigmata in 325 AD.",
"Soldiers were routinely marked on the hand.Gladiators were typically accommodated in cells, arranged in barrack formation around a central practice arena.",
"Juvenal describes the segregation of gladiators according to type and status, suggestive of rigid hierarchies within the schools: \"even the lowest scum of the arena observe this rule; even in prison they're separate\".",
"''Retiarii'' were kept away from ''damnati'', and \"fag targeteers\" from \"armoured heavies\".",
"As most ''ordinarii'' at games were from the same school, this kept potential opponents separate and safe from each other until the lawful ''munus''.",
"Discipline could be extreme, even lethal.",
"Remains of a Pompeian ''ludus'' site attest to developments in supply, demand and discipline; in its earliest phase, the building could accommodate 15–20 gladiators.",
"Its replacement could have housed about 100 and included a very small cell, probably for lesser punishments and so low that standing was impossible.===Diet and medical care===''Gladiators after the fight'', José Moreno Carbonero (1882)Despite the harsh discipline, gladiators represented a substantial investment for their ''lanista'' and were otherwise well fed and cared for.",
"Their daily, high-energy, vegetarian diet consisted of barley, boiled beans, oatmeal, ash and dried fruit.",
"Gladiators were sometimes called ''hordearii'' (eaters of barley).",
"Romans considered barley inferior to wheat—a punishment for legionaries replaced their wheat ration with it—but it was thought to strengthen the body.",
"Regular massage and high quality medical care helped mitigate an otherwise very severe training regimen.",
"Part of Galen's medical training was at a gladiator school in Pergamum where he saw (and would later criticise) the training, diet, and long-term health prospects of the gladiators."
],
[
"Legal and social status",
"\"He vows to endure to be burned, to be bound, to be beaten, and to be killed by the sword.\"",
"''The gladiator's oath as cited by Petronius (Satyricon, 117).",
"''Modern customs and institutions offer few useful parallels to the legal and social context of the ''gladiatoria munera''.",
"In Roman law, anyone condemned to the arena or the gladiator schools (''damnati ad ludum'') was a ''servus poenae'' (slave of the penalty), and was considered to be under sentence of death unless manumitted.",
"A rescript of Hadrian reminded magistrates that \"those sentenced to the sword\" (execution) should be despatched immediately \"or at least within the year\", and those sentenced to the ''ludi'' should not be discharged before five years, or three years if granted manumission.",
"Only slaves found guilty of specific offences could be sentenced to the arena; however, citizens found guilty of particular offenses could be stripped of citizenship, formally enslaved, then sentenced; and slaves, once freed, could be legally reverted to slavery for certain offences.",
"Arena punishment could be given for banditry, theft and arson, and for treasons such as rebellion, census evasion to avoid paying due taxes and refusal to swear lawful oaths.Offenders seen as particularly obnoxious to the state (''noxii'') received the most humiliating punishments.",
"By the 1st century BC, ''noxii'' were being condemned to the beasts (''damnati ad bestias'') in the arena, with almost no chance of survival, or were made to kill each other.",
"From the early Imperial era, some were forced to participate in humiliating and novel forms of mythological or historical enactment, culminating in their execution.",
"Those judged less harshly might be condemned ''ad ludum venatorium'' or ''ad gladiatorium''—combat with animals or gladiators—and armed as thought appropriate.",
"These ''damnati'' at least might put on a good show and retrieve some respect and, very rarely, survive to fight another day.",
"Some may even have become \"proper\" gladiators.Mérida amphitheatre, Spain; mural of beast hunt, showing a venator (or bestiarius) and lionessAmong the most admired and skilled ''auctorati'' were those who, having been granted manumission, volunteered to fight in the arena.",
"Some of these highly trained and experienced specialists may have had no other practical choice open to them.",
"Their legal status—slave or free—is uncertain.",
"Under Roman law, a freed gladiator could not \"offer such services as those of a gladiator after manumission, because they cannot be performed without endangering his life.\"",
"All contracted volunteers, including those of equestrian and senatorial class, were legally enslaved by their ''auctoratio'' because it involved their potentially lethal submission to a master.",
"All ''arenarii'' (those who appeared in the arena) were \"''infames'' by reputation\", a form of social dishonour which excluded them from most of the advantages and rights of citizenship.",
"Payment for such appearances compounded their ''infamia''.",
"The legal and social status of even the most popular and wealthy ''auctorati'' was thus marginal at best.",
"They could not vote, plead in court nor leave a will; and unless they were manumitted, their lives and property belonged to their masters.",
"Nevertheless, there is evidence of informal if not entirely lawful practices to the contrary.",
"Some \"unfree\" gladiators bequeathed money and personal property to wives and children, possibly via a sympathetic owner or ''familia''; some had their own slaves and gave them their freedom.",
"One gladiator was even granted \"citizenship\" to several Greek cities of the Eastern Roman world.Caesar's ''munus'' of 46 BC included at least one equestrian, son of a Praetor, and two volunteers of possible senatorial rank.",
"Augustus, who enjoyed watching the games, forbade the participation of senators, equestrians and their descendants as fighters or ''arenarii'', but in 11 AD he bent his own rules and allowed equestrians to volunteer because \"the prohibition was no use\".",
"Under Tiberius, the Larinum decree (19 AD) reiterated Augustus' original prohibitions.",
"Thereafter, Caligula flouted them and Claudius strengthened them.",
"Nero and Commodus ignored them.",
"Even after the adoption of Christianity as Rome's official religion, legislation forbade the involvement of Rome's upper social classes in the games, though not the games themselves.",
"Throughout Rome's history, some volunteers were prepared to risk loss of status or reputation by appearing in the arena, whether for payment, glory or, as in one recorded case, to revenge an affront to their personal honour.",
"In one extraordinary episode, an aristocratic descendant of the Gracchi, already infamous for his marriage, as a bride, to a male horn player, appeared in what may have been a non-lethal or farcical match.",
"His motives are unknown, but his voluntary and \"shameless\" arena appearance combined the \"womanly attire\" of a lowly ''retiarius tunicatus'', adorned with golden ribbons, with the apex headdress that marked him out as a priest of Mars.",
"In Juvenal's account, he seems to have relished the scandalous self-display, applause and the disgrace he inflicted on his more sturdy opponent by repeatedly skipping away from the confrontation."
],
[
"Amphitheatres",
"The Amphitheatre of Pompeii, built around 70 BC and buried by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius 79 AD, once hosted spectacles with gladiators.As ''munera'' grew larger and more popular, open spaces such as the Forum Romanum were adapted (as the Forum Boarium had been) as venues in Rome and elsewhere, with temporary, elevated seating for the patron and high status spectators; they were popular but not truly public events:A show of gladiators was to be exhibited before the people in the market-place, and most of the magistrates erected scaffolds round about, with an intention of letting them for advantage.",
"Caius commanded them to take down their scaffolds, that the poor people might see the sport without paying anything.",
"But nobody obeying these orders of his, he gathered together a body of labourers, who worked for him, and overthrew all the scaffolds the very night before the contest was to take place.",
"So that by the next morning the market-place was cleared, and the common people had an opportunity of seeing the pastime.",
"In this, the populace thought he had acted the part of a man; but he much disobliged the tribunes his colleagues, who regarded it as a piece of violent and presumptuous interference.Towards the end of the Republic, Cicero (''Murena'', 72–73) still describes gladiator shows as ticketed—their political usefulness was served by inviting the rural tribunes of the plebs, not the people of Rome ''en masse''–but in Imperial times, poor citizens in receipt of the corn dole were allocated at least some free seating, possibly by lottery.",
"Others had to pay.",
"Ticket scalpers (''Locarii'') sometimes sold or let out seats at inflated prices.",
"Martial wrote that \"Hermes a gladiator who always drew the crowds means riches for the ticket scalpers\".The Colosseum in Rome, ItalyThe earliest known Roman amphitheatre was built at Pompeii by Sullan colonists, around 70 BC.",
"The first in the city of Rome was the extraordinary wooden amphitheatre of Gaius Scribonius Curio (built in 53 BC).",
"The first part-stone amphitheatre in Rome was inaugurated in 29–30 BC, in time for the triple triumph of Octavian (later Augustus).",
"Shortly after it burned down in 64 AD, Vespasian began its replacement, later known as the Amphitheatrum Flavium (Colosseum), which seated 50,000 spectators and would remain the largest in the Empire.",
"It was inaugurated by Titus in 80 AD as the personal gift of the Emperor to the people of Rome, paid for by the imperial share of booty after the Jewish Revolt.Arles Amphitheatre, inside viewAmphitheatres were usually oval in plan.",
"Their seating tiers surrounded the arena below, where the community's judgments were meted out, in full public view.",
"From across the stands, crowd and ''editor'' could assess each other's character and temperament.",
"For the crowd, amphitheatres afforded unique opportunities for free expression and free speech (''theatralis licentia'').",
"Petitions could be submitted to the ''editor'' (as magistrate) in full view of the community.",
"''Factiones'' and claques could vent their spleen on each other, and occasionally on Emperors.",
"The emperor Titus's dignified yet confident ease in his management of an amphitheatre crowd and its factions were taken as a measure of his enormous popularity and the rightness of his imperium.",
"The amphitheatre ''munus'' thus served the Roman community as living theatre and a court in miniature, in which judgement could be served not only on those in the arena below, but on their judges.",
"Amphitheatres also provided a means of social control.",
"Their seating was \"disorderly and indiscriminate\" until Augustus prescribed its arrangement in his Social Reforms.",
"To persuade the Senate, he expressed his distress on behalf of a senator who could not find seating at a crowded games in Puteoli:In consequence of this the senate decreed that, whenever any public show was given anywhere, the first row of seats should be reserved for senators; and at Rome he would not allow the envoys of the free and allied nations to sit in the orchestra, since he was informed that even freedmen were sometimes appointed.",
"He separated the soldiery from the people.",
"He assigned special seats to the married men of the commons, to boys under age their own section and the adjoining one to their preceptors; and he decreed that no one wearing a dark cloak should sit in the middle of the house.",
"He would not allow women to view even the gladiators except from the upper seats, though it had been the custom for men and women to sit together at such shows.",
"Only the Vestal virgins were assigned a place to themselves, opposite the praetor's tribunal.These arrangements do not seem to have been strongly enforced.===Factions and rivals===Nucerians and the PompeiansPopular factions supported favourite gladiators and gladiator types.",
"Under Augustan legislation, the Samnite type was renamed ''Secutor'' (\"chaser\", or \"pursuer\").",
"The secutor was equipped with a long, heavy \"large\" shield called a ''scutum''; ''Secutores'', their supporters and any heavyweight ''secutor''-based types such as the Murmillo were ''secutarii''.",
"Lighter types, such as the Thraex, were equipped with a smaller, lighter shield called a ''parma'', from which they and their supporters were named ''parmularii'' (\"small shields\").",
"Titus and Trajan preferred the ''parmularii'' and Domitian the ''secutarii''; Marcus Aurelius took neither side.",
"Nero seems to have enjoyed the brawls between rowdy, enthusiastic and sometimes violent factions, but called in the troops if they went too far.There were also local rivalries.",
"At Pompeii's amphitheatre, during Nero's reign, the trading of insults between Pompeians and Nucerian spectators during public ''ludi'' led to stone throwing and riot.",
"Many were killed or wounded.",
"Nero banned gladiator ''munera'' (though not the games) at Pompeii for ten years as punishment.",
"The story is told in Pompeian graffiti and high quality wall painting, with much boasting of Pompeii's \"victory\" over Nuceria."
],
[
"Role in Roman life",
"It is not known how many ''gladiatoria munera'' were given throughout the Roman period.",
"Many, if not most, involved ''venationes'', and in the later empire some may have been only that.",
"In 165 BC, at least one ''munus'' was held during April's Megalesia.",
"In the early imperial era, ''munera'' in Pompeii and neighbouring towns were dispersed from March through November.",
"They included a provincial magnate's five-day ''munus'' of thirty pairs, plus beast hunts.",
"A single late primary source, the ''Calendar of Furius Dionysius Philocalus'' for 354, shows how seldom gladiators featured among a multitude of official festivals.",
"Of the 176 days reserved for spectacles of various kinds, 102 were for theatrical shows, 64 for chariot races and just 10 in December for gladiator games and ''venationes''.",
"A century before this, the emperor Alexander Severus (r. 222–235) may have intended a more even redistribution of ''munera'' throughout the year; but this would have broken with what had become the traditional positioning of the major gladiator games, at the year's ending.",
"As Wiedemann points out, December was also the month for the Saturnalia, Saturn's festival, in which death was linked to renewal, and the lowest were honoured as the highest.===Role in the military===According to Livy: \"A man who knows how to conquer in war is a man who knows how to arrange a banquet and put on a show.",
"\"Rome was essentially a landowning military aristocracy.",
"From the early days of the Republic, ten years of military service were a citizen's duty and a prerequisite for election to public office.",
"''Devotio'' (willingness to sacrifice one's life to the greater good) was central to the Roman military ideal, and was the core of the Roman military oath.",
"It applied from highest to lowest alike in the chain of command.",
"As a soldier committed his life (voluntarily, at least in theory) to the greater cause of Rome's victory, he was not expected to survive defeat.The Punic Wars of the late 3rd century BC—in particular the near-catastrophic defeat of Roman arms at Cannae—had long-lasting effects on the Republic, its citizen armies, and the development of the gladiatorial ''munera''.",
"In the aftermath of Cannae, Scipio Africanus crucified Roman deserters and had non-Roman deserters thrown to the beasts.",
"The Senate refused to ransom Hannibal's Roman captives: instead, they consulted the Sibylline books, then made drastic preparations:In obedience to the Books of Destiny, some strange and unusual sacrifices were made, human sacrifices amongst them.",
"A Gaulish man and a Gaulish woman and a Greek man and a Greek woman were buried alive under the Forum Boarium ...",
"They were lowered into a stone vault, which had on a previous occasion also been polluted by human victims, a practice most repulsive to Roman feelings.",
"When the gods were believed to be duly propitiated ... Armour, weapons, and other things of the kind were ordered to be in readiness, and the ancient spoils gathered from the enemy were taken down from the temples and colonnades.",
"The dearth of freemen necessitated a new kind of enlistment; 8,000 sturdy youths from amongst the slaves were armed at the public cost, after they had each been asked whether they were willing to serve or no.",
"These soldiers were preferred, as there would be an opportunity of ransoming them when taken prisoners at a lower price.Late 3rd century gladiator mosaic from a private residence in Kourion, Cyprus.",
"All the participants are named.",
"The central figure (Darios) is positioned as a referee but wears a citizen's high-status toga or tunic with broad stripesThe account notes, uncomfortably, the bloodless human sacrifices performed to help turn the tide of the war in Rome's favour.",
"While the Senate mustered their willing slaves, Hannibal offered his dishonoured Roman captives a chance for honourable death, in what Livy describes as something very like the Roman ''munus''.",
"The ''munus'' thus represented an essentially military, self-sacrificial ideal, taken to extreme fulfillment in the gladiator's oath.",
"By the ''devotio'' of a voluntary oath, a slave might achieve the quality of a Roman (''Romanitas''), become the embodiment of true ''virtus'' (manliness, or manly virtue), and paradoxically, be granted ''missio'' while remaining a slave.",
"The gladiator as a specialist fighter, and the ethos and organization of the gladiator schools, would inform the development of the Roman military as the most effective force of its time.",
"Following defeat at the Battle of Arausio in 105 BC:...weapons training was given to soldiers by P. Rutilius, consul with C. Mallis.",
"For he, following the example of no previous general, with teachers summoned from the gladiatorial training school of C. Aurelus Scaurus, implanted in the legions a more sophisticated method of avoiding and dealing a blow and mixed bravery with skill and skill back again with virtue so that skill became stronger by bravery's passion and passion became more wary with the knowledge of this art.The military were great aficionados of the games, and supervised the schools.",
"Many schools and amphitheatres were sited at or near military barracks, and some provincial army units owned gladiator troupes.",
"As the Republic wore on, the term of military service increased from ten to the sixteen years formalised by Augustus in the Principate.",
"It would rise to twenty, and later, to twenty-five years.",
"Roman military discipline was ferocious; severe enough to provoke mutiny, despite the consequences.",
"A career as a volunteer gladiator may have seemed an attractive option for some.In AD 69, the Year of the Four Emperors, Otho's troops at Bedriacum included 2000 gladiators.",
"Opposite him on the field, Vitellius's army was swollen by levies of slaves, plebs and gladiators.",
"In 167 AD, troop depletions by plague and desertion may have prompted Marcus Aurelius to draft gladiators at his own expense.",
"During the Civil Wars that led to the Principate, Octavian (later Augustus) acquired the personal gladiator troop of his erstwhile opponent, Mark Antony.",
"They had served their late master with exemplary loyalty but thereafter, they disappear from the record.===Religion, ethics and sentiment===Roman writing as a whole demonstrates a deep ambivalence towards the ''gladiatoria munera''.",
"Even the most complex and sophisticated ''munera'' of the Imperial era evoked the ancient, ancestral ''dii manes'' of the underworld and were framed by the protective, lawful rites of ''sacrificium''.",
"Their popularity made their co-option by the state inevitable; Cicero acknowledged their sponsorship as a political imperative.",
"Despite the popular adulation of gladiators, they were set apart, despised; and despite Cicero's contempt for the mob, he shared their admiration: \"Even when gladiators have been felled, let alone when they are standing and fighting, they never disgrace themselves.",
"And suppose a gladiator has been brought to the ground, when do you ever see one twist his neck away after he has been ordered to extend it for the death blow?\"",
"His own death would later emulate this example.",
"Yet, Cicero could also refer to his popularist opponent Clodius, publicly and scathingly, as a ''bustuarius''—literally, a \"funeral-man\", implying that Clodius has shown the moral temperament of the lowest sort of gladiator.",
"\"Gladiator\" could be (and was) used as an insult throughout the Roman period, and \"Samnite\" doubled the insult, despite the popularity of the Samnite type.Silius Italicus wrote, as the games approached their peak, that the degenerate Campanians had devised the very worst of precedents, which now threatened the moral fabric of Rome: \"It was their custom to enliven their banquets with bloodshed and to combine with their feasting the horrid sight of armed men (Samnites) fighting; often the combatants fell dead above the very cups of the revelers, and the tables were stained with streams of blood.",
"Thus demoralised was Capua.\"",
"Death could be rightly meted out as punishment, or met with equanimity in peace or war, as a gift of fate; but when inflicted as entertainment, with no underlying moral or religious purpose, it could only pollute and demean those who witnessed it.The ''munus'' itself could be interpreted as pious necessity, but its increasing luxury corroded Roman virtue, and created an un-Roman appetite for profligacy and self-indulgence.",
"Caesar's 46 BC ''ludi'' were mere entertainment for political gain, a waste of lives and of money that would have been better doled out to his legionary veterans.",
"Yet for Seneca, and for Marcus Aurelius—both professed Stoics—the degradation of gladiators in the ''munus'' highlighted their Stoic virtues: their unconditional obedience to their master and to fate, and equanimity in the face of death.",
"Having \"neither hope nor illusions\", the gladiator could transcend his own debased nature, and disempower death itself by meeting it face to face.",
"Courage, dignity, altruism and loyalty were morally redemptive; Lucian idealised this principle in his story of Sisinnes, who voluntarily fought as a gladiator, earned 10,000 drachmas and used it to buy freedom for his friend, Toxaris.",
"Seneca had a lower opinion of the mob's un-Stoical appetite for ''ludi meridiani'': \"Man is...now slaughtered for jest and sport; and those whom it used to be unholy to train for the purpose of inflicting and enduring wounds are thrust forth exposed and defenceless.",
"\"These accounts seek a higher moral meaning from the ''munus'', but Ovid's very detailed (though satirical) instructions for seduction in the amphitheatre suggest that the spectacles could generate a potent and dangerously sexual atmosphere.",
"Augustan seating prescriptions placed women—excepting the Vestals, who were legally inviolate—as far as possible from the action of the arena floor; or tried to.",
"There remained the thrilling possibility of clandestine sexual transgression by high-caste spectators and their heroes of the arena.",
"Such assignations were a source for gossip and satire but some became unforgivably public:What was the youthful charm that so fired Eppia?",
"What hooked her?",
"What did she see in him to make her put up with being called \"the gladiator's moll\"?",
"Her poppet, her Sergius, was no chicken, with a dud arm that prompted hope of early retirement.",
"Besides his face looked a proper mess, helmet-scarred, a great wart on his nose, an unpleasant discharge always trickling from one eye.",
"But he was a gladiator.",
"That word makes the whole breed seem handsome, and made her prefer him to her children and country, her sister, her husband.",
"Steel is what they fall in love with.Eppia—a senator's wife–and her Sergius eloped to Egypt, where he deserted her.",
"Most gladiators would have aimed lower.",
"Two wall ''graffiti'' in Pompeii describe Celadus the Thraex as \"the sigh of the girls\" and \"the glory of the girls\"—which may or may not have been Celadus' own wishful thinking.In the later Imperial era, Servius Maurus Honoratus uses the same disparaging term as Cicero—''bustuarius''—for gladiators.",
"Tertullian used it somewhat differently—all victims of the arena were sacrificial in his eyes—and expressed the paradox of the ''arenarii'' as a class, from a Christian viewpoint:On the one and the same account they glorify them and they degrade and diminish them; yes, further, they openly condemn them to disgrace and civil degradation; they keep them religiously excluded from council chamber, rostrum, senate, knighthood, and every other kind of office and a good many distinctions.",
"The perversity of it!",
"They love whom they lower; they despise whom they approve; the art they glorify, the artist they disgrace.=== In Roman art and culture ===In this new Play, I attempted to follow the old custom of mine, of making a fresh trial; I brought it on again.",
"In the first Act I pleased; when in the meantime a rumor spread that gladiators were about to be exhibited; the populace flock together, make a tumult, clamor aloud, and fight for their places: meantime, I was unable to maintain my place.Graffito of a gladiatorial scene from Pompeii, NaplesImages of gladiators were found throughout the Republic and Empire, among all classes.",
"Walls in the 2nd century BC \"Agora of the Italians\" at Delos were decorated with paintings of gladiators.",
"Mosaics dating from the 2nd through 4th centuries AD have been invaluable in the reconstruction of combat and its rules, gladiator types and the development of the ''munus''.",
"Throughout the Roman world, ceramics, lamps, gems and jewellery, mosaics, reliefs, wall paintings and statuary offer evidence, sometimes the best evidence, of the clothing, props, equipment, names, events, prevalence and rules of gladiatorial combat.",
"Earlier periods provide only occasional, perhaps exceptional examples.",
"The Gladiator Mosaic in the Galleria Borghese displays several gladiator types, and the Bignor Roman Villa mosaic from Provincial Britain shows Cupids as gladiators.",
"Souvenir ceramics were produced depicting named gladiators in combat; similar images of higher quality, were available on more expensive articles in high quality ceramic, glass or silver.Some of the best preserved gladiator graffiti are from Pompeii and Herculaneum, in public areas including Pompeii's Forum and amphitheater, and in the private residences of the upper, middle and lower classes.",
"They clearly show how gladiator ''munera'' pervaded Pompeiian culture; they provide information pertaining to particular gladiators, and sometimes include their names, status as slaves or freeborn volunteers, and their match records.Pliny the Elder gives vivid examples of the popularity of gladiator portraiture in Antium and an artistic treat laid on by an adoptive aristocrat for the solidly plebeian citizens of the Roman Aventine:When a freedman of Nero was giving a gladiatorial show at Antium, the public porticoes were covered with paintings, so we are told, containing life-like portraits of all the gladiators and assistants.",
"This portraiture of gladiators has been the highest interest in art for many centuries now, but it was Gaius Terentius who began the practice of having pictures made of gladiatorial shows and exhibited in public; in honour of his grandfather who had adopted him he provided thirty pairs of Gladiators in the Forum for three consecutive days, and exhibited a picture of the matches in the Grove of Diana."
],
[
"Modern reconstructions",
"Some Roman reenactors attempt to recreate Roman gladiator troupes.",
"Some of these groups are part of larger Roman reenactment groups, and others are wholly independent, though they might participate in larger demonstrations of Roman reenacting or historical reenacting in general.",
"These groups usually focus on portraying mock gladiatorial combat in as accurate a manner as possible.File:Brot und Spiele Gladiators1.jpg|Gladiator show fight in Trier in 2005.File:5791 Arenes NIM 6062 C Recoura.jpg|Nimes, 2005.File:Provacatores show fight 02.jpg|Carnuntum, Austria, 2007.File:Villa-borg-2011-gladiatoren1.ogv|Video of a show fight at the Roman Villa Borg, Germany, in 2011 (Retiarius vs. Secutor, Thraex vs. Murmillo)."
],
[
"See also",
"* Spectacles in ancient Rome"
],
[
"References",
"===Citations======Sources===* * * * * * * * * * * * Fagan, Garrett G., ''The Lure of the Arena: Social Psychology and the Crowd at the Roman Games'', Cambridge University Press, 2011.",
"* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *"
],
[
"External links",
"* * *"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"GMO (disambiguation)"
],
[
"Introduction",
"A '''GMO''' is a genetically modified organism.",
"'''GMO''' may also refer to:* Genetically modified food* Gell-Mann–Okubo mass formula in particle physics* Generalised molecular orbital theory, in chemistry* Gulf, Mobile and Ohio Railroad, a U.S. railroad carrier corporation* GMO LLC, a Boston-based asset management firm led by Jeremy Grantham* GMO Internet, Inc, a Japanese internet services company, and parent of web security company GlobalSign"
],
[
"Music",
"* The Glenn Miller Orchestra, a U.S. jazz group* Green Mountain Orchestra, a band from Hong Kong* \"G.M.O.",
"(Got My Own)\", 2018 song by Mýa"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Genetically modified organism"
],
[
"Introduction",
"A '''genetically modified organism''' ('''GMO''') is any organism whose genetic material has been altered using genetic engineering techniques.",
"The exact definition of a genetically modified organism and what constitutes genetic engineering varies, with the most common being an organism altered in a way that \"does not occur naturally by mating and/or natural recombination\".",
"A wide variety of organisms have been genetically modified (GM), including animals, plants, and microorganisms.Genetic modification can include the introduction of new genes or enhancing, altering, or knocking out endogenous genes.",
"In some genetic modifications, genes are transferred within the same species, across species (creating transgenic organisms), and even across kingdoms.",
"Creating a genetically modified organism is a multi-step process.",
"Genetic engineers must isolate the gene they wish to insert into the host organism and combine it with other genetic elements, including a promoter and terminator region and often a selectable marker.",
"A number of techniques are available for inserting the isolated gene into the host genome.",
"Recent advancements using genome editing techniques, notably CRISPR, have made the production of GMOs much simpler.",
"Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen made the first genetically modified organism in 1973, a bacterium resistant to the antibiotic kanamycin.",
"The first genetically modified animal, a mouse, was created in 1974 by Rudolf Jaenisch, and the first plant was produced in 1983.In 1994, the Flavr Savr tomato was released, the first commercialized genetically modified food.",
"The first genetically modified animal to be commercialized was the GloFish (2003) and the first genetically modified animal to be approved for food use was the AquAdvantage salmon in 2015.Bacteria are the easiest organisms to engineer and have been used for research, food production, industrial protein purification (including drugs), agriculture, and art.",
"There is potential to use them for environmental purposes or as medicine.",
"Fungi have been engineered with much the same goals.",
"Viruses play an important role as vectors for inserting genetic information into other organisms.",
"This use is especially relevant to human gene therapy.",
"There are proposals to remove the virulent genes from viruses to create vaccines.",
"Plants have been engineered for scientific research, to create new colors in plants, deliver vaccines, and to create enhanced crops.",
"Genetically modified crops are publicly the most controversial GMOs, in spite of having the most human health and environmental benefits.",
"The majority are engineered for herbicide tolerance or insect resistance.",
"Golden rice has been engineered with three genes that increase its nutritional value.",
"Other prospects for GM crops are as bioreactors for the production of biopharmaceuticals, biofuels, or medicines.Animals are generally much harder to transform and the vast majority are still at the research stage.",
"Mammals are the best model organisms for humans, making ones genetically engineered to resemble serious human diseases important to the discovery and development of treatments.",
"Human proteins expressed in mammals are more likely to be similar to their natural counterparts than those expressed in plants or microorganisms.",
"Livestock is modified with the intention of improving economically important traits such as growth rate, quality of meat, milk composition, disease resistance, and survival.",
"Genetically modified fish are used for scientific research, as pets, and as a food source.",
"Genetic engineering has been proposed as a way to control mosquitos, a vector for many deadly diseases.",
"Although human gene therapy is still relatively new, it has been used to treat genetic disorders such as severe combined immunodeficiency and Leber's congenital amaurosis.Many objections have been raised over the development of GMOs, particularly their commercialization.",
"Many of these involve GM crops and whether food produced from them is safe and what impact growing them will have on the environment.",
"Other concerns are the objectivity and rigor of regulatory authorities, contamination of non-genetically modified food, control of the food supply, patenting of life, and the use of intellectual property rights.",
"Although there is a scientific consensus that currently available food derived from GM crops poses no greater risk to human health than conventional food, GM food safety is a leading issue with critics.",
"Gene flow, impact on non-target organisms, and escape are the major environmental concerns.",
"Countries have adopted regulatory measures to deal with these concerns.",
"There are differences in the regulation for the release of GMOs between countries, with some of the most marked differences occurring between the US and Europe.",
"Key issues concerning regulators include whether GM food should be labeled and the status of gene-edited organisms."
],
[
"Definition",
"The definition of a genetically modified organism (GMO) is not clear and varies widely between countries, international bodies, and other communities.",
"At its broadest, the definition of a GMO can include anything that has had its genes altered, including by nature.",
"Taking a less broad view, it can encompass every organism that has had its genes altered by humans, which would include all crops and livestock.",
"In 1993, the ''Encyclopedia Britannica'' defined genetic engineering as \"any of a wide range of techniques ... among them artificial insemination, ''in vitro'' fertilization (''e.g.",
"'', 'test-tube' babies), sperm banks, cloning, and gene manipulation.\"",
"The European Union (EU) included a similarly broad definition in early reviews, specifically mentioning GMOs being produced by \"selective breeding and other means of artificial selection\" These definitions were promptly adjusted with a number of exceptions added as the result of pressure from scientific and farming communities, as well as developments in science.",
"The EU definition later excluded traditional breeding, in vitro fertilization, induction of polyploidy, mutation breeding, and cell fusion techniques that do not use recombinant nucleic acids or a genetically modified organism in the process.Another approach was the definition provided by the Food and Agriculture Organization, the World Health Organization, and the European Commission, stating that the organisms must be altered in a way that does \"not occur naturally by mating and/or natural recombination\".",
"Progress in science, such as the discovery of horizontal gene transfer being a relatively common natural phenomenon, further added to the confusion on what \"occurs naturally\", which led to further adjustments and exceptions.",
"There are examples of crops that fit this definition, but are not normally considered GMOs.",
"For example, the grain crop triticale was fully developed in a laboratory in 1930 using various techniques to alter its genome.Genetically engineered organism (GEO) can be considered a more precise term compared to GMO when describing organisms' genomes that have been directly manipulated with biotechnology.",
"The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety used the synonym ''living modified organism'' (''LMO'') in 2000 and defined it as \"any living organism that possesses a novel combination of genetic material obtained through the use of modern biotechnology.\"",
"Modern biotechnology is further defined as \"In vitro nucleic acid techniques, including recombinant deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and direct injection of nucleic acid into cells or organelles, or fusion of cells beyond the taxonomic family.",
"\"Originally, the term GMO was not commonly used by scientists to describe genetically engineered organisms until after usage of GMO became common in popular media.",
"The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) considers GMOs to be plants or animals with heritable changes introduced by genetic engineering or traditional methods, while GEO specifically refers to organisms with genes introduced, eliminated, or rearranged using molecular biology, particularly recombinant DNA techniques, such as transgenesis.The definitions focus on the process more than the product, which means there could be GMOS and non-GMOs with very similar genotypes and phenotypes.",
"This has led scientists to label it as a scientifically meaningless category, saying that it is impossible to group all the different types of GMOs under one common definition.",
"It has also caused issues for organic institutions and groups looking to ban GMOs.",
"It also poses problems as new processes are developed.",
"The current definitions came in before genome editing became popular and there is some confusion as to whether they are GMOs.",
"The EU has adjudged that they are changing their GMO definition to include \"organisms obtained by mutagenesis\", but has excluded them from regulation based on their \"long safety record\" and that they have been \"conventionally been used in a number of applications\".",
"In contrast the USDA has ruled that gene edited organisms are not considered GMOs.Even greater inconsistency and confusion is associated with various \"Non-GMO\" or \"GMO-free\" labeling schemes in food marketing, where even products such as water or salt, which do not contain any organic substances and genetic material (and thus cannot be genetically modified by definition), are being labeled to create an impression of being \"more healthy\"."
],
[
"Production",
"A gene gun uses alt=Creating a genetically modified organism (GMO) is a multi-step process.",
"Genetic engineers must isolate the gene they wish to insert into the host organism.",
"This gene can be taken from a cell or artificially synthesized.",
"If the chosen gene or the donor organism's genome has been well studied it may already be accessible from a genetic library.",
"The gene is then combined with other genetic elements, including a promoter and terminator region and a selectable marker.A number of techniques are available for inserting the isolated gene into the host genome.",
"Bacteria can be induced to take up foreign DNA, usually by exposed heat shock or electroporation.",
"DNA is generally inserted into animal cells using microinjection, where it can be injected through the cell's nuclear envelope directly into the nucleus, or through the use of viral vectors.",
"In plants the DNA is often inserted using ''Agrobacterium''-mediated recombination, biolistics or electroporation.As only a single cell is transformed with genetic material, the organism must be regenerated from that single cell.",
"In plants this is accomplished through tissue culture.",
"In animals it is necessary to ensure that the inserted DNA is present in the embryonic stem cells.",
"Further testing using PCR, Southern hybridization, and DNA sequencing is conducted to confirm that an organism contains the new gene.Traditionally the new genetic material was inserted randomly within the host genome.",
"Gene targeting techniques, which creates double-stranded breaks and takes advantage on the cells natural homologous recombination repair systems, have been developed to target insertion to exact locations.",
"Genome editing uses artificially engineered nucleases that create breaks at specific points.",
"There are four families of engineered nucleases: meganucleases, zinc finger nucleases, transcription activator-like effector nucleases (TALENs), and the Cas9-guideRNA system (adapted from CRISPR).",
"TALEN and CRISPR are the two most commonly used and each has its own advantages.",
"TALENs have greater target specificity, while CRISPR is easier to design and more efficient."
],
[
"History",
"Herbert Boyer (pictured) and Stanley Cohen created the first genetically modified organism in 1973.Humans have domesticated plants and animals since around 12,000 BCE, using selective breeding or artificial selection (as contrasted with natural selection).",
"The process of selective breeding, in which organisms with desired traits (and thus with the desired genes) are used to breed the next generation and organisms lacking the trait are not bred, is a precursor to the modern concept of genetic modification.",
"Various advancements in genetics allowed humans to directly alter the DNA and therefore genes of organisms.",
"In 1972, Paul Berg created the first recombinant DNA molecule when he combined DNA from a monkey virus with that of the lambda virus.Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen made the first genetically modified organism in 1973.They took a gene from a bacterium that provided resistance to the antibiotic kanamycin, inserted it into a plasmid and then induced other bacteria to incorporate the plasmid.",
"The bacteria that had successfully incorporated the plasmid was then able to survive in the presence of kanamycin.",
"Boyer and Cohen expressed other genes in bacteria.",
"This included genes from the toad ''Xenopus laevis'' in 1974, creating the first GMO expressing a gene from an organism of a different kingdom.In 1974, Rudolf Jaenisch created the first genetically modified animal.In 1974, Rudolf Jaenisch created a transgenic mouse by introducing foreign DNA into its embryo, making it the world's first transgenic animal.",
"However it took another eight years before transgenic mice were developed that passed the transgene to their offspring.",
"Genetically modified mice were created in 1984 that carried cloned oncogenes, predisposing them to developing cancer.",
"Mice with genes removed (termed a knockout mouse) were created in 1989.The first transgenic livestock were produced in 1985 and the first animal to synthesize transgenic proteins in their milk were mice in 1987.The mice were engineered to produce human tissue plasminogen activator, a protein involved in breaking down blood clots.In 1983, the first genetically engineered plant was developed by Michael W. Bevan, Richard B. Flavell and Mary-Dell Chilton.",
"They infected tobacco with ''Agrobacterium'' transformed with an antibiotic resistance gene and through tissue culture techniques were able to grow a new plant containing the resistance gene.",
"The gene gun was invented in 1987, allowing transformation of plants not susceptible to ''Agrobacterium'' infection.",
"In 2000, Vitamin A-enriched golden rice was the first plant developed with increased nutrient value.In 1976, Genentech, the first genetic engineering company was founded by Herbert Boyer and Robert Swanson; a year later, the company produced a human protein (somatostatin) in ''E.",
"coli''.",
"Genentech announced the production of genetically engineered human insulin in 1978.The insulin produced by bacteria, branded Humulin, was approved for release by the Food and Drug Administration in 1982.In 1988, the first human antibodies were produced in plants.",
"In 1987, a strain of ''Pseudomonas syringae'' became the first genetically modified organism to be released into the environment when a strawberry and potato field in California were sprayed with it.The first genetically modified crop, an antibiotic-resistant tobacco plant, was produced in 1982.China was the first country to commercialize transgenic plants, introducing a virus-resistant tobacco in 1992.In 1994, Calgene attained approval to commercially release the Flavr Savr tomato, the first genetically modified food.",
"Also in 1994, the European Union approved tobacco engineered to be resistant to the herbicide bromoxynil, making it the first genetically engineered crop commercialized in Europe.",
"An insect resistant Potato was approved for release in the US in 1995, and by 1996 approval had been granted to commercially grow 8 transgenic crops and one flower crop (carnation) in 6 countries plus the EU.In 2010, scientists at the J. Craig Venter Institute announced that they had created the first synthetic bacterial genome.",
"They named it Synthia and it was the world's first synthetic life form.The first genetically modified animal to be commercialized was the GloFish, a Zebra fish with a fluorescent gene added that allows it to glow in the dark under ultraviolet light.",
"It was released to the US market in 2003.In 2015, AquAdvantage salmon became the first genetically modified animal to be approved for food use.",
"Approval is for fish raised in Panama and sold in the US.",
"The salmon were transformed with a growth hormone-regulating gene from a Pacific Chinook salmon and a promoter from an ocean pout enabling it to grow year-round instead of only during spring and summer."
],
[
"Bacteria",
"Bacteria were the first organisms to be genetically modified in the laboratory, due to the relative ease of modifying their chromosomes.",
"This ease made them important tools for the creation of other GMOs.",
"Genes and other genetic information from a wide range of organisms can be added to a plasmid and inserted into bacteria for storage and modification.",
"Bacteria are cheap, easy to grow, clonal, multiply quickly and can be stored at −80 °C almost indefinitely.",
"Once a gene is isolated it can be stored inside the bacteria, providing an unlimited supply for research.",
"A large number of custom plasmids make manipulating DNA extracted from bacteria relatively easy.Their ease of use has made them great tools for scientists looking to study gene function and evolution.",
"The simplest model organisms come from bacteria, with most of our early understanding of molecular biology coming from studying ''Escherichia coli''.",
"Scientists can easily manipulate and combine genes within the bacteria to create novel or disrupted proteins and observe the effect this has on various molecular systems.",
"Researchers have combined the genes from bacteria and archaea, leading to insights on how these two diverged in the past.",
"In the field of synthetic biology, they have been used to test various synthetic approaches, from synthesizing genomes to creating novel nucleotides.Bacteria have been used in the production of food for a long time, and specific strains have been developed and selected for that work on an industrial scale.",
"They can be used to produce enzymes, amino acids, flavorings, and other compounds used in food production.",
"With the advent of genetic engineering, new genetic changes can easily be introduced into these bacteria.",
"Most food-producing bacteria are lactic acid bacteria, and this is where the majority of research into genetically engineering food-producing bacteria has gone.",
"The bacteria can be modified to operate more efficiently, reduce toxic byproduct production, increase output, create improved compounds, and remove unnecessary pathways.",
"Food products from genetically modified bacteria include alpha-amylase, which converts starch to simple sugars, chymosin, which clots milk protein for cheese making, and pectinesterase, which improves fruit juice clarity.",
"The majority are produced in the US and even though regulations are in place to allow production in Europe, as of 2015 no food products derived from bacteria are currently available there.Genetically modified bacteria are used to produce large amounts of proteins for industrial use.",
"The bacteria are generally grown to a large volume before the gene encoding the protein is activated.",
"The bacteria are then harvested and the desired protein purified from them.",
"The high cost of extraction and purification has meant that only high value products have been produced at an industrial scale.",
"The majority of these products are human proteins for use in medicine.",
"Many of these proteins are impossible or difficult to obtain via natural methods and they are less likely to be contaminated with pathogens, making them safer.",
"The first medicinal use of GM bacteria was to produce the protein insulin to treat diabetes.",
"Other medicines produced include clotting factors to treat hemophilia, human growth hormone to treat various forms of dwarfism, interferon to treat some cancers, erythropoietin for anemic patients, and tissue plasminogen activator which dissolves blood clots.",
"Outside of medicine they have been used to produce biofuels.",
"There is interest in developing an extracellular expression system within the bacteria to reduce costs and make the production of more products economical.With a greater understanding of the role that the microbiome plays in human health, there is a potential to treat diseases by genetically altering the bacteria to, themselves, be therapeutic agents.",
"Ideas include altering gut bacteria so they destroy harmful bacteria, or using bacteria to replace or increase deficient enzymes or proteins.",
"One research focus is to modify ''Lactobacillus'', bacteria that naturally provide some protection against HIV, with genes that will further enhance this protection.",
"If the bacteria do not form colonies inside the patient, the person must repeatedly ingest the modified bacteria in order to get the required doses.",
"Enabling the bacteria to form a colony could provide a more long-term solution, but could also raise safety concerns as interactions between bacteria and the human body are less well understood than with traditional drugs.",
"There are concerns that horizontal gene transfer to other bacteria could have unknown effects.",
"As of 2018 there are clinical trials underway testing the efficacy and safety of these treatments.For over a century, bacteria have been used in agriculture.",
"Crops have been inoculated with Rhizobia (and more recently ''Azospirillum'') to increase their production or to allow them to be grown outside their original habitat.",
"Application of ''Bacillus thuringiensis'' (Bt) and other bacteria can help protect crops from insect infestation and plant diseases.",
"With advances in genetic engineering, these bacteria have been manipulated for increased efficiency and expanded host range.",
"Markers have also been added to aid in tracing the spread of the bacteria.",
"The bacteria that naturally colonize certain crops have also been modified, in some cases to express the Bt genes responsible for pest resistance.",
"''Pseudomonas'' strains of bacteria cause frost damage by nucleating water into ice crystals around themselves.",
"This led to the development of ice-minus bacteria, which have the ice-forming genes removed.",
"When applied to crops they can compete with the non-modified bacteria and confer some frost resistance.fluorescent proteins.Other uses for genetically modified bacteria include bioremediation, where the bacteria are used to convert pollutants into a less toxic form.",
"Genetic engineering can increase the levels of the enzymes used to degrade a toxin or to make the bacteria more stable under environmental conditions.",
"Bioart has also been created using genetically modified bacteria.",
"In the 1980s artist Jon Davis and geneticist Dana Boyd converted the Germanic symbol for femininity (ᛉ) into binary code and then into a DNA sequence, which was then expressed in ''Escherichia coli''.",
"This was taken a step further in 2012, when a whole book was encoded onto DNA.",
"Paintings have also been produced using bacteria transformed with fluorescent proteins."
