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[ [ "Giovanni Boccaccio" ], [ "Introduction", "16th-century portrait of Boccaccio'''Giovanni Boccaccio''' (, , ; 16 June 1313 – 21 December 1375) was an Italian writer, poet, correspondent of Petrarch, and an important Renaissance humanist.", "Born in the town of Certaldo, he became so well known as a writer that he was sometimes simply known as \"'''the Certaldese'''\" and one of the most important figures in the European literary panorama of the fourteenth century.", "Some scholars (including Vittore Branca) define him as the greatest European prose writer of his time, a versatile writer who amalgamated different literary trends and genres, making them converge in original works, thanks to a creative activity exercised under the banner of experimentalism.His most notable works are ''The Decameron'', a collection of short stories which in the following centuries was a determining element for the Italian literary tradition, especially after Pietro Bembo elevated the Boccaccian style to a model of Italian prose in the sixteenth century, and ''On Famous Women''.", "He wrote his imaginative literature mostly in Tuscan vernacular, as well as other works in Latin, and is particularly noted for his realistic dialogue which differed from that of his contemporaries, medieval writers who usually followed formulaic models for character and plot.", "The influence of Boccaccio's works was not limited to the Italian cultural scene but extended to the rest of Europe, exerting influence on authors such as Geoffrey Chaucer, a key figure in English literature, or later on Miguel de Cervantes, Lope de Vega and the Spanish classical theatre.Boccaccio, together with Dante Alighieri and Petrarch, is part of the so-called \"Three Crowns\" of Italian literature.", "He is remembered for being one of the precursors of humanism, of which he helped lay the foundations in the city of Florence, in conjunction with the activity of his friend and teacher Petrarch.", "He was the one who initiated Dante's criticism and philology: Boccaccio devoted himself to copying codices of the ''Divine Comedy'' and was a promoter of Dante's work and figure.In the twentieth century, Boccaccio was the subject of critical-philological studies by Vittore Branca and Giuseppe Billanovich, and his ''Decameron'' was transposed to the big screen by the director and writer Pier Paolo Pasolini." ], [ "Biography", "=== Childhood and youth, 1313–1330 ===Portrait by Andrea del Castagno, The details of Boccaccio's birth are uncertain.", "He was born in Florence or in a village near Certaldo where his family was from.", "He was the son of Florentine merchant Boccaccino di Chellino and an unknown woman; he was likely born out of wedlock.", "Boccaccio's stepmother was called Margherita de' Mardoli.Boccaccio grew up in Florence.", "His father worked for the Compagnia dei Bardi and, in the 1320s, married Margherita dei Mardoli, who was of a well-to-do family.", "Boccaccio may have been tutored by Giovanni Mazzuoli and received from him an early introduction to the works of Dante.", "In 1326, his father was appointed head of a bank and moved with his family to Naples.", "Boccaccio was an apprentice at the bank but disliked the banking profession.", "He persuaded his father to let him study law at the ''Studium'' (the present-day University of Naples), where he studied canon law for the next six years.", "He also pursued his interest in scientific and literary studies.His father introduced him to the Neapolitan nobility and the French-influenced court of Robert the Wise (the king of Naples) in the 1330s.", "At this time, he fell in love with a married daughter of the king, who is portrayed as \"Fiammetta\" in many of Boccaccio's prose romances, including ''Il Filocolo'' (1338).", "Boccaccio became a friend of fellow Florentine Niccolò Acciaioli, and benefited from his influence as the administrator, and perhaps the lover, of Catherine of Valois-Courtenay, widow of Philip I of Taranto.", "Acciaioli later became a counselor to Queen Joanna I of Naples and, eventually, her ''Grand Seneschal''.It seems that Boccaccio enjoyed law no more than banking, but his studies allowed him the opportunity to study widely and make good contacts with fellow scholars.", "His early influences included Paolo da Perugia (a curator and author of a collection of myths called the ''Collectiones''), humanists Barbato da Sulmona and Giovanni Barrili, and theologian Dionigi di Borgo San Sepolcro.===Adult years===Fantacchiotti in Uffizi GalleryIn Naples, Boccaccio began what he considered his true vocation of poetry.", "Works produced in this period include ''Il Filostrato'' and ''Teseida'' (the sources for Chaucer's ''Troilus and Criseyde'' and ''The Knight's Tale'', respectively), ''The Filocolo'' (a prose version of an existing French romance), and ''La caccia di Diana'' (a poem in ''terza rima'' listing Neapolitan women).", "The period featured considerable formal innovation, including possibly the introduction of the Sicilian octave, where it influenced Petrarch.Boccaccio returned to Florence in early 1341, avoiding the plague of 1340 in that city, but also missing the visit of Petrarch to Naples in 1341.He had left Naples due to tensions between the Angevin king and Florence.", "His father had returned to Florence in 1338, where he had gone bankrupt.", "His mother died shortly afterwards (possibly, as she was unknown – see above).", "Boccaccio continued to work, although dissatisfied with his return to Florence, producing ''Comedia delle ninfe fiorentine'' in 1341 (also known as ''Ameto''), a mix of prose and poems, completing the fifty-canto allegorical poem ''Amorosa visione'' in 1342, and ''Fiammetta'' in 1343.The pastoral piece \"Ninfale fiesolano\" probably dates from this time, also.", "In 1343, Boccaccio's father remarried Bice del Bostichi.", "His other children by his first marriage had all died, but he had another son named Iacopo in 1344.Decamerone (c. 1485)In Florence, the overthrow of Walter of Brienne brought about the government of ''popolo minuto'' (\"small people\", workers).", "It diminished the influence of the nobility and the wealthier merchant classes and contributed to the relative decline of Florence.", "The city was hurt further in 1348 by the Black Death, which killed some three-quarters of the city's population, later represented in the ''Decameron''.From 1347, Boccaccio spent much time in Ravenna, seeking new patronage and, despite his claims, it is not certain whether he was present in plague-ravaged Florence.", "His stepmother died during the epidemic and his father was closely associated with the government efforts as minister of supply in the city.", "His father died in 1349 and Boccaccio was forced into a more active role as head of the family.Boccaccio began work on ''The Decameron'' around 1349.It is probable that the structures of many of the tales date from earlier in his career, but the choice of a hundred tales and the frame-story ''lieta brigata'' of three men and seven women dates from this time.", "The work was largely complete by 1352.It was Boccaccio's final effort in literature and one of his last works in Tuscan vernacular; the only other substantial work was ''Corbaccio'' (dated to either 1355 or 1365).", "Boccaccio revised and rewrote ''The Decameron'' in 1370–1371.This manuscript has survived to the present day.From 1350, Boccaccio became closely involved with Italian humanism (although less of a scholar) and also with the Florentine government.", "His first official mission was to Romagna in late 1350.He revisited that city-state twice and also was sent to Brandenburg, Milan and Avignon.", "He also pushed for the study of Greek, housing Barlaam of Calabria, and encouraging his tentative translations of works by Homer, Euripides, and Aristotle.", "In these years, he also took minor orders.In October 1350, he was delegated to greet Francesco Petrarch as he entered Florence and also to have Petrarch as a guest at Boccaccio's home, during his stay.", "The meeting between the two was extremely fruitful and they were friends from then on, Boccaccio calling Petrarch his teacher and ''magister''.", "Petrarch at that time encouraged Boccaccio to study classical Greek and Latin literature.", "They met again in Padua in 1351, Boccaccio on an official mission to invite Petrarch to take a chair at the university in Florence.", "Although unsuccessful, the discussions between the two were instrumental in Boccaccio writing the ''Genealogia deorum gentilium''; the first edition was completed in 1360 and this remained one of the key reference works on classical mythology for over 400 years.", "It served as an extended defence for the studies of ancient literature and thought.", "Despite the Pagan beliefs at its core, Boccaccio believed that much could be learned from antiquity.", "Thus, he challenged the arguments of clerical intellectuals who wanted to limit access to classical sources to prevent any moral harm to Christian readers.", "The revival of classical antiquity became a foundation of the Renaissance, and his defence of the importance of ancient literature was an essential requirement for its development.", "The discussions also formalized Boccaccio's poetic ideas.", "Certain sources also see a conversion of Boccaccio by Petrarch from the open humanist of the ''Decameron'' to a more ascetic style, closer to the dominant fourteenth-century ethos.", "For example, he followed Petrarch (and Dante) in the unsuccessful championing of an archaic and deeply allusive form of Latin poetry.", "In 1359, following a meeting with Pope Innocent VI and further meetings with Petrarch, it is probable that Boccaccio took some kind of religious mantle.", "There is a persistent (but unsupported) tale that he repudiated his earlier works as profane in 1362, including ''The Decameron''.Circes: illustration of one of the women featured in the 1374 biographies of 106 famous women, ''De Claris Mulieribus'', by Boccaccio – from a German translation of 1541In 1360, Boccaccio began work on ''De mulieribus claris'', a book offering biographies of 106 famous women, that he completed in 1374.A number of Boccaccio's close friends and other acquaintances were executed or exiled in the purge following the failed coup of 1361.It was in this year that Boccaccio left Florence to reside in Certaldo, although not directly linked to the conspiracy, where he became less involved in government affairs.", "He did not undertake further missions for Florence until 1365, and travelled to Naples and then on to Padua and Venice, where he met up with Petrarch in grand style at Palazzo Molina, Petrarch's residence as well as the place of Petrarch's library.", "He later returned to Certaldo.", "He met Petrarch only once again in Padua in 1368.Upon hearing of the death of Petrarch (19 July 1374), Boccaccio wrote a commemorative poem, including it in his collection of lyric poems, the ''Rime''.He returned to work for the Florentine government in 1365, undertaking a mission to Pope Urban V. The papacy returned to Rome from Avignon in 1367, and Boccaccio was again sent to Urban, offering congratulations.", "He also undertook diplomatic missions to Venice and Naples.Of his later works, the moralistic biographies gathered as ''De casibus virorum illustrium'' (1355–74) and ''De mulieribus claris'' (1361–1375) were the most significant.", "Other works include a dictionary of geographical allusions in classical literature, ''De montibus, silvis, fontibus, lacubus, fluminibus, stagnis seu paludibus, et de nominibus maris liber''.", "He gave a series of lectures on Dante at the Santo Stefano church in 1373 and these resulted in his final major work, the detailed ''Esposizioni sopra la Commedia di Dante''.", "Boccaccio and Petrarch were also two of the most educated people in early Renaissance in the field of archaeology.Boccaccio's change in writing style in the 1350s was due in part to meeting with Petrarch, but it was mostly due to poor health and a premature weakening of his physical strength.", "It also was due to disappointments in love.", "Some such disappointment could explain why Boccaccio came suddenly to write in a bitter ''Corbaccio'' style, having previously written mostly in praise of women and love, though elements of misogyny are present in ''Il Teseida''.", "Petrarch describes how Pietro Petrone (a Carthusian monk) on his deathbed in 1362 sent another Carthusian (Gioacchino Ciani) to urge him to renounce his worldly studies.", "Petrarch then dissuaded Boccaccio from burning his own works and selling off his personal library, letters, books, and manuscripts.", "Petrarch even offered to purchase Boccaccio's library, so that it would become part of Petrarch's library.", "However, upon Boccaccio's death, his entire collection was given to the monastery of Santo Spirito, in Florence, where it still resides.His final years were troubled by illnesses, some relating to obesity and what often is described as dropsy, severe edema that would be described today as congestive heart failure.", "He died on 21 December 1375 in Certaldo, where he is buried." ], [ "Works", "''Genealogia deorum gentilium'', 1532;Alphabetical listing of selected works:*''Amorosa visione'' (1342)*''Buccolicum carmen'' (1367–1369)*''Caccia di Diana'' (1334–1337)*''Comedia delle ninfe fiorentine'' (''Ninfale d'Ameto'', 1341–1342)*''Corbaccio'' (around 1365, this date is disputed)*''De Canaria'' (within 1341–1345)*''De Casibus Virorum Illustrium'' ().", "Facsimile of 1620 Paris ed., 1962, Scholars' Facsimiles & Reprints, .", "*''De mulieribus claris'' (1361, revised up to 1375)*''The Decameron'' (1349–52, revised 1370–1371)*''Elegia di Madonna Fiammetta'' (1343–1344)*''Esposizioni sopra la Comedia di Dante'' (1373–1374)*''Filocolo'' (1336–1339)*''Filostrato'' (1335 or 1340)*''Genealogia deorum gentilium libri'' (1360, revised up to 1374)*''Ninfale fiesolano'' (within 1344–46, this date is disputed)*''Rime'' (finished 1374)*''Teseida delle nozze di Emilia'' (before 1341)*''Trattatello in laude di Dante'' (1357, title revised to ''De origine vita studiis et moribus viri clarissimi Dantis Aligerii florentini poetae illustris et de operibus compositis ab eodem'')*''Zibaldone Magliabechiano'' (within 1351–1356)See Consoli's bibliography for an exhaustive listing." ], [ "See also", "* Influence of Italian humanism on Chaucer" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "Sources", "* * * * * Çoban, R. V. (2020).", "The Manzikert Battle and Sultan Alp Arslan with European Perspective in the 15st Century in the Miniatures of Giovanni Boccaccio's \"De Casibus Virorum Illustrium\"s 226 and 232.French Manuscripts in Bibliothèque Nationale de France.", "S. Karakaya ve V. Baydar (Ed.", "), in 2nd International Muş Symposium Articles Book (pp. 48–64).", "Muş: Muş Alparslan University.", "Source * Patrick, James A.(2007).", "''Renaissance And Reformation''.", "Marshall Cavendish Corp. ." ], [ "Further reading", "* ''On Famous Women'', edited and translated by Virginia Brown.", "Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001 (Latin text and English translation)* ''The Decameron'', * ''The Life of Dante'', translated by Vincenzo Zin Bollettino.", "New York: Garland, 1990 * ''The Elegy of Lady Fiammetta'', edited and translated from the Italian by Mariangela Causa-Steindler and Thomas Mauch; with an introduction by Mariangela Causa-Steindler.", "Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990 ." ], [ "External links", "* * * * * * * De claris mulieribus From the Rare Book and Special Collections Division at the Library of Congress* Genealogie deorum gentilium Johannis Boccacii de Certaldo liber at Somni* De mulieribus claris at Somni" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Giuseppe Verdi" ], [ "Introduction", "Portrait by Giovanni Boldini, 1886'''Giuseppe Fortunino Francesco Verdi''' (; 9 or 10 October 1813 – 27 January 1901) was an Italian composer best known for his operas.", "He was born near Busseto to a provincial family of moderate means, receiving a musical education with the help of a local patron.", "Verdi came to dominate the Italian opera scene after the era of Gioachino Rossini, Vincenzo Bellini, and Gaetano Donizetti, whose works significantly influenced him.In his early operas, Verdi demonstrated sympathy with the Risorgimento movement which sought the unification of Italy.", "He also participated briefly as an elected politician.", "The chorus \"Va, pensiero\" from his early opera ''Nabucco'' (1842), and similar choruses in later operas, were much in the spirit of the unification movement, and the composer himself became esteemed as a representative of these ideals.", "An intensely private person, Verdi did not seek to ingratiate himself with popular movements.", "As he became professionally successful, he was able to reduce his operatic workload and sought to establish himself as a landowner in his native region.", "He surprised the musical world by returning, after his success with the opera ''Aida'' (1871), with three late masterpieces: his Requiem (1874), and the operas ''Otello'' (1887) and ''Falstaff'' (1893).His operas remain extremely popular, especially the three peaks of his 'middle period': ''Rigoletto'', ''Il trovatore'' and ''La traviata''.", "The bicentenary of his birth in 2013 was widely celebrated in broadcasts and performances." ], [ "Life", "===Childhood and education===Verdi's childhood home at Le RoncoleVerdi, the first child of Carlo Giuseppe Verdi (1785–1867) and Luigia Uttini (1787–1851), was born at their home in Le Roncole, a village near Busseto, then in the Département Taro and within the borders of the First French Empire following the annexation of the Duchy of Parma and Piacenza in 1808.The baptismal register, prepared on 11 October 1813, lists his parents Carlo and Luigia as \"innkeeper\" and \"spinner\" respectively.", "Additionally, it lists Verdi as being \"born yesterday\", but since days were often considered to begin at sunset, this could have meant either 9 or 10 October.", "Following his mother, Verdi always celebrated his birthday on 9 October, the day he himself believed he was born.Verdi had a younger sister, Giuseppa, who died aged 17 in 1833.She is said to have been his closest friend during childhood.", "From the age of four, Verdi was given private lessons in Latin and Italian by the village schoolmaster, Baistrocchi, and at six he attended the local school.", "After learning to play the organ, he showed so much interest in music that his parents finally provided him with a spinet.", "Verdi's gift for music was already apparent by 1820–21 when he began his association with the local church, serving in the choir, acting as an altar boy for a while, and taking organ lessons.", "After Baistrocchi's death, Verdi, at the age of eight, became the official paid organist.Antonio Barezzi, Verdi's patron and later father-in-lawThe music historian Roger Parker points out that both of Verdi's parents \"belonged to families of small landowners and traders, certainly not the illiterate peasants from which Verdi later liked to present himself as having emerged... Carlo Verdi was energetic in furthering his son's education...something which Verdi tended to hide in later life...", "The picture emerges of youthful precocity eagerly nurtured by an ambitious father and of a sustained, sophisticated and elaborate formal education.", "\"In 1823, when he was 10, Verdi's parents arranged for the boy to attend school in Busseto, enrolling him in a ''Ginnasio''—an upper school for boys—run by Don Pietro Seletti, while they continued to run their inn at Le Roncole.", "Verdi returned to Busseto regularly to play the organ on Sundays, covering the distance of several kilometres on foot.", "At age 11, Verdi received schooling in Italian, Latin, the humanities, and rhetoric.", "By the time he was 12, he began lessons with Ferdinando Provesi, ''maestro di cappella'' at San Bartolomeo, director of the municipal music school and co-director of the local ''Società Filarmonica'' (Philharmonic Society).", "Verdi later stated: \"From the ages of 13 to 18 I wrote a motley assortment of pieces: marches for band by the hundred, perhaps as many little ''sinfonie'' that were used in church, in the theatre and at concerts, five or six concertos and sets of variations for pianoforte, which I played myself at concerts, many serenades, cantatas (arias, duets, very many trios) and various pieces of church music, of which I remember only a ''Stabat Mater''.\"", "This information comes from the ''Autobiographical Sketch'' which Verdi dictated to the publisher Giulio Ricordi late in life, in 1879, and remains the leading source for his early life and career.", "Written, understandably, with the benefit of hindsight, it is not always reliable when dealing with issues more contentious than those of his childhood.Margherita Barezzi, Verdi's first wifeThe other director of the Philharmonic Society was , a wholesale grocer and distiller, who was described by a contemporary as a \"manic dilettante\" of music.", "The young Verdi did not immediately become involved with the Philharmonic.", "By June 1827, he had graduated with honours from the ''Ginnasio'' and was able to focus solely on music under Provesi.", "By chance, when he was 13, Verdi was asked to step in as a replacement to play in what became his first public event in his home town; he was an immediate success mostly playing his own music to the surprise of many and receiving strong local recognition.By 1829–30, Verdi had established himself as a leader of the Philharmonic: \"none of us could rival him\" reported the secretary of the organisation, Giuseppe Demaldè.", "An eight-movement cantata, ''I deliri di Saul'', based on a drama by Vittorio Alfieri, was written by Verdi when he was 15 and performed in Bergamo.", "It was acclaimed by both Demaldè and Barezzi, who commented: \"He shows a vivid imagination, a philosophical outlook, and sound judgment in the arrangement of instrumental parts.\"", "In late 1829, Verdi had completed his studies with Provesi, who declared that he had no more to teach him.", "At the time, Verdi had been giving singing and piano lessons to Barezzi's daughter Margherita; by 1831, they were unofficially engaged.Verdi set his sights on Milan, then the cultural capital of northern Italy, where he applied unsuccessfully to study at the Conservatory.", "Barezzi made arrangements for him to become a private pupil of , who had been ''maestro concertatore'' at La Scala, and who described Verdi's compositions as \"very promising\".", "Lavigna encouraged Verdi to take out a subscription to La Scala, where he heard Maria Malibran in operas by Gioachino Rossini and Vincenzo Bellini.", "Verdi began making connections in the Milanese world of music that were to stand him in good stead.", "These included an introduction by Lavigna to an amateur choral group, the ''Società Filarmonica'', led by Pietro Massini.", "Attending the ''Società'' frequently in 1834, Verdi soon found himself functioning as rehearsal director (for Rossini's ''La Cenerentola'') and continuo player.", "It was Massini who encouraged him to write his first opera, originally titled ''Rocester'', to a libretto by the journalist Antonio Piazza.===1834–1842: First operas===Temistocle Solera, Verdi's first librettistIn mid-1834, Verdi sought to acquire Provesi's former post in Busseto but without success.", "But with Barezzi's help, he did obtain the secular post of ''maestro di musica''.", "He taught, gave lessons, and conducted the Philharmonic for several months before returning to Milan in early 1835.By the following July, he obtained his certification from Lavigna.", "Eventually in 1835 Verdi became director of the Busseto school with a three-year contract.", "He married Margherita in May 1836, and by March 1837, she had given birth to their first child, Virginia Maria Luigia on 26 March 1837.Icilio Romano followed on 11 July 1838.Both the children died young, Virginia on 12 August 1838, Icilio on 22 October 1839.In 1837, the young composer asked for Massini's assistance to stage his opera in Milan.", "The La Scala impresario, Bartolomeo Merelli, agreed to put on ''Oberto'' (as the reworked opera was now called, with a libretto rewritten by Temistocle Solera) in November 1839.It achieved a respectable 13 additional performances, following which Merelli offered Verdi a contract for three more works.While Verdi was working on his second opera ''Un giorno di regno'', Margherita died of encephalitis at the age of 26.Verdi adored his wife and children and was devastated by their early deaths.", "''Un giorno'', a comedy, was premiered only a few months later.", "It was a flop and only given one performance.", "Following its failure, it is claimed Verdi vowed never to compose again, but in his ''Sketch'' he recounts how Merelli persuaded him to write a new opera.Verdi was to claim that he gradually began to work on the music for ''Nabucco'', the libretto of which had originally been rejected by the composer Otto Nicolai: \"This verse today, tomorrow that, here a note, there a whole phrase, and little by little the opera was written\", he later recalled.", "By the autumn of 1841 it was complete, originally under the title ''Nabucodonosor''.", "Well received at its first performance on 9 March 1842, ''Nabucco'' underpinned Verdi's success until his retirement from the theatre, twenty-nine operas (including some revised and updated versions) later.", "At its revival in La Scala for the 1842 autumn season it was given an unprecedented (and later unequalled) total of 57 performances; within three years it had reached (among other venues) Vienna, Lisbon, Barcelona, Berlin, Paris and Hamburg; in 1848 it was heard in New York, in 1850 in Buenos Aires.", "Porter comments that \"similar accounts...could be provided to show how widely and rapidly all Verdi's other successful operas were disseminated.", "\"===1842–1849===Francesco Maria Piave whose work with Verdi included ''Rigoletto'' and ''La traviata''A period of hard work for Verdi—with the creation of twenty operas (excluding revisions and translations)—followed over the next sixteen years, culminating in ''Un ballo in maschera''.", "This period was not without its frustrations and setbacks for the young composer, and he was frequently demoralised.", "In April 1845, in connection with ''I due Foscari'', he wrote: \"I am happy, no matter what reception it gets, and I am utterly indifferent to everything.", "I cannot wait for these next three years to pass.", "I have to write six operas, then ''addio'' to everything.\"", "In 1858 Verdi complained: \"Since ''Nabucco'', you may say, I have never had one hour of peace.", "Sixteen years in the galleys.", "\"After the initial success of ''Nabucco'', Verdi settled in Milan, making a number of influential acquaintances.", "He attended the ''Salotto Maffei'', Countess Clara Maffei's salons in Milan, becoming her lifelong friend and correspondent.", "A revival of ''Nabucco'' followed in 1842 at La Scala where it received a run of fifty-seven performances, and this led to a commission from Merelli for a new opera for the 1843 season.", "''I Lombardi alla prima crociata'' was based on a libretto by Solera and premiered in February 1843.Inevitably, comparisons were made with ''Nabucco''; but one contemporary writer noted: \"If ''Nabucco'' created this young man's reputation, ''I Lombardi'' served to confirm it.", "\"Verdi paid close attention to his financial contracts, making sure he was appropriately remunerated as his popularity increased.", "For ''I Lombardi'' and ''Ernani'' (1844) in Venice he was paid 12,000 lire (including supervision of the productions); ''Attila'' and ''Macbeth'' (1847), each brought him 18,000 lire.", "His contracts with the publishers Ricordi in 1847 were very specific about the amounts he was to receive for new works, first productions, musical arrangements, and so on.", "He began to use his growing prosperity to invest in land near his birthplace.", "In 1844 he purchased \"Il Pulgaro\", 62 acres (23 hectares) of farmland with a farmhouse and outbuildings, providing a home for his parents from May 1844.Later that year, he also bought the Palazzo Cavalli (now known as the Palazzo Orlandi) on the via Roma, Busseto's main street.", "In May 1848, Verdi signed a contract for land and houses at Sant'Agata in Busseto, which had once belonged to his family.", "It was here he built his own house, completed in 1880, now known as the Villa Verdi, where he lived from 1851 until his death.Giuseppina Strepponi (c. 1845)In March 1843, Verdi visited Vienna (where Gaetano Donizetti was musical director) to oversee a production of ''Nabucco''.", "The older composer, recognising Verdi's talent, noted in a letter of January 1844: \"I am very, very happy to give way to people of talent like Verdi...", "Nothing will prevent the good Verdi from soon reaching one of the most honourable positions in the cohort of composers.\"", "Verdi travelled on to Parma, where the Teatro Regio di Parma was producing ''Nabucco'' with Giuseppina Strepponi in the cast.", "For Verdi, the performances were a personal triumph in his native region, especially as his father, Carlo, attended the first performance.", "Verdi remained in Parma for some weeks beyond his intended departure date.", "This fuelled speculation that the delay was due to Verdi's interest in Strepponi (who stated that their relationship began in 1843).", "Strepponi was in fact known for her amorous relationships (and many illegitimate children) and her history was an awkward factor in their relationship until they eventually agreed on marriage.After successful stagings of ''Nabucco'' in Venice (with twenty-five performances in the 1842/43 season), Verdi began negotiations with the impresario of La Fenice to stage ''I Lombardi'', and to write a new opera.", "Eventually, Victor Hugo's ''Hernani'' was chosen, with Francesco Maria Piave as librettist.", "''Ernani'' was successfully premiered in 1844 and within six months had been performed at twenty other theatres in Italy, and also in Vienna.", "The writer Andrew Porter notes that for the next ten years, Verdi's life \"reads like a travel diary—a timetable of visits...to bring new operas to the stage or to supervise local premieres\".", "La Scala premiered none of these new works, except for ''Giovanna d'Arco''.", "Verdi \"never forgave the Milanese for their reception of ''Un giorno di regno''\".During this period, Verdi began to work more consistently with his librettists.", "He relied on Piave again for ''I due Foscari'', performed in Rome in November 1844, then on Solera once more for ''Giovanna d'Arco'', at La Scala in February 1845, while in August that year he was able to work with Salvadore Cammarano on ''Alzira'' for the Teatro di San Carlo in Naples.", "Solera and Piave worked together on ''Attila'' for La Fenice (March 1846).Emanuele Muzio, Verdi's pupil and assistantIn April 1844, Verdi took on Emanuele Muzio, eight years his junior, as a pupil and amanuensis.", "He had known him since about 1828 as another of Barezzi's protégés.", "Muzio, who in fact was Verdi's only pupil, became indispensable to the composer.", "He reported to Barezzi that Verdi \"has a breadth of spirit, of generosity, a wisdom\".", "In November 1846, Muzio wrote of Verdi: \"If you could see us, I seem more like a friend, rather than his pupil.", "We are always together at dinner, in the cafes, when we play cards...; all in all, he doesn't go anywhere without me at his side; in the house we have a big table and we both write there together, and so I always have his advice.\"", "Muzio was to remain associated with Verdi, assisting in the preparation of scores and transcriptions, and later conducting many of his works in their premiere performances in the US and elsewhere outside Italy.", "He was chosen by Verdi as one of the executors of his will but predeceased the composer in 1890.After a period of illness, Verdi began work on ''Macbeth'' in September 1846.He dedicated the opera to Barezzi: \"I have long intended to dedicate an opera to you, as you have been a father, a benefactor and a friend for me.", "It was a duty I should have fulfilled sooner if imperious circumstances had not prevented me.", "Now, I send you ''Macbeth'', which I prize above all my other operas, and therefore deem worthier to present to you.\"", "In 1997 Martin Chusid wrote that ''Macbeth'' was the only one of Verdi's operas of his \"early period\" to remain regularly in the international repertoire, although in the 21st century ''Nabucco'' has also entered the lists.Strepponi's voice declined and her engagements dried up in the 1845 to 1846 period, and she returned to live in Milan whilst retaining contact with Verdi as his \"supporter, promoter, unofficial adviser, and occasional secretary\" until she decided to move to Paris in October 1846.Before she left Verdi gave her a letter that pledged his love.", "On the envelope, Strepponi wrote: \"5 or 6 October 1846.They shall lay this letter on my heart when they bury me.", "\"Verdi had completed ''I masnadieri'' for London by May 1847 except for the orchestration.", "This he left until the opera was in rehearsal, since he wanted to hear \"la Jenny Lind|Jenny Lind and modify her role to suit her more exactly\".", "Verdi agreed to conduct the premiere on 22 July 1847 at Her Majesty's Theatre, as well as the second performance.", "Queen Victoria and Prince Albert attended the first performance, and for the most part, the press was generous in its praise.Salvadore Cammarano, librettist of ''Alzira'', ''La battaglia di Legnano'', and ''Luisa Miller''For the next two years, except for two visits to Italy during periods of political unrest, Verdi was based in Paris.", "Within a week of returning to Paris in July 1847, he received his first commission from the Paris Opéra.", "Verdi agreed to adapt ''I Lombardi'' to a new French libretto; the result was ''Jérusalem'', which contained significant changes to the music and structure of the work (including an extensive ballet scene) to meet Parisian expectations.", "Verdi was awarded the Order of Chevalier of the Legion of Honour.", "To satisfy his contracts with the publisher , Verdi dashed off ''Il Corsaro''.", "Budden comments \"In no other opera of his does Verdi appear to have taken so little interest ''before'' it was staged.", "\"On hearing the news of the \"Cinque Giornate\", the \"Five Days\" of street fighting that took place between 18 and 22 March 1848 and temporarily drove the Austrians out of Milan, Verdi travelled there, arriving on 5 April.", "He discovered that Piave was now \"Citizen Piave\" of the newly proclaimed Republic of San Marco.", "Writing a patriotic letter to him in Venice, Verdi concluded \"Banish every petty municipal idea!", "We must all extend a fraternal hand, and Italy will yet become the first nation of the world...I am drunk with joy!", "Imagine that there are no more Germans here\"Verdi had been admonished by the poet Giuseppe Giusti for turning away from patriotic subjects, the poet pleading with him to \"do what you can to nourish the sorrow of the Italian people, to strengthen it, and direct it to its goal.\"", "Cammarano suggested adapting Joseph Méry's 1828 play ''La Bataille de Toulouse'', which he described as a story \"that should stir every man with an Italian soul in his breast\".", "The premiere was set for late January 1849.Verdi travelled to Rome before the end of 1848.He found that city on the verge of becoming a (short-lived) republic, which commenced within days of ''La battaglia di Legnano'''s enthusiastically received premiere.", "In the spirit of the time were the tenor hero's final words, \"Whoever dies for the fatherland cannot be evil-minded\".Verdi had intended to return to Italy in early 1848, but was prevented by work and illness, as well as, most probably, by his increasing attachment to Strepponi.", "Verdi and Strepponi left Paris in July 1849, the immediate cause being an outbreak of cholera, and Verdi went directly to Busseto to continue work on completing his latest opera, ''Luisa Miller'', for a production in Naples later in the year.===1849–1853: Fame===Villa Verdi at Sant'Agata, as it looked between 1859 and 1865Verdi was committed to the publisher Giovanni Ricordi for an opera—which became ''Stiffelio''—for Trieste in the Spring of 1850; and, subsequently, following negotiations with La Fenice, developed a libretto with Piave and wrote the music for ''Rigoletto'' (based on Victor Hugo's ''Le roi s'amuse'') for Venice in March 1851.This was the first of a sequence of three operas (followed by ''Il trovatore'' and ''La traviata'') which were to cement his fame as a master of opera.The failure of ''Stiffelio'' (attributable not least to the censors of the time taking offence at the taboo subject of the supposed adultery of a clergyman's wife and interfering with the text and roles) incited Verdi to take pains to rework it, although even in the completely recycled version of ''Aroldo'' (1857) it still failed to please.", "''Rigoletto'', with its intended murder of royalty, and its sordid attributes, also upset the censors.", "Verdi would not compromise: What does the sack matter to the police?", "Are they worried about the effect it will produce?...Do they think they know better than I?...I see the hero has been made no longer ugly and hunchbacked Why?", "A singing hunchback...why not?...I think it splendid to show this character as outwardly deformed and ridiculous, and inwardly passionate and full of love.", "I chose the subject for these very qualities...if they are removed I can no longer set it to music.Verdi substituted a Duke for the King, and the public response and subsequent success of the opera all over Italy and Europe fully vindicated the composer.", "Aware that the melody of the Duke's song \"La donna è mobile\" (\"Woman is fickle\") would become a popular hit, Verdi excluded it from orchestral rehearsals for the opera, and rehearsed the tenor separately.Giuseppina Strepponi, c. 1850sFor several months Verdi was preoccupied with family matters.", "These stemmed from the way in which the citizens of Busseto were treating Giuseppina Strepponi, with whom he was living openly in an unmarried relationship.", "She was shunned in the town and at church, and while Verdi appeared indifferent, she was certainly not.", "Furthermore, Verdi was concerned about the administration of his newly acquired property at Sant'Agata.", "A growing estrangement between Verdi and his parents was perhaps also attributable to Strepponi (the suggestion that this situation was sparked by the birth of a child to Verdi and Strepponi which was given away as a foundling lacks any firm evidence).", "In January 1851, Verdi broke off relations with his parents, and in April they were ordered to leave Sant'Agata; Verdi found new premises for them and helped them financially to settle into their new home.", "It may not be coincidental that all six Verdi operas written in the period 1849–1853 (''La battaglia, Luisa Miller, Stiffelio, Rigoletto, Il trovatore'' and ''La traviata''), have, uniquely in his oeuvre, heroines who are, in the opera critic Joseph Kerman's words, \"women who come to grief because of sexual transgression, actual or perceived\".", "Kerman, like the psychologist Gerald Mendelssohn, sees this choice of subjects as being influenced by Verdi's uneasy passion for Strepponi.Verdi and Strepponi moved into Sant'Agata on 1 May 1851.May also brought an offer for a new opera from La Fenice, which Verdi eventually realised as ''La traviata''.", "That was followed by an agreement with the Rome Opera Company to present ''Il trovatore'' for January 1853.Verdi now had sufficient earnings to retire, had he wished to.", "He had reached a stage where he could develop his operas as he wished, rather than be dependent on commissions from third parties.", "''Il trovatore'' was in fact the first opera he wrote without a specific commission (apart from ''Oberto'').", "At around the same time he began to consider creating an opera from Shakespeare's ''King Lear''.", "After first (1850) seeking a libretto from Cammarano (which never appeared), Verdi later (1857) commissioned one from Antonio Somma, but this proved intractable, and no music was ever written.", "Verdi began work on ''Il trovatore'' after the death of his mother in June 1851.The fact that this is \"the one opera of Verdi's which focuses on a mother rather than a father\" is perhaps related to her death.In the winter of 1851–52, Verdi decided to go to Paris with Strepponi, where he concluded an agreement with the Opéra to write what became ''Les vêpres siciliennes'', his first original work in the style of grand opera.", "In February 1852, the couple attended a performance of Alexander Dumas ''fils''s play ''The Lady of the Camellias''; Verdi immediately began to compose music for what would later become ''La traviata''.After his visit to Rome for ''Il trovatore'' in January 1853, Verdi worked on completing ''La traviata'', but with little hope of its success, due to his lack of confidence in any of the singers engaged for the season.", "Furthermore, the management insisted that the opera be given a historical, not a contemporary setting.", "The premiere in March 1853 was indeed a failure: Verdi wrote: \"Was the fault mine or the singers'?", "Time will tell.