],
[
"Viruses",
"Viruses are often modified so they can be used as vectors for inserting genetic information into other organisms.",
"This process is called transduction and if successful the recipient of the introduced DNA becomes a GMO.",
"Different viruses have different efficiencies and capabilities.",
"Researchers can use this to control for various factors; including the target location, insert size, and duration of gene expression.",
"Any dangerous sequences inherent in the virus must be removed, while those that allow the gene to be delivered effectively are retained.While viral vectors can be used to insert DNA into almost any organism it is especially relevant for its potential in treating human disease.",
"Although primarily still at trial stages, there has been some successes using gene therapy to replace defective genes.",
"This is most evident in curing patients with severe combined immunodeficiency rising from adenosine deaminase deficiency (ADA-SCID), although the development of leukemia in some ADA-SCID patients along with the death of Jesse Gelsinger in a 1999 trial set back the development of this approach for many years.",
"In 2009, another breakthrough was achieved when an eight-year-old boy with Leber's congenital amaurosis regained normal eyesight and in 2016 GlaxoSmithKline gained approval to commercialize a gene therapy treatment for ADA-SCID.",
"As of 2018, there are a substantial number of clinical trials underway, including treatments for hemophilia, glioblastoma, chronic granulomatous disease, cystic fibrosis and various cancers.The most common virus used for gene delivery comes from adenoviruses as they can carry up to 7.5 kb of foreign DNA and infect a relatively broad range of host cells, although they have been known to elicit immune responses in the host and only provide short term expression.",
"Other common vectors are adeno-associated viruses, which have lower toxicity and longer-term expression, but can only carry about 4kb of DNA.",
"Herpes simplex viruses make promising vectors, having a carrying capacity of over 30kb and providing long term expression, although they are less efficient at gene delivery than other vectors.",
"The best vectors for long term integration of the gene into the host genome are retroviruses, but their propensity for random integration is problematic.",
"Lentiviruses are a part of the same family as retroviruses with the advantage of infecting both dividing and non-dividing cells, whereas retroviruses only target dividing cells.",
"Other viruses that have been used as vectors include alphaviruses, flaviviruses, measles viruses, rhabdoviruses, Newcastle disease virus, poxviruses, and picornaviruses.Most vaccines consist of viruses that have been attenuated, disabled, weakened or killed in some way so that their virulent properties are no longer effective.",
"Genetic engineering could theoretically be used to create viruses with the virulent genes removed.",
"This does not affect the viruses infectivity, invokes a natural immune response and there is no chance that they will regain their virulence function, which can occur with some other vaccines.",
"As such they are generally considered safer and more efficient than conventional vaccines, although concerns remain over non-target infection, potential side effects and horizontal gene transfer to other viruses.",
"Another potential approach is to use vectors to create novel vaccines for diseases that have no vaccines available or the vaccines that do not work effectively, such as AIDS, malaria, and tuberculosis.",
"The most effective vaccine against Tuberculosis, the Bacillus Calmette–Guérin (BCG) vaccine, only provides partial protection.",
"A modified vaccine expressing ''a M tuberculosis'' antigen is able to enhance BCG protection.",
"It has been shown to be safe to use at phase II trials, although not as effective as initially hoped.",
"Other vector-based vaccines have already been approved and many more are being developed.Another potential use of genetically modified viruses is to alter them so they can directly treat diseases.",
"This can be through expression of protective proteins or by directly targeting infected cells.",
"In 2004, researchers reported that a genetically modified virus that exploits the selfish behavior of cancer cells might offer an alternative way of killing tumours.",
"Since then, several researchers have developed genetically modified oncolytic viruses that show promise as treatments for various types of cancer.",
"In 2017, researchers genetically modified a virus to express spinach defensin proteins.",
"The virus was injected into orange trees to combat citrus greening disease that had reduced orange production by 70% since 2005.Natural viral diseases, such as myxomatosis and rabbit hemorrhagic disease, have been used to help control pest populations.",
"Over time the surviving pests become resistant, leading researchers to look at alternative methods.",
"Genetically modified viruses that make the target animals infertile through immunocontraception have been created in the laboratory as well as others that target the developmental stage of the animal.",
"There are concerns with using this approach regarding virus containment and cross species infection.",
"Sometimes the same virus can be modified for contrasting purposes.",
"Genetic modification of the myxoma virus has been proposed to conserve European wild rabbits in the Iberian peninsula and to help regulate them in Australia.",
"To protect the Iberian species from viral diseases, the myxoma virus was genetically modified to immunize the rabbits, while in Australia the same myxoma virus was genetically modified to lower fertility in the Australian rabbit population.Outside of biology scientists have used a genetically modified virus to construct a lithium-ion battery and other nanostructured materials.",
"It is possible to engineer bacteriophages to express modified proteins on their surface and join them up in specific patterns (a technique called phage display).",
"These structures have potential uses for energy storage and generation, biosensing and tissue regeneration with some new materials currently produced including quantum dots, liquid crystals, nanorings and nanofibres.",
"The battery was made by engineering M13 bacteriaophages so they would coat themselves in iron phosphate and then assemble themselves along a carbon nanotube.",
"This created a highly conductive medium for use in a cathode, allowing energy to be transferred quickly.",
"They could be constructed at lower temperatures with non-toxic chemicals, making them more environmentally friendly."
],
[
"Fungi",
"Fungi can be used for many of the same processes as bacteria.",
"For industrial applications, yeasts combine the bacterial advantages of being a single-celled organism that is easy to manipulate and grow with the advanced protein modifications found in eukaryotes.",
"They can be used to produce large complex molecules for use in food, pharmaceuticals, hormones, and steroids.",
"Yeast is important for wine production and as of 2016 two genetically modified yeasts involved in the fermentation of wine have been commercialized in the United States and Canada.",
"One has increased malolactic fermentation efficiency, while the other prevents the production of dangerous ethyl carbamate compounds during fermentation.",
"There have also been advances in the production of biofuel from genetically modified fungi.Fungi, being the most common pathogens of insects, make attractive biopesticides.",
"Unlike bacteria and viruses they have the advantage of infecting the insects by contact alone, although they are out competed in efficiency by chemical pesticides.",
"Genetic engineering can improve virulence, usually by adding more virulent proteins, increasing infection rate or enhancing spore persistence.",
"Many of the disease carrying vectors are susceptible to entomopathogenic fungi.",
"An attractive target for biological control are mosquitos, vectors for a range of deadly diseases, including malaria, yellow fever and dengue fever.",
"Mosquitos can evolve quickly so it becomes a balancing act of killing them before the ''Plasmodium'' they carry becomes the infectious disease, but not so fast that they become resistant to the fungi.",
"By genetically engineering fungi like ''Metarhizium anisopliae'' and ''Beauveria bassiana'' to delay the development of mosquito infectiousness the selection pressure to evolve resistance is reduced.",
"Another strategy is to add proteins to the fungi that block transmission of malaria or remove the ''Plasmodium'' altogether.",
"''Agaricus bisporus'' the common white button mushroom, has been gene edited to resist browning, giving it a longer shelf life.",
"The process used CRISPR to knock out a gene that encodes polyphenol oxidase.",
"As it didn't introduce any foreign DNA into the organism it was not deemed to be regulated under existing GMO frameworks and as such is the first CRISPR-edited organism to be approved for release.",
"This has intensified debates as to whether gene-edited organisms should be considered genetically modified organisms and how they should be regulated."
],
[
"Plants",
"Tissue culture used to regenerate ''Arabidopsis thaliana''Plants have been engineered for scientific research, to display new flower colors, deliver vaccines, and to create enhanced crops.",
"Many plants are pluripotent, meaning that a single cell from a mature plant can be harvested and under the right conditions can develop into a new plant.",
"This ability can be taken advantage of by genetic engineers; by selecting for cells that have been successfully transformed in an adult plant a new plant can then be grown that contains the transgene in every cell through a process known as tissue culture.Much of the advances in the field of genetic engineering has come from experimentation with tobacco.",
"Major advances in tissue culture and plant cellular mechanisms for a wide range of plants has originated from systems developed in tobacco.",
"It was the first plant to be altered using genetic engineering and is considered a model organism for not only genetic engineering, but a range of other fields.",
"As such the transgenic tools and procedures are well established making tobacco one of the easiest plants to transform.",
"Another major model organism relevant to genetic engineering is ''Arabidopsis thaliana''.",
"Its small genome and short life cycle makes it easy to manipulate and it contains many homologs to important crop species.",
"It was the first plant sequenced, has a host of online resources available and can be transformed by simply dipping a flower in a transformed ''Agrobacterium'' solution.In research, plants are engineered to help discover the functions of certain genes.",
"The simplest way to do this is to remove the gene and see what phenotype develops compared to the wild type form.",
"Any differences are possibly the result of the missing gene.",
"Unlike mutagenisis, genetic engineering allows targeted removal without disrupting other genes in the organism.",
"Some genes are only expressed in certain tissues, so reporter genes, like GUS, can be attached to the gene of interest allowing visualization of the location.",
"Other ways to test a gene is to alter it slightly and then return it to the plant and see if it still has the same effect on phenotype.",
"Other strategies include attaching the gene to a strong promoter and see what happens when it is overexpressed, forcing a gene to be expressed in a different location or at different developmental stages.Suntory \"blue\" roseSome genetically modified plants are purely ornamental.",
"They are modified for flower color, fragrance, flower shape and plant architecture.",
"The first genetically modified ornamentals commercialized altered color.",
"Carnations were released in 1997, with the most popular genetically modified organism, a blue rose (actually lavender or mauve) created in 2004.The roses are sold in Japan, the United States, and Canada.",
"Other genetically modified ornamentals include ''Chrysanthemum'' and ''Petunia''.",
"As well as increasing aesthetic value there are plans to develop ornamentals that use less water or are resistant to the cold, which would allow them to be grown outside their natural environments.It has been proposed to genetically modify some plant species threatened by extinction to be resistant to invasive plants and diseases, such as the emerald ash borer in North American and the fungal disease, ''Ceratocystis platani'', in European plane trees.",
"The papaya ringspot virus devastated papaya trees in Hawaii in the twentieth century until transgenic papaya plants were given pathogen-derived resistance.",
"However, genetic modification for conservation in plants remains mainly speculative.",
"A unique concern is that a transgenic species may no longer bear enough resemblance to the original species to truly claim that the original species is being conserved.",
"Instead, the transgenic species may be genetically different enough to be considered a new species, thus diminishing the conservation worth of genetic modification.=== Crops ===Wild type peanut ('''top''') and transgenic peanut with ''Bacillus thuringiensis'' gene added ('''bottom''') exposed to cornstalk borer larva|alt=Genetically modified crops are genetically modified plants that are used in agriculture.",
"The first crops developed were used for animal or human food and provide resistance to certain pests, diseases, environmental conditions, spoilage or chemical treatments (e.g.",
"resistance to a herbicide).",
"The second generation of crops aimed to improve the quality, often by altering the nutrient profile.",
"Third generation genetically modified crops could be used for non-food purposes, including the production of pharmaceutical agents, biofuels, and other industrially useful goods, as well as for bioremediation.",
"''Bacillus thuringiensis'' (Bt) corn|alt=|leftThere are three main aims to agricultural advancement; increased production, improved conditions for agricultural workers and sustainability.",
"GM crops contribute by improving harvests through reducing insect pressure, increasing nutrient value and tolerating different abiotic stresses.",
"Despite this potential, as of 2018, the commercialized crops are limited mostly to cash crops like cotton, soybean, maize and canola and the vast majority of the introduced traits provide either herbicide tolerance or insect resistance.",
"Soybeans accounted for half of all genetically modified crops planted in 2014.Adoption by farmers has been rapid, between 1996 and 2013, the total surface area of land cultivated with GM crops increased by a factor of 100.Geographically though the spread has been uneven, with strong growth in the Americas and parts of Asia and little in Europe and Africa.",
"Its socioeconomic spread has been more even, with approximately 54% of worldwide GM crops grown in developing countries in 2013.Although doubts have been raised, most studies have found growing GM crops to be beneficial to farmers through decreased pesticide use as well as increased crop yield and farm profit.The majority of GM crops have been modified to be resistant to selected herbicides, usually a glyphosate or glufosinate based one.",
"Genetically modified crops engineered to resist herbicides are now more available than conventionally bred resistant varieties; in the USA 93% of soybeans and most of the GM maize grown is glyphosate tolerant.",
"Most currently available genes used to engineer insect resistance come from the ''Bacillus thuringiensis'' bacterium and code for delta endotoxins.",
"A few use the genes that encode for vegetative insecticidal proteins.",
"The only gene commercially used to provide insect protection that does not originate from ''B.",
"thuringiensis'' is the Cowpea trypsin inhibitor (CpTI).",
"CpTI was first approved for use cotton in 1999 and is currently undergoing trials in rice.",
"Less than one percent of GM crops contained other traits, which include providing virus resistance, delaying senescence and altering the plants composition.Golden rice compared to white riceGolden rice is the most well known GM crop that is aimed at increasing nutrient value.",
"It has been engineered with three genes that biosynthesise beta-carotene, a precursor of vitamin A, in the edible parts of rice.",
"It is intended to produce a fortified food to be grown and consumed in areas with a shortage of dietary vitamin A, a deficiency which each year is estimated to kill 670,000 children under the age of 5 and cause an additional 500,000 cases of irreversible childhood blindness.",
"The original golden rice produced 1.6μg/g of the carotenoids, with further development increasing this 23 times.",
"It gained its first approvals for use as food in 2018.Plants and plant cells have been genetically engineered for production of biopharmaceuticals in bioreactors, a process known as pharming.",
"Work has been done with duckweed ''Lemna minor'', the algae ''Chlamydomonas reinhardtii'' and the moss ''Physcomitrella patens''.",
"Biopharmaceuticals produced include cytokines, hormones, antibodies, enzymes and vaccines, most of which are accumulated in the plant seeds.",
"Many drugs also contain natural plant ingredients and the pathways that lead to their production have been genetically altered or transferred to other plant species to produce greater volume.",
"Other options for bioreactors are biopolymers and biofuels.",
"Unlike bacteria, plants can modify the proteins post-translationally, allowing them to make more complex molecules.",
"They also pose less risk of being contaminated.",
"Therapeutics have been cultured in transgenic carrot and tobacco cells, including a drug treatment for Gaucher's disease.Vaccine production and storage has great potential in transgenic plants.",
"Vaccines are expensive to produce, transport, and administer, so having a system that could produce them locally would allow greater access to poorer and developing areas.",
"As well as purifying vaccines expressed in plants it is also possible to produce edible vaccines in plants.",
"Edible vaccines stimulate the immune system when ingested to protect against certain diseases.",
"Being stored in plants reduces the long-term cost as they can be disseminated without the need for cold storage, don't need to be purified, and have long term stability.",
"Also being housed within plant cells provides some protection from the gut acids upon digestion.",
"However the cost of developing, regulating, and containing transgenic plants is high, leading to most current plant-based vaccine development being applied to veterinary medicine, where the controls are not as strict.Genetically modified crops have been proposed as one of the ways to reduce farming-related emissions due to higher yield, reduced use of pesticides, reduced use of tractor fuel and no tillage.",
"According to a 2021 study, in EU alone widespread adoption of GE crops would reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 33 million tons of equivalent or 7.5% of total farming-related emissions."
],
[
"Animals",
"The vast majority of genetically modified animals are at the research stage with the number close to entering the market remaining small.",
"As of 2018 only three genetically modified animals have been approved, all in the USA.",
"A goat and a chicken have been engineered to produce medicines and a salmon has increased its own growth.",
"Despite the differences and difficulties in modifying them, the end aims are much the same as for plants.",
"GM animals are created for research purposes, production of industrial or therapeutic products, agricultural uses, or improving their health.",
"There is also a market for creating genetically modified pets.=== Mammals ===chimeras, like the blotched mouse shown, are created through genetic modification techniques like gene targeting.The process of genetically engineering mammals is slow, tedious, and expensive.",
"However, new technologies are making genetic modifications easier and more precise.",
"The first transgenic mammals were produced by injecting viral DNA into embryos and then implanting the embryos in females.",
"The embryo would develop and it would be hoped that some of the genetic material would be incorporated into the reproductive cells.",
"Then researchers would have to wait until the animal reached breeding age and then offspring would be screened for the presence of the gene in every cell.",
"The development of the CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing system as a cheap and fast way of directly modifying germ cells, effectively halving the amount of time needed to develop genetically modified mammals.A porcine model of hemophilia AMammals are the best models for human disease, making genetic engineered ones vital to the discovery and development of cures and treatments for many serious diseases.",
"Knocking out genes responsible for human genetic disorders allows researchers to study the mechanism of the disease and to test possible cures.",
"Genetically modified mice have been the most common mammals used in biomedical research, as they are cheap and easy to manipulate.",
"Pigs are also a good target as they have a similar body size and anatomical features, physiology, pathophysiological response and diet.",
"Nonhuman primates are the most similar model organisms to humans, but there is less public acceptance towards using them as research animals.",
"In 2009, scientists announced that they had successfully transferred a gene into a primate species (marmosets) for the first time.",
"Their first research target for these marmosets was Parkinson's disease, but they were also considering amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and Huntington's disease.Human proteins expressed in mammals are more likely to be similar to their natural counterparts than those expressed in plants or microorganisms.",
"Stable expression has been accomplished in sheep, pigs, rats and other animals.",
"In 2009, the first human biological drug produced from such an animal, a goat, was approved.",
"The drug, ATryn, is an anticoagulant which reduces the probability of blood clots during surgery or childbirth and is extracted from the goat's milk.",
"Human alpha-1-antitrypsin is another protein that has been produced from goats and is used in treating humans with this deficiency.",
"Another medicinal area is in creating pigs with greater capacity for human organ transplants (xenotransplantation).",
"Pigs have been genetically modified so that their organs can no longer carry retroviruses or have modifications to reduce the chance of rejection.",
"Pig lungs from genetically modified pigs are being considered for transplantation into humans.",
"There is even potential to create chimeric pigs that can carry human organs.Livestock are modified with the intention of improving economically important traits such as growth-rate, quality of meat, milk composition, disease resistance and survival.",
"Animals have been engineered to grow faster, be healthier and resist diseases.",
"Modifications have also improved the wool production of sheep and udder health of cows.",
"Goats have been genetically engineered to produce milk with strong spiderweb-like silk proteins in their milk.",
"A GM pig called Enviropig was created with the capability of digesting plant phosphorus more efficiently than conventional pigs.",
"They could reduce water pollution since they excrete 30 to 70% less phosphorus in manure.",
"Dairy cows have been genetically engineered to produce milk that would be the same as human breast milk.",
"This could potentially benefit mothers who cannot produce breast milk but want their children to have breast milk rather than formula.",
"Researchers have also developed a genetically engineered cow that produces allergy-free milk.Mice expressing the green fluorescent proteinScientists have genetically engineered several organisms, including some mammals, to include green fluorescent protein (GFP), for research purposes.",
"GFP and other similar reporting genes allow easy visualization and localization of the products of the genetic modification.",
"Fluorescent pigs have been bred to study human organ transplants, regenerating ocular photoreceptor cells, and other topics.",
"In 2011, green-fluorescent cats were created to help find therapies for HIV/AIDS and other diseases as feline immunodeficiency virus is related to HIV.There have been suggestions that genetic engineering could be used to bring animals back from extinction.",
"It involves changing the genome of a close living relative to resemble the extinct one and is currently being attempted with the passenger pigeon.",
"Genes associated with the woolly mammoth have been added to the genome of an African Elephant, although the lead researcher says he has no intention of creating live elephants and transferring all the genes and reversing years of genetic evolution is a long way from being feasible.",
"It is more likely that scientists could use this technology to conserve endangered animals by bringing back lost diversity or transferring evolved genetic advantages from adapted organisms to those that are struggling.==== Humans ====Gene therapy uses genetically modified viruses to deliver genes which can cure disease in humans.",
"Although gene therapy is still relatively new, it has had some successes.",
"It has been used to treat genetic disorders such as severe combined immunodeficiency, and Leber's congenital amaurosis.",
"Treatments are also being developed for a range of other currently incurable diseases, such as cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anemia, Parkinson's disease, cancer, diabetes, heart disease and muscular dystrophy.",
"These treatments only effect somatic cells, meaning any changes would not be inheritable.",
"Germline gene therapy results in any change being inheritable, which has raised concerns within the scientific community.In 2015, CRISPR was used to edit the DNA of non-viable human embryos.",
"In November 2018, He Jiankui announced that he had edited the genomes of two human embryos, in an attempt to disable the ''CCR5'' gene, which codes for a receptor that HIV uses to enter cells.",
"He said that twin girls, Lulu and Nana, had been born a few weeks earlier and that they carried functional copies of CCR5 along with disabled CCR5 (mosaicism) and were still vulnerable to HIV.",
"The work was widely condemned as unethical, dangerous, and premature.=== Fish ===Genetically modified fish are used for scientific research, as pets and as a food source.",
"Aquaculture is a growing industry, currently providing over half the consumed fish worldwide.",
"Through genetic engineering it is possible to increase growth rates, reduce food intake, remove allergenic properties, increase cold tolerance and provide disease resistance.",
"Fish can also be used to detect aquatic pollution or function as bioreactors.Several groups have been developing zebrafish to detect pollution by attaching fluorescent proteins to genes activated by the presence of pollutants.",
"The fish will then glow and can be used as environmental sensors.",
"The GloFish is a brand of genetically modified fluorescent zebrafish with bright red, green, and orange fluorescent color.",
"It was originally developed by one of the groups to detect pollution, but is now part of the ornamental fish trade, becoming the first genetically modified animal to become publicly available as a pet when in 2003 it was introduced for sale in the USA.GM fish are widely used in basic research in genetics and development.",
"Two species of fish, zebrafish and medaka, are most commonly modified because they have optically clear chorions (membranes in the egg), rapidly develop, and the one-cell embryo is easy to see and microinject with transgenic DNA.",
"Zebrafish are model organisms for developmental processes, regeneration, genetics, behavior, disease mechanisms and toxicity testing.",
"Their transparency allows researchers to observe developmental stages, intestinal functions and tumour growth.",
"The generation of transgenic protocols (whole organism, cell or tissue specific, tagged with reporter genes) has increased the level of information gained by studying these fish.GM fish have been developed with promoters driving an over-production of growth hormone for use in the aquaculture industry to increase the speed of development and potentially reduce fishing pressure on wild stocks.",
"This has resulted in dramatic growth enhancement in several species, including salmon, trout and tilapia.",
"AquaBounty Technologies, a biotechnology company, have produced a salmon (called AquAdvantage salmon) that can mature in half the time as wild salmon.",
"It obtained regulatory approval in 2015, the first non-plant GMO food to be commercialized.",
"As of August 2017, GMO salmon is being sold in Canada.",
"Sales in the US started in May 2021.=== Insects ===Overexpression of methyl-CpG–binding protein 2 in ''Drosophila'' impairs climbing ability ('''right''') compared to the control group ('''left''').In biological research, transgenic fruit flies (''Drosophila melanogaster'') are model organisms used to study the effects of genetic changes on development.",
"Fruit flies are often preferred over other animals due to their short life cycle and low maintenance requirements.",
"They also have a relatively simple genome compared to many vertebrates, with typically only one copy of each gene, making phenotypic analysis easy.",
"''Drosophila'' have been used to study genetics and inheritance, embryonic development, learning, behavior, and aging.",
"The discovery of transposons, in particular the p-element, in ''Drosophila'' provided an early method to add transgenes to their genome, although this has been taken over by more modern gene-editing techniques.Due to their significance to human health, scientists are looking at ways to control mosquitoes through genetic engineering.",
"Malaria-resistant mosquitoes have been developed in the laboratory by inserting a gene that reduces the development of the malaria parasite and then use homing endonucleases to rapidly spread that gene throughout the male population (known as a gene drive).",
"This approach has been taken further by using the gene drive to spread a lethal gene.",
"In trials the populations of ''Aedes aegypti'' mosquitoes, the single most important carrier of dengue fever and Zika virus, were reduced by between 80% and by 90%.",
"Another approach is to use a sterile insect technique, whereby males genetically engineered to be sterile out compete viable males, to reduce population numbers.Other insect pests that make attractive targets are moths.",
"Diamondback moths cause US$4 to $5 billion of damage each year worldwide.",
"The approach is similar to the sterile technique tested on mosquitoes, where males are transformed with a gene that prevents any females born from reaching maturity.",
"They underwent field trials in 2017.Genetically modified moths have previously been released in field trials.",
"In this case a strain of pink bollworm that were sterilized with radiation were genetically engineered to express a red fluorescent protein making it easier for researchers to monitor them.Silkworm, the larvae stage of ''Bombyx mori'', is an economically important insect in sericulture.",
"Scientists are developing strategies to enhance silk quality and quantity.",
"There is also potential to use the silk producing machinery to make other valuable proteins.",
"Proteins currently developed to be expressed by silkworms include; human serum albumin, human collagen α-chain, mouse monoclonal antibody and N-glycanase.",
"Silkworms have been created that produce spider silk, a stronger but extremely difficult to harvest silk, and even novel silks.=== Other ===Frog expressing leftSystems have been developed to create transgenic organisms in a wide variety of other animals.",
"Chickens have been genetically modified for a variety of purposes.",
"This includes studying embryo development, preventing the transmission of bird flu and providing evolutionary insights using reverse engineering to recreate dinosaur-like phenotypes.",
"A GM chicken that produces the drug Kanuma, an enzyme that treats a rare condition, in its egg passed US regulatory approval in 2015.Genetically modified frogs, in particular ''Xenopus laevis'' and ''Xenopus tropicalis'', are used in developmental biology research.",
"GM frogs can also be used as pollution sensors, especially for endocrine disrupting chemicals.",
"There are proposals to use genetic engineering to control cane toads in Australia.The nematode ''Caenorhabditis elegans'' is one of the major model organisms for researching molecular biology.",
"RNA interference (RNAi) was discovered in ''C.",
"elegans'' and could be induced by simply feeding them bacteria modified to express double stranded RNA.",
"It is also relatively easy to produce stable transgenic nematodes and this along with RNAi are the major tools used in studying their genes.",
"The most common use of transgenic nematodes has been studying gene expression and localization by attaching reporter genes.",
"Transgenes can also be combined with RNAi techniques to rescue phenotypes, study gene function, image cell development in real time or control expression for different tissues or developmental stages.",
"Transgenic nematodes have been used to study viruses, toxicology, diseases, and to detect environmental pollutants.Transgenic Hydra expressing green fluorescent proteinThe gene responsible for albinism in sea cucumbers has been found and used to engineer white sea cucumbers, a rare delicacy.",
"The technology also opens the way to investigate the genes responsible for some of the cucumbers more unusual traits, including hibernating in summer, eviscerating their intestines, and dissolving their bodies upon death.",
"Flatworms have the ability to regenerate themselves from a single cell.",
"Until 2017 there was no effective way to transform them, which hampered research.",
"By using microinjection and radiation scientists have now created the first genetically modified flatworms.",
"The bristle worm, a marine annelid, has been modified.",
"It is of interest due to its reproductive cycle being synchronized with lunar phases, regeneration capacity and slow evolution rate.",
"Cnidaria such as ''Hydra'' and the sea anemone ''Nematostella vectensis'' are attractive model organisms to study the evolution of immunity and certain developmental processes.",
"Other animals that have been genetically modified include snails, geckos, turtles, crayfish, oysters, shrimp, clams, abalone and sponges."
],
[
"Regulation",
"Genetically modified organisms are regulated by government agencies.",
"This applies to research as well as the release of genetically modified organisms, including crops and food.",
"The development of a regulatory framework concerning genetic engineering began in 1975, at Asilomar, California.",
"The Asilomar meeting recommended a set of guidelines regarding the cautious use of recombinant technology and any products resulting from that technology.",
"The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety was adopted on 29 January 2000 and entered into force on 11 September 2003.It is an international treaty that governs the transfer, handling, and use of genetically modified organisms.",
"One hundred and fifty-seven countries are members of the Protocol and many use it as a reference point for their own regulations.Universities and research institutes generally have a special committee that is responsible for approving any experiments that involve genetic engineering.",
"Many experiments also need permission from a national regulatory group or legislation.",
"All staff must be trained in the use of GMOs and all laboratories must gain approval from their regulatory agency to work with GMOs.",
"The legislation covering GMOs are often derived from regulations and guidelines in place for the non-GMO version of the organism, although they are more severe.",
"There is a near-universal system for assessing the relative risks associated with GMOs and other agents to laboratory staff and the community.",
"They are assigned to one of four risk categories based on their virulence, the severity of the disease, the mode of transmission, and the availability of preventive measures or treatments.",
"There are four biosafety levels that a laboratory can fall into, ranging from level 1 (which is suitable for working with agents not associated with disease) to level 4 (working with life-threatening agents).",
"Different countries use different nomenclature to describe the levels and can have different requirements for what can be done at each level.alt=alt=There are differences in the regulation for the release of GMOs between countries, with some of the most marked differences occurring between the US and Europe.",
"Regulation varies in a given country depending on the intended use of the products of the genetic engineering.",
"For example, a crop not intended for food use is generally not reviewed by authorities responsible for food safety.",
"Some nations have banned the release of GMOs or restricted their use, and others permit them with widely differing degrees of regulation.",
"In 2016, thirty eight countries officially ban or prohibit the cultivation of GMOs and nine (Algeria, Bhutan, Kenya, Kyrgyzstan, Madagascar, Peru, Russia, Venezuela and Zimbabwe) ban their importation.",
"Most countries that do not allow GMO cultivation do permit research using GMOs.",
"Despite regulation, illegal releases have sometimes occurred, due to weakness of enforcement.The European Union (EU) differentiates between approval for cultivation within the EU and approval for import and processing.",
"While only a few GMOs have been approved for cultivation in the EU a number of GMOs have been approved for import and processing.",
"The cultivation of GMOs has triggered a debate about the market for GMOs in Europe.",
"Depending on the coexistence regulations, incentives for cultivation of GM crops differ.",
"The US policy does not focus on the process as much as other countries, looks at verifiable scientific risks and uses the concept of substantial equivalence.",
"Whether gene edited organisms should be regulated the same as genetically modified organism is debated.",
"USA regulations sees them as separate and does not regulate them under the same conditions, while in Europe a GMO is any organism created using genetic engineering techniques.One of the key issues concerning regulators is whether GM products should be labeled.",
"The European Commission says that mandatory labeling and traceability are needed to allow for informed choice, avoid potential false advertising and facilitate the withdrawal of products if adverse effects on health or the environment are discovered.",
"The American Medical Association and the American Association for the Advancement of Science say that absent scientific evidence of harm even voluntary labeling is misleading and will falsely alarm consumers.",
"Labeling of GMO products in the marketplace is required in 64 countries.",
"Labeling can be mandatory up to a threshold GM content level (which varies between countries) or voluntary.",
"In Canada and the US labeling of GM food is voluntary, while in Europe all food (including processed food) or feed which contains greater than 0.9% of approved GMOs must be labeled.",
"In 2014, sales of products that had been labeled as non-GMO grew 30 percent to $1.1 billion."
],
[
"Controversy",
"There is controversy over GMOs, especially with regard to their release outside laboratory environments.",
"The dispute involves consumers, producers, biotechnology companies, governmental regulators, non-governmental organizations, and scientists.",
"Many of these concerns involve GM crops and whether food produced from them is safe and what impact growing them will have on the environment.",
"These controversies have led to litigation, international trade disputes, and protests, and to restrictive regulation of commercial products in some countries.",
"Most concerns are around the health and environmental effects of GMOs.",
"These include whether they may provoke an allergic reaction, whether the transgenes could transfer to human cells, and whether genes not approved for human consumption could outcross into the food supply.A protester advocating for the labeling of GMOsThere is a scientific consensus that currently available food derived from GM crops poses no greater risk to human health than conventional food, but that each GM food needs to be tested on a case-by-case basis before introduction.",
"Nonetheless, members of the public are much less likely than scientists to perceive GM foods as safe.",
"The legal and regulatory status of GM foods varies by country, with some nations banning or restricting them, and others permitting them with widely differing degrees of regulation.As late as the 1990s gene flow into wild populations was thought to be unlikely and rare, and if it were to occur, easily eradicated.",
"It was thought that this would add no additional environmental costs or risks – no effects were expected other than those already caused by pesticide applications.",
"However, in the decades since, several such examples have been observed.",
"Gene flow between GM crops and compatible plants, along with increased use of broad-spectrum herbicides, can increase the risk of herbicide resistant weed populations.",
"Debate over the extent and consequences of gene flow intensified in 2001 when a paper was published showing transgenes had been found in landrace maize in Mexico, the crop's center of diversity.",
"Gene flow from GM crops to other organisms has been found to generally be lower than what would occur naturally.",
"In order to address some of these concerns some GMOs have been developed with traits to help control their spread.",
"To prevent the genetically modified salmon inadvertently breeding with wild salmon, all the fish raised for food are females, triploid, 99% are reproductively sterile, and raised in areas where escaped salmon could not survive.",
"Bacteria have also been modified to depend on nutrients that cannot be found in nature, and genetic use restriction technology has been developed, though not yet marketed, that causes the second generation of GM plants to be sterile.Other environmental and agronomic concerns include a decrease in biodiversity, an increase in secondary pests (non-targeted pests) and evolution of resistant insect pests.",
"In the areas of China and the US with Bt crops the overall biodiversity of insects has increased and the impact of secondary pests has been minimal.",
"Resistance was found to be slow to evolve when best practice strategies were followed.",
"The impact of Bt crops on beneficial non-target organisms became a public issue after a 1999 paper suggested they could be toxic to monarch butterflies.",
"Follow up studies have since shown that the toxicity levels encountered in the field were not high enough to harm the larvae.Accusations that scientists are \"playing God\" and other religious issues have been ascribed to the technology from the beginning.",
"With the ability to genetically engineer humans now possible there are ethical concerns over how far this technology should go, or if it should be used at all.",
"Much debate revolves around where the line between treatment and enhancement is and whether the modifications should be inheritable.",
"Other concerns include contamination of the non-genetically modified food supply, the rigor of the regulatory process, consolidation of control of the food supply in companies that make and sell GMOs, exaggeration of the benefits of genetic modification, or concerns over the use of herbicides with glyphosate.",
"Other issues raised include the patenting of life and the use of intellectual property rights.There are large differences in consumer acceptance of GMOs, with Europeans more likely to view GM food negatively than North Americans.",
"GMOs arrived on the scene as the public confidence in food safety, attributed to recent food scares such as Bovine spongiform encephalopathy and other scandals involving government regulation of products in Europe, was low.",
"This along with campaigns run by various non-governmental organizations (NGO) have been very successful in blocking or limiting the use of GM crops.",
"NGOs like the Organic Consumers Association, the Union of Concerned Scientists, Greenpeace and other groups have said that risks have not been adequately identified and managed and that there are unanswered questions regarding the potential long-term impact on human health from food derived from GMOs.",
"They propose mandatory labeling or a moratorium on such products."
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* ISAAA database* GMO-Compass: Information on genetically modified organisms"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Ghent"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Ghent''' ( ; ; historically known as ''Gaunt'' in English) is a city and a municipality in the Flemish Region of Belgium.",
"It is the capital and largest city of the East Flanders province, and the third largest in the country, after Brussels and Antwerp.",
"It is a port and university city.",
"The city originally started as a settlement at the confluence of the Rivers Scheldt and Leie and in the Late Middle Ages became one of the largest and richest cities of northern Europe, with some 50,000 people in 1300.After the late 16th century Ghent became a less important city, resulting in an extremely well-preserved historic centre, that now makes Ghent an important destination of tourism.The municipality comprises the city of Ghent proper and the surrounding suburbs of Afsnee, Desteldonk, Drongen, Gentbrugge, Ledeberg, Mariakerke, Mendonk, Oostakker, Sint-Amandsberg, Sint-Denijs-Westrem, Sint-Kruis-Winkel, Wondelgem and Zwijnaarde.",
"With 262,219 inhabitants at the beginning of 2019, Ghent is Belgium's second largest municipality by number of inhabitants.",
"The metropolitan area, including the outer commuter zone, covers an area of and had a total population of 560,522 as of 1 January 2018, which ranks it as the fourth most populous in Belgium.",
"The current mayor of Ghent is Mathias De Clercq (Open Vld).The ten-day-long Ghent Festival (''Gentse Feesten'') is held every year and attended by about 1–1.5 million visitors."
],
[
"History",
"Archaeological evidence shows human presence around the confluence of the Scheldt and the Leie going back as far as the Stone Age and the Iron Age.Most historians believe that the older name for Ghent, 'Ganda', is derived from the Celtic word ''ganda'', which means ‘confluence’, or ‘river mouth’, referring to the Leie river debouching into the Scheldt.",
"Other sources connect its name with an obscure deity named Gontia.There are no written records of the Roman period, but archaeological research confirms that the Gent area continued to be inhabited.When the Franks invaded the Roman territories from the end of the 4th century and well into the 5th century, they brought their language with them, and Celtic and Latin were replaced by Old Dutch.===Middle Ages===Buildings along the river Leie in GhentAround 650, Saint Amand founded two abbeys in Ghent: St. Peter's (Blandinium) and St. Bavo's Abbey.",
"Around 800, Louis the Pious, son of Charlemagne, appointed Einhard, the biographer of Charlemagne, abbot of both abbeys.",
"The city grew from several nuclei, the abbeys, and a commercial centre.",
"However, in 851 and 879 the city was plundered by Vikings.Under the protection of the County of Flanders the city recovered and flourished from the 11th century, growing to become a small city-state.",
"By the 13th century, Ghent was the biggest city in Europe north of the Alps after Paris; it was bigger than Cologne or Moscow.",
"Up to 65,000 people lived within the city walls.",
"The belfry and the towers of the St. Bavo's Cathedral and St. Nicholas' Church are just a few examples of the skyline of the period.The rivers flowed in an area where much land was periodically flooded.",
"These rich grass 'meersen' (\"water-meadows\": a word related to the English 'marsh') were ideally suited for herding sheep, the wool of which was used to make cloth.",
"Ghent was the leading city for cloth during the Middle Ages.The wool industry, originally established at Bruges, created the first European industrialized zone in Ghent in the High Middle Ages.",
"The mercantile zone was so highly developed that wool had to be imported from Scotland and England, which led to Flanders' good relationship with them.",
"However, during the Hundred Years' War, trade with England suffered significantly.",
"Ghent was the birthplace of John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster.===Early modern period===The city recovered in the 15th century when Flanders was united with neighbouring provinces under the Dukes of Burgundy.",
"High taxes led to a rebellion and eventually to the Battle of Gavere in 1453, in which Ghent suffered a terrible defeat at the hands of Philip the Good.",
"Around this time the centre of political and social importance in the Low Countries started to shift from Flanders (Bruges–Ghent) to Brabant (Antwerp–Brussels), although Ghent continued to play an important role.",
"With Bruges, the city led two revolts against Maximilian of Austria, the first monarch of the House of Habsburg to rule Flanders.",
"''View on the city of Ghent in 1540'' by Lucas de Heere15th-century Ghent miniature of the Biblical Joseph, showing daily life thereIn 1500, Juana of Castile gave birth to Charles V, who became Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain.",
"Although native to Ghent, he punished the city after the 1539 Revolt of Ghent and obliged the city's nobles to walk in front of the Emperor barefoot with a noose (Dutch: ''\"strop\"'') around the neck; since this incident, the people of Ghent have been called \"''Stroppendragers''\" (noose bearers).",
"St. Bavo's Abbey (not to be confused with the nearby St. Bavo's Cathedral) was abolished, torn down, and replaced with a fortress for Royal Spanish troops.",
"Only a small portion of the abbey was spared demolition.",
"''De Kouter in Ghent in 1763'' by Engelbert van SiclersGhent in 1775 on the Ferraris mapThe late 16th and 17th centuries brought devastation because of the Eighty Years' War.",
"The war ended the role of Ghent as a centre of international importance.",
"In 1745, the city was captured by French forces during the War of the Austrian Succession before being returned to the Empire of Austria under the House of Habsburg following the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748.This part of Flanders became known as the Austrian Netherlands until the exile of the French Emperor Napoleon I, the end of the French Revolutionary and later Napoleonic Wars, and the peace treaties arrived at by the Congress of Vienna in 1815.===19th century===The Palace of Justice in Ghent, In the 18th and 19th centuries, Ghent's textile industry flourished again.",
"Lieven Bauwens, having smuggled the industrial and factory machine plans out of England, introduced the first mechanical weaving machine on the European continent in 1800.The Treaty of Ghent, negotiated here and adopted on Christmas Eve 1814, formally ended the War of 1812 between Great Britain and the United States (the North American phase of the Napoleonic Wars).",
"After the Battle of Waterloo, Ghent and Flanders, previously ruled from the House of Habsburg in Vienna as the Austrian Netherlands, became a part of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands with the northern Dutch for 15 years.",
"In this period, Ghent established its own university (1816) and a new connection to the sea (1824–27).After the Belgian Revolution, with the loss of port access to the sea for more than a decade, the local economy collapsed, and the first Belgian trade union originated in Ghent.",
"In 1913 there was a world exhibition in Ghent.",
"As a preparation for these festivities, the Sint-Pieters railway station was completed in 1912.===20th century===Ghent was occupied by the Germans in both World Wars but escaped severe destruction.",
"The life of the people and the German invaders in Ghent during World War I is described by H. Wandt in \"etappenleven te Gent\".",
"In World War II the city was liberated by the British 7th \"Desert Rats\" Armoured Division and local Belgian fighters on 6 September 1944, with the northern suburbs and the industrial area cleared over the following days by the 15th (Scottish) Infantry Division."
],
[
"Geography",
"MunicipalitiesAfter the fusions of municipalities in 1965 and 1977, the city is made up of following sub-municipalities:*I Ghent*II Mariakerke*III Drongen*IV Wondelgem*V Sint-Amandsberg*VI Oostakker*VII Desteldonk*VIII Mendonk*IX Sint-Kruis-Winkel*X Ledeberg*XI Gentbrugge*XII Afsnee*XIII Sint-Denijs-Westrem*XIV Zwijnaarde===Neighbouring municipalities===* Wachtebeke* Lochristi* Destelbergen* Melle* Merelbeke* De Pinte* Sint-Martens-Latem* Deinze* Lievegem* Evergem* Zelzate===Climate===The climate in this area has mild differences between highs and lows, and there is adequate rainfall year-round.",
"According to the Köppen climate classification system, Ghent has a marine west coast climate, abbreviated \"Cfb\" on climate maps."