\"", "Subsequent productions (following some rewriting) throughout Europe over the following two years fully vindicated the composer; Roger Parker has written \"''Il trovatore'' consistently remains one of the three or four most popular operas in the Verdian repertoire: but it has never pleased the critics\".===1853–1860: Consolidation===In the eleven years up to and including ''Traviata'', Verdi had written sixteen operas.", "Over the next eighteen years (up to ''Aida''), he wrote only six new works for the stage.", "Verdi was happy to return to Sant'Agata and, in February 1856, was reporting a \"total abandonment of music; a little reading; some light occupation with agriculture and horses; that's all\".", "A couple of months later, writing in the same vein to Countess Maffei he stated: \"I'm not doing anything.", "I don't read.", "I don't write.", "I walk in the fields from morning to evening, trying to recover, so far without success, from the stomach trouble caused me by ''I vespri siciliani''.", "Cursed operas!\"", "An 1858 letter by Strepponi to the publisher Léon Escudier describes the kind of lifestyle that increasingly appealed to the composer: \"His love for the country has become a mania, madness, rage, and fury—anything you like that is exaggerated.", "He gets up almost with the dawn, to go and examine the wheat, the maize, the vines, etc....Fortunately our tastes for this sort of life coincide, except in the matter of sunrise, which he likes to see up and dressed, and I from my bed.", "\"Delfico)Nonetheless on 15 May, Verdi signed a contract with La Fenice for an opera for the following spring.", "This was to be ''Simon Boccanegra''.", "The couple stayed in Paris until January 1857 to deal with these proposals, and also the offer to stage the translated version of ''Il trovatore'' as a grand opera.", "Verdi and Strepponi travelled to Venice in March for the premiere of ''Simon Boccanegra'', which turned out to be \"a fiasco\" (as Verdi reported, although on the second and third nights, the reception improved considerably).With Strepponi, Verdi went to Naples early in January 1858 to work with Somma on the libretto of the opera ''Gustave III'', which over a year later would become ''Un ballo in maschera''.", "By this time, Verdi had begun to write about Strepponi as \"my wife\" and she was signing her letters as \"Giuseppina Verdi\".", "Verdi raged against the stringent requirements of the Neapolitan censor stating: \"I'm drowning in a sea of troubles.", "It's almost certain that the censors will forbid our libretto.\"", "With no hope of seeing his ''Gustavo III'' staged as written, he broke his contract.", "This resulted in litigation and counter-litigation; with the legal issues resolved, Verdi was free to present the libretto and musical outline of ''Gustave III'' to the Rome Opera.", "There, the censors demanded further changes; at this point, the opera took the title ''Un ballo in maschera''.Arriving in Sant'Agata in March 1859 Verdi and Strepponi found the nearby city of Piacenza occupied by about 6,000 Austrian troops who had made it their base, to combat the rise of Italian interest in unification in the Piedmont region.", "In the ensuing Second Italian War of Independence the Austrians abandoned the region and began to leave Lombardy, although they remained in control of the Venice region under the terms of the armistice signed at Villafranca.", "Verdi was disgusted at this outcome: \"Where then is the independence of Italy, so long hoped for and promised?...Venice is not Italian?", "After so many victories, what an outcome...", "It is enough to drive one mad\" he wrote to Clara Maffei.Verdi and Strepponi now decided on marriage; they travelled to Collonges-sous-Salève, a village then part of Piedmont.", "On 29 August 1859, the couple were married there, with only the coachman who had driven them there and the church bell ringer as witnesses.", "At the end of 1859, Verdi wrote to his friend Cesare De Sanctis \"Since completing ''Ballo'' I have not made any more music, I have not seen any more music, I have not thought anymore about music.", "I don't even know what colour my last opera is, and I almost don't remember it.\"", "He began to remodel Sant'Agata, which took most of 1860 to complete and on which he continued to work for the next twenty years.", "This included major work on a square room that became his workroom, his bedroom, and his office.===Politics===Painting \"Viva Verdi\" slogansHaving achieved some fame and prosperity, Verdi began in 1859 to take an active interest in Italian politics.", "His early commitment to the Risorgimento movement is difficult to estimate accurately; in the words of the music historian Philip Gossett \"myths intensifying and exaggerating such sentiment began circulating\" during the nineteenth century.", "An example is the claim that when the \"Va, pensiero\" chorus in ''Nabucco'' was first sung in Milan, the audience, responding with nationalistic fervour, demanded an encore.", "As encores were expressly forbidden by the government at the time, such a gesture would have been extremely significant.", "But in fact the piece encored was not \"Va, pensiero\" but the hymn \"Immenso Jehova\".The growth of the \"identification of Verdi's music with Italian nationalist politics\" perhaps began in the 1840s.", "In 1848, the nationalist leader Giuseppe Mazzini (whom Verdi had met in London the previous year) requested Verdi (who complied) to write a patriotic hymn.", "The opera historian Charles Osborne describes the 1849 La battaglia di Legnano as \"an opera with a purpose\" and maintains that \"while parts of Verdi's earlier operas had frequently been taken up by the fighters of the Risorgimento...this time the composer had given the movement its own opera\" It was not until 1859 in Naples, and only then spreading throughout Italy, that the slogan \"Viva Verdi\" was used as an acronym for '''''Viva V'''ittorio '''E'''manuele '''R'''e '''''D''''''I'''talia'' (Viva Victor Emmanuel King of Italy)'', (who was then king of Piedmont).", "After Italy was unified in 1861, many of Verdi's early operas were increasingly re-interpreted as Risorgimento works with hidden Revolutionary messages that perhaps had not been originally intended by either the composer or his librettists.In 1859, Verdi was elected as a member of the new provincial council, and was appointed to head a group of five who would meet with King Vittorio Emanuele II in Turin.", "They were enthusiastically greeted along the way and in Turin Verdi himself received much of the publicity.", "On 17 October Verdi met with Cavour, the architect of the initial stages of Italian unification.", "Later that year the government of Emilia was subsumed under the United Provinces of Central Italy, and Verdi's political life temporarily came to an end.", "Whilst still maintaining nationalist feelings, he declined in 1860 the office of provincial council member to which he had been elected ''in absentia''.", "Cavour however was anxious to convince a man of Verdi's stature that running for political office was essential to strengthening and securing Italy's future.", "The composer confided to Piave some years later that \"I accepted on the condition that after a few months I would resign.\"", "Verdi was elected on 3 February 1861 for the town of Borgo San Donnino (Fidenza) to the Parliament of Piedmont-Sardinia in Turin (which from March 1861 became the Parliament of the Kingdom of Italy), but following the death of Cavour in 1861, which deeply distressed him, he scarcely attended.", "Later, in 1874, Verdi was appointed a member of the Italian Senate, but did not participate in its activities.===1860–1887: from ''La forza'' to ''Otello''===Verdi in Russia, 1861–1862In the months following the staging of ''Ballo'', Verdi was approached by several opera companies seeking a new work or making offers to stage one of his existing ones but refused them all.", "But when, in December 1860, an approach was made from Saint Petersburg's Imperial Theatre, the offer of 60,000 francs plus all expenses was doubtless a strong incentive.", "Verdi came up with the idea of adapting the 1835 Spanish play ''Don Alvaro o la fuerza del sino'' by Angel Saavedra, which became ''La forza del destino'', with Piave writing the libretto.", "The Verdis arrived in St. Petersburg in December 1861 for the premiere, but casting problems meant that it had to be postponed.Returning via Paris from Russia on 24 February 1862, Verdi met two young Italian writers, the twenty-year-old Arrigo Boito and Franco Faccio.", "Verdi had been invited to write a piece of music for the 1862 International Exhibition in London, and charged Boito with writing a text, which became the ''Inno delle nazioni''.", "Boito, as a supporter of the grand opera of Giacomo Meyerbeer and an opera composer in his own right, was later in the 1860s critical of Verdi's \"reliance on formula rather than form\", incurring the composer's wrath.", "Nevertheless, he was to become Verdi's close collaborator in his final operas.", "The St. Petersburg premiere of ''La forza'' finally took place in September 1862, and Verdi received the Order of St. Stanislaus.A revival of ''Macbeth'' in Paris in 1865 was not a success, but he obtained a commission for a new work, ''Don Carlos'', based on the play ''Don Carlos'' by Friedrich Schiller.", "He and Giuseppina spent late 1866 and much of 1867 in Paris, where they heard, and did not warm to, Giacomo Meyerbeer's last opera, ''L'Africaine'', and Richard Wagner's overture to ''Tannhäuser.''", "The opera's premiere in 1867 drew mixed comments.", "While the critic Théophile Gautier praised the work, the composer Georges Bizet was disappointed at Verdi's changing style: \"Verdi is no longer Italian.", "He is following Wagner.", "\"During the 1860s and 1870s, Verdi paid great attention to his estate around Busseto, purchasing additional land, dealing with unsatisfactory (in one case, embezzling) stewards, installing irrigation, and coping with variable harvests and economic slumps.", "In 1867, both Verdi's father Carlo, with whom he had restored good relations, and his early patron and father-in-law Antonio Barezzi, died.", "Verdi and Giuseppina decided to adopt Carlo's great-niece Filomena Maria Verdi, then seven years old, as their own child.", "She was to marry in 1878 the son of Verdi's friend and lawyer Angelo Carrara and her family became eventually the heirs of Verdi's estate.Teresa Stolz as ''Aida'' in the 1872 Parma production''Aida'' was commissioned by the Egyptian government for the opera house built by the Khedive Isma'il Pasha to celebrate the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869.The opera house actually opened with a production of ''Rigoletto''.", "The prose libretto in French by Camille du Locle, based on a scenario by the Egyptologist Auguste Mariette, was transformed into Italian verse by Antonio Ghislanzoni.", "Verdi was offered the enormous sum of 150,000 francs for the opera (even though he confessed that Ancient Egypt was \"a civilization I have never been able to admire\"), and it was first performed in Cairo in 1871.Verdi spent much of 1872 and 1873 supervising the Italian productions of ''Aida'' at Milan, Parma and Naples, effectively acting as producer and demanding high standards and adequate rehearsal time.", "During the rehearsals for the Naples production he wrote his string quartet, the only chamber music by him to survive, and the only major work in the form by an Italian of the 19th century.In 1869, Verdi had been asked to compose a section for a requiem mass in memory of Rossini.", "He compiled and completed the requiem, but its performance was abandoned (and its premiere did not take place until 1988).", "Five years later, Verdi reworked his \"Libera Me\" section of the Rossini Requiem and made it a part of his Requiem honouring Alessandro Manzoni, who had died in 1873.The complete Requiem was first performed at the cathedral in Milan on the anniversary of Manzoni's death on 22 May 1874.The ''spinto'' soprano Teresa Stolz (1834–1902), who had sung in La Scala productions from 1865 onwards, was the soloist in the first and many later performances of the Requiem; in February 1872, she had created Aida in its European premiere in Milan.", "She became closely associated personally with Verdi (exactly how closely remains conjectural), to Giuseppina Verdi's initial disquiet; but the women were reconciled and Stolz remained a companion of Verdi after Giuseppina's death in 1897 until his own death.Verdi conducted his Requiem in Paris, London and Vienna in 1875 and in Cologne in 1876.It seemed that it would be his last work.", "In the words of his biographer John Rosselli, it \"confirmed him as the unique presiding genius of Italian music.", "No fellow composer...came near him in popularity or reputation\".", "Verdi, now in his sixties, initially seemed to withdraw into retirement.", "He deliberately shied away from opportunities to publicise himself or to become involved with new productions of his works, but secretly he began work on ''Otello'', which Boito (to whom the composer had been reconciled by Ricordi) had proposed to him privately in 1879.The composition was delayed by a revision of ''Simon Boccanegra'' which Verdi undertook with Boito, produced in 1881, and a revision of ''Don Carlos''.", "Even when ''Otello'' was virtually completed, Verdi teased \"Shall I finish it?", "Shall I have it performed?", "Hard to tell, even for me.\"", "As news leaked out, Verdi was pressed by opera houses across Europe with enquiries; eventually the opera was triumphantly premiered at La Scala in February 1887.===1887–1901: ''Falstaff'' and last years===Arrigo Boito and Verdi at Sant'Agata in 1893Following the success of ''Otello'' Verdi commented, \"After having relentlessly massacred so many heroes and heroines, I have at last the right to laugh a little.\"", "He had considered a variety of comic subjects but had found none of them wholly suitable and confided his ambition to Boito.", "The librettist said nothing at the time but secretly began work on a libretto based on ''The Merry Wives of Windsor'' with additional material taken from ''Henry IV, Part 1'' and ''Part 2''.", "Verdi received the draft libretto probably in early July 1889 after he had just read Shakespeare's play: \"Benissimo!", "Benissimo!...", "No one could have done better than you\", he wrote back to Boito.", "But he still had doubts: his age, his health (which he admits to being good) and his ability to complete the project: \"If I were not to finish the music?\".", "If the project failed, it would have been a waste of Boito's time, and have distracted him from completing his own new opera.", "Finally, on 10 July 1889, he wrote again: \"So be it!", "So let's do ''Falstaff''!", "For now, let's not think of obstacles, of age, of illnesses!\"", "Verdi emphasised the need for secrecy but continued \"If you are in the mood, then start to write.\"", "Later he wrote to Boito: \"What joy to be able to say to the public: HERE WE ARE AGAIN COME AND SEE US!", "\"Group portrait at Sant'Agata in 1900 with various family and friends.", "His companion Teresa Stolz is standing at the left, Giulio Ricordi is standing second from the right, with his wife seated below him.", "Verdi is in the middle, and his adopted daughter, Maria Carrara Verdi, is seated at the far left.The first performance of ''Falstaff'' took place at La Scala on 9 February 1893.For the first night, official ticket prices were thirty times higher than usual.", "Royalty, aristocracy, critics and leading figures from the arts all over Europe were present.", "The performance was a huge success; numbers were encored, and at the end, the applause for Verdi and the cast lasted an hour.", "That was followed by a tumultuous welcome when the composer, his wife and Boito arrived at the Grand Hotel de Milan.", "Even more hectic scenes ensued when he went to Rome in May for the opera's premiere at the Teatro Costanzi; crowds of well-wishers at the railway station initially forced Verdi to take refuge in a tool-shed.", "He witnessed the performance from the Royal Box at the side of King Umberto and the Queen.In his last years, Verdi undertook a number of philanthropic ventures, publishing in 1894 a song for the benefit of earthquake victims in Sicily, and from 1895 onwards planning, building and endowing a rest-home for retired musicians in Milan, the Casa di Riposo per Musicisti, and building a hospital at Villanova sull'Arda, close to Busseto.", "His last major composition, the choral set of ''Four sacred pieces'', was published in 1898.In 1900 he was deeply upset at the assassination of King Umberto and sketched a setting of a poem in his memory, but was unable to complete it.", "While staying at the Grand Hotel, Verdi suffered a stroke on 21 January 1901.He gradually grew more feeble over the next week, during which Stolz cared for him, and died on 27 January at the age of 87.Verdi's grave at the Casa di Riposo, MilanVerdi was initially buried in a private ceremony at Milan's Cimitero Monumentale.", "A month later, his body was moved to the crypt of the Casa di Riposo.", "On this occasion, \"Va, pensiero\" from ''Nabucco'' was conducted by Arturo Toscanini with a chorus of 820 singers.", "A huge crowd was in attendance, estimated at 300,000.Boito wrote to a friend, in words which recall the mysterious final scene of ''Don Carlos'', \"Verdi sleeps like a King of Spain in his Escurial, under a bronze slab that completely covers him.\"" ], [ "Personality", "Not all of Verdi's personal qualities were amiable.", "John Rosselli concluded after writing his biography that \"I do not very much like the man Verdi, in particular the autocratic rentier-cum-estate owner, part-time composer, and seemingly full-time grumbler and reactionary critic of the later years\", yet admits that like other writers, he must \"admire him, warts and all...a deep integrity runs beneath his life, and can be felt even when he is being unreasonable or wrong\".Budden suggests that \"With Verdi...the man and the artist io many ways developed side by side.\"", "Ungainly and awkward in society in his early years, \"as he became a man of property and underwent the civilizing influence of Giuseppina,...he acquired assurance and authority.\"", "He also learnt to keep himself to himself, never discussing his private life and maintaining, when it suited him, legends about his supposed 'peasant' origins, his materialism and his indifference to criticism.", "Gerald Mendelsohn describes the composer as \"an intensely private man who deeply resented efforts to inquire into his personal affairs.", "He regarded journalists and would-be biographers, as well as his neighbours in Busseto and the operatic public at large, as an intrusive lot, against whose prying attentions he needed constantly to defend himself.", "\"Verdi was never explicit about his religious beliefs.", "Anti-clerical by nature in his early years, he nonetheless built a chapel at Sant'Agata but is little recorded as attending church.", "Strepponi wrote in 1871 \"I won't say Verdi is an atheist, but he is not much of a believer.\"", "Rosselli comments that in the Requiem \"The prospect of Hell appears to rule...the Requiem is troubled to the end,\" and offers little consolation." ], [ "Music", "===Spirit===Vanity Fair'' (1879)The writer Friedrich Schiller (four of whose plays were adapted as operas by Verdi) distinguished two types of artists in his 1795 essay ''On Naïve and Sentimental Poetry''.", "The philosopher Isaiah Berlin ranked Verdi in the 'naïve' category—\"They are not...self-conscious.", "They do not...stand aside to contemplate their creations and express their own feelings....They are able...if they have genius, to embody their vision fully.\"", "(The 'sentimentals' seek to recreate nature and natural feelings on their own terms—Berlin instances Richard Wagner—\"offering not peace, but a sword\".)", "Verdi's operas are not written according to an aesthetic theory, or with a purpose to change the tastes of their audiences.", "In conversation with a German visitor in 1887 he is recorded as saying that, whilst \"there was much to be admired in Wagner's operas ''Tannhäuser'' and ''Lohengrin''...in his recent operas Wagner seemed to be overstepping the bounds of what can be expressed in music.", "For him \"philosophical\" music was incomprehensible.\"", "Although Verdi's works belong, as Rosselli admits \"to the most artificial of genres...they ring emotionally true: truth and directness make them exciting, often hugely so.", "\"===Periods===The earliest study of Verdi's music, published in 1859 by the Italian critic Abramo Basevi, already distinguished four periods in Verdi's music.", "The early, 'grandiose' period, ended according to Basevi with ''La battaglia di Legnano'' (1849), and a 'personal' style began with the next opera ''Luisa Miller.''", "These two operas are generally agreed today by critics to mark the division between Verdi's 'early' and 'middle' periods.", "The 'middle' period is felt to end with ''La traviata'' (1853) and ''Les vêpres siciliennes'' (1855), with a 'late' period commencing with ''Simon Boccanegra'' (1857) running through to ''Aida'' (1871).", "The last two operas, ''Otello'' and ''Falstaff'', together with the Requiem and the ''Four Sacred Pieces,'' then represent a 'final' period.====Early period====Verdi was to claim in his ''Sketch'' that during his early training with Lavigna \"I did nothing but canons and fugues...No-one taught me orchestration or how to handle dramatic music.\"", "He is known to have written a variety of music for the Busseto Philharmonic society, including vocal music, band music and chamber works, (and including an alternative overture to Rossini's ''Barber of Seville'') but few of these works survive.", "(He may have given instructions before his death to destroy his early works).Macbeth meets the witches (Act I, scene 1)Verdi uses in his early operas (and, in his own stylized versions, throughout his later work) the standard elements of Italian opera content of the period, referred to by the opera writer Julian Budden as the 'Code Rossini', after the composer who established through his work and popularity the accepted templates of these forms; they were also used by the composers dominant during Verdi's early career, Bellini, Donizetti and Saverio Mercadante.", "Amongst the essential elements are the aria, the duet, the ensemble, and the finale sequence of an act.", "The aria format, centred on a soloist, typically involved three sections; a slow introduction, marked typically cantabile or adagio, a ''tempo di mezzo'' which might involve chorus or other characters, and a cabaletta, an opportunity for bravura singing for the soloist.", "The duet was similarly formatted.", "Finales, covering climactic sequences of action, used the various forces of soloists, ensemble and chorus, usually culminating with an exciting stretto section.", "Verdi was to develop these and the other formulae of the generation preceding him with increasing sophistication during his career.The operas of the early period show Verdi learning by doing and gradually establishing mastery over the different elements of opera.", "''Oberto'' is poorly structured, and the orchestration of the first operas is generally simple, sometimes even basic.", "The musicologist Richard Taruskin suggested \"the most striking effect in the early Verdi operas, and the one most obviously allied to the mood of the Risorgimento, was the big choral number sung—crudely or sublimely, according to the ear of the beholder—in unison.", "The success of \"Va, pensiero\" in ''Nabucco'' (which Rossini approvingly denoted as \"a grand aria sung by sopranos, contraltos, tenors and basses\"), was replicated in the similar \"O Signor, dal tetto natio\" in ''I lombardi'' and in 1844 in the chorus \"Si ridesti il Leon di Castiglia\" in ''Ernani'', the battle hymn of the conspirators seeking freedom.", "In ''I due Foscari'' Verdi first uses recurring themes identified with main characters; here and in future operas the accent moves away from the 'oratorio' characteristics of the first operas towards individual action and intrigue.From this period onwards Verdi also develops his instinct for \"tinta\" (literally 'colour'), a term which he used for characterising elements of an individual opera score—Parker gives as an example \"the rising 6th that begins so many lyric pieces in ''Ernani''\".", "''Macbeth'', even in its original 1847 version, shows many original touches; characterization by key (the Macbeths themselves generally singing in sharp keys, the witches in flat keys), a preponderance of minor key music, and highly original orchestration.", "In the 'dagger scene' and the duet following the murder of Duncan, the forms transcend the 'Code Rossini' and compellingly propel the drama.", "Verdi was to comment in 1868 that Rossini and his followers missed \"the golden thread that binds all the parts together and, rather than a set of numbers without coherence, makes an opera\".", "''Tinta'' was for Verdi this \"golden thread\", an essential unifying factor in his works.====Middle period====Stage set by Giuseppe Bertoja for the premiere of ''Rigoletto'' (Act 1, Scene 2)The writer David Kimbell states that in ''Luisa Miller'' and ''Stiffelio'' (the earliest operas of this period) there appears to be a \"growing freedom in the large scale structure...and an acute attention to fine detail\".", "Others echo those feelings.", "Julian Budden expresses the impact of ''Rigoletto'' and its place in Verdi's output as follows: \"Just after 1850 at the age of 38, Verdi closed the door on a period of Italian opera with ''Rigoletto''.", "The so-called ''ottocento'' in music is finished.", "Verdi will continue to draw on certain of its forms for the next few operas, but in a totally new spirit.\"", "One example of Verdi's wish to move away from \"standard forms\" appears in his feelings about the structure of ''Il trovatore''.", "To his librettist, Cammarano, Verdi plainly states in a letter of April 1851 that if there were no standard forms—\"cavatinas, duets, trios, choruses, finales, etc.", "... and if you could avoid beginning with an opening chorus....\", he would be quite happy.Two external factors had their impacts on Verdi's compositions of this period.", "One is that with increasing reputation and financial security he no longer needed to commit himself to the productive treadmill, had more freedom to choose his own subjects, and had more time to develop them according to his own ideas.", "In the years 1849 to 1859, he wrote eight new operas, compared with fourteen in the previous ten years.Another factor was the changed political situation; the failure of the 1848 revolutions led both to some diminution of the Risorgimento ethos (at least initially) and a significant increase in theatre censorship.", "This is reflected both in Verdi's choices of plots dealing more with personal relationships than political conflict, and in a (partly consequent) dramatic reduction in the operas of this period in the number of choruses (of the type which had first made him famous)—not only are there on average 40% fewer choruses in the 'middle' period operas compared to the 'early' period', but whereas virtually all the 'early' operas commence with a chorus, only one (''Luisa Miller'') of the 'middle' period operas begin this way.", "Instead, Verdi experiments with a variety of means, e.g.", "a stage band (''Rigoletto''), an aria for bass (''Stiffelio''), a party scene (''La traviata'').", "Chusid also notes Verdi's increasing tendency to replace full-scale overtures with shorter orchestral introductions.", "Parker comments that ''La traviata'', the last opera of the 'middle' period, is \"again a new adventure.", "It gestures towards a level of 'realism'...the contemporary world of waltzes pervades the score, and the heroine's death from disease is graphically depicted in the music.\"", "Verdi's increasing command of musical highlighting of changing moods and relationships is exemplified in act 3 of ''Rigoletto'', where Duke's flippant song \"La donna è mobile\" is followed immediately by the quartet \"Bella figlia dell'amore\", contrasting the rapacious Duke and his inamorata with the (concealed) indignant Rigoletto and his grieving daughter.", "Taruskin asserts this is \"the most famous ensemble Verdi ever composed\".====Late period====''Les vêpres siciliennes'': poster for the premiere (1855) Chusid notes Strepponi's description of the operas of the 1860s and 1870s as being \"modern\" whereas Verdi described the pre-1849 works as \"the cavatina operas\", as further indication that \"Verdi became increasingly dissatisfied with the older, familiar conventions of his predecessors that he had adopted at the outset of his career,\" Parker sees a physical differentiation of the operas from ''Les vêpres siciliennes'' (1855) to ''Aida'' (1871) is that they are significantly longer, and with larger cast-lists, than previous works.", "They also reflect a shift towards the French genre of grand opera, notable in more colourful orchestration, counterpointing of serious and comic scenes, and greater spectacle.", "The opportunities of transforming Italian opera by utilising such resources appealed to him.", "For a commission from the Paris Opéra he expressly demanded a libretto from Eugène Scribe, the favourite librettist of Meyerbeer, telling him: \"I want—in fact, I must have—a grandiose, impassioned and original subject.\"", "The result was ''Les vêpres siciliennes'', and the scenarios of ''Simon Boccanegra'' (1857), ''Un ballo in maschera'' (1859), ''La forza del destino'' (1862), ''Don Carlos'' (1867) and ''Aida'' (1871) all meet the same criteria.", "Porter notes that ''Un ballo'' marks an almost complete synthesis of Verdi's style with the grand opera hallmarks, such that \"huge spectacle is not mere decoration but essential to the drama...musical and theatrical lines remain taut and the characters still sing as warmly, passionately and personally as in ''Il trovatore''.", "\"When the composer Ferdinand Hiller asked Verdi whether he preferred ''Aida'' or ''Don Carlos'', Verdi replied that ''Aida'' had \"more bite and (if you'll forgive the word), more ''theatricality''\".", "During the rehearsals for the Naples production of ''Aida'' Verdi amused himself by writing his only string quartet, a sprightly work which shows in its last movement that he had not lost the skill for fugue-writing that he had learned with Lavigna.====Final works====Verdi conducting the Paris Opera premiere of ''Aida'' in 1880Verdi's three last major works continued to show new developments in conveying drama and emotion.", "The first to appear, in 1874 was his Requiem, scored for operatic forces but by no means an \"opera in ecclesiastical dress\" (the words in which Hans von Bülow condemned it before even hearing it).", "Although in the Requiem Verdi puts to use many of the techniques he learned in opera, its musical forms and emotions are not those of the stage.", "Verdi's tone painting at the opening of the Requiem is vividly described by the Italian composer Ildebrando Pizzetti, writing in 1941: \"in the words murmured by an invisible crowd over the slow swaying of a few simple chords, you straightaway sense the fear and sadness of a vast multitude before the mystery of death.", "In the following ''Et lux perpetuum'' the melody spreads it wings...before falling back on itself...you hear a sigh for consolation and eternal peace.", "\"By the time ''Otello'' premièred in 1887, more than 15 years after ''Aida'', the operas of Verdi's (predeceased) contemporary Richard Wagner had begun their ascendancy in popular taste, and many sought or identified Wagnerian aspects in Verdi's latest composition.", "Budden points out that there is little in the music of ''Otello'' that relates either to the ''verismo'' opera of the younger Italian composers, and little if anything which can be construed as a homage to the New German School.", "Nonetheless there is still much originality, building on the strengths which Verdi had already demonstrated; the powerful storm which opens the opera ''in medias res'', the recollection of the love duet of Act I in Otello's dying words (more an aspect of ''tinta'' than ''leitmotif''), imaginative touches of harmony in Iago's \"Era la notte\" (Act II).Finally, six years later, appeared ''Falstaff'', Verdi's only comedy apart from the early, ill-fated ''Un giorno di regno''.", "In this work, Roger Parker writes that::\"The listener is bombarded by a stunning diversity of rhythms, orchestral textures, melodic motifs and harmonic devices.", "Passages that in earlier times would have furnished material for an entire number here crowd in on each other, shouldering themselves unceremoniously to the fore in bewildering succession\".", "Rosselli comments: \"In ''Otello'' Verdi had miniaturized the forms of romantic Italian opera; in ''Falstaff'' he miniaturized himself...Moments...crystallize a feeling...as though an aria or duet had been precipitated into a phrase.\"" ], [ "Legacy", "The iconic ''Portrait of Giuseppe Verdi'' (1886) by Giovanni Boldini===Reception===Although Verdi's operas brought him a popular following, not all contemporary critics approved of his work.", "The English critic Henry Chorley allowed in 1846 that \"he is the only modern man...having a style—for better or worse\", but found all his output unacceptable.", "\"His faults are grave ones, calculated to destroy and degrade taste beyond those of any Italian composer in the long list\" wrote Chorley, whilst conceding that \"howsoever incomplete may have been his training, howsoever mistaken his aspirations may have proved...he ''has'' aspired.\"", "But by the time of Verdi's death, 55 years later, his reputation was assured, and the 1910 edition of Grove's Dictionary pronounced him \"one of the greatest and most popular opera composers of the nineteenth century\".Verdi had no pupils apart from Muzio and no school of composers sought to follow his style which, however much it reflected his own musical direction, was rooted in the period of his own youth.", "By the time of his death, ''verismo'' was the accepted style of young Italian composers.", "The New York Metropolitan Opera frequently staged ''Rigoletto, Trovatore'' and ''Traviata'' during this period and featured ''Aida'' in every season from 1898 to 1945.Interest in the operas reawakened in mid-1920s Germany and this sparked a revival in England and elsewhere.", "From the 1930s onward there began to appear scholarly biographies and publications of documentation and correspondence.In 1959 the Instituto di Studi Verdiani (from 1989 the Istituto Nazionale di Studi Verdiani) was founded in Parma and became a leading centre for research and publication of Verdi studies, and in the 1970s the American Institute for Verdi Studies was founded at New York University.===Nationalism in the operas===Historians have debated how political Verdi's operas were.", "In particular, the ''Chorus of the Hebrew Slaves'' (known as ''Va, pensiero'') from the third act of the opera ''Nabucco'' was used an anthem for Italian patriots, who were seeking to unify their country and free it from foreign control in the years up to 1861 (the chorus's theme of exiles singing about their homeland, and its lines such as ''O mia patria, si bella e perduta'' / \"O my country, so lovely and so lost\" were thought to have resonated with many Italians).", "Beginning in Naples in 1859 and spreading throughout Italy, the slogan \"Viva VERDI\" was used as an acronym for '''''Viva''' '''V'''ittorio '''E'''manuele '''R'''e '''D''''''I'''talia'' (''Long live Victor Emmanuel King of Italy''), referring to Victor Emmanuel II.", "Marco Pizzo argues that after 1815, music became a political tool, and many songwriters expressed ideals of freedom and equality.", "Pizzo claims that Verdi was part of this movement, for his operas were inspired by the love of country, the struggle for Italian independence, and spoke to the sacrifice of patriots and exiles.", "George Martin claims Verdi was \"the greatest artist\" of the Risorgimento.", "\"Throughout his work its values, its issues recur constantly, and he expressed them with great power\".But Mary Ann Smart argues that music critics at the time seldom mentioned any political themes.", "Likewise, Roger Parker argues that the political dimension of Verdi's operas was exaggerated by nationalistic historians looking for a hero in the late 19th century.Luigi Secchi's 1913 statue of Verdi in BussetoFrom the 1850s onwards, Verdi's operas displayed few patriotic themes because of the heavy censorship by the absolutist regime in power.", "Verdi later became disillusioned by politics, but he was personally active part in the political world of events of the Risorgimento and was elected to the first Italian parliament in 1861.===Memorials and cultural portrayals===Three Italian conservatories, the Milan Conservatory and those in Turin and Como, are named after Verdi, as are many Italian theatres.Verdi's hometown of Busseto displays Luigi Secchi's statue of a seated Verdi in 1913, next to the Teatro Verdi built in his honour in the 1850s.", "It is one of many statues of the composer in Italy.", "The Giuseppe Verdi Monument, a 1906 marble memorial, sculpted by Pasquale Civiletti, is located in Verdi Square in Manhattan, New York City.", "The monument includes a statue of Verdi himself and life-sized statues of four characters from his operas, (Aida, Otello, and Falstaff from the operas of the same names, and Leonora from ''La forza del destino'').Risorgimento!''", "(2011) by Lorenzo Ferrero.", "Verdi, one of the characters in the opera, stands just left of centre.Verdi has been the subject of several film and stage works.", "These include the 1938 film directed by Carmine Gallone, ''Giuseppe Verdi'', starring Fosco Giachetti; the 1982 miniseries, ''The Life of Verdi'', directed by Renato Castellani, where Verdi was played by Ronald Pickup, with narration by Burt Lancaster in the English version; and the 1985 play ''After Aida'', by Julian Mitchell (1985).", "He is a character in the 2011 opera ''Risorgimento!''", "by Italian composer Lorenzo Ferrero, written to commemorate the 150th anniversary of Italian unification of 1861.===Verdi today===Verdi's operas are frequently staged around the world.", "All of his operas are available in recordings in a number of versions, and on DVD – Naxos Records offers a complete boxed set.Modern productions may differ substantially from those originally envisaged by the composer.", "Jonathan Miller's 1982 version of ''Rigoletto'' for English National Opera, set in the world of modern American mafiosi, received critical plaudits.", "But the same company's staging in 2002 of ''Un ballo in maschera'' as ''A Masked Ball'', directed by Calixto Bieito, including \"satanic sex rituals, homosexual rape, and a demonic dwarf\", got a general critical thumbs down.Meanwhile, the music of Verdi can still evoke a range of cultural and political resonances.", "Excerpts from the Requiem were featured at the funeral of Diana, Princess of Wales in 1997.On 12 March 2011 during a performance of ''Nabucco'' at the Opera di Roma celebrating 150 years of Italian unification, the conductor Riccardo Muti paused after \"Va pensiero\" and turned to address the audience (which included the then Italian Prime Minister, Silvio Berlusconi) to complain about cuts in state funding of culture; the audience then joined in a repeat of the chorus.", "In 2014, the pop singer Katy Perry appeared at the Grammy Award wearing a dress designed by Valentino, embroidered with the music of \"Dell'invito trascorsa è già l'ora\" from the start of ''La traviata''.", "The bicentenary of Verdi's birth in 2013 was celebrated in numerous events around the world, both in performances and broadcasts." ], [ "References", "===Notes======Citations======Sources===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * * * Giuseppe Verdi recordings at the Discography of American Historical Recordings.", "* Bicentennial of Giuseppe Verdi from the Italian Ministry of Culture" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "German Navy" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''German Navy''' (, ) is the navy of Germany and part of the unified (Federal Defense), the German Armed Forces.", "The German Navy was originally known as the ''Bundesmarine'' (Federal Navy) from 1956 to 1995, when ''Deutsche Marine'' (German Navy) became the official name with respect to the 1990 incorporation of the East German ''Volksmarine'' (People's Navy).", "It is deeply integrated into the NATO alliance.", "Its primary mission is protection of Germany's territorial waters and maritime infrastructure as well as sea lines of communication.", "Apart from this, the German Navy participates in peacekeeping operations, and renders humanitarian assistance and disaster relief.", "It also participates in anti-piracy operations." ], [ "History", "The German Navy traces its roots back to the ''Reichsflotte'' (Imperial Fleet) of the revolutionary era of 1848–52.The ''Reichsflotte'' was the first German navy to sail under the black-red-gold flag.", "Founded on 14 June 1848 by the orders of the democratically elected Frankfurt Parliament, the ''Reichsflotte'''s brief existence ended with the failure of the revolution and it was disbanded on 2 April 1852; thus, the modern day navy celebrates its birthday on 14 June.A sailor of the West German Navy during the 1970sBetween May 1945 and 1956, the German Mine Sweeping Administration and its successor organizations, made up of former members of Nazi Germany's ''Kriegsmarine'' (War Navy), became something of a transition stage for the navy, allowing the future ''Marine'' to draw on recently experienced personnel upon its formation.", "Also, from 1949 to 1952 the US Navy had maintained the Naval Historical Team in Bremerhaven.", "This group of former ''Kriegsmarine'' officers acting as historical and tactical consultants to the Americans, was significant in establishing a German element in the NATO senior naval staff.", "In 1956, with West Germany's accession to NATO, the ''Bundesmarine'' (Federal Navy), as the navy was known colloquially, was formally established.", "In the same year the East German ''Volkspolizei See'' (literally People's Police Sea) became the ''Volksmarine'' (People's Navy).", "During the Cold War all of the German Navy's combat vessels were assigned to NATO's Allied Forces Baltic Approaches's naval command NAVBALTAP.With the accession of East Germany to the Federal Republic of Germany in 1990 the ''Volksmarine'' along with the whole National People's Army became part of the ''Bundeswehr''.", "Since 1995 the name ''German Navy'' is used in international context, while the official name since 1956 remains ''Marine'' without any additions.", "As of April 2020, the strength of the navy is 16,704 men and women.A number of naval forces have operated in different periods.", "See* ''Preußische Marine'' (Prussian Navy), 1701–1867* ''Reichsflotte'' (Fleet of the Realm), 1848–52* North German Federal Navy, 1867–71* Imperial German Navy (''Kaiserliche Marine''), 1871–1919* ''Reichsmarine'', 1919–35* ''Kriegsmarine'', 1935–45* German Mine Sweeping Administration, 1945–48* ''Volksmarine'', the navy of East Germany (GDR) 1956–90* ''Marine'', 1956–present (''Bundesmarine'', colloquially)" ], [ "Current operations", "German warships permanently participate in all four NATO Maritime Groups.", "The German Navy is also engaged in operations against international terrorism such as Operation Enduring Freedom and NATO Operation Active Endeavour.Presently the largest operation the German Navy is participating in is UNIFIL off the coast of Lebanon.", "The German contribution to this operation is two frigates, four fast attack craft, and two auxiliary vessels.", "The naval component of UNIFIL has been under German command.The navy is operating a number of development and testing installations as part of an inter-service and international network.", "Among these is the Centre of Excellence for Operations in Confined and Shallow Waters (COE CSW), an affiliated centre of Allied Command Transformation.", "The COE CSW was established in April 2007 and officially accredited by NATO on 26 May 2009.It is co-located with the staff of the German Flotilla 1 in Kiel whose Commander is double-hatted as Director, COE CSW." ], [ "Equipment", "===Ships and submarines===Baden-Württemberg-''class frigate in Wilhelmshaven in April 2017In total, there are about 65 commissioned ships in the German Navy, including; 11 frigates, 5 corvettes, 2 minesweepers, 10 minehunters, 6 submarines, 11 replenishment ships and 20 miscellaneous auxiliary vessels.", "The displacement of the navy is 220,000 tonnes.Ships of the German Navy include:* 4 ''Baden-Württemberg''-class frigates F125 (all delivered by January 2022)* 3 ''Sachsen''-class frigates F124* 4 ''Brandenburg''-class frigates F123* 5 ''K130 Braunschweig'' class corvettes (5 additional units in production, planned commissioning from 2025)* 6 Type 212 submarinesIn addition, the German Navy and the Royal Danish Navy are in cooperation in the \"Ark Project\".", "This agreement made the Ark Project responsible for the strategic sealift of German armed forces where the full-time charter of three roll-on-roll-off cargo and troop ships are ready for deployments.", "In addition, these ships are also kept available for the use of the other European NATO countries.", "The three vessels have a combined displacement of 60,000 tonnes.Including these ships, the total ships' displacement available to the ''Deutsche Marine'' is 280,000 tonnes.Procurement of joint support ships (either two JSS800 for an amphibious group of 800 soldiers, or three smaller JSS400), was planned during the 1995–2010 period but the programme appears now to have been abandoned, not having been mentioned in two recent defence reviews.", "The larger ships would have been tasked for strategic troop transport and amphibious operations, and were to displace 27,000 to 30,000 tons for 800 soldiers.===Aircraft===The naval air arm of the German Navy is called the ''Marinefliegerkommando''.", "The ''Marinefliegerkommando'' operates 56 aircraft, in May 2021 it was announced that the German Navy intended to replace the P-3C aircraft with Boeing P-8 Poseidon MPA aircraft through a FMS agreement from 2025 onwards.Lockheed P-3C Orion – CUPUnited StatesMPA20064 Former Royal Netherlands Navy, will be replaced in 2025 by 8 Boeing P-8 PoseidonBoeing P-8 PoseidonUnited StatesMPA 8 on order, entry into service 2025.Dornier 228GermanyPollution control19962 NH90 Sea LionGermanyRotorcraftSAR/transport201818replacing the Westland Sea KingNH90 Sea TigerGermanyRotorcraftASW2025 Total of 31 on order, replacing Westland Lynx Westland Lynx Mk.88 UK Rotorcraft ASW 1981 21Will be replaced by the NH90 Sea TigerWestland Sea King Mk.41UKRotorcraftSAR/transport197514 Being replaced by the NH90 Sea LionSea FalconSwedenUAVISR 2Used as testbed for future UAVs on the corvettes, 8 more plannedPuma AE IIUnited StatesUAVISR2019 63 systems with 6 UAVs, dubbed \"LARUS\" in the German Navy DJI Phantom 4ChinaMicro UAVISR2017 5Westland WG-13 Super Lynx Mk88a of the German NavyP8 pistol for the remainder of his team as they board a local cargo hold by fast rope to conduct a search of the vessel" ], [ "Structure", "The German Navy is commanded by the Inspector of the Navy (''Inspekteur der Marine'') supported by the Navy Command (''Marinekommando'') in Rostock.===Formations===* Navy Command (''''), Rostock**''Einsatzflottille 1'' (HQ Kiel)::*1st Corvette Squadron (''1.Korvettengeschwader''), Warnemünde::*1st Submarine Squadron (''''), Eckernförde::**Submarine Training Centre (''Ausbildungszentrum Unterseeboote''), Eckernförde::*3rd Minesweeping Squadron (''3.Minensuchgeschwader''), Kiel::*Sea Battalion, Eckernförde::*Kommando Spezialkräfte Marine, Eckernförde::*Naval Base Command Kiel (''Marinestützpunktkommando Kiel'')::*Naval Base Command Eckernförde::*Naval Base Command Warnemünde:*''Einsatzflottille 2'', Wilhelmshaven::*HQ 2nd Flotilla::*2nd Frigate Squadron (''2.Fregattengeschwader''), Wilhelmshaven::*4th Frigate Squadron (''4.Fregattengeschwader''), Wilhelmshaven::*Auxiliary Squadron (''Trossgeschwader''), Wilhelmshaven::*Naval Base Command Wilhelmshaven:*Naval Aviation Command (''''), Nordholz::*Naval Air Wing 3 (''Marinefliegergeschwader 3''), Nordholz::*Naval Air Wing 5 (''Marinefliegergeschwader 5''), Nordholz:*Naval Support Command ('' – MUKdo''):*Naval Medical Institute (''''), KielMürwik Naval School:*Naval Academy (''''), Flensburg:*Naval Petty Officer School (''''), Plön:*Naval Engineering School (''''), Parow, near Stralsund:*Naval Operations School (''''), Bremerhaven:*Naval Damage Control Training Centre (''''), Neustadt in Holstein" ], [ "Ranks", "===Officers======Petty officers and enlisted seamen===" ], [ "Radio and communication stations", "* DHO38* DHJ58* DHJ59" ], [ "Future developments", "* Three Type 424 Electronic reconnaissance ships ordered in July 2023 to replace the Type 423 ''Oste''.", "It will be delivered from 2029 to 2031.The cost of this project is €3.26 billion, and the financing comes from the regular defence budget.", "* The German government has announced the selection in January 2020 and contracting in June 2020 of Damen Group as the main contractor, together with partners Blohm+Voss and Thales, for supplying four Multi-Purpose Combat Ship F126 frigates to the German Navy with an additional Order for 2 ships in 2024.The ships will be built at Blohm + Voss shipyard in Hamburg and at other shipyard locations of the North German Lürssen Group.", "* Two further-developed Type 212 submarines with significant advancements (Common Design) will be designed & procured with Norway in the next decade.", "The contract was signed in July 2021, where according to the official statement the \"NDMA and its German counterparts in the Bundesamt für Ausrüstung, Informationstechnik und Nutzung der Bundeswehr (BAAINBw) will acquire six new submarines – four Norwegian and two German – as well as Naval Strike Missiles for use on both German and Norwegian naval vessels.\"", "According to ThyssenKrupp Marine Systems the delivery of the two boats for the German Navy is scheduled for 2032 and 2034.", "* Five additional Braunschweig class corvettes are ordered and will be delivered 2020–2023.", "* NH90 NFH 'Sea Tiger' Helicopters ordered to replace Lynx in ASW/AsuW role, originally ordered by the German Army as NH90 TTH variant with deliveries planned from 2025 onwards.", "Up to 31 could be ordered.", "* 18 NH90 MRH 'Sealion' Helicopters are unarmed and replaced the 21 ''Sea King'' helicopters of Naval Air Wing 5 in SAR and ship-based Transport Role (VertRep) with deliveries from 2019 till 2023.", "* The Saab Skeldar has been ordered as a testbed for a future maritime UAV for the Braunschweig class corvette.", "* Integration of the German Navy Marines (Seebataillon) in the Netherlands Marine Corps and use of the Amphibious ships of the Royal Netherlands Navy such as the joint support ship HNLMS Karel Doorman (A833) as of 2016.", "* In June 2020 it was announced that German Navy and Royal Netherlands Navy will cooperate and plan the future replacement of both the ''Sachsen''-class frigate and ''De Zeven Provinciën''-class frigate from 2030 onwards." ], [ "See also", "* List of ship classes of the ''Bundesmarine'' and ''Deutsche Marine''* List of ships of the German navies* List of admirals of the German Navy* German commando frogmen* ''Marineamt''* ''Marine-Regatta-Verein''* U-boat* ''Volksmarine''" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Jan Wiedemann: COE CSW celebrates fifth anniversary; in: NAVAL FORCES III/2014 p. 90 f.* Hans-Joachim Stricker: Centre of Excellence for Operations in Confined and Shallow Waters COE CSW – Das COE als Ausdruck unserer besonderen nationalen Fähigkeiten im Bündnis; in: Marineforum 6-2007 p. 3 f.* Fritz-Rudolf Weber: Centre of Excellence for Operations in Confined and Shallow Waters – Think Tank für die NATO; in: Marineforum 1/2-2010 p. 11 ff.", "* Hans Georg Buss, Stefan Riewesell: Maritime C-IED and Harbour Protection: A Joint Effort; in: The Transformer Fall 2013 Vol 9 Issue 2 p. 18* Rahn, Werner.", "\"German Navies from 1848 to 2016: Their Development and Courses from Confrontation to Cooperation.\"", "''Naval War College Review'' 70.4 (2017).", "online* Peifer, Douglas (2002).", "''The Three German Navies:  Dissolution, Transition, and New Beginning.''", "Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2002.", "* Peifer, Douglas (2011).·\"Establishing the Bundesmarine\".", "In ''Rearming Germany,'' ed.", "James S. Corum.", "Boston; Leiden: Brill, 2011." ], [ "External links", "* * The German Navy – Facts and Figures, 12th Edition, February 2013* Uniforms" ] ]
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[ [ "GÉANT" ], [ "Introduction", "'''GÉANT''' is the pan-European data network for the research and education community.", "It interconnects national research and education networks (NRENs) across Europe, enabling collaboration on projects ranging from biological science, to earth observation, to arts and culture.", "The GÉANT project combines a high-bandwidth, high-capacity 50,000 km network with a growing range of services.", "These allow researchers to collaborate, working together wherever they are located.", "Services include identity and trust, multi-domain monitoring perfSONAR MDM, dynamic circuits and roaming via the eduroam service.Together with European NRENs, GÉANT connects 50 million users in over 10,000 institutions.", "Through links to research networks in other regions (such as Internet2 and ESnet in the US, AfricaConnect in Africa, TEIN in Asia-Pacific and RedCLARA in Latin America), GÉANT enables collaboration between researchers in over half the world's countries.Co-funded by the European Commission and Europe's NRENs, the GÉANT network was built and is operated by the GÉANT Association.", "The GÉANT project is a collaboration between 41 partners." ], [ "History", "The GÉANT project began in November 2000, entered full production operation in December 2001 (fully replacing a network called TEN-155).", "Originally due to finish in October 2004, it was subsequently extended until April 2005.The second generation network, named GÉANT2, began in September 2004 and continued through 2009, growing the network to 30 national networks in 34 countries.The next GÉANT project (GN3) began on 1 April 2009 and continued until April 2013.This was then superseded by the GN3plus project which was scheduled to run for two years.", "It is funded under the EC's seventh research and development Research Framework Programme (often referred to as FP7).The Project is now in its fourth iteration (GN4)." ], [ "Technology", "As well as providing the high-bandwidth links across Europe, the GÉANT network also acts as a testbed for new technology.It was the first \"hybrid\" network deployed on an international scale, combining routed IP and switched infrastructure.", "This enables the network to offer general traffic alongside virtual \"private\" network paths for projects, such as the Large Hadron Collider, which have particular requirements involving dedicated bandwidth, security and flexibility.GÉANT supported native IPv6 since 2002 and multicast IPv6 since 2004.It is involved in network research, in areas such as carrier class network technologies, photonic switching, federated network architectures and virtualisation.In 2013 a substantial network migration program was completed, meaning users could be offered multiple 100 Gbit/s links, with the core network supporting 500 Gbit/s and a network design that will support up to 8Tbit/s.Already, over 1 Petabyte of data are transferred every day via the GÉANT backbone network." ], [ "Participants", "The GÉANT project is a collaboration between 50 partners: 37 European NREN, IUCC (representing Israel), NORDUnet (representing the five Nordic countries), and 11 associate members.", "The full list of NREN project partners are available on the website." ], [ "Global links", "GÉANT links to research networks in other world regions, including:* North America (Internet2, ESnet, NISN and CANARIE)* Latin America* North Africa and the Middle East* South Africa/Kenya* The South Caucasus* Central Asia* Asia PacificThese links not only help international research collaboration but also aid with projects that deliver societal benefit, such as e-health, telemedicine and weather forecasting/disaster warning systems.", "Allowing researchers to work within their own countries also stems migration from less developed countries, helping bridge the digital divide." ], [ "Example projects", "GÉANT is used by research communities, such as:* High-energy physics* Bio-medical sciences* Health* Radio Astronomy* Earth Observation and Early Warning* Arts and culture" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gamma-Hydroxybutyric acid" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''gamma''-Hydroxybutyric acid''' (or '''γ-hydroxybutyric acid''' ('''GHB'''), also known as '''4-hydroxybutanoic acid''') is a naturally occurring neurotransmitter and a depressant drug.", "It is a precursor to GABA, glutamate, and glycine in certain brain areas.", "It acts on the GHB receptor and is a weak agonist at the GABAB receptor.", "GHB has been used in the medical setting as a general anesthetic and as treatment for cataplexy, narcolepsy, and alcoholism.", "The substance is also used illicitly for various reasons, including as a performance-enhancing drug, date rape drug, and as a recreational drug.It is commonly used in the form of a salt, such as sodium γ-hydroxybutyrate (NaGHB, sodium oxybate, or Xyrem) or potassium γ-hydroxybutyrate (KGHB, potassium oxybate).", "GHB is also produced as a result of fermentation, and is found in small quantities in some beers and wines, beef, and small citrus fruits.Succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase deficiency is a disease that causes GHB to accumulate in the blood." ], [ "Medical use", "GHB is used for medical purposes in the treatment of narcolepsy and, more rarely, alcohol dependence, although there remains uncertainty about its efficacy relative to other pharmacotherapies for alcohol dependence.", "The authors of a 2010 Cochrane review concluded that \"GHB appears better than NTX and disulfiram in maintaining abstinence and preventing craving in the medium term (3 to 12 months)\".", "It is sometimes used off-label for the treatment of fibromyalgia.", "GHB is the active ingredient of the prescription medication sodium oxybate (Xyrem).", "Sodium oxybate is approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration for the treatment of cataplexy associated with narcolepsy and excessive daytime sleepiness (EDS) associated with narcolepsy.GHB has been shown to reliably increase slow-wave sleep and decrease the tendency for REM sleep in modified multiple sleep latency tests.The FDA-approved labeling for sodium oxybate suggests no evidence GHB has teratogenic, carcinogenic or hepatotoxic properties.", "Its favorable safety profile relative to ethanol may explain why GHB continues to be investigated as a candidate for alcohol substitution." ], [ "Recreational use", "GHB is a central nervous system depressant used as an intoxicant.", "It has many street names.", "Its effects have been described as comparable with ethanol (alcohol) and MDMA use, such as euphoria, disinhibition, enhanced libido and empathogenic states.", "A review comparing ethanol to GHB concluded that the dangers of the two drugs were similar.", "At higher doses, GHB may induce nausea, dizziness, drowsiness, agitation, visual disturbances, depressed breathing, amnesia, unconsciousness, and death.", "One potential cause of death from GHB consumption is polydrug toxicity.", "Co-administration with other CNS depressants such as alcohol or benzodiazepines can result in an additive effect (potentiation), as they all bind to gamma-aminobutyric acid (or \"GABA\") receptor sites.", "The effects of GHB can last from 1.5 to 4 hours, or longer if large doses have been consumed.", "Consuming GHB with alcohol can cause respiratory arrest and vomiting in combination with unarousable sleep, which can lead to death.Recreational doses of 1–2 g generally provide a feeling of euphoria, and larger doses create deleterious effects such as reduced motor function and drowsiness.", "The sodium salt of GHB has a salty taste.", "Other salt forms such as calcium GHB and magnesium GHB have also been reported, but the sodium salt is by far the most common.Some prodrugs, such as γ-butyrolactone (GBL), convert to GHB in the stomach and bloodstream.", "Other prodrugs exist, such as 1,4-butanediol (1,4-B).", "GBL and 1,4-B are normally found as pure liquids, but they can be mixed with other more harmful solvents when intended for industrial use (e.g.", "as paint stripper or varnish thinner).GHB can be manufactured with little knowledge of chemistry, as it involves the mixing of its two precursors, GBL and an alkali hydroxide such as sodium hydroxide, to form the GHB salt.", "Due to the ease of manufacture and the availability of its precursors, it is not usually produced in illicit laboratories like other synthetic drugs, but in private homes by low-level producers.GHB is colourless and odourless.=== Party use ===GHB has been used as a club drug, apparently starting in the 1990s, as small doses of GHB can act as a euphoriant and are believed to be aphrodisiac.", "Slang terms for GHB include ''liquid ecstasy'', ''lollipops'', ''liquid X'' or ''liquid E'' due to its tendency to produce euphoria and sociability and its use in the dance party scene.===Sports and athletics===Some athletes have used GHB or its analogs because of being marketed as anabolic agents, although there is no evidence that it builds muscle or improves performance." ], [ "Usage as a date-rape drug", "FDA warning against products containing GHB and its prodrugsGHB became known to the general public as a date-rape drug by the late 1990s.", "GHB is colourless and odorless and has been described as \"very easy to add to drinks\".", "When consumed, the victim will quickly feel groggy and sleepy and may become unconscious.", "Upon recovery they may have an impaired ability to recall events that have occurred during the period of intoxication.", "In these situations evidence and the identification of the perpetrator of the rape is often difficult.It is also difficult to establish how often GHB is used to facilitate rape as it is difficult to detect in a urine sample after a day, and many victims may only recall the rape some time after its occurrence; however, a 2006 study suggested that there was \"no evidence to suggest widespread date rape drug use\" in the UK, and that less than 2% of cases involved GHB, while 17% involved cocaine, and a survey in the Netherlands published in 2010 found that the proportion of drug-related rapes where GHB was used appeared to be greatly overestimated by the media.There have been several high-profile cases of GHB as a date rape drug that received national attention in the United States.", "In early 1999, a 15-year-old girl, Samantha Reid of Rockwood, Michigan, died from GHB poisoning.", "Reid's death inspired the legislation titled the \"Hillory J. Farias and Samantha Reid Date-Rape Drug Prohibition Act of 2000\".", "This is the law that made GHB a Schedule 1 controlled substance.The British serial killer Stephen Port administered GHB to his victims.GHB can be detected in hair.", "Hair testing can be a useful tool in court cases or for the victim's own information.", "Most over-the-counter urine test kits test only for date-rape drugs that are benzodiazepines, which GHB is not.", "To detect GHB in urine, the sample must be taken within four hours of GHB ingestion, and cannot be tested at home." ], [ "Adverse effects", "===Combination with alcohol===In humans, GHB has been shown to reduce the elimination rate of alcohol.", "This may explain the respiratory arrest that has been reported after ingestion of both drugs.", "A review of the details of 194 deaths attributed to or related to GHB over a ten-year period found that most were from respiratory depression caused by interaction with alcohol or other drugs.===Deaths===One publication has investigated 226 deaths attributed to GHB.", "Of the 226 deaths included, 213 had a cardiorespiratory arrest and 13 had fatal accidents.", "71 deaths (34%) had no co-intoxicants.", "Postmortem blood GHB was 18–4400 mg/L (median=347) in deaths negative for co-intoxicants.One report has suggested that sodium oxybate overdose might be fatal, based on deaths of three patients who had been prescribed the drug.", "However, for two of the three cases, post-mortem GHB concentrations were 141 and 110 mg/L, which is within the expected range of concentrations for GHB after death, and the third case was a patient with a history of intentional drug overdose.", "The toxicity of GHB has been an issue in criminal trials, as in the death of Felicia Tang, where the defense argued that death was due to GHB, not murder.GHB is produced in the body in very small amounts, and blood levels may climb after death to levels in the range of 30–50 mg/L.", "Levels higher than this are found in GHB deaths.", "Levels lower than this may be due to GHB or to postmortem endogenous elevations.===Neurotoxicity===In multiple studies, GHB has been found to impair spatial memory, working memory, learning and memory in rats with chronic administration.", "These effects are associated with decreased NMDA receptor expression in the cerebral cortex and possibly other areas as well.", "In addition, the neurotoxicity appears to be caused by oxidative stress.===Addiction===Addiction occurs when repeated drug use disrupts the normal balance of brain circuits that control rewards, memory and cognition, ultimately leading to compulsive drug taking.Rats forced to consume massive doses of GHB will intermittently prefer GHB solution to water.===Withdrawal===GHB has also been associated with a withdrawal syndrome of insomnia, anxiety, and tremor that usually resolves within three to twenty-one days.", "The withdrawal syndrome can be severe producing acute delirium and may require hospitalization in an intensive care unit for management.", "Management of GHB dependence involves considering the person's age, comorbidity and the pharmacological pathways of GHB.", "The mainstay of treatment for severe withdrawal is supportive care and benzodiazepines for control of acute delirium, but larger doses are often required compared to acute delirium of other causes (e.g.", "> 100 mg/d of diazepam).", "Baclofen has been suggested as an alternative or adjunct to benzodiazepines based on anecdotal evidence and some animal data.", "However, there is less experience with the use of baclofen for GHB withdrawal, and additional research in humans is needed.", "Baclofen was first suggested as an adjunct because benzodiazepines do not affect GABAB receptors and therefore have no cross-tolerance with GHB while baclofen, which works via GABAB receptors, is cross-tolerant with GHB and may be more effective in alleviating withdrawal effects of GHB.GHB withdrawal is not widely discussed in textbooks and some psychiatrists, general practitioners, and even hospital emergency physicians may not be familiar with this withdrawal syndrome." ], [ "Overdose", "Overdose of GHB can sometimes be difficult to treat because of its multiple effects on the body.", "GHB tends to cause rapid unconsciousness at doses above 3500 mg, with single doses over 7000 mg often causing life-threatening respiratory depression, and higher doses still inducing bradycardia and cardiac arrest.", "Other side-effects include convulsions (especially when combined with stimulants), and nausea/vomiting (especially when combined with alcohol).The greatest life threat due to GHB overdose (with or without other substances) is respiratory arrest.", "Other relatively common causes of death due to GHB ingestion include aspiration of vomitus, positional asphyxia, and trauma sustained while intoxicated (e.g., motor vehicle accidents while driving under the influence of GHB).", "The risk of aspiration pneumonia and positional asphyxia risk can be reduced by laying the patient down in the recovery position.", "People are most likely to vomit as they become unconscious, and as they wake up.", "It is important to keep the victim awake and moving; the victim must not be left alone due to the risk of death through vomiting.", "Frequently the victim will be in a good mood but this does not mean the victim is not in danger.", "GHB overdose is a medical emergency and immediate assessment in an emergency department is needed.Convulsions from GHB can be treated with the benzodiazepines diazepam or lorazepam.", "Even though these benzodiazepines are also CNS depressants, they primarily modulate GABAA receptors whereas GHB is primarily a GABAB receptor agonist, and so do not worsen CNS depression as much as might be expected.Because of the faster and more complete absorption of GBL relative to GHB, its dose-response curve is steeper, and overdoses of GBL tend to be more dangerous and problematic than overdoses involving only GHB or 1,4-B.", "Any GHB/GBL overdose is a medical emergency and should be cared for by appropriately trained personnel.A newer synthetic drug SCH-50911, which acts as a selective GABAB antagonist, quickly reverses GHB overdose in mice.", "However, this treatment has yet to be tried in humans, and it is unlikely that it will be researched for this purpose in humans due to the illegal nature of clinical trials of GHB and the lack of medical indemnity coverage inherent in using an untested treatment for a life-threatening overdose.===Detection of use===GHB may be quantitated in blood or plasma to confirm a diagnosis of poisoning in hospitalized patients, to provide evidence in an impaired driving, or to assist in a medicolegal death investigation.", "Blood or plasma GHB concentrations are usually in a range of 50–250 mg/L in persons receiving the drug therapeutically (during general anesthesia), 30–100 mg/L in those arrested for impaired driving, 50–500 mg/L in acutely intoxicated patients and 100–1000 mg/L in victims of fatal overdosage.", "Urine is often the preferred specimen for routine drug abuse monitoring purposes.", "Both γ-butyrolactone (GBL) and 1,4-butanediol are converted to GHB in the body.In January 2016, it was announced scientists had developed a way to detect GHB, among other things, in saliva." ], [ "Endogenous production", "Cells produce GHB by reduction of succinic semialdehyde via succinic semialdehyde reductase (SSR).", "This enzyme appears to be induced by cAMP levels, meaning substances that elevate cAMP, such as forskolin and vinpocetine, may increase GHB synthesis and release.", "Conversely, endogeneous GHB production in those taking valproic acid will be inhibited via inhibition of the conversion from succinic acid semialdehyde to GHB.", "People with the disorder known as succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase deficiency, also known as γ-hydroxybutyric aciduria, have elevated levels of GHB in their urine, blood plasma and cerebrospinal fluid.The precise function of GHB in the body is not clear.", "It is known, however, that the brain expresses a large number of receptors that are activated by GHB.", "These receptors are excitatory, however, and therefore not responsible for the sedative effects of GHB; they have been shown to elevate the principal excitatory neurotransmitter, glutamate.", "The benzamide antipsychotics—amisulpride, nemonapride, etc.—have been shown to bind to these GHB-activated receptors in vivo.", "Other antipsychotics were tested and were not found to have an affinity for this receptor.GHB is a precursor to GABA, glutamate, and glycine in certain brain areas.In spite of its demonstrated neurotoxicity, (see relevant section, above), GHB has neuroprotective properties, and has been found to protect cells from hypoxia." ], [ "Natural fermentation by-product", "GHB is also produced as a result of fermentation and so is found in small quantities in some beers and wines, in particular fruit wines.", "The amount found in wine is pharmacologically insignificant and not sufficient to produce psychoactive effects." ], [ "Pharmacology", "GHB has at least two distinct binding sites in the central nervous system.", "GHB acts as an agonist at the inhibitory GHB receptor and as a weak agonist at the inhibitory GABAB receptor.", "GHB is a naturally occurring substance that acts in a similar fashion to some neurotransmitters in the mammalian brain.", "GHB is probably synthesized from GABA in GABAergic neurons, and released when the neurons fire.GHB has been found to activate oxytocinergic neurons in the supraoptic nucleus.If taken orally, GABA itself does not effectively cross the blood–brain barrier.GHB induces the accumulation of either a derivative of tryptophan or tryptophan itself in the extracellular space, possibly by increasing tryptophan transport across the blood–brain barrier.", "The blood content of certain neutral amino-acids, including tryptophan, is also increased by peripheral GHB administration.", "GHB-induced stimulation of tissue serotonin turnover may be due to an increase in tryptophan transport to the brain and in its uptake by serotonergic cells.", "As the serotonergic system may be involved in the regulation of sleep, mood, and anxiety, the stimulation of this system by high doses of GHB may be involved in certain neuropharmacological events induced by GHB administration.However, at therapeutic doses, GHB reaches much higher concentrations in the brain and activates GABAB receptors, which are primarily responsible for its sedative effects.", "GHB's sedative effects are blocked by GABAB antagonists.The role of the GHB receptor in the behavioural effects induced by GHB is more complex.", "GHB receptors are densely expressed in many areas of the brain, including the cortex and hippocampus, and these are the receptors that GHB displays the highest affinity for.", "There has been somewhat limited research into the GHB receptor; however, there is evidence that activation of the GHB receptor in some brain areas results in the release of glutamate, the principal excitatory neurotransmitter.", "Drugs that selectively activate the GHB receptor cause absence seizures in high doses, as do GHB and GABAB agonists.Activation of both the GHB receptor and GABAB is responsible for the addictive profile of GHB.", "GHB's effect on dopamine release is biphasic.", "Low concentrations stimulate dopamine release via the GHB receptor.", "Higher concentrations inhibit dopamine release via GABAB receptors as do other GABAB agonists such as baclofen and phenibut.", "After an initial phase of inhibition, dopamine release is then increased via the GHB receptor.", "Both the inhibition and increase of dopamine release by GHB are inhibited by opioid antagonists such as naloxone and naltrexone.", "Dynorphin may play a role in the inhibition of dopamine release via kappa opioid receptors.This explains the paradoxical mix of sedative and stimulatory properties of GHB, as well as the so-called \"rebound\" effect, experienced by individuals using GHB as a sleeping agent, wherein they awake suddenly after several hours of GHB-induced deep sleep.", "That is to say that, over time, the concentration of GHB in the system decreases below the threshold for significant GABAB receptor activation and activates predominantly the GHB receptor, leading to wakefulness.Recently, analogs of GHB, such as 4-hydroxy-4-methylpentanoic acid (UMB68) have been synthesised and tested on animals, in order to gain a better understanding of GHB's mode of action.", "Analogues of GHB such as 3-methyl-GHB, 4-methyl-GHB, and 4-phenyl-GHB have been shown to produce similar effects to GHB in some animal studies, but these compounds are even less well researched than GHB itself.", "Of these analogues, only 4-methyl-GHB (γ-hydroxyvaleric acid, GHV) and a prodrug form γ-valerolactone (GVL) have been reported as drugs of abuse in humans, and on the available evidence seem to be less potent but more toxic than GHB, with a particular tendency to cause nausea and vomiting.Other prodrug ester forms of GHB have also rarely been encountered by law enforcement, including 1,4-butanediol diacetate (BDDA/DABD), methyl-4-acetoxybutanoate (MAB), and ethyl-4-acetoxybutanoate (EAB), but these are, in general, covered by analogue laws in jurisdictions where GHB is illegal, and little is known about them beyond their delayed onset and longer duration of action.", "The intermediate compound γ-hydroxybutyraldehyde (GHBAL) is also a prodrug for GHB; however, as with all aliphatic aldehydes this compound is caustic and is strong-smelling and foul-tasting; actual use of this compound as an intoxicant is likely to be unpleasant and result in severe nausea and vomiting.Metabolic pathway of GHBBoth of the metabolic breakdown pathways shown for GHB can run in either direction, depending on the concentrations of the substances involved, so the body can make its own GHB either from GABA or from succinic semialdehyde.", "Under normal physiological conditions, the concentration of GHB in the body is rather low, and the pathways would run in the reverse direction to what is shown here to produce endogenous GHB.", "However, when GHB is consumed for recreational or health promotion purposes, its concentration in the body is much higher than normal, which changes the enzyme kinetics so that these pathways operate to metabolise GHB rather than producing it." ], [ "History", "Alexander Zaytsev worked on this chemical family and published work on it in 1874.The first extended research into GHB and its use in humans was conducted in the early 1960s by Henri Laborit to use in studying the neurotransmitter GABA.", "It was studied in a range of uses including obstetric surgery and during childbirth and as an anxiolytic; there were anecdotal reports of it having antidepressant and aphrodisiac effects as well.", "It was also studied as an intravenous anesthetic