],
[
"Demographics",
"===Nationalities===Ghent is home to many people of foreign origin and immigrants.",
"The 2020 census revealed that 35.5% of the inhabitants had roots outside of Belgium and 15.3% had a non-Belgian nationality.",
"Many neighbourhoods already have a minority-majority population, primarily in the north, east, and west of the city and some pockets in the south.",
"Some examples are Brugse Poort, Dampoort, Rabot, Ledeberg, Nieuw Gent/UZ and the area around Sleepstraat (known for its many Turkish restaurants).Group of originYear2023Number%Belgians with Belgian background165,16461.6%Belgians with foreign background56,99021.26%Neighboring country5,5232.06%EU27 (excluding neighboring country)5,3542%Outside EU 2746,11317.2%Non-Belgians45,96817.14%Neighboring country4,6911.75%EU27 (excluding neighboring country)20,3557.59%Outside EU 2720,9227.8%Total'''268,122'''100%"
],
[
"Tourism",
"===Architecture===The Belfry of Ghent, a UNESCO World Heritage SiteThe Graslei is one of the most scenic places in Ghent's old city centreGravensteenSt.",
"Nicholas' Church, Belfry, and St. Bavo's Cathedral.Sunset over the river Leie in Ghent Much of the city's medieval architecture remains intact and is remarkably well preserved and restored.",
"Its centre is a carfree area.",
"Highlights are St. Bavo's Cathedral with the ''Ghent Altarpiece'', the belfry, the Gravensteen castle, and the splendid architecture along the old Graslei harbour.",
"Ghent has established a blend between comfort of living and history; it is not a city-museum.",
"The city of Ghent also houses three béguinages and numerous churches including St. Jacob's Church, St. Nicholas' Church, St. Michael's Church and St. Stefanus' Church.The well-known ''Ghent Altarpiece'', a 15th-century painting by Hubert and Jan Van Eyck in St. Bavo's Cathedral.",
"In the 19th century Ghent's most famous architect, Louis Roelandt, built the university hall Aula, the opera house, and the main courthouse.",
"Highlights of modern architecture are the university buildings (the ''Boekentoren'' or Book Tower) by Henry Van de Velde.",
"There are also a few theatres from diverse periods.The beguinages, as well as the belfry and adjacent cloth hall, were recognized by UNESCO as World Heritage Sites in 1998 and 1999.The Zebrastraat, a social experiment in which an entirely renovated site unites living, economy, and culture, can also be found in Ghent.Campo Santo is a famous Catholic burial site of the nobility and artists.One of the more notable pieces of contemporary architecture in Ghent is De Krook, the new central library and media center, a collaboration between local firm Coussée and Goris and Catalan firm RCR Arquitectos.===Museums===Important museums in Ghent are the Museum voor Schone Kunsten (Museum of Fine Arts), with paintings by Hieronymus Bosch, Peter Paul Rubens, and many Flemish masters; the SMAK or Stedelijk Museum voor Actuele Kunst (City Museum for Contemporary Art), with works of the 20th century, including Joseph Beuys and Andy Warhol; and the Design Museum Gent with masterpieces of Victor Horta and Le Corbusier.",
"The Huis van Alijn (House of the Alijn family) was originally a beguinage and is now a museum for folk art where theatre and puppet shows for children are presented.",
"The ''Museum voor Industriële Archeologie en Textiel'' or MIAT displays the industrial strength of Ghent with recreations of workshops and stores from the 1800s and original spinning and weaving machines that remain from the time when the building was a weaving mill.",
"The Ghent City Museum (Stadsmuseum, abbreviated STAM), is committed to recording and explaining the city's past and its inhabitants, and to preserving the present for future generations.===Restaurants and culinary traditions===In Ghent and other regions of East Flanders, bakeries sell a donut-shaped bun called a \"mastel\" (plural \"mastellen\"), which is basically a bagel.",
"\"Mastellen\" are also called \"Saint Hubert bread\", because, on the Saint's feast day, which is 3 November, the bakers bring their batches to the early Mass to be blessed.",
"Traditionally, it was thought that blessed mastellen immunized against rabies.Other local delicacies are the praline chocolates from local producers such as Leonidas, the cuberdons or 'neuzekes' ('noses'), cone-shaped purple jelly-filled candies, 'babelutten' ('babblers'), hard butterscotch-like candy, and of course, on the more fiery side, the famous 'Tierenteyn', a hot but refined mustard that has some affinity to French 'Dijon' mustard.Stoverij is a classic Flemish meat stew, preferably made with a generous addition of brown 'Trappist' (strong abbey beer) and served with French fries.",
"'Waterzooi' is a local stew originally made from freshwater fish caught in the rivers and creeks of Ghent, but nowadays often made with chicken instead of fish.",
"It is usually served nouvelle-cuisine-style and supplemented by a large pot on the side.The city promotes a meat-free day on Thursdays called ''Donderdag Veggiedag'' with vegetarian food being promoted in public canteens for civil servants and elected councillors, in all city-funded schools, and promotion of vegetarian eating options in town (through the distribution of \"veggie street maps\").",
"This campaign is linked to the recognition of the detrimental environmental effects of meat production, which the United Nations' Food and Agriculture Organization has established to represent nearly one-fifth of global greenhouse gas emissions.The traditional confectionery is the cuberdon (also known as neuzekes or little noses).",
"These are conical sweets with a soft centre, usually raspberry but other flavours can be found on the many street stalls around the city.",
"Between 2011 and 2015, a feud between two local vendors made international news.===Festivities===The city is host to some big cultural events such as the Ghent Festival, the International Film Festival of Ghent (with the World Soundtrack Awards) and the .",
"Also, every five years, an extensive botanical exhibition (''Gentse Floraliën'') takes place in Flanders Expo in Ghent, attracting numerous visitors to the city.The Ghent Festival (''Gentse Feesten'' in Dutch) is an annual festival that lasts for ten days.",
"It has been held for more than 50 years (since 1969) and is attended by about 1–1.5 million visitors.",
"It did not take place in 2020 and 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic in Belgium, being held again in the summer of 2022, after a two-year break.The Festival of Flanders had its 50th celebration in 2008.In Ghent, it opens with the OdeGand City festivities that take place on the second Saturday of September.",
"Some 50 concerts take place in diverse locations throughout the medieval inner city and some 250 international artists perform.Ghent co-hosted the 2021 World Choir Games together with Antwerp.",
"Organised by the Interkultur Foundation, the World Choir Games is the biggest choral competition and festival in the world.Ghent has been chosen as the 2024 European Youth Capital by the European Youth Forum.===Nature===The numerous parks in the city can also be considered tourist attractions.",
"Most notably, Ghent boasts a nature reserve (Bourgoyen-Ossemeersen, ) and a recreation park (Blaarmeersen, 87 hectares; 215 acres)."
],
[
"Economy",
"The port of Ghent, in the north of the city, is the third-largest port of Belgium.",
"It is accessed by the Ghent–Terneuzen Canal, which ends near the Dutch port of Terneuzen on the Western Scheldt.",
"The port houses, among others, large companies like ArcelorMittal, Volvo Cars, Volvo Trucks, Volvo Parts, Honda, and Stora Enso.The Ghent University and several research-oriented companies, such as Ablynx, Innogenetics, Cropdesign, and Bayer Cropscience, are situated in the central and southern part of the city.As the largest city in East Flanders, Ghent has many hospitals, schools, and shopping streets.",
"Flanders Expo, the biggest event hall in Flanders and the second biggest in Belgium, is also located in Ghent.",
"Tourism is becoming a major employer in the local area."
],
[
"Transport",
"As one of the largest cities in Belgium, Ghent has a highly developed transport system.===Road===The R4 ringroadBy car the city is accessible via two motorways:*The E40 connects Ghent with Bruges and Ostend to the west, and with Brussels, Leuven and Liège to the east.",
"*The E17 connects Ghent with Sint-Niklaas and Antwerp to the north, and with Kortrijk and Lille to the south.In addition, Ghent also has two ringways:*The R4 connects the outskirts of Ghent with each other and the surrounding villages, and also leads to the E40 and E17 roads.",
"*The R40 connects the different downtown quarters with each other and provides access to the main avenues.===Rail===Gent-Sint-Pieters railway station, GhentFive railway stations can be found in the municipality of Ghent: *Gent-Sint-Pieters Station: an international railway station with connections to Bruges, Brussels, Antwerp, Kortrijk, other Belgian towns, and Lille.",
"The station also offers a direct connection to Brussels Airport.",
"*Gent-Dampoort Station: an intercity railway station with connections to Sint-Niklaas, Antwerp, Kortrijk and Eeklo.",
"*Gentbrugge Station: a regional railway station in between the two main railway stations, Sint-Pieters and Dampoort.",
"*Wondelgem Station: a regional railway station with connections to Eeklo once an hour.",
"*Drongen Station: a regional railway station in the village of Drongen with connections to Bruges once an hour.",
"*Gent-Zeehaven station: a regional railway station in the port of Ghent with connections to Gent-Sint-Pieters Station and the town of Terneuzen in The Netherlands.===Public transport===Ghent has an extensive network of public transport lines, operated by ''De Lijn''.====Trams====A HermeLijn low-floor tram in Ghent*Line 1: Flanders Expo – Sint-Pieters-Station – Korenmarkt (city centre) – Wondelgem – Evergem*Line 2: Zwijnaarde Bibliotheek – Sint-Pieters-Station – Zonnestraat (city centre) – Brabantdam – Zuid – Melle Leeuw (fuse of line 21 and 22 as of May 2017)*Line 4: UZ – Sint-Pieters-Station – Muide – Korenmarkt (city centre) – Zuid – Moscou*Line 21: Zwijnaarde Bibliotheek – Sint-Pieters-Station – Zonnestraat (city centre) – Zuid – Melle Leeuw (fused into line 2)*Line 22: Kouter – Bijlokehof – Sint-Pieters-Station – Zonnestraat (city centre) – Zuid – Gentbrugge (fused into line 2)====Buses====A Van Hool articulated bus in Ghent*Line 3: Mariakerke – Korenmarkt (city centre) – Dampoort – Gentbrugge (formerly a trolleybus line; see picture below)*Line 5: Van Beverenplein – Sint-Jacobs (city centre) – Zuid – Heuvelpoort – Nieuw-Gent*Line 6: Watersportbaan – Zuid – Dampoort – Meulestede – Wondelgem – Mariakerke*Line 8: AZ Sint-Lucas – Sint-Jacobs (city centre) – Zuid – Heuvelpoort – Arteveldepark*Line 9: Mariakerke – Malem – Sint-Pieters-Station – Ledeberg – Gentbrugge*Line 17/18: Drongen – Malem – Korenmarkt (city centre) – Dampoort – Oostakker*Line 38/39: Blaarmeersen – Ekkergem – Korenmarkt (city centre) – Dampoort – Sint-AmandsbergApart from the city buses mentioned above, Ghent also has numerous regional bus lines connecting it to towns and villages across the province of East Flanders.",
"All of these buses stop in at least one of the city's regional bus hubs at either Sint-Pieters Station, Dampoort Station, Zuid or Rabot.International buses connecting Ghent to other European destinations are usually found at the Dampoort Station.",
"A couple of private bus companies such as Eurolines, Megabus and Flixbus operate from the Dampoort bus hub.Buses to and from Belgium's first (Brussels Airport) and second airport (Brussels South Charleroi Airport) are operated by Flibco, and can be found at the rear exit of the Sint-Pieters Station.===Cycling===Ghent has the largest designated cyclist area in Europe, with nearly of cycle paths and more than 700 one-way streets, where bikes are allowed to go against the traffic.",
"It also boasts Belgium's first bicycle boulevard, where cars are considered 'guests' and must stay behind cyclists.",
"In 2013, it began doing on-street surveys of bicycles, adding bicycle parking racks in neighbourhoods where they were needed.",
"In 2017, the city changed traffic circulation patterns to favour cycling.",
"The switch was done over the course of a single weekend, changing traffic circulation on over 80 streets and 2500 road signs.",
"It expanded the car-free zone in the historic city center more than twofold.",
"It also put in radial barriers to car traffic, thus shifting it onto the inner ring road.More cyclists means a higher demand for bicycle parking stations.",
"In 2010, the plans to renovate Gent-Sint-Pieters railway station, included 10,000 bicycle parking spots.",
"In 2020, several sections of the underground parking facilities have been built, and the targets have been adjusted to a total of 17,000 parking spots."
],
[
"Sports",
"Ghelamco ArenaIn the Belgian first football division Ghent is represented by K.A.A.",
"Gent, who became Belgian football champions for the first time in its history in 2015.Another Ghent football club is KRC Gent-Zeehaven, playing in the Belgian fourth division.",
"A football match at the 1920 Summer Olympics was held in Ghent.The Six Days of Ghent, a six-day track cycling race, is held annually, taking place in the Kuipke velodrome in Ghent.",
"In road cycling, the city hosts the start and finish of the , the traditional opening race of the cobbled classics season.",
"It also lends its name to another cobbled classic, Gent–Wevelgem, although the race now starts in the nearby city of Deinze.The city hosts an annual athletics IAAF event in the Flanders Sports Arena: the Indoor Flanders meeting where two-time Olympic champion Hicham El Guerrouj set an indoor world record of 3:48.45 in the mile run in 1997.The Flanders Sports Arena was host to the 2015 Davis Cup Final between Belgium and Great Britain."
],
[
"Notable people",
"Saint BavoEmperor Charles V was born in Ghent in 1500John of GauntStatue of Jacob van Artevelde on the Vrijdagmarkt in Ghent* Frans Ackerman (–1387), Flemish statesmen and military leader.",
"* Charlotte Adigéry (born ), Belgian-Caribbean musician* Alexander Agricola (–1506), Franco-Flemish composer of the Renaissance * Leo Baekeland (1863–1944), chemist and inventor of Bakelite * Saint Bavo (589–654), patron saint of Ghent * Marthe Boël (1877–1956), feminist * Josse Boutmy (1697–1779), composer, organist and harpsichordist * Cornelius Canis (–1562), composer, music director for the chapel of Charles V* Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor (1500–1558), ''Karel V, Charles Quint''.",
"* Willy De Clercq (1927–2011), liberal politician and European Commissioner * Caspar de Crayer (1582–1669), painter* Pedro de Gante (ca.1480–1572), Franciscan missionary in Mexico * Frans de Potter (1834–1904), writer* Emma De Vigne (1850–98), painter * Paul de Vigne (1843–1901), sculptor.",
"* De Vriendt brothers Juliaan Joseph (1842–1935), & Albrecht François Lieven (1843–1900), painters.",
"* Charlotte de Witte (born 1992), DJ and record producer * Joseph Guislain (1797–1860), physician * Daniel Heinsius (1580–1655), scholar of the Dutch Renaissance.",
"* Henry of Ghent (ca.1217–1293), scholastic philosopher.",
"* Corneille Jean François Heymans (1892–1968), physiologist and recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine * Victor Horta (1861–1947), Art Nouveau architect * John of Gaunt (1340–1399), English royal prince, military leader and statesman.",
"* Suzanne Lilar (1901–1992), essayist, novelist, and playwright * Saint Livinus of Ghent (580–657), saint and martyr* Louis XVIII of France (1755–1824), was exiled in Ghent in 1815 during the Hundred Days.",
"* Pierre Louÿs (1870–1925), poet and romantic writer * Maurice Maeterlinck (1862–1949), poet & playwright, won the Nobel Prize in Literature.",
"* Hippolyte Metdepenningen (1799–1881), lawyer and politician * Gerard Mortier (born 1943), Belgian opera director * Jacob Obrecht (ca.1457–1505), composer of the Renaissance * Adolphe Quetelet (1796–1874), astronomer, mathematician, statistician and sociologist.",
"* Frans Rens (1805–1874), writer * Gabriel Ríos (born 1978), musician* Charles John Seghers (1839–1886), Jesuit clergyman and missionary * Soulwax (formed 1995), electronic/rock band headed by David and Stephen Dewaele* Jacob van Artevelde (ca.1290–1345), statesman and political leader.",
"* Gustave Van de Woestijne (1881–1947), painter* Karel van de Woestijne (1878–1929), writer * Hugo van der Goes (–1482), painter.",
"* Jan van Eyck (–1441), painter.",
"* Geo Verbanck (1881-1961), sculptor*Seppe Gebruers (born 1990), the first quartertone jazzpianist.",
"* Swen Vincke (born 1972), video game director and the head of Larian Studios.",
"* Jan Frans Willems (1793–1846), writer.Jacques Rogge, 2014=== Sport ===* Tiesj Benoot (born 1994), cyclist * Kevin De Bruyne (born 1991), professional footballer * Xavier Henry (born 1991), shooting guard/small forward for the NBA's Los Angeles Lakers * Gaelle Mys (born 1991), Olympic gymnast * Jacques Rogge (1942-2021), former president of the IOC * Patrick Sercu (1944-2019), Belgian track cyclist * Cédric Van Branteghem (born 1979), athlete * Bradley Wiggins (born 1980), British cyclist"
],
[
"International relations",
"===Twin towns – sister cities===Ghent is twinned with: * Kanazawa, Japan* Tallinn, Estonia* Wiesbaden, Germany* Melle, Germany* Saint-Raphaël, France* Nottingham, England, United Kingdom* Mohammedia, Morocco"
],
[
"Gallery",
"File:Sint-Baafskathedraal_(St._Bavo's_Cathedral)_Ghent_Belgium_October.jpg|St.",
"Bavo's CathedralFile:Gent, de Sint-Niklaaskerk oeg25149 IMG 0686 2021-08-15 10.40.jpg|The Sint-NiklaaskerkFile:Belfry_of_Ghent_(DSCF0247,DSCF0249).jpg|BelfryFile:Oud_Postkantoor,_Ghent_(DSCF0257-DSCF0261).jpg|Old Post Office on Korenmarkt SquareFile:25890_Gravensteen_bij_zonsondergang_vanuit_de_Sint-Widostraat.jpg|Gravensteen CastleFile:Graslei_gent_avondlicht.jpg|Graslei QuayFile:Gent, de Korenlei met oeg25136-40 vanaf de Graslei IMG 0592 2021-08-15 09.12.jpg|KorenleiFile:Gent, De Lingtworm en Krocht oeg25148 IMG 0609 2021-08-15 09.27.jpg|De Lingtworm en KrochtFile:Gent_Veerleplein_006.JPG|Entrance gate of ''Oude Vismijn'' (\"Old Fish Market\")File:Rabot 14.JPG|The Rabot GateFile:Gent, Volkshuis Ons Huis oeg26052 op de Vrijdagmarkt IMG 0697 2021-08-15 11.29.jpg|Volkshuis Ons Huis at the VrijdagmarktFile:Jacob_van_Artevelde_2015.jpg|Vrijdagmarkt Square with statue of Jacob van ArteveldeFile:Gent, standbeeld Lieven Bauwens IMG 0647 2021-08-15 10.11.jpg|Statue Lieven BauwensFile:Gent, Geeraard de Duivelsteen oeg24673 IMG 0656 2021-08-15 10.18.jpg|Geeraard de DuivelsteenFile:Vooruitvoorgevel.JPG|Vooruit Arts CenterFile:Gent - Hotel d'Hane-Steenhuyse 11-9-2016 11-18-09.jpg|Hotel d'Hane-SteenhuyseFile:Sint-Baafsabdij 6.jpg|Ruins of St. Bavo's AbbeyFile:Cuberdon_-_De_echte_Gentse_neuzen.jpg|Cuberdon: A popular local delicacy"
],
[
"See also",
"* List of Mayors of Ghent* Port of Ghent"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading"
],
[
"External links",
"* * Official Tourist website * Flanders Tourism Website"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Guadeloupe"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Guadeloupe''' (; ; , ) is an archipelago and overseas department and region of France in the West Indies or Caribbean.",
"It consists of six inhabited islands—Basse-Terre, Grande-Terre, Marie-Galante, La Désirade, and the two inhabited Îles des Saintes—as well as many uninhabited islands and outcroppings.",
"It is south of Antigua and Barbuda and Montserrat and north of the Commonwealth of Dominica.",
"The region's capital city is Basse-Terre, located on the southern west coast of Basse-Terre Island; however, the most populous city is Les Abymes and the main centre of business is neighbouring Pointe-à-Pitre, both located on Grande-Terre Island.",
"It had a population of 378,561 in 2024.Like the other overseas departments, it is an integral part of France.",
"As a constituent territory of the European Union and the Eurozone, the euro is its official currency and any European Union citizen is free to settle and work there indefinitely.",
"However, as an overseas department, it is not part of the Schengen Area.",
"The region formerly included Saint Barthélemy and Saint Martin, which were detached from Guadeloupe in 2007 following a 2003 referendum.Christopher Columbus visited Guadeloupe in 1493, during his second voyage, and gave the island its name.",
"The official language is French; Antillean Creole is also spoken."
],
[
"Etymology",
"Our Lady of Guadalupe in the Monastery of Santa María de Guadalupe, after whom the island gets its nameThe archipelago was called (or \"The Island of Beautiful Waters\") by the native Arawak people.Christopher Columbus named the island in 1493 after Our Lady of Guadalupe, a shrine to the Virgin Mary venerated in the Spanish town of Guadalupe, Extremadura.",
"When the area became a French colony, the Spanish name was retained - though altered to French orthography and phonology.",
"The islands are locally known as ."
],
[
"History",
"===Pre-colonial era===Ancient petroglyph in BaillifThe islands were first populated by indigenous peoples of the Americas, possibly as far back as 3000 BC.",
"The Arawak people are the first identifiable group, but they were later displaced circa 1400 by Kalina-Carib peoples.===15th–17th centuries===Christopher Columbus was the first European to see Guadeloupe, landing in November 1493 and giving it its current name.",
"Several attempts at colonisation by the Spanish in the 16th century failed due to attacks from the native peoples.",
"In 1626, the French, under the trader and adventurer Pierre Belain d'Esnambuc, began to take an interest in Guadeloupe, expelling Spanish settlers.",
"The Compagnie des Îles de l'Amérique settled in Guadeloupe in 1635, under the direction of the French colonial leaders Charles Liénard de L'Olive and Jean du Plessis d'Ossonville; they formally took possession of the island for France and brought in French farmers to colonise the land.",
"This led to the death of many indigenous people by disease and violence.",
"By 1640, however, the Compagnie des Îles de l'Amérique had gone bankrupt, and they thus sold Guadeloupe to Charles Houël du Petit Pré who began plantation agriculture, with the first African slaves arriving in 1650.Slave resistance was immediately widespread, with an open uprising in 1656 lasting several weeks and a simultaneous spate of mass desertions that lasted at least two years until the French compelled indigenous peoples to stop assisting them.",
"Ownership of the island passed to the French West India Company before it was annexed to France in 1674 under the tutelage of their Martinique colony.",
"Institutionalised slavery, enforced by the Code Noir from 1685, led to a booming sugar plantation economy.===18th–19th centuries===During the Seven Years' War, the British captured and occupied the islands until the 1763 Treaty of Paris.",
"During that time, Pointe-à-Pitre became a major harbour, and markets in Britain's North American colonies were opened to Guadeloupean sugar, which was traded for foodstuffs and timber.",
"The economy expanded quickly, creating vast wealth for the French colonists.",
"So prosperous was Guadeloupe at the time that, under the 1763 Treaty of Paris, France forfeited its Canadian colonies in exchange for the return of Guadeloupe.",
"Coffee planting began in the late 1720s, also worked by slaves and, by 1775, cocoa had become a major export product as well.The Battle of the Saintes was fought between France and Britain in 1782.The French Revolution brought chaos to Guadeloupe.",
"Under new revolutionary law, freedmen were entitled to equal rights.",
"Taking advantage of the chaotic political situation, Britain invaded Guadeloupe in 1794.The French responded by sending an expeditionary force led by Victor Hugues, who retook the islands and abolished slavery.",
"More than 1,000 French colonists were killed in the aftermath.Bust of Louis Delgrès, leader of the 1802 slave rebellionIn 1802, the French Consulate government reinstated the pre-revolutionary government and slavery, prompting a slave rebellion led by Louis Delgrès.",
"The French authorities responded quickly, culminating in the Battle of Matouba on 28 May 1802.Realising they had no chance of success, Delgrès and his followers committed mass suicide by deliberately exploding their gunpowder stores.",
"In 1810, the British captured the island again, handing it over to Sweden under the 1813 Treaty of Stockholm.In the 1814 Treaty of Paris, Sweden ceded Guadeloupe to France, giving rise to the Guadeloupe Fund.",
"In 1815, the Treaty of Vienna acknowledged French control of Guadeloupe.Slavery was abolished in the French Empire in 1848.After 1854, indentured labourers from the French colony of Pondicherry in India were brought in.",
"Emancipated slaves had the vote from 1849, but French nationality and the vote were not granted to Indian citizens until 1923, when a long campaign, led by Henry Sidambarom, finally achieved success.===20th–21st centuries===In 1936, Félix Éboué became the first black governor of Guadeloupe.",
"During the Second World War Guadeloupe initially came under the control of the Vichy government, later joining Free France in 1943.In 1946, the colony of Guadeloupe became an overseas department of France.Tensions arose in the post-war era over the social structure of Guadeloupe and its relationship with mainland France.",
"The 'Massacre of St Valentine' occurred in 1952, when striking factory workers in Le Moule were shot at by the Compagnies républicaines de sécurité, resulting in four deaths.",
"In May 1967 racial tensions exploded into rioting following a racist attack on a black Guadeloupean, Raphael Balzinc, resulting in eight deaths.An independence movement grew in the 1970s, prompting France to declare Guadeloupe a French region in 1974.The Union populaire pour la libération de la Guadeloupe (UPLG) campaigned for complete independence, and by the 1980s the situation had turned violent with the actions of groups such as Groupe de libération armée (GLA) and Alliance révolutionnaire caraïbe (ARC).Greater autonomy was granted to Guadeloupe in 2000.Through a referendum in 2003, Saint-Martin and Saint Barthélemy voted to separate from the administrative jurisdiction of Guadeloupe, this being fully enacted by 2007.In January 2009, labour unions and others known as the Liyannaj Kont Pwofitasyon went on strike for more pay.",
"Strikers were angry with low wages, the high cost of living, high levels of poverty relative to mainland France and levels of unemployment that are amongst the worst in the European Union.",
"The situation quickly escalated, exacerbated by what was seen as an ineffectual response by the French government, turning violent and prompting the deployment of extra police after a union leader (Jacques Bino) was shot and killed.",
"The strike lasted 44 days and had also inspired similar actions on nearby Martinique.",
"President Nicolas Sarkozy later visited the island, promising reform.",
"Tourism suffered greatly during this time and affected the 2010 tourist season as well."
],
[
"Geography",
"Satellite photo of GuadeloupeLush forest on Basse-TerreDetailed map of GuadeloupeGuadeloupe is an archipelago of more than 12 islands, as well as islets and rocks situated where the northeastern Caribbean Sea meets the western Atlantic Ocean.",
"It is located in the Leeward Islands in the northern part of the Lesser Antilles, a partly volcanic island arc.",
"To the north lie Antigua and Barbuda and the British Overseas Territory of Montserrat, with Dominica lying to the south.The two main islands are Basse-Terre (west) and Grande-Terre (east), which form a butterfly shape as viewed from above, the two 'wings' of which are separated by the Grand Cul-de-Sac Marin, and Petit Cul-de-Sac Marin.",
"More than half of Guadeloupe's land surface consists of the 847.8 km2 Basse-Terre.",
"The island is mountainous, containing such peaks as Mount Sans Toucher () and Grande Découverte (), culminating in the active volcano La Grande Soufrière, the highest mountain peak in the Lesser Antilles with an elevation of .",
"In contrast Grande-Terre is mostly flat, with rocky coasts to the north, irregular hills at the centre, mangrove at the southwest, and white sand beaches sheltered by coral reefs along the southern shore.",
"This is where the main tourist resorts are found.Marie-Galante is the third-largest island, followed by La Désirade, a north-east slanted limestone plateau, the highest point of which is .",
"To the south lies the Îles de Petite-Terre, which are two islands (Terre de Haut and Terre de Bas) totalling 2 km2.Les Saintes is an archipelago of eight islands of which two, Terre-de-Bas and Terre-de-Haut are inhabited.",
"The landscape is similar to that of Basse-Terre, with volcanic hills and irregular shoreline with deep bays.There are numerous other smaller islands.=== Geology ===Basse-Terre is a volcanic island.",
"The Lesser Antilles are at the outer edge of the Caribbean Plate, and Guadeloupe is part of the outer arc of the Lesser Antilles Volcanic Arc.",
"Many of the islands were formed as a result of the subduction of oceanic crust of the Atlantic Plate under the Caribbean Plate in the Lesser Antilles subduction zone.",
"This process is ongoing and is responsible for volcanic and earthquake activity in the region.",
"Guadeloupe was formed from multiple volcanoes, of which only La Grande Soufrière is not extinct.",
"Its last eruption was in 1976, and led to the evacuation of the southern part of Basse-Terre.",
"73,600 people were displaced throughout three and a half months following the eruption.K–Ar dating indicates that the three northern massifs on Basse-Terre Island are 2.79 million years old.",
"Sections of volcanoes collapsed and eroded within the last 650,000 years, after which the Sans Toucher volcano grew in the collapsed area.",
"Volcanoes in the north of Basse-Terre Island mainly produced andesite and basaltic andesite.",
"There are several beaches of dark or \"black\" sand.La Désirade, east of the main islands, has a basement from the Mesozoic, overlaid with thick limestones from the Pliocene to Quaternary periods.Grande-Terre and Marie-Galante have basements probably composed of volcanic units of Eocene to Oligocene, but there are no visible outcrops.",
"On Grande-Terre, the overlying carbonate platform is 120 metres thick.=== Climate ===The islands are part of the Leeward Islands, so called because they are downwind of the prevailing trade winds, which blow out of the northeast.",
"This was significant in the days of sailing ships.",
"Grande-Terre is so named because it is on the eastern, or windward side, exposed to the Atlantic winds.",
"Basse-Terre is so named because it is on the leeward south-west side and sheltered from the winds.",
"Guadeloupe has a tropical climate tempered by maritime influences and the Trade Winds.",
"There are two seasons, the dry season called \"Lent\" from January to June, and the wet season called \"winter\", from July to December.Grande Anse Beach=== Tropical cyclones and storm surges ===Located in a very exposed region, Guadeloupe and its dependencies have to face many cyclones.",
"The deadliest hurricane to hit Guadeloupe was the Pointe-à-Pitre hurricane of 1776, which killed at least 6,000 people.In 1989, Hurricane Hugo caused severe damage to the islands of the archipelago and left a deep mark on the memory of the local inhabitants.",
"In 1995, three hurricanes (Iris, Luis and Marilyn) hit the archipelago in less than three weeks.",
"Other notable hurricanes include Okeechobee in 1928, Betsy in 1956, Cleo in 1964, Inez in 1966, and Irma and Maria in 2017.===Flora ===The Guadeloupe woodpecker is endemic to the islands.With fertile volcanic soils, heavy rainfall and a warm climate, vegetation on Basse-Terre is lush.",
"Most of the island's forests are on Basse-Terre, containing such species as mahogany, ironwood and chestnut trees.",
"Mangrove swamps line the Salée River.",
"Much of the forest on Grande-Terre has been cleared, with only a few small patches remaining.Between of altitude, the rainforest that covers a large part of the island of Basse-Terre develops.",
"Vegetation there includes the white gum tree, the acomat-boucan or chestnut tree, the marbri or bois-bandé or the oleander; shrubs and herbaceous plants such as the mountain palm, the balisier or ferns; many epiphytes: bromeliads, philodendrons, orchids and lianas.",
"Above , the humid savannah develops, composed of mosses, lichens, sphagnum or more vigorous plants such as mountain mangrove, high altitude violet or mountain thyme.The dry forest occupies a large part of the islands of Grande-Terre, Marie-Galante, Les Saintes, La Désirade and also develops on the leeward coast of Basse-Terre.",
"The coastal forest is more difficult to develop because of the nature of the soil (sandy, rocky), salinity, sunshine and wind and is the environment where the sea grape, the mancenilla (a very toxic tree whose trunk is marked with a red line), the icaquier or the Coconut tree grow.",
"On the cliffs and in the Arid zones are found cacti such as the cactus-cigar (Cereus), the prickly pear, the chestnut cactus, the \"Tête à l'anglais\" cactus and the aloes.The Mangrove forest that borders some of Guadalupe's coasts is structured in three levels, from the closest to the sea to the farthest.",
"On the first level are the red mangroves; on the second, about from the sea, the black mangroves form the shrubby mangrove; on the third level the white mangroves form the tall mangrove.",
"Behind the mangrove, where the tide and salt do not penetrate, a swamp forest sometimes develops, unique in Guadeloupe.",
"The representative species of this environment is the Mangrove-medaille.The Jamaican fruit bat can be found throughout the department|310x310px=== Fauna ===Few terrestrial mammals, aside from bats and raccoons, are native to the islands.",
"The introduced Javan mongoose is also present on Guadeloupe.",
"Bird species include the endemic purple-throated carib and the Guadeloupe woodpecker.",
"The waters of the islands support a rich variety of marine life.However, by studying 43,000 bone remains from six islands in the archipelago, 50 to 70% of snakes and lizards on the Guadeloupe Islands became extinct after European colonists arrived, who had brought with them mammals such as cats, mongooses, rats, and raccoons, which might have preyed upon the native reptiles.=== Environmental preservation ===In recent decades, Guadeloupe's natural environments have been affected by hunting and fishing, forest retreat, urbanization and suburbanization.",
"They also suffer from the development of intensive crops (banana and sugar cane, in particular), which reached their peak in the years 1955–75.This has led to the following situation: seagrass beds and reefs have degraded by up to 50% around the large islands; mangroves and mantids have almost disappeared in Marie-Galante, Les Saintes and La Désirade; the salinity of the fresh water table has increased due to \"the intensity of use of the layer\"; and pollution of agricultural origin (pesticides and nitrogenous compounds).In addition, the ChlEauTerre study, unveiled in March 2018, concludes that 37 different anthropogenic molecules (more than half of which come from residues of now-banned pesticides, such as chlordecone) were found in \"79% of the watersheds analyzed in Grande-Terre and 84% in Basse-Terre.\"",
"A report by the Guadeloupe Water Office notes that in 2019 there is a \"generalized degradation of water bodies.",
"\"Despite everything, there is a will to preserve these environments whose vegetation and landscape are preserved in some parts of the islands and constitute a sensitive asset for tourism.",
"These areas are partially protected and classified as ZNIEFF, sometimes with nature reserve status, and several caves are home to protected chiropterans.La Soufrière Volcano crater and its fumarolesThe Guadalupe National Park was created on 20 February 1989.In 1992, under the auspices of UNESCO, the Biosphere Reserve of the Guadeloupe Archipelago (''Réserve de biosphère de l'archipel de la Guadeloupe'') was created.",
"As a result, on 8 December 1993, the marine site of Grand Cul-de-sac was listed as a wetland of international importance.",
"The island thus became the overseas department with the most protected areas.=== Earthquakes and tsunamis ===The archipelago is crossed by numerous geological faults such as those of la Barre or la Cadoue, while in depth, in front of Moule and La Désirade begins the Désirade Fault, and between the north of Maria-Galante and the south of Grande-Terre begins the Maria Galante Fault.",
"And it is because of these geological characteristics, the islands of the department of Guadeloupe are classified in zone III according to the seismic zoning of France and are subject to a specific risk prevention plan.The 1843 earthquake in the Lesser Antilles is, to this day, the most violent earthquake known.",
"It caused the death of more than a thousand people, as well as major damage in Pointe-à-Pitre.On 21 November 2004, the islands of the department, in particular Les Saintes archipelago, were shaken by a violent earthquake that reached a magnitude of 6.3 on the Richter scale and caused the death of one person, as well as extensive material damage."
],
[
"Demographics",
"Guadeloupe recorded a population of 378,561 according to Jan. 1, 2024 estimates.",
"The population is mainly Afro-Caribbean.",
"European, Indian (Tamil, Telugu, and other South Indians), Lebanese, Syrians, and Chinese are all minorities.",
"There is also a substantial population of Haitians in Guadeloupe who work mainly in construction and as street vendors.",
"Basse-Terre is the political capital; however, the largest city and economic hub is Pointe-à-Pitre.The population of Guadeloupe has been decreasing by 0.8% per year since 2013.In 2017 the average population density in Guadeloupe was , which is very high in comparison to metropolitan France's average of .",
"One third of the land is devoted to agriculture and all mountains are uninhabitable; this lack of space and shelter makes the population density even higher.=== Major urban areas ===The most populous urban unit (agglomeration) is Pointe-à-Pitre-Les Abymes, which covers 11 communes and 65% of the population of the department.",
"The three largest urban units are: Urban unit Population (2019) Pointe-à-Pitre-Les Abymes 249,815 Basse-Terre 50,104 Capesterre-Belle-Eau 25,362=== Health ===In 2011, life expectancy at birth was recorded at 77.0 years for males and 83.5 for females.Medical centres in Guadeloupe include: University Hospital Centre (CHU) in Pointe-à-Pitre, Regional Hospital Centre (CHR) in Basse-Terre, and four hospitals located in Capesterre-Belle-Eau, Pointe-Noire, Bouillante and Saint-Claude.The ''Institut Pasteur de la Guadeloupe'', is located in Pointe-à-Pitre and is responsible for researching environmental hygiene, vaccinations, and the spread of tuberculosis and other mycobacteria.=== Immigration ===The relative wealth of Guadeloupe contrasts with the extreme poverty of several islands in the Caribbean region, which makes the community an attractive place for the populations of some of these territories.",
"In addition, other factors, such as political instability and natural disasters, explain this immigration.",
"As early as the 1970s, the first illegal immigrants of Haitian origin arrived in Guadeloupe to meet a need for labour in the agricultural sector; alongside this Haitian immigration, which is more visible because it is more numerous, Guadeloupe has also seen the arrival and settlement of populations from the island of Dominica and the Dominican Republic.",
"In 2005, the prefecture, which represents the State in Guadeloupe, reported figures of between 50,000 and 60,000 foreigners in the department.Guadeloupe women (1911) on Ellis Island=== Migration ===Created in 1963 by Michel Debré, Bumidom's objective was to \"... contribute to the solution of demographic problems in the overseas departments\".",
"To this end, its missions were multiple: information for future emigrants, vocational training, family reunification and management of reception centres.",
"At the time, this project was also seen as a means to diminish the influence of the West Indian independence movements, which were gaining strength in the 1960s.Between 1963 and 1981, an estimated 16,562 Guadeloupeans emigrated to metropolitan France through Bumidom.",
"And the miniseries Le Rêve français (The French Dream) sets out to recount some of the consequences of the emigration of West Indians and Reunionese to France.An estimated 50,000 Guadeloupeans and Martinicans participated in the construction of the Panama Canal between 1904 and 1914.In 2014, it was estimated that there were between 60,000 and 70,000 descendants of these West Indians living in Panama.",
"Other waves of migration to North America, especially to Canada, occurred at the beginning of the 20th century."
],
[
"Governance",
"Together with Martinique, La Réunion, Mayotte and French Guiana, Guadeloupe is one of the overseas departments, being both a region and a department combined into one entity.",
"It is also an outermost region of the European Union.",
"The inhabitants of Guadeloupe are French citizens with full political and legal rights.Goyave Town HallLegislative powers are centred on the separate departmental and regional councils.",
"The elected president of the Departmental Council of Guadeloupe is currently Guy Losbar (1.7.2021); its main areas of responsibility include the management of a number of social and welfare allowances, of junior high school (collège) buildings and technical staff, and local roads and school and rural buses.",
"The Regional Council of Guadeloupe is a body, elected every six years, consisting of a president (currently Ary Chalus) and eight vice-presidents.",
"The regional council oversees secondary education, regional transportation, economic development, the environment, and some infrastructure, among other things.Guadeloupe elects one deputy from one of each of the first, second, third, and fourth constituencies to the National Assembly of France.",
"Three senators are chosen for the Senate of France by indirect election.",
"For electoral purposes, Guadeloupe is divided into two arrondissements (Basse-Terre and Pointe-à-Pitre), and 21 cantons.Most of the French political parties are active in Guadeloupe.",
"In addition there are also regional parties such as the Guadeloupe Communist Party, the Progressive Democratic Party of Guadeloupe, the Guadeloupean Objective, the Pluralist Left, and United Guadeloupe, Solidary and Responsible.The prefecture (regional capital) of Guadeloupe is Basse-Terre.",
"Local services of the state administration are traditionally organised at departmental level, where the prefect represents the government.=== Administrative divisions ===For the purposes of local government, Guadeloupe is divided into 32 communes.",
"Each commune has a municipal council and a mayor.",
"Revenues for the communes come from transfers from the French government, and local taxes.",
"Administrative responsibilities at this level include water management, civil register, and municipal police.NameArea (km2)Population (2019)ArrondissementMapLes Abymes81.2553,514Pointe-à-Pitre50x50pxAnse-Bertrand62.54,001Pointe-à-Pitre50x50pxBaie-Mahault4630,837Basse-Terre50x50pxBaillif24.35,203Basse-Terre50x50pxBasse-Terre5.789,861Basse-Terre50x50pxBouillante43.466,847Basse-Terre50x50pxCapesterre-Belle-Eau103.317,741Basse-Terre50x50pxCapesterre-de-Marie-Galante46.193,298Pointe-à-Pitre50x50pxDeshaies31.13,998Basse-Terre50x50pxLa Désirade21.121,419Pointe-à-Pitre50x50pxLe Gosier45.226,489Pointe-à-Pitre50x50pxGourbeyre22.527,760Basse-Terre50x50pxGoyave59.917,621Basse-Terre50x50pxGrand-Bourg55.544,870Pointe-à-Pitre50x50pxLamentin65.616,354Basse-Terre50x50pxMorne-à-l'Eau64.516,495Pointe-à-Pitre50x50pxLe Moule82.8422,149Pointe-à-Pitre50x50pxPetit-Bourg129.8824,753Basse-Terre50x50pxPetit-Canal728,203Pointe-à-Pitre50x50pxPointe-à-Pitre2.6615,181Pointe-à-Pitre50x50pxPointe-Noire59.76,031Basse-Terre50x50pxPort-Louis44.245,618Pointe-à-Pitre50x50pxSaint-Claude34.310,466Basse-Terre50x50pxSaint-François6111,689Pointe-à-Pitre50x50pxSaint-Louis56.282,397Pointe-à-Pitre50x50pxSainte-Anne80.2924,151Pointe-à-Pitre50x50pxSainte-Rose118.617,985Basse-Terre50x50pxTerre-de-Bas6.8975Basse-Terre50x50pxTerre-de-Haut61,519Basse-Terre50x50pxTrois-Rivières31.17,862Basse-Terre50x50pxVieux-Fort7.241,842Basse-Terre50x50pxVieux-Habitants58.77,110Basse-Terre50x50px=== Geopolitics ===From a geostrategic point of view, Guadeloupe is located in a central part of the Caribbean archipelago between the Atlantic Ocean and the Caribbean Sea.",
"This location in the region allows France to reach a large part of the eastern coast of the American continent.",
"The exclusive economic zone formed by Guadeloupe and Martinique covers just over 126,146 square kilometres.",
"In 1980 France established its maritime boundaries in the area by signing a Treaty with Venezuela.",
"This provides France with important fishing resources.special territories of the European UnionThis offers France important fishing resources and independence to develop a sovereign policy of underwater research and protection (protection of humpback whales, Cousteau reserve, protection of coral reefs).",
"Because of its geographical position, Guadeloupe allows France to participate in political and diplomatic dialogues at both the regional (Lesser and Greater Antilles) and continental (Latin and North America) levels.The signing of the Regional Convention for the Internationalisation of Enterprise (CRIE), membership of the Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC) and membership of the Association of Caribbean States (ACS) are milestones that have enabled Guadeloupe to develop its bilateral or multilateral relations within the framework of international agreements or institutions.11 The development of bilateral and multilateral economic partnerships with other Caribbean and American states is based on the modernisation of the autonomous port of Guadeloupe and the importance of the Guadeloupe-Polo Caribe international airport.===Symbols and flags===As a part of France, Guadeloupe uses the French tricolour as its flag and as its anthem.",
"However, a variety of other flags are also used in unofficial or informal contexts as the flag of Guadeloupe, most notably the sun-based flag.",
"Independentists also have their own flag suggested by the People's Union for the Liberation of Guadeloupe.Image:Flag_of_France.svg|National flag of FranceImage:Unofficial flag of Guadeloupe (local).svg|Colonial flag of GuadeloupeImage:Flag of Guadeloupe (local) variant.svg|Red variant of the colonial sun flagImage:Flag of Guadeloupe (UPLG).svg|Flag used by the independence and the cultural movementsImage:Flag of Guadeloupe (Local).svg|Logo of the Regional Council of Guadeloupe"
],
[
"Economy",
"Plage de Pompierre, one of the many beaches on Guadeloupe that draw in touristsBanana plantations on Basse-TerreThe economy of Guadeloupe depends on tourism, agriculture, light industry and services.",
"It is reliant upon mainland France for large subsidies and imports and public administration is the largest single employer on the islands.",
"Unemployment is especially high among the youth population.In 2017, the Gross domestic product (GDP) of Guadeloupe was €9.079 billion, and showed 3.4% growth.",
"The GDP per capita of Guadeloupe was €23,152.Imports amounted to €3.019 billion, and exports to €1.157 billion.",
"The main export products are bananas, sugar and rum.",
"Banana exports suffered in 2017 from damages due to Hurricane Irma and Hurricane Maria.=== Tourism ===Tourism is one of the most prominent sources of income, with most visitors coming from France and North America.",
"An increasingly large number of cruise ships visit Guadeloupe, the cruise terminal of which is in Pointe-à-Pitre.=== Agriculture ===The traditional sugar cane crop is slowly being replaced by other crops, such as bananas (which now supply about 50% of export earnings), eggplant, guinnep, noni, sapotilla, giraumon squash, yam, gourd, plantain, christophene, cocoa, jackfruit, pomegranate, and many varieties of flowers.",
"Other vegetables and root crops are cultivated for local consumption, although Guadeloupe is dependent upon imported food, mainly from the rest of France.=== Light industry ===Of the various light industries, sugar and rum production, solar energy, cement, furniture and clothing are the most prominent.",
"Most manufactured goods and fuel are imported."