agent and was marketed for that purpose starting in 1964 in Europe but it was not widely adopted as it caused seizures; as of 2006 that use was still authorized in France and Italy but not widely used.", "It was also studied to treat alcohol addiction; while the evidence for this use is weak, however sodium oxybate is marketed for this use in Italy.GHB and sodium oxybate were also studied for use in narcolepsy from the 1960s onwards.In May 1990 GHB was introduced as a dietary supplement and was marketed to body builders, for help with weight control and as a sleep aid, and as a \"replacement\" for l-tryptophan, which was removed from the market in November 1989 when batches contaminated with trace impurities were found to cause eosinophilia-myalgia syndrome, although eosinophilia-myalgia syndrome is also tied to tryptophan overload.", "In 2001 tryptophan supplement sales were allowed to resume, and in 2005 the FDA ban on tryptophan supplement importation was lifted.", "By November 1989 57 cases of illness caused by the GHB supplements had been reported to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, with people having taken up to three teaspoons of GHB; there were no deaths but nine people needed care in an intensive care unit.", "The FDA issued a warning in November 1990 that sale of GHB was illegal.", "GHB continued to be manufactured and sold illegally and it and analogs were adopted as a club drug and came to be used as a date rape drug, and the DEA made seizures and the FDA reissued warnings several times throughout the 1990s.At the same time, research on the use of GHB in the form of sodium oxybate had formalized, as a company called Orphan Medical had filed an investigational new drug application and was running clinical trials with the intention of gaining regulatory approval for use to treat narcolepsy.A popular children's toy, Bindeez (also known as Aqua Dots, in the United States), produced by Melbourne company Moose, was banned in Australia in early November 2007 when it was discovered that 1,4-butanediol (1,4-B), which is metabolized into GHB, had been substituted for the non-toxic plasticiser 1,5-pentanediol in the bead manufacturing process.", "Three young children were hospitalized as a result of ingesting a large number of the beads, and the toy was recalled." ], [ "Legal status", "GHB sold in Italy for therapeutic useIn the United States, GHB was placed on Schedule I of the Controlled Substances Act in March 2000.However, used in sodium oxybate under an IND or NDA from the US FDA, it is considered a Schedule III substance but with Schedule I trafficking penalties, one of several drugs that are listed in multiple schedules.On 20 March 2001, the UN Commission on Narcotic Drugs placed GHB in Schedule IV of the 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances.In the UK GHB was made a class C drug in June 2003.In October 2013 the ACMD recommended upgrading it from schedule IV to schedule II in line with UN recommendations.", "Their report concluded that the minimal use of Xyrem in the UK meant that prescribers would be minimally inconvenienced by the rescheduling.", "This advice was followed and GHB was moved to schedule 2 on 7 January 2015.In April 2022 GHB was changed from class C to class B.In Hong Kong, GHB is regulated under Schedule 1 of Hong Kong's Chapter 134 ''Dangerous Drugs Ordinance''.", "It can only be used legally by health professionals and for university research purposes.", "The substance can be given by pharmacists under a prescription.", "Anyone who supplies the substance without prescription can be fined HK$10,000.The penalty for trafficking or manufacturing the substance is a HK$150,000 fine and life imprisonment.", "Possession of the substance for consumption without license from the Department of Health is illegal with a HK$100,000 fine or five years of jail time.In Canada, GHB has been a Schedule I controlled substance since 6 November 2012 (the same schedule that contains heroin and cocaine).", "Prior to that date, it was a Schedule III controlled substance (the same schedule that contains amphetamines and LSD).In New Zealand and Australia, GHB, 1,4-B, and GBL are all Class B illegal drugs, along with any possible esters, ethers, and aldehydes.", "GABA itself is also listed as an illegal drug in these jurisdictions, which seems unusual given its failure to cross the blood–brain barrier, but there was a perception among legislators that all known analogues should be covered as far as this was possible.", "Attempts to circumvent the illegal status of GHB have led to the sale of derivatives such as 4-methyl-GHB (γ-hydroxyvaleric acid, GHV) and its prodrug form γ-valerolactone (GVL), but these are also covered under the law by virtue of their being \"substantially similar\" to GHB or GBL, so importation, sale, possession and use of these compounds is also considered to be illegal.In Chile, GHB is a controlled drug under the law (psychotropic substances and narcotics).In Norway and in Switzerland, GHB is considered a narcotic and is only available by prescription under the trade name Xyrem (Union Chimique Belge S.A.).Sodium oxybate is also used therapeutically in Italy under the brand name Alcover for treatment of alcohol withdrawal and dependence." ], [ "See also", "* Beta-Hydroxybutyric acid* γ-Hydroxyvaleric acid (GHV)* γ-Valerolactone (GVL)* β-Hydroxy β-methylbutyric acid (HMB)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Gamma-hydroxybutyrate MS Spectrum* EMCDDA Report on the risk assessment of GHB in the framework of the joint action on new synthetic drugs*Erowid GHB Vault (also contains information about addiction and dangers)* InfoFacts – Rohypnol and GHB (National Institute on Drug Abuse)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Giordano Bruno" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Giordano Bruno''' (; ; ; born '''Filippo Bruno''', January or February 1548 – 17 February 1600) was an Italian philosopher, poet, cosmological theorist and esotericist.", "He is known for his cosmological theories, which conceptually extended to include the then-novel Copernican model.", "He proposed that the stars were distant suns surrounded by their own planets (exoplanets), and he raised the possibility that these planets might foster life of their own, a cosmological position known as cosmic pluralism.", "He also insisted that the universe is infinite and could have no center.While Bruno began as a Dominican friar, he embraced Calvinism during his time in Geneva.", "He was later tried for heresy by the Roman Inquisition on charges of denial of several core Catholic doctrines, including eternal damnation, the Trinity, the divinity of Christ, the virginity of Mary, and transubstantiation.", "Bruno's pantheism was not taken lightly by the church, nor was his teaching of metempsychosis regarding the reincarnation of the soul.", "The Inquisition found him guilty, and he was burned alive at the stake in Rome's Campo de' Fiori in 1600.After his death, he gained considerable fame, being particularly celebrated by 19th- and early 20th-century commentators who regarded him as a martyr for science.", "However, most historians agree that his heresy trial was not a response to his cosmological views but rather a response to his religious and afterlife views, although some still contend that the main reason for Bruno's death was indeed his cosmological views.", "Bruno's case is still considered a landmark in the history of free thought and the emerging sciences.In addition to cosmology, Bruno also wrote extensively on the art of memory, a loosely organized group of mnemonic techniques and principles.", "Historian Frances Yates argues that Bruno was deeply influenced by the presocratic Empedocles, Neoplatonism, Renaissance Hermeticism, and Book of Genesis-like legends surrounding the Hellenistic conception of Hermes Trismegistus.", "Other studies of Bruno have focused on his qualitative approach to mathematics and his application of the spatial concepts of geometry to language." ], [ "Life", "===Early years, 1548–1576===Born Filippo Bruno in Nola (a ''comune'' in the modern-day province of Naples, in the Southern Italian region of Campania, then part of the Kingdom of Naples) in 1548, he was the son of Giovanni Bruno (1517- c. 1592), a soldier, and Fraulissa Savolino (1520-?).", "In his youth he was sent to Naples to be educated.", "He was tutored privately at the Augustinian monastery there, and attended public lectures at the Studium Generale.", "At the age of 17, he entered the Dominican Order at the monastery of San Domenico Maggiore in Naples, taking the name Giordano, after Giordano Crispo, his metaphysics tutor.", "He continued his studies there, completing his novitiate, and ordained a priest in 1572 at age 24.During his time in Naples, he became known for his skill with the art of memory and on one occasion traveled to Rome to demonstrate his mnemonic system before Pope Pius V and Cardinal Rebiba.", "In his later years, Bruno claimed that the Pope accepted his dedication to him of the lost work ''On The Ark of Noah'' at this time.While Bruno was distinguished for outstanding ability, his taste for free thinking and forbidden books soon caused him difficulties.", "Given the controversy he caused in later life, it is surprising that he was able to remain within the monastic system for eleven years.", "In his testimony to Venetian inquisitors during his trial many years later, he says that proceedings were twice taken against him for having cast away images of the saints, retaining only a crucifix, and for having recommended controversial texts to a novice.", "Such behavior could perhaps be overlooked, but Bruno's situation became much more serious when he was reported to have defended the Arian heresy, and when a copy of the banned writings of Erasmus, annotated by him, was discovered hidden in the monastery latrine.", "When he learned that an indictment was being prepared against him in Naples he fled, shedding his religious habit, at least for a time.===First years of wandering, 1576–1583===Bruno first went to the Genoese port of Noli, then to Savona, Turin and finally to Venice, where he published his lost work ''On the Signs of the Times'' with the permission (so he claimed at his trial) of the Dominican Remigio Nannini Fiorentino.", "From Venice he went to Padua, where he met fellow Dominicans who convinced him to wear his religious habit again.", "From Padua he went to Bergamo and then across the Alps to Chambéry and Lyon.", "His movements after this time are obscure.The earliest depiction of Bruno is an engraving published in 1715 in Germany, presumed based on a lost contemporary portrait.In 1579, Bruno arrived in Geneva.", "As D. W. Singer, a Bruno biographer, notes, \"The question has sometimes been raised as to whether Bruno became a Protestant, and there is evidence he joined a Calvinist church.\"", "During his Venetian trial, he told inquisitors that while in Geneva he told the Marchese de Vico of Naples, who was notable for helping Italian refugees in Geneva, \"I did not intend to adopt the religion of the city.", "I desired to stay there only that I might live at liberty and in security.\"", "Bruno had a pair of breeches made for himself, and the Marchese and others apparently made Bruno a gift of a sword, hat, cape and other necessities for dressing himself; in such clothing Bruno could no longer be recognized as a priest.", "Things apparently went well for Bruno for a time, as he entered his name in the Rector's Book of the University of Geneva in May 1579.But in keeping with his personality he could not long remain silent.", "In August he published an attack on the work of , a distinguished professor.", "Bruno and the printer, Jean Bergeon, were promptly arrested.", "Rather than apologizing, Bruno insisted on continuing to defend his publication.", "He was refused the right to take sacrament.", "Though this right was soon restored, he left Geneva.He went to France, arriving first in Lyon, and thereafter settling for a time (1580–1581) in Toulouse, where he took his doctorate in theology and was elected by students to lecture in philosophy.", "He also attempted at this time to return to Catholicism, but was denied absolution by the Jesuit priest he approached.", "When religious strife broke out in the summer of 1581, he moved to Paris.", "There he held a cycle of thirty lectures on theological topics and also began to gain fame for his prodigious memory.", "His talents attracted the benevolent attention of the king Henry III; Bruno subsequently reported: \"I got me such a name that King Henry III summoned me one day to discover from me if the memory which I possessed was natural or acquired by magic art.", "I satisfied him that it did not come from sorcery but from organized knowledge; and, following this, I got a book on memory printed, entitled ''The Shadows of Ideas'', which I dedicated to His Majesty.", "Forthwith he gave me an Extraordinary Lectureship with a salary.", "\"In Paris, Bruno enjoyed the protection of his powerful French patrons.", "During this period, he published several works on mnemonics, including ''De umbris idearum'' (''On the Shadows of Ideas'', 1582), '''' (''The Art of Memory'', 1582), and ''Cantus circaeus'' (''Circe's Song'', 1582; described at ).", "All of these were based on his mnemonic models of organized knowledge and experience, as opposed to the simplistic logic-based mnemonic techniques of Petrus Ramus then becoming popular.", "Bruno also published a comedy summarizing some of his philosophical positions, titled ''Il Candelaio'' (''The Candlemaker'', 1582).", "In the 16th century dedications were, as a rule, approved beforehand, and hence were a way of placing a work under the protection of an individual.", "Given that Bruno dedicated various works to the likes of King Henry III, Sir Philip Sidney, Michel de Castelnau (French Ambassador to England), and possibly Pope Pius V, it is apparent that this wanderer had risen sharply in status and moved in powerful circles.===England, 1583–1585===Woodcut illustration of one of Giordano Bruno's less complex mnemonic devicesIn April 1583, Bruno went to England with letters of recommendation from Henry III as a guest of the French ambassador, Michel de Castelnau.", "Bruno lived at the French embassy with the lexicographer John Florio.", "There he became acquainted with the poet Philip Sidney (to whom he dedicated two books) and other members of the Hermetic circle around John Dee, though there is no evidence that Bruno ever met Dee himself.", "He also lectured at Oxford, and unsuccessfully sought a teaching position there.", "His views were controversial, notably with John Underhill, Rector of Lincoln College and subsequently bishop of Oxford, and George Abbot, who later became Archbishop of Canterbury.", "Abbot mocked Bruno for supporting \"the opinion of Copernicus that the earth did go round, and the heavens did stand still; whereas in truth it was his own head which rather did run round, and his brains did not stand still\", and found Bruno had both plagiarized and misrepresented Ficino's work, leading Bruno to return to the continent.Nevertheless, his stay in England was fruitful.", "During that time Bruno completed and published some of his most important works, the six \"Italian Dialogues\", including the cosmological tracts ''La cena de le ceneri'' (''The Ash Wednesday Supper'', 1584), ''De la causa, principio et uno'' (''On Cause, Principle and Unity'', 1584), ''De l'infinito, universo et mondi'' (''On the Infinite, Universe and Worlds'', 1584) as well as ''Lo spaccio de la bestia trionfante'' (''The Expulsion of the Triumphant Beast'', 1584) and '''' (''On the Heroic Frenzies'', 1585).", "Some of these were printed by John Charlewood.", "Some of the works that Bruno published in London, notably ''The Ash Wednesday Supper'', appear to have given offense.", "Once again, Bruno's controversial views and tactless language lost him the support of his friends.", "John Bossy has advanced the theory that, while staying in the French Embassy in London, Bruno was also spying on Catholic conspirators, under the pseudonym \"Henry Fagot\", for Sir Francis Walsingham, Queen Elizabeth's Secretary of State.Bruno is sometimes cited as being the first to propose that the universe is infinite, which he did during his time in England, but an English scientist, Thomas Digges, put forth this idea in a published work in 1576, some eight years earlier than Bruno.", "An infinite universe and the possibility of alien life had also been earlier suggested by German Catholic Cardinal Nicholas of Cusa in \"On Learned Ignorance\" published in 1440 and Bruno attributed his understanding of multiple worlds to this earlier scholar, who he called \"the divine Cusanus\".===Last years of wandering, 1585–1592===In October 1585, Castelnau was recalled to France, and Bruno went with him.", "In Paris, Bruno found a tense political situation.", "Moreover, his 120 theses against Aristotelian natural science soon put him in ill favor.", "In 1586, following a violent quarrel over these theses, he left France for Germany.Woodcut from \"Articuli centum et sexaginta adversus huius tempestatis mathematicos atque philosophos\", Prague 1588In Germany he failed to obtain a teaching position at Marburg, but was granted permission to teach at Wittenberg, where he lectured on Aristotle for two years.", "However, with a change of intellectual climate there, he was no longer welcome, and went in 1588 to Prague, where he obtained 300 taler from Rudolf II, but no teaching position.", "He went on to serve briefly as a professor in Helmstedt, but had to flee again in 1590 when he was excommunicated by the Lutherans.During this period he produced several Latin works, dictated to his friend and secretary Girolamo Besler, including ''De Magia'' (''On Magic''), ''Theses De Magia'' (''Theses on Magic'') and ''De Vinculis in Genere'' (''A General Account of Bonding'').", "All these were apparently transcribed or recorded by Besler (or Bisler) between 1589 and 1590.He also published ''De Imaginum, Signorum, Et Idearum Compositione'' (''On the Composition of Images, Signs and Ideas'', 1591).In 1591 he was in Frankfurt, where he received an invitation from the Venetian patrician Giovanni Mocenigo, who wished to be instructed in the art of memory, and also heard of a vacant chair in mathematics at the University of Padua.", "At the time the Inquisition seemed to be losing some of its strictness, and because the Republic of Venice was the most liberal state in the Italian Peninsula, Bruno was lulled into making the fatal mistake of returning to Italy.He went first to Padua, where he taught briefly, and applied unsuccessfully for the chair of mathematics, which was given instead to Galileo Galilei one year later.", "Bruno accepted Mocenigo's invitation and moved to Venice in March 1592.For about two months he served as an in-house tutor to Mocenigo, to whom he let slip some of his heterodox ideas.", "Mocenigo denounced him to the Venetian Inquisition, which had Bruno arrested on 22 May 1592.Among the numerous charges of blasphemy and heresy brought against him in Venice, based on Mocenigo's denunciation, was his belief in the plurality of worlds, as well as accusations of personal misconduct.", "Bruno defended himself skillfully, stressing the philosophical character of some of his positions, denying others and admitting that he had had doubts on some matters of dogma.", "The Roman Inquisition, however, asked for his transfer to Rome.", "After several months of argument, the Venetian authorities reluctantly consented and Bruno was sent to Rome in January 1593.===Imprisonment, trial and execution, 1593–1600===During the seven years of his trial in Rome, Bruno was held in confinement, lastly in the Tower of Nona.", "Some important documents about the trial are lost, but others have been preserved, among them a summary of the proceedings that was rediscovered in 1940.The numerous charges against Bruno, based on some of his books as well as on witness accounts, included blasphemy, immoral conduct, and heresy in matters of dogmatic theology, and involved some of the basic doctrines of his philosophy and cosmology.", "Luigi Firpo speculates the charges made against Bruno by the Roman Inquisition were:* holding opinions contrary to the Catholic faith and speaking against it and its ministers;* holding opinions contrary to the Catholic faith about the Trinity, the divinity of Christ, and the Incarnation;* holding opinions contrary to the Catholic faith pertaining to Jesus as the Christ;* holding opinions contrary to the Catholic faith regarding the virginity of Mary, mother of Jesus;* holding opinions contrary to the Catholic faith about both Transubstantiation and the Mass;* claiming the existence of a plurality of worlds and their eternity;* believing in metempsychosis and in the transmigration of the human soul into brutes;* dealing in magics and divination.The trial of Giordano Bruno by the Roman Inquisition.", "Bronze relief by Ettore Ferrari, Campo de' Fiori, Rome.Bruno defended himself as he had in Venice, insisting that he accepted the Church's dogmatic teachings, but trying to preserve the basis of his cosmological views.", "In particular, he held firm to his belief in the plurality of worlds, although he was admonished to abandon it.", "His trial was overseen by the Inquisitor Cardinal Bellarmine, who demanded a full recantation, which Bruno eventually refused.", "On 20 January 1600, Pope Clement VIII declared Bruno a heretic, and the Inquisition issued a sentence of death.", "According to the correspondence of Gaspar Schopp of Breslau, he is said to have made a threatening gesture towards his judges and to have replied: ''Maiori forsan cum timore sententiam in me fertis quam ego accipiam'' (\"Perhaps you pronounce this sentence against me with greater fear than I receive it\").He was turned over to the secular authorities.", "On 17 February 1600, in the Campo de' Fiori (a central Roman market square), naked, with his \"tongue imprisoned because of his wicked words\", he was burned alive at the stake.", "His ashes were thrown into the Tiber river.All of Bruno's works were placed on the ''Index Librorum Prohibitorum'' in 1603.The inquisition cardinals who judged Giordano Bruno were Cardinal Bellarmino (Bellarmine), Cardinal Madruzzo (Madruzzi), Camillo Cardinal Borghese (later Pope Paul V), Domenico Cardinal Pinelli, Pompeio Cardinal Arrigoni, Cardinal Sfondrati, Pedro Cardinal De Deza Manuel and Cardinal Santorio (Archbishop of Santa Severina, Cardinal-Bishop of Palestrina).The measures taken to prevent Bruno continuing to speak have resulted in his becoming a symbol for free thought and speech in present-day Rome, where an annual memorial service takes place close to the spot where he was executed.===Physical appearance===The earliest likeness of Bruno is an engraving published in 1715 and cited by Salvestrini as \"the only known portrait of Bruno\".", "Salvestrini suggests that it is a re-engraving made from a now lost original.", "This engraving has provided the source for later images.The records of Bruno's imprisonment by the Venetian inquisition in May 1592 describe him as a man \"of average height, with a hazel-coloured beard and the appearance of being about forty years of age\".Alternately, a passage in a work by George Abbot indicates that Bruno was of diminutive stature: \"When that Italian Didapper, who intituled himselfe Philotheus Iordanus Brunus Nolanus, magis elaboratae Theologiae Doctor, &c. with a name longer than his body...\".", "The word \"didapper\" used by Abbot is the derisive term which at the time meant \"a small diving waterfowl\"." ], [ "Cosmology", "===Contemporary cosmological beliefs===Illuminated illustration of the Ptolemaic geocentric conception of the universe.", "The outermost text reads \"The heavenly empire, dwelling of God and all the selected.", "\"In the first half of the 15th century, Nicholas of Cusa challenged the then widely accepted philosophies of Aristotelianism, envisioning instead an infinite universe whose center was everywhere and circumference nowhere, and moreover teeming with countless stars.", "He also predicted that neither were the rotational orbits circular nor were their movements uniform.In the second half of the 16th century, the theories of Copernicus (1473–1543) began diffusing through Europe.", "Copernicus conserved the idea of planets fixed to solid spheres, but considered the apparent motion of the stars to be an illusion caused by the rotation of the Earth on its axis; he also preserved the notion of an immobile center, but it was the Sun rather than the Earth.", "Copernicus also argued the Earth was a planet orbiting the Sun once every year.", "However he maintained the Ptolemaic hypothesis that the orbits of the planets were composed of perfect circles—deferents and epicycles—and that the stars were fixed on a stationary outer sphere.Despite the widespread publication of Copernicus' work ''De revolutionibus orbium coelestium'', during Bruno's time most educated Catholics subscribed to the Aristotelian geocentric view that the Earth was the center of the universe, and that all heavenly bodies revolved around it.", "The ultimate limit of the universe was the ''primum mobile'', whose diurnal rotation was conferred upon it by a transcendental God, not part of the universe (although, as the kingdom of heaven, adjacent to it), a motionless prime mover and first cause.", "The fixed stars were part of this celestial sphere, all at the same fixed distance from the immobile Earth at the center of the sphere.", "Ptolemy had numbered these at 1,022, grouped into 48 constellations.", "The planets were each fixed to a transparent sphere.Few astronomers of Bruno's time accepted Copernicus's heliocentric model.", "Among those who did were the Germans Michael Maestlin (1550–1631), Christoph Rothmann, Johannes Kepler (1571–1630); the Englishman Thomas Digges (c. 1546–1595), author of ''A Perfit Description of the Caelestial Orbes''; and the Italian Galileo Galilei (1564–1642).===Bruno's cosmological claims===In 1584, Bruno published two important philosophical dialogues (''La Cena de le Ceneri'' and ''De l'infinito universo et mondi'') in which he argued against the planetary spheres (Christoph Rothmann did the same in 1586 as did Tycho Brahe in 1587) and affirmed the Copernican principle.In particular, to support the Copernican view and oppose the objection according to which the motion of the Earth would be perceived by means of the motion of winds, clouds etc., in ''La Cena de le Ceneri'' Bruno anticipates some of the arguments of Galilei on the relativity principle.", "Note that he also uses the example now known as Galileo's ship.Theophilus – ... air through which the clouds and winds move are parts of the Earth, ... to mean under the name of Earth the whole machinery and the entire animated part, which consists of dissimilar parts; so that the rivers, the rocks, the seas, the whole vaporous and turbulent air, which is enclosed within the highest mountains, should belong to the Earth as its members, just as the air does in the lungs and in other cavities of animals by which they breathe, widen their arteries, and other similar effects necessary for life are performed.", "The clouds, too, move through accidents in the body of the Earth and are in its bowels as are the waters.", "... With the Earth move ... all things that are on the Earth.", "If, therefore, from a point outside the Earth something were thrown upon the Earth, it would lose, because of the latter's motion, its straightness as would be seen on the ship ... moving along a river, if someone on point C of the riverbank were to throw a stone along a straight line, and would see the stone miss its target by the amount of the velocity of the ship's motion.", "But if someone were placed high on the mast of that ship, move as it may however fast, he would not miss his target at all, so that the stone or some other heavy thing thrown downward would not come along a straight line from the point E which is at the top of the mast, or cage, to the point D which is at the bottom of the mast, or at some point in the bowels and body of the ship.", "Thus, if from the point D to the point E someone who is inside the ship would throw a stone straight up, it would return to the bottom along the same line however far the ship moved, provided it was not subject to any pitch and roll.", "\"Bruno's infinite universe was filled with a substance—a \"pure air\", aether, or ''spiritus''—that offered no resistance to the heavenly bodies which, in Bruno's view, rather than being fixed, moved under their own impetus (momentum).", "Most dramatically, he completely abandoned the idea of a hierarchical universe.The universe is then one, infinite, immobile...", "It is not capable of comprehension and therefore is endless and limitless, and to that extent infinite and indeterminable, and consequently immobile.Bruno's cosmology distinguishes between \"suns\" which produce their own light and heat, and have other bodies moving around them; and \"earths\" which move around suns and receive light and heat from them.", "Bruno suggested that some, if not all, of the objects classically known as fixed stars are in fact suns.", "According to astrophysicist Steven Soter, he was the first person to grasp that \"stars are other suns with their own planets.", "\"Bruno wrote that other worlds \"have no less virtue nor a nature different from that of our Earth\" and, like Earth, \"contain animals and inhabitants\".During the late 16th century, and throughout the 17th century, Bruno's ideas were held up for ridicule, debate, or inspiration.", "Margaret Cavendish, for example, wrote an entire series of poems against \"atoms\" and \"infinite worlds\" in ''Poems and Fancies'' in 1664.Bruno's true, if partial, vindication would have to wait for the implications and impact of Newtonian cosmology.Bruno's overall contribution to the birth of modern science is still controversial.", "Some scholars follow Frances Yates in stressing the importance of Bruno's ideas about the universe being infinite and lacking geocentric structure as a crucial crossing point between the old and the new.", "Others see in Bruno's idea of multiple worlds instantiating the infinite possibilities of a pristine, indivisible One, a forerunner of Everett's many-worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics.While many academics note Bruno's theological position as pantheism, several have described it as pandeism, and some also as panentheism.", "Physicist and philosopher Max Bernhard Weinstein in his ''Welt- und Lebensanschauungen, Hervorgegangen aus Religion, Philosophie und Naturerkenntnis'' (\"World and Life Views, Emerging From Religion, Philosophy and Nature\"), wrote that the theological model of pandeism was strongly expressed in the teachings of Bruno, especially with respect to the vision of a deity for which \"the concept of God is not separated from that of the universe.\"", "However, Otto Kern takes exception to what he considers Weinstein's overbroad assertions that Bruno, as well as other historical philosophers such as John Scotus Eriugena, Nicholas of Cusa, Mendelssohn, and Lessing, were pandeists or leaned towards pandeism.", "''Discover'' editor Corey S. Powell also described Bruno's cosmology as pandeistic, writing that it was \"a tool for advancing an animist or Pandeist theology\", and this assessment of Bruno as a pandeist was agreed with by science writer Michael Newton Keas, and ''The Daily Beast'' writer David Sessions." ], [ "Retrospective views of Bruno", "The monument to Bruno in the place he was executed, Campo de' Fiori in Rome Monument to Giordano Bruno at Potsdamer Platz in Berlin, Germany, referencing his burning at the stake while tied upside down.===Late Vatican position===The Vatican has published few official statements about Bruno's trial and execution.", "In 1942, Cardinal Giovanni Mercati, who discovered a number of lost documents relating to Bruno's trial, stated that the Church was perfectly justified in condemning him.", "On the 400th anniversary of Bruno's death, in 2000, Cardinal Angelo Sodano declared Bruno's death to be a \"sad episode\" but, despite his regret, he defended Bruno's prosecutors, maintaining that the Inquisitors \"had the desire to serve freedom and promote the common good and did everything possible to save his life\".", "In the same year, Pope John Paul II made a general apology for \"the use of violence that some have committed in the service of truth\".===A martyr of science===Some authors have characterized Bruno as a \"martyr of science\", suggesting parallels with the Galileo affair which began around 1610.", "\"It should not be supposed,\" writes A. M. Paterson of Bruno and his \"heliocentric solar system\", that he \"reached his conclusions via some mystical revelation....His work is an essential part of the scientific and philosophical developments that he initiated.\"", "Paterson echoes Hegel in writing that Bruno \"ushers in a modern theory of knowledge that understands all natural things in the universe to be known by the human mind through the mind's dialectical structure\".Ingegno writes that Bruno embraced the philosophy of Lucretius, \"aimed at liberating man from the fear of death and the gods.\"", "Characters in Bruno's ''Cause, Principle and Unity'' desire \"to improve speculative science and knowledge of natural things,\" and to achieve a philosophy \"which brings about the perfection of the human intellect most easily and eminently, and most closely corresponds to the truth of nature.", "\"Other scholars oppose such views, and claim Bruno's martyrdom to science to be exaggerated, or outright false.", "For Yates, while \"nineteenth century liberals\" were thrown \"into ecstasies\" over Bruno's Copernicanism, \"Bruno pushes Copernicus' scientific work back into a prescientific stage, back into Hermeticism, interpreting the Copernican diagram as a hieroglyph of divine mysteries.", "\"According to historian Mordechai Feingold, \"Both admirers and critics of Giordano Bruno basically agree that he was pompous and arrogant, highly valuing his opinions and showing little patience with anyone who even mildly disagreed with him.\"", "Discussing Bruno's experience of rejection when he visited Oxford University, Feingold suggests that \"it might have been Bruno's manner, his language and his self-assertiveness, rather than his ideas\" that caused offence.===Theological heresy===In his ''Lectures on the History of Philosophy'', Hegel writes that Bruno's life represented \"a bold rejection of all Catholic beliefs resting on mere authority.", "\"Alfonso Ingegno states that Bruno's philosophy \"challenges the developments of the Reformation, calls into question the truth-value of the whole of Christianity, and claims that Christ perpetrated a deceit on mankind... Bruno suggests that we can now recognize the universal law which controls the perpetual becoming of all things in an infinite universe.\"", "A. M. Paterson says that, while we no longer have a copy of the official papal condemnation of Bruno, his heresies included \"the doctrine of the infinite universe and the innumerable worlds\" and his beliefs \"on the movement of the earth\".Michael White notes that the Inquisition may have pursued Bruno early in his life on the basis of his opposition to Aristotle, interest in Arianism, reading of Erasmus, and possession of banned texts.", "White considers that Bruno's later heresy was \"multifaceted\" and may have rested on his conception of infinite worlds.", "\"This was perhaps the most dangerous notion of all...", "If other worlds existed with intelligent beings living there, did they too have their visitations?", "The idea was quite unthinkable.", "\"Frances Yates rejects what she describes as the \"legend that Bruno was prosecuted as a philosophical thinker, was burned for his daring views on innumerable worlds or on the movement of the earth.\"", "Yates however writes that \"the Church was... perfectly within its rights if it included philosophical points in its condemnation of Bruno's heresies\" because \"the philosophical points were quite inseparable from the heresies.", "\"According to the ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', \"in 1600 there was no official Catholic position on the Copernican system, and it was certainly not a heresy.", "When ... Bruno ... was burned at the stake as a heretic, it had nothing to do with his writings in support of Copernican cosmology.", "\"The website of the Vatican Apostolic Archive, discussing a summary of legal proceedings against Bruno in Rome, states: \"In the same rooms where Giordano Bruno was questioned, for the same important reasons of the relationship between science and faith, at the dawning of the new astronomy and at the decline of Aristotle's philosophy, sixteen years later, Cardinal Bellarmino, who then contested Bruno's heretical theses, summoned Galileo Galilei, who also faced a famous inquisitorial trial, which, luckily for him, ended with a simple abjuration.\"" ], [ "In art and literature", "===Artistic depictions===Following the 1870 Capture of Rome by the newly created Kingdom of Italy and the end of the Church's temporal power over the city, the erection of a monument to Bruno on the site of his execution became feasible.", "The monument was sharply opposed by the clerical party, but was finally erected by the Rome Municipality and inaugurated in 1889.A statue of a stretched human figure standing on its head, designed by Alexander Polzin and depicting Bruno's death at the stake, was placed in Potsdamer Platz station in Berlin on 2 March 2008.Retrospective iconography of Bruno shows him with a Dominican cowl but not tonsured.", "Edward Gosselin has suggested that it is likely Bruno kept his tonsure at least until 1579, and it is possible that he wore it again thereafter.An idealized animated version of Bruno appears in the first episode of the 2014 television series ''Cosmos: A Spacetime Odyssey''.", "In this depiction, Bruno is shown with a more modern look, without tonsure and wearing clerical robes and without his hood.", "''Cosmos'' presents Bruno as an impoverished philosopher who was ultimately executed due to his refusal to recant his belief in other worlds, a portrayal that was criticized by some as simplistic or historically inaccurate.", "Corey S. Powell, of ''Discover'' magazine, says of Bruno, \"A major reason he moved around so much is that he was argumentative, sarcastic, and drawn to controversy...He was a brilliant, complicated, difficult man.===References in poetry===Poems that refer to Bruno include:* \"The Monument of Giordano Bruno\" (1889) by Algernon Charles Swinburne, written when the statue of Bruno was constructed in Rome.", "* \"Campo Dei Fiori\" (1943) by Czesław Miłosz, which draws parallels between indifference to the fate of Bruno and indifference to the victims of the then-ongoing Occupation of Poland.", "* \"The Emancipators\" (1958) by Randall Jarrell, which addresses Bruno, along with Galileo and Newton, as an originator of the modern scientific-industrial world.", "* \"To Giordano Bruno\" (1990) by Louis L'Amour, published in ''Smoke From This Altar''.", "* \"What He Thought\" (1994) by Heather McHugh, a (possibly autobiographical) poem about a group of American poets who visit Italy and are lectured about Bruno and the nature of poetry by a local arts administrator.", "The poem was published in the collection ''Hinge & Sign'', a nominee for the National Book Award.===Appearances in fiction===Bruno and his theory of \"the coincidence of contraries\" (''coincidentia oppositorum'') play an important role in James Joyce's 1939 novel ''Finnegans Wake''.", "Joyce wrote in a letter to his patroness, Harriet Shaw Weaver, \"His philosophy is a kind of dualism – every power in nature must evolve an opposite in order to realise itself and opposition brings reunion\".", "Amongst his numerous allusions to Bruno in his novel, including his trial and torture, Joyce plays upon Bruno's notion of ''coincidentia oppositorum'' through applying his name to word puns such as \"Browne and Nolan\" (the name of Dublin printers) and '\"brownesberrow in nolandsland\".In 1934 Marjorie Bowen published ''The Triumphant Beast'', a novel about Bruno's life.", "An electronic edition of the work appears at Project Gutenberg AustraliaIn 1963 Soviet writer Alexander Volkov published ''The Wandering'', a novel about the childhood and youth of Bruno.In 1973 the biographical drama ''Giordano Bruno'' was released, an Italian/French movie directed by Giuliano Montaldo, starring Gian Maria Volonté as Bruno.Bruno is a central character, and his philosophy a central theme, in John Crowley’s ''Aegypt'' (1987), renamed ''The Solitudes'', and the ensuing series of novels: ''Love & Sleep'' (1994), ''Daemonomania'' (2000), and ''Endless Things'' (2007).", "''The Last Confession'' by Morris West is an unfinished, posthumously published fictional autobiography of Bruno, ostensibly written shortly before Bruno's execution.Bruno features as the hero of the ''Giordano Bruno'' series of historical crime novels by S.J.", "Parris (a pseudonym of Stephanie Merritt).", "The series consists of the novels ''Heresy'' (2010), ''Prophecy'' (2011), ''Sacrilege'' (2012), ''Treachery'' (2014), ''Conspiracy'' (2016) and ''Execution'' (2020), along with three prequel novellas.===Appearances in music===Hans Werner Henze set his large scale cantata for orchestra, choir and four soloists, ''Novae de infinito laudes'' to Italian texts by Bruno, recorded in 1972 at the Salzburg Festival reissued on CD Orfeo C609 031B.The album ''Numen Lumen'' (2011) by neofolk group Hautville tracks Bruno's lyrics and is dedicated to the philosopher.The Italian composer Francesco Filidei wrote an opera, based on a libretto by Stefano Busellato, titled ''Giordano Bruno''.", "The premiere took place on 12 September 2015 at the Casa da Música in Porto, Portugal.The 2016 song \"Roman Sky\" by heavy metal band Avenged Sevenfold focuses on the death of Bruno.Bruno is the central character in Roger Doyle’s ''Heresy - an electronic opera'' (2017)." ], [ "Legacy", "===Giordano Bruno Foundation===The Giordano Bruno Foundation (German: Giordano-Bruno-Stiftung) is a non-profit foundation based in Germany that pursues the \"Support of Evolutionary Humanism\".", "It was founded by entrepreneur Herbert Steffen in 2004.The Giordano Bruno Foundation is critical of religious fundamentalism and nationalism.===Giordano Bruno Memorial Award===The SETI League makes an annual award honoring the memory of Giordano Bruno to a deserving person or persons who have made a significant contribution to the practice of SETI (the search for extraterrestrial intelligence).", "The award was proposed by sociologist Donald Tarter in 1995 on the 395th anniversary of Bruno's death.", "The trophy presented is called a Bruno.===Astronomical objects named after Bruno===The 22 km impact crater Giordano Bruno on the far side of the Moon is named in his honor, as are the main belt Asteroids 5148 Giordano and 13223 Cenaceneri; the latter is named after his philosophical dialogue ''La Cena de le Ceneri'' (\"The Ash Wednesday Supper\") (see above).===Other remembrances===Radio broadcasting station 2GB in Sydney, Australia is named for Bruno.", "The two letters \"GB\" in the call sign were chosen to honor Bruno, who was much admired by Theosophists who were the original holders of the station's licence." ], [ "Works", "* ''De umbris idearum'' (''On the Shadows of Ideas'', Paris, 1582)* ''Cantus circaeus'' (''The Incantation of Circe'' or ''Circe's Song'', Paris, 1582)* '''' (''The Art of Memory'', Paris, 1582)* ''De compendiosa architectura et complento artis Lulli'' (''A Compendium of Architecture and Lulli's Art'', 1582)* ''Candelaio'' (''The Torchbearer'' or ''The Candle Bearer'', 1582; play)* ''Ars reminiscendi'' (''The Art of Memory'', 1583)* ''Explicatio triginta sigillorum'' (''Explanation of Thirty Seals'', 1583)* ''Sigillus sigillorum'' (''The Seal of Seals'', 1583)* ''La cena de le ceneri'' (''The Ash Wednesday Supper'', 1584)* ''De la causa, principio, et uno'' (''Concerning Cause, Principle, and Unity'', 1584)* '''' (''De l'infinito universo et mondi'', 1584)* ''Spaccio de la bestia trionfante'' (''The Expulsion of the Triumphant Beast'', London, 1584)* ''Cabala del cavallo Pegaseo'' (''Cabal of the Horse Pegasus'', 1585)* ''De gli eroici furori'' (''The Heroic Frenzies'', 1585)* ''Figuratio Aristotelici Physici auditus'' (''Figures From Aristotle's Physics'', 1585)* ''Dialogi duo de Fabricii Mordentis Salernitani'' (''Two Dialogues of Fabricii Mordentis Salernitani'', 1586)* ''Idiota triumphans'' (''The Triumphant Idiot'', 1586)* ''De somni interpretatione'' (''Dream Interpretation'', 1586)* ''Animadversiones circa lampadem lullianam'' (''Amendments regarding Lull's Lantern'', 1586)* ''Lampas triginta statuarum'' (''The Lantern of Thirty Statues'', 1586)* ''Centum et viginti articuli de natura et mundo adversus peripateticos'' (''One Hundred and Twenty Articles on Nature and the World Against the Peripatetics'', 1586)* ''De Lampade combinatoria Lulliana'' (''The Lamp of Combinations according to Lull'', 1587)* ''De progressu et lampade venatoria logicorum'' (''Progress and the Hunter's Lamp of Logical Methods'', 1587)* ''Oratio valedictoria'' (''Valedictory Oration'', 1588)* ''Camoeracensis Acrotismus'' (''The Pleasure of Dispute'', 1588)* ''De specierum scrutinio'' (1588)* ''Articuli centum et sexaginta adversus huius tempestatis mathematicos atque Philosophos'' (''One Hundred and Sixty Theses Against Mathematicians and Philosophers'', 1588)* ''Oratio consolatoria'' (''Consolation Oration'', 1589)* ''De vinculis in genere'' (''Of Bonds in General'', 1591)* ''De triplici minimo et mensura'' (''On the Threefold Minimum and Measure'', 1591)* ''De monade numero et figura'' (''On the Monad, Number, and Figure'', Frankfurt, 1591)* ''De innumerabilibus, immenso, et infigurabili'' (''Of Innumerable Things, Vastness and the Unrepresentable'', 1591)* ''De imaginum, signorum et idearum compositione'' (''On the Composition of Images, Signs and Ideas'', 1591)* ''Summa terminorum metaphysicorum'' (''Handbook of Metaphysical Terms'', 1595)* ''Artificium perorandi'' (''The Art of Communicating'', 1612)" ], [ "Collections", "* ''Jordani Bruni Nolani opera latine conscripta'' (''Giordano Bruno the Nolan's Works Written in Latin''), Dritter Band (1962) / curantibus F. Tocco et H. Vitelli" ], [ "See also", "* Fermi paradox* List of Roman Catholic scientist-clerics" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Michel, Paul Henri (1962).", "''The Cosmology of Giordano Bruno''.", "Translated by R.E.W.", "Maddison.", "Paris: Hermann; London: Methuen; Ithaca, New York: Cornell.", "* ''The Cabala of Pegasus by Giordano Bruno'', * ''Giordano Bruno'', Paul Oskar Kristeller, Collier's Encyclopedia, Vol 4, 1987 ed., p. 634* ''Il processo di Giordano Bruno'', Luigi Firpo, 1993* Giordano Bruno,''Il primo libro della Clavis Magna, ovvero, Il trattato sull'intelligenza artificiale'', a cura di Claudio D'Antonio, Di Renzo Editore.", "* Giordano Bruno,''Il secondo libro della Clavis Magna, ovvero, Il Sigillo dei Sigilli'', a cura di Claudio D'Antonio, Di Renzo Editore.", "* Giordano Bruno, ''Il terzo libro della Clavis Magna, ovvero, La logica per immagini'', a cura di Claudio D'Antonio, Di Renzo Editore* Giordano Bruno, ''Il quarto libro della Clavis Magna, ovvero, L'arte di inventare con Trenta Statue'', a cura di Claudio D'Antonio, Di Renzo Editore* Giordano Bruno ''L'incantesimo di Circe'', a cura di Claudio D'Antonio, Di Renzo Editore* Guido del Giudice, ''WWW Giordano Bruno'', Marotta & Cafiero Editori, 2001 * Giordano Bruno, ''De Umbris Idearum'', a cura di Claudio D'Antonio, Di Renzo Editore* Guido del Giudice, ''La coincidenza degli opposti'', Di Renzo Editore, , 2005 (seconda edizione accresciuta con il saggio ''Bruno, Rabelais e Apollonio di Tiana'', Di Renzo Editore, Roma 2006 )* Giordano Bruno, ''Due Orazioni: Oratio Valedictoria – Oratio Consolatoria'', a cura di Guido del Giudice, Di Renzo Editore, 2007 * Giordano Bruno, ''La disputa di Cambrai.", "Camoeracensis Acrotismus'', a cura di Guido del Giudice, Di Renzo Editore, 2008 * ''Somma dei termini metafisici'', a cura di Guido del Giudice, Di Renzo Editore, Roma, 2010* Massimo Colella, ''«Luce esterna (Mitra) e interna (G. Bruno)».", "Il viaggio bruniano di Aby Warburg'', in «Intersezioni.", "Rivista di storia delle idee», XL, 1, 2020, pp.", "33–56." ], [ "External links", "* * Paul Richard Blum (2021).", "Giordano Bruno.", "''Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy''.", "* How 'Cosmos' Bungles the History of Religion and Science* Bruno's works: text, concordances and frequency list* Writings of Giordano Bruno* ''Giordano Bruno'' ''Library of the World's Best Literature Ancient and Modern'' Charles Dudley Warner Editor* Bruno's Latin and Italian works online: Biblioteca Ideale di Giordano Bruno* * Complete works of Bruno as well as main biographies and studies available for free download in PDF format from the Warburg Institute and the Centro Internazionale di Studi Bruniani Giovanni Aquilecchia* Online Galleries, History of Science Collections, University of Oklahoma Libraries High resolution images of works by and/or portraits of Giordano Bruno in .jpg and .tiff format.", "* * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Geddy Lee" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Geddy Lee Weinrib''' (born '''Gary Lee Weinrib''', July 29, 1953) is a Canadian musician, best known as the lead vocalist, bassist, and keyboardist for the rock group Rush.", "Lee joined the band in September 1968 at the request of his childhood friend Alex Lifeson, replacing original bassist and frontman Jeff Jones.", "Lee's solo effort, ''My Favourite Headache'', was released in 2000.Lee's style, technique, and skill on the bass have inspired many rock musicians such as Cliff Burton of Metallica, Steve Harris of Iron Maiden, John Myung of Dream Theater, Les Claypool of Primus, Steve Di Giorgio of Sadus, Death and Testament, and Tim Commerford of Rage Against the Machine and Audioslave.", "Along with his Rush bandmates – guitarist Alex Lifeson and drummer Neil Peart – Lee was made an Officer of the Order of Canada on May 9, 1996.The trio was the first rock band to be so honoured as a group.", "In 2013, the group was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame after 14 years of eligibility.", "In 2006, Lee was ranked 13th by ''Hit Parader'' on their list of the 100 Greatest Heavy Metal Vocalists of All Time." ], [ "Early life", "Lee was born Gary Lee Weinrib on July 29, 1953, in the North York neighbourhood of Willowdale, Toronto, to Morris Weinrib (born Moshe Meir Weinrib; 1920–1965), from Ostrowiec Świętokrzyski, and Mary \"Manya\" Rubinstein (born Malka Rubinstein; 1925–2021), who was born in Warsaw and later grew up in Wierzbnik.", "His parents were Jewish Holocaust survivors from Poland who had survived the ghetto in Starachowice (where they met), followed by their imprisonments at Auschwitz and later Dachau and Bergen-Belsen concentration camps during the Holocaust and World War II.", "They were in their teens when they were initially imprisoned at Auschwitz.", "\"It was kind of surreal pre-teen shit\", says Lee, describing how his father bribed guards to bring his mother shoes.", "After a period, his mother was transferred to Bergen-Belsen and his father to Dachau.", "When the war ended four years later, and the Allies liberated the camps, Morris set out in search of Manya and found her at a Bergen-Belsen displaced persons camp.", "They married there and eventually emigrated to Canada.When Lee started school, his name was incorrectly registered.", "As a result, Lee grew up thinking his middle name was \"Lorne\".", "As a teenager, he saw a copy of his birth certificate and discovered that his middle name was \"Lee\".Lee's father died young, which forced Lee's mother to work to support their three children by running the Newmarket, Ontario, variety store that her husband had owned and managed.", "Lee has suggested that his father's death was probably a factor in his becoming a musician: \"It was a terrible blow that I lost him, but the course of my life changed because my mother couldn't control us.\"", "He has said that losing his father at such an early age made him aware of how \"quickly life can disappear\", which inspired him from then on to get the most out of his life and music.Lee turned his basement into practice space for a band he formed with high-school friends.", "After the band began earning income from small performances at high-school shows or other events, he decided to drop out of high school and play rock and roll professionally.", "His mother was devastated when he told gave her the news.", "\"All the shit I put her through\", he says, \"on top of the fact that she just lost her husband.", "I felt like I had to make sure that it was worth it.", "I wanted to show her that I was a professional, that I was working hard, and wasn't just a fuckin' lunatic.", "\"''Jweekly'' featured Lee's reflections on his mother's experiences as a refugee and on his own Jewish heritage.", "Lee's name, ''Geddy'', was derived from his mother's heavy Polish accented pronunciation of his given first name, ''Gary''.", "This was picked up by his friends in school, leading Lee to adopt it as his stage name and later his legal name, Geddy Lee Weinrib.", "After Rush had become a widely recognized rock group, Lee told the group's drummer and lyricist, Neil Peart, about his mother's early life.", "Peart then wrote the lyrics to \"Red Sector A\", which was inspired by her ordeal.", "The song, for which Lee wrote the music, was released on the band's 1984 album ''Grace Under Pressure''.", "The lyrics include the following verse:" ], [ "Music career", "===Early years===Lee performing in 2004Lee began playing music in school when he was 10 or 11 and got his first acoustic guitar at 14.In school, he first played drums, trumpet and clarinet.", "However, learning to play instruments in school was not satisfying to Lee, and he took basic piano lessons independently.", "His interest increased dramatically after listening to some of the popular rock groups at the time.", "His early influences included Jack Bruce of Cream, John Entwistle of The Who, Jeff Beck, and Procol Harum.", "\"I was mainly interested in early British progressive rock\", said Lee.", "\"That's how I learned to play bass, emulating Jack Bruce and people like that.\"", "Bruce's style of music was also noticed by Lee, who liked that \"his sound was distinctive – it wasn't boring.\"", "Lee has also been influenced by Paul McCartney, Chris Squire, and James Jamerson.In 1969, Rush began playing professionally in coffeehouses, high school dances and at various outdoor recreational events.", "By 1971, they were now playing primarily original songs in small clubs and bars, including Toronto's Gasworks and Abbey Road Pub.", "Lee describes the group during these early years as being \"weekend warriors\".", "They were holding down jobs during the weekdays and playing music on weekends: \"We longed to break out of the boring surrounding of the suburbs and the endless similarities .", ".", ".", "the shopping plazas and all that stuff.", ".", ".", "the music was a vehicle for us to speak out.\"", "He claims that in the beginning, they were simply \"a straightforward rock band.", "\"Short of money, they began opening concerts at venues such as Toronto's Victory Burlesque Theatre for the glam rock band New York Dolls.", "By 1972, Rush began performing full-length concerts, mainly consisting of original songs, in cities including Toronto and Detroit.", "As they gained more recognition, they began performing as an opening act for groups such as Aerosmith, Kiss, and Blue Öyster Cult.===Style===Lee live in concert at the Xcel Energy Center on May 22, 2008Like Cream, Rush followed the model of a \"power trio\", with Lee playing bass and singing.", "Lee's vocals produced a distinctive, \"countertenor\" falsetto and resonant sound.", "Lee possessed a three-octave vocal range spanning from baritone through tenor, alto, and mezzo-soprano pitch ranges; however, his range significantly decreased with age.", "Lee's playing style is widely regarded for his use of high treble and very hard playing of the strings and for utilizing the bass as a lead instrument, often contrapuntal to Lifeson's guitar.", "In the 1970s and early 1980s, Lee mostly used a Rickenbacker 4001 bass, with a very noticeable grit in his tone.", "According to Lee, during the band's \"synth era\" in the mid-1980s, Lee used Steinberger and later Wal basses, with the latter having more of a \"jazzy\" tone.", "From 1993's ''Counterparts'' onward, Lee began using the Fender Jazz Bass almost exclusively, returning to his trademark high treble sound.", "Lee had first used the Jazz Bass to record '' Moving Pictures'' on songs such as \"Tom Sawyer.", "\"===Rising popularity===After several early albums and increasing popularity, Rush's status as a rock group soared over the following five years as they consistently toured worldwide and produced successful albums, including ''2112'' (1976), ''A Farewell to Kings'' (1977), ''Hemispheres'' (1978), ''Permanent Waves'' (1980), and ''Moving Pictures'' (1981).", "Lee began adding synthesizers in 1977, with the release of ''A Farewell to Kings''.", "Keyboard critic Greg Armbruster says the additional sounds from synthesizers expanded the group's \"textural capabilities\" and allowed the trio to produce an orchestrated and more complex progressive rock music style.", "It also gave Lee the ability to play bass simultaneously, as he could control the synthesizer with foot pedals.", "In 1981, he won ''Keyboard'' magazine's poll as \"Best New Talent.\"", "By the 1984 album ''Grace Under Pressure'', Lee was surrounding himself with stacks of keyboards on stage.By the 1980s, Rush had become one of the \"biggest rock bands on the planet\", selling out arena seats when touring.", "Lee was known for his dynamic stage movements.", "According to music critic Tom Mulhern, writing in 1980, \"it's dazzling to see so much sheer energy expended without a nervous breakdown.\"", "By 1996, their Test for Echo Tour began performing without an opening act, their shows lasting nearly three hours.Music industry writer Christopher Buttner, who interviewed Lee in 1996, described him as a prodigy and \"role model\" for what every musician wants to be, noting his proficiency on stage.", "Buttner cited Lee's ability to vary time signatures, play multiple keyboards, use bass pedal controllers and control sequencers, all while singing lead vocals into as many as three microphones.", "Buttner adds that few musicians of any instrument \"can juggle half of what Geddy can do without literally falling on their ass.\"", "As a result, notes Mulhern, Lee's instrumentation was the \"pulse\" of the group and created a \"one-man rhythm section\", which complemented guitarist Alex Lifeson and percussionist Neil Peart.", "Bass instructor Allan Slutsky, or \"Dr Licks\", credits Lee's \"biting, high-end bass lines and creative synthesizer work\" for helping the group become \"one of the most innovative\" of all the groups that play arena rock.", "By 1989, ''Guitar Player'' magazine had designated Lee the \"Best Rock Bass\" player from their reader's poll for the previous five years.Greg Prato of AllMusic wrote that \"few hard rock bassists have been as influential as Rush's Geddy Lee.\"", "Bass players who have cited Lee as an influence include Cliff Burton of Metallica, Steve Harris of Iron Maiden, John Myung of Dream Theater, Les Claypool of Primus, and Steve Di Giorgio of Sadus, Death and Testament." ], [ "''My Favourite Headache''", "''My Favourite Headache'', Lee's first and to-date only solo album, was released on November 14, 2000, while Rush was on a hiatus following the deaths of Neil Peart's daughter and wife.", "Musicians associated with the project included friend and Rush collaborator Ben Mink, Soundgarden and Pearl Jam drummer Matt Cameron, and others." ], [ "Side projects", "The bulk of Lee's work in music has been with Rush (see Rush discography).", "However, Lee has also contributed to a body of work outside of his involvement with the band through guest appearances and album production.", "In 1980, Lee was brought in to produce Toronto-based band Wireless who had previously opened up for Rush and were on the verge of breaking up.", "With Lee at the helm, the group recorded their third and final album, ''No Static'', released on Rush's label, Anthem Records.In 1981, Lee was the featured guest for the hit song \"Take Off\" and its included comedic commentary with Bob and Doug McKenzie (played by Rick Moranis and Dave Thomas, respectively) for the McKenzie Brothers' comedy album ''Great White North'', which was released on Rush's Anthem label.", "While Rush has had great success selling albums, \"Take Off\" is the highest-charting single on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100 of Lee's career.In 1982, Lee produced the first (and only) album from Toronto's new wave band Boys Brigade.", "On the 1985 album ''We Are the World'', by humanitarian consortium USA for Africa, Lee recorded guest vocals for the song \"Tears Are Not Enough\".", "Lee sang \"O Canada\", the Canadian national anthem, at Baltimore's Camden Yards for the 1993 Major League Baseball All-Star Game.Another version of \"O Canada\", with a rock arrangement, was recorded by Lee and Lifeson for the 1999 film soundtrack ''South Park: Bigger, Longer, and Uncut''.Lee also plays bass on Canadian rock band I Mother Earth's track \"Good for Sule\", which is featured on the group's 1999 album ''Blue Green Orange''.Lee was an interview subject in the documentary films ''Metal: A Headbangers Journey'' and ''Rush: Beyond the Lighted Stage'', and has appeared in multiple episodes of the VH1 Classic series ''Metal Evolution''.Along with his bandmates, Lee was a guest musician on the Max Webster song \"Battle Scar\", from the 1980 album ''Universal Juveniles''.Lee appeared in Broken Social Scene's music video for their 2006 single \"Fire Eye'd Boy\", judging the band while performing various musical tasks.", "In 2006, Lee joined Lifeson's supergroup, the Big Dirty Band, to provide songs accompanying ''Trailer Park Boys: The Movie''.In 2013, Lee made a brief cameo appearance as himself in the ''How I Met Your Mother'' season eight episode \"P.S.", "I Love You\".In 2015, Lee and bandmate Alex Lifeson appeared in the series ''Chicago Fire'', season 4, episode 6, called \"2112\".In 2017, Lee performed in place of late bassist Chris Squire with Yes during the band's Rock and Roll Hall of Fame induction, playing bass for the song \"Roundabout.", "\"In 2018, Lee published ''Geddy Lee's Big Beautiful Book of Bass'', which highlights his collection of over 250 basses along with interviews with some of the leading bass players and bass technicians.In 2020, Lee provided guest vocals to an all-star Canadian rendition of the late Bill Withers song \"Lean on Me\" during the TV special ''Stronger Together, Tous Ensemble'', a Canadian benefit performance simulcast by every major television network in Canada as a benefit for Food Banks Canada during the COVID-19 pandemic.", "In 2020, Rolling Stone ranked him as the 24th-greatest bassist of all time.In September 2021, Barenaked Ladies frontman Ed Robertson revealed that Barenaked Ladies were working on a \"secret project\" with Lee.In 2022, he appeared as a guest star playing Thomas Sawyer on the acclaimed long-running CBC period drama Murdoch Mysteries.In August 2022, Lee appeared at the South Park 25th Anniversary Concert with Alex Lifeson and performed Rush's \"Closer to the Heart\" with the members of the band Primus and South Park co-creator Matt Stone.In November 2023, Lee published an autobiography titled ''My Effin' Life''.", "The book was promoted with a 19-date tour of the UK and North America.On December 5, 2023, Paramount+ released a video series, \"Geddy Lee Asks: Are Bass Players Human Too?\"", "Four episodes were aired on Les Claypool, Robert Trujillo, Melissa Auf Der Maur, and Krist Novoselic.", "Each episode features Lee visiting with and talking to the guest bassist." ], [ "Collections", "Lee is a collector, and has collected baseball ephemera, vintage bass guitars, and wines, with a collection of 5,000 bottles.", "As a child he claims to have collected stamps, and vinyl records.", "He went on to collect first edition books.", "He then also began collecting 6-string guitars.", "Lee is also an avid watch collector.===Baseball===Geddy Lee certificate of authenticity for a guitarLee is also a longtime baseball fan.", "His favourite team while growing up was the Detroit Tigers, and he later became a fan of the Toronto Blue Jays after they were established.", "In the 1980s, Lee began reading the works of Bill James, particularly ''The Bill James Baseball Abstracts'', which led to an interest in sabermetrics and participation in a fantasy baseball keeper league.", "He collects baseball memorabilia, once donating part of his collection to the Negro Leagues Baseball Museum, and threw the ceremonial first pitch to inaugurate the 2013 Toronto Blue Jays season.", "Lee sang the Canadian national anthem before the 1993 MLB All-Star Game.", "In 2016, Lee planned to produce an independent film about baseball in Italy.", "Lee is regularly seen in his seat behind home plate at the Toronto Blue Jays stadium Rogers Centre with his scorecard.", "He is such a steadfast fan, that when the team was forced to move to Buffalo during the 2020 season, a cardboard cutout of Lee was placed in a seat behind home plate.===Guitars and basses===Lee also collects guitars and basses.", "He has a collection of over 250 vintage basses.", "He owns a 1961 Fender Precision Bass previously owned by John Entwistle of The Who.", "He also owns two 1964 Fender Jazz Basses in the rare Dakota Red color.In 2019, Lee sent several of his guitars to Mecum Auctions, including a 1959 Les Paul Standard, a 1960 Gibson ES-345, a 1955 Fender Stratocaster, a 1960 Gibson ES-335, a 1965 Gibson ES-335 and a 1967 Gibson Flying V." ], [ "Equipment used", "===Basses===Lee on tour with various basses and an acoustic guitarIn 1998, Fender released the Geddy Lee Jazz Bass, available in Black and 3-Color Sunburst (as of 2009).", "This signature model is a recreation of Lee's favourite bass, a 1972 Fender Jazz that he bought in a pawn shop in Kalamazoo, Michigan in 1978.In 2015, Fender released a revised USA model of his signature bass, with most of the changes reflecting those Lee had made to his own instrument over the years.Lee has been a longtime user of RotoSound strings.", "He uses Swing Bass RS66LD (.45-.105) on a majority of his basses, but used Funkmaster FM66 (.30-.90) on his Wal basses from 1985 to 1992.===Bass amplification===For Rush's 2010 tour, Lee used two Orange AD200 bass heads together with two OBC410 4x10 bass cabinets.===Keyboards and synthesizers===Lee with his Roland Fantom X7 during the 2010–2011 Time Machine TourOver the years, Lee has used synthesizers from Oberheim (8-voice, OB-1, OB-X, OB-Xa), PPG (Wave 2.2 and 2.3), Roland (Jupiter 8, D-50, XV-5080, and Fantom X7), Moog (Minimoog, Taurus pedals, Little Phatty), and Yamaha (DX7, KX76).", "===Live performances: special equipment=======Recreating unique sounds====Newer advances in synthesizer and sampler technology have allowed Lee to store familiar sounds from his old synthesizers alongside new ones in combination synthesizer/samplers, such as the Roland XV-5080.For live shows in 2002 and 2004, Lee and his keyboard technician used the playback capabilities of the XV-5080 to generate virtually all of Rush's keyboard sounds to date and additional complex sound passages that previously required several machines at once to produce.When playing live, Lee and his bandmates recreate their songs as accurately as possible with digital samplers.", "Using these samplers, the band members can recreate, in real-time, the sounds of non-traditional instruments, accompaniments, vocal harmonies, and other sound \"events\" that are familiar to those who have heard Rush songs from their albums.To trigger these sounds in real-time, Lee uses MIDI controllers, placed at the locations on the stage where he has a microphone stand.", "Lee uses two types of MIDI controllers: one type resembles a traditional synthesizer keyboard on a stand (Yamaha KX76).", "The second type is a large foot-pedal keyboard placed on the stage floor (Korg MPK-130, Roland PK-5).", "Combined, they enable Lee to use his free hands and feet to trigger sounds in electronic equipment that has been placed off-stage.", "With this technology Lee and his bandmates can present their arrangements in a live setting with the level of complexity and fidelity that fans have come to expect and without the need to resort to the use of backing tracks or employing an additional band member.", "During the ''Clockwork Angels Tour'', a notable exception was when a string ensemble played string parts, originally arranged and conducted by David Campbell on ''Clockwork Angels''.Lee's (and his bandmates') use of MIDI controllers to trigger sampled instruments and audio events is visible throughout the ''R30: 30th Anniversary World Tour'' concert DVD (2005).Lee used a Roland Fantom X7 and a Moog Little Phatty synthesizer from the ''Snakes and Arrows'' tour onwards.====Unique stage equipment====Rush live in concert with rotisseries and chef in backgroundIn 1996, Lee stopped using traditional bass amplifiers on stage, opting to have the bass guitar signals input directly to the touring front-of-house console to improve control and sound definition.", "He began using Tech 21 SansAmp units after experimenting with one in the studio intended for Alex Lifeson's guitar and eventually received signature models from the company, most notably the GED-2112 rackmount.", "Faced with the dilemma of what to do with the empty space left behind by the lack of large amplifier cabinets, Lee chose to decorate his side of the stage with unusual items.", "The Snakes & Arrows Tour prominently featured three Henhouse brand rotisserie chicken ovens on stage complete with an attendant in a chef's hat and apron to \"tend\" the chickens during shows." ], [ "Awards", "* Bass Hall of Fame – ''Guitar Player'' magazine* Six-time winner: \"Best Rock Bass\" – ''Guitar Player'' magazine* 1993: \"Best Rock Bass Player\" ''Bass Player'' magazine's readers' poll* 1994: With Rush, inducted into the Juno Hall of Fame* 1996: Officer of the Order of Canada, along with bandmates Alex Lifeson and Neil Peart* 2007: Best Album for Bass (''Snakes & Arrows'') – ''Bass Player'' magazine* \"Coolest Bass Line in a Song\" (for \"Malignant Narcissism\") – ''Bass Player'' magazine* \"Best 2007 Cover Feature\" for \"Northern Warrior\" – ''Bass Player'' magazine* 2010: With Rush, \"Living Legend\" – ''Classic Rock Magazine''* 2010: With Rush, Star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame* 2012: Queen Elizabeth II Diamond Jubilee Medal* 2013: With Rush, Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inductee* 2014: Awarded an honorary doctorate from Nipissing University in North Bay, Ontario (along with Neil Peart, and Alex Lifeson)* 2021: Lifetime Achievement Award for his philanthropic work at the Artists for Peace and Justice (APJ) annual gala in Toronto on September 11." ], [ "Personal life", "Lee married Nancy Young in 1976.They have a son and a daughter.", "He takes annual trips to France, where he indulges in cheese and wine.", "In 2011, a charitable foundation he supports, Grapes for Humanity, created the Geddy Lee Scholarship for winemaking students at Niagara College.", "Lee has described himself as a Jewish atheist, explaining to an interviewer, \"I consider myself a Jew as a race, but not so much as a religion.", "I'm not down with religion at all.", "I'm a Jewish atheist, if that's possible.\"" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* *" ], [ "External links", "* Rush official website* Interview with Geddy Lee on his parents' experience in the Holocaust* Mid-career interview with Mark Crampton * Geddy Lee Interview on The Hour with George Stroumboulopoulos" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Geologic time scale" ], [ "Introduction", "Geologic time scale with proportional representation of eons/eonothems and eras/erathems.", "Cenozoic is abbreviated to Cz.", "The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.", "A upright=1.35upright=1.35The '''geologic time scale''' or '''geological time scale''' ('''GTS''') is a representation of time based on the rock record of Earth.", "It is a system of chronological dating that uses chronostratigraphy (the process of relating strata to time) and geochronology (a scientific branch of geology that aims to determine the age of rocks).", "It is used primarily by Earth scientists (including geologists, paleontologists, geophysicists, geochemists, and paleoclimatologists) to describe the timing and relationships of events in geologic history.", "The time scale has been developed through the study of rock layers and the observation of their relationships and identifying features such as lithologies, paleomagnetic properties, and fossils.", "The definition of standardised international units of geologic time is the responsibility of the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS), a constituent body of the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS), whose primary objective is to precisely define global chronostratigraphic units of the International Chronostratigraphic Chart (ICC) that are used to define divisions of geologic time.", "The chronostratigraphic divisions are in turn used to define geochronologic units.While some regional terms are still in use, the table of geologic time presented in this article conforms to the nomenclature, ages, and colour codes set forth by the ICS." ], [ "Principles", "The geologic time scale is a way of representing deep time based on events that have occurred throughout Earth's history, a time span of about 4.54 ± 0.05 Ga (4.54 billion years).", "It chronologically organises strata, and subsequently time, by observing fundamental changes in stratigraphy that correspond to major geological or paleontological events.", "For example, the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, marks the lower boundary of the Paleogene System/Period and thus the boundary between the Cretaceous and Paleogene systems/periods.", "For divisions prior to the Cryogenian, arbitrary numeric boundary definitions (Global Standard Stratigraphic Ages, GSSAs) are used to divide geologic time.", "Proposals have been made to better reconcile these divisions with the rock record.Historically, regional geologic time scales were used due to the litho- and biostratigraphic differences around the world in time equivalent rocks.", "The ICS has long worked to reconcile conflicting terminology by standardising globally significant and identifiable stratigraphic horizons that can be used to define the lower boundaries of chronostratigraphic units.", "Defining chronostratigraphic units in such a manner allows for the use of global, standardised nomenclature.", "The ICC represents this ongoing effort.The relative relationships of rocks for determining their chronostratigraphic positions use the overriding principles of:* Superposition – Newer rock beds will lie on top of older rock beds unless the succession has been overturned.", "* Horizontality – All rock layers were originally deposited horizontally.", "* Lateral continuity – Originally deposited layers of rock extend laterally in all directions until either thinning out or being cut off by a different rock layer.", "* Biologic succession (where applicable) – This states that each stratum in a succession contains a distinctive set of fossils.", "This allows for a correlation of the stratum even when the horizon between them is not continuous.", "* Cross-cutting relationships – A rock feature that cuts across another feature must be younger than the rock it cuts across.", "* Inclusion – Small fragments of one type of rock but embedded in a second type of rock must have formed first, and were included when the second rock was forming.", "* Relationships of unconformities – Geologic features representing periods of erosion or non-deposition, indicating non-continuous sediment deposition." ], [ "Terminology", "The GTS is divided into chronostratigraphic units and their corresponding geochronologic units.", "These are represented on the ICC published by the ICS; however, regional terms are still in use in some areas.", "is the element of stratigraphy that deals with the relation between rock bodies and the relative measurement of geological time.", "It is the process where distinct strata between defined stratigraphic horizons are assigned to represent a relative interval of geologic time.A '''''' is a body of rock, layered or unlayered, that is defined between specified stratigraphic horizons which represent specified intervals of geologic time.", "They include all rocks representative of a specific interval of geologic time, and only this time span.Eonothem, erathem, system, series, subseries, stage, and substage are the hierarchical chronostratigraphic units.", "is the scientific branch of geology that aims to determine the age of rocks, fossils, and sediments either through absolute (e.g., radiometric dating) or relative means (e.g., stratigraphic position, paleomagnetism, stable isotope ratios).A '''''' is a subdivision of geologic time.", "It is a numeric representation of an intangible property (time).", "Eon, era, period, epoch, subepoch, age, and subage are the hierarchical geochronologic units.", "is the field of geochronology that numerically quantifies geologic time.A (GSSP) is an internationally agreed upon reference point on a stratigraphic section which defines the lower boundaries of stages on the geologic time scale.", "(Recently this has been used to define the base of a system)A (GSSA) is a numeric only, chronologic reference point used to define the base of geochronologic units prior to the Cryogenian.", "These points are arbitrarily defined.", "They are used where GSSPs have not yet been established.", "Research is ongoing to define GSSPs for the base of all units that are currently defined by GSSAs.The numeric (geochronometric) representation of a geochronologic unit can, and is more often subject to change when geochronology refines the geochronometry, while the equivalent chronostratigraphic unit remains the same, and their revision is less common.", "For example, in early 2022 the boundary between the Ediacaran and Cambrian periods (geochronologic units) was revised from 541 Ma to 538.8 Ma but the rock definition of the boundary (GSSP) at the base of the Cambrian, and thus the boundary between the Ediacaran and Cambrian systems (chronostratigraphic units) has not changed, merely the geochronometry has been refined.The numeric values on the ICC are represented by the unit Ma (megaannum) meaning \"million years\", i.e., Ma, the lower boundary of the Jurassic Period, is defined as 201,400,000 years old with an uncertainty of 200,000 years.", "Other SI prefix units commonly used by geologists are Ga (gigaannum, billion years), and ka (kiloannum, thousand years), with the latter often represented in calibrated units (before present).