],
[
"Culture",
"===Language===Guadeloupe's official language is French, which is spoken by nearly all of the population.",
"Most residents also speak Guadeloupean Creole, a French-based creole language.Guadeloupean Creole emerged as a result of the need for all ethnic groups (French, African and Amerindian) to be able to understand each other.",
"This language is therefore the result of a mixture created in the 17th century in response to a communicative emergency.",
"At the time of the colony's foundation, a majority of the French population did not speak the standard French language but local dialects and languages, such as Breton and Norman, while the Africans came from a variety of West and Central African ethnic groups and lacked a common language themselves.",
"The Creole language emerged as a lingua franca and ultimately became the native language of much of the population.Moreover, Terre-de-Haut and Terre-de-Bas, in the Saintes archipelago, due to their settlement history (Breton, Norman and Poitevin settlers), have their own Creoles which differ from Guadeloupean Creole by their French pronunciations, their particular expressions, their syntax and their sonorities.",
"Although it is not transcribed, these islanders call their Creole \"patois\" or \"language of St. Martin\" and actively ensure its transmission and perpetuation by their descendants in vernacular form.Warning sign written in Guadeloupe CreoleA Guadeloupean béké first wrote Creole at the end of the 17th century, transcribing it using French orthography.As Guadeloupe is a French department, French is the official language.",
"However, Guadeloupean French (in contact with Creole) has certain linguistic characteristics that differ from those of standard metropolitan French.",
"Recently, a very detailed study of the phonetic aspect of Guadeloupean French has been undertaken (this would be the first study to deal with both the acoustic and the phonological and perceptual aspects of Guadeloupean French in particular and West Indian French in general).",
"It is also concerned with the reading varieties of Guadeloupean French (acrolect, mesolect and basilect).In recent decades there has been a revival of Creole, which has stimulated the appearance of books of short stories and poetry published in Creole and French over the last ten years.",
"In this context, Hector Poullet is a pioneer of Creole-mediated dictation.",
"Creole is also a very colourful language and very philosophical in its expressions and phrases, which, translated literally into French, can be confusing.",
"The representatives of the older generations are not always fluent in French, but in Guadeloupean Creole.Today, the question as to whether French and Creole are stable in Guadeloupe, i.e.",
"whether both languages are practised widely and competently throughout society, remains a subject of active research.===Religion===Cathédrale Notre-Dame de GuadeloupeFigures in 2020 state that 96% of the population is Christian (of these, approximately 86% are Roman Catholic, 8% Protestant and 6% other Christian); of the other 4%, most have no religion.",
"Guadeloupe is in the Catholic diocese of Basse-Terre (et Pointe-à-Pitre).In 1685, the Black Code announced the Christian religion in its Catholic form as the only authorized religion in the French West Indies, thus excluding Jews and the various Protestant groups from practicing their beliefs, and imposed the forced conversion of the newly arrived slaves and the baptism of the older ones.",
"Guadeloupe adopted the code on 10 December 1685.This was followed by a rapid fashion among the slaves, since this religion offered them a spiritual refuge and allowed them to safeguard some of their African beliefs and customs, thus marking the beginning of a religious syncretism.",
"Since the 1970s, new religions and groups have been 'competing' with the Catholic Church, such as the Evangelical Pentecostal Church, the Seventh-day Adventist Church, the Bible Students or Jehovah's Witnesses, and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons).Administratively, the territory of Guadeloupe is part of the Diocese of Basse-Terre and Pointe-à-Pitre, attached to the Catholic Church in France.",
"The diocese includes the territories of Guadeloupe, St. Barthélemy and St. Martin and the number of faithful is estimated at 400,000.In 2020 there were 59 priests active in the diocese.",
"The episcopal see is located in Basse-Terre, in the cathedral of Notre-Dame-de-Guadeloupe.Hinduism, which accompanied the Indians who came to work in Guadeloupe in the mid-19th century, has expanded since the 1980s.",
"The Indian community has its own tradition that comes from India.",
"It is the mayé men, a distorted pronunciation of the name of the Tamil Indian goddess Mariamman.",
"There are no less than 400 temples in the archipelago.",
"Islam made its appearance in the French West Indies in the 1970s, first in Martinique.",
"According to the president of the Muslim association of Guadeloupe, there are between 2,500 and 3,000 Muslims in the department.",
"The island has two mosques.",
"Judaism has been present in Guadeloupe since the arrival of Dutch settlers expelled from the northeast of present-day Brazil in 1654.There is a synagogue and an Israelite cultural community.",
"Guadeloupeans of Syrian and Lebanese origin practice Catholicism in its Maronite form.",
"Rastafari has been attractive to some young people since the 1970s following its emergence in Jamaica.",
"The quimbois or kenbwa, practiced in Guadeloupe, refer to magical-religious practices derived from Christian and African syncretism.=== Literature ===Maryse Condé, historical fiction authorGuadeloupe has always had a rich literary output, with Guadeloupean author Saint-John Perse winning the 1960 Nobel Prize in Literature.",
"Other prominent writers from Guadeloupe or of Guadeloupean descent include Maryse Condé, Simone Schwarz-Bart, Myriam Warner-Vieyra, Oruno Lara, Daniel Maximin, Paul Niger, Guy Tirolien and Nicolas-Germain Léonard.===Music===Music and dance are also very popular, and the interaction of African, French and Indian cultures has given birth to some original new forms specific to the archipelago, most notably zouk music.",
"Since the 1970s, Guadeloupean music has increasingly claimed the local language, Guadeloupean Creole as the preferred language of popular music.",
"Islanders enjoy many local dance styles including zouk, zouk-love, compas, as well as the modern international genres such as hip hop, etc.Traditional Guadeloupean music includes biguine, kadans, cadence-lypso, and gwo ka.",
"Popular music artists and bands such as Experience 7, Francky Vincent, Kassav' (which included Patrick St-Eloi, and Gilles Floro) embody the more traditional music styles of the island, whilst other musical artists such as the punk band The Bolokos (1) or Tom Frager focus on more international genres such as rock or reggae.",
"Many international festivals take place in Guadeloupe, such as the Creole Blues Festival on Marie-Galante.",
"All the Euro-French forms of art are also ubiquitous, enriched by other communities from Brazil, Dominican Republic, Haiti, India, Lebanon, Syria who have migrated to the islands.Classical music has seen a resurgent interest in Guadeloupe.",
"One of the first known composers of African origin was born in Guadeloupe, Le Chevalier de Saint-Georges, a contemporary of Joseph Haydn and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, and a celebrated figure in Guadeloupe.",
"Several monuments and cites are dedicated to Saint-Georges in Guadeloupe, and there is an annual music festival, Festival International de Musique Saint-Georges, dedicated in his honour.",
"The festival attracts classical musicians from all over the world and is one of the largest classical music festivals in the Caribbean.Carnival of GuadeloupeAnother element of Guadeloupean culture is its dress.",
"A few women (particularly of the older generation) wear a unique style of traditional dress, with many layers of colourful fabric, now only worn on special occasions.",
"On festive occasions they also wore a madras (originally a \"kerchief\" from South India) headscarf tied in many different symbolic ways, each with a different name.",
"The headdress could be tied in the \"bat\" style, or the \"firefighter\" style, as well as the \"Guadeloupean woman\".",
"Jewellery, mainly gold, is also important in the Guadeloupean lady's dress, a product of European, African and Indian inspiration.=== Traditional dress ===Traditional dress, inherited today, is the result of a long cultural mix involving Africa, Asia and Europe.",
"This cultural mix was initially based on triangular trade and later on a more globalized trade that included importing fabrics from the Orient.",
"For example, in the traditional Guadeloupean costume, we find Asian influences with the use of madras cloth from India, African and European influences (Spanish in this case) with the use of the headscarf for covering and again European influences (French in this case) in the adoption of the lace petticoat from Brittany.The clothing worn in Guadeloupe has mutated over the centuries and has undergone changes that reflect the social conditions and the evolution of society, from the time of slavery to the present day.",
"During the second half of the 17th century, slaves arriving in Guadeloupe were naked or nearly naked.",
"They were then forced to wear rags or the owner's worn-out clothes, which were quickly discarded, barely concealing their nakedness.",
"Or slaves working in the fields wore the \"three-hole\" dress, made of a vegetable fiber fabric in which three holes were made (two for the arms and one for the head).",
"Under pressure from the church and the authorities, slaves were forced to wear the \"three-hole\" dress.Under pressure from the church and as soon as the Black Code was enforced in 1685, owners were required to provide \"each slave with two suits of cloth or four alders about of cloth a year... art.25\" which only modestly improved their conditions.",
"However, the poor quality of the clothing worn during slavery must be qualified, as it could vary according to the day of the week (daily clothing, Sunday clothing, clothing for special occasions), or according to the status of the slaves employed in the houses.In fact, the latter could be dressed in clothes of different quality according to the job they performed on the property.",
"For example, in the case of the maids, their clothes could be of better quality because they had to reflect the image of success and wealth that their master wanted to project.From the 17th century onwards, the development of the Creole costume coincided with the desire of slave women to regain their dignity, with the evolution of their employment within the household or Guadeloupean society (specialization in the sewing and dressmaking trades), with the evolution of Guadeloupean society (free women of colour, freed slaves, mulatto women) and with the influence of the European fashionable costume, which the housewife represented.After the abolition of slavery, the main periods of traditional Guadeloupean dress were the following:* 1848 to 1930, establishment of the use of the costume;* From 1930 to 1950, significant decrease in the use of the traditional costume;* From 1950 to 1960, period in which the traje becomes a \"folkloric\" garment;* From 1960 to the present, the traditional costume has been recovered and is valued both as an everyday garment and as a sign of attachment to the culture of Guadalupe.53 Today, many designers are inspired by the traditional costume to make some of their creations.As a result of this fusion of African and European dress codes over the centuries, including materials from distant origins, the Guadeloupean wardrobe includes Creole garments such as: the cozy dress or wòb ti-do, an everyday dress also called \"à corps\" because it fits the body like a corset; the skirt-shirt, in ceremonial dress (the shirt is made of very fine batiste trimmed with lace, which stops at the elbows and is buttoned with golden buttons.",
"The skirt, full and very wide in the back with tail, is knotted above the breasts); the bodice dress which is distinguished from the others by the quantity and richness of the fabric used (satin, brocade satin, satin).",
"* The traditional headdress, worn with or without the women's traditional costume, is the subject of a precise codification:* The \"tête chaudière\" is the ceremonial headdress with a round, flat shape, topped with a spiked knot;La fête des cuisinières* The four-pointed headdress (headdress with four knots) means \"my heart has room for whoever wants it!",
"\";* The three-pointed headdress means \"my heart is taken!",
"\";* The two-pointed headdress means \"my heart is compromised, but you can try your luck!",
"\";* The one-ended headdress means \"my heart is free!",
"\"=== Gastronomy ===Guadeloupean cuisine is a mixture of African, European and Asian influences.",
"It uses first of all agricultural products such as poyo (plantain more commonly called green plantain or ti-nain), bread plantain, okra, cabbage, pigeon peas, cristofina, yam or sweet potato.The sea and rivers provide rays, snappers, octopus (chatou), lambis, burgots (a type of large whelk), sea urchins and ouassous.",
"Orchards provide fruits such as soursop, red jambosier, passion fruit (marakoudja), mango, quenette, and citrus.",
"Condiments sometimes added to dishes are habanero chili, cive (a kind of onion from the country) or roucou seeds that give a red tint to sauces.The cooking, often spicy and seasoned, results from soaking meat or fish for hours before cooking, to enhance its flavour.",
"Typical dishes are: fish blaff, dombrés, bébélé (from Marie-Galante), colombo (equivalent to Indian curry) and matété (rice cooked with crab).",
"As for appetizers or snacks, there are morcillas criollas, accras, cassava cakes and bokit.As for desserts, there are blancmange, sorbets or various fruit salads.",
"Pastries include pâtés with jam, tournament d'amour (in Les Saintes), caca bœuf (in Marie-Galante) or sacristain.",
"''Pain natté'', a local brioche bread, is often eaten.There are local productions of candied fruits (elderberry, pineapple, carambola) and jams (guava, banana, coconut).",
"Sorbets such as coconut sherbet or snowball made with crushed ice to which a syrup (mint, grenadine) is added are also consumed.",
"Sweets include coconut sugar, kilibibi and konkada (of Beninese origin).Darse Market, Pointe-à-Pitre.In the category of beverages, the consumption of soft drinks is very important in Guadeloupe, as well as that of a drink locally nicknamed black beer.",
"In addition, it is not uncommon to see vendors of sugar cane juice or coconut water on the roads.",
"Chaudeau is consumed on special occasions (weddings, baptisms, communions) and is a Guadeloupean-style eggnog eaten with a whipped cake (génoise).",
"The rum, whose consumption is culturally imbricated in the Guadeloupean society, comes in particular from one of the ten distilleries distributed in the Guadeloupean territory and that produce the rums of Guadeloupe.=== Festivities ===At Christmas, families and friends gather during the chanté Nwel, an opportunity to sing carols and celebrate.",
"After the vacations, rehearsals begin for the Guadeloupe carnival.",
"Carnival groups parade through the streets every Sunday afternoon until the Carnival festivities in February or March.",
"For example, the groups with skins, the Akiyo group are groups composed only of large percussion and lambi shell instruments.",
"They have the particularity of having no brass instruments in the band, no choreography, they often parade without themed costumes.",
"Since 2014, the Carnival in kabwèt of Marie-Galante has been registered in the inventory of the intangible heritage of France at UNESCO.Shrove Tuesday is the big party where carnival groups compete in the main town, Basse-Terre, or in Pointe-à-Pitre, for the best costumes, the best music or the best choreography whose theme is imposed by the carnival committees.",
"The next day, on Ash Wednesday, the day that ends the carnival, the mascot king of the carnival nicknamed Vaval is burned, which signals the end of the festivities, everyone parades in black and white (to mark Vaval's mourning), and then the forty days of Lent begin.",
"Most of the population is Catholic and respects this period.",
"But, given the great fondness for festivities, on the \"Thursday of Lent\" a parade is organized in red and black identical to that of Carnival, with groups of musicians preceded by people parading.After this period of deprivation, the Easter celebrations take place, during which families usually go camping on the beach and eat traditional and very popular dishes based on crabs: matété (rice cooked with crab), calalou (crabs with wooden leaves accompanied by white rice) or dombrés with crabs (small balls of flour cooked with crab)."
],
[
"Sport",
"Christine Arron, the world's fifth-fastest female sprinter (10.73 sec)Football is popular in Guadeloupe, and several notable footballers are of Guadeloupean origin, including Marius Trésor, Stéphane Auvray, Ronald Zubar and his younger brother Stéphane, Miguel Comminges, Dimitri Foulquier, Bernard Lambourde, Anthony Martial, Alexandre Lacazette, Thierry Henry, Lilian Thuram, William Gallas, Layvin Kurzawa, Mikael Silvestre, Thomas Lemar, Mathys Tel, Kingsley Coman and David Regis.The Guadeloupe football team were 2007 CONCACAF Gold Cup semi-finalists, defeated by Mexico.Basketball is popular.",
"Best known players are the NBA players Rudy Gobert, Mickaël Piétrus, Johan Petro, Rodrigue Beaubois, and Mickael Gelabale (now playing in Russia), who were born on the island.Several track and field athletes, such as Marie-José Pérec, Patricia Girard-Léno, Christine Arron, and Wilhem Belocian, are also Guadeloupe natives.The island has produced many world-class fencers.",
"Yannick Borel, Daniel Jérent, Ysaora Thibus, Anita Blaze, Enzo Lefort and Laura Flessel were all born and raised in Guadeloupe.",
"According to olympic gold medalist and world champion Yannick Borel, there is a good fencing school and a culture of fencing in Guadeloupe.Even though Guadeloupe is part of France, it has its own sports teams.",
"Rugby union is a small but rapidly growing sport in Guadeloupe.Amédée Detraux VelodromeThe island is internationally known for hosting the Karujet Race – Jet Ski World Championship since 1998.This nine-stage, four-day event attracts competitors from around the world (mostly Caribbeans, Americans, and Europeans).",
"The Karujet, generally made up of seven races around the island, has an established reputation as one of the most difficult championships in which to compete.The Route du Rhum is one of the most prominent nautical French sporting events, occurring every four years.Bodybuilder Serge Nubret was born in Anse-Bertrand, Grande-Terre, representing the French state in various bodybuilding competitions throughout the 1960s and 1970s including the IFBB's Mr. Olympia contest, taking 3rd place every year from 1972 to 1974, and 2nd place in 1975.Bodybuilder Marie-Laure Mahabir also hails from Guadeloupe.The country has a passion for cycling.",
"It hosted the French Cycling Championships in 2009 and continues to host the Tour de Guadeloupe every year.Guadeloupe continues to host the Orange Open de Guadeloupe tennis tournament (since 2011).The Tour of Guadeloupe sailing, which was founded in 1981.In boxing, Ludovic Proto - as an amateur, he competed in the 1988 Summer Olympics in the men's light welterweight division.",
"As a professional, he was a former French and European welterweight champion;Gilbert Delé - as a professional, he was a former French and European light-middleweight champion, then he won the WBA world light-middleweight title in 1991;Jean-Marc Mormeck - as a professional, he was a former French light heavyweight champion and two-time unified world cruiserweight champion—held the WBA, WBC, and ''The Ring'' titles twice between 2005 and 2007)."
],
[
"Transport",
"A road on Marie-GalanteGuadeloupe is served by a number of airports; most international flights use Pointe-à-Pitre International Airport.",
"Boats and cruise ships frequent the islands, using the ports at Pointe-à-Pitre and Basse-Terre.On 9 September 2013 the county government voted in favour of constructing a tramway in Pointe-à-Pitre.",
"The first phase will link northern Abymes to downtown Pointe-à-Pitre by 2019.The second phase, scheduled for completion in 2023, will extend the line to serve the university."
],
[
"Education",
"The Guadeloupe academic region includes only the Guadeloupe academy.",
"It employs 9,618 people and its operating budget was €714.3 million for 2018–2019.The territory has 300 elementary schools, including 1 private kindergarten under contract and 14 private elementary schools under contract.",
"It also has 52 middle schools, including 6 private under contract.",
"And finally, it has 38 high schools, 13 of which are private under contract.During the 2018–2019 school year were enrolled at Guadeloupe Academy:* 45,510 students in primary education;* View of the University of the West Indies and Guiana, Saint-Claude, Guadeloupe45,626 students in secondary education;* 2,718 graduate students in high school.",
"* Since 2014, the academy has 12 districts divided into 5 poles:* The Pôle Îles du Nord (St. Martin and St. Barthélemy);* The Basse-Terre Nord Pole (Baie-Mahault, Capesterre-Belle-Eau and Sainte-Rose) ;* The South Pole of Basse-Terre: Basse-Terre and Bouillante (including the islands of Les Saintes);* The North Pole of Grande-Terre: Grande-Terre Nord, Sainte-Anne and Saint-François (including the islands of La Désirade and Marie-Galante);* The South Pole of Grande-Terre: Les Abymes, Gosier and Pointe-à-Pitre.The islands of Guadeloupe are also home to two campuses of the University of the French Antilles, Camp-Jacob in Saint-Claude and Fouillole in Pointe-à-Pitre, the latter being the headquarters of the institution.",
"Student residences are located around each campus.",
"Furthermore, a satellite campus dedicated to healthcare is located in the vicinity of the University Hospital Centre of Pointe-à-Pitre, many schools for apprentices are located throughout the archipelago, an Arts and Crafts Centre acting as local school for fine art is located in Bergevin, Pointe-à-Pitre, and, finally, three sites of the regional second chance school are implanted in various high schools."
],
[
"Infrastructure",
"=== Energy ===The island has great potential for solar, wind and marine energy, but by 2018, biomass and coal energy and petroleum hydrocarbons are still the most used.Bouillante geothermal power plant, GuadeloupeThe Energy transition Law (TECV) provides for 50% renewable energy by 2020 in the territory.",
"And the Guadeloupe EPP plans to develop 66 MW of additional biomass capacity between 2018 and 2023, including 43 MW to replace coal.For example, the Albioma Caraïbes (AC) coal-fired power plant will be converted to biomass to help increase the share of renewables in Guadeloupe's energy mix from 20.5% to 35%, thereby mitigating the island's dependence on fossil fuels and reducing acidic air pollution and the production of toxic and bottom ash.This 34 MW power plant, producing 260 GWh/year of electricity in 2018 (i.e.",
"15% of the island's needs), should reduce 265 000 t of equivalent/year throughout the chain (−87% once converted to biomass compared to the previous situation, coal).Guadeloupe has an electricity production plant, in Le Moule, based on the sugar cane agricultural sector, which recovers the residues from sugar cane crushing (bagasse) to produce energy; 12 wind farms, such as in Désirade, Le Moule or Marie-Galante; a geothermal power plant in Bouillante, which uses the energy of water vapor produced by volcanic activity (the plant's electricity production ranks it first nationally); a project to harness the energy of waves and ocean currents; photovoltaic installations that contribute to the operation of solar water heaters for homes and to the development of the electric vehicle sector.Electricity produced by hydropower, which represents 2.2% of total production, comes from dams built on the beds of certain rivers.=== Drinking water supply ===The water distributed by Guadeloupe's drinking water network comes mainly from Basse Terre, 70% from river intakes and 20% from spring catchments.",
"The remaining 10% comes from boreholes tapping the groundwater of Grande Terre and Marie-Galante.Access to water and sanitation is problematic due to the deteriorated state of the network, which causes many losses in the water supply system.",
"For years, water shortages have been recurrent and have forced \"water shifts\", mainly in the municipalities of Grande-Terre, which are the most affected, with consequences for private individuals and agricultural activities.According to statistics from the Water Office (2020 data), 61% of drinking water production is wasted, i.e., almost 50 million cubic metres of water per year, due to pipes in poor condition.",
"In addition, 70% of wastewater treatment plants do not meet standards."
],
[
"Police and crime",
"Although Guadeloupe is one of the safest islands in the Caribbean, it was the most violent overseas French department in 2016.The murder rate is slightly more than that of Paris, at 8.2 per 100,000.The high level of unemployment caused violence and crime to rise, especially in 2009 and 2010, the years following the Great Recession.",
"Residents of Guadeloupe describe the island as a place with little everyday crime, and most violence is caused by the drug trade or domestic disputes.",
"In 2021, additional police officers were deployed to the island in the face of rioting arising out of COVID-19 restrictions.Normally, about 2,000 police officers are present on the island including some 760 active National Gendarmerie of the COMGEND (Gendarmerie Command of Guadeloupe) region plus around 260 reservists.",
"The active Gendarmerie include three Mobile Gendarmerie Squadrons (EGM) and a Republican Guard Intervention Platoon (PIGR).",
"The Maritime Gendarmerie deploys the patrol boat ''Violette'' in the territory, which is planned for replacement by a new PCG-NG patrol boat in about 2025–2026."
],
[
"See also",
"* Bibliography of Guadeloupe* Index of Guadeloupe-related articles* List of colonial and departmental heads of Guadeloupe* Overseas departments and territories of France* Slavery in the Caribbean"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* Haigh, Sam – ''An Introduction to Caribbean Francophone Writing: Guadeloupe and Martinique.",
"''* Jennings, Eric T. – ''Vichy in the Tropics: Petain’s National Revolution in Madagascar, Guadeloupe, and Indochina, 1940–1944.",
"''* Noble, G. K. – ''The Resident Birds of Guadeloupe.",
"''* Paiewonsky, Michael – ''Conquest of Eden, 1493–1515: Other Voyages of Columbus; Guadeloupe, Puerto Rico, Hispaniola, Virgin Islands.",
"''* Roche, Jean-Claude – ''Oiseau des Antilles.",
"Vol.",
"1, The Lesser Antilles from Grenada to Guadeloupe.''"
],
[
"External links",
"* Prefecture website * Regional Council website * Departmental Council website"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Demographics of Guadeloupe"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Guadeloupe's population, 1961-2003.",
"'''Guadeloupe''' has a population of 375,693 (2021)."
],
[
"Population",
"According to INSEE Guadeloupe had an estimated population of 403,977 on January 1, 2012.Life expectancy at birth is 77.0 years for males, and 83.5 for females (figures for 2011)."
],
[
"Languages",
"French is the official language, taught in the school system.",
"Antillean Creole French is spoken by a large part of the population, understood by nearly all, and taught in some schools.",
"A 2007 document issued by the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie estimated the population to be 80.2% \"francophone\" and 14.9% \"partially francophone\"."
],
[
"Vital statistics",
"The following vital statistics include Saint Martin and Saint Barthélemy.Population(01.01) (x1000)Live birthsDeathsNatural changeCrude birth rate (per 1000)Crude death rate (per 1000)Natural change (per 1000)Total fertility rate 1950 2107 7022 9124 79037.313.723.7 1951 2138 3192 8935 42638.814.224.6 1952 2178 4633 2215 24238.314.324.0 1953 2238 7202 8795 84139.611.627.9 1954 2298 9412 6486 29339.411.028.5 1955 2369 5062 7696 73739.811.228.6 1956 2449 6482 4497 19939.810.029.8 1957 2529 4012 8526 54939.110.628.5 1958 2609 8642 4697 39538.49.928.4 1959 2689 8152 3597 45637.58.728.8 1960 27510 4792 6577 82238.49.728.7 1961 28110 0472 3677 68036.58.228.3 1962 28710 8902 3488 54237.38.528.8 1963 29110 7122 4008 31235.48.327.1 1964 29610 4242 3458 07934.48.126.4 1965 30010 6052 5588 04734.88.126.8 1966 30410 8792 4978 38233.77.925.7 1967 30910 1162 5817 53531.77.923.8 1968 31310 4762 5647 91231.97.624.3 1969 3169 7242 4427 28229.07.721.3 1970 3199 3972 4996 89828.97.821.1 1971 32210 0602 3377 72329.77.022.6 1972 3249 9122 4587 45428.47.321.2 1973 3269 5782 5487 03026.37.418.9 1974 3278 8462 4596 38724.67.417.2 1975 3288 2572 3515 90622.97.115.8 1976 3276 9262 3954 53119.57.212.3 1977 3266 3212 2974 02417.96.811.1 1978 3255 6402 1633 47716.46.79.7 1979 3245 8182 1543 66417.26.510.7 1980 3266 4252 1434 28218.16.611.5 1981 3296 4862 1414 34518.26.411.8 1982 3346 6162 0994 51718.26.411.8 1983 3406 7222 2064 51618.56.611.9 1984 3476 6712 2354 43618.36.411.9 1985 3546 7502 3094 44118.26.511.7 1986 3606 3742 2384 13617.76.211.5 1987 3676 8552 2444 61118.66.212.4 1988 3747 1262 2284 89818.76.012.7 1989 3807 6452 3155 33019.36.113.2 1990 3857 5692 3345 23519.76.113.6 1991 3897 5472 2425 30519.45.813.6 1992 3937 3102 3604 95018.66.012.6 1993 3967 0562 4064 65017.86.111.7 1994 3997 2492 3284 92118.15.812.3 1995 4037 0862 4704 61617.66.111.5 1996 4077 2562 4594 79717.86.011.8 1997 4127 5542 4415 11318.35.912.4 1998 4167 2082 5174 69117.36.011.31.83 1999 385.609*7 4522 6644 78817.76.311.42.10 2000 4257 6012 6344 96717.96.211.72.19 2001 4307 6582 6085 05017.86.111.82.23 2002 4337 0322 7654 26716.26.49.82.07 2003 4377 0472 6624 38516.16.110.02.11 2004 4417 2732 6764 59716.56.110.42.26 2005 4447 5512 9044 64717.06.510.52.37 20064477 1932 9024 29116.16.59.62.33 2007 400.5846 8622 7694 09315.26.29.12.27 2008 401.7846 7582 9163 84214.96.48.52.20 2009 401.5546 3872 9873 40014.06.67.52.13 2010 403.3556 2423 0953 14713.66.76.92.12 2011 404.6356 2842 9653 31913.66.47.22.19 2012 403.3146 1333 0033 13013.26.56.82.20 2013 402.1195 0692 9512 11812.67.35.32.17 2014 400.1865 0013 2901 71112.58.24.32.19 2015 397.9904 7142 9061 80811.97.34.62.10 2016 394.1104 6533 2271 42611.88.23.62.14 2017 390.2534 1263 1211 00510.68.02.61.94 2018 387.6294 2493 25899111.08.42.62.04 2019 384.2394 6013 4691 13212.09.03.02.23 2020 380.9054 6783 74293612.29.82.42.29 2021 377.8564 3444 589-24511.412.1-0.72.15 2022 372.9394 2184,04117710.810.00.82.04 2023 * Excluding data for Saint Barthélemy and Saint Martin=== Structure of the population ===Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 186 946 214 838 401 784 100 0-4 13 809 12 996 26 805 6.67 5-9 15 175 14 109 29 284 7.29 10-14 16 306 15 377 31 683 7.89 15-19 15 755 15 037 30 792 7.66 20-24 10 649 10 440 21 089 5.25 25-29 7 826 10 264 18 090 4.50 30-34 8 654 12 726 21 380 5.32 35-39 12 372 17 029 29 401 7.32 40-44 13 848 18 229 32 077 7.98 45-49 15 179 17 619 32 798 8.16 50-54 13 007 14 572 27 579 6.86 55-59 10 979 13 036 24 015 5.98 60-64 9 991 11 635 21 626 5.38 65-69 7 342 9 028 16 370 4.07 70-74 5 914 7 384 13 298 3.31 75-79 4 505 6 073 10 578 2.63 80-84 2 931 4 424 7 355 1.83 85-89 1 844 2 913 4 757 1.18 90-94 605 1 335 1 940 0.48 95+ 255 612 867 0.22Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent 0-14 45 290 42 482 87 772 21.85 15-64 118 260 140 587 258 847 64.42 65+ 23 396 31 769 55 165 13.73Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 183 479 214 511 397 990 100 0–4 11 292 11 118 22 410 5.63 5–9 13 707 13 062 26 769 6.73 10–14 15 004 14 790 29 794 7.49 15–19 14 731 14 269 29 000 7.29 20–24 10 153 9 731 19 884 5.00 25–29 8 227 10 039 18 266 4.59 30–34 7 926 11 600 19 526 4.91 35–39 9 201 13 111 22 312 5.61 40–44 12 518 16 630 29 148 7.32 45–49 13 926 17 434 31 360 7.88 50–54 14 748 17 227 31 975 8.03 55–59 12 884 14 790 27 674 6.95 60–64 11 204 13 431 24 635 6.19 65-69 9 336 10 991 20 327 5.11 70-74 6 850 8 503 15 353 3.86 75-79 5 315 6 642 11 957 3.00 80-84 3 359 5 193 8 552 2.15 85-89 1 891 3 472 5 364 1.35 90-94 882 1 742 2 625 0.66 95-99 268 549 817 0.21 100+ 56 184 240 0.06Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent 0–14 40 003 38 970 78 973 19.84 15–64 115 519 138 265 253 784 63.77 65+ 27 957 37 276 65 233 16.39"
],
[
"Religion",
"Figures in 2020 state that 96% of the population is Christian (of these, approximately 86% are Roman Catholic, 8% Protestant and 6% other Christian); of the other 4%, most have no religion, although there is a small number of Hindus, Baha'is and Muslims."
],
[
"See also",
"* Demographics of France"
],
[
"References"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Telecommunications in Guadeloupe"
],
[
"Introduction",
"As an overseas department and region of France, Guadeloupe has a developed '''telecommunication system'''."
],
[
"Internet",
"In 2019, there were 170,000 active high speed internet broadband subscriptions in Guadeloupe.",
"3 Internet Service Providers (ISPs) service the region: Orange Caraïbes, Mediaserv, and Outremer Telecom.In 2019, there were 623,000 active mobile phone lines in Guadeloupe, which represents a 145% equipment rate, higher than mainland France."
],
[
"Domain name",
"Guadeloupe has its own domain name: .gp."
],
[
"Radio",
"There are 35 radio stations emitting in Guadeloupe.",
"In 1997, there were 113,000 radio sets in the region."
],
[
"Television",
"There are 10 TV stations emitting in Guadeloupe using digital terrestrial television, including 4 local stations.In 1997, there were 118,000 television sets in Guadeloupe."
],
[
"See also",
"* Guadeloupe"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* Interreg Caribbean* Guadeloupe, SubmarineCableMap.com"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Transport in Guadeloupe"
],
[
"Introduction",
"As an archipelago, Guadeloupe depends on several systems of public transport.",
"The two islands that make up Guadeloupe proper - Grande-Terre and Basse-Terre - have an extensive road network, while water and air transportation connects to the outer islands as well as international destinations."
],
[
"Road transport",
"Guadeloupe uses right-hand traffic.",
"Of the 2,082 km of roads in the region, the majority (1,742 km) are paved and are well-maintained.",
"As Guadeloupe is a French-administered territory, road signs and directions are written in French.",
"The two main islands of Grande-Terre and Basse-Terre are connected by the N1 and N11 highways.",
"Winding roads are common, and in Basse-Terre, the mountain roads have especially sharp turns.Karu'lis operates several bus routes across Grande-Terre (including direct services to and around Basse-Terre), and a small route runs on the north-eastern island of La Désirade."
],
[
"Rail transport",
"There are no public railways in Guadeloupe.",
"A public railway line between Pointe-à-Pitre and Le Moule (Grande-Terre) was proposed but was later scrapped.",
"Some plantations operate private railways.",
"There exists a tourist railway that is operational (as of 2014) from Beauport, Port Louis to de Poyen.",
"The construction of a tramway was planned with two lines: one between the Abymes and the Memorial in Pointe-à-Pître; the other between Baie-Mahault and Gosier.",
"This project was later abandoned due to High-service buses being preferred over the tramway."
],
[
"Water transport",
"The container terminal Port de Jarry, in Pointe-à-Pitre, is Guadeloupe's primary port for cargo and cruise ship passengers.",
"It handles more than 95% of Guadeloupe's trade.",
"Basse-Terre city contains a smaller sea port which also handles passengers.Ferries connect Guadeloupe proper to the outer islands of La Désirade, Marie-Galante, and Îles des Saintes, as well as other Caribbean ports."
],
[
"Air transport",
"Pointe-à-Pitre International Airport is the primary gateway for international travel into and out of Guadeloupe.",
"It offers direct and chartered/seasonal flights to South America, the Caribbean, North America and Europe.",
"It is a hub airport for Air Caraïbes."
],
[
"References"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Glagolitic script"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Zograf Codex with text of the Gospel of LukeThe '''Glagolitic script''' (, , ''glagolitsa'') is the oldest known Slavic alphabet.",
"It is generally agreed that it was created in the 9th century by Saint Cyril, a monk from Thessalonica.",
"He and his brother Saint Methodius were sent by the Byzantine Emperor Michael III in 863 to Great Moravia to spread Christianity among the West Slavs in the area.",
"The brothers decided to translate liturgical books into the contemporary Slavic language understandable to the general population (now known as Old Church Slavonic), and Cyril decided to invent a new script, Glagolitic, which he based on the local dialect of the Slavic tribes from around Thessalonica.",
"After the deaths of Cyril and Methodius, the Glagolitic alphabet ceased to be used in Moravia for political or religious needs.In 886, the students of Cyril and Methodius were expelled and they moved to the First Bulgarian Empire instead.",
"The Cyrillic alphabet, developed at the Preslav Literary School in the late 9th century, included some letters that were likely derived from the Glagolitic alphabet.",
"Both Glagolitic and Cyrillic were used until the 13th–14th century in Bulgaria.Glagolitic also spread in Bohemia, and there are traces of it in Moravia and in Kievan Rus', where its use declined by the 12th century.",
"Since then it was found largely in Croatia, preserved by the clergy mostly in Dalmatia, to write Church Slavonic, with traces also in Slavonia.",
"It reappeared in the West Slavic area in the 14th century, but subsided by the next century.",
"The script was attributed to St. Jerome in the Croatian lands up until the end of the 18th century, which was popular even if wrong.With the adoption of Latin and Cyrillic alphabets in all Slavic-speaking countries, by the early modern times the Glagolitic script remained in limited liturgical use, and went out of use in the 19th century.",
"Since then it has been a topic of academic interest, after a number of archeological discoveries."
],
[
"Name and etymology",
"The word ''glagolitic'' comes from Neo-Latin and Croatian , from Old Church Slavonic (''glagolŭ''), meaning \"utterance\" or \"word\".The name ''glagolitsa'' is speculated to have developed in Croatia, around the 14th century, and was derived from the word ''glagoljati'', literally \"verb (''glagol'') using (''jati'')\", meaning to say Mass in Old Church Slavonic liturgy.In the languages now spoken in the places where Glagolitic script was once used, the script is known as (romanized as ''glagolitsa'' or ''glagolica'', depending on which language) in Bulgarian, Macedonian and Russian; in Croatian and Serbian; глаголиця (''hlaholytsia'') in Ukrainian'';'' in Czech; in Slovak; in Polish; and in Slovene."
],
[
"History",
"===Origins===The Baška tablet, found in the 19th century on Krk, conventionally dated to about 1100The first page of the Gospel of Mark from the 10th–11th century ''Codex Zographensis'', found in the Zograf Monastery in 1843The first page of the Gospel of John from the ''Codex Zographensis''In a book printed in 1591, Angelo Rocca attributed the Glagolitic script to Saint Jerome.Glagolitic script in the Zagreb Cathedral, CroatiaThe final Glagolitic entry in the Omišalj parish's baptismal register, by the cleric Nicholas in 1817The creation of the characters is popularly attributed to Saints Cyril and Methodius, who may have created them to facilitate the introduction of Christianity.",
"It is believed that the original letters were fitted to Slavic dialects in geographical Macedonia specifically (the Byzantine theme of Thessalonica).The words of that language could not be easily written by using either the Greek or Latin alphabets.The number of letters in the original Glagolitic alphabet is not known, but it may have been close to its presumed Greek model.",
"The 41 letters known today include letters for non-Greek sounds, which may have been added by Saint Cyril, as well as ligatures added in the 12th century under the influence of Cyrillic, as Glagolitic lost its dominance.",
"In later centuries, the number of letters dropped dramatically, to fewer than 30 in modern Croatian and Czech recensions of the Church Slavic language.",
"Twenty-four of the 41 original Glagolitic letters (see table below) probably derive from graphemes of the medieval cursive Greek small alphabet but have been given an ornamental design.The source of the other consonantal letters is unknown.",
"If they were added by Cyril, it is likely that they were taken from an alphabet used for Christian scripture.",
"It is frequently proposed that the letters ''sha'' , ''tsi'' , and ''cherv'' were taken from the letters ''shin'' ש and ''tsadi'' צ of the Hebrew alphabet, and that Ⰶ ''zhivete'' derives from Coptic ''janja'' Ϫ.",
"However, Cubberley suggests that if a single prototype were presumed, the most likely source would be Armenian.",
"Other proposals include the Samaritan alphabet, which Cyril learned during his journey to the Khazars in Cherson.For writing numbers, the Glagolitic numerals use letters with a numerical value assigned to each based on their native alphabetic order.",
"This differs from Cyrillic numerals, which inherited their numeric value from the corresponding Greek letter (see Greek numerals).The two brothers from Thessaloniki, who were later canonized as Saints Cyril and Methodius, were sent to Great Moravia in 862 by the Byzantine emperor at the request of Prince Rastislav, who wanted to weaken the dependence of his country on East Frankish priests.",
"The Glagolitic alphabet, however it originated, was used between 863 and 885 for government and religious documents and books and at the Great Moravian Academy (''Veľkomoravské učilište'') founded by the missionaries, where their followers were educated.",
"The Kiev Missal, found in the 19th century in Jerusalem, was dated to the 10th century.In 885, Pope Stephen V issued a papal bull to restrict spreading and reading Christian services in languages other than Latin or Greek.",
"Around the same time, Svatopluk I, following the interests of the Frankish Empire, persecuted the students of Cyril and Methodius and expelled them from Great Moravia.In 886, an East Frankish bishop of Nitra named Wiching banned the script and jailed 200 followers of Methodius, mostly students of the original academy.",
"They were then dispersed or, according to some sources, sold as slaves by the Franks.",
"However, many of them, including Saints Naum, Clement, Angelar, Sava and Gorazd, reached the First Bulgarian Empire and were commissioned by Boris I of Bulgaria to teach and instruct the future clergy of the state in the Slavic language.",
"After the adoption of Christianity in Bulgaria in 865, religious ceremonies and Divine Liturgy were conducted in Greek by clergy sent from the Byzantine Empire, using the Byzantine rite.",
"Fearing growing Byzantine influence and weakening of the state, Boris viewed the introduction of the Slavic alphabet and language into church use as a way to preserve the independence of the Bulgarian Empire from Byzantine Constantinople.",
"As a result of Boris' measures, two academies, one in Ohrid and one in Preslav, were founded.===Spread of the script===From there, the students travelled to other places and spread the use of their alphabet.",
"Students of the two apostles who were expelled from Great Moravia in 886, notably Clement of Ohrid and Saint Naum, brought the Glagolitic alphabet to the First Bulgarian Empire on Balkans and were received and accepted officially by Boris I of Bulgaria.",
"This led to the establishment of the two literary schools: the Preslav Literary School and the Ohrid Literary School.",
"Some went to Croatia (Dalmatia), where the squared variant arose and where Glagolitic remained in use for a long time.",
"In 1248, Pope Innocent IV granted the Croatians of southern Dalmatia the unique privilege of using their own language and this script in the Roman Rite liturgy.",
"Formally granted to bishop Philip of Senj, permission to use the Glagolitic liturgy (the Roman Rite conducted in the Slavic language instead of Latin, not the Byzantine rite), actually extended to all Croatian lands, mostly along the Adriatic coast.",
"The Holy See had several Glagolitic missals published in Rome.",
"Authorization for the use of this language was extended to some other Slavic regions between 1886 and 1935.In missals, the Glagolitic script was eventually replaced with the Latin alphabet, but the use of the Slavic language in the Mass continued, until replaced by modern vernacular languages.At the end of the 9th century, one of these students of Methodius – Saint Naum, one of the founders of the Pliska Literary School (commonly known as the Preslav Literary School, where the Bulgarian capital, along with the school, was transferred to in 893) – is often credited, at least by supporters of glagolitic precedence, for the \"creation\" or wider adoption of the Cyrillic script, which almost entirely replaced Glagolitic during the Middle Ages.",
"The Cyrillic alphabet is derived from the Greek alphabet used at that time, with some additional letters for sounds peculiar to Slavic languages (like ⟨ш⟩, ⟨ц⟩, ⟨ч⟩, ⟨ъ⟩, ⟨ь⟩, ⟨ѣ⟩), likely derived from the Glagolitic alphabet.",
"The decision by a great assembly of notables summoned by Boris in the year 893 in favor of Cyrillic created an alphabetical difference between the two literary centres of the Bulgarian state in Pliska and Ohrid.",
"In the western part the Glagolitic alphabet remained dominant at first.",
"However, subsequently in the next two centuries, mostly after the fall of the First Bulgarian Empire to the Byzantines, Glagolitic gradually ceased to be used there at all.",
"Nevertheless, particular passages or words written with the Glagolitic alphabet appeared in Bulgarian Cyrillic manuscripts till the end of the 14th century.",
"Some students of the Ohrid academy went to Bohemia where the alphabet was used in the 10th and 11th centuries, along with other scripts.",
"It is not clear whether the Glagolitic alphabet was used in the Duchy of Kopnik before the Wendish Crusade, but it was certainly used in Kievan Rus'.",
"Another use of Glagolitic is presumed in now southern Poland (Duchy of Vistula/White Croats state) and the Transcarpathia region.===Survival and use in Croatia===In Croatia, from the 12th century, Glagolitic inscriptions appeared mostly in littoral areas: Istria, Primorje, Kvarner, and Kvarner islands, notably Krk, Cres, and Lošinj; in Dalmatia, on the islands of Zadar, but there were also findings in inner Lika and Krbava, reaching to Kupa river, and even as far as Međimurje and Slovenia.",
"''Hrvoje's Missal'' from 1404 was illuminated in Split, and it is considered one of the most beautiful Croatian Glagolitic books.",
"The 1483 ''Missale Romanum Glagolitice'' was the first printed Croatian Glagolitic book.It was believed that Glagolitsa in Croatia was present only in those areas.",
"But, in 1992, the discovery of Glagolitic inscriptions in churches along the Orljava river in Slavonia totally changed the picture (churches in Brodski Drenovac, Lovčić, and some others), showing that use of the Glagolitic alphabet was spread from Slavonia also.Sporadic instances aside, Glagolitic survived beyond the 12th century as a primary script in Croatian lands alone, although from there a brief attempt at reintroduction was made in the West Slavic area in the 14th century through the Emmaus Benedictine Monastery in Prague, where it survived well into the 15th century, the last manuscript with Glagolitic script dating to 1450–1452.Its use for special applications continued in some Cyrillic areas, for example in the Bologna Psalter (1230-1241), the Sinodalna 895 Menaion (1260), the RPK 312 Gospel (13th), the Karakallou Epistolary (13th), the NBKM 933 Triodion (13th), the Skopje 1511 Octoechos (13th), the BRAN 4.9.39 Miscellany (13th), the Hilandar Chrysorrhoas (13th/14th), the Mazurin 1698 Pandects (13th/14th), the Sofia Psalter (1337), the SANU 55 Epistolary (1366–1367), the RNB F.п.I.2 Psalter (14th), the Čajniče Gospel (late 14th), the Radosav Miscellany (1444–1461), the Prague NM IX.F.38 Psalter (18th) and in the initials of many manuscripts of the Prophets with Commentary dating to the late 15th and early 16th centuries from Muscovy and Russia.",
"Most later use in the Cyrillic world was for cryptographic purposes, such as in the Krushedol Miscellany (15th), the RNB F.п.I.48 Prologue (1456), the Piskarev 59 Isaac (1472), the Shchukin 511 Miscellany (1511) and the Hludov Gospel (17th/18th).The early development of the Glagolitic minuscule script alongside the increasingly square majuscule is poorly documented, but a mutual relationship evolved between the two varieties; the majuscule being used primarily for inscriptions and higher liturgical uses, and the minuscule being used in both religious and secular documents.",
"Ignoring the problematic early Slavonian inscriptions, the use of the Glagolitic script at its peak before the Croatian-Ottoman wars corresponded roughly to the area that spoke the Chakavian dialect at the time, in addition to some adjacent Kajkavian regions within the Zagreb bishopric.",
"As a result, vernacular impact on the liturgical language and script largely stems from Chakavian sub-dialects, although South Chakavian speakers mostly used Cyrillic, with Glagolitic only in certain parishes as a high liturgical script until a Glagolitic seminary was opened in Split in the 18th century, aside from a period of time in the parish of Kučiće-Vinišće.===Decline in Croatia===The Ottoman Empire's repeated incursions into Croatia in the 15th and 16th centuries posed the first major existential threat to the script's survival.",
"The Counter-Reformation, alongside other factors, led to the suppression of Glagolitic in Istria in the 16th–17th centuries as well as in the Zagreb archdiocese.",
"The Latinisation of the coastal cities and islands took much longer, where the script continued to be used by the notaries of Krk into the first decade of the 19th century, with education by rural chapters on that island ensuring the survival of the script until well after their abolition by the Napoleon administration in the second decade of the 19th century.",
"Novitiates continued to be educated primarily in the Glagolitic script as late as the third decade of the 19th century.",
"But without centres of education, Latin script and Italian rapidly took over, so that very little was written in the script after the third quarter of the 19th century except for ceremonial purposes, and soon very few could read the cursive script apart from a few scholars.===Academic debates===The exact nature of relationship between the Glagolitic alphabet and the Early Cyrillic alphabet, their order of development, and influence on each other has been a matter of great study, controversy, and dispute in Slavic studies since the 19th century."
],
[
"Versions of authorship and name",
"The tradition that the alphabet was designed by Saint Cyril and Saint Methodius has not been universally accepted.",
"A once common belief was that the Glagolitic was created or used in the 4th century by St. Jerome (Latin: ''Eusebius Sophronius Hieronymus''), hence the alphabet was sometimes named \"Hieronymian\".It is also acrophonically called ''azbuka'' from the names of its first two letters, on the same model as \"alpha\" + \"beta\" (the same name can also refer to Cyrillic and in some modern languages it simply means \"alphabet\" in general).",
"The Slavs of Great Moravia (present-day Slovakia and Moravia), Hungary, Slovenia and Slavonia were called ''Slověne'' at that time, which gives rise to the name \"Slovenish\" for the alphabet.",
"Some other, rarer, names for this alphabet are '''''Bukvitsa''''' (from common Slavic word \"bukva\" meaning \"letter\", and a suffix \"-itsa\") and \"Illyrian\" (presumably similar to using the same anachronistic name for the Illyrian (Slavic) language).In the Middle Ages, Glagolitsa was also known as \"St. Jerome's script\" due to a popular mediaeval legend (created by Croatian scribes in the 13th century) ascribing its invention to St. Jerome (342–429).",
"The legend was partly based on the saint's place of birth on the border of Dalmatia and Pannonia.",
"He was viewed as a \"compatriot\" and anachronistically as belonging to the same ethnic group; this helped the spread of the cult of the saint in Dalmatia and was later used to support the idea of the presence of Slavic communities in the Eastern Adriatic Coast from ancient times, but the legend was probably firstly introduced for other reasons, like giving a more solid religious justification for the use of this script and Slavic liturgy.",
"The theory nevertheless gained much popularity and spread to other countries before being resolutely disproven.The epoch of traditional attribution of the script to Jerome ended probably in 1812.In modern times, only certain marginal authors share this view, usually \"re-discovering\" one of the already-known mediaeval sources."
],
[
"Characteristics",
"The Lord's Prayer shown in (from left) round, angular, and cursive versions of Glagolitic scriptThe phonetic values of many of the letters are thought to have been displaced under Cyrillic influence or to have become confused through the early spread to different dialects, so the original values are not always clear.",
"For instance, the letter ''yu'' Ⱓ is thought to have perhaps originally had the sound /u/ but was displaced by the adoption of the ligature Ⱆ under the influence of later Cyrillic ''oѵ'', mirroring the Greek ''ου''.",
"Other letters were late creations after a Cyrillic model.",
"It should also be noted that Ⱑ corresponds to two different Cyrillic letters (Ѣ and Я), present even in older manuscripts, and not to different later variants of the same Cyrillic letter in different times or places.The following table lists each letter in its modern order, showing its Unicode representation, images of the letter in both the round and angular/squared variant forms, the corresponding modern Cyrillic letter, the approximate sound transcribed with the IPA, the name, and suggestions for its origin.",
"The Old Church Slavonic names follow the scientific transliteration, while the mostly similar Church Slavonic ones follow an approach more familiar to a generic English speaking reader.",
"Several letters have no modern counterpart.",
"The column for the angular variant, sometimes referred to as Croatian Glagolitic, is not complete as some of the letters were not used following the Croatian recension of Old Church Slavonic.",
"Unicode Round Angular Cyrillic Sound OCS name CS name Meaning Origin Azu Azu А Azъ Az I Phoenician alphabet aleph or the sign of the cross Bouky Bouky Б Buky Buky letters Unknown, possibly Hebrew bet or Aramaic bīt Vede Vede В Vědě Vedi(you/he/she/it) knew Possibly Latin V or an inverted dobro Glagolu Glagolu Г, Ґ Glagoli Glagoli speak (past or imperative) Possibly cursive Greek gamma Γ Dobro Dobro Д Dobro Dobro kindness/good/well Greek delta Jestu Jestu Є, Е, Э, Ё Jestъ Yest is/exists Possibly Samaritan īy or Greek sampi Zhivete Zhivete Ж Živěte Zhivete life/live(2nd plural imperative) Unknown, possibly Coptic janja or astrological symbol for Pisces Dzelo Dzelo Ѕ Dzělo Zelo very Unknown, possibly Armenian ja Zemlja Zemlja З Zemlja Zeml(j)a Earth/ground/soil Possibly a variant of Greek theta Izhe Ι, Ї , Iže Izhe which is/thePossibly Greek upsilon or Greek iota with dieresis I IИ , I/ižei I/izhey and Possibly mimicking the shape of a fish Gjerv Gjerv Ꙉ, Ћ, Ђ , Djervь, ǵervь Cherv, Djerv tree/wood Unknown alt= alt= К Kako Kako how/as Hebrew qoph Ljudie , Ljudie Ljudie Л, Љ , Ljudie Lyudi people Possibly Greek lambda Myslite Myslite М Myslite Mislete think (2nd plural) Greek mu .",
"In squared glagolitic it was eventually replaced by a Latin/Cyrillic like form, partly due to its complexity Našь, Nashi Nashi Н, Њ , Našь Nash ours unknown Onu Onu О Onъ On he, that unknown Pokoi Pokoi П Pokoj Pokoy calmness/peace Possibly a variant of early Greek pi Rici Rici Р Rьci Rtsi speak!/pronounce!",
"Possibly Greek rho Slovo Slovo С Slovo Slovo word/speech Tvrido Tvrido Т Tvrьdo Tverdo solid/hard/surely Perhaps from crossbar of Greek tau Uku Uku У, ОУ Ukъ Uk teaching Ligature of ''onъ'' and ''izhitsa'' Fritu Fritu Ф Frьtъ Fert Variant of Greek phi Heru Heru Х Xěrъ Kher unknown (similar to ''glagoli'' and Latin h) Out Out Ѡ Otъ Oht, Omega from Ligature of ''onъ'' and its mirror image Shta Shta Щ , Šta/Šča Shta/Shcha Ligature of ''sha'' over ''tvrьdo'' Ci Ci Ц Ci Tsi Final form of Hebrew tsade Chrivi Chrivi Ч, Џ Črьvъ Cherv worm unknown (similar to ''shta'' ; perhaps non-final form of Hebrew tsade ) Sha Sha Ш Ša Sha silence/quiet Hebrew shin , Ъ Jerъ Yer, Yor Possibly modification of ''onъ'' .",
"The 'shtapic' variant is probably derived from the apostrophe character.",
"Jery Ы Jery Yerɨ Ligature; digraph of either ''yer'' () or ''yerь'' (), followed by either ''izhe'' () or ''i'' (Ⰻ).",
"Jeri Ь Jerь Yer` Possibly modification of ''onъ'' Jati Jati Ѣ, Я , Jatь Yat, Ya Possibly epigraphic Greek alpha 40px Ё Unknown: Hypothetical component of ''jonsь'' below; /jo/ was not possible at the time Jou Ю Ju Yu Unknown Ensu (small jousu) Ѧ Ensь small yus Greek epsilon , also used to denote nasality Jensu (small jousu) Ѩ Jensь small iotated yus Ligature of ''jestъ'' and ''ensь'' for nasality Onsu (big jousu) Ѫ Onsь big yus Ligature of ''onъ'' and ''ensь'' for nasality Jonsu (big jousu) Ѭ Jonsь big iotated yus Ligature of unknown letter and ''ensь'' for nasality Thita Ѳ Thita Fita Theta Greek theta Yzhica Ѵ , Ižica IzhitsaIn older texts, ''uk'' () and three out of four ''yus''es () also can be written as digraphs, in two separate parts.The order of ''izhe'' () and ''i'' () varies from source to source, as does the order of the various forms of ''yus'' ().",
"Correspondence between Glagolitic ''izhe'' () and ''i'' () with Cyrillic ''И'' and ''І'' is unknown.The Proto-Slavic language did not have the phoneme /f/, and the letters ''fert'' () and ''fita'' () were used for transcribing words of Greek origin, and so was ''izhitsa'' () for the Greek upsilon."
],
[
"Unicode",
"The Glagolitic alphabet was added to the Unicode Standard in March 2005 with the release of version 4.1.The Unicode block for Glagolitic is U+2C00–U+2C5F.The Glagolitic combining letters for Glagolitic Supplement block (U+1E000–U+1E02F) was added to the Unicode Standard in June, 2016 with the release of version 9.0:"
],
[
"Pre-Glagolitic Slavic writing systems",
"A hypothetical pre-Glagolitic writing system is typically referred to as ''cherty i rezy'' (strokes and incisions) – but no material evidence of the existence of any pre-Glagolitic Slavic writing system has been found, except for a few brief and vague references in old chronicles and \"lives of the saints\".",
"All artifacts presented as evidence of pre-Glagolitic Slavic inscriptions have later been identified as texts in known scripts and in known non-Slavic languages, or as fakes.",
"The well-known Chernorizets Hrabar's ''strokes and incisions'' are usually considered to be a reference to a kind of property mark or alternatively fortune-telling signs.",
"Some \"Ruthenian letters\" found in one version of St. Cyril's life are explainable as misspelled \"Syrian letters\" (in Slavic, the roots are very similar: ''rus-'' vs. ''sur-'' or ''syr-''), etc."
],
[
"In popular culture",
"Glagolitic script is the writing system used in the world of ''The Witcher'' books and video game series.",
"It is also featured, in various uses, in several of the point and click adventure games made by Cateia Games, a Croatian game studio.In the 2023 PS5 game ''Forspoken'', Athian script, the written language of the Athian continent and cultures, seems to be based upon Glagolitic script.It is also featured on 1 euro cent, 2 euro cent and 5 euro cent coins minted in Croatia."
],
[
"See also",
"* List of Glagolitic books (disambiguation)* Glagolitic numerals* Glagolitic Mass (by Janáček)* George of Slavonia* Vrbnik Statute* Istrian Demarcation"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Literature",
"* , and Mateo Žagar: ''A Historical Outline of Literary Croatian and The Glagolitic Heritage of Croatian Culture''.",
"Erasmus, Zagreb 2008.",
"*Fučić, Branko: ''Glagoljski natpisi''.",
"Croatian Academy of Sciences and Arts, Zagreb 1982.",
"* Fullerton, Sharon Golke: ''Paleographic Methods Used in Dating Cyrillic and Glagolitic Manuscripts''.",
"Ohio State University, Columbus 1971.",
"* Jagić, Vatroslav: '' Gramatika jezika hèrvatskoga''.",
"A. Jakić, Zagreb 1864.",
"* : ''Hrvatska glagoljica''.",
"Hrvatska uzdanica, Zagreb 1998.",
"* : ''Tragom hrvatskog glagolizma''.",
"Kršćanska sadašnjost, Zagreb 1995.",
"* , Sylvia Richter, and Velizar Sadovski : ''Glagolitica''.",
"Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Vienna 2000.",
"* : ''Abecedarium palaeoslovenicum in usum glagolitarum''.",
"Staroslavenska akademija, Krk 1917.",
"* : ''Rukověť hlaholské paleografie''.",
"Orbis, Prague 1932.",
"* : ''Crtice iz povijesti glagoljice''.",
"Hrvatsko književno društvo sv.",
"Jeronima, Zagreb 1994."
],
[
"External links",
"* Glagolitic text entry application* Glagolitic manuscripts* Croatian Glagolitic Script* Croatian Glagolitic Script* Glagolitic alphabet.",
"Alternative encoding.",
"– Proposals.",
"* The Glagolitic alphabet at omniglot.com* The Budapest Glagolitic Fragments – links to a Unicode Glagolitic font, Dilyana* Glagolitic Fonts* Ancient Scripts: Glagolitic* GNU FreeFont* A simple 7-bit Squared Glagolitic font (.ttf)"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Greatest common divisor"
],
[
"Introduction",
"In mathematics, the '''greatest common divisor''' ('''GCD''') of two or more integers, which are not all zero, is the largest positive integer that divides each of the integers.",
"For two integers , , the greatest common divisor of and is denoted .",
"For example, the GCD of 8 and 12 is 4, that is, .In the name \"greatest common divisor\", the adjective \"greatest\" may be replaced by \"highest\", and the word \"divisor\" may be replaced by \"factor\", so that other names include '''highest common factor''' ('''hcf'''), etc.",
"Historically, other names for the same concept have included '''greatest common measure'''.This notion can be extended to polynomials (see ''Polynomial greatest common divisor'') and other commutative rings (see '''' below)."
],
[
"Overview",
"=== Definition ===The ''greatest common divisor'' (GCD) of integers and , at least one of which is nonzero, is the greatest positive integer such that is a divisor of both and ; that is, there are integers and such that and , and is the largest such integer.",
"The GCD of and is generally denoted .When one of and is zero, the GCD is the absolute value of the nonzero integer: .",
"This case is important as the terminating step of the Euclidean algorithm.The above definition is unsuitable for defining , since there is no greatest integer such that .",
"However, zero is its own greatest divisor if ''greatest'' is understood in the context of the divisibility relation, so is commonly defined as .",
"This preserves the usual identities for GCD, and in particular Bézout's identity, namely that generates the same ideal as .",
"This convention is followed by many computer algebra systems.",
"Nonetheless, some authors leave undefined.The GCD of and is their greatest positive common divisor in the preorder relation of divisibility.",
"This means that the common divisors of and are exactly the divisors of their GCD.",
"This is commonly proved by using either Euclid's lemma, the fundamental theorem of arithmetic, or the Euclidean algorithm.",
"This is the meaning of \"greatest\" that is used for the generalizations of the concept of GCD.=== Example ===The number 54 can be expressed as a product of two integers in several different ways:: Thus the complete list of ''divisors'' of 54 is .Similarly, the divisors of 24 are .The numbers that these two lists have ''in common'' are the ''common divisors'' of 54 and 24, that is,: Of these, the greatest is 6, so it is the ''greatest common divisor'':: Computing all divisors of the two numbers in this way is usually not efficient, especially for large numbers that have many divisors.",
"Much more efficient methods are described in ''''.=== Coprime numbers ===Two numbers are called relatively prime, or coprime, if their greatest common divisor equals 1.For example, 9 and 28 are coprime.=== A geometric view ===A 24-by-60 rectangle is covered with ten 12-by-12 square tiles, where 12 is the GCD of 24 and 60.More generally, an ''a''-by-''b'' rectangle can be covered with square tiles of side length ''c'' only if ''c'' is a common divisor of ''a'' and ''b''.For example, a 24-by-60 rectangular area can be divided into a grid of: 1-by-1 squares, 2-by-2 squares, 3-by-3 squares, 4-by-4 squares, 6-by-6 squares or 12-by-12 squares.",
"Therefore, 12 is the greatest common divisor of 24 and 60.A 24-by-60 rectangular area can thus be divided into a grid of 12-by-12 squares, with two squares along one edge (24/12 = 2) and five squares along the other (60/12 = 5)."
],
[
"Applications",
"=== Reducing fractions ===The greatest common divisor is useful for reducing fractions to the lowest terms.",
"For example, gcd(42, 56) = 14, therefore,: === Least common multiple ===The least common multiple of two integers that are not both zero can be computed from their greatest common divisor, by using the relation:"
],
[
"Calculation",
"=== Using prime factorizations ===Greatest common divisors can be computed by determining the prime factorizations of the two numbers and comparing factors.",
"For example, to compute gcd(48, 180), we find the prime factorizations 48 = 24 · 31 and 180 = 22 · 32 · 51; the GCD is then 2min(4,2) · 3min(1,2) · 5min(0,1) = 22 · 31 · 50 = 12 The corresponding LCM is then2max(4,2) · 3max(1,2) · 5max(0,1) = 24 · 32 · 51 = 720.In practice, this method is only feasible for small numbers, as computing prime factorizations takes too long.=== Euclid's algorithm ===The method introduced by Euclid for computing greatest common divisors is based on the fact that, given two positive integers and such that , the common divisors of and are the same as the common divisors of and .So, Euclid's method for computing the greatest common divisor of two positive integers consists of replacing the larger number with the difference of the numbers, and repeating this until the two numbers are equal: that is their greatest common divisor.For example, to compute , one proceeds as follows::So .This method can be very slow if one number is much larger than the other.",
"So, the variant that follows is generally preferred.=== Euclidean algorithm ===Animation showing an application of the Euclidean algorithm to find the greatest common divisor of 62 and 36, which is 2.A more efficient method is the ''Euclidean algorithm'', a variant in which the difference of the two numbers and is replaced by the ''remainder'' of the Euclidean division (also called ''division with remainder'') of by .Denoting this remainder as , the algorithm replaces with repeatedly until the pair is , where is the greatest common divisor.For example, to compute gcd(48,18), the computation is as follows:: This again gives .=== Lehmer's GCD algorithm ===Lehmer's algorithm is based on the observation that the initial quotients produced by Euclid's algorithm can be determined based on only the first few digits; this is useful for numbers that are larger than a computer word.",
"In essence, one extracts initial digits, typically forming one or two computer words, and runs Euclid's algorithms on these smaller numbers, as long as it is guaranteed that the quotients are the same with those that would be obtained with the original numbers.",
"The quotients are collected into a small 2-by-2 transformation matrix (a matrix of single-word integers) to reduce the original numbers.",
"This process is repeated until numbers are small enough that the binary algorithm (see below) is more efficient.This algorithm improves speed, because it reduces the number of operations on very large numbers, and can use hardware arithmetic for most operations.",
"In fact, most of the quotients are very small, so a fair number of steps of the Euclidean algorithm can be collected in a 2-by-2 matrix of single-word integers.",
"When Lehmer's algorithm encounters a quotient that is too large, it must fall back to one iteration of Euclidean algorithm, with a Euclidean division of large numbers.=== Binary GCD algorithm ===The binary GCD algorithm uses only subtraction and division by 2.The method is as follows: Let ''a'' and ''b'' be the two non-negative integers.",
"Let the integer ''d'' be 0.There are five possibilities:* ''a'' = ''b''.As gcd(''a'', ''a'') = ''a'', the desired GCD is ''a'' × 2''d'' (as ''a'' and ''b'' are changed in the other cases, and ''d'' records the number of times that ''a'' and ''b'' have been both divided by 2 in the next step, the GCD of the initial pair is the product of ''a'' and 2''d'').",
"* Both ''a'' and ''b'' are even.Then 2 is a common divisor.",
"Divide both ''a'' and ''b'' by 2, increment ''d'' by 1 to record the number of times 2 is a common divisor and continue.",
"* ''a'' is even and ''b'' is odd.Then 2 is not a common divisor.",
"Divide ''a'' by 2 and continue.",
"* ''a'' is odd and ''b'' is even.Then 2 is not a common divisor.",
"Divide ''b'' by 2 and continue.",
"* Both ''a'' and ''b'' are odd.As gcd(''a'',''b'') = gcd(''b'',''a''), if ''a'' ''d''.Example: (''a'', ''b'', ''d'') = (48, 18, 0) → (24, 9, 1) → (12, 9, 1) → (6, 9, 1) → (3, 9, 1) → (3, 3, 1) ; the original GCD is thus the product 6 of and .The binary GCD algorithm is particularly easy to implement on binary computers.",
"Its computational complexity is: The computational complexity is usually given in terms of the length of the input.",
"Here, this length is and the complexity is thus: .=== Other methods === or Thomae's function.",
"Hatching at bottom indicates ellipses (i.e.",
"omission of dots due to the extremely high density).If ''a'' and ''b'' are both nonzero, the greatest common divisor of ''a'' and ''b'' can be computed by using least common multiple (LCM) of ''a'' and ''b'':: ,but more commonly the LCM is computed from the GCD.Using Thomae's function ''f'',: which generalizes to ''a'' and ''b'' rational numbers or commensurable real numbers.Keith Slavin has shown that for odd ''a'' ≥ 1:: which is a function that can be evaluated for complex ''b''.",
"Wolfgang Schramm has shown that: is an entire function in the variable ''b'' for all positive integers ''a'' where ''c''''d''(''k'') is Ramanujan's sum.=== Complexity ===The computational complexity of the computation of greatest common divisors has been widely studied.",
"If one uses the Euclidean algorithm and the elementary algorithms for multiplication and division, the computation of the greatest common divisor of two integers of at most bits is This means that the computation of greatest common divisor has, up to a constant factor, the same complexity as the multiplication.However, if a fast multiplication algorithm is used, one may modify the Euclidean algorithm for improving the complexity, but the computation of a greatest common divisor becomes slower than the multiplication.",
"More precisely, if the multiplication of two integers of bits takes a time of , then the fastest known algorithm for greatest common divisor has a complexity This implies that the fastest known algorithm has a complexity of Previous complexities are valid for the usual models of computation, specifically multitape Turing machines and random-access machines.The computation of the greatest common divisors belongs thus to the class of problems solvable in quasilinear time.",
"''A fortiori'', the corresponding decision problem belongs to the class P of problems solvable in polynomial time.",
"The GCD problem is not known to be in NC, and so there is no known way to parallelize it efficiently; nor is it known to be P-complete, which would imply that it is unlikely to be possible to efficiently parallelize GCD computation.",
"Shallcross et al.",
"showed that a related problem (EUGCD, determining the remainder sequence arising during the Euclidean algorithm) is NC-equivalent to the problem of integer linear programming with two variables; if either problem is in '''NC''' or is '''P-complete''', the other is as well.",
"Since '''NC''' contains NL, it is also unknown whether a space-efficient algorithm for computing the GCD exists, even for nondeterministic Turing machines.Although the problem is not known to be in '''NC''', parallel algorithms asymptotically faster than the Euclidean algorithm exist; the fastest known deterministic algorithm is by Chor and Goldreich, which (in the CRCW-PRAM model) can solve the problem in time with processors.",
"Randomized algorithms can solve the problem in time on processors (this is superpolynomial)."
],
[
"Properties",
"* For positive integers ''a'', .",
"* Every common divisor of ''a'' and ''b'' is a divisor of .",
"* , where ''a'' and ''b'' are not both zero, may be defined alternatively and equivalently as the smallest positive integer ''d'' which can be written in the form , where ''p'' and ''q'' are integers.",
"This expression is called Bézout's identity.",
"Numbers ''p'' and ''q'' like this can be computed with the extended Euclidean algorithm.",
"* , for , since any number is a divisor of 0, and the greatest divisor of ''a'' is .",
"This is usually used as the base case in the Euclidean algorithm.",
"* If ''a'' divides the product ''b''⋅''c'', and , then ''a''/''d'' divides ''c''.",
"* If ''m'' is a positive integer, then .",
"* If ''m'' is any integer, then .",
"Equivalently, .",
"* If ''m'' is a positive common divisor of ''a'' and ''b'', then .",
"* The GCD is a commutative function: .",
"* The GCD is an associative function: .",
"Thus can be used to denote the GCD of multiple arguments.",
"* The GCD is a multiplicative function in the following sense: if ''a''1 and ''a''2 are relatively prime, then .",
"* is closely related to the least common multiple : we have*: .",
": This formula is often used to compute least common multiples: one first computes the GCD with Euclid's algorithm and then divides the product of the given numbers by their GCD.",
"* The following versions of distributivity hold true:*: *: .",
"* If we have the unique prime factorizations of and where and , then the GCD of ''a'' and ''b'' is*: .",
"* It is sometimes useful to define and because then the natural numbers become a complete distributive lattice with GCD as meet and LCM as join operation.",
"This extension of the definition is also compatible with the generalization for commutative rings given below.",
"* In a Cartesian coordinate system, can be interpreted as the number of segments between points with integral coordinates on the straight line segment joining the points and .",
"* For non-negative integers ''a'' and ''b'', where ''a'' and ''b'' are not both zero, provable by considering the Euclidean algorithm in base ''n'':*: .",
"* An identity involving Euler's totient function:*: * where is the ''p''-adic valuation."
],
[
"Probabilities and expected value",
"In 1972, James E. Nymann showed that ''k'' integers, chosen independently and uniformly from , are coprime with probability 1/''ζ''(''k'') as ''n'' goes to infinity, where ''ζ'' refers to the Riemann zeta function.",
"(See coprime for a derivation.)",
"This result was extended in 1987 to show that the probability that ''k'' random integers have greatest common divisor ''d'' is ''d''''−k''/ζ(''k'').Using this information, the expected value of the greatest common divisor function can be seen (informally) to not exist when ''k'' = 2.In this case the probability that the GCD equals ''d'' is ''d''−2/''ζ''(2), and since ''ζ''(2) = π2/6 we have: This last summation is the harmonic series, which diverges.",
"However, when ''k'' ≥ 3, the expected value is well-defined, and by the above argument, it is: For ''k'' = 3, this is approximately equal to 1.3684.For ''k'' = 4, it is approximately 1.1106."
],
[
"In commutative rings",
"The notion of greatest common divisor can more generally be defined for elements of an arbitrary commutative ring, although in general there need not exist one for every pair of elements.If is a commutative ring, and and are in , then an element of is called a ''common divisor'' of and if it divides both and (that is, if there are elements and in such that ''d''·''x'' = ''a'' and ''d''·''y'' = ''b'').If is a common divisor of and , and every common divisor of and divides , then is called a ''greatest common divisor'' of and ''b''.With this definition, two elements and may very well have several greatest common divisors, or none at all.",
"If is an integral domain then any two GCD's of and must be associate elements, since by definition either one must divide the other; indeed if a GCD exists, any one of its associates is a GCD as well.",
"Existence of a GCD is not assured in arbitrary integral domains.",
"However, if is a unique factorization domain, then any two elements have a GCD, and more generally this is true in GCD domains.If is a Euclidean domain in which euclidean division is given algorithmically (as is the case for instance when ''R'' = ''F''''X'' where is a field, or when is the ring of Gaussian integers), then greatest common divisors can be computed using a form of the Euclidean algorithm based on the division procedure.The following is an example of an integral domain with two elements that do not have a GCD::The elements 2 and 1 + are two maximal common divisors (that is, any common divisor which is a multiple of 2 is associated to 2, the same holds for 1 + , but they are not associated, so there is no greatest common divisor of and ''b''.Corresponding to the Bézout property we may, in any commutative ring, consider the collection of elements of the form ''pa'' + ''qb'', where and range over the ring.",
"This is the ideal generated by and , and is denoted simply (''a'', ''b'').",
"In a ring all of whose ideals are principal (a principal ideal domain or PID), this ideal will be identical with the set of multiples of some ring element ''d''; then this is a greatest common divisor of and ''b''.",
"But the ideal (''a'', ''b'') can be useful even when there is no greatest common divisor of and ''b''.",
"(Indeed, Ernst Kummer used this ideal as a replacement for a GCD in his treatment of Fermat's Last Theorem, although he envisioned it as the set of multiples of some hypothetical, or ''ideal'', ring element , whence the ring-theoretic term.)"
],
[
"See also",
"* Bézout domain* Lowest common denominator* Unitary divisor"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References",
"* * * *"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* Donald Knuth.",
"''The Art of Computer Programming'', Volume 2: ''Seminumerical Algorithms'', Third Edition.",
"Addison-Wesley, 1997..",
"Section 4.5.2: The Greatest Common Divisor, pp. 333–356.",
"* Thomas H. Cormen, Charles E. Leiserson, Ronald L. Rivest, and Clifford Stein.",
"''Introduction to Algorithms'', Second Edition.",
"MIT Press and McGraw-Hill, 2001..",
"Section 31.2: Greatest common divisor, pp. 856–862.",
"* Saunders Mac Lane and Garrett Birkhoff.",
"''A Survey of Modern Algebra'', Fourth Edition.",
"MacMillan Publishing Co., 1977.. 1–7: \"The Euclidean Algorithm.\""
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Gazpacho"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Gazpacho''' () or '''gaspacho''' (), also called '''Andalusian gazpacho''', is a cold soup and drink made of raw, blended vegetables.",
"It originated in the southern regions of the Iberian peninsula and spread into other areas.",
"Gazpacho is widely eaten in Spain and Portugal, particularly during hot summers, since it is refreshing and cool.Although there are other recipes called ''gazpacho'', such as ''gazpacho manchego'', the standard usage implies a soup.",
"There are also a number of dishes that are closely related and often considered variants thereof, such as ajoblanco, salmorejo, pipirrana, porra antequerana (closer to a bread soup), and cojondongo."
],
[
"History",
"There are many theories as to the origin of gazpacho, including one that says it was a soup of bread, olive oil, water, vinegar, and garlic that arrived in Spain with the Romans.",
"The word \"gazpacho\" may come from the Latin adjective caccabaceus, derived from caccabus (\"cauldron\"), attested in the works of Tertulian, Zeno of Verona and others.",
"This word was applied in ancient Rome to a type of bread very similar to the torta de gazpacho.",
"Once in Spain, it became a part of southern cuisine, particularly in Córdoba, Seville or Granada Castilian kingdoms, using stale bread, garlic, olive oil, salt, and vinegar, similar to ajoblanco.",
"During the 19th century, red gazpacho was created when tomatoes were added to the ingredients.",
"This version spread internationally and remains commonly known.There are many modern variations of gazpacho with avocados, cucumbers, parsley, strawberries, watermelon, grapes, meat stock, seafood, and other ingredients instead of tomatoes and bread."
],
[
"Ingredients and preparation",
"Most gazpacho includes stale bread, tomato, cucumbers, onion, bell peppers, garlic, olive oil, wine vinegar, water, and salt.",
"Northern recipes often include cumin and/or (smoked sweet paprika).Traditionally, gazpacho was made by pounding the vegetables in a mortar with a pestle; this more laborious method is still sometimes used as it helps keep the gazpacho cool and avoids the foam and silky consistency of smoothie versions made in blenders or food processors.",
"A traditional way of preparation is to pound garlic cloves in a mortar, add a little soaked stale bread, then olive oil and salt, to make a paste.",
"Next, very ripe tomatoes and vinegar are added to this paste.",
"In the days before refrigeration, the gazpacho was left in an unglazed earthenware pot to cool by evaporation, with the addition of some water.Gazpacho may be served alone or with garnishes, such as hard-boiled eggs, chopped ham (in the salmorejo variety from Córdoba), chopped almonds, cumin crushed with mint, orange segments, finely chopped green bell peppers, onion, tomato or cucumber.",
"In Extremadura, local ham was added to the gazpacho itself rather than as a garnish; this is called .",
"Andalusian sources say that gazpacho should be slightly chilled, but not iced."
],
[
"Variations",
"Portuguese gaspacho, MonsarazThe ingredients, texture, and thickness of gazpacho vary regionally and between different cooks.Similar cold raw soups such as arjamolho in Portugal, porra antequerana and ajoblanco, are also popular in Andalusia, although not as widespread as gazpacho.",
"Gazpacho and salmorejo are especially similar since they are both tomato-based cold soups that are widely popular in Spain; the main difference between gazpacho and salmorejo is the culinary technique used since gazpacho is a soup whereas salmorejo is an emulsion.",
"In addition, while both dishes share the main ingredients of tomato, olive oil, bread, and garlic, gazpacho can also be prepared with cucumber, peppers, and vinegar, whereas salmorejo cannot.",
"''Gazpacho manchego'', despite its name, is a meat stew, served hot, not a variation on the cold vegetable soup.===In Spain===The original recipe using bread, water, vinegar, oil, and salt is traditional in the Iberian Peninsula, perhaps going back to Roman times.",
"Every central and southern region has its own variety.",
"The humble gazpacho became a very deeply rooted food for peasants and shepherds in Spain.",
"The basic gazpacho gave rise to many variants, some also called gazpacho, others not; some authors have tried to classify all these variations.",
"Gazpachos may be classified by colour: the most usual red ones (which contain tomato), white ones (which contain no tomato, but include dried fruits), and green ones (which are white but contain some spices that make them green).",
"These variants have their basic ingredients in common, including garlic paste which works as an emulsifier, bread, olive oil, vinegar and salt.",
"In addition to the traditional ingredients, red fruits such as strawberries, melon, etc., may be added, making the gazpacho a bit sweeter.",
"Gazpacho may be served as a starter, main dish, or tapa.====Arranque roteño====A popular variation comes from the town of Rota in the province of Cádiz.",
"During times of drought, there was not enough water to make gazpacho; thus, arranque has the same ingredients as gazpacho, but requires less water and bread, making it a sort of cream.",
"Some people add more bread until it takes on the consistency of a dip.====Extremaduran variations====Gazpacho extremeñoIn Extremadura, gazpachos are a kind of purée or thick gazpacho known as ''cojondongo'', or ''cojondongo del gañán'', made of breadcrumbs, garlic, oil, and vinegar, then topped with chopped onions, tomato and peppers.====La Mancha variations====Gazpacho manchego, as its name implies, is made in the east region of La Mancha, in Albacete and nearby areas, and is popular in other areas in the center and southwest of the country.It is a meat stew, whose main ingredients are small game animals or birds such as rabbit, hare, quail, or pigeon, and flatbread, and may include garlic, tomatoes, and mushrooms.",
"It is cooked in a cauldron and served hot.",
"Another well-known variant in La Mancha is gazpacho de pastor or galiano.Some other hot meat or fish dishes from other regions are called gazpacho (gazpacho jumillano, gazpacho de Yecla, gazpacho de Requena, etc.",
")====Castilian variations====Gazpacho is often eaten during the very hot and dry summers in Castilla y León.",
"The gazpacho made in La Moraña in the province of Ávila has large pieces of vegetables floating in a watery soup."
],
[
"See also",
"*List of bread dishes*List of soups*List of tomato dishes"
],
[
"References"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Gopher (disambiguation)"
],
[
"Introduction",
"A '''gopher''', also known as a \"pocket gopher\" (family Geomyidae), is a burrowing rodent native to North America and Central America.",
"'''Gopher''' may also refer to:"
],
[
"Nature",
"* Some species of ground squirrels (tribe Marmotini) of North America, particularly those formerly classified as ''Spermophilus'', are informally referred to as \"gophers\"* Gopher snake – common name of several species of genus ''Pituophis'' endemic to west or southwest of North America* Gopher tortoise (genus ''Gopherus''), distributed in North America* Gopher wood, of unclear meaning, mentioned in the Bible as the building material for Noah's ark* Gopher Plant or Paper Spurge ''(Euphorbia lathyris)''"
],
[
"Entertainment",
"* ''Gophers!",
"'', a British children's television programme* \"Gopher\", real name Burl Smith, a character on TV show ''The Love Boat''* Gopher (Winnie the Pooh), a character in Walt Disney's ''Winnie the Pooh'' franchise* Gordon the Gopher, an English puppet gopher who first appeared on Children's BBC (CBBC) between 1985 and 1987"
],
[
"Technology",
"* The ''SA-13 \"Gopher\"'', or 9K35 Strela-10, a Soviet surface-to-air missile system* Gopher (protocol), an early distributed hypertext protocol* Go gopher, a mascot of Go programming language* Slang term for a mobility scooter"
],
[
"Other",
"* Minnesota, the \"Gopher State\"* Minnesota Golden Gophers, University of Minnesota sports teams* Gopher (train), a passenger train operated by the Great Northern Railway, USA* ''Gopher'' (video game), an Atari 2600 game* Gofer, also spelled \"gopher\", an errand-runner* Gopher Gang, early 20th-century New York street gang"
],
[
"See also",
"* Gofer (disambiguation)* Gaufre, French term for a flat cake similar to waffles"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Gnome"
],
[
"Introduction",
"A '''gnome''' () is a mythological creature and diminutive spirit in Renaissance magic and alchemy, introduced by Paracelsus in the 16th century and widely adopted by authors including those of modern fantasy literature.",
"Typically small humanoids who live underground, gnome characteristics are reinterpreted to suit various storytellers and artists.Lawn ornaments crafted as gnomes were introduced during the 19th century, growing in popularity during the 20th century as garden gnomes."
],
[
"History",
"===Origins===The word comes from Renaissance Latin ''gnomus'', which first appears in ''A Book on Nymphs, Sylphs, Pygmies, and Salamanders, and on the Other Spirits'' by Paracelsus, published posthumously in Nysa in 1566 (and again in the Johannes Huser edition of 1589–1591 from an autograph by Paracelsus).The term may be an original invention of Paracelsus, possibly deriving the term from Latin ''gēnomos'' (itself representing a Greek , approximately \"gē-nomos\", literally \"earth-dweller\").",
"In this case, the omission of the ''ē'' is referred to as a blunder by the Oxford English Dictionary (OED).",
"Paracelsus uses ''Gnomi'' as a synonym of ''Pygmæi'' and classifies them as earth elementals.",
"He describes them as two spans high, very reluctant to interact with humans and able to move through solid earth as easily as humans move through air.The chthonic or earth-dwelling spirit has precedents in numerous ancient and medieval mythologies, often guarding mines and precious underground treasures, notably in the Germanic dwarfs and the Greek Chalybes, Telchines or Dactyls.",
"The gnomes of Swiss folklore follow this template, as they are said to have caused the landslide that destroyed the Swiss village of Plurs in 1618 - the villagers had become wealthy from a local gold mine created by the gnomes, who poured liquid gold down into a vein for the benefit of humans, and were corrupted by this newfound prosperity, which greatly offended the gnomes."
],
[
"Cultural references",
"===In Romanticism and modern fairy tales===''Gnome Watching Railway Train'', Carl Spitzweg, 1848The English word is attested from the early 18th century.",
"Gnomes are used in Alexander Pope's \"The Rape of the Lock\".",
"The creatures from this mock-epic are small, celestial creatures which were prudish women in their past lives, and now spend all of eternity looking out for prudish women (in parallel to the guardian angels in Catholic belief).",
"Other uses of the term ''gnome'' remain obscure until the early 19th century, when it is taken up by authors of Romanticist collections of fairy tales and becomes mostly synonymous with the older word ''goblin''.Pope's stated source, the 1670 French satire ''Comte de Gabalis'' by Nicolas-Pierre-Henri de Montfaucon de Villars, the abbot of Villars, describes gnomes as such:The Earth is filled almost to the center with ''Gnomes'' or ''Pharyes'', a people of small stature, the guardians of treasures, of mines, and of precious stones.",
"They are ingenious, friends of men, and easie to be commandded .",
"They furnish the children of the ''Sages'' with as much money, as they have need of; and never ask any other reward of their services, than the glory of being commanded.",
"The ''Gnomides'' or wives of these ''Gnomes'' or ''Pharyes'', are little, but very handsom ; and their habit marvellously curious.De Villars used the term ''gnomide'' to refer to female gnomes (often \"gnomid\" in English translations).",
"Modern fiction instead uses the word \"gnomess\" to refer to female gnomes.In 19th-century fiction, the chthonic gnome became a sort of antithesis to the more airy or luminous fairy.",
"Nathaniel Hawthorne in ''Twice-Told Tales'' (1837) contrasts the two in \"Small enough to be king of the fairies, and ugly enough to be king of the gnomes\" (cited after OED).",
"Similarly, gnomes are contrasted to elves, as in William Cullen Bryant's ''Little People of the Snow'' (1877), which has \"let us have a tale of elves that ride by night, with jingling reins, or gnomes of the mine\" (cited after OED).The Russian composer Mussorgsky produced a movement in his work ''Pictures at an Exhibition'', (1874) named \"Gnomus\" (Latin for \"The Gnome\").",
"It is written to sound as if a gnome is moving about.Franz Hartmann in 1895 satirized materialism in an allegorical tale entitled ''Unter den Gnomen im Untersberg''.",
"The English translation appeared in 1896 as ''Among the Gnomes: An Occult Tale of Adventure in the Untersberg''.",
"In this story, the ''Gnomes'' are still clearly subterranean creatures, guarding treasures of gold within the Untersberg mountain.As a figure of 19th-century fairy tales, the term gnome became largely synonymous with other terms for \"little people\" by the 20th century, such as ''goblin'', ''brownie'', ''leprechaun'' and other instances of the household spirit type, losing its strict association with earth or the underground world.===Modern fantasy literature===* Creatures called ''gnomes'' have been used in the fantasy genre of fiction and later gaming since the mid-nineteenth century, typically in a cunning role, e.g.",
"as an inventor.",
"* In L. Frank Baum's Oz books (published 1900 to 1920), the Nomes (so spelled), especially their king, are the chief adversaries of the Oz people.",
"They are ugly, hot-tempered, immortal, round-bodied creatures with spindly limbs, long beards and wild hair, militantly collecting and protecting jewels and precious metals underground.",
"Ruth Plumly Thompson, who continued the series (1921 to 1976) after Baum's death, reverted to the traditional spelling.",
"He also featured gnomes in his book ''The Life and Adventures of Santa Claus''.",
"They watch over the rocks, their king is part of the Council of Immortals, and they created the sleigh bells for Santa Claus's reindeer.",
"* J. R. R. Tolkien, in the legendarium (created 1914 to 1973) surrounding his Elves, uses \"Gnomes\" as the initial, but later dropped, name of the Noldor, the most gifted and technologically minded of his elvish races, in conscious exploitation of the similarity with the word ''gnomic''.",
"''Gnome'' is thus Tolkien's English loan-translation of the Quenya word ''Noldo'' (plural ''Noldor''), \"those with knowledge\".",
"Tolkien's \"Gnomes\" are generally tall, beautiful, dark-haired, light-skinned, immortal, and wise.",
"They are also proud, violent, and unduly admire their own creations, particularly their gemstones.",
"Many live in cities below ground (Nargothrond) or in secluded mountain fortresses (Gondolin).",
"He uses \"Gnomes\" to refer to both males and females.",
"In ''The Father Christmas Letters'' (between 1920 and 1942), which Tolkien wrote for his children, Red Gnomes are presented as helpful creatures who come from Norway to the North Pole to assist Father Christmas and his Elves in fighting the wicked Goblins.",
"* BB's ''The Little Grey Men'' (1942) is a story of the last gnomes in England, little wild men who live by hunting and fishing.",
"* In C. S. Lewis's ''The Chronicles of Narnia'' (created 1950 to 1956), the gnomes are sometimes called \"Earthmen\".",
"They live in the Underland, a series of caverns.",
"Unlike the traditional, more human-like gnomes, they can have a wide variety of physical features and skin colours where some of them are either standing at 1 ft or being taller than humans.",
"They are used as slaves by the Lady of the Green Kirtle until her defeat, at which point they return to their true home, the much deeper (and hotter) underground realm of Bism.",
"* The Dutch books ''Gnomes'' (1976) and ''Secrets of the Gnomes'' (1982), written by Wil Huygen, deal with gnomes living together in harmony.",
"These same books are the basis for a made-for-TV animated film and the Spanish-animated series ''The World of David the Gnome'' (as well as the spin-off ''Wisdom of the Gnomes'').",
"The word \"gnome\", in this case, is used in place of the Dutch kabouter.",
"* In J. K. Rowling's ''Harry Potter'' series (created 1997 to 2007), gnomes are pests that inhabit the gardens of witches and wizards.",
"They are small creatures with heads that look like potatoes on small stubby bodies.",
"Gnomes are generally considered harmless but mischievous and may bite with sharp teeth.",
"In the books, it is stated that the Weasleys are lenient to gnomes, and tolerate their presence, preferring to throw them out of the garden rather than more extreme measures.",
"* In ''A.",
"Yoshinobu's Sorcerous Stabber Orphen'', the European concept of a gnome is used in order to introduce the Far Eastern notion of the ''Koropokkuru'', a mythical indigenous race of small people: gnomes are a persecuted minority banned from learning wizardry and attending magical schools.",
"* In Terry Brooks' ''Shannara'' series (created 1977 to 2017), gnomes are an offshoot race created after the Great Wars.",
"There are several distinctive classes of gnomes.",
"Gnomes are the smallest race.",
"In ''The Sword of Shannara'' they are considered to be tribal and warlike, the one race that can be the most easily subverted to an evil cause.",
"This is evidenced by their allegiance to the Warlock Lord in ''The Sword of Shannara'' and to the Mord Wraiths in ''The Wishsong of Shannara''.",
"* Terry Pratchett included gnomes in his ''Discworld'' series.",
"Gnomes were six inches in height but quite strong, often inflicting pain upon anyone underestimating them.",
"One prominent gnome became a Watchman in Ankh-Morpork as the force became more diversified under the command of Sam Vimes, with Buggy Swires appearing in Jingo.",
"Another gnome in the series was Wee Mad Arthur a pest terminator in Feet of Clay.===Music===* One of the first movements in Mussorgsky's 1874 work ''Pictures at an Exhibition'' is named \"Gnomus\" (Latin for \"The Gnome\").",
"It is written to sound as if a gnome is moving about, his movements constantly changing in speed.",
"* \"The Laughing Gnome\" is a song by English musician David Bowie, released as a single in 1967.It became a hit when reissued in 1973, in the wake of Bowie's commercial success.",
"* The 1970 album ''All Things Must Pass'' by English musician George Harrison has a cover image of the musician sitting among a group of garden gnomes.",
"* \"The Gnome\" is a song by Pink Floyd on their 1967 album ''The Piper at the Gates of Dawn''.",
"It is about a gnome named Grimble Gromble.===Games===* In the ''Dungeons & Dragons'' fantasy role-playing game, gnomes are one of the core races available for play as player characters.",
"They are described as being smaller than dwarves and large-nosed.",
"They have an affinity with small animals and a particular interest in gemstones.",
"Depending on setting and subrace, they may also have a natural skill with illusion magic or engineering.",
"* In the ''Warcraft'' franchise (1994 to present), particularly as featured in the massively multiplayer online role-playing game ''World of Warcraft'', gnomes are a race of beings separate from but allied to dwarves and humans, with whom they share the lands of the Eastern Kingdoms.",
"Crafty, intelligent, and smaller than their dwarven brethren, gnomes are one of two races in Azeroth regarded as technologically savvy.",
"It is suggested in lore that the gnomes originally were mechanical creations that at some point became organic lifeforms.",
"In ''World of Warcraft'', gnomes are an exile race, having irradiated their home city of Gnomeregan in an unsuccessful last-ditch effort to drive out marauding foes.=== Movies ===* The 1967 Walt Disney movie ''The Gnome-Mobile''* The 2011 animated movie ''Gnomeo & Juliet''* The 2018 animated movie ''Sherlock Gnomes'' featured gnomish versions of several classic Sherlock Holmes characters.=== TV Shows ===* The Disney+ Series The Santa Clauses"
],
[
"Derivative uses",
"===Garden gnomes===After World War II (with early references, in ironic use, from the late 1930s) the diminutive figurines introduced as lawn ornaments during the 19th century came to be known as garden gnomes.",
"The image of the gnome changed further during the 1960s to 1970s, when the first plastic garden gnomes were manufactured.",
"These gnomes followed the style of the 1937 depiction of the seven dwarves in ''Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs'' by Disney.",
"This \"Disneyfied\" image of the gnome was built upon by the illustrated children's book classic ''Gnomes'' (1976), in the original Dutch ''Leven en werken van de Kabouter'', by author Wil Huygen and artist Rien Poortvliet, followed in 1981 by The Secret Book of Gnomes.",
"Garden gnomes share a resemblance to the Scandinavian tomte and nisse, and the Swedish term \"tomte\" can be translated as \"gnome\" in English.===Gnome-themed parks===Gnome garden at the alt=Several gnome themed entertainment parks exist.",
"Notable ones are:* The Gnome Reserve, at West Putford near Bradworthy in North Devon, United Kingdom* Gnomeland, at Watermouth Castle in Berrynarbor, North Devon, United Kingdom* Gnome Magic Garden, at Colchester, United Kingdom*Gnome Park, in Dawson, Minnesota, United States* The Gnome Village, at Efteling theme park in Kaatsheuvel, Netherlands* Zwergen-Park Trusetal, in Trusetal, Germany*Gnom's Park in Nowa Sól, Poland.===Gnome parades===Gnome parades are held annually at Atlanta's Inman Park Festival.",
"Numerous one-off gnome parades have been held, including in Savannah, Georgia (April 2012) and Cleveland, Ohio (May 2011).===Metaphorical uses===* The expression \"Gnomes of Zurich\", Swiss bankers pictured as diminutive creatures hoarding gold in subterranean vaults, was derived from a speech in 1956 by Harold Wilson, and gained currency in the 1960s (OED notes the ''New Statesman'' issue of 27 November 1964 as earliest attestation).",
"* Architect Earl Young built a number of stone houses in Charlevoix, Michigan, that have been referred to as gnome homes.",
"* A user of Wikipedia or any wiki who makes useful incremental edits without clamouring for attention is called a WikiGnome."
],
[
"See also",
"* Erdgeist* Garden hermit* Gnome (Dungeons & Dragons)* Wrocław's dwarfs* Travelling gnome"
],
[
"References"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Googolplex"
],
[
"Introduction",
"A '''googolplex''' is the large number '''10''', or equivalently, '''10''' or ''''''.",
"Written out in ordinary decimal notation, it is 1 followed by 10100 zeroes; that is, a 1 followed by a googol of zeroes.",
"Its prime factorization is 2 ×5.==History== In 1920, Edward Kasner's nine-year-old nephew, Milton Sirotta, coined the term ''googol'', which is 10, and then proposed the further term ''googolplex'' to be \"one, followed by writing zeroes until you get tired\".",
"Kasner decided to adopt a more formal definition because \"different people get tired at different times and it would never do to have Carnera be a better mathematician than Dr. Einstein, simply because he had more endurance and could write for longer\".",
"It thus became standardized to 10(10100) = 1010100, due to the right-associativity of exponentiation."
],
[
"Size",
"A typical book can be printed with 10 zeros (around 400 pages with 50 lines per page and 50 zeros per line).",
"Therefore, it requires 10 such books to print all the zeros of a googolplex (that is, printing a googol zeros).",
"If each book had a mass of 100 grams, all of them would have a total mass of 10 kilograms.",
"In comparison, Earth's mass is 5.972 × 10 kilograms, the mass of the Milky Way galaxy is estimated at 2.5 × 10 kilograms, and the total mass of all the stars in the observable universe is estimated at 2 × 1052 kg.To put this in perspective, the mass of all such books required to write out a googolplex would be vastly greater than the masses of the Milky Way and the Andromeda galaxies combined (by a factor of roughly 2.0 × 10), and greater than the mass of the observable universe by a factor of roughly 7 × 1039.=== In pure mathematics ===In pure mathematics, there are several notational methods for representing large numbers by which the magnitude of a googolplex could be represented, such as tetration, hyperoperation, Knuth's up-arrow notation, Steinhaus–Moser notation, or Conway chained arrow notation.===In the physical universe===In the PBS science program ''Cosmos: A Personal Voyage'', Episode 9: \"The Lives of the Stars\", astronomer and television personality Carl Sagan estimated that writing a googolplex in full decimal form (i.e., \"10,000,000,000...\") would be physically impossible, since doing so would require more space than is available in the known universe.",
"Sagan gave an example that if the entire volume of the observable universe is filled with fine dust particles roughly 1.5 micrometers in size (0.0015 millimeters), then the number of different combinations in which the particles could be arranged and numbered would be about one googolplex.Writing the number would ultimately hasten the heat death of the universe: if a person can write two digits per second, then writing a googolplex would take about 1.58 years, which is about 1.1 times the accepted age of the universe, and each digit written would result in an increase of entropy by the second law of thermodynamics.",
"is a high estimate of the elementary particles existing in the visible universe (not including dark matter), mostly photons and other massless force carriers."
],
[
"Mod ''n''",
"The residues (mod ''n'') of a googolplex, starting with mod 1, are::0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 4, 4, 0, 1, 0, 1, 4, 3, 4, 10, 0, 1, 10, 9, 0, 4, 12, 13, 16, 0, 16, 10, 4, 24, 10, 5, 0, 1, 18, 25, 28, 10, 28, 16, 0, 1, 4, 24, 12, 10, 36, 9, 16, 4, 0, ...",
"This sequence is the same as the sequence of residues (mod ''n'') of a googol up until the 17th position."
],
[
"See also",
"* Graham's number* Names of large numbers* Orders of magnitude (numbers)* Skewes's number"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* * * *"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Graphite"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Graphite''' () is a crystalline form of the element carbon.",
"It consists of stacked layers of graphene.",
"Graphite occurs naturally and is the most stable form of carbon under standard conditions.",
"Synthetic and natural graphite are consumed on a large scale (1.3 million metric tons per year in 2022) for uses in pencils, lubricants, and electrodes.",
"Under high pressures and temperatures it converts to diamond.",
"It is a good (but not excellent) conductor of both heat and electricity."
],
[
"Types and varieties",
"===Natural graphite===The principal types of natural graphite, each occurring in different types of ore deposits, are* Crystalline small flakes of graphite (or flake graphite) occurs as isolated, flat, plate-like particles with hexagonal edges if unbroken.",
"When broken, the edges can be irregular or angular;* Amorphous graphite: very fine flake graphite is sometimes called amorphous;* Lump graphite (or vein graphite) occurs in fissure veins or fractures and appears as massive platy intergrowths of fibrous or acicular crystalline aggregates, and is probably hydrothermal in origin.",
"* Highly ordered pyrolytic graphite refers to graphite with an angular spread between the graphite sheets of less than 1°.",
"* The name \"graphite fiber\" is sometimes used to refer to carbon fibers or carbon fiber-reinforced polymer.=== Synthetic graphite ===Synthetic graphite (or artificial graphite) is a material consisting of graphitic carbon which has been obtained by graphitizing of non-graphitic carbon'','' by chemical vapor deposition from hydrocarbons at temperatures above , by decomposition of thermally unstable carbides or by crystallizing from metal melts supersaturated with carbon."
],
[
"Natural graphite",
"===Occurrence===Graphite occurs in metamorphic rocks as a result of the reduction of sedimentary carbon compounds during metamorphism.",
"It also occurs in igneous rocks and in meteorites.",
"Minerals associated with graphite include quartz, calcite, micas and tourmaline.",
"The principal export sources of mined graphite are in order of tonnage: China, Mexico, Canada, Brazil, and Madagascar.In meteorites, graphite occurs with troilite and silicate minerals.",
"Small graphitic crystals in meteoritic iron are called cliftonite.",
"Some microscopic grains have distinctive isotopic compositions, indicating that they were formed before the Solar System.",
"They are one of about 12 known types of minerals that predate the Solar System and have also been detected in molecular clouds.",
"These minerals were formed in the ejecta when supernovae exploded or low to intermediate-sized stars expelled their outer envelopes late in their lives.",
"Graphite may be the second or third oldest mineral in the Universe.===Structure===Graphite consists of sheets of trigonal planar carbon.",
"The individual layers are called graphene.",
"In each layer, the carbon atoms are arranged in a honeycomb lattice with a bond length of 0.142 nm, and the distance between planes is 0.335 nm.",
"Bonding between layers is relatively weak van der Waals bonds and are often occupied by gases, which allows the graphene-like layers to be easily separated and to glide past each other.Electrical conductivity perpendicular to the layers is consequently about 1000 times lower.There are two allotropic forms called ''alpha'' (hexagonal) and ''beta'' (rhombohedral), differing in terms of the stacking of the graphene layers: stacking in alpha graphite is ABA, as opposed to ABC stacking in the energetically less stable beta graphite.",
"Rhombohedral graphite cannot occur in pure form.",
"Natural graphite, or commercial natural graphite, contains 5 to 15% rhombohedral graphite and this may be due to intensive milling.",
"The alpha form can be converted to the beta form through shear forces, and the beta form reverts to the alpha form when it is heated to 1300 °C for four hours.File:Graphite ambient STM.jpg|Scanning tunneling microscope image of graphite surfaceFile:Graphite-layers-side-3D-balls.png|Side view of ABA layer stackingFile:Graphite-layers-top-3D-balls.png|Plane view of layer stackingFile:Graphite-unit-cell-3D-balls.png|Alpha graphite's unit cell ===Thermodynamics===Theoretically predicted phase diagram of carbonThe equilibrium pressure and temperature conditions for a transition between graphite and diamond is well established theoretically and experimentally.",
"The pressure changes linearly between at and at (the diamond/graphite/liquid triple point).However, the phases have a wide region about this line where they can coexist.",
"At normal temperature and pressure, and , the stable phase of carbon is graphite, but diamond is metastable and its rate of conversion to graphite is negligible.",
"However, at temperatures above about , diamond rapidly converts to graphite.",
"Rapid conversion of graphite to diamond requires pressures well above the equilibrium line: at , a pressure of is needed.===Other properties===Molar volume against pressure at room temperatureThe acoustic and thermal properties of graphite are highly anisotropic, since phonons propagate quickly along the tightly bound planes, but are slower to travel from one plane to another.",
"Graphite's high thermal stability and electrical and thermal conductivity facilitate its widespread use as electrodes and refractories in high temperature material processing applications.",
"However, in oxygen-containing atmospheres graphite readily oxidizes to form carbon dioxide at temperatures of 700 °C and above.Graphite is an electrical conductor, hence useful in such applications as arc lamp electrodes.",
"It can conduct electricity due to the vast electron delocalization within the carbon layers (a phenomenon called aromaticity).",
"These valence electrons are free to move, so are able to conduct electricity.",
"However, the electricity is primarily conducted within the plane of the layers.",
"The conductive properties of powdered graphite allow its use as pressure sensor in carbon microphones.Graphite and graphite powder are valued in industrial applications for their self-lubricating and dry lubricating properties.",
"There is a common belief that graphite's lubricating properties are solely due to the loose interlamellar coupling between sheets in the structure.",
"However, it has been shown that in a vacuum environment (such as in technologies for use in space), graphite degrades as a lubricant, due to the hypoxic conditions.",
"This observation led to the hypothesis that the lubrication is due to the presence of fluids between the layers, such as air and water, which are naturally adsorbed from the environment.",
"This hypothesis has been refuted by studies showing that air and water are not absorbed.",
"Recent studies suggest that an effect called superlubricity can also account for graphite's lubricating properties.",
"The use of graphite is limited by its tendency to facilitate pitting corrosion in some stainless steel, and to promote galvanic corrosion between dissimilar metals (due to its electrical conductivity).",
"It is also corrosive to aluminium in the presence of moisture.",
"For this reason, the US Air Force banned its use as a lubricant in aluminium aircraft, and discouraged its use in aluminium-containing automatic weapons.",
"Even graphite pencil marks on aluminium parts may facilitate corrosion.",
"Another high-temperature lubricant, hexagonal boron nitride, has the same molecular structure as graphite.",
"It is sometimes called ''white graphite'', due to its similar properties.When a large number of crystallographic defects bind these planes together, graphite loses its lubrication properties and becomes what is known as pyrolytic graphite.",
"It is also highly anisotropic, and diamagnetic, thus it will float in mid-air above a strong magnet.",
"If it is made in a fluidized bed at 1000–1300 °C then it is isotropic turbostratic, and is used in blood-contacting devices like mechanical heart valves and is called pyrolytic carbon, and is not diamagnetic.",
"Pyrolytic graphite and pyrolytic carbon are often confused but are very different materials.Natural and crystalline graphites are not often used in pure form as structural materials, due to their shear-planes, brittleness, and inconsistent mechanical properties."
],
[
"History of natural graphite use",
"Graphite plates and sheets, 10–15 cm high; mineral specimen from Kimmirut, CanadaIn the 4th millennium BCE, during the Neolithic Age in southeastern Europe, the Marița culture used graphite in a ceramic paint for decorating pottery.Sometime before 1565 (some sources say as early as 1500), an enormous deposit of graphite was discovered on the approach to Grey Knotts from the hamlet of Seathwaite in Borrowdale parish, Cumbria, England, which the locals found useful for marking sheep.",
"During the reign of Elizabeth I (1558–1603), Borrowdale graphite was used as a refractory material to line molds for cannonballs, resulting in rounder, smoother balls that could be fired farther, contributing to the strength of the English navy.",
"This particular deposit of graphite was extremely pure and soft, and could easily be cut into sticks.",
"Because of its military importance, this unique mine and its production were strictly controlled by the Crown.During the 19th century, graphite's uses greatly expanded to include stove polish, lubricants, paints, crucibles, foundry facings, and pencils, a major factor in the expansion of educational tools during the first great rise of education for the masses.",
"The British Empire controlled most of the world's production (especially from Ceylon), but production from Austrian, German, and American deposits expanded by mid-century.",
"For example, the Dixon Crucible Company of Jersey City, New Jersey, founded by Joseph Dixon and partner Orestes Cleveland in 1845, opened mines in the Lake Ticonderoga district of New York, built a processing plant there, and a factory to manufacture pencils, crucibles and other products in New Jersey, described in the ''Engineering & Mining Journal'' 21 December 1878.The Dixon pencil is still in production.Graphited Wood Grease 1908 ad in the Electric Railway ReviewThe beginnings of the revolutionary froth flotation process are associated with graphite mining.",
"Included in the ''E&MJ'' article on the Dixon Crucible Company is a sketch of the \"floating tanks\" used in the age-old process of extracting graphite.",
"Because graphite is so light, the mix of graphite and waste was sent through a final series of water tanks where a cleaner graphite \"floated\" off, which left waste to drop out.",
"In an 1877 patent, the two brothers Bessel (Adolph and August) of Dresden, Germany, took this \"floating\" process a step further and added a small amount of oil to the tanks and boiled the mix – an agitation or frothing step – to collect the graphite, the first steps toward the future flotation process.",
"Adolph Bessel received the Wohler Medal for the patented process that upgraded the recovery of graphite to 90% from the German deposit.",
"In 1977, the German Society of Mining Engineers and Metallurgists organized a special symposium dedicated to their discovery and, thus, the 100th anniversary of flotation.In the United States, in 1885, Hezekiah Bradford of Philadelphia patented a similar process, but it is uncertain if his process was used successfully in the nearby graphite deposits of Chester County, Pennsylvania, a major producer by the 1890s.",
"The Bessel process was limited in use, primarily because of the abundant cleaner deposits found around the globe, which needed not much more than hand-sorting to gather the pure graphite.",
"The state of the art, , is described in the Canadian Department of Mines report on graphite mines and mining when Canadian deposits began to become important producers of graphite.=== Other names ===Advert for Crane's Black Lead, c. 1905Historically, graphite was called '''black lead''' or '''plumbago'''.",
"Plumbago was commonly used in its massive mineral form.",
"Both of these names arise from confusion with the similar-appearing lead ores, particularly galena.",
"The Latin word for lead, ''plumbum'', gave its name to the English term for this grey metallic-sheened mineral and even to the leadworts or plumbagos, plants with flowers that resemble this colour.The term ''black lead'' usually refers to a powdered or processed graphite, matte black in color.Abraham Gottlob Werner coined the name ''graphite'' (\"writing stone\") in 1789.He attempted to clear up the confusion between molybdena, plumbago and black lead after Carl Wilhelm Scheele in 1778 proved that these were at least three different minerals.",
"Scheele's analysis showed that the chemical compounds molybdenum sulfide (molybdenite), lead(II) sulfide (galena) and graphite were three different soft black minerals."
],
[
"Uses of natural graphite",
"Natural graphite is mostly used for refractories, batteries, steelmaking, expanded graphite, brake linings, foundry facings, and lubricants.===Refractories===The use of graphite as a refractory (heat-resistant) material began before 1900 with graphite crucibles used to hold molten metal; this is now a minor part of refractories.",
"In the mid-1980s, the carbon-magnesite brick became important, and a bit later the alumina-graphite shape.",
"the order of importance is: alumina-graphite shapes, carbon-magnesite brick, Monolithics (gunning and ramming mixes), and then crucibles.Crucibles began using very large flake graphite, and carbon-magnesite bricks requiring not quite so large flake graphite; for these and others there is now much more flexibility in the size of flake required, and amorphous graphite is no longer restricted to low-end refractories.",
"Alumina-graphite shapes are used as continuous casting ware, such as nozzles and troughs, to convey the molten steel from ladle to mold, and carbon magnesite bricks line steel converters and electric-arc furnaces to withstand extreme temperatures.",
"Graphite blocks are also used in parts of blast furnace linings where the high thermal conductivity of the graphite is critical to ensuring adequate cooling of the bottom and hearth of the furnace.",
"High-purity monolithics are often used as a continuous furnace lining instead of carbon-magnesite bricks.The US and European refractories industry had a crisis in 2000–2003, with an indifferent market for steel and a declining refractory consumption per tonne of steel underlying firm buyouts and many plant closures.",
"Many of the plant closures resulted from the acquisition of Harbison-Walker Refractories by RHI AG and some plants had their equipment auctioned off.",
"Since much of the lost capacity was for carbon-magnesite brick, graphite consumption within the refractories area moved towards alumina-graphite shapes and Monolithics, and away from the brick.",
"The major source of carbon-magnesite brick is now China.",
"Almost all of the above refractories are used to make steel and account for 75% of refractory consumption; the rest is used by a variety of industries, such as cement.According to the USGS, US natural graphite consumption in refractories comprised 12,500 tonnes in 2010.===Batteries===The use of graphite in batteries has increased since the 1970s.",
"Natural and synthetic graphite are used as an anode material to construct electrodes in major battery technologies.The demand for batteries, primarily nickel–metal hydride and lithium-ion batteries, caused a growth in demand for graphite in the late 1980s and early 1990s – a growth driven by portable electronics, such as portable CD players and power tools.",
"Laptops, mobile phones, tablets, and smartphone products have increased the demand for batteries.",
"Electric-vehicle batteries are anticipated to increase graphite demand.",
"As an example, a lithium-ion battery in a fully electric Nissan Leaf contains nearly 40 kg of graphite.Radioactive graphite from old nuclear reactors is being researched as fuel.",
"Nuclear diamond battery has the potential for long duration energy supply for electronics and the internet of things.=== Graphite Anode Materials ===Graphite is 'predominant anode material used today in lithium-ion batteries' EV batteries contain four basic components: anode, cathode, electrolyte, and separator.",
"While there is much focus on the cathode materials – lithium, nickel, cobalt, manganese, etc.",
"– the predominant anode material used in virtually all EV batteries is graphite.===Steelmaking===Natural graphite in steelmaking mostly goes into raising the carbon content in molten steel; it can also serve to lubricate the dies used to extrude hot steel.",
"Carbon additives face competitive pricing from alternatives such as synthetic graphite powder, petroleum coke, and other forms of carbon.",
"A carbon raiser is added to increase the carbon content of the steel to a specified level.",
"An estimate based on USGS's graphite consumption statistics indicates that steelmakers in the US used 10,500 tonnes in this fashion in 2005.===Brake linings===Natural amorphous and fine flake graphite are used in brake linings or brake shoes for heavier (nonautomotive) vehicles, and became important with the need to substitute for asbestos.",
"This use has been important for quite some time, but nonasbestos organic (NAO) compositions are beginning to reduce graphite's market share.",
"A brake-lining industry shake-out with some plant closures has not been beneficial, nor has an indifferent automotive market.",
"According to the USGS, US natural graphite consumption in brake linings was 6,510 tonnes in 2005.===Foundry facings and lubricants===A foundry-facing mold wash is a water-based paint of amorphous or fine flake graphite.",
"Painting the inside of a mold with it and letting it dry leaves a fine graphite coat that will ease the separation of the object cast after the hot metal has cooled.",
"Graphite lubricants are specialty items for use at very high or very low temperatures, as forging die lubricant, an antiseize agent, a gear lubricant for mining machinery, and to lubricate locks.",
"Having low-grit graphite, or even better, no-grit graphite (ultra high purity), is highly desirable.",
"It can be used as a dry powder, in water or oil, or as colloidal graphite (a permanent suspension in a liquid).",
"An estimate based on USGS graphite consumption statistics indicates that 2,200 tonnes were used in this fashion in 2005.Metal can also be impregnated into graphite to create a self-lubricating alloy for application in extreme conditions, such as bearings for machines exposed to high or low temperatures.===Everyday use=======Pencils====alt=Graphite pencilsThe ability to leave marks on paper and other objects gave graphite its name, given in 1789 by German mineralogist Abraham Gottlob Werner.",
"It stems from ''γράφειν (\"graphein\")'', meaning ''to write'' or ''draw'' in Ancient Greek.From the 16th century, all pencils were made with leads of English natural graphite, but modern pencil lead is most commonly a mix of powdered graphite and clay; it was invented by Nicolas-Jacques Conté in 1795.It is chemically unrelated to the metal lead, whose ores had a similar appearance, hence the continuation of the name.",
"'''Plumbago''' is another older term for natural graphite used for drawing, typically as a lump of the mineral without a wood casing.",
"The term plumbago drawing is normally restricted to 17th and 18th-century works, mostly portraits.Today, pencils are still a small but significant market for natural graphite.",
"Around 7% of the 1.1 million tonnes produced in 2011 was used to make pencils.",
"Low-quality amorphous graphite is used and sourced mainly from China.In art, graphite is typically used to create detailed and precise drawings, as it allows for a wide range of values (light to dark) to be achieved.",
"It can also be used to create softer, more subtle lines and shading.",
"Graphite is popular among artists because it is easy to control, easy to erase, and produces a clean, professional look.",
"It is also relatively inexpensive and widely available.",
"Many artists use graphite in conjunction with other media, such as charcoal or ink, to create a range of effects and textures in their work.",
"Graphite of various hardness or softness results in different qualities and tones when used as an artistic medium.====Pinewood derby====Graphite is probably the most-used lubricant in pinewood derbies.===Other uses===Natural graphite has found uses in zinc-carbon batteries, electric motor brushes, and various specialized applications.",
"Railroads would often mix powdered graphite with waste oil or linseed oil to create a heat-resistant protective coating for the exposed portions of a steam locomotive's boiler, such as the smokebox or lower part of the firebox.",
"The Scope soldering iron uses a graphite tip as its heating element.===Expanded graphite===Expanded graphite is made by immersing natural flake graphite in a bath of chromic acid, then concentrated sulfuric acid, which forces the crystal lattice planes apart, thus expanding the graphite.",
"The expanded graphite can be used to make graphite foil or used directly as a \"hot top\" compound to insulate molten metal in a ladle or red-hot steel ingots and decrease heat loss, or as firestops fitted around a fire door or in sheet metal collars surrounding plastic pipe (during a fire, the graphite expands and chars to resist fire penetration and spread), or to make high-performance gasket material for high-temperature use.",
"After being made into graphite foil, the foil is machined and assembled into the bipolar plates in fuel cells.The foil is made into heat sinks for laptop computers which keeps them cool while saving weight, and is made into a foil laminate that can be used in valve packings or made into gaskets.",
"Old-style packings are now a minor member of this grouping: fine flake graphite in oils or greases for uses requiring heat resistance.",
"A GAN estimate of current US natural graphite consumption in this end-use is 7,500 tonnes.===Intercalated graphite===Structure of CaC6Graphite forms intercalation compounds with some metals and small molecules.",
"In these compounds, the host molecule or atom gets \"sandwiched\" between the graphite layers, resulting in a type of compound with variable stoichiometry.",
"A prominent example of an intercalation compound is potassium graphite, denoted by the formula KC8.Some graphite intercalation compounds are superconductors.",
"The highest transition temperature (by June 2009) ''T''c = 11.5 K is achieved in CaC6, and it further increases under applied pressure (15.1 K at 8 GPa).",
"Graphite's ability to intercalate lithium ions without significant damage from swelling is what makes it the dominant anode material in lithium-ion batteries."
],
[
"History of synthetic graphite",
"===Invention of a process to produce synthetic graphite===In 1893, Charles Street of Le Carbone discovered a process for making artificial graphite.",
"In the mid-1890s, Edward Goodrich Acheson (1856–1931) accidentally invented another way to produce synthetic graphite after synthesizing carborundum (also called silicon carbide).",
"He discovered that overheating carborundum, as opposed to pure carbon, produced almost pure graphite.",
"While studying the effects of high temperature on carborundum, he had found that silicon vaporizes at about , leaving the carbon behind in graphitic carbon.",
"This graphite became valuable as a lubricant.Acheson's technique for producing silicon carbide and graphite is named the Acheson process.",
"In 1896, Acheson received a patent for his method of synthesizing graphite, and in 1897 started commercial production.",
"The Acheson Graphite Co. was formed in 1899.Synthetic graphite can also be prepared from polyimide and then commercialized.===Scientific research===Highly oriented pyrolytic graphite (HOPG) is the highest-quality synthetic form of graphite.",
"It is used in scientific research, in particular, as a length standard for the calibration of scanning probe microscopes.===Electrodes===Graphite electrodes carry the electricity that melts scrap iron and steel, and sometimes direct-reduced iron (DRI), in electric arc furnaces, which are the vast majority of steel furnaces.",
"They are made from petroleum coke after it is mixed with coal tar pitch.",
"They are extruded and shaped, then baked to carbonize the binder (pitch).",
"This is finally graphitized by heating it to temperatures approaching , at which the carbon atoms arrange into graphite.",
"They can vary in size up to long and in diameter.",
"An increasing proportion of global steel is made using electric arc furnaces, and the electric arc furnace itself is becoming more efficient, making more steel per tonne of electrode.",
"An estimate based on USGS data indicates that graphite electrode consumption was in 2005.Electrolytic aluminium smelting also uses graphitic carbon electrodes.",
"On a much smaller scale, synthetic graphite electrodes are used in electrical discharge machining (EDM), commonly to make injection molds for plastics.===Powder and scrap===The powder is made by heating powdered petroleum coke above the temperature of graphitization, sometimes with minor modifications.",
"The graphite scrap comes from pieces of unusable electrode material (in the manufacturing stage or after use) and lathe turnings, usually after crushing and sizing.",
"Most synthetic graphite powder goes to carbon raising in steel (competing with natural graphite), with some used in batteries and brake linings.",
"According to the United States Geographical Survey, US synthetic graphite powder and scrap production were in 2001 (latest data).===Neutron moderator===Special grades of synthetic graphite, such as Gilsocarbon, also find use as a matrix and neutron moderator within nuclear reactors.",
"Its low neutron cross-section also recommends it for use in proposed fusion reactors.",
"Care must be taken that reactor-grade graphite is free of neutron absorbing materials such as boron, widely used as the seed electrode in commercial graphite deposition systems – this caused the failure of the Germans' World War II graphite-based nuclear reactors.",
"Since they could not isolate the difficulty they were forced to use far more expensive heavy water moderators.",
"Graphite used for nuclear reactors is often referred to as nuclear graphite.",
"Herbert G. McPherson, a Berkeley trained physicist at National Carbon, a division of Union Carbide, was key in confirming a conjecture of Leo Szilard that boron impurities even in \"pure\" graphite were responsible for a neutron absorption cross-section in graphite that compromised U-235 chain reactions.",
"McPherson was aware of the presence of impurities in graphite because, with the use of Technicolor in cinematography, the spectra of graphite electrode arcs used in movie projectors required impurities to enhance emission of light in the red region to display warmer skin tones on the screen.",
"Thus, had it not been for color movies, chances are that the first sustained natural U chain reaction would have required a heavy water moderated reactor.===Other uses===Graphite (carbon) fiber and carbon nanotubes are also used in carbon fiber-reinforced plastics, and in heat-resistant composites such as reinforced carbon-carbon (RCC).",
"Commercial structures made from carbon fiber graphite composites include fishing rods, golf club shafts, bicycle frames, sports car body panels, the fuselage of the Boeing 787 Dreamliner and pool cue sticks and have been successfully employed in reinforced concrete.",
"The mechanical properties of carbon fiber graphite-reinforced plastic composites and grey cast iron are strongly influenced by the role of graphite in these materials.",
"In this context, the term \"(100%) graphite\" is often loosely used to refer to a pure mixture of carbon reinforcement and resin, while the term \"composite\" is used for composite materials with additional ingredients.Modern smokeless powder is coated in graphite to prevent the buildup of static charge.Graphite has been used in at least three radar absorbent materials.",
"It was mixed with rubber in Sumpf and Schornsteinfeger, which were used on U-boat snorkels to reduce their radar cross section.",
"It was also used in tiles on early F-117 Nighthawk stealth strike fighters.Graphite composites are used as absorber for high-energy particles, for example in the Large Hadron Collider beam dump.Graphite rods when filed into shape are used as a tool in glassworking to manipulate hot molten glass."
],
[
"Graphite mining, beneficiation, and milling",
"Large graphite specimen.",
"Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Leiden, Netherlands.Graphite output in 2005World graphite reserves and mine production in 2022Graphite is mined by both open pit and underground methods.",
"Graphite usually needs beneficiation.",
"This may be carried out by hand-picking the pieces of gangue (rock) and hand-screening the product or by crushing the rock and floating out the graphite.",
"Beneficiation by flotation encounters the difficulty that graphite is very soft and \"marks\" (coats) the particles of gangue.",
"This makes the \"marked\" gangue particles float off with the graphite, yielding impure concentrate.",
"There are two ways of obtaining a commercial concentrate or product: repeated regrinding and floating (up to seven times) to purify the concentrate, or by acid leaching (dissolving) the gangue with hydrofluoric acid (for a silicate gangue) or hydrochloric acid (for a carbonate gangue).",
"In milling, the incoming graphite products and concentrates can be ground before being classified (sized or screened), with the coarser flake size fractions (below 8 mesh, 8–20 mesh, 20–50 mesh) carefully preserved, and then the carbon contents are determined.",
"Some standard blends can be prepared from the different fractions, each with a certain flake size distribution and carbon content.",
"Custom blends can also be made for individual customers who want a certain flake size distribution and carbon content.",
"If flake size is unimportant, the concentrate can be ground more freely.",
"Typical end products include a fine powder for use as a slurry in oil drilling and coatings for foundry molds, carbon raiser in the steel industry (Synthetic graphite powder and powdered petroleum coke can also be used as carbon raiser).",
"Environmental impacts from graphite mills consist of air pollution including fine particulate exposure of workers and also soil contamination from powder spillages leading to heavy metal contamination of soil.According to the United States Geological Survey (USGS), world production of natural graphite in 2016 was 1,200,000 tonnes, of which the following major exporters are: China (780,000 t), India (170,000 t), Brazil (80,000 t), Turkey (32,000 t) and North Korea (6,000 t).",
"Graphite is not currently mined in the United States, but there are many historical mine sites including ones in Alabama, Montana, and in the Adirondacks of NY.",
"Westwater Resources is in the development stages of creating a pilot plant for their Coosa Graphite Mine near Sylacauga, Alabama.",
"U.S. production of synthetic graphite in 2010 was 134,000 t valued at $1.07 billion.=== Occupational safety ===Potential health effects include: *Inhalation: No inhalation hazard in manufactured and shipped state.",
"Dust and fumes generated from the material can enter the body by inhalation.",
"High concentrations of dust and fumes may irritate the throat and respiratory system and cause coughing.",
"Frequent inhalation of fume/dust over a long period of time increases the risk of developing lung diseases.",
"Prolonged and repeated overexposure to dust can lead to pneumoconiosis.",
"Pre-existing pulmonary disorders, such as emphysema, may possibly be aggravated by prolonged exposure to high concentrations of graphite dusts.",
"*Eye contact: Dust in the eyes will cause irritation.",
"Exposed may experience eye tearing, redness, and discomfort.",
"*Skin contact: Under normal conditions of intended use, this material does not pose a risk to health.",
"Dust may irritate skin.",
"*Ingestion: Not relevant, due to the form of the product in its manufactured and shipped state.",
"However, ingestion of dusts generated during working operations may cause nausea and vomiting.",
"*Potential physical / chemical effects: Bulk material is non-combustible.",
"The material may form dust and can accumulate electrostatic charges, which may cause an electrical spark (ignition source).",
"High dust levels may create potential for explosion.====United States====The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set the legal limit (permissible exposure limit) for graphite exposure in the workplace as a time weighted average (TWA) of 15 million particles per cubic foot (1.5 mg/m3) over an 8-hour workday.",
"The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set a recommended exposure limit (REL) of TWA 2.5 mg/m3 respirable dust over an 8-hour workday.",
"At levels of 1250 mg/m3, graphite is immediately dangerous to life and health."
],
[
"Graphite recycling",
"The most common way of recycling graphite occurs when synthetic graphite electrodes are either manufactured and pieces are cut off or lathe turnings are discarded for reuse, or the electrode (or other materials) are used all the way down to the electrode holder.",
"A new electrode replaces the old one, but a sizeable piece of the old electrode remains.",
"This is crushed and sized, and the resulting graphite powder is mostly used to raise the carbon content of molten steel.Graphite-containing refractories are sometimes also recycled, but often are not due to their low graphite content: the largest-volume items, such as carbon-magnesite bricks that contain only 15–25% graphite, usually contain too little graphite to be worthwhile to recycle.",
"However, some recycled carbon–magnesite brick is used as the basis for furnace-repair materials, and also crushed carbon–magnesite brick is used in slag conditioners.While crucibles have a high graphite content, the volume of crucibles used and then recycled is very small.A high-quality flake graphite product that closely resembles natural flake graphite can be made from steelmaking kish.",
"Kish is a large-volume near-molten waste skimmed from the molten iron feed to a basic oxygen furnace and consists of a mix of graphite (precipitated out of the supersaturated iron), lime-rich slag, and some iron.",
"The iron is recycled on-site, leaving a mixture of graphite and slag.",
"The best recovery process uses hydraulic classification (which utilizes a flow of water to separate minerals by specific gravity: graphite is light and settles nearly last) to get a 70% graphite rough concentrate.",
"Leaching this concentrate with hydrochloric acid gives a 95% graphite product with a flake size ranging from 10 mesh (2 mm) down."
],
[
"Research and innovation in graphite technologies",
"Distribution of graphite-related patent families by source type - 2012-2022Innovation Maturity Matrix of graphiteGlobally, over 60,000 patent families in graphite technologies were filed from 2012 to 2021.Patents were filed by applicants from over 60 countries and regions.",
"However, graphite-related patent families originated predominantly from just a few countries.",
"China was the top contributor with more than 47,000 patent families, accounting for four in every five graphite patent families filed worldwide in the last decade.",
"Among other leading countries were Japan, the Republic of Korea, the United States and the Russian Federation.",
"Together, these top five countries of applicant origin accounted for 95 percent of global patenting output related to graphite.Among the different graphite sources, flake graphite has the highest number of patent families, with more than 5,600 filed worldwide from 2012 to 2021.Supported by active research from its commercial entities and research institutions, China is the country most actively exploiting flake graphite and has contributed to 85 percent of global patent filings in this area.At the same time, innovations exploring new synthesis methods and uses for artificial graphite are gaining interest worldwide, as countries seek to exploit the superior material qualities associated with this man-made substance and reduce reliance on the natural material.",
"Patenting activity is strongly led by commercial entities, particularly world-renowned battery manufacturers and anode material suppliers, with patenting interest focused on battery anode applications.The exfoliation process for bulk graphite, which involves separating the carbon layers within graphite, has been extensively studied between 2012 and 2021.Specifically, ultrasonic and thermal exfoliation have been the two most popular approaches worldwide, with 4,267 and 2,579 patent families, respectively, significantly more than for either the chemical or electrochemical alternatives.Global patenting activity relating to ultrasonic exfoliation has decreased over the years, indicating that this low-cost technique has become well established.",
"Thermal exfoliation is a more recent process.",
"Compared to ultrasonic exfoliation, this fast and solvent-free thermal approach has attracted greater commercial interest.As the most widespread anode material for lithium-ion batteries, graphite has drawn significant attention worldwide for use in battery applications.",
"With over 8,000 patent families filed from 2012 to 2021, battery applications were a key driver of global graphite-related inventions.",
"Innovations in this area are led by battery manufacturers or anode suppliers who have amassed sizable patent portfolios focused strongly on battery performance improvements based on graphite anode innovation.",
"Besides industry players, academia and research institutions – Chinese universities, in particular – have been an essential source of innovation in graphite anode technologies.Graphite for polymer applications was an innovation hot topic from 2012 to 2021, with over 8,000 patent families recorded worldwide.",
"However, in recent years, in the top countries of applicant origin in this area, including China, Japan and the United States of America (US), patent filings have decreased.Graphite for manufacturing ceramics represents another area of intensive research, with over 6,000 patent families registered in the last decade alone.",
"Specifically, graphite for refractory accounted for over one-third of ceramics-related graphite patent families in China and about one-fifth in the rest of the world.",
"Other important graphite applications include high-value ceramic materials such as carbides for specific industries, ranging from electrical and electronics, aerospace and precision engineering to military and nuclear applications.Carbon brushes represent a long-explored graphite application area.",
"There have been few inventions in this area over the last decade, with less than 300 patent families filed from 2012 to 2021, very significantly less than between 1992 and 2011.Biomedical, sensor, and conductive ink are emerging application areas for graphite that have attracted interest from both academia and commercial entities, including renowned universities and multinational corporations.",
"Typically for an emerging technology area, related patent families were filed by various organizations without any players dominating.",
"As a result, the top applicants have a small number of inventions, unlike in well-explored areas, where they will have strong technology accumulation and large patent portfolios.",
"The innovation focus of these three emerging areas is highly scattered and can be diverse, even for a single applicant.",
"However, recent inventions are seen to leverage the development of graphite nanomaterials, particularly graphite nanocomposites and graphene."
],
[
"See also",
"*Carbon fiber*Carbon nanotube*Exfoliated graphite nano-platelets*Fullerene*Graphene*Graphitizing and non-graphitizing carbons*Intumescent*Lonsdaleite*Passive fire protection*Pyrolytic carbon"
],
[
"Sources"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* * * * *"
],
[
"External links",
"* Battery Grade Graphite* Graphite at Minerals.net* Mineral galleries* Mineral & Exploration – Map of World Graphite Mines and Producers 2012* Mindat w/ locations* giant covalent structures* The Graphite Page* Video lecture on the properties of graphite by M. Heggie, University of Sussex* CDC – NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Garry Trudeau"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Garretson Beekman Trudeau''' (born July 21, 1948) is an American cartoonist, best known for creating the ''Doonesbury'' comic strip.",
"Trudeau is also the creator and executive producer of the Amazon Studios political comedy series ''Alpha House''.",
"Trudeau won the Pulitzer Prize for Editorial Cartooning in 1975, making him the first comic strip artist to win a Pulitzer.",
"He is one of only two comic strip artists to win the award, the other being Berkeley Breathed, whose work was influenced by Trudeau."
],
[
"Background and education",
"Trudeau was born in New York City, the son of Jean Douglas ( Moore, daughter of New York Assembly member Thomas Channing Moore) and Francis Berger Trudeau Jr.",
"He is the great-grandson of Edward Livingston Trudeau, who created Adirondack Cottage Sanitarium for the treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis at Saranac Lake, New York.",
"Edward was succeeded by his son Francis and grandson Francis Jr.",
"The latter founded the Trudeau Institute at Saranac Lake, with which Garry Trudeau retains a connection.His ancestry is French Canadian, English, Dutch, German, and Swedish.Raised in Saranac Lake, Trudeau attended St. Paul's School in Concord, New Hampshire.",
"He enrolled in Yale University in 1966.As an art major, Trudeau initially focused on painting, but soon discovered a greater interest in the graphic arts.",
"He spent much of his time cartooning and writing for Yale's humor magazine ''The Yale Record'', eventually serving as the magazine's editor-in-chief.",
"At the same time, Trudeau began contributing to the ''Yale Daily News'', which eventually led to the creation of ''Bull Tales'', a comic strip parodying the exploits of Yale quarterback Brian Dowling.",
"This strip was the progenitor of ''Doonesbury''.While still an undergraduate at Yale, Trudeau published two collections of ''Bull Tales'': ''Bull Tales'' (1969, published by the ''Yale Daily News'') and ''Michael J.''",
"(1970, published by ''The Yale Record'').As a senior, Trudeau became a member of Scroll and Key.",
"He did postgraduate work at the Yale School of Art, earning a master of fine arts degree in graphic design in 1973.It was there that Trudeau first met photographer David Levinthal, with whom he collaborated on ''Hitler Moves East'', an influential \"graphic chronicle\" of the German invasion of the Soviet Union."
],
[
"Creative works",
"Soon after ''Bull Tales'' began running in the Yale student newspaper, the strip caught the attention of the newly formed Universal Press Syndicate.",
"The syndicate's editor, James F. Andrews, recruited Trudeau, changed the strip's name to ''Doonesbury'', and began distributing it following the cartoonist's graduation in 1970.Today ''Doonesbury'' is syndicated to 1,000 daily and Sunday newspapers worldwide and is accessible online in association with ''The Washington Post''.In 1975, Trudeau became the first comic strip artist to win a Pulitzer, traditionally awarded to editorial-page cartoonists.",
"He was also a Pulitzer finalist in 1990, 2004, and 2005.Other awards include the National Cartoonist Society Newspaper Comic Strip Award in 1994, and the Reuben Award in 1995..",
"In 1993, Trudeau was made a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.",
"Wiley Miller, fellow comic-strip artist responsible for ''Non Sequitur'', called him \"far and away the most influential editorial cartoonist in the last 25 years\".",
"A regular graduation speaker, Trudeau has received 36 honorary degrees.Trudeau in 1999In addition to his creating his strip, Trudeau has worked in both theater and television.",
"He was nominated for an Oscar in 1977 in the category of Animated Short Film for ''A Doonesbury Special'', created for NBC in collaboration with John and Faith Hubley.",
"The film won the Cannes Film Festival Jury Prize in 1978.In 1984, with composer Elizabeth Swados, he wrote the book and lyrics for the Broadway musical ''Doonesbury'', for which he was nominated for two Drama Desk Awards.",
"A cast album of the show, recorded for MCA, received a Grammy nomination.",
"Trudeau again collaborated with Swados in 1984, this time on ''Rap Master Ronnie'', a satirical revue about the Reagan Administration that opened off-Broadway at the Village Gate.",
"A filmed version, featuring Jon Cryer, the Smothers Brothers, and Carol Kane, was broadcast on Cinemax in 1988.Also in 1988, Trudeau wrote and co-produced with director Robert Altman HBO's critically acclaimed ''Tanner '88'', a satiric look at that year's presidential election campaign.",
"The show won the gold medal for Best Television Series at the Cannes Television Festival, the British Academy Television Award for Best Foreign Program, and Best Imported Program from the British Broadcasting Press Guild.",
"It earned an Emmy Award, as well as four ACE Award nominations.",
"In 2004, Trudeau reunited with Altman to write and co-produce a sequel mini-series, ''Tanner on Tanner'', for the Sundance Channel.In 1996, ''Newsweek'' and the ''Washington Post'' speculated that Trudeau had written the novel ''Primary Colors'', which was later revealed to have been written by Joe Klein.",
"In February 2000, Trudeau, working with Dotcomix, launched ''Duke2000'', a web-based presidential campaign featuring a real-time, 3-D, streaming-animation version of Duke.",
"Nearly 30 campaign videos were created for the site, and Ambassador Duke was interviewed live by satellite on the ''Today Show, Larry King Live, The Charlie Rose Show'', and dozens of local TV and radio news shows.In 2013, Trudeau created, wrote and co-produced ''Alpha House'', a political sitcom starring John Goodman that revolves around four Republican U.S.",
"Senators who live together in a townhouse on Capitol Hill.",
"Trudeau was inspired to write the show's pilot after reading a 2007 ''New York Times'' article about a real D.C. townhouse shared by New York Senator Chuck Schumer, Illinois Senator Dick Durbin, and California Representative George Miller, all Democrats.",
"The pilot for ''Alpha House'' was produced by Amazon Studios and aired in early 2013.Due to positive response, Amazon picked up the show to develop into a full series, streaming eleven episodes for its first season.",
"On March 31, 2014, Amazon announced that ''Alpha House'' had been renewed.",
"Production began in July 2014, and the entire second season became available for streaming on October 24, 2014.While writing ''Alpha House'', Trudeau put the daily Doonesbury into rerun mode.",
"On March 3, 2014, the \"Classic Doonesbury\" series began, featuring approximately four weeks of daily strips from each year of the strip's run.",
"He continues to produce new strips for Sundays.",
"Although ''Alpha House'' has not been in production since the end of 2014, Trudeau has not returned to creating daily ''Doonesbury'' strips; new material remains a Sunday-only event.Trudeau has contributed to such publications as ''Harper's'', ''Rolling Stone'', ''The New Republic'', ''The New Yorker'', ''New York'', and ''The Washington Post''.",
"From 1990 to 1994, he wrote and drew an occasional column for ''The New York Times'' op-ed page, and was a contributing essayist for ''Time'' magazine from 1996 to 2001.Beginning with the Gulf War in 1991, Trudeau has written about military issues extensively.",
"In recognition for his work on wounded warriors, he has been presented with the Commander's Award for Public Service by the Department of the Army, the Commander's Award from Disabled American Veterans, the President's Award for Excellence in the Arts from Vietnam Veterans of America, the Distinguished Public Service Award from the American Academy of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, the Mental Health Research Advocacy Award from the Yale School of Medicine, and a special citation from the Vet Centers.He received several unit commendations from the field during the Gulf War, and he traveled with the USO to visit troops in Iraq and Afghanistan.",
"From 2005 to 2014, his website hosted ''The Sandbox'', a milblog posting over 800 essays by deployed soldiers, returned vets, caregivers, and spouses.",
"For most of the strip's run, Trudeau has eschewed merchandising, but starting in 1998 he teamed up with Starbucks to create ''Doonesbury'' products to raise funds for local literacy programs.",
"The items were offered for sale in Starbucks stores for nearly two years and raised over $1 million.",
"Also for charity, Trudeau licensed the strip to Ben & Jerry's, which created a bestselling sorbet flavor called ''Doonesberry''.Trudeau's son Ross, a digital media producer, is also a crossword constructor who has been published in the ''New York Times.''",
"As part of the ongoing celebrity partnership series, father and son collaborated on a crossword puzzle that was published on May 15, 2018, in the ''Times''.Trudeau, formerly a member of Writers Guild of America, East, left and maintained financial core status."
],
[
"Private life and public appearances",
"Trudeau married Jane Pauley on June 14, 1980; they have three children.",
"He maintains a low personal profile.",
"A rare early appearance on television was as a guest on ''To Tell the Truth'' in 1971, where only one of the three panelists guessed his identity.",
"In 1990, Trudeau appeared on the cover of ''Newsweek'' for ''Inside Doonesbury's Brain'', a story written by Jonathan Alter.",
"This was the first interview Trudeau had given in 17 years.Trudeau cooperated extensively with ''Wired'' magazine for a 2000 profile, \"The Revolution Will be Satirized\".",
"He later spoke with the writer of that article, Edward Cone, for a 2004 newspaper column in the Greensboro, North Carolina, ''News & Record'', about the war wounds suffered by the Doonesbury character \"B.D.",
"\", and in 2006 did a Q&A at Cone's personal blog about The Sandbox.",
"Trudeau granted an interview to ''Rolling Stone'' in 2004 in which he discussed his time at Yale, which he attended two years behind George W. Bush.",
"He granted another ''Rolling Stone'' interview in 2010.In 2006, ''The Washington Post'' printed an extensive profile of Trudeau by writer Gene Weingarten.",
"He appeared on the ''Charlie Rose'' television program, and at signings for ''The Long Road Home: One Step at a Time'', his ''Doonesbury'' book about B.D.",
"'s struggle with injuries received during the second Gulf War.On August 1, 2016, Trudeau appeared on MSNBC on ''The Rachel Maddow Show''.",
"He was brought on to discuss his prediction about Donald Trump's plans to run for president almost three decades earlier.",
"Maddow presented cartoon strips from as far back as 1987.Trudeau was on her show to promote his new book ''Yuge'', which covers 30 years of Trump appearing in ''Doonesbury''.",
"On November 7, 2016, Trudeau appeared on ''Fresh Air'' with Terry Gross to discuss ''Yuge''.",
"On the ''CBS News Sunday Morning'' broadcast of December 2, 2018, he was featured and was interviewed by his wife, Jane Pauley."
],
[
"Appraisals and controversies",
"Eric Alterman, writing in ''The Nation'', called ''Doonesbury'' \"one of the great intellectual/artistic accomplishments of the past half-century, irrespective of category\".Trudeau has also attracted criticism both for the comic strip and for his own opinions.",
"In 1985, responding to changes after his 1983–1984 hiatus in ''Doonesbury'', readers of ''The Saturday Review'' voted Trudeau one of the \"Most Overrated People in American Arts and Letters\", stating that after his hiatus, his comic strip was \"predictable, mean-spirited, and not as funny as before.\"",
"Trudeau's acceptance speech on the occasion of receiving a Polk Award in 2015 for lifetime achievement stirred controversy.",
"In the speech, Trudeau criticized the cartoonists of ''Charlie Hebdo''—after a number of ''Charlie Hebdo'' writers, editors and cartoonists had been murdered execution-style in their own Paris offices by Muslim terrorists—for \"punching downward... attacking a powerless, disenfranchised minority with crude, vulgar drawings closer to graffiti than cartoons\", and thereby wandering \"into the realm of hate speech\" with cartoons of Muhammad.",
"Writing in ''The Atlantic'', in which Trudeau had published his speech, political commentator David Frum criticized what he called Trudeau's \"moral theory\" that calls for identifying \"the bearer of privilege\", then holding \"the privilege-bearer responsible\".",
"Trudeau was labeled a \"terror apologist\" by the editors of ''The New York Post'' for his comments, with his choice of the venue in which to make them \"adding to the insult\"."
],
[
"Bibliography",
"=== Non-''Doonesbury'' publications ===* ''Hitler Moves East: A Graphic Chronicle, 1941–43'' (with David Levinthal), Sheed, Andrews and McMeel, 1977..",
"The cover shows two Wehrmacht motorcyclists.",
"The book relates the story of Nazi Germany's Army Group Centre on the Eastern Front through archival photos and new photography of model soldiers ()* ''Finding Your Religion: When the Faith You Grew Up With Has Lost Its Meaning'' by Rev.",
"Scotty McLennan, HarperSanFrancisco, 1999.Trudeau drew the cover cartoon and wrote the introduction.",
"* ''Doonesbury.com's The Sandbox: Dispatches from Troops in Iraq and Afghanistan'', introduction by G.B.",
"Trudeau; edited by David Stanford, Duty Officer, Doonesbury Town Hall, Andrews McMeel Publishing (2007), .",
"More than 100 blog posts by soldiers in Iraq and Afghanistan, returned vets, caregivers, and family members.",
"* ''Doonesbury.com's The War in Quotes'', introduction by G.B.",
"Trudeau; edited by David Stanford, Duty Officer, Doonesbury Town Hall, Andrews McMeel Publishing (2008)"
],
[
"Collections",
"Most of Trudeau's original drawings for Doonesbury, along with letters, notebooks, and other archival materials, are in the collection of the Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library at Yale University.",
"Original drawings are also in the collections of the Library of Congress; the Smithsonian Institute's Museum of American History; the National Portrait Gallery; the National Museum of Health and Medicine; and the Billy Ireland Cartoon Library and Museum at Ohio State University."
],
[
"Honorary degrees",
"*1976 – Yale University *1977 – Grinnell College *1978 – Clarkson College*1979 – Colgate University *1979 – Long Island University*1979 – University of Pennsylvania *1979 – Lewis and Clark University *1980 – Lafayette College *1981 – University of Vermont*1981 – Colby College *1981 – Wittenberg University*1982 – Williams College*1982 – Wheaton College *1982 – William and Mary College *1983 – DePauw University *1983 – Fairleigh Dickinson University*1984 – Western Maryland College (now McDaniel College) *1986 – Wake Forest University *1986 – Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute *1987 – Smith College *1987 – SUNY Potsdam*1988 – Duke University *1990 – Johns Hopkins University *1990 – Wheelock College (now merged with Boston University)*1997 – Colorado College *1997 – CCS College of Art and Design*1998 – Tufts University *2003 – Trinity College *2007 – Muhlenberg College *2007 – Goucher College *2007 – Brown University *2011 – University College Dublin *2012 – St. Lawrence University *2012 – Queens University at Kingston *2016 – Marist College *2017 – Macaulay College"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"***** ''Rolling Stone'' interview* ''Wired'' profile, August 2000* ''The Guardian'' article, 2004* ''Mother Jones'' interview, 2007* ''The Guardian'' article, July 22, 2008* Doonesbury Turns 40, ''Rolling Stone'', November 11, 2010*Garry Trudeau Papers.",
"Yale Collection of American Literature, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library."
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Guild"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The Syndics of the Drapers' Guild'' by Rembrandt, 1662A '''guild''' ( ) is an association of artisans and merchants who oversee the practice of their craft/trade in a particular territory.",
"The earliest types of guild formed as organizations of tradespeople belonging to a professional association.",
"They sometimes depended on grants of letters patent from a monarch or other ruler to enforce the flow of trade to their self-employed members, and to retain ownership of tools and the supply of materials, but most were regulated by the local government.",
"Guild members found guilty of cheating the public would be fined or banned from the guild.",
"A lasting legacy of traditional guilds are the guildhalls constructed and used as guild meeting-places.Typically the key \"privilege\" was that only guild members were allowed to sell their goods or practice their skill within the city.",
"There might be controls on minimum or maximum prices, hours of trading, numbers of apprentices, and many other things.",
"Critics argued that these rules reduced free competition, but defenders maintained that they protected professional standards.One of the legacies of the guilds: the elevated Windsor Guildhall originated as a meeting place for guilds, as well as a magistrates' seat and town hall.An important result of the guild framework was the emergence of universities at Bologna (established in 1088), Oxford (at least since 1096) and Paris (); they originated as guilds of students (as at Bologna) or of masters (as at Paris)."
],
[
"History of guilds",
"=== Early guild-like associations ===Naram-Sin of Akkad (–2218 BC), grandson of Sargon of Akkad who had unified Sumeria and Assyria into the Akkadian Empire, promulgated common Mesopotamian standards for length, area, volume, weight, time, and shekels, which were used by artisan guilds in each city.",
"Code of Hammurabi Law 234 () stipulated a 2-shekel wage for each 60-gur (300-bushel) vessel constructed in an employment contract between a shipbuilder and a ship-owner.",
"Law 275 stipulated a ferry rate of 3-gerah per day on a charterparty between a ship charterer and a shipmaster.",
"Law 276 stipulated a 2-gerah per day freight rate on a contract of affreightment between a charterer and shipmaster, while Law 277 stipulated a -shekel per day freight rate for a 60-gur vessel.A type of guild was known in Roman times.",
"Known as ''collegium'', ''collegia'' or ''corpus'', these were organised groups of merchants who specialised in a particular craft and whose membership of the group was voluntary.",
"One such example is the ''corpus naviculariorum'', a collegium of merchant mariners based at Rome's La Ostia port.",
"The Roman guilds failed to survive the collapse of the Roman Empire.A ''collegium'' was any association or corporation that acted as a legal entity.",
"In 1816, an archeological excavation in Minya, Egypt produced a Nerva–Antonine dynasty-era (second-century AD) clay tablet from the ruins of the Temple of Antinous in Antinoöpolis, Aegyptus that prescribed the rules and membership dues of a burial society ''collegium'' established in Lanuvium, Italia in approximately 133 AD.",
"Following the passage of the ''Lex Julia'' in 45 BC, and its reaffirmation during the reign of Caesar Augustus (27 BC–14 AD), ''collegia'' required the approval of the Roman Senate or the emperor in order to be authorized as legal bodies.",
"Ruins at Lambaesis date the formation of burial societies among Roman soldiers and mariners to the reign of Septimius Severus (193–211) in 198 AD.",
"In September 2011, archeological investigations done at the site of an artificial harbor in Rome, the Portus, revealed inscriptions in a shipyard constructed during the reign of Trajan (98–117) indicating the existence of a shipbuilders guild.",
"''Collegia'' also included fraternities of priests overseeing sacrifices, practicing augury, keeping religious texts, arranging festivals, and maintaining specific religious cults.=== Post-classical guild ===Traditional hand-forged guild sign of a glazier — in Germany.",
"These signs can be found in many old European towns where guild members marked their places of business.",
"Many survived through time or staged a comeback in industrial times.",
"Today they are restored or even newly created, especially in old town areas.Coats of arms of guilds in a town in the Czech Republic displaying symbols of various European medieval trades and craftsThe medieval Merchant Guild House in Vyborg, RussiaThere were several types of guilds, including the two main categories of merchant guilds and craft guilds but also the frith guild and religious guild.",
"Guilds arose beginning in the High Middle Ages as craftsmen united to protect their common interests.",
"In the German city of Augsburg craft guilds are mentioned in the Towncharter of 1156.The continental system of guilds and merchants arrived in England after the Norman Conquest, with incorporated societies of merchants in each town or city holding exclusive rights of doing business there.",
"In many cases they became the governing body of a town.",
"For example, London's Guildhall became the seat of the Court of Common Council of the City of London Corporation, the world's oldest continuously elected local government, whose members to this day must be Freemen of the city.",
"The Freedom of the City, effective from the Middle Ages until 1835, gave the right to trade, and was only bestowed upon members of a Guild or Livery.Early egalitarian communities called \"guilds\" were denounced by Catholic clergy for their \"conjurations\" — the binding oaths sworn among the members to support one another in adversity, kill specific enemies, and back one another in feuds or in business ventures.",
"The occasion for these oaths were drunken banquets held on December 26.In 858, West Francian Bishop Hincmar sought vainly to Christianise the guilds.In the Early Middle Ages, most of the Roman craft organisations, originally formed as religious confraternities, had disappeared, with the apparent exceptions of stonecutters and perhaps glassmakers, mostly the people that had local skills.",
"Gregory of Tours tells a miraculous tale of a builder whose art and techniques suddenly left him, but were restored by an apparition of the Virgin Mary in a dream.",
"Michel Rouche remarks that the story speaks for the importance of practically transmitted journeymanship.In France, guilds were called ''corps de métiers''.",
"According to Viktor Ivanovich Rutenburg, \"Within the guild itself there was very little division of labour, which tended to operate rather between the guilds.",
"Thus, according to Étienne Boileau's Book of Handicrafts, by the mid-13th century there were no less than 100 guilds in Paris, a figure which by the 14th century had risen to 350.\"",
"There were different guilds of metal-workers: the farriers, knife-makers, locksmiths, chain-forgers, nail-makers, often formed separate and distinct corporations; the armourers were divided into helmet-makers, escutcheon-makers, harness-makers, harness-polishers, etc.",
"In Catalan towns, especially at Barcelona, guilds or ''gremis'' were a basic agent in the society: a shoemakers' guild is recorded in 1208.In England, specifically in the City of London Corporation, more than 110 guilds, referred to as livery companies, survive today, with the oldest years old.",
"Other groups, such as the Worshipful Company of Tax Advisers, have been formed far more recently.",
"Membership in a livery company is expected for individuals participating in the governance of ''The City'', as the Lord Mayor and the Remembrancer.The guild system reached a mature state in Germany and held on in German cities into the 19th century, with some special privileges for certain occupations remaining today.",
"In the 15th century, Hamburg had 100 guilds, Cologne 80, and Lübeck 70.The latest guilds to develop in Western Europe were the '''' of Spain: e.g., Valencia (1332) or Toledo (1426).Not all city economies were controlled by guilds; some cities were \"free.\"",
"Where guilds were in control, they shaped labor, production and trade; they had strong controls over instructional capital, and the modern concepts of a lifetime progression of apprentice to craftsman, and then from journeyman eventually to widely recognized master and grandmaster began to emerge.",
"In order to become a master, a journeyman would have to go on a three-year voyage called journeyman years.",
"The practice of the journeyman years still exists in Germany and France.As production became more specialized, trade guilds were divided and subdivided, eliciting the squabbles over jurisdiction that produced the paperwork by which economic historians trace their development: The metalworking guilds of Nuremberg were divided among dozens of independent trades in the boom economy of the 13th century, and there were 101 trades in Paris by 1260.In Ghent, as in Florence, the woolen textile industry developed as a congeries of specialized guilds.",
"The appearance of the European guilds was tied to the emergent money economy, and to urbanization.",
"Before this time it was not possible to run a money-driven organization, as commodity money was the normal way of doing business.A center of urban government: the Guildhall, London (engraving, )The guild was at the center of European handicraft organization into the 16th century.",
"In France, a resurgence of the guilds in the second half of the 17th century is symptomatic of Louis XIV and Jean Baptiste Colbert's administration's concerns to impose unity, control production, and reap the benefits of transparent structure in the shape of efficient taxation.The guilds were identified with organizations enjoying certain privileges (letters patent), usually issued by the king or state and overseen by local town business authorities (some kind of chamber of commerce).",
"These were the predecessors of the modern patent and trademark system.",
"The guilds also maintained funds in order to support infirm or elderly members, as well as widows and orphans of guild members, funeral benefits, and a 'tramping' allowance for those needing to travel to find work.",
"As the guild system of the City of London declined during the 17th century, the Livery Companies transformed into mutual assistance fraternities along such lines.European guilds imposed long standardized periods of apprenticeship, and made it difficult for those lacking the capital to set up for themselves or without the approval of their peers to gain access to materials or knowledge, or to sell into certain markets, an area that equally dominated the guilds' concerns.",
"These are defining characteristics of mercantilism in economics, which dominated most European thinking about political economy until the rise of classical economics.The guild system survived the emergence of early capitalists, which began to divide guild members into \"haves\" and dependent \"have-nots\".",
"The civil struggles that characterize the 14th-century towns and cities were struggles in part between the greater guilds and the lesser artisanal guilds, which depended on piecework.",
"\"In Florence, they were openly distinguished: the ''Arti maggiori'' and the ''Arti minori''—already there was a ''popolo grasso'' and a ''popolo magro''\".",
"Fiercer struggles were those between essentially conservative guilds and the merchant class, which increasingly came to control the means of production and the capital that could be ventured in expansive schemes, often under the rules of guilds of their own.",
"German social historians trace the ''Zunftrevolution'', the urban revolution of guildmembers against a controlling urban patriciate, sometimes reading into them, however, perceived foretastes of the class struggles of the 19th century.Locksmith, 1451In the countryside, where guild rules did not operate, there was freedom for the entrepreneur with capital to organize cottage industry, a network of cottagers who spun and wove in their own premises on his account, provided with their raw materials, perhaps even their looms, by the capitalist who took a share of the profits.",
"Such a dispersed system could not so easily be controlled where there was a vigorous local market for the raw materials: wool was easily available in sheep-rearing regions, whereas silk was not.==== Organization ====In Florence, Italy, there were seven to twelve \"greater guilds\" and fourteen \"lesser guilds\".",
"The most important of the greater guilds was that for judges and notaries, who handled the legal business of all the other guilds and often served as an arbitrator of disputes.",
"Other greater guilds include the wool, silk, and the money changers' guilds.",
"They prided themselves on a reputation for very high-quality work, which was rewarded with premium prices.",
"The guilds fined members who deviated from standards.",
"Other greater guilds included those of doctors, druggists, and furriers.",
"Among the lesser guilds, were those for bakers, saddle makers, ironworkers and other artisans.",
"They had a sizable membership, but lacked the political and social standing necessary to influence city affairs.The guild was made up by experienced and confirmed experts in their field of handicraft.",
"They were called master craftsmen.",
"Before a new employee could rise to the level of mastery, he had to go through a schooling period during which he was first called an apprenticeship.",
"After this period he could rise to the level of journeyman.",
"Apprentices would typically not learn more than the most basic techniques until they were trusted by their peers to keep the guild's or company's secrets.Like ''journey'', the distance that could be travelled in a day, the title 'journeyman' derives from the French words for 'day' (''jour'' and ''journée'') from which came the middle English word ''journei''.",
"Journeymen were able to work for other masters, unlike apprentices, and generally paid by the day and were thus day labourers.",
"After being employed by a master for several years, and after producing a qualifying piece of work, the apprentice was granted the rank of journeyman and was given documents (letters or certificates from his master and/or the guild itself) which certified him as a journeyman and entitled him to travel to other towns and countries to learn the art from other masters.",
"These journeys could span large parts of Europe and were an unofficial way of communicating new methods and techniques, though by no means all journeymen made such travels — they were most common in Germany and Italy, and in other countries journeymen from small cities would often visit the capital.The Haarlem Painter's Guild'' in 1675, by Jan de BrayAfter this journey and several years of experience, a journeyman could be received as master craftsman, though in some guilds this step could be made straight from apprentice.",
"This would typically require the approval of all masters of a guild, a donation of money and other goods (often omitted for sons of existing members), and the production of a so-called \"masterpiece\", which would illustrate the abilities of the aspiring master craftsman; this was often retained by the guild.The medieval guild was established by charters or letters patent or similar authority by the city or the ruler and normally held a monopoly on trade in its craft within the city in which it operated: handicraft workers were forbidden by law to run any business if they were not members of a guild, and only masters were allowed to be members of a guild.",
"Before these privileges were legislated, these groups of handicraft workers were simply called 'handicraft associations'.The town authorities might be represented in the guild meetings and thus had a means of controlling the handicraft activities.",
"This was important since towns very often depended on a good reputation for export of a narrow range of products, on which not only the guild's, but the town's, reputation depended.",
"Controls on the association of physical locations to well-known exported products, e.g.",
"wine from the Champagne and Bordeaux regions of France, tin-glazed earthenwares from certain cities in Holland, lace from Chantilly, etc., helped to establish a town's place in global commerce — this led to modern trademarks.In many German and Italian cities, the more powerful guilds often had considerable political influence, and sometimes attempted to control the city authorities.",
"In the 14th century, this led to numerous bloody uprisings, during which the guilds dissolved town councils and detained patricians in an attempt to increase their influence.",
"In fourteenth-century north-east Germany, people of Wendish, i.e.",
"Slavic, origin were not allowed to join some guilds.",
"According to Wilhelm Raabe, ''\"down into the eighteenth century no German guild accepted a Wend.",
"\"''==== Guilds of merchants in the Russian Empire ====In the Russian Empire, from the reform of Peter the Great (beginning of the 17th century) until 1917, these were corporations of wealthy merchants, with their own rights.",
"They therefore constituted an Order which was divided, according to property, into three classes: merchant of the first Guild, of the second Guild, and of the third Guild and was transmissible hereditarily.==== Fall of the guilds ====An example of the last of the British Guilds meeting rooms Ogilvie (2004) argues that guilds negatively affected quality, skills, and innovation.",
"Through what economists now call \"rent-seeking\" they imposed deadweight losses on the economy.",
"Ogilvie argues they generated limited positive externalities and notes that industry began to flourish only after the guilds faded away.",
"Guilds persisted over the centuries because they redistributed resources to politically powerful merchants.",
"On the other hand, Ogilvie agrees, guilds created \"social capital\" of shared norms, common information, mutual sanctions, and collective political action.",
"This social capital benefited guild members, even as it arguably hurt outsiders.The guild system became a target of much criticism towards the end of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th century.",
"Critics argued that they hindered free trade and technological innovation, technology transfer and business development.",
"According to several accounts of this time, guilds became increasingly involved in simple territorial struggles against each other and against free practitioners of their arts.Two of the most outspoken critics of the guild system were Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Adam Smith, and all over Europe a tendency to oppose government control over trades in favour of laissez-faire free market systems grew rapidly and made its way into the political and legal systems.",
"Many people who participated in the French Revolution saw guilds as a last remnant of feudalism.",
"The d'Allarde Law of 2 March 1791 suppressed the guilds in France.",
"In 1803 the Napoleonic Code banned any coalition of workmen whatsoever.",
"Smith wrote in ''The Wealth of Nations'' (Book I, Chapter X, paragraph 72):Karl Marx in his ''Communist Manifesto'' also criticized the guild system for its rigid gradation of social rank and what he saw as the relation of oppressor and oppressed entailed by this system.",
"It was the 18th and 19th centuries that saw the beginning of the low regard in which some people hold the guilds to this day.",
"In part due to their own inability to control unruly corporate behavior, the tide of public opinion turned against the guilds.Because of industrialization and modernization of the trade and industry, and the rise of powerful nation-states that could directly issue patent and copyright protections — often revealing the trade secrets — the guilds' power faded.",
"After the French Revolution they gradually fell in most European nations over the course of the 19th century, as the guild system was disbanded and replaced by laws that promoted free trade.",
"As a consequence of the decline of guilds, many former handicraft workers were forced to seek employment in the emerging manufacturing industries, using not closely guarded techniques formerly protected by guilds, but rather the standardized methods controlled by corporations.Interest in the medieval guild system was revived during the late 19th century, among far-right circles.",
"Fascism in Italy (among other countries) implemented corporatism, operating at the national rather than city level, to try to imitate the corporatism of the Middle Ages.==== Influence of guilds ====Shoemakers, 1568Guilds are sometimes said to be the precursors of modern cartels.",
"Guilds, however, can also be seen as a set of self-employed skilled craftsmen with ownership and control over the materials and tools they needed to produce their goods.",
"Some argue that guilds operated more like cartels than they were like trade unions (Olson 1982).",
"However, the journeymen organizations, which were at the time illegal, may have been influential.The exclusive privilege of a guild to produce certain goods or provide certain services was similar in spirit and character to the original patent systems that surfaced in England in 1624.These systems played a role in ending the guilds' dominance, as trade secret methods were superseded by modern firms directly revealing their techniques, and counting on the state to enforce their legal monopoly.Some guild traditions still remain in a few handicrafts, in Europe especially among shoemakers and barbers.",
"These are, however, not very important economically except as reminders of the responsibilities of some trades toward the public.Modern antitrust law could be said to derive in some ways from the original statutes by which the guilds were abolished in Europe.==== Economic consequences ====The economic consequences of guilds have led to heated debates among economic historians.",
"On the one side, scholars say that since merchant guilds persisted over long periods they must have been efficient institutions (since inefficient institutions die out).",
"Others say they persisted not because they benefited the entire economy but because they benefited the owners, who used political power to protect them.",
"Ogilvie (2011) says they regulated trade for their own benefit, were monopolies, distorted markets, fixed prices, and restricted entrance into the guild.",
"Ogilvie (2008) argues that their long apprenticeships were unnecessary to acquire skills, and their conservatism reduced the rate of innovation and made the society poorer.",
"She says their main goal was rent seeking, that is, to shift money to the membership at the expense of the entire economy.Epstein and Prak's book (2008) rejects Ogilvie's conclusions.",
"Specifically, Epstein argues that guilds were cost-sharing rather than rent-seeking institutions.",
"They located and matched masters and likely apprentices through monitored learning.",
"Whereas the acquisition of craft skills required experience-based learning, he argues that this process necessitated many years in apprenticeship.The extent to which guilds were able to monopolize markets is also debated.====Product quality====Guilds were often heavily concerned with product quality.",
"The regulations they established on their own members' work, as well as targeting non-guild members for illicit practice, was to create a standard of work that the consumer could rely on.",
"They were heavily concerned with public perception.",
"In October 1712, the Lyon Wigmaker Guild petitioned the local police magistrates.",
"According to this petition, guildmasters required guild officers to step up policing of statutes forbidding the use of bleached hair or wild goat and lamb hair.",
"The real concern that they had was that bleaching hair destroyed the quality of the wig, making it too thin to style.",
"Guild officers pointed out that if the consumer discovers the bad quality, the guild would be blamed, and the consumer would search elsewhere to purchase goods.====Women in guilds=========Medieval period=====Women's participation within medieval guilds was complex and varied.",
"On one hand, guild membership allowed women to participate in the economy that provided social privilege and community.",
"On the other hand, most trade and craft guilds were male-dominated and frequently limited women's rights if they were members, or did not allow membership at all.",
"The most common way women obtained guild membership was through marriage.",
"Usually only the widows and daughters of known masters were allowed in.",
"Even if a woman entered a guild, she was excluded from guild offices.",
"It is important to note that while this was the overarching practice, there were guilds and professions that did allow women's participation, and that the Medieval era was an ever-changing, mutable society—especially considering that it spanned hundreds of years and many different cultures.",
"There were multiple accounts of women's participation in guilds in England and the Continent.",
"In a study of London silkwomen of the 15th century by Marian K. Dale, she notes that medieval women could inherit property, belong to guilds, manage estates, and run the family business if widowed.",
"The ''Livre des métiers de Paris (Book of Trades of Paris)'' was compiled by Étienne Boileau, the Grand Provost of Paris under King Louis IX.",
"It documents that 5 out of 110 Parisian guilds were female monopolies, and that only a few guilds systematically excluded women.",
"Boileau notes that some professions were also open to women: surgeons, glass-blowers, chain-mail forgers.",
"Entertainment guilds also had a significant number of women members.",
"John, Duke of Berry documents payments to female musicians from Le Puy, Lyons, and Paris.",
"In Rouen women had participated as full-fledged masters in 7 of the city's 112 guilds since the 13th century.",
"There were still many restrictions.",
"Medieval Parisian guilds did not offer women independent control of their work.Women did have problems with entering healers' guilds, as opposed to their relative freedom in trade or craft guilds.",
"Their status in healers' guilds were often challenged.",
"The idea that medicine should only be practiced by men was supported by some religious and secular authorities at the time.",
"It is believed that the Inquisition and witch hunts throughout the ages contributed to the lack of women in medical guilds.In medieval Cologne there were three guilds that were composed almost entirely of women, the yarn-spinners, gold-spinners, and silk-weavers.",
"Men could join these guilds, but were almost exclusively married to guildswomen.",
"This was a required regulation of the yarn-spinners guild.",
"The guildswomen of the gold-spinners guild were often wives of guildsmen of the gold-smiths.",
"This type of unity between husband and wife was seen in women's guild participation through the medieval and early modern periods; in order to avoid unpleasant litigation or legal situations, the trades of husband and wife often were the same or complementary.",
"Women were not restricted to solely textile guilds in medieval Cologne, and neither did they have total freedom in all textile guilds.",
"They had limited participation in the guilds of dyers, cotton-weavers, and guilds in the leather industry.",
"They did enjoy full rights in some wood-working guilds, the guilds of coopers and turners.",
"Women also seemed to have extensively engaged in the fish trade, both within and outside of the guild.",
"The butcher and cattle-trade guilds also listed women among their ranks.",
"In practically all of these guilds, a widow was allowed to continue her husband's business.",
"If she remarried to a man who was not a member, she usually lost that right.",
"The historian Alice Clark published a study in 1919 on women's participation in guilds during the Medieval period.",
"She argued that the guild system empowered women to participate in family businesses.",
"This viewpoint, among others of Clark's, has been criticized by fellow historians, and has sparked debate in scholarly circles.",
"Clark's analysis of the period is that things change during the early modern period, specifically the 17th century, and become more stifling for women in guilds.",
"She also posits that domestic life drove women out of guild participation.=====Early modern period===========Decline thesis======Many historians have done research into the dwindling women's participation in guilds.",
"Studies have provided a contradictory picture.",
"Recent historical research is usually posed in rebuttal to Alice Clark's study on the economic marginalization of women in the 17th c., and has highlighted that domestic life did not organize women's economic activities.",
"The research has documented women's extensive participation in market relations, craft production, and paid labor in the early modern period.",
"Clare Crowston posits that women gained more control of their own work.",
"In the 16th and 17th centuries, rather than losing control, female linen drapers and hemp merchants established independent guilds.",
"In the late 17th century and onward, there was evidence of growing economic opportunities for women.",
"Seamstresses in Paris and Rouen and flower sellers in Paris acquired their own guilds in 1675.In Dijon, the number of female artisans recorded in tax rolls rose substantially between the years of 1643 and 1750.In 18th c. Nantes, there was a significant growth in women's access to guilds, with no restrictions on their rights.Historian Merry Wiesner attributed a decline in women's labor in south German cities from the 16th-18th centuries to both economic and cultural factors; as trades became more specialized, women's domestic responsibilities hindered them from entering the workforce.",
"German guilds started to further regulate women's participation at this time, limiting the privileges of wives, widows, and daughters.",
"It also forbade masters from hiring women.",
"Crowston notes that the decline thesis has been reaffirmed in the German context by Wiesner and Ogilvie, but that it does not work in looking at the matter from a larger scope, as her expertise is in French history.======Independent female guilds======There were exclusively female guilds that came out of the woodwork in the 17th century, primarily Paris, Rouen, and Cologne.",
"In 1675, Parisian seamstresses requested the guild as their trade was organized and profitable enough to support incorporation.",
"Some of the guilds in Cologne had been made up almost entirely of women since the medieval period.======Women's guild activity======Early modern Rouen was an important center of guildswomen's activity.",
"By 1775, there were about 700 female masters, accounting for 10% of all guild masters in the city.",
"A survey that circulated in the late 18th century listed that the Rouen ribbonmakers had 149 masters, mistresses, and widows, indicating its mixed gendered composition.",
"A tax roll of 1775 indicated that their total membership was about 160, with 58 men, 17 widows, 55 wives, and 30 unmarried women.Historians have noted the essential contributions that women made to these guilds.",
"Many scholars have asserted that it would have been impossible for male merchants and craftsmen to start a business, let alone run it, without the help of their wives.The oldest women's guild in Paris dealt in linens, including household linens, layettes for babies, and undergarments.",
"There seemed to be a major wealth disparity among its members.",
"The linen workers whose sheds were at the center of Les Halles caused the guild some trouble.",
"There was a perception that these workers also trafficked in sex as well as linens, which made the guild emphatic about its own morality.",
"On the other end of the social divide, the linen trade was a respectable occupation for married and single women of high social standing.In France, special provisions had to be made in order to assure that woman could move relatively freely in the textile guilds of Paris and Rouen.",
"They used a special legal formula, the privilege of the ''marchande publique''.",
"This legal device made certain that a woman had the right to participate on her own behalf in the economy, and thus did not require references to her husband's resources or possible involvement.",
"If a woman did not join a guild first, she was required to obtain her husband's permission in order to receive the status of ''marchande publique''.",
"If she did join a guild, the status was conferred automatically.",
"The privilege of ''marchande publique'' allowed a woman to participate in business as a legal adult, sign contracts, go to court, and borrow money.In Amsterdam, seamstresses acquired an independent guild in 1579.In several other cities of the Netherlands, they obtained subordinate positions in the tailors' guilds during the late 17th and 18th centuries.Frenchwomen provided vocational training to apprentices.",
"In apprenticeship contracts the names and trades of spouses would both appear.",
"The trades were usually the same or closely related.",
"In earlier research, lack of contracts led scholars to believe that women and girls never received official training, and instead learned their trade at home.",
"This was debunked with Clare Crowston's research on parish schools in France.",
"Instead of apprenticeships, girls could receive an alternative form of vocational training from these schools.",
"Students entered at around eight for two years of education, and were segregated by gender.",
"Boys studied primarily religion, reading, writing, and mathematics; girls learned many of the same topics as well, but a significant portion was devoted to learning needlework.",
"These schools were intended to enrich the vocational training that girls learned, so that they could go on and earn a living.",
"According to Crowston, the most important religious community that offered such training were the Filles de Saint-Agnès, which offered instruction in four trades: linen work, embroidery, lace, and tapestry-making.",
"The school provided all of the tools necessary for girls to learn, and also allowed students to choose which best suited them.",
"Although this was far different than the model of apprenticeship practiced by guilds, the sisters referred to their students as apprentices.In July 1706, a group of women, members of the Parisian wigmakers, went to Versailles in order to petition Louis XIV to remove a stifling tax that had been levied on wigs that same year.",
"The tax was removed in mid-July 1706 although historians do not believe that the guildswomen were the sole reason as to why.======Division of labor======When French seamstresses attained guild privileges in 1675, their corporate privilege extended to clothing for women and children.",
"When they entered guilds, seamstresses in Paris, Rouen, and Aix-en-Provence acquired the right to make articles of clothing for women and children, but not for men or boys over age eight.",
"This division reappeared in every French city where seamstresses entered guilds.====Underground business====Due to the political, legislative, and social power of many guilds during the medieval and early modern periods, any economic activity that encroached on guild purview was considered criminal activity.",
"The black market was used to get around regulations set by the guild for membership, for the goods they produced, and to circumvent expensive fees and taxes that may be imposed by governments.",
"Illegal work did not pass unnoticed by authorities at the time, and are documented by police reports and guild complaints.",
"Guild officers were able to arrest people who were working in the trade without guild credentials, and could use municipal law enforcement to aid them in the arrest.",
"Guilds often did take people to court for illegal work.",
"In 18th c. Lyon, about half of the defendants were men, and half were women.",
"Daryl Hafter notes that many of the female defendants were practicing trades where they were either completely barred from guild membership, or had austere restrictions within the guild.",
"As joining a guild was expensive, this explains why poorer men would turn to illicit craft.",
"Clandestine artisans were seen as a severe encroachment on guild rights, liberties, and exclusivity.",
"Many guilds feared that this would affect economic stability.In Paris, the Barber-Wigmaker & Bath Provider Guild struggled against illicit wigmaking and styling.",
"In this case, illicit wigmaking flourished in order to circumvent the expensive wig tax.",
"Women and girls could enter this guild.",
"Illicit wigmakers operated throughout the 18th c., and made continuous contributions to the industry.Judith Coffin posits that the number of clandestine linen drapers, seamstresses, and tailors, kept pace and probably outstripped the numbers from those guilds.",
"Clandestine workers, male and female, worked in garret shops and rooms under guild jurisdiction.",
"Not all non-guild work was illegal, too.",
"A non-guild artisan could work directly for the crown, or in the \"free zones\" that were beyond the reach of the guild officers.",
"Clandestine workers in the needle trade were often employed by larger merchant manufacturers.",
"Guild members were also enmeshed in illegal labor, either carrying it out, or hiring those who did illegal work.",
"Nearly everyone was in violation of guild statutes.",
"Masters of the guild would often hire illegal workers to do specific and low-paying parts of the job.",
"In the case of the Wigmakers, it was hair-weaving, the most labor-intensive aspect of the craft.",
"Hair weavers arranged pinches of hair side by side and interlaced them in intricate patterns between six silk threads extended on two wooden rods.",
"Women called ''tresseuses'' seemed to perform a substantial amount of this work outside masters' shops.Despite the guilds' fear of illegal craft, underground business often helped guilds survive.",
"The creation of materials was often illicit, or outsourced from other locales.",
"Masters hired non-guild workers to do high-intensive tasks and paid less, while at the same time denigrating their work.",
"In many cities, guild masters purchased discounted materials and hired cheap labor to reduce costs.",
"In Lyon, the underground silk economy thrived, and was a significant portion of the economy.",
"It was made up of mostly female artisans whose work paralleled that of the legitimate trade.",
"The female artisans were important to the guild as they were highly skilled in craft procedures that the guild heavily relied upon, and were essential to production.",
"But they also worked for male entrepreneurs outside of the guild and frequently collaborated with each other to set up their own businesses.",
"In an effort to curb this illicit activity, guildmasters wrote bylaws forbidding men and women to work outside of the guild.",
"The buttonmakers guild of Lyon also complained about illicit work and theft from the non-guild female workers whom they hired.",
"They also took it upon themselves to teach girls the buttonmaking trade, which was the real problem, as their instruction imparted the \"mystery\" of guild secrets to non-guild members which undermined the guild.In the mid-17th c., Lübeck experienced political conflicts as guilds petitioned the councils to ban clandestine work not only in the city but in rural areas.",
"They were outraged that members of the upperclass in Lübeck would employ rural craftsmen at the expense of the city guild.",
"Part of their anger surrounded the fact that some were part of the council who had sworn to uphold the guild.Early modern Lyon continued to have a thriving underground economy into the late 18th century.",
"In 1780, the hatters' guild complained that women and girls who sheared skins for the industry had established an underground manufacture 25 years earlier, and that it was still sustained.",
"These women were the wives of hatters or girls who were hired day by day, and who were not content to be so dependent on the guild.",
"The women were accused of theft of materials, buying stolen materials for cheap, and selling them for larger amounts.",
"What was most surprising was the response from the government, which had previously always stood with guilds even at the economy's expense.",
"A royal edict of 1777 formed a legitimate corps of these female workers, giving them legitimacy."
],
[
"Modern",
"===Modern quasi-guilds and licensing practices===Professional organizations replicate guild structure and operation.",
"Professions such as architecture, engineering, geology, and land surveying require varying lengths of apprenticeships before one can gain a \"professional\" certification.",
"These certifications hold great legal weight: most states make them a prerequisite to practising there.Though most guilds died off by the middle of the nineteenth century, quasi-guilds persist today, primarily in the fields of law, medicine, engineering, and academia.",
"Paralleling or soon after the fall of guilds in Britain and in the United States professional associations began to form.",
"In America a number of interested parties sought to emulate the model of apprenticeship which European guilds of the Middle Ages had honed to achieve their ends of establishing exclusivity in trades as well as the English concept of a gentleman which had come to be associated with higher income and craftsmanshipLicensing and accreditation practices which typically result from the lobbying of professional associations constitute the modern equivalent of a 'guild-privelge', albeit in contrast to guilds of the Middle Ages which held a letters patent which explicitly granted them monopolies on the provision of services, today's quasi-guild privileges are subtler, more complex, and less ''directly'' restrictive to consumers in their nature.Nevertheless, it can be argued quasi-guild privileges are in many cases designed not just to serve some notion of public good, but to facilitate the establishing and maintaining of exclusivity in a field of work.There are often subtle dichotomies present in attempting to answer the question of whether modern licensing and accreditation practices are intended to serve the public good, however it be defined.",
"For medieval guilds this dichotomy is exemplified by differing explanations of the same phenomena; of limiting work hours among guild members.",
"Sheilagh Ogilvie argues that this was intended to mitigate competition among guild members, while Dorothy Terry argues this was to prevent guild members from working late into the night while tired and when lighting is poor and therefore producing low quality work.",
"In modern times, while licensing practices are usually argued to in some way protect members of the public (e.g.",
"by ensuring quality standards), it usually can also be argued that these practices have been engineered to limit the number of 'outsiders' who gain entrance to a given field.As argued by Paul Starr and Ronald Hamowy, both of whose focus is on the development of medicine in America, the tying of medical licensing practices to universities was a process intended to do more than protect the public from 'quackery', but was engineered to be unnecessarily prolonged, inefficient, and a costly process so as to deter 'outsiders' from getting into the field, thereby enhancing the prestige and earning power of medical professionals.The university system in general continues to serve as a basis upon which modern quasi-guilds operate in the form of professionalism.",
"'Universitas' in the Middle Ages meant a society of masters who had the capacity for self-governance, and this term was adopted by students and teachers who came together in the twelfth century to form scholars guilds.",
"Though guilds mostly died off by the middle of the nineteenth century, the scholars guild persisted due to its peripheral nature to an industrialized economy.",
"In the words of Elliot Krause,\"The university and scholars' guilds held onto their power over membership, training, and workplace because early capitalism was not interested in it (there was no product that the capitalist wished to produce)...the cultural prestige of knowledge itself helped keep the scholars' guild and the university alive while all other guilds failed.",
"\"- Elliot Krause, ''The Death of Guilds'' (1996)Though in theory anyone can start a college, the 'privilege' in this case is the linking of federal aid to accreditation.",
"While accreditation of a university is entirely optional, attending an accredited university is a prerequisite to receiving federal aid, and this has a powerful influence on limiting consumer options in the field of education as it provides a mechanism to limit entrepreneurial 'outsiders' from entering the field of education.",
"George Leef and Roxana Burris study the accreditation system for which they observe is 'highly collegial' and potentially bias in the fact that accreditation review is performed by members of schools who will in turn be reviewed by many of the same people who they have reviewed.",
"They further question the effectiveness of the methods involved in accreditation,\"Although accreditation is usually justified as a means of giving students and parents an assurance of educational quality, it is important to note that the accreditors do not endeavor to assess the quality of individual programs or departments....",
"The accreditation system is not based on an evaluation of the results of an institution, but rather upon an evaluation of its inputs and processes.",
"If the inputs and processes look good, acceptable educational quality is assumed.",
"It is as if an organization decided which automobiles would be allowed to be sold by checking to make sure that each car model had tires, doors, an engine and so forth and had been assembled by workers with proper training—but without actually driving any cars\"- George C. Leef and Roxana D. Burris, ''Can College Accreditation Live Up To Its Promise?",
"''Taken in the context of guilds, it can be argued that the purpose of accreditation is to provide a mechanism for members of the scholars guild to protect itself, both by limiting outsiders from entering the field and by enforcing established norms onto one another.",
"Contriving means to limit the number of outsiders who gain an entrance to a field (exclusivity) and to enforce work norms among members were both distinguishing feature of guilds in the Middle Ages.===Quasi-guilds in the information economy===In 1998, Thomas W. Malone championed a modern variant of the guild structure for independent contractors and remote workers.",
"Insurance including any professional legal liability, intellectual capital protections, an ethical code perhaps enforced by peer pressure and software, and other benefits of a strong association of producers of knowledge, benefit from economies of scale, and may prevent cut-throat competition that leads to inferior services undercutting prices.",
"As with historical guilds, such a structure will resist foreign competition.The open-source-software movement has from time to time explored a guild-like structure to unite against competition from Microsoft, e.g.",
"Advogato assigns journeyer and master ranks to those committing to work only or mostly on free software.Patents loosely serve as a form of guild privilege in that they restrict potential newcomers to a field of service.",
"The idea of a patent being applied to intangibles (e.g.",
"intellectual patents) has been called to question by various authors.",
"In ''Capital and Ideology'' (2000) Thomas Picketty questions the validity of patents being granted to agricultural corporations who claim to have 'invented' certain GMO seeds.",
"According to Picketty, the falsity of such claims is that the specific breakthrough which allowed for the development of these GMO seeds was in fact only the end outcome of generations of ''public'' investment in education and research.=== Europe ===In many European countries, guilds have experienced a revival as local trade organizations for craftsmen, primarily in traditional skills.",
"They may function as forums for developing competence and are often the local units of a national employer's organisation.In the City of London, the ancient guilds survive as livery companies, all of which play a ceremonial role in the city's many customs.",
"The City of London livery companies maintain strong links with their respective trade, craft or profession, some still retain regulatory, inspection or enforcement roles.",
"The senior members of the City of London Livery Companies (known as liverymen) elect the sheriffs and approve the candidates for the office of Lord Mayor of London.",
"Guilds also survive in many other towns and cities the UK including in Preston, Lancashire, as the Preston Guild Merchant where among other celebrations descendants of burgesses are still admitted into membership.",
"With the City of London livery companies, the UK has over 300 extant guilds and growing.In 1878, the London livery companies established the City and Guilds of London Institute the forerunner of the engineering school (still called City and Guilds College) at Imperial College London.",
"The aim of the City and Guilds of London Institute was the advancement of technical education.",
"\"City and Guilds\" operates as an examining and accreditation body for vocational, managerial and engineering qualifications from entry-level craft and trade skills up to post-doctoral achievement.",
"A separate organisation, the City and Guilds of London Art School has also close ties with the London livery companies and is involved in the training of master craftworkers in stone and wood carving, as well as fine artists.In Germany, there are no longer any ''Zünfte'' (or ''Gilden'' – the terms used were rather different from town to town), nor any restriction of a craft to a privileged corporation.",
"However, under one other of their old names albeit a less frequent one, ''Innungen'', guilds continue to exist as private member clubs with membership limited to practitioners of particular trades or activities.",
"These clubs are corporations under public law, albeit the membership is voluntary; the president normally comes from the ranks of master-craftsmen and is called ''Obermeister'' (\"master-in-chief\").",
"Journeymen elect their own representative bodies, with their president having the traditional title of ''Altgesell'' (senior journeyman).There are also \"craft chambers\" (''Handwerkskammern''), which have less resemblance to ancient guilds in that they are organized for all crafts in a certain region, not just one.",
"In them membership is mandatory, and they serve to establish self-governance of the crafts.Guilds were abolished in France during the French Revolution.",
"Following a decree of 4 August 1789, they survived until March 1791 when they were finally abolished.=== India ===India's guilds include the Students Guild, Indian Engineers Guild, and the Safety Guild.",
"Other professional associations include the Indian medical Association, Indian Engineers, Indian Dental Association, United nurses Association, etc.Most of them use Union, Association or Society as suffix.=== North America ===In the United States guilds exist in several fields.",
"Often, they are better characterized as a labor union — for example, The Newspaper Guild is a labor union for journalists and other newspaper workers, with over 30,000 members in North America.In the film and television industry, guild membership is generally a prerequisite for working on major productions in certain capacities.",
"The Screen Actors Guild, Directors Guild of America, Writers Guild of America, East, Writers Guild of America, West and other profession-specific guilds have the ability to exercise strong control in the cinema of the United States as a result of a rigid system of intellectual-property rights and a history of power-brokers also holding guild membership (e.g., DreamWorks Pictures founder Steven Spielberg was, and is, a DGA member).",
"These guilds maintain their own contracts with production companies to ensure a certain number of their members are hired for roles in each film or television production, and that their members are paid a minimum of guild \"scale,\" along with other labor protections.",
"These guilds set high standards for membership, and exclude professional actors, writers, etc.",
"who do not abide by the strict rules for competing within the film and television industry in America.Real-estate brokerage offers an example of a modern American guild system.",
"Signs of guild behavior in real-estate brokerage include: standard pricing (6% of the home price), strong affiliation among all practitioners, self-regulation (see National Association of Realtors), strong cultural identity (the Realtor brand), little price variation with quality differences, and traditional methods in use by all practitioners.",
"In September 2005 the U.S. Department of Justice filed an antitrust lawsuit against the National Association of Realtors, challenging NAR practices that (the DOJ asserted) prevent competition from practitioners who use different methods.",
"The DOJ and the Federal Trade Commission in 2005 advocated against state laws, supported by NAR, that disadvantage new kinds of brokers.",
"''U.S.",
"v. National Assoc.",
"of Realtors'', Civil Action No.",
"05C-5140 (N.D. Ill. Sept. 7, 2005).The practice of law in the United States also exemplifies modern guilds at work.",
"Every state maintains its own bar association, supervised by that state's highest court.",
"The court decides the criteria for entering and staying in the legal profession.",
"In most states, every attorney must become a member of that state's bar association in order to practice law.",
"State laws forbid any person from engaging in the unauthorized practice of law and practicing attorneys are subject to rules of professional conduct that are enforced by the state's supreme court.Medical associations comparable to guilds include the state Medical Boards, the American Medical Association, and the American Dental Association.",
"Medical licensing in most states requires specific training, tests and years of low-paid apprenticeship (internship and residency) under harsh working conditions.",
"Even qualified international or out-of-state doctors may not practice without acceptance by the local medical guild (Medical board).",
"Similarly, nurses and physicians' practitioners have their own guilds.",
"A doctor cannot work as a physician's assistant unless (s)he separately trains, tests and apprentices as one.=== Australia ===Australia has several guilds.",
"The most notable of these is The Pharmacy Guild of Australia, created in 1927 as the Federated Pharmaceutical Services Guild of Australia.",
"The Pharmacy Guild serves \"6,000 community pharmacies,\" while also providing training and standards for the country's pharmacists.",
"Australia's other guilds include the Australian Directors Guild, representing the country's directors, documentary makers and animators, the Australian Writers' Guild, the Australian Butcher's Guild, a fraternity of independent butchers which provides links to resources like Australian meat standards and a guide to different beef cuts, and The Artists Guild, a craft guild focusing on female artists."
],
[
"In fiction",
"* In the ''Dune'' universe, an organization known as the Spacing Guild controls the means of interstellar travel and thus wields great power.",
"* In the classic 1939 film ''The Wizard of Oz'', an organization known as the Lollipop Guild was a group of Munchkins in the Munchkin Country, who welcomed Dorothy Gale to the Land of Oz with song and dance upon her arrival.",
"* In video games, guilds are used as associations of players or characters with similar interests, such as dungeons, crafting, or player versus player combat.",
"* In ''Star Wars'', there is a bounty hunter guild.",
"* In Terry Pratchett's ''Discworld'' novels, the guilds of the city of Ankh-Morpork are major civic and economic institutions, with some serving as equivalents to trade unions or government bodies.",
"The Presidents and Heads of the Guilds form an unofficial city council which may advise the Patrician during times of crisis.",
"As part of Lord Vetinari's efforts to 'organise' and reduce crime, criminals including thieves, assassins and 'seamstresses' were allowed to reorganise as guilds.",
"* In ''The Venture Brothers'', most super-villains in the series belong to The Guild of Calamitous Intent, which regulates their menacing activities towards their respective protagonists, while also shielding said villains from criminal prosecution.",
"Much of the show's storyline revolves around politics within the Guild.",
"* In Hiro Mashima's work ''Fairy Tail'', there exists a guild of that name, including many other kinds of guilds in the kingdom of Fiore.",
"* In the series ''The Lord of the Rings: The Rings of Power'', the powerful island kingdom of Númenor is characterized by several guilds, each signified by a metal crest worn on the torso.",
"* In ''Magic: The Gathering'', one of the most popular planes is Ravnica, which is run by 10 guilds (although these 10 guilds are not necessarily involved in trade, and the term is used more as a substitute for faction)"
],
[
"See also",
"* Bourgeois of Brussels* Bourgeois of Paris* Catholic Police Guild* Cohong – Chinese guilds of merchants * Collegium - Roman associations similar to medieval guilds* Community of practice* Company of Merchant Adventurers of London * Company of Merchant Adventurers to New Lands* Cooperative* Craft Unionism* Distributism* Timpani Guilds* Germania (guild) – merchants' guilds in Valencia, Spain* Guildhall* Guilds of Brussels* Guild of Saint Luke — painter's guilds* Guild of St. Bernulphus* Guild socialism* Hanseatic League* Kibbutz* List of guilds in the United Kingdom* Meistersinger - a German guild of poets, songwriters, and musicians* Merchant * Puy - a French guild of poets and musicians* Retail* Shreni – association of merchants, traders and artisans in India* Trade Guilds of South India* Trade union* Za (guilds) – merchants' guilds in Japan"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References",
"** — essays by scholars covering German and Italian territories, the Netherlands, France, and England; plus guilds in cloth spinning, painting, glass blowing, goldsmithing, pewterware, book-selling, and clock making.",
"* Comparative study of the origins and development of merchant guilds in Europe, esp.",
"their emergence during the late Middle Ages and their decline in the Early Modern era****"
],
[
"Further reading",
"***** Ogilvie, Sheilagh.",
"2019.",
"''The European Guilds: An Economic Analysis''.",
"Princeton University Press.",
"covers 1000 to 1880.",
"* Rosser, Gervase.",
"''The Art of Solidarity in the Middle Ages: Guilds in England 1250-1550,'' Oxford University Press, 2015, https://books.google.com/books?id=A0rTBgAAQBAJ"
],
[
"External links",
"* Medieval Guilds – World History Encyclopedia** Medieval guilds* St. Eloy's Hospice The last Guild House in Utrecht (archived 28 November 2006)*"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Gradius (video game)"
],
[
"Introduction",
" is a side-scrolling shooter video game developed and published by Konami.",
"The first game in the ''Gradius'' series, it was originally released as a coin-operated arcade game in 1985.The player maneuvers a spacecraft known as the Vic Viper that must defend itself from the various alien enemies.",
"The game uses a power-up system called the \"power meter\", based upon collecting capsules to purchase additional weapons.The arcade version of ''Gradius'' was initially released internationally outside Japan under the title of '''''Nemesis''''', but subsequent home releases have since used the original title.",
"During development, it had the working title '''''Scramble 2''''', as it was originally intended to be a follow-up to Konami's earlier shooter ''Scramble'' (1981).",
"Home versions were released for various platforms, such as the Famicom/NES, the MSX home computer, and the PC Engine.",
"It was a major success in 1986, becoming the year's highest-grossing arcade game in London and one of Japan's top five table arcade games, while the Famicom port sold over a million copies in Japan that year.",
"''Gradius'' was critically acclaimed for its gameplay and unique power-up system.",
"Along with Namco's ''Xevious'', it is cited as being one of the most important shooter games, having paved the way for many similar games to follow."
],
[
"Gameplay",
"The player's ship, the Vic Viper, exchanging shots with enemy Moai in the game's third stage.",
"The player's power meter is towards the bottom of the screen.The player controls the trans-dimensional spaceship Vic Viper and must battle waves of enemies through various environments.",
"The game became synonymous with the phrase, \"Destroy the core!",
"\", as the standard of boss battles in the ''Gradius'' series involved combat with a giant craft, in the center of which would be situated one to several blue colored spheres.",
"These bosses would be designed in such a way that there would be a straight passage from the exterior of the giant craft which leads directly to one of these cores.",
"The player must fire shots into this passage while avoiding attack patterns from weapon emplacements on the body of the boss.",
"However, small but destructible walls are situated in this passage, impeding the bullet shots from damaging the core, and must be whittled away by repeated well-placed shots.",
"In a way, these tiny walls represent the boss' shielding gauge until its core is finally vulnerable to attack.",
"Some bosses can regenerate these walls.",
"When the core has sustained enough hits, it usually changes color from blue to red, indicating that it is in critical condition and its destruction is imminent.",
"Upon the destruction of a core, a piece of the boss may be put out of commission, seeing that it is no longer powered by a core, or if all of the cores are destroyed, the entire boss is defeated and explodes satisfyingly.",
"Note that these cores are not present on the more organic bosses of ''Gradius''.",
"Such bosses have weak spots in places such as a mouth, head or eye.When gameplay begins, the Vic Viper is relatively slow and has only a weak gun.",
"This level of capability is generally insufficient for engaging enemies, but the Vic Viper can gain greater capabilities by collecting and using power-up items.",
"While most arcade games utilize distinct power up-items that each correspond to a specific effect on the player character, ''Gradius'' has a single power-up item.",
"The effect of this power-up item is to advance the currently selected item in a power-up menu that appears at the bottom of the screen.",
"When the desired power-up is highlighted, the player can obtain it by pressing the power-up button, returning the menu to its initial state in which no power-up is highlighted."
],
[
"Development",
"''Gradius'' was the creation of Konami game designer Machiguchi Hiroyasu, being the first video game he publicly released.",
"Joining the company in the early 1980s originally as a programmer, Konami was trying to transition from being a producer of medal machines to a video game developer and assigned him to a small team to try and create a game that could put the company on the map.",
"He asked the team what kind of game they'd like to work on, responding that they'd like to make another shooting game.",
"The shoot'em up genre had seen a resurgence at the time with Namco's ''Xevious'', with the goal of the project being to make a shooter that could surpass it.",
"The project was at first intended to be a followup to Konami's earlier game ''Scramble'' (1981), being titled ''Scramble 2'' and reusing many of its material and game mechanics.Development of ''Gradius'' lasted for about a year, which Hiroyasu says was filled with anxiety and worry from the production team due to it being their first game, lacking confidence in what they were doing.",
"Members of the project came up with ideas that were then tested on the arcade monitor to see if they worked or not.",
"While designing the Option satellites, the team tested over 20 different movement patterns for them, which were cut through the process of elimination based on those that didn't work.",
"The game was produced for the Konami Bubble System 16-bit arcade hardware, which gave the team more hardware capacity and memory to experiment with.",
"Hiroyasu wanted the game to have a visually distinct world with unique enemies and locations, something relatively uncommon for shooters at the time.",
"Inspiration for mechanics and the story were derived from films such as ''Star Wars: A New Hope'' and ''Lensman'', with the Laser weapon being directly taken from those in ''Lensman''.",
"The idea for the power meter mechanic stemmed from the team's desire to give players the freedom to select whichever weapons they pleased.",
"Early versions had the player collecting individual pick-up icons, which were cut for not being \"satisfying\" enough; it was instead replaced with a selection bar where players collected capsules to allow access to other weapons, an idea based on the function keys on a keyboard.",
"The Moai enemies were added to pay homage to ''Xevious'' and its Nazca lines, and as a way to give the game a sense of mystery."
],
[
"Releases",
"===Arcade===''Gradius'' was first released in Japan for Konami's Bubble System, an arcade board which allows operators to change the software through the use of proprietary \"Bubble Software\" cartridge media based on magnetic bubble memory.",
"The game was distributed as a standard printed circuit board in North America and Europe under the title of ''Nemesis''.",
"The North American version of ''Nemesis'' features a considerably increased difficulty compared to the Japanese and European version.",
"To balance this, the game spawns a fleet of orange enemies when the player loses a life to provide as many power-up capsules as possible to recover as many upgrades as possible.",
"Also the North American version presents a continue feature (but only for three times).",
"The title screen was also updated, showing an in-game reproduction of the promotional artwork behind the logo.===Famicom/NES===The first home conversion of ''Gradius'' was released for Nintendo's Famicom console on April 25, 1986, in Japan.",
"Due to the hardware limitations of the Famicom, many of the level designs were simplified (the Moai stage, for example, lacks the vertical scrolling present in the arcade game) and the maximum amount of options that the player can upgrade to was reduced from four to two.",
"This version added a cheat code that can be entered while the game is paused that grants the player's ship almost all the power-ups.",
"This code would appear again in many later Konami on the NES and other consoles (such as ''Contra'' and ''Life Force''), becoming known as the Konami Code.The NES version of ''Gradius'' was released in North America in December 1986.It is the first NES game to have been released by Konami in the region and unlike the original arcade game, the title was kept unchanged between regions.",
"The NES version was made available in arcades as a Nintendo VS. System board (under the title of ''VS.",
"Gradius'') and as a PlayChoice-10 cartridge.",
"''VS.",
"Gradius'' was distributed to arcades by Nintendo.===MSX===The MSX version of ''Gradius'' was released on July 25, 1986, in Japan, a few months after the Famicom version.",
"It was also released in Europe under the ''Nemesis'' title.",
"This version changed similar to the Famicom version but adds its slew of exclusive content to make up for the downgrade.",
"A new stage, the bone planet was added between the Inverted Volcano stage and the Antennoid stage, featuring exclusive enemy types.",
"There also four hidden warp zones and the ability to play as the titular ship from ''TwinBee'' if the MSX version of that game is played alongside ''Nemesis''.===PC Engine===The PC Engine version of ''Gradius'' was released on November 15, 1991, exclusively in Japan.",
"Released on a 2-Megabit HuCard, it had relatively few omissions compared to the NES and MSX versions and added a Desert Planet stage similar to the Bone Planet stage from the MSX version.",
"Because of the lower resolution of the PC Engine compared to the original arcade hardware, the PC Engine features some slight vertical-scrolling.===Other platforms===In addition to the MSX, ''Gradius'' was also ported to other microcomputers shortly after its release, such as the ZX Spectrum, Amstrad CPC and Commodore 64 in Europe (as ''Nemesis: The Final Challenge''), as well as the PC-8801 and X1 in Japan.",
"A port for the X68000 computer was also included in the early models of the computer.The original ''Gradius'' is also included in collection such as ''Gradius Deluxe Pack'' for the PlayStation, Sega Saturn and Microsoft Windows, and ''Gradius Collection'' for the PlayStation Portable.",
"The arcade version was digitally released on the PlayStation 4 in 2015 and Nintendo Switch in July 2020 as part of the Arcade Archives series, with the option to play all four regional variants of the game.",
"It is also included in the ''Arcade Classics Anniversary Collection'' released in 2019 by Konami themselves for PlayStation 4, Xbox One, Nintendo Switch and Windows."
],
[
"Audio",
"*Alfa Records released a limited-edition soundtrack album for this game (Konami Game Music Vol.1 – 28XA-85) on 27 June 1986.",
"*Apollon Music released a limited-edition soundtrack album for this game (Original Sound of Gradius – KHY1016) on 5 May 1987.",
"* Also, disc 1 of ''Konami Music Masterpiece Collection'', which was released on October 1, 2004, is mostly devoted to ''Gradius''."
],
[
"Reception",
"===Arcade===In Japan, ''Game Machine'' listed ''Gradius'' on their July 1, 1985 issue as being the most-popular arcade game for the previous two weeks.",
"It went on to be Japan's fifth highest-grossing table arcade game of 1986.In the United Kingdom, ''Nemesis'' was the highest-grossing arcade game of 1986 on London's Electrocoin charts.Upon release, the arcade game received positive reviews from ''Computer and Video Games'' and ''Computer Gamer'' magazines.===Ports===The Famicom version sold over one million copies in Japan during 1986.The home computer port went to number 2 in the UK sales charts, below ''Feud''.",
"The PC Engine version also topped the UK's PC Engine sales chart in December 1991.The first ''Famitsu'' Best Hit Game Awards gave the Famicom version of ''Gradius'' the award for Best Shooting Game and listed it as the second best Game of the Year (just below ''Dragon Quest'').",
"''Computer and Video Games'' reviewed the home computer conversions and awarded it Game of the Month.",
"''GameSpot'' later stated that ''Gradius'' was one of the toughest side-scrolling shooter games available on the NES, second only to ''Contra''.",
"''IGN'' gave the Wii Virtual Console re-release a rating 7 out of 10 and has hailed it as one of the greatest classic side-scrolling shooter games."
],
[
"Legacy",
"''Gradius'' spawned several sequels, the first of which was 1986's ''Salamander''.",
"The series has continued into the seventh generation with ''Gradius ReBirth''.It was also re-released on Windows Store on December 20, 2013, GameNow in May 2014 and for PlayStation 4's Arcade Archives on January 25 in Japan.",
"An NES port was re-released for the Nintendo Switch Online on September 19, 2018, worldwide and an updated release as on November 14, 2018, worldwide.",
"Another updated release titled '''''Gradius SP: Second Loop''''' was released worldwide on August 22, 2019."
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"*"
]
] |
wikipedia
|
[
[
"Gamemaster"
],
[
"Introduction",
"A gamemaster (center) and players in a tabletop role-playing gameA '''gamemaster''' ('''GM'''; also known as '''game master''', '''game manager''', '''game moderator''', '''referee''', or '''storyteller''') is a person who acts as an organizer, officiant for regarding rules, arbitrator, and moderator for a multiplayer role-playing game.",
"They are more common in co-operative games in which players work together than in competitive games in which players oppose each other.",
"The act performed by a gamemaster is sometimes referred to as \"Gamemastering\" or simply \"GM-ing\".The role of a gamemaster in a traditional table-top role-playing game (pencil-and-paper role-playing game) is to weave the other participants' player-character stories together, control the non-player aspects of the game, create environments in which the players can interact, and solve any player disputes.",
"The basic role of the gamemaster is the same in almost all traditional role-playing games, although differing rule sets make the specific duties of the gamemaster unique to that system.The role of a gamemaster in an online game is to enforce the game's rules and provide general customer service.",
"Also, unlike gamemasters in traditional role-playing games, gamemasters for online games in some cases are paid employees.In ''Dungeons & Dragons'', gamemasters are called dungeon masters, and in the ''World of Darkness'' games, they are called storytellers."
],
[
"History and variants of the term",
"The term ''gamemaster'' and the role associated with it could be found in the postal gaming hobby.",
"In typical play-by-mail games, players control armies or civilizations and mail their chosen actions to the GM.",
"The GM then mails the updated game state to all players on a regular basis.",
"Usage in a wargaming context includes Guidon Games 1973 ruleset, ''Ironclad''.",
"In a role-playing game context, it was first used by Dave Arneson while developing his game ''Blackmoor'' in 1971, although the first usage in print may have been ''Chivalry & Sorcery''.",
"Each gaming system has its own name for the role of the gamemaster, such as \"judge\", \"narrator\", \"referee\", \"director\", or \"storyteller\", and these terms not only describe the role of the gamemaster in general but also help define how the game is intended to be run.",
"For example, the Storyteller System used in White Wolf Game Studio's storytelling games calls its GM the \"storyteller\", while the rules- and setting-focused ''Marvel Super Heroes'' role-playing game calls its GM the \"judge\".",
"The cartoon inspired role-playing game ''Toon'' calls its GM the \"animator\".",
"A few games apply system- or setting-specific flavorful names to the GM, such as the Keeper of Arcane Lore (in ''Call of Cthulhu''), the Hollyhock God (''Nobilis'', in which the hollyhock represents vanity), or the most famous of such terms, the \"Dungeon Master\" (or \"DM\") in ''Dungeons & Dragons''."
],
[
"In traditional table-top role-playing games",
"The gamemaster prepares the game session for the players and the characters they play (known as player characters or PCs), describes the events taking place and decides on the outcomes of players' decisions.",
"The gamemaster also keeps track of non-player characters (NPCs) and random encounters, as well as of the general state of the game world.",
"The game session (or \"adventure\") can be metaphorically described as a play, in which the players are the lead actors, and the GM provides the stage, the scenery, the basic plot on which the improvisational script is built, as well as all the bit parts and supporting characters.",
"Gamemasters can also be in charge of RPG board games making the events and setting challenges.GMs may choose to run a game based on a published game world, with the maps and history already in place; such game worlds often have pre-written adventures.",
"Alternatively, the GM may build their own world and script their own adventures.A good gamemaster draws the players into the adventure, making it enjoyable for everyone.",
"Good gamemasters have quick minds, sharp wits, and rich imaginations.",
"Gamemasters must also maintain game balance: hideously overpowered monsters ''or'' players are no fun.",
"It was noted, in 1997, that those who favor their left-brain such as skilled code writers usually do not make it in the ethereal gamemaster world of storytelling and verse.===The four major \"hats\"===* '''Author''': The GM plans out (in the loosest sense) the plot of the story of which the player characters will become heroes (or villains, or rich, etc.",
"); creating (or adapting, or just choosing) the setting, populating that region with villains and other NPCs, and assigning them any necessary backgrounds, motivations, plans and resources.",
"* '''Director''': During the game, while each of the other players typically controls the actions of one of the player characters, the GM decides the actions of all the NPCs as they are needed.",
"The GM may also direct a particular \"NPC\" that travels with the party (commonly known as a GMPC), but this may occasionally be open to abuse since the Game Master having a \"pet\" NPC may compromise their neutrality.",
"* '''Referee''': In most tabletop RPGs, the rules are supplied to resolve conflicting situations (avoiding the \"Bang!",
"you're dead!",
"\"/\"No, you missed!\"",
"quandary).",
"The GM is expected to provide any necessary interpretation of those rules in fuzzier situations.",
"The GM may also approve or provide House Rules in order to cover these corner cases or provide a different gaming experience.",
"* '''Manager''': The least officially prescribed portion of GMing, and thus the part that takes people the most by surprise.",
"The GM is typically the one to organize the game in the first place, find players, schedule sessions, and figure out a place to play, as well as acting as a mediator and having to balance the needs and desires of all participants—sometimes having to divine the real desires of indecisive or inexperienced players."
],
[
"In online games",
"In early virtual worlds gamemasters served as a moderator or administrator; in MUD game masters were called \"wizards\".",
"Gamemastering in the form found in traditional role-playing games has also been used in semi-automatic virtual worlds.",
"However, human moderation was sometimes considered unfair or out of context in an otherwise automated world.",
"As online games expanded, gamemaster duties expanded to include being a customer service representative for an online community.",
"A gamemaster in such a game is either an experienced volunteer player or an employee of the game's publisher.",
"They enforce the game's rules by banishing spammers, player killers, cheaters, and hackers and by solving players' problems by providing general customer service.",
"For their tasks they use special tools and characters that allow them to do things like teleport to players, summon items, and browse logs that record players' activities.",
"Often, players who feel dissatisfied with the game will blame the GMs directly for any errors or glitches.",
"However, this blame is misdirected as most GMs are not developers and cannot resolve those types of problems.The now defunct America Online Online Gaming Forum used to use volunteers selected by applications from its user base.",
"These people were simply referred to as OGFs by other members, and their screennames were indicative of their position (i.e., OGF Moose, etc.).",
"While membership in the Online Gaming Forum had only one real requirement (that is, be a member of AOL), OGFs were given powers quite similar to AOL \"Guides\" and could use them at will to discipline users as they saw appropriate.",
"''World of Warcraft'' has employees of Blizzard Entertainment that serve as gamemasters to help users with various problems in gameplay, chat, and other things like account and billing issues.",
"A gamemaster in this game will communicate with players through chat that has blue text and they will also have a special \"GM\" tag and Blizzard logo in front of their names.",
"''RuneScape'' has more than 500 moderators employed by Jagex to assist players and perform administrative duties in-game and on the site forums.",
"These ''Jagex Moderators'', as they are called, usually have the word \"Mod\" and a gold crown preceding their account names which ordinary players are not permitted to use.",
"The game also has ''Player Moderators'' and ''Forum Moderators'' who are player volunteers helping with moderation, having the ability to mute (block from chatting) other players who violate rules.",
"''Battleground Europe'', a medium-sized MMOFPS, has a team of ''Game Moderators'', anonymous volunteers who moderate the game.",
"''Miniconomy'', a smaller text-based MMO, has a team of ''Federals'', experienced players that help moderate the game and interactions.",
"''Transformice'', an online multiplayer platformer, has a team of volunteer moderators called ''Mods'' who are experienced players that help moderate the game and interactions.",
"''ARMA 3'', an open-world military tactical shooter, has a ''Zeus'' role that allows any player slotted in that role to place down almost any asset in the game including infantry and vehicles, objectives, intelligence, and score-keeping modules.",
"The Zeus can also modify aspects of the world itself including time, weather, and wildlife to create dynamically progressing stories.Note that a few games, notably ''Neverwinter Nights'' and ''Vampire: The Masquerade – Redemption'', are video game adaptations of tabletop role-playing games that are played online with one player acting as a traditional gamemaster."
],
[
"In pervasive games",
"Gamemastering, sometimes referred to as Orchestration is used in pervasive games to guide players along a trajectory desired by the game author.",
"To ensure proper gamemastering can take place, four components are needed: some kind of sensory system to the game allowing the game masters to know current events, providing dynamic game information; dynamic and static game information lets game masters make informed decisions; decisions need to be actuated into the game, either through the game system or through manual intervention; and finally a communication structure is needed for both diegetic or non-diegetic communication.",
"Effective gamemastering can require specialized user interfaces that are highly game specific."
],
[
"Gamemasters in online chat environments",
"Sometimes, tabletop GMs simply can not find players interested in either the same setting, product line, or play style in their local neighborhood.",
"The advent of the networked personal computer provided a solution in the form of online chat programs.",
"Appropriately equipped gamemasters can find players online and a group can meet via chat rooms, forums, or other electronic means.In contrast to standard tabletop procedure (and to games ''designed'' to be played online), this online chat format significantly changed the balance of duties for a prospective gamemaster.",
"Descriptive text required more preparation, if only via cut-and-paste; acting and voice skills could not be utilized to get the personality of NPCs and monsters across, increasing the value of background music ('assigned' in advance or individually chosen) as a playing aid.",
"The GM was likely to need copies of player-character records, being unable to glance at the originals as in normal face-to-face procedure.",
"The format also forced the issue (particularly when participants were not personally acquainted) of whether to leave all rolling of dice to the GM (making one's own rolls is a privilege not readily surrendered by some players), or to trust all players to honestly report the results of their rolls (the honor system may be strained when it is in a player's best interest to roll well).However, workarounds to these challenges have only increased over time.",
"The use of Wiki software helps GMs and players alike keep track of all manner of game data, sometimes evolving into a home-made gaming supplement.",
"Scripting software allows unwieldy mechanics (e.g.",
"a complicated formula or repetitive die-rolling) to be resolved at the push of a button.",
"Teleconferencing enhances group communication through voice, video, and a shared whiteboard.",
"The use of technology to enable online play is growing, as reflected in products like the D&D Insider."
],
[
"See also",
"* Dungeon Master"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"*"
]
] |
wikipedia
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