=== Divisions of geologic time ===* An '''''' is the largest geochronologic time unit and is equivalent to a chronostratigraphic eonothem.", "There are four formally defined eons: the Hadean, Archean, Proterozoic and Phanerozoic.", "* An '''''' is the second largest geochronologic time unit and is equivalent to a chronostratigraphic erathem.", "There are ten defined eras: the Eoarchean, Paleoarchean, Mesoarchean, Neoarchean, Paleoproterozoic, Mesoproterozoic, Neoproterozoic, Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic, with none from the Hadean eon.", "* A '''''' is equivalent to a chronostratigraphic system.", "There are 22 defined periods, with the current being the Quaternary period.", "As an exception two subperiods are used for the Carboniferous Period.", "* An '''''' is the second smallest geochronologic unit.", "It is equivalent to a chronostratigraphic series.", "There are 37 defined epochs and one informal one.", "There are also 11 subepochs which are all within the Neogene and Quaternary.", "The use of subepochs as formal units in international chronostratigraphy was ratified in 2022.", "* An '''''' is the smallest hierarchical geochronologic unit and is equivalent to a chronostratigraphic stage.", "There are 96 formal and five informal ages.", "* A '''' is a non-hierarchical formal geochronology unit of unspecified rank and is equivalent to a chronostratigraphic chronozone.", "These correlate with magnetostratigraphic, lithostratigraphic, or biostratigraphic units as they are based on previously defined stratigraphic units or geologic features.The and subdivisions are used as the geochronologic equivalents of the chronostratigraphic and , e.g., Early Triassic Period (geochronologic unit) is used in place of Lower Triassic Series (chronostratigraphic unit).Rocks representing a given chronostratigraphic unit are that chronostratigraphic unit, and the time they were laid down in is the geochronologic unit, i.e., the rocks that represent the Silurian Series the Silurian Series and they were deposited the Silurian Period.+Formal, hierarchical units of the geologic time scale (largest to smallest)Chronostratigraphic unit (strata)Geochronologic unit (time)Time spanEonothemEonSeveral hundred million years to two billion yearsErathemEraTens to hundreds of millions of yearsSystemPeriodMillions of years to tens of millions of yearsSeriesEpochHundreds of thousands of years to tens of millions of yearsSubseriesSubepochThousands of years to millions of yearsStageAgeThousands of years to millions of years" ], [ "Naming of geologic time", "The names of geologic time units are defined for chronostratigraphic units with the corresponding geochronologic unit sharing the same name with a change to the latter (e.g.", "Phanerozoic Eonothem becomes the Phanerozoic Eon).", "Names of erathems in the Phanerozoic were chosen to reflect major changes in the history of life on Earth: Paleozoic (old life), Mesozoic (middle life), and Cenozoic (new life).", "Names of systems are diverse in origin, with some indicating chronologic position (e.g., Paleogene), while others are named for lithology (e.g., Cretaceous), geography (e.g., Permian), or are tribal (e.g., Ordovician) in origin.", "Most currently recognised series and subseries are named for their position within a system/series (early/middle/late); however, the ICS advocates for all new series and subseries to be named for a geographic feature in the vicinity of its stratotype or type locality.", "The name of stages should also be derived from a geographic feature in the locality of its stratotype or type locality.Informally, the time before the Cambrian is often referred to as the Precambrian or pre-Cambrian (Supereon).+Time span and etymology of ICS eonothem/eon namesNameTime spanDuration (million years)Etymology of namePhanerozoicFrom the Greek words φανερός (''phanerós'') meaning 'visible' or 'abundant', and ζωή (''zoē'') meaning 'life'.ProterozoicFrom the Greek words πρότερος (''próteros'') meaning 'former' or 'earlier', and ζωή (''zoē'') meaning 'life'.ArcheanFrom the Greek word αρχή (''archē''), meaning 'beginning, origin'.HadeanFrom Hades, , the god of the underworld (hell, the inferno) in Greek mythology.+Time span and etymology of ICS erathem/era namesNameTime spanDuration (million years)Etymology of nameCenozoicFrom the Greek words καινός (''kainós'') meaning 'new', and ζωή (''zōḗ'') meaning 'life'.MesozoicFrom the Greek words μέσο (''méso'') meaning 'middle', and ζωή (''zōḗ'') meaning 'life'.PaleozoicFrom the Greek words παλιός (''palaiós'') meaning 'old', and ζωή (''zōḗ'') meaning 'life'.NeoproterozoicFrom the Greek words νέος (''néos'') meaning 'new' or 'young', πρότερος (''próteros'') meaning 'former' or 'earlier', and ζωή (''zōḗ'') meaning 'life'.MesoproterozoicFrom the Greek words μέσο (''méso'') meaning 'middle', πρότερος (''próteros'') meaning 'former' or 'earlier', and ζωή (''zōḗ'') meaning 'life'.PaleoproterozoicFrom the Greek words παλιός (''palaiós'') meaning 'old', πρότερος (''próteros'') meaning 'former' or 'earlier', and ζωή (''zōḗ'') meaning 'life'.NeoarcheanFrom the Greek words νέος (''néos'') meaning 'new' or 'young', and ἀρχαῖος (''arkhaîos'') meaning 'ancient'.MesoarcheanFrom the Greek words μέσο (''méso'') meaning 'middle', and ἀρχαῖος (''arkhaîos'') meaning 'ancient'.PaleoarcheanFrom the Greek words παλιός (''palaiós'') meaning 'old', and ἀρχαῖος (''arkhaîos'') meaning 'ancient'.EoarcheanFrom the Greek words Ηώς (''Ēṓs'') meaning 'dawn', and ἀρχαῖος (''arkhaîos'') meaning 'ancient'.+Time span and etymology of ICS system/period namesNameTime spanDuration (million years)Etymology of nameQuaternaryFirst introduced by Jules Desnoyers in 1829 for sediments in France's Seine Basin that appeared to be younger than Tertiary rocks.NeogeneDerived from the Greek words νέος (''néos'') meaning 'new', and γενεά (''geneá'') meaning 'genesis' or 'birth'.PaleogeneDerived from the Greek words παλιός (''palaiós'') meaning 'old', and γενεά (''geneá'') meaning 'genesis' or 'birth'.Cretaceous~~Derived from ''Terrain Crétacé'' used in 1822 by Jean d'Omalius d'Halloy in reference to extensive beds of chalk within the Paris Basin.", "Ultimately derived from the Latin crēta meaning ''chalk''.Jurassic~Named after the Jura Mountains.", "Originally used by Alexander von Humboldt as 'Jura Kalkstein' (Jura limestone) in 1799.Alexandre Brongniart was the first to publish the term Jurassic in 1829.TriassicFrom the ''Trias'' of Friedrich August von Alberti in reference to a trio of formations widespread in southern GermanyPermianNamed after the historical region of Perm, Russian Empire.CarboniferousMeans 'coal-bearing', from the Latin carbō (''coal'') and ferō (''to bear, carry'').DevonianNamed after Devon, England.SilurianNamed after the Celtic tribe, the Silures.OrdovicianNamed after the Celtic tribe, Ordovices.CambrianNamed for Cambria, a latinised form of the Welsh name for Wales, ''Cymru''.Ediacaran~Named for the Ediacara Hills.", "Ediacara is possibly a corruption of the Kuyani words 'Yata Takarra' meaning hard or stony ground.Cryogenian~From the Greek words κρύος (''krýos'') meaning 'cold', and, γένεσις (''génesis'') meaning 'birth'.Tonian~From the Greek word τόνος (''tónos'') meaning 'stretch'.StenianFrom the Greek word στενός (''stenós'') meaning 'narrow'.EctasianFrom the Greek word ἔκτᾰσῐς (''éktasis'') meaning 'extension'.CalymmianFrom the Greek word κάλυμμᾰ (''kálumma'') meaning 'cover'.StatherianFrom the Greek word σταθερός (''statherós'') meaning 'stable'.OrosirianFrom the Greek word ὀροσειρά (''oroseirá'') meaning 'mountain range'.RhyacianFrom the Greek word ῥύαξ (''rhýax'') meaning 'stream of lava'.SiderianFrom the Greek word σίδηρος (''sídēros'') meaning 'iron'.+Time span and etymology of ICS series/epoch namesNameTime spanDuration (million years)Etymology of nameHoloceneFrom the Greek words ὅλος (''hólos'') meaning 'whole', and καινός (''kainós'') meaning 'new' via FrenchPleistoceneCoined in the early 1830s from the Greek words πλεῖστος (''pleîstos'') meaning 'most', and καινός (''kainós'') meaning 'new'PlioceneCoined in the early 1830s from the Greek words πλείων (''pleíōn'') meaning 'more', and καινός (''kainós'') meaning 'new'MioceneCoined in the early 1830s from the Greek words μείων (''meíōn'') meaning 'less', and καινός (''kainós'') meaning 'new'OligoceneCoined in the 1850s from the Greek words ὀλίγος (''olígos'') meaning 'few', and καινός (''kainós'') meaning 'new' via GermanEoceneCoined in the early 1830s from the Greek words ἠώς (''ēōs'') meaning 'dawn', and καινός (''kainós'') meaning 'new', referring to the dawn of modern life during this epochPaleoceneCoined by Wilhelm Philippe Schimper in 1874 as a portmanteau of paleo- + Eocene, but on the surface from the Greek words παλαιός (''palaios'') meaning 'old', and καινός (''kainós'') meaning 'new' via FrenchUpper CretaceousSee CretaceousLower CretaceousUpper JurassicSee JurassicMiddle JurassicLower JurassicUpper TriassicSee TriassicMiddle TriassicLower TriassicLopingianNamed for Loping, China, an anglicization of the Mandarin word 乐平 (''lèpíng'') meaning 'peaceful music'GuadalupianNamed for the Guadalupe Mountains of the American Southwest, ultimately from Arabic وَادِي ٱل (''wādī al'') meaning 'valley of the', and Latin ''lupus'' meaning 'wolf' via SpanishCisuralianFrom Latin ''cis-'' (before) + Russian Урал (''Ural''), referring to the western slopes of the Ural MountainsUpper PennsylvanianNamed for the US state of Pennsylvania, from William Penn + Latin ''silvanus'' (forest) + -ia by analogy to TransylvaniaMiddle PennsylvanianLower PennsylvanianUpper MississippianNamed for the Mississippi River, from the Ojibwe word ᒥᐦᓯᓰᐱ (''misi-ziibi'') meaning 'great river'Middle MississippianLower MississippianUpper DevonianSee DevonianMiddle DevonianLower DevonianPridoliNamed for the Homolka a Přídolí nature reserve near Prague, CzechiaLudlowNamed after Ludlow, EnglandWenlockNamed for the Wenlock Edge in Shropshire, EnglandLlandoveryNamed after Llandovery, WalesUpper OrdovicianSee OrdovicianMiddle OrdovicianLower OrdovicianFurongianFrom the Mandarin word 芙蓉 (''fúróng'') meaning 'lotus', referring to the state symbol of HunanMiaolingianNamed for the mountains of Guizhou, Mandarin for 'sprouting peaks'Cambrian Series 2 (informal)See CambrianTerreneuvianNamed for Terre-Neuve, a French calque of Newfoundland" ], [ "History of the geologic time scale", "=== Early history ===While a modern geological time scale was not formulated until 1911 by Arthur Holmes, the broader concept that rocks and time are related can be traced back to (at least) the philosophers of Ancient Greece.", "Xenophanes of Colophon (c. 570–487 BCE) observed rock beds with fossils of shells located above the sea-level, viewed them as once living organisms, and used this to imply an unstable relationship in which the sea had at times transgressed over the land and at other times had regressed.", "This view was shared by a few of Xenophanes' contemporaries and those that followed, including Aristotle (384–322 BCE) who (with additional observations) reasoned that the positions of land and sea had changed over long periods of time.", "The concept of deep time was also recognised by Chinese naturalist Shen Kuo (1031–1095) and Islamic scientist-philosophers, notably the Brothers of Purity, who wrote on the processes of stratification over the passage of time in their treatises.", "Their work likely inspired that of the 11th-century Persian polymath Avicenna (Ibn Sînâ, 980–1037) who wrote in ''The Book of Healing'' (1027) on the concept of stratification and superposition, pre-dating Nicolas Steno by more than six centuries.", "Avicenna also recognised fossils as \"petrifications of the bodies of plants and animals\", with the 13th-century Dominican bishop Albertus Magnus (c. 1200–1280) extending this into a theory of a petrifying fluid.", "These works appeared to have little influence on scholars in Medieval Europe who looked to the Bible to explain the origins of fossils and sea-level changes, often attributing these to the 'Deluge', including Ristoro d'Arezzo in 1282.It was not until the Italian Renaissance when Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) would reinvigorate the relationships between stratification, relative sea-level change, and time, denouncing attribution of fossils to the 'Deluge':These views of da Vinci remained unpublished, and thus lacked influence at the time; however, questions of fossils and their significance were pursued and, while views against Genesis were not readily accepted and dissent from religious doctrine was in some places unwise, scholars such as Girolamo Fracastoro shared da Vinci's views, and found the attribution of fossils to the 'Deluge' absurd.=== Establishment of primary principles ===Niels Stensen, more commonly known as Nicolas Steno (1638–1686), is credited with establishing four of the guiding principles of stratigraphy.", "In ''De solido intra solidum naturaliter contento dissertationis prodromus'' Steno states:* When any given stratum was being formed, all the matter resting on it was fluid and, therefore, when the lowest stratum was being formed, none of the upper strata existed.", "* ...strata which are either perpendicular to the horizon or inclined to it were at one time parallel to the horizon.", "* When any given stratum was being formed, it was either encompassed at its edges by another solid substance or it covered the whole globe of the earth.", "Hence, it follows that wherever bared edges of strata are seen, either a continuation of the same strata must be looked for or another solid substance must be found that kept the material of the strata from being dispersed.", "* If a body or discontinuity cuts across a stratum, it must have formed after that stratum.Respectively, these are the principles of superposition, original horizontality, lateral continuity, and cross-cutting relationships.", "From this Steno reasoned that strata were laid down in succession and inferred relative time (in Steno's belief, time from Creation).", "While Steno's principles were simple and attracted much attention, applying them proved challenging.", "These basic principles, albeit with improved and more nuanced interpretations, still form the foundational principles of determining the correlation of strata relative to geologic time.Over the course of the 18th-century geologists realised that:* Sequences of strata often become eroded, distorted, tilted, or even inverted after deposition* Strata laid down at the same time in different areas could have entirely different appearances* The strata of any given area represented only part of Earth's long history=== Formulation of a modern geologic time scale ===The apparent, earliest formal division of the geologic record with respect to time was introduced by Thomas Burnet who applied a two-fold terminology to mountains by identifying \"''montes primarii''\" for rock formed at the time of the 'Deluge', and younger \"''monticulos secundarios\"'' formed later from the debris of the \"''primarii\"''.", "This attribution to the 'Deluge', while questioned earlier by the likes of da Vinci, was the foundation of Abraham Gottlob Werner's (1749–1817) Neptunism theory in which all rocks precipitated out of a single flood.", "A competing theory, Plutonism, was developed by Anton Moro (1687–1784) and also used primary and secondary divisions for rock units.", "In this early version of the Plutonism theory, the interior of Earth was seen as hot, and this drove the creation of primary igneous and metamorphic rocks and secondary rocks formed contorted and fossiliferous sediments.", "These primary and secondary divisions were expanded on by Giovanni Targioni Tozzetti (1712–1783) and Giovanni Arduino (1713–1795) to include tertiary and quaternary divisions.", "These divisions were used to describe both the time during which the rocks were laid down, and the collection of rocks themselves (i.e., it was correct to say Tertiary rocks, and Tertiary Period).", "Only the Quaternary division is retained in the modern geologic time scale, while the Tertiary division was in use until the early 21st century.", "The Neptunism and Plutonism theories would compete into the early 19th century with a key driver for resolution of this debate being the work of James Hutton (1726–1797), in particular his ''Theory of the Earth'', first presented before the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1785.Hutton's theory would later become known as uniformitarianism, popularised by John Playfair (1748–1819) and later Charles Lyell (1797–1875) in his ''Principles of Geology''.", "Their theories strongly contested the 6,000 year age of the Earth as suggested determined by James Ussher via Biblical chronology that was accepted at the time by western religion.", "Instead, using geological evidence, they contested Earth to be much older, cementing the concept of deep time.During the early 19th century William Smith, Georges Cuvier, Jean d'Omalius d'Halloy, and Alexandre Brongniart pioneered the systematic division of rocks by stratigraphy and fossil assemblages.", "These geologists began to use the local names given to rock units in a wider sense, correlating strata across national and continental boundaries based on their similarity to each other.", "Many of the names below erathem/era rank in use on the modern ICC/GTS were determined during the early to mid-19th century.=== The advent of geochronometry ===During the 19th century, the debate regarding Earth's age was renewed, with geologists estimating ages based on denudation rates and sedimentary thicknesses or ocean chemistry, and physicists determining ages for the cooling of the Earth or the Sun using basic thermodynamics or orbital physics.", "These estimations varied from 15,000 million years to 0.075 million years depending on method and author, but the estimations of Lord Kelvin and Clarence King were held in high regard at the time due to their pre-eminence in physics and geology.", "All of these early geochronometric determinations would later prove to be incorrect.The discovery of radioactive decay by Henri Becquerel, Marie Curie, and Pierre Curie laid the ground work for radiometric dating, but the knowledge and tools required for accurate determination of radiometric ages would not be in place until the mid-1950s.", "Early attempts at determining ages of uranium minerals and rocks by Ernest Rutherford, Bertram Boltwood, Robert Strutt, and Arthur Holmes, would culminate in what are considered the first international geological time scales by Holmes in 1911 and 1913.The discovery of isotopes in 1913 by Frederick Soddy, and the developments in mass spectrometry pioneered by Francis William Aston, Arthur Jeffrey Dempster, and Alfred O. C. Nier during the early to mid-20th century would finally allow for the accurate determination of radiometric ages, with Holmes publishing several revisions to his ''geological time-scale'' with his final version in 1960.=== Modern international geologic time scale ===The establishment of the IUGS in 1961 and acceptance of the Commission on Stratigraphy (applied in 1965) to become a member commission of IUGS led to the founding of the ICS.", "One of the primary objectives of the ICS is \"the establishment, publication and revision of the ICS International Chronostratigraphic Chart which is the standard, reference global Geological Time Scale to include the ratified Commission decisions\".Following on from Holmes, several ''A Geological Time Scale'' books were published in 1982, 1989, 2004, 2008, 2012, 2016, and 2020.However, since 2013, the ICS has taken responsibility for producing and distributing the ICC citing the commercial nature, independent creation, and lack of oversight by the ICS on the prior published GTS versions (GTS books prior to 2013) although these versions were published in close association with the ICS.", "Subsequent ''Geologic Time Scale'' books (2016 and 2020) are commercial publications with no oversight from the ICS, and do not entirely conform to the chart produced by the ICS.", "The ICS produced GTS charts are versioned (year/month) beginning at v2013/01.At least one new version is published each year incorporating any changes ratified by the ICS since the prior version." ], [ "Major proposed revisions to the ICC", "=== Proposed Anthropocene Series/Epoch ===First suggested in 2000, the ''Anthropocene'' is a proposed epoch/series for the most recent time in Earth's history.", "While still informal, it is a widely used term to denote the present geologic time interval, in which many conditions and processes on Earth are profoundly altered by human impact.", "the Anthropocene has not been ratified by the ICS; however, in May 2019 the Anthropocene Working Group voted in favour of submitting a formal proposal to the ICS for the establishment of the Anthropocene Series/Epoch.", "Nevertheless, the definition of the Anthropocene as a geologic time period rather than a geologic event remains controversial and difficult.=== Proposals for revisions to pre-Cryogenian timeline ======= Shields et al.", "2021 ====An international working group of the ICS on pre-Cryogenian chronostratigraphic subdivision have outlined a template to improve the pre-Cryogenian geologic time scale based on the rock record to bring it in line with the post-Tonian geologic time scale.", "This work assessed the geologic history of the currently defined eons and eras of the pre-Cambrian, and the proposals in the \"Geological Time Scale\" books ''2004,'' ''2012,'' and ''2020.''", "Their recommend revisions of the pre-Cryogenian geologic time scale were (changes from the current scale v2023/09 are italicised):* Three divisions of the Archean instead of four by dropping Eoarchean, and revisions to their geochronometric definition, along with the repositioning of the Siderian into the latest Neoarchean, and a potential Kratian division in the Neoarchean.", "** Archean (4000–''2450'' Ma)*** Paleoarchean (4000–''3500'' Ma)*** Mesoarchean (''3500–3000'' Ma)*** Neoarchean (''3000–2450'' Ma)**** ''Kratian'' (no fixed time given, prior to the Siderian) – from Greek word ''κράτος'' (krátos), meaning strength.", "**** Siderian (?–''2450'' Ma) – moved from Proterozoic to end of Archean, no start time given, base of Paleoproterozoic defines the end of the Siderian* Refinement of geochronometric divisions of the Proterozoic, Paleoproterozoic, repositioning of the Statherian into the Mesoproterozoic, new Skourian period/system in the Paleoproterozoic, new Kleisian or Syndian period/system in the Neoproterozoic.", "** Paleoproterozoic (''2450–1800'' Ma)*** ''Skourian'' (''2450''–2300 Ma) – from the Greek word σκουριά (''skouriá''), meaning 'rust'.", "*** Rhyacian (2300–2050 Ma)*** Orosirian (2050–1800 Ma)** Mesoproterozoic (''1800''–1000 Ma)*** ''Statherian'' (1800–1600 Ma)*** Calymmian (1600–1400 Ma)*** Ectasian (1400-1200 Ma)*** Stenian (1200–1000 Ma)** Neoproterozoic (1000–538.8 Ma)*** ''Kleisian'' or ''Syndian'' (''1000–800'' Ma) – respectively from the Greek words κλείσιμο (''kleísimo'') meaning 'closure', and σύνδεση (''sýndesi'') meaning 'connection'.", "*** Tonian (''800''–720 Ma)*** Cryogenian (720–635 Ma)*** Ediacaran (635–538.8 Ma)Proposed pre-Cambrian timeline (Shield et al.", "2021, ICS working group on pre-Cryogenian chronostratigraphy), shown to scale:ImageSize = width:1300 height:100PlotArea = left:80 right:20 bottom:20 top:5AlignBars = justifyColors = id:proterozoic value:rgb(0.968,0.207,0.388) id:neoproterozoic value:rgb(0.996,0.701,0.258) id:ediacaran value:rgb(0.996,0.85,0.415) id:cryogenian value:rgb(0.996,0.8,0.36) id:tonian value:rgb(0.996,0.75,0.305) id:kleisian value:rgb(0.996,0.773,0.431) id:mesoproterozoic value:rgb(0.996,0.705,0.384) id:stenian value:rgb(0.996,0.85,0.604) id:ectasian value:rgb(0.996,0.8,0.541) id:calymmian value:rgb(0.996,0.75,0.478) id:paleoproterozoic value:rgb(0.968,0.263,0.44) id:skourian value:rgb(0.949,0.439,0.545) id:statherian value:rgb(0.968,0.459,0.655) id:orosirian value:rgb(0.968,0.408,0.596) id:rhyacian value:rgb(0.968,0.357,0.537) id:archean value:rgb(0.996,0.157,0.498) id:neoarchean value:rgb(0.976,0.608,0.757) id:mesoarchean value:rgb(0.968,0.408,0.662) id:paleoarchean value:rgb(0.96,0.266,0.624) id:hadean value:rgb(0.717,0,0.494) id:black value:black id:white value:whitePeriod = from:-4600 till:-538.8TimeAxis = orientation:horizontalScaleMajor = unit:year increment:500 start:-4500ScaleMinor = unit:year increment:100 start:-4500PlotData = align:center textcolor:black fontsize:8 mark:(line,black) width:25 shift:(0,-5) bar:Eonothem/Eon from: -2450 till: -538.8 text:Proterozoic color:proterozoic from: -4000 till: -2450 text:Archean color:archean from: start till: -4000 text:Hadean color:hadean bar:Erathem/Era from: -1000 till: -538.8 text:Neoproterozoic color:neoproterozoic from: -1800 till: -1000 text:Mesoproterozoic color:mesoproterozoic from: -2450 till: -1800 text:Paleoproterozoic color:paleoproterozoic from: -3000 till: -2450 text:Neoarchean color:neoarchean from: -3300 till: -3000 text:Mesoarchean color:mesoarchean from: -4000 till: -3300 text:Paleoarchean color:paleoarchean from: start till: -4000 color:white bar:System/Period fontsize:7 from: -635 till: -538.8 text:Ed.", "color:ediacaran from: -720 till: -635 text:Cr.", "color:cryogenian from: -800 till: -720 text:Tonian color:tonian from: -1000 till: -800 text:?kleisian color:kleisian from: -1200 till: -1000 text:Stenian color:stenian from: -1400 till: -1200 text:Ectasian color:ectasian from: -1600 till: -1400 text:Calymmian color:calymmian from: -1800 till: -1600 text:Statherian color:statherian from: -2050 till: -1800 text:Orosirian color:orosirian from: -2300 till: -2050 text:Rhyacian color:rhyacian from: -2450 till: -2300 text:?Skourian color:skourian from: -2700 till: -2450 text:Siderian color:neoarchean from: -3000 till: -2700 text:?Kratian color:neoarchean from: start till: -3000 color:whiteCurrent ICC pre-Cambrian timeline (v2023/09), shown to scale:ImageSize = width:1300 height:100PlotArea = left:80 right:20 bottom:20 top:5AlignBars = justifyColors = id:proterozoic value:rgb(0.968,0.207,0.388) id:neoproterozoic value:rgb(0.996,0.701,0.258) id:ediacaran value:rgb(0.996,0.85,0.415) id:cryogenian value:rgb(0.996,0.8,0.36) id:tonian value:rgb(0.996,0.75,0.305) id:mesoproterozoic value:rgb(0.996,0.705,0.384) id:stenian value:rgb(0.996,0.85,0.604) id:ectasian value:rgb(0.996,0.8,0.541) id:calymmian value:rgb(0.996,0.75,0.478) id:paleoproterozoic value:rgb(0.968,0.263,0.44) id:statherian value:rgb(0.968,0.459,0.655) id:orosirian value:rgb(0.968,0.408,0.596) id:rhyacian value:rgb(0.968,0.357,0.537) id:siderian value:rgb(0.968,0.306,0.478) id:archean value:rgb(0.996,0.157,0.498) id:neoarchean value:rgb(0.976,0.608,0.757) id:mesoarchean value:rgb(0.968,0.408,0.662) id:paleoarchean value:rgb(0.96,0.266,0.624) id:eoarchean value:rgb(0.902,0.114,0.549) id:hadean value:rgb(0.717,0,0.494) id:black value:black id:white value:whitePeriod = from:-4600 till:-538.8TimeAxis = orientation:horizontalScaleMajor = unit:year increment:500 start:-4500ScaleMinor = unit:year increment:100 start:-4500PlotData = align:center textcolor:black fontsize:8 mark:(line,black) width:25 shift:(0,-5) bar:Eonothem/Eon from: -2500 till: -538.8 text:Proterozoic color:proterozoic from: -4031 till: -2500 text:Archean color:archean from: start till: -4031 text:Hadean color:hadean bar:Erathem/Era from: -1000 till: -538.8 text:Neoproterozoic color:neoproterozoic from: -1600 till: -1000 text:Mesoproterozoic color:mesoproterozoic from: -2500 till: -1600 text:Paleoproterozoic color:paleoproterozoic from: -2800 till: -2500 text:Neoarchean color:neoarchean from: -3200 till: -2800 text:Mesoarchean color:mesoarchean from: -3600 till: -3200 text:Paleoarchean color:paleoarchean from: -4031 till: -3600 text:Eoarchean color:eoarchean from: start till: -4031 color:white bar:Sytem/Period fontsize:7 from: -635 till: -538.8 text:Ed.", "color:ediacaran from: -720 till: -635 text:Cr.", "color:cryogenian from: -1000 till: -720 text:Tonian color:tonian from: -1200 till: -1000 text:Stenian color:stenian from: -1400 till: -1200 text:Ectasian color:ectasian from: -1600 till: -1400 text:Calymmian color:calymmian from: -1800 till: -1600 text:Statherian color:statherian from: -2050 till: -1800 text:Orosirian color:orosirian from: -2300 till: -2050 text:Rhyacian color:rhyacian from: -2500 till: -2300 text:Siderian color:siderian from: start till: -2500 color:white==== Van Kranendonk et al.", "2012 (GTS2012) ====The book, ''Geologic Time Scale 2012,'' was the last commercial publication of an international chronostratigraphic chart that was closely associated with the ICS.", "It included a proposal to substantially revise the pre-Cryogenian time scale to reflect important events such as the formation of the Solar System and the Great Oxidation Event, among others, while at the same time maintaining most of the previous chronostratigraphic nomenclature for the pertinent time span.", "these proposed changes have not been accepted by the ICS.", "The proposed changes (changes from the current scale v2023/09) are italicised:* Hadean Eon (4567''–4030'' Ma)** Chaotian Era/Erathem (4567–4404 Ma) – the name alluding both to the mythological Chaos and the chaotic phase of planet formation.", "** ''Jack Hillsian'' or ''Zirconian'' Era/Erathem (''4404–4030'' Ma) – both names allude to the Jack Hills Greenstone Belt which provided the oldest mineral grains on Earth, zircons.", "* Archean Eon/Eonothem (''4030–2420'' Ma)** Paleoarchean Era/Erathem (''4030–3490'' Ma)*** ''Acastan'' Period/System (''4030–3810'' Ma) – named after the Acasta Gneiss, one of the oldest preserved pieces of continental crust.", "*** ''Isuan'' Period (3''810–3490'' Ma) – named after the Isua Greenstone Belt.", "** Mesoarchean Era/Erathem (''3490–2780'' Ma)*** ''Vaalbaran'' Period/System (''3490–3020'' Ma) – based on the names of the Kapvaal (Southern Africa) and Pilbara (Western Australia) cratons, to reflect the growth of stable continental nuclei or proto-cratonic kernels.", "*** ''Pongolan'' Period/System (''3020–2780'' Ma) – named after the Pongola Supergroup, in reference to the well preserved evidence of terrestrial microbial communities in those rocks.", "** Neoarchean Era/Erathem (''2780–2420'' Ma)*** ''Methanian'' Period/System (''2780–2630'' Ma) – named for the inferred predominance of methanotrophic prokaryotes*** Siderian Period/System (''2630–2420'' Ma) – named for the voluminous banded iron formations formed within its duration.", "* Proterozoic Eon/Eonothem (''2420''–538.8 Ma)** Paleoproterozoic Era/Erathem (''2420–1780'' Ma)*** ''Oxygenian'' Period/System (''2420–2250'' Ma) – named for displaying the first evidence for a global oxidising atmosphere.", "*** ''Jatulian'' or ''Eukaryian'' Period/System (''2250–2060'' Ma) – names are respectively for the Lomagundi–Jatuli δ13C isotopic excursion event spanning its duration, and for the (proposed) first fossil appearance of eukaryotes.", "*** ''Columbian Period/System'' (''2060–1780'' Ma) – named after the supercontinent Columbia.", "** Mesoproterozoic Era/Erathem (''1780–850'' Ma)*** ''Rodinian'' Period/System (''1780–850'' Ma) – named after the supercontinent Rodinia, stable environment.Proposed pre-Cambrian timeline (GTS2012), shown to scale:ImageSize = width:1200 height:100PlotArea = left:80 right:20 bottom:20 top:5AlignBars = justifyColors = id:proterozoic value:rgb(0.968,0.207,0.388) id:neoproterozoic value:rgb(0.996,0.701,0.258) id:ediacaran value:rgb(0.996,0.85,0.415) id:cryogenian value:rgb(0.996,0.8,0.36) id:tonian value:rgb(0.996,0.75,0.305) id:mesoproterozoic value:rgb(0.996,0.705,0.384) id:rodinian value:rgb(0.996,0.75,0.478) id:paleoproterozoic value:rgb(0.968,0.263,0.44) id:columbian value:rgb(0.968,0.459,0.655) id:eukaryian value:rgb(0.968,0.408,0.596) id:oxygenian value:rgb(0.968,0.357,0.537) id:archean value:rgb(0.996,0.157,0.498) id:neoarchean value:rgb(0.976,0.608,0.757) id:siderian value:rgb(0.976,0.7,0.85) id:methanian value:rgb(0.976,0.65,0.8) id:mesoarchean value:rgb(0.968,0.408,0.662) id:pongolan value:rgb(0.968,0.5,0.75) id:vaalbaran value:rgb(0.968,0.45,0.7) id:paleoarchean value:rgb(0.96,0.266,0.624) id:isuan value:rgb(0.96,0.35,0.65) id:acastan value:rgb(0.96,0.3,0.6) id:hadean value:rgb(0.717,0,0.494) id:zirconian value:rgb(0.902,0.114,0.549) id:chaotian value:rgb(0.8,0.05,0.5) id:black value:black id:white value:whitePeriod = from:-4567.3 till:-538.8TimeAxis = orientation:horizontalScaleMajor = unit:year increment:500 start:-4500ScaleMinor = unit:year increment:100 start:-4500PlotData = align:center textcolor:black fontsize:8 mark:(line,black) width:25 shift:(0,-5) bar:Eonothem/Eon from: -2420 till: -541 text:Proterozoic color:proterozoic from: -4030 till: -2420 text:Archean color:archean from: -4567 till: -4030 text:Hadean color:hadean from: start till: -4567 color:white bar:Erathem/Era from: -850 till: -541 text:Neoproterozoic color:neoproterozoic from: -1780 till: -850 text:Mesoproterozoic color:mesoproterozoic from: -2420 till: -1780 text:Paleoproterozoic color:paleoproterozoic from: -2780 till: -2420 text:Neoarchean color:neoarchean from: -3490 till: -2780 text:Mesoarchean color:mesoarchean from: -4030 till: -3490 text:Paleoarchean color:paleoarchean from: -4404 till: -4030 text:Zirconian color:zirconian from: -4567 till: -4404 text:Chaotian color:chaotian from: start till: -4567 color:white bar:System/Period fontsize:7 from: -630 till: -541 text:Ed.", "color:ediacaran from: -850 till: -630 text:Cr.", "color:cryogenian from: -1780 till: -850 text:Rodinian color:rodinian from: -2060 till: -1780 text:Columbian color:columbian from: -2250 till: -2060 text:Eukaryian color:eukaryian from: -2420 till: -2250 text:Oxygenian color:oxygenian from: -2630 till: -2420 text:Siderian color:siderian from: -2780 till: -2630 text:Methanian color:methanian from: -3020 till: -2780 text:Pongolan color:pongolan from: -3490 till: -3020 text:Vaalbaran color:vaalbaran from: -3810 till: -3490 text:Isuan color:isuan from: -4030 till: -3810 text:Acastan color:acastan from: start till: -4030 color:whiteCurrent ICC pre-Cambrian timeline (v2023/09), shown to scale:ImageSize = width:1200 height:100PlotArea = left:80 right:20 bottom:20 top:5AlignBars = justifyColors = id:proterozoic value:rgb(0.968,0.207,0.388) id:neoproterozoic value:rgb(0.996,0.701,0.258) id:ediacaran value:rgb(0.996,0.85,0.415) id:cryogenian value:rgb(0.996,0.8,0.36) id:tonian value:rgb(0.996,0.75,0.305) id:mesoproterozoic value:rgb(0.996,0.705,0.384) id:stenian value:rgb(0.996,0.85,0.604) id:ectasian value:rgb(0.996,0.8,0.541) id:calymmian value:rgb(0.996,0.75,0.478) id:paleoproterozoic value:rgb(0.968,0.263,0.44) id:statherian value:rgb(0.968,0.459,0.655) id:orosirian value:rgb(0.968,0.408,0.596) id:rhyacian value:rgb(0.968,0.357,0.537) id:siderian value:rgb(0.968,0.306,0.478) id:archean value:rgb(0.996,0.157,0.498) id:neoarchean value:rgb(0.976,0.608,0.757) id:mesoarchean value:rgb(0.968,0.408,0.662) id:paleoarchean value:rgb(0.96,0.266,0.624) id:eoarchean value:rgb(0.902,0.114,0.549) id:hadean value:rgb(0.717,0,0.494) id:black value:black id:white value:whitePeriod = from:-4567.3 till:-538.8TimeAxis = orientation:horizontalScaleMajor = unit:year increment:500 start:-4500ScaleMinor = unit:year increment:100 start:-4500PlotData = align:center textcolor:black fontsize:8 mark:(line,black) width:25 shift:(0,-5) bar:Eonothem/Eon from: -2500 till: -538.8 text:Proterozoic color:proterozoic from: -4031 till: -2500 text:Archean color:archean from: start till: -4031 text:Hadean color:hadean bar:Erathem/Era from: -1000 till: -538.8 text:Neoproterozoic color:neoproterozoic from: -1600 till: -1000 text:Mesoproterozoic color:mesoproterozoic from: -2500 till: -1600 text:Paleoproterozoic color:paleoproterozoic from: -2800 till: -2500 text:Neoarchean color:neoarchean from: -3200 till: -2800 text:Mesoarchean color:mesoarchean from: -3600 till: -3200 text:Paleoarchean color:paleoarchean from: -4031 till: -3600 text:Eoarchean color:eoarchean from: start till: -4031 color:white bar:System/Period fontsize:7 from: -635 till: -538.8 text:Ed.", "color:ediacaran from: -720 till: -635 text:Cr.", "color:cryogenian from: -1000 till: -720 text:Tonian color:tonian from: -1200 till: -1000 text:Stenian color:stenian from: -1400 till: -1200 text:Ectasian color:ectasian from: -1600 till: -1400 text:Calymmian color:calymmian from: -1800 till: -1600 text:Statherian color:statherian from: -2050 till: -1800 text:Orosirian color:orosirian from: -2300 till: -2050 text:Rhyacian color:rhyacian from: -2500 till: -2300 text:Siderian color:siderian from: start till: -2500 color:white" ], [ "Table of geologic time", "The following table summarises the major events and characteristics of the divisions making up the geologic time scale of Earth.", "This table is arranged with the most recent geologic periods at the top, and the oldest at the bottom.", "The height of each table entry does not correspond to the duration of each subdivision of time.", "As such, this table is not to scale and does not accurately represent the relative time-spans of each geochronologic unit.", "While the Phanerozoic Eon looks longer than the rest, it merely spans ~539 million years (~12% of Earth's history), whilst the previous three eons collectively span ~3,461 million years (~76% of Earth's history).", "This bias toward the most recent eon is in part due to the relative lack of information about events that occurred during the first three eons compared to the current eon (the Phanerozoic).", "The use of subseries/subepochs has been ratified by the ICS.The content of the table is based on the official ICC produced and maintained by the ICS who also provide an online interactive version of this chart.", "The interactive version is based on a service delivering a machine-readable Resource Description Framework/Web Ontology Language representation of the time scale, which is available through the Commission for the Management and Application of Geoscience Information GeoSciML project as a service and at a SPARQL end-point.Eonothem/EonErathem/EraSystem/PeriodSeries/EpochStage/AgeMajor eventsStart, million years agoPhanerozoicCenozoicQuaternaryHoloceneMeghalayan4.2-kiloyear event, Austronesian expansion, increasing industrial CO2.", "*Northgrippian8.2-kiloyear event, Holocene climatic optimum.", "Sea level flooding of Doggerland and Sundaland.", "Sahara becomes a desert.", "End of Stone Age and start of recorded history.", "Humans finally expand into the Arctic Archipelago and Greenland.", "*GreenlandianClimate stabilises.", "Current interglacial and Holocene extinction begins.", "Agriculture begins.", "Humans spread across the wet Sahara and Arabia, the Extreme North, and the Americas (mainland and the Caribbean).", "*PleistoceneUpper/Late ''('Tarantian')''Eemian interglacial, last glacial period, ending with Younger Dryas.", "Toba eruption.", "Pleistocene megafauna (including the last terror birds) extinction.", "Humans expand into Near Oceania and the Americas.", "ChibanianMid-Pleistocene Transition occurs, high amplitude 100 ka glacial cycles.", "Rise of Homo sapiens.", "*CalabrianFurther cooling of the climate.", "Giant terror birds go extinct.", "Spread of Homo erectus across Afro-Eurasia.", "*GelasianStart of Quaternary glaciations and unstable climate.", "Rise of the Pleistocene megafauna and Homo habilis.", "*NeogenePliocenePiacenzianGreenland ice sheet develops as the cold slowly intensifies towards the Pleistocene.", "Atmospheric and content reaches present-day levels while landmasses also reach their current locations (e.g.", "the Isthmus of Panama joins the North and South Americas, while allowing a faunal interchange).", "The last non-marsupial metatherians go extinct.", "Australopithecus common in East Africa; Stone Age begins.", "*ZancleanZanclean flooding of the Mediterranean Basin.", "Cooling climate continues from the Miocene.", "First equines and elephantines.", "Ardipithecus in Africa.", "*MioceneMessinianMessinian Event with hypersaline lakes in empty Mediterranean Basin.", "Sahara desert formation begins.", "Moderate icehouse climate, punctuated by ice ages and re-establishment of East Antarctic Ice Sheet.", "Choristoderes, the last non-crocodilian crocodylomorphs and creodonts go extinct.", "After separating from gorilla ancestors, chimpanzee and human ancestors gradually separate; Sahelanthropus and Orrorin in Africa.", "*Tortonian *SerravallianMiddle Miocene climate optimum temporarily provides a warm climate.", "Extinctions in middle Miocene disruption, decreasing shark diversity.", "First hippos.", "Ancestor of great apes.", "*Langhian *BurdigalianOrogeny in Northern Hemisphere.", "Start of Kaikoura Orogeny forming Southern Alps in New Zealand.", "Widespread forests slowly draw in massive amounts of , gradually lowering the level of atmospheric from 650 ppmv down to around 100 ppmv during the Miocene.", "Modern bird and mammal families become recognizable.", "The last of the primitive whales go extinct.", "Grasses become ubiquitous.", "Ancestor of apes, including humans.", "Afro-Arabia collides with Eurasia, fully forming the Alpide Belt and closing the Tethys Ocean, while allowing a faunal interchange.", "At the same time, Afro-Arabia splits into Africa and West Asia.", "Aquitanian *PaleogeneOligoceneChattianGrande Coupure extinction.", "Start of widespread Antarctic glaciation.", "Rapid evolution and diversification of fauna, especially mammals (e.g.", "first macropods and seals).", "Major evolution and dispersal of modern types of flowering plants.", "Cimolestans, miacoids and condylarths go extinct.", "First neocetes (modern, fully aquatic whales) appear.", "*Rupelian *EocenePriabonianModerate, cooling climate.", "Archaic mammals (e.g.", "creodonts, miacoids, \"condylarths\" etc.)", "flourish and continue to develop during the epoch.", "Appearance of several \"modern\" mammal families.", "Primitive whales and sea cows diversify after returning to water.", "Birds continue to diversify.", "First kelp, diprotodonts, bears and simians.", "The multituberculates and leptictidans go extinct by the end of the epoch.", "Reglaciation of Antarctica and formation of its ice cap; End of Laramide and Sevier Orogenies of the Rocky Mountains in North America.", "Hellenic Orogeny begins in Greece and Aegean Sea.", "*Bartonian Lutetian *YpresianTwo transient events of global warming (PETM and ETM-2) and warming climate until the Eocene Climatic Optimum.", "The Azolla event decreased levels from 3500 ppm to 650 ppm, setting the stage for a long period of cooling.", "Greater India collides with Eurasia and starts Himalayan Orogeny (allowing a biotic interchange) while Eurasia completely separates from North America, creating the North Atlantic Ocean.", "Maritime Southeast Asia diverges from the rest of Eurasia.", "First passerines, ruminants, pangolins, bats and true primates.", "*PaleoceneThanetianStarts with Chicxulub impact and the K–Pg extinction event, wiping out all non-avian dinosaurs and pterosaurs, most marine reptiles, many other vertebrates (e.g.", "many Laurasian metatherians), most cephalopods (only Nautilidae and Coleoidea survived) and many other invertebrates.", "Climate tropical.", "Mammals and birds (avians) diversify rapidly into a number of lineages following the extinction event (while the marine revolution stops).", "Multituberculates and the first rodents widespread.", "First large birds (e.g.", "ratites and terror birds) and mammals (up to bear or small hippo size).", "Alpine orogeny in Europe and Asia begins.", "First proboscideans and plesiadapiformes (stem primates) appear.", "Some marsupials migrate to Australia.", "*Selandian *Danian *MesozoicCretaceousUpper/LateMaastrichtianFlowering plants proliferate (after developing many features since the Carboniferous), along with new types of insects, while other seed plants (gymnosperms and seed ferns) decline.", "More modern teleost fish begin to appear.", "Ammonoids, belemnites, rudist bivalves, sea urchins and sponges all common.", "Many new types of dinosaurs (e.g.", "tyrannosaurs, titanosaurs, hadrosaurs, and ceratopsids) evolve on land, while crocodilians appear in water and probably cause the last temnospondyls to die out; and mosasaurs and modern types of sharks appear in the sea.", "The revolution started by marine reptiles and sharks reaches its peak, though ichthyosaurs vanish a few million years after being heavily reduced at the Bonarelli Event.", "Toothed and toothless avian birds coexist with pterosaurs.", "Modern monotremes, metatherian (including marsupials, who migrate to South America) and eutherian (including placentals, leptictidans and cimolestans) mammals appear while the last non-mammalian cynodonts die out.", "First terrestrial crabs.", "Many snails become terrestrial.", "Further breakup of Gondwana creates South America, Afro-Arabia, Antarctica, Oceania, Madagascar, Greater India, and the South Atlantic, Indian and Antarctic Oceans and the islands of the Indian (and some of the Atlantic) Ocean.", "Beginning of Laramide and Sevier Orogenies of the Rocky Mountains.", "Atmospheric oxygen and carbon dioxide levels similar to present day.", "Acritarchs disappear.", "Climate initially warm, but later it cools.", "*Campanian *Santonian *Coniacian *Turonian *Cenomanian *Lower/EarlyAlbian~ *Aptian~ Barremian~ *Hauterivian~ *Valanginian~ Berriasian~ JurassicUpper/LateTithonianClimate becomes humid again.", "Gymnosperms (especially conifers, cycads and cycadeoids) and ferns common.", "Dinosaurs, including sauropods, carnosaurs, stegosaurs and coelurosaurs, become the dominant land vertebrates.", "Mammals diversify into shuotheriids, australosphenidans, eutriconodonts, multituberculates, symmetrodonts, dryolestids and boreosphenidans but mostly remain small.", "First birds, lizards, snakes and turtles.", "First brown algae, rays, shrimps, crabs and lobsters.", "Parvipelvian ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs diverse.", "Rhynchocephalians throughout the world.", "Bivalves, ammonoids and belemnites abundant.", "Sea urchins very common, along with crinoids, starfish, sponges, and terebratulid and rhynchonellid brachiopods.", "Breakup of Pangaea into Laurasia and Gondwana, with the latter also breaking into two main parts; the Pacific and Arctic Oceans form.", "Tethys Ocean forms.", "Nevadan orogeny in North America.", "Rangitata and Cimmerian orogenies taper off.", "Atmospheric levels 3–4 times the present-day levels (1200–1500 ppmv, compared to today's 400 ppmv).", "Crocodylomorphs (last pseudosuchians) seek out an aquatic lifestyle.", "Mesozoic marine revolution continues from late Triassic.", "Tentaculitans disappear.", "Kimmeridgian *Oxfordian MiddleCallovian Bathonian *Bajocian *Aalenian *Lower/EarlyToarcian *Pliensbachian *Sinemurian *Hettangian *TriassicUpper/LateRhaetianArchosaurs dominant on land as pseudosuchians and in the air as pterosaurs.", "Dinosaurs also arise from bipedal archosaurs.", "Ichthyosaurs and nothosaurs (a group of sauropterygians) dominate large marine fauna.", "Cynodonts become smaller and nocturnal, eventually becoming the first true mammals, while other remaining synapsids die out.", "Rhynchosaurs (archosaur relatives) also common.", "Seed ferns called ''Dicroidium'' remained common in Gondwana, before being replaced by advanced gymnosperms.", "Many large aquatic temnospondyl amphibians.", "Ceratitidan ammonoids extremely common.", "Modern corals and teleost fish appear, as do many modern insect orders and suborders.", "First starfish.", "Andean Orogeny in South America.", "Cimmerian Orogeny in Asia.", "Rangitata Orogeny begins in New Zealand.", "Hunter-Bowen Orogeny in Northern Australia, Queensland and New South Wales ends, (c. 260–225 Ma).", "Carnian pluvial event occurs around 234–232 Ma, allowing the first dinosaurs and lepidosaurs (including rhynchocephalians) to radiate.", "Triassic–Jurassic extinction event occurs 201 Ma, wiping out all conodonts and the last parareptiles, many marine reptiles (e.g.", "all sauropterygians except plesiosaurs and all ichthyosaurs except parvipelvians), all crocopodans except crocodylomorphs, pterosaurs, and dinosaurs, and many ammonoids (including the whole Ceratitida), bivalves, brachiopods, corals and sponges.", "First diatoms.~ Norian~ Carnian~ *MiddleLadinian~ *Anisian Lower/EarlyOlenekian Induan *PaleozoicPermianLopingianChanghsingianLandmasses unite into supercontinent Pangaea, creating the Urals, Ouachitas and Appalachians, among other mountain ranges (the superocean Panthalassa or Proto-Pacific also forms).", "End of Permo-Carboniferous glaciation.", "Hot and dry climate.", "A possible drop in oxygen levels.", "Synapsids (pelycosaurs and therapsids) become widespread and dominant, while parareptiles and temnospondyl amphibians remain common, with the latter probably giving rise to modern amphibians in this period.", "In the mid-Permian, lycophytes are heavily replaced by ferns and seed plants.", "Beetles and flies evolve.", "The very large arthropods and non-tetrapod tetrapodomorphs go extinct.", "Marine life flourishes in warm shallow reefs; productid and spiriferid brachiopods, bivalves, forams, ammonoids (including goniatites), and orthoceridans all abundant.", "Crown reptiles arise from earlier diapsids, and split into the ancestors of lepidosaurs, kuehneosaurids, choristoderes, archosaurs, testudinatans, ichthyosaurs, thalattosaurs, and sauropterygians.", "Cynodonts evolve from larger therapsids.", "Olson's Extinction (273 Ma), End-Capitanian extinction (260 Ma), and Permian–Triassic extinction event (252 Ma) occur one after another: more than 80% of life on Earth becomes extinct in the lattermost, including most retarian plankton, corals (Tabulata and Rugosa die out fully), brachiopods, bryozoans, gastropods, ammonoids (the goniatites die off fully), insects, parareptiles, synapsids, amphibians, and crinoids (only articulates survived), and all eurypterids, trilobites, graptolites, hyoliths, edrioasteroid crinozoans, blastoids and acanthodians.", "Ouachita and Innuitian orogenies in North America.", "Uralian orogeny in Europe/Asia tapers off.", "Altaid orogeny in Asia.", "Hunter-Bowen Orogeny on Australian continent begins (c. 260–225 Ma), forming the New England Fold Belt.", "*Wuchiapingian *GuadalupianCapitanian *Wordian *Roadian *CisuralianKungurian Artinskian *Sakmarian *Asselian *CarboniferousPennsylvanianGzhelianWinged insects radiate suddenly; some (esp.", "Protodonata and Palaeodictyoptera) of them as well as some millipedes and scorpions become very large.", "First coal forests (scale trees, ferns, club trees, giant horsetails, ''Cordaites'', etc.).", "Higher atmospheric oxygen levels.", "Ice Age continues to the Early Permian.", "Goniatites, brachiopods, bryozoa, bivalves, and corals plentiful in the seas and oceans.", "First woodlice.", "Testate forams proliferate.", "Euramerica collides with Gondwana and Siberia-Kazakhstania, the latter of which forms Laurasia and the Uralian orogeny.", "Variscan orogeny continues (these collisions created orogenies, and ultimately Pangaea).", "Amphibians (e.g.", "temnospondyls) spread in Euramerica, with some becoming the first amniotes.", "Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse occurs, initiating a dry climate which favors amniotes over amphibians.", "Amniotes diversify rapidly into synapsids, parareptiles, cotylosaurs, protorothyridids and diapsids.", "Rhizodonts remained common before they died out by the end of the period.", "First sharks.", "Kasimovian Moscovian Bashkirian *MississippianSerpukhovianLarge lycopodian primitive trees flourish and amphibious eurypterids live amid coal-forming coastal swamps, radiating significantly one last time.", "First gymnosperms.", "First holometabolous, paraneopteran, polyneopteran, odonatopteran and ephemeropteran insects and first barnacles.", "First five-digited tetrapods (amphibians) and land snails.", "In the oceans, bony and cartilaginous fishes are dominant and diverse; echinoderms (especially crinoids and blastoids) abundant.", "Corals, bryozoans, orthoceridans, goniatites and brachiopods (Productida, Spiriferida, etc.)", "recover and become very common again, but trilobites and nautiloids decline.", "Glaciation in East Gondwana continues from Late Devonian.", "Tuhua Orogeny in New Zealand tapers off.", "Some lobe finned fish called rhizodonts become abundant and dominant in freshwaters.", "Siberia collides with a different small continent, Kazakhstania.", "Viséan *Tournaisian *DevonianUpper/LateFamennianFirst lycopods, ferns, seed plants (seed ferns, from earlier progymnosperms), first trees (the progymnosperm ''Archaeopteris''), and first winged insects (palaeoptera and neoptera).", "Strophomenid and atrypid brachiopods, rugose and tabulate corals, and crinoids are all abundant in the oceans.", "First fully coiled cephalopods (Ammonoidea and Nautilida, independently) with the former group very abundant (especially goniatites).", "Trilobites and ostracoderms decline, while jawed fishes (placoderms, lobe-finned and ray-finned bony fish, and acanthodians and early cartilaginous fish) proliferate.", "Some lobe finned fish transform into digited fishapods, slowly becoming amphibious.", "The last non-trilobite artiopods die off.", "First decapods (like prawns) and isopods.", "Pressure from jawed fishes cause eurypterids to decline and some cephalopods to lose their shells while anomalocarids vanish.", "\"Old Red Continent\" of Euramerica persists after forming in the Caledonian orogeny.", "Beginning of Acadian Orogeny for Anti-Atlas Mountains of North Africa, and Appalachian Mountains of North America, also the Antler, Variscan, and Tuhua orogenies in New Zealand.", "A series of extinction events, including the massive Kellwasser and Hangenberg ones, wipe out many acritarchs, corals, sponges, molluscs, trilobites, eurypterids, graptolites, brachiopods, crinozoans (e.g.", "all cystoids), and fish, including all placoderms and ostracoderms.", "*Frasnian *MiddleGivetian *Eifelian *Lower/EarlyEmsian *Pragian *Lochkovian *SilurianPridoliOzone layer thickens.", "First vascular plants and fully terrestrialised arthropods: myriapods, hexapods (including insects), and arachnids.", "Eurypterids diversify rapidly, becoming widespread and dominant.", "Cephalopods continue to flourish.", "True jawed fishes, along with ostracoderms, also roam the seas.", "Tabulate and rugose corals, brachiopods (''Pentamerida'', Rhynchonellida, etc.", "), cystoids and crinoids all abundant.", "Trilobites and molluscs diverse; graptolites not as varied.", "Three minor extinction events.", "Some echinoderms go extinct.", "Beginning of Caledonian Orogeny (collision between Laurentia, Baltica and one of the formerly small Gondwanan terranes) for hills in England, Ireland, Wales, Scotland, and the Scandinavian Mountains.", "Also continued into Devonian period as the Acadian Orogeny, above (thus Euramerica forms).", "Taconic Orogeny tapers off.", "Icehouse period ends late in this period after starting in Late Ordovician.", "Lachlan Orogeny on Australian continent tapers off.", "*LudlowLudfordian *Gorstian *WenlockHomerian *Sheinwoodian *LlandoveryTelychian *Aeronian *Rhuddanian *OrdovicianUpper/LateHirnantianThe Great Ordovician Biodiversification Event occurs as plankton increase in number: invertebrates diversify into many new types (especially brachiopods and molluscs; e.g.", "long straight-shelled cephalopods like the long lasting and diverse Orthocerida).", "Early corals, articulate brachiopods (''Orthida'', ''Strophomenida'', etc.", "), bivalves, cephalopods (nautiloids), trilobites, ostracods, bryozoans, many types of echinoderms (blastoids, cystoids, crinoids, sea urchins, sea cucumbers, and star-like forms, etc.", "), branched graptolites, and other taxa all common.", "Acritarchs still persist and common.", "Cephalopods become dominant and common, with some trending toward a coiled shell.", "Anomalocarids decline.", "Mysterious tentaculitans appear.", "First eurypterids and ostracoderm fish appear, the latter probably giving rise to the jawed fish at the end of the period.", "First uncontroversial terrestrial fungi and fully terrestrialised plants.", "Ice age at the end of this period, as well as a series of mass extinction events, killing off some cephalopods and many brachiopods, bryozoans, echinoderms, graptolites, trilobites, bivalves, corals and conodonts.", "*Katian *Sandbian *MiddleDarriwilian *Dapingian *Lower/EarlyFloian(formerly Arenig) *Tremadocian *CambrianFurongianStage 10Major diversification of (fossils mainly show bilaterian) life in the Cambrian Explosion as oxygen levels increase.", "Numerous fossils; most modern animal phyla (including arthropods, molluscs, annelids, echinoderms, hemichordates and chordates) appear.", "Reef-building archaeocyathan sponges initially abundant, then vanish.", "Stromatolites replace them, but quickly fall prey to the Agronomic revolution, when some animals started burrowing through the microbial mats (affecting some other animals as well).", "First artiopods (including trilobites), priapulid worms, inarticulate brachiopods (unhinged lampshells), hyoliths, bryozoans, graptolites, pentaradial echinoderms (e.g.", "blastozoans, crinozoans and eleutherozoans), and numerous other animals.", "Anomalocarids are dominant and giant predators, while many Ediacaran fauna die out.", "Crustaceans and molluscs diversify rapidly.", "Prokaryotes, protists (e.g., forams), algae and fungi continue to present day.", "First vertebrates from earlier chordates.", "Petermann Orogeny on the Australian continent tapers off (550–535 Ma).", "Ross Orogeny in Antarctica.", "Delamerian Orogeny (c. 514–490 Ma) on Australian continent.", "Some small terranes split off from Gondwana.", "Atmospheric content roughly 15 times present-day (Holocene) levels (6000 ppm compared to today's 400 ppm) Arthropods and streptophyta start colonising land.", "3 extinction events occur 517, 502 & 488 Ma, the first and last of which wipe out many of the anomalocarids, artiopods, hyoliths, brachiopods, molluscs, and conodonts (early jawless vertebrates).~Jiangshanian~ *Paibian~ *MiaolingianGuzhangian~ *Drumian~ *Wuliuan~ Series 2Stage 4~ Stage 3~ TerreneuvianStage 2~ Fortunian *ProterozoicNeoproterozoicEdiacaranGood fossils of primitive animals.", "Ediacaran biota flourish worldwide in seas, possibly appearing after an explosion, possibly caused by a large-scale oxidation event.", "First vendozoans (unknown affinity among animals), cnidarians and bilaterians.", "Enigmatic vendozoans include many soft-jellied creatures shaped like bags, disks, or quilts (like ''Dickinsonia'').", "Simple trace fossils of possible worm-like ''Trichophycus'', etc.Taconic Orogeny in North America.", "Aravalli Range orogeny in Indian subcontinent.", "Beginning of Pan-African Orogeny, leading to the formation of the short-lived Ediacaran supercontinent Pannotia, which by the end of the period breaks up into Laurentia, Baltica, Siberia and Gondwana.", "Petermann Orogeny forms on Australian continent.", "Beardmore Orogeny in Antarctica, 633–620 Ma.", "Ozone layer forms.", "An increase in oceanic mineral levels.~ *CryogenianPossible \"Snowball Earth\" period.", "Fossils still rare.", "Late Ruker / Nimrod Orogeny in Antarctica tapers off.", "First uncontroversial animal fossils.", "First hypothetical terrestrial fungi and streptophyta.~ TonianFinal assembly of Rodinia supercontinent occurs in early Tonian, with breakup beginning c. 800 Ma.", "Sveconorwegian orogeny ends.", "Grenville Orogeny tapers off in North America.", "Lake Ruker / Nimrod Orogeny in Antarctica, 1,000 ± 150 Ma.", "Edmundian Orogeny (c. 920–850 Ma), Gascoyne Complex, Western Australia.", "Deposition of Adelaide Superbasin and Centralian Superbasin begins on Australian continent.", "First hypothetical animals (from holozoans) and terrestrial algal mats.", "Many endosymbiotic events concerning red and green algae occur, transferring plastids to ochrophyta (e.g.", "diatoms, brown algae), dinoflagellates, cryptophyta, haptophyta, and euglenids (the events may have begun in the Mesoproterozoic) while the first retarians (e.g.", "forams) also appear: eukaryotes diversify rapidly, including algal, eukaryovoric and biomineralised forms.", "Trace fossils of simple multi-celled eukaryotes.", "MesoproterozoicStenianNarrow highly metamorphic belts due to orogeny as Rodinia forms, surrounded by the Pan-African Ocean.", "Sveconorwegian orogeny starts.", "Late Ruker / Nimrod Orogeny in Antarctica possibly begins.", "Musgrave Orogeny (c. 1,080–), Musgrave Block, Central Australia.", "Stromatolites decline as algae proliferate.", "EctasianPlatform covers continue to expand.", "Algal colonies in the seas.", "Grenville Orogeny in North America.", "Columbia breaks up.", "CalymmianPlatform covers expand.", "Barramundi Orogeny, McArthur Basin, Northern Australia, and Isan Orogeny, 1,600 Ma, Mount Isa Block, Queensland.", "First archaeplastidans (the first eukaryotes with plastids from cyanobacteria; e.g.", "red and green algae) and opisthokonts (giving rise to the first fungi and holozoans).", "Acritarchs (remains of marine algae possibly) start appearing in the fossil record.", "PaleoproterozoicStatherianFirst uncontroversial eukaryotes: protists with nuclei and endomembrane system.", "Columbia forms as the second undisputed earliest supercontinent.", "Kimban Orogeny in Australian continent ends.", "Yapungku Orogeny on Yilgarn craton, in Western Australia.", "Mangaroon Orogeny, 1,680–1,620 Ma, on the Gascoyne Complex in Western Australia.", "Kararan Orogeny (1,650 Ma), Gawler Craton, South Australia.", "Oxygen levels drop again.", "OrosirianThe atmosphere becomes much more oxygenic while more cyanobacterial stromatolites appear.", "Vredefort and Sudbury Basin asteroid impacts.", "Much orogeny.", "Penokean and Trans-Hudsonian Orogenies in North America.", "Early Ruker Orogeny in Antarctica, 2,000–1,700 Ma.", "Glenburgh Orogeny, Glenburgh Terrane, Australian continent 2,005–1,920 Ma.", "Kimban Orogeny, Gawler craton in Australian continent begins.", "RhyacianBushveld Igneous Complex forms.", "Huronian glaciation.", "First hypothetical eukaryotes.", "Multicellular Francevillian biota.", "Kenorland disassembles.", "SiderianGreat Oxidation Event (due to cyanobacteria) increases oxygen.", "Sleaford Orogeny on Australian continent, Gawler Craton 2,440–2,420 Ma.", "ArcheanNeoarcheanStabilization of most modern cratons; possible mantle overturn event.", "Insell Orogeny, 2,650 ± 150 Ma.", "Abitibi greenstone belt in present-day Ontario and Quebec begins to form, stabilises by 2,600 Ma.", "First uncontroversial supercontinent, Kenorland, and first terrestrial prokaryotes.", "MesoarcheanFirst stromatolites (probably colonial phototrophic bacteria, like cyanobacteria).", "Oldest macrofossils.", "Humboldt Orogeny in Antarctica.", "Blake River Megacaldera Complex begins to form in present-day Ontario and Quebec, ends by roughly 2,696 Ma.", "PaleoarcheanProkaryotic archaea (e.g.", "methanogens) and bacteria (e.g.", "cyanobacteria) diversify rapidly, along with early viruses.", "First known phototrophic bacteria.", "Oldest definitive microfossils.", "First microbial mats.", "Oldest cratons on Earth (such as the Canadian Shield and the Pilbara Craton) may have formed during this period.", "Rayner Orogeny in Antarctica.", "EoarcheanFirst uncontroversial living organisms: at first protocells with RNA-based genes around 4000 Ma, after which true cells (prokaryotes) evolve along with proteins and DNA-based genes around 3800 Ma.", "The end of the Late Heavy Bombardment.", "Napier Orogeny in Antarctica, 4,000 ± 200 Ma.", "HadeanFormation of protolith of the oldest known rock (Acasta Gneiss) c. 4,031 to 3,580 Ma.", "Possible first appearance of plate tectonics.", "First hypothetical life forms.", "End of the Early Bombardment Phase.", "Oldest known mineral (Zircon, 4,404 ± 8 Ma).", "Asteroids and comets bring water to Earth, forming the first oceans.", "Formation of Moon (4,510 Ma), probably from a giant impact.", "Formation of Earth (4,543 to 4,540 Ma)" ], [ "Non-Earth based geologic time scales", "Some other planets and satellites in the Solar System have sufficiently rigid structures to have preserved records of their own histories, for example, Venus, Mars and the Earth's Moon.", "Dominantly fluid planets, such as the gas giants, do not comparably preserve their history.", "Apart from the Late Heavy Bombardment, events on other planets probably had little direct influence on the Earth, and events on Earth had correspondingly little effect on those planets.", "Construction of a time scale that links the planets is, therefore, of only limited relevance to the Earth's time scale, except in a Solar System context.", "The existence, timing, and terrestrial effects of the Late Heavy Bombardment are still a matter of debate.=== Lunar (selenological) time scale ===The geologic history of Earth's Moon has been divided into a time scale based on geomorphological markers, namely impact cratering, volcanism, and erosion.", "This process of dividing the Moon's history in this manner means that the time scale boundaries do not imply fundamental changes in geological processes, unlike Earth's geologic time scale.", "Five geologic systems/periods (Pre-Nectarian, Nectarian, Imbrian, Eratosthenian, Copernican), with the Imbrian divided into two series/epochs (Early and Late) were defined in the latest Lunar geologic time scale.", "The Moon is unique in the Solar System in that it is the only other body from which we have rock samples with a known geological context.=== Martian geologic time scale ===The geological history of Mars has been divided into two alternate time scales.", "The first time scale for Mars was developed by studying the impact crater densities on the Martian surface.", "Through this method four periods have been defined, the Pre-Noachian (~4,500–4,100 Ma), Noachian (~4,100–3,700 Ma), Hesperian (~3,700–3,000 Ma), and Amazonian (~3,000 Ma to present).A second time scale based on mineral alteration observed by the OMEGA spectrometer on-board the Mars Express.", "Using this method, three periods were defined, the Phyllocian (~4,500–4,000 Ma), Theiikian (~4,000–3,500 Ma), and Siderikian (~3,500 Ma to present).ImageSize = width:800 height:50PlotArea = left:15 right:15 bottom:20 top:5AlignBars = earlyPeriod = from:-4500 till:0TimeAxis = orientation:horizontalScaleMajor = unit:year increment:500 start:-4500ScaleMinor = unit:year increment:100 start:-4500Colors = id:sidericol value:rgb(1,0.4,0.3) id:theiicol value:rgb(1,0.2,0.5) id:phyllocol value:rgb(0.7,0.4,1)PlotData= align:center textcolor:black fontsize:8 mark:(line,black) width:25 shift:(0,-5) text:Siderikan from:-3500 till:0 color:sidericol text:Theiikian from:-4000 till:-3500 color:theiicol text:Phyllocian from:start till:-4000 color:phyllocol" ], [ "See also", "* Age of the Earth* Cosmic calendar* Deep time* Evolutionary history of life* Formation and evolution of the Solar System* Geological history of Earth* Geology of Mars* Geon (geology)* Graphical timeline of the universe* History of Earth* History of geology* History of paleontology* List of fossil sites* List of geochronologic names* Logarithmic timeline* Lunar geologic timescale* Martian geologic timescale* Natural history* New Zealand geologic time scale* Prehistoric life* Timeline of the Big Bang* Timeline of evolution* Timeline of the geologic history of the United States* Timeline of human evolution* Timeline of natural history* Timeline of paleontology" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * ** Nichols, Gary (2013). ''", "Sedimentology and Stratigraphy'' (2nd ed.).", "Hoboken: Wiley-Blackwell.", "* Williams, Aiden (2019). ''", "Sedimentology and Stratigraphy'' (1st ed.).", "Forest Hills, NY: Callisto Reference." ], [ "External links", "* The current version of the International Chronostratigraphic Chart can be found at stratigraphy.org/chart * Interactive version of the International Chronostratigraphic Chart is found at stratigraphy.org/timescale* A list of current Global Boundary Stratotype and Section Points is found at stratigraphy.org/gssps* NASA: Geologic Time (archived 18 April 2005)* GSA: Geologic Time Scale (archived 20 January 2019)* British Geological Survey: Geological Timechart* GeoWhen Database (archived 23 June 2004)* National Museum of Natural History – Geologic Time (archived 11 November 2005)* SeeGrid: Geological Time Systems.", ".", "Information model for the geologic time scale.", "* Exploring Time from Planck Time to the lifespan of the universe* Episodes, Gradstein, Felix M. et al.", "(2004) ''A new Geologic Time Scale, with special reference to Precambrian and Neogene'', Episodes, Vol.", "27, no.", "2 June 2004 (pdf)* Lane, Alfred C, and Marble, John Putman 1937.Report of the Committee on the measurement of geologic time* Lessons for Children on Geologic Time (archived 14 July 2011)* Deep Time – A History of the Earth : Interactive Infographic* Geology Buzz: Geologic Time Scale.", "." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gambler's fallacy" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''gambler's fallacy''', also known as the '''Monte Carlo fallacy''' or the '''fallacy of the maturity of chances''', is the incorrect belief that, if an event (whose occurrences are independent and identically distributed) has occurred more frequently than expected, it is less likely to happen again in the future (or vice versa).", "The fallacy is commonly associated with gambling, where it may be believed, for example, that the next dice roll is more than usually likely to be six because there have recently been fewer than the expected number of sixes.The term \"Monte Carlo fallacy\" originates from the best known example of the phenomenon, which occurred in the Monte Carlo Casino in 1913." ], [ "Examples", "===Coin toss===proportion of red/blue coin tosses approaches 50-50, but the difference decreases to zero non-systematically.The gambler's fallacy can be illustrated by considering the repeated toss of a fair coin.", "The outcomes in different tosses are statistically independent and the probability of getting heads on a single toss is (one in two).", "The probability of getting two heads in two tosses is (one in four) and the probability of getting three heads in three tosses is (one in eight).", "In general, if ''Ai'' is the event where toss ''i'' of a fair coin comes up heads, then::.If after tossing four heads in a row, the next coin toss also came up heads, it would complete a run of five successive heads.", "Since the probability of a run of five successive heads is (one in thirty-two), a person might believe that the next flip would be more likely to come up tails rather than heads again.", "This is incorrect and is an example of the gambler's fallacy.", "The event \"5 heads in a row\" and the event \"first 4 heads, then a tails\" are equally likely, each having probability .", "Since the first four tosses turn up heads, the probability that the next toss is a head is::.While a run of five heads has a probability of = 0.03125 (a little over 3%), the misunderstanding lies in not realizing that this is the case ''only before the first coin is tossed''.", "After the first four tosses in this example, the results are no longer unknown, so their probabilities are at that point equal to 1 (100%).", "The probability of a run of coin tosses of any length continuing for one more toss is always 0.5.The reasoning that a fifth toss is more likely to be tails because the previous four tosses were heads, with a run of luck in the past influencing the odds in the future, forms the basis of the fallacy.===Why the probability is 1/2 for a fair coin===If a fair coin is flipped 21 times, the probability of 21 heads is 1 in 2,097,152.The probability of flipping a head after having already flipped 20 heads in a row is .", "Assuming a fair coin:* The probability of 20 heads, then 1 tail is 0.520 × 0.5 = 0.521* The probability of 20 heads, then 1 head is 0.520 × 0.5 = 0.521The probability of getting 20 heads then 1 tail, and the probability of getting 20 heads then another head are both 1 in 2,097,152.When flipping a fair coin 21 times, the outcome is equally likely to be 21 heads as 20 heads and then 1 tail.", "These two outcomes are equally as likely as any of the other combinations that can be obtained from 21 flips of a coin.", "All of the 21-flip combinations will have probabilities equal to 0.521, or 1 in 2,097,152.Assuming that a change in the probability will occur as a result of the outcome of prior flips is incorrect because every outcome of a 21-flip sequence is as likely as the other outcomes.", "In accordance with Bayes' theorem, the likely outcome of each flip is the probability of the fair coin, which is .===Other examples===The fallacy leads to the incorrect notion that previous failures will create an increased probability of success on subsequent attempts.", "For a fair 16-sided die, the probability of each outcome occurring is (6.25%).", "If a win is defined as rolling a 1, the probability of a 1 occurring at least once in 16 rolls is::The probability of a loss on the first roll is (93.75%).", "According to the fallacy, the player should have a higher chance of winning after one loss has occurred.", "The probability of at least one win is now::By losing one toss, the player's probability of winning drops by two percentage points.", "With 5 losses and 11 rolls remaining, the probability of winning drops to around 0.5 (50%).", "The probability of at least one win does not increase after a series of losses; indeed, the probability of success ''actually decreases'', because there are fewer trials left in which to win.", "The probability of winning will eventually be equal to the probability of winning a single toss, which is (6.25%) and occurs when only one toss is left." ], [ "Reverse position", "After a consistent tendency towards tails, a gambler may also decide that tails has become a more likely outcome.", "This is a rational and Bayesian conclusion, bearing in mind the possibility that the coin may not be fair; it is not a fallacy.", "Believing the odds to favor tails, the gambler sees no reason to change to heads.", "However it is a fallacy that a sequence of trials carries a memory of past results which tend to favor or disfavor future outcomes.The inverse gambler's fallacy described by Ian Hacking is a situation where a gambler entering a room and seeing a person rolling a double six on a pair of dice may erroneously conclude that the person must have been rolling the dice for quite a while, as they would be unlikely to get a double six on their first attempt." ], [ "Retrospective gambler's fallacy", "Researchers have examined whether a similar bias exists for inferences about unknown past events based upon known subsequent events, calling this the \"retrospective gambler's fallacy\".An example of a retrospective gambler's fallacy would be to observe multiple successive \"heads\" on a coin toss and conclude from this that the previously unknown flip was \"tails\".", "Real world examples of retrospective gambler's fallacy have been argued to exist in events such as the origin of the Universe.", "In his book ''Universes'', John Leslie argues that \"the presence of vastly many universes very different in their characters might be our best explanation for why at least one universe has a life-permitting character\".", "Daniel M. Oppenheimer and Benoît Monin argue that \"In other words, the 'best explanation' for a low-probability event is that it is only one in a multiple of trials, which is the core intuition of the reverse gambler's fallacy.\"", "Philosophical arguments are ongoing about whether such arguments are or are not a fallacy, arguing that the occurrence of our universe says nothing about the existence of other universes or trials of universes.", "Three studies involving Stanford University students tested the existence of a retrospective gamblers' fallacy.", "All three studies concluded that people have a gamblers' fallacy retrospectively as well as to future events.", "The authors of all three studies concluded their findings have significant \"methodological implications\" but may also have \"important theoretical implications\" that need investigation and research, saying \"a thorough understanding of such reasoning processes requires that we not only examine how they influence our predictions of the future, but also our perceptions of the past.\"" ], [ "Childbirth", "In 1796, Pierre-Simon Laplace described in ''A Philosophical Essay on Probabilities'' the ways in which men calculated their probability of having sons: \"I have seen men, ardently desirous of having a son, who could learn only with anxiety of the births of boys in the month when they expected to become fathers.", "Imagining that the ratio of these births to those of girls ought to be the same at the end of each month, they judged that the boys already born would render more probable the births next of girls.\"", "The expectant fathers feared that if more sons were born in the surrounding community, then they themselves would be more likely to have a daughter.", "This essay by Laplace is regarded as one of the earliest descriptions of the fallacy.", "Likewise, after having multiple children of the same sex, some parents may erroneously believe that they are due to have a child of the opposite sex." ], [ "Monte Carlo Casino", "Perhaps the most famous example of the gambler's fallacy occurred in a game of roulette at the Monte Carlo Casino on August 18, 1913, when the ball fell in black 26 times in a row.", "This was an extremely uncommon occurrence: the probability of a sequence of either red or black occurring 26 times in a row is or around 1 in 66.6 million, assuming the mechanism is unbiased.", "Gamblers lost millions of francs betting against black, reasoning incorrectly that the streak was causing an imbalance in the randomness of the wheel, and that it had to be followed by a long streak of red." ], [ "Non-examples", "===Non-independent events===The gambler's fallacy does not apply when the probability of different events is not independent.", "In such cases, the probability of future events can change based on the outcome of past events, such as the statistical permutation of events.", "An example is when cards are drawn from a deck without replacement.", "If an ace is drawn from a deck and not reinserted, the next card drawn is less likely to be an ace and more likely to be of another rank.", "The probability of drawing another ace, assuming that it was the first card drawn and that there are no jokers, has decreased from (7.69%) to (5.88%), while the probability for each other rank has increased from (7.69%) to (7.84%).", "This effect allows card counting systems to work in games such as blackjack.===Bias===In most illustrations of the gambler's fallacy and the reverse gambler's fallacy, the trial (e.g.", "flipping a coin) is assumed to be fair.", "In practice, this assumption may not hold.", "For example, if a coin is flipped 21 times, the probability of 21 heads with a fair coin is 1 in 2,097,152.Since this probability is so small, if it happens, it may well be that the coin is somehow biased towards landing on heads, or that it is being controlled by hidden magnets, or similar.", "In this case, the smart bet is \"heads\" because Bayesian inference from the empirical evidence — 21 heads in a row — suggests that the coin is likely to be biased toward heads.", "Bayesian inference can be used to show that when the long-run proportion of different outcomes is unknown but exchangeable (meaning that the random process from which the outcomes are generated may be biased but is equally likely to be biased in any direction) and that previous observations demonstrate the likely direction of the bias, the outcome which has occurred the most in the observed data is the most likely to occur again.For example, if the ''a priori'' probability of a biased coin is say 1%, and assuming that such a biased coin would come down heads say 60% of the time, then after 21 heads the probability of a biased coin has increased to about 32%.The opening scene of the play ''Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead'' by Tom Stoppard discusses these issues as one man continually flips heads and the other considers various possible explanations.===Changing probabilities===If external factors are allowed to change the probability of the events, the gambler's fallacy may not hold.", "For example, a change in the game rules might favour one player over the other, improving his or her win percentage.", "Similarly, an inexperienced player's success may decrease after opposing teams learn about and play against their weaknesses.", "This is another example of bias." ], [ "Psychology", "===Origins===The gambler's fallacy arises out of a belief in a law of small numbers, leading to the erroneous belief that small samples must be representative of the larger population.", "According to the fallacy, streaks must eventually even out in order to be representative.", "Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman first proposed that the gambler's fallacy is a cognitive bias produced by a psychological heuristic called the representativeness heuristic, which states that people evaluate the probability of a certain event by assessing how similar it is to events they have experienced before, and how similar the events surrounding those two processes are.", "According to this view, \"after observing a long run of red on the roulette wheel, for example, most people erroneously believe that black will result in a more representative sequence than the occurrence of an additional red\", so people expect that a short run of random outcomes should share properties of a longer run, specifically in that deviations from average should balance out.", "When people are asked to make up a random-looking sequence of coin tosses, they tend to make sequences where the proportion of heads to tails stays closer to 0.5 in any short segment than would be predicted by chance, a phenomenon known as insensitivity to sample size.", "Kahneman and Tversky interpret this to mean that people believe short sequences of random events should be representative of longer ones.", "The representativeness heuristic is also cited behind the related phenomenon of the clustering illusion, according to which people see streaks of random events as being non-random when such streaks are actually much more likely to occur in small samples than people expect.The gambler's fallacy can also be attributed to the mistaken belief that gambling, or even chance itself, is a fair process that can correct itself in the event of streaks, known as the just-world hypothesis.", "Other researchers believe that belief in the fallacy may be the result of a mistaken belief in an internal locus of control.", "When a person believes that gambling outcomes are the result of their own skill, they may be more susceptible to the gambler's fallacy because they reject the idea that chance could overcome skill or talent.===Variations===Some researchers believe that it is possible to define two types of gambler's fallacy: type one and type two.", "Type one is the classic gambler's fallacy, where individuals believe that a particular outcome is due after a long streak of another outcome.", "Type two gambler's fallacy, as defined by Gideon Keren and Charles Lewis, occurs when a gambler underestimates how many observations are needed to detect a favorable outcome, such as watching a roulette wheel for a length of time and then betting on the numbers that appear most often.", "For events with a high degree of randomness, detecting a bias that will lead to a favorable outcome takes an impractically large amount of time and is very difficult, if not impossible, to do.", "The two types differ in that type one wrongly assumes that gambling conditions are fair and perfect, while type two assumes that the conditions are biased, and that this bias can be detected after a certain amount of time.Another variety, known as the retrospective gambler's fallacy, occurs when individuals judge that a seemingly rare event must come from a longer sequence than a more common event does.", "The belief that an imaginary sequence of die rolls is more than three times as long when a set of three sixes is observed as opposed to when there are only two sixes.", "This effect can be observed in isolated instances, or even sequentially.", "Another example would involve hearing that a teenager has unprotected sex and becomes pregnant on a given night, and concluding that she has been engaging in unprotected sex for longer than if we hear she had unprotected sex but did not become pregnant, when the probability of becoming pregnant as a result of each intercourse is independent of the amount of prior intercourse.===Relationship to hot-hand fallacy===Another psychological perspective states that gambler's fallacy can be seen as the counterpart to basketball's hot-hand fallacy, in which people tend to predict the same outcome as the previous event - known as positive recency - resulting in a belief that a high scorer will continue to score.", "In the gambler's fallacy, people predict the opposite outcome of the previous event - negative recency - believing that since the roulette wheel has landed on black on the previous six occasions, it is due to land on red the next.", "Ayton and Fischer have theorized that people display positive recency for the hot-hand fallacy because the fallacy deals with human performance, and that people do not believe that an inanimate object can become \"hot.\"", "Human performance is not perceived as random, and people are more likely to continue streaks when they believe that the process generating the results is nonrandom.", "When a person exhibits the gambler's fallacy, they are more likely to exhibit the hot-hand fallacy as well, suggesting that one construct is responsible for the two fallacies.The difference between the two fallacies is also found in economic decision-making.", "A study by Huber, Kirchler, and Stockl in 2010 examined how the hot hand and the gambler's fallacy are exhibited in the financial market.", "The researchers gave their participants a choice: they could either bet on the outcome of a series of coin tosses, use an expert opinion to sway their decision, or choose a risk-free alternative instead for a smaller financial reward.", "Participants turned to the expert opinion to make their decision 24% of the time based on their past experience of success, which exemplifies the hot-hand.", "If the expert was correct, 78% of the participants chose the expert's opinion again, as opposed to 57% doing so when the expert was wrong.", "The participants also exhibited the gambler's fallacy, with their selection of either heads or tails decreasing after noticing a streak of either outcome.", "This experiment helped bolster Ayton and Fischer's theory that people put more faith in human performance than they do in seemingly random processes.===Neurophysiology===While the representativeness heuristic and other cognitive biases are the most commonly cited cause of the gambler's fallacy, research suggests that there may also be a neurological component.", "Functional magnetic resonance imaging has shown that after losing a bet or gamble, known as riskloss, the frontoparietal network of the brain is activated, resulting in more risk-taking behavior.", "In contrast, there is decreased activity in the amygdala, caudate, and ventral striatum after a riskloss.", "Activation in the amygdala is negatively correlated with gambler's fallacy, so that the more activity exhibited in the amygdala, the less likely an individual is to fall prey to the gambler's fallacy.", "These results suggest that gambler's fallacy relies more on the prefrontal cortex, which is responsible for executive, goal-directed processes, and less on the brain areas that control affective decision-making.The desire to continue gambling or betting is controlled by the striatum, which supports a choice-outcome contingency learning method.", "The striatum processes the errors in prediction and the behavior changes accordingly.", "After a win, the positive behavior is reinforced and after a loss, the behavior is conditioned to be avoided.", "In individuals exhibiting the gambler's fallacy, this choice-outcome contingency method is impaired, and they continue to make risks after a series of losses.===Possible solutions===The gambler's fallacy is a deep-seated cognitive bias and can be very hard to overcome.", "Educating individuals about the nature of randomness has not always proven effective in reducing or eliminating any manifestation of the fallacy.", "Participants in a study by Beach and Swensson in 1967 were shown a shuffled deck of index cards with shapes on them, and were instructed to guess which shape would come next in a sequence.", "The experimental group of participants was informed about the nature and existence of the gambler's fallacy, and were explicitly instructed not to rely on run dependency to make their guesses.", "The control group was not given this information.", "The response styles of the two groups were similar, indicating that the experimental group still based their choices on the length of the run sequence.", "This led to the conclusion that instructing individuals about randomness is not sufficient in lessening the gambler's fallacy.An individual's susceptibility to the gambler's fallacy may decrease with age.", "A study by Fischbein and Schnarch in 1997 administered a questionnaire to five groups: students in grades 5, 7, 9, 11, and college students specializing in teaching mathematics.", "None of the participants had received any prior education regarding probability.", "The question asked was: \"Ronni flipped a coin three times and in all cases heads came up.", "Ronni intends to flip the coin again.", "What is the chance of getting heads the fourth time?\"", "The results indicated that as the students got older, the less likely they were to answer with \"smaller than the chance of getting tails\", which would indicate a negative recency effect.", "35% of the 5th graders, 35% of the 7th graders, and 20% of the 9th graders exhibited the negative recency effect.", "Only 10% of the 11th graders answered this way, and none of the college students did.", "Fischbein and Schnarch theorized that an individual's tendency to rely on the representativeness heuristic and other cognitive biases can be overcome with age.Another possible solution comes from Roney and Trick, Gestalt psychologists who suggest that the fallacy may be eliminated as a result of grouping.", "When a future event such as a coin toss is described as part of a sequence, no matter how arbitrarily, a person will automatically consider the event as it relates to the past events, resulting in the gambler's fallacy.", "When a person considers every event as independent, the fallacy can be greatly reduced.Roney and Trick told participants in their experiment that they were betting on either two blocks of six coin tosses, or on two blocks of seven coin tosses.", "The fourth, fifth, and sixth tosses all had the same outcome, either three heads or three tails.", "The seventh toss was grouped with either the end of one block, or the beginning of the next block.", "Participants exhibited the strongest gambler's fallacy when the seventh trial was part of the first block, directly after the sequence of three heads or tails.", "The researchers pointed out that the participants that did not show the gambler's fallacy showed less confidence in their bets and bet fewer times than the participants who picked with the gambler's fallacy.", "When the seventh trial was grouped with the second block, and was perceived as not being part of a streak, the gambler's fallacy did not occur.Roney and Trick argued that instead of teaching individuals about the nature of randomness, the fallacy could be avoided by training people to treat each event as if it is a beginning and not a continuation of previous events.", "They suggested that this would prevent people from gambling when they are losing, in the mistaken hope that their chances of winning are due to increase based on an interaction with previous events." ], [ "Users", "=== Types of users ===Within a real-world setting, numerous studies have uncovered that for various decision makers placed in high stakes scenarios, it is likely they will reflect some degree of strong negative autocorrelation in their judgement.==== Asylum judges ====In a study aimed at discovering if the negative autocorrelation that exists with the gambler's fallacy existed in the decision made by U.S. asylum judges, results showed that after two successive asylum grants, a judge would be 5.5% less likely to approve a third grant.==== Baseball umpires ====In the game of baseball, decisions are made every minute.", "One particular decision made by umpires which is often subject to scrutiny is the 'strike zone' decision.", "Whenever a batter does not swing, the umpire must decide if the ball was within a fair region for the batter, known as the strike zone.", "If outside of this zone, the ball does not count towards outing the batter.", "In a study of over 12,000 games, results showed that umpires are 1.3% less likely to call a strike if the previous two balls were also strikes.==== Loan officers ====In the decision making of loan officers, it can be argued that monetary incentives are a key factor in biased decision making, rendering it harder to examine the gambler's fallacy effect.", "However, research shows that loan officers who are not incentivised by monetary gain are 8% less likely to approve a loan if they approved one for the previous client.==== Lottery players ====The effect of gambler's fallacy on lottery selections, based on studies by Dek Terrell.", "After winning numbers are drawn, lottery players respond by reducing the number of times they select those numbers in following draws.", "This effect slowly corrects over time, as players become less affected by the fallacy.Lottery play and jackpots entice gamblers around the globe, with the biggest decision for hopeful winners being what numbers to pick.", "While most people will have their own strategy, evidence shows that after a number is selected as a winner in the current draw, the same number will experience a significant drop in selections in the following lottery.", "A popular study by Charles Clotfelter and Philip Cook investigated this effect in 1991, where they concluded bettors would cease to select numbers immediately after they were selected, ultimately recovering selection popularity within three months.", "Soon after, a 1994 study was constructed by Dek Terrell to test the findings of Clotfelter and Cook.", "The key change in Terrell's study was the examination of a pari-mutuel lottery in which, a number selected with lower total wagers placed on it will result in a higher pay-out.", "While this examination did conclude that players in both types of lotteries exhibited behaviour in-line with the gambler's fallacy theory, those who took part in pari-mutuel betting seemed to be less influenced.+ Table 1.Percentage change in numbers selected by lottery players based on Clotfelter, Cook (1991)Amount bet by lottery playersNumbers drawn 14 April 1988Draw dayDays after drawAprilWinner Numbers0137561124441342427301250429201218151371828201719251432313495798176156401020181620169573022202432Average percentage of players selecting previouslywinning numbers compared to day of draw78%63%68%73%The effect the of gambler's fallacy can be observed as numbers are chosen far less frequently soon after they are selected as winners, recovering slowly over a two-month period.", "For example, on the 11th of April 1988, 41 players selected 244 as the winning combination.", "Three days later only 24 individuals selected 244, a 41.5% decrease.", "This is the gambler's fallacy in motion, as lottery players believe that the occurrence of a winning combination in previous days will decrease its likelihood of occurring today.====Video game players====Several video games feature the use of loot boxes, a collection of in-game items awarded on opening with random contents set by rarity metrics, as a monetization scheme.", "Since around 2018, loot boxes have come under scrutiny from governments and advocates on the basis they are akin to gambling, particularly for games aimed at youth.", "Some games use a special \"pity-timer\" mechanism, that if the player has opened several loot boxes in a row without obtaining a high-rarity item, subsequent loot boxes will improve the odds of a higher-rate item drop.", "This is considered to feed into the gambler's fallacy since it reinforces the idea that a player will eventually obtain a high-rarity item (a win) after only receiving common items from a string of previous loot boxes." ], [ "See also", "* Availability heuristic* Gambler's conceit* Gambler's ruin* Inverse gambler's fallacy* Hot hand fallacy* Law of averages* Martingale (betting system)* Mean reversion (finance)* Memorylessness* Oscar's grind* Regression toward the mean* Statistical regularity* Problem gambling" ], [ "References" ] ]
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[ [ "Gilbert Plains" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Gilbert Plains''' is an unincorporated urban community in the Gilbert Plains Municipality, Manitoba, Canada, that was classified as a town prior to January 1, 2015.It is situated on the Valley River, in the Parkland Region between Riding Mountain National Park and Duck Mountain Provincial Park.Gilbert Plains was featured during season 3 of the CBC program ''Still Standing''.", "The episode originally aired on September 5, 2017." ], [ "History", "Incorporated in 1906, the original townsite was some miles to the south.", "The community was named for Gilbert Ross, a Métis man who was living in the region when the first European settler, Glenlyon Campbell, arrived.On 1 January 2015, the '''Town of Gilbert Plains''' relinquished its town status when it amalgamated with the Rural Municipality of Gilbert Plains to form the Gilbert Plains Municipality." ], [ "Demographics", "In the 2021 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, Gilbert Plains had a population of 773 living in 356 of its 407 total private dwellings, a change of from its 2016 population of 785.With a land area of , it had a population density of in 2021." ], [ "Media", "A local newspaper, ''The Exponent'', serviced both Gilbert Plains and its neighboring town, Grandview.", "''The Exponent'' closed on 24 February 2017, after 117 years of operation." ], [ "Transportation", "The community is located on Highway 5 and the CN railway line between Dauphin and Grandview, approximately northwest of Winnipeg.", "Gilbert Plains railway station receives Via Rail service.", "The community previously had an airport." ], [ "Climate" ], [ "See also", "*Gilbert Plains (electoral district)" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gasparo Contarini" ], [ "Introduction", "Portrait of Gasparo Contarini.", "'''Gasparo Contarini''' (16 October 1483 – 24 August 1542) was an Italian diplomat, cardinal, and Bishop of Belluno.", "He advocated for dialogue with Protestants during the Reformation.", "Born in Venice, he served as the Republic's ambassador to Charles V during its war with him.", "He was the first to explain the time discrepancy in the Magellan–Elcano circumnavigation due to Earth's rotation.", "He participated in diplomatic efforts and reconciliations, and became a cardinal, even though he was initially a layman.", "Contarini was a leader in the reform movement within the Roman Catholic Church.", "He played a role in the papal approval of the Society of Jesus (Jesuits).", "He was also involved in attempts to restore religious unity in Germany.Contarini's work, ''De magistratibus et republica venetorum'', praised the Venetian government system for its harmony, fairness, and stability.", "He described the electoral process, particularly the lottery system for choosing officials, emphasizing fairness and equality.", "Contarini's depiction of the Doge, Venice's leader, highlighted the balance between symbolic monarchy and the power of civic institutions.", "He portrayed the Doge as both a regal figure and a representative of the city's republican governance.", "Contarini's writings aimed to glorify the republican nature of Venice while showcasing its ceremonial and symbolic elements." ], [ "Biography", "He was born in Venice, the eldest son of Alvise Contarini, of the ancient noble House of Contarini, and his wife Polissena Malpiero.", "After a thorough scientific and philosophical training at the University of Padua, he began his career in the service of his native city.", "From September 1520 to August 1525 he was the Republic's ambassador to Charles V, with whom Venice was soon at war, instructed to defend the Republic's alliance with Francis I of France.", "Though he participated at the Diet of Worms, April 1521, he never saw or spoke with Martin Luther.", "He accompanied Charles in the Netherlands and Spain.Contarini was in Spain when the Magellan–Elcano circumnavigation returned in 1522, bringing with them a cargo of spices from the East as well as a scientific curiosity.", "Although the sailors had carefully recorded every day of the three-year journey since they left Seville, the ship's log was one day earlier than the actual date when they returned to Seville.", "Contarini was the first European to give a correct explanation of this phenomenon.", "Since the ship had sailed westward around the world, in the same direction as the apparent motion of the sun in the sky, the sailors had experienced one fewer sunrise than a stationary observer.He participated at the Congress of Ferrara in 1526 as the Republic's representative; at the Congress the League of Cognac was formed against the Emperor, allying France with Venice and several states of Italy.", "Later, after the Sack of Rome (1527), he assisted in reconciling the emperor with Clement VII, whose release he had obtained, and with the Republic of Bologna.", "Upon his return to Venice, he was made a senator and a member of the Great Council.===Cardinalate===Contarini's coat of arms (left) in the Ingeram CodexIn 1535, Paul III unexpectedly made the secular diplomat a cardinal in order to bind an able man of evangelical disposition to the Roman interests.", "Contarini accepted, but in his new position did not exhibit his former independence.", "At the time he was promoted to cardinal, May 21, 1535, he was still a layman.", "However, already in October 1536 he was appointed Bishop of Belluno.", "One of the fruits of his diplomatic activity is his ''De magistratibus et republica Venetorum''.As Cardinal, Contarini figured among the most prominent of the ''Spirituali'', the leaders of the movement for reform within the Roman church.", "In April 1536 Paul III appointed a commission to devise ways for a reformation, with Contarini presiding.", "Paul III received favorably Contarini's ''Consilium de Emendanda Ecclesia'', which was circulated among the cardinalate, but it remained a dead letter.", "Contarini in a letter to his friend Cardinal Reginald Pole (dated 11 November 1538) says that his hopes had been wakened anew by the pope's attitude.", "He and his friends, who formed the Catholic evangelical movement of the Spirituali, thought that all would have been done when the abuses in church life had been put away.", "What Contarini had to do with it is shown by his letters to the pope in which he complained of the schism in the church, of simony and flattery in the papal court, but above all of papal tyranny, its least grateful passages.", "Paul's successor Paul IV, once a member on the commission, in 1539 put it on the ''Index Librorum Prohibitorum''.In 1541 Cardinal Contarini was papal legate at the Conference of Regensburg, the diet and religious debate marking the culmination of attempts to restore religious unity in Germany by means of conferences.", "There everything was unfavorable; the Catholic states were bitter, the Evangelicals were distant.", "Contarini's instructions though apparently free were in fact full of papal reservations.", "But the papal party had gladly sent him, thinking that through him a union in doctrine could be brought about, while the interest of Rome could be attended to later.", "Though the princes stood aloof, the theologians and the emperor were for peace, so the main articles were put forth in a formula, Evangelical in thought and Catholic in expression.", "The papal legate had revised the Catholic proposal and assented to the formula agreed upon.", "All gave their approval, even Johann Eck, though he later regretted it.Contarini's theological advisor was Tommaso Badia; his own position is shown in a treatise on justification, composed at Regensburg, which in essential points is Evangelical, differing only in the omission of the negative side and in being interwoven with the teaching of Aquinas.", "Meanwhile, the papal policy had changed, and Contarini was compelled to follow his leader.", "He advised the emperor, after the conference had broken up, not to renew it, but to submit everything to the pope.Ignatius Loyola acknowledged that Cardinal Contarini was largely responsible for the papal approbation of the Society of Jesus, on September 27, 1540.Meanwhile, Rome had drifted further into reaction, and Contarini died while legate at Bologna, at a time when the Inquisition had driven many of his friends and fellows in conviction into exile.His tomb in the church of the Madonna dell'Orto" ], [ "The Commonwealth and Government of Venice", "''De republica Venetorum'', 1626.Contarini's book ''De magistratibus et republica venetorum'' (Paris, 1543) is an important source for the study of sixteenth- and seventeenth-century Venice's unique system of government.", "It was published in an English translation in 1599.This magisterial work, written during his time as an ambassador to Charles V, extols the various institutions of the Venetian state in a manner designed to emphasize harmony, fairness and serenity.", "Historians have demonstrated that this text represents Contarini's idealization of Venetian reality.", "Probably written for a foreign, courtly audience, this work functions as the source for the everlasting propagation of the \"myth of Venice\" as a stable, unchanging and prosperous society.His depiction of how members of the council were elected to the senate, for example, aimed to emphasise the way the electoral system prevented factionalism from occurring, instead making sure that “public benefits are largely extended among the citizens” rather than narrowly amongst “one family” .", "An elaborate lottery is described as giving the maximum amount of chance in appointing patricians to particular offices, and care is taken to point out if two of one family are standing for similar posts.", "Fairness is further emphasised in Contarini's constant references to the equality the members of the council enjoyed.", "They “sit down where it pleases them, for there is no place appointed to any”, and they “with oath promise to do their utmost diligence, that the laws may be observed” .", "He creates an image of disparate individuals, with factions broken up by the guiding hand of the law, working to ensure those in positions of importance are fairly chosen from their number and without the capacity to serve the interests of a smaller group.Contarini's depiction of the Doge lucidly demonstrates the way in which this figure embodies both the conscious illusion of a resplendent monarchical ruler and an equally conscious demonstration of a regime that wishes to portray itself as ruled by many limiting the powers of one.", "This calculated duality means that Contarini's doge, which the second book of De magistratibus is almost entirely devoted to discussing, represents the closest point in his text to what actually occurred, because the Doge served as a literal embodiment of the idealisation of the reality of Venetian politics.", "For Contarini, this duality almost defines the greatness of the Venetian constitution.", "The Doge is the “heart”, under which “all are comprised” .", "Contarini places him in the centre of his body metaphor, making him synecdochical for the city and the people that reside within it.", "This means he is to ensure that the disparate, competing interests of the city beat in time with one another, creating in the process the “perfection of civil agreement”.", "His job as a conductor, rather than a ruler, means therefore that the role takes on the aspect of representative of the entire city.", "Contarini's description of his vestments, privileges and rituals can therefore be compared to Marin Sanudo’s description of the physical spaces of Venice in his essay ''In Praise of Venice''.", "Both are designed to extol the virtues of the entire city by describing representative parts.", "This is apparent in the way both authors treat the chapel of St. Mark.", "Patron saints were hugely important in terms of civic self-identification in renaissance Italy .", "Contarini emphasizes this, saying that he is “with exceeding honour solemnized of the Venetians” .", "His description of the Doge's close relationship with the saint, through the “solemn pomp” with which he attends mass at the saint's chapel, attaches him to the aforementioned “exceeding honour”, in a similar fashion to the way in which Sanudo glorifies Venice as a whole by constantly referring to the beauty and worth of St. Mark's square and chapel as part of his panoramic praise of the city.At the same time, however, Contarini's overall purpose is, of course, the glorification of the republican nature of his city.", "Therefore, he cannot avoid referring to “the other side” of the Doge's figure when discussing his “royal appearing show” .", "Things like the “kingly ornaments” which were “always purple garments or cloth of gold”, both very ostentatious assertions of wealth and power, were to ensure he was “recompensed” for his “limitation of authority” .", "Contarini thus openly concludes that the Doge is a combination of myth and reality, saying that “in everything you may see the show of a king, but his authority is nothing” .", "Indeed, as Edward Muir points out, “by the sixteenth century virtually every word, gesture and act that the doge made in public was subject to legal and ceremonial regulation” .", "He could not buy expensive jewels, own property outside Venice or the Veneto, display his insignia outside the Ducal Palace, decorate his apartment as he wanted, receive people in his ducal dress, send official letters, or have close ties with guilds, amongst a great many other restrictions.", "Legally, therefore, power in Venice came from the numerous councils, not the figurehead.", "The Doge thus becomes a brazen republican statement.", "Venice drew attention to a princely, magnificently adorned figurehead, only to direct most executive power to councils of her citizens." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "*" ], [ "Further reading", "* Gleason, Elisabeth G. (1993).", "''Gasparo Contarini: Venice, Rome, and Reform''.", "Berkeley: University of California Press.", "*" ], [ "External links", "* Works of Contarini at the Internet Archive" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gastroenterology" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Gastroenterology''' (from the Greek gastḗr- \"belly\", -énteron \"intestine\", and -logía \"study of\") is the branch of medicine focused on the digestive system and its disorders.", "The digestive system consists of the gastrointestinal tract, sometimes referred to as the ''GI tract,'' which includes the esophagus, stomach, small intestine and large intestine as well as the accessory organs of digestion which include the pancreas, gallbladder, and liver.", "The digestive system functions to move material through the GI tract via peristalsis, break down that material via digestion, absorb nutrients for use throughout the body, and remove waste from the body via defecation.", "Physicians who specialize in the medical specialty of gastroenterology are called gastroenterologists or sometimes ''GI doctors''.", "Some of the most common conditions managed by gastroenterologists include gastroesophageal reflux disease, gastrointestinal bleeding, irritable bowel syndrome, inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) which includes Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis, peptic ulcer disease, gallbladder and biliary tract disease, hepatitis, pancreatitis, colitis, colon polyps and cancer, nutritional problems, and many more." ], [ "History", "Drawings of Bozzini's \"Lichtleiter\", an early endoscopeCiting from Egyptian papyri, John F. Nunn identified significant knowledge of gastrointestinal diseases among practicing physicians during the periods of the pharaohs.", "Irynakhty, of the tenth dynasty, 2125 B.C., was a court physician specializing in gastroenterology, sleeping, and proctology.Among ancient Greeks, Hippocrates attributed digestion to concoction.", "Galen's concept of the stomach having four ''faculties'' was widely accepted up to modernity in the seventeenth century.=== Eighteenth-century ===* Italian Lazzaro Spallanzani (1729–99) was among early physicians to disregard Galen's theories, and in 1780 he gave experimental proof on the action of gastric juice on foodstuffs.", "* In 1767, German Johann von Zimmermann wrote an important work on dysentery.", "* In 1777, Maximilian Stoll of Vienna described cancer of the gallbladder.=== Nineteenth-century ===* In 1805, Philipp Bozzini made the first attempt to observe inside the living human body using a tube he named ''Lichtleiter'' (light-guiding instrument) to examine the urinary tract, the rectum, and the pharynx.", "This is the earliest description of endoscopy.", "* Charles Emile Troisier described enlargement of lymph nodes in abdominal cancer.", "* In 1823, William Prout discovered that stomach juices contain hydrochloric acid.", "* In 1833, William Beaumont published ''Experiments and Observations on the Gastric Juice and the Physiology of Digestion'' following years of experimenting on test subject Alexis St.", "Martin.", "* In 1868, Adolf Kussmaul, a well-known German physician, developed the gastroscope.", "He perfected the technique on a sword swallower.", "* In 1871, at the society of physicians in Vienna, Carl Stoerk demonstrated an esophagoscope made of two telescopic metal tubes, initially devised by Waldenburg in 1870.", "* In 1876, Karl Wilhelm von Kupffer described the properties of some liver cells now called Kupffer cells.", "* In 1883, Hugo Kronecker and Samuel James Meltzer studied oesophageal manometry in humans.McClendon's pH-probe=== Twentieth-century ===* In 1915, Jesse McClendon tested acidity of human stomach ''in situ''.", "* In 1921–22, Walter Alvarez did the first electrogastrography research.", "* Rudolf Schindler described many important diseases involving the human digestive system during World War I in his illustrated textbook and is portrayed by some as the \"father of gastroscopy\".", "He and Georg Wolf developed a semiflexible gastroscope in 1932.", "* In 1932, Burrill Bernard Crohn described Crohn's disease.", "* In 1957, Basil Hirschowitz introduced the first prototype of a fibreoptic gastroscope.=== Twenty-first century ===* In 2005, Barry Marshall and Robin Warren of Australia were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their discovery of ''Helicobacter pylori'' (1982/1983) and its role in peptic ulcer disease.", "James Leavitt assisted in their research, but the Nobel Prize is not awarded posthumously so he was not included in the award." ], [ "Disease classification", "1.", "'''International Classification of Disease (ICD 2007)/WHO classification''':* Chapter XI, Diseases of the digestive system,(K00-K93)2.", "'''MeSH subject Heading''':* Gastroenterology (G02.403.776.409.405)* Gastroenterological diseases(C06.405)3.", "'''National Library of Medicine Catalogue (NLM classification 2006)''':* Digestive system(W1)" ], [ "Procedures", "=== Colonoscopy ===Diagram of a colonoscopy procedureA procedure using a long thin tube with a camera that is passed through the anus to visualize the rectum and the entire length of the colon.", "The procedure is performed either to look for colon polyps and/or colon cancer in somebody without symptoms, referred to as screening, or to further evaluate symptoms including rectal bleeding, dark tarry stools, change in bowel habits or stool consistency (diarrhea, pencil-thin stool), abdominal pain, and unexplained weight loss.", "Before the procedure, the physician might ask the patient to stop taking certain medications including blood thinners, aspirin, diabetes medications, or nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs.", "A bowel prep is usually taken the night before and into the morning of the procedure which consists of an enema or laxatives, either pills or powder dissolved in liquid, that will cause diarrhea.", "The procedure might need to be stopped and rescheduled if there is stool remaining in the colon due to an incomplete bowel prep because the physician can not adequately visualize the colon.", "During the procedure, the patient is sedated and the scope is used to examine the entire length of the colon looking for polyps, bleeding, or abnormal tissue.", "A biopsy or polyp removal can then be performed and the tissue sent to the lab for evaluation.", "The procedure usually takes thirty minutes to an hour followed by a one to two hour observation period.", "Complications include bloating, cramping, a reaction to anesthesia, bleeding, and a hole through the wall of the colon that may require repeat colonoscopy or surgery.", "Signs of a serious complication requiring urgent or emergent medical attention include severe pain in the abdomen, fever, bleeding that does not improve, dizziness, and weakness.=== Sigmoidoscopy ===SigmoidoscopyA procedure similar to a colonoscopy using a long thin tube with a camera (scope) passed through the anus but only intended to visualize the rectum and the last part of the colon closest to the rectum.", "All aspects of the procedure are the same as for a colonoscopy with the exception that this procedure only lasts ten to twenty minutes and is done without sedation.", "This usually allows for the patient to return to normal activities immediately after the procedure is finished.=== Esophagogastroduodenoscopy (EGD) ===EndoscopyA procedure using a long thin tube with a camera that is passed through the mouth to view the esophagus (\"esophago-\"), stomach (\"gastro-\"), and the duodenum (\"duodeno-\").", "It is also referred to as upper endoscopy or just endoscopy.", "The procedure is performed for further evaluation of symptoms including persistent heartburn, indigestion, vomiting blood, dark tarry stools, persistent nausea and vomiting, pain, difficulty swallowing, painful swallowing, and unexplained weight loss.", "It is also performed for further testing following a lab test that shows low hemoglobin levels without a known cause or an abnormal barium swallow.", "The procedure can be used to diagnose many disorders through direct visualization or tissue biopsy including esophageal varices, esophageal strictures, gastroesophageal reflux disease, Barrett's esophagus, cancer, celiac disease, gastritis, peptic ulcer disease, and a H. pylori infection.", "Intra-operative techniques can then be used for treatment of certain disorders like banding esophageal varices or dilating esophageal strictures.", "The patient will likely be required to not eat or drink anything starting 4 hours prior to the procedure.", "Sedation is usually required for patient comfort.", "This procedure usually lasts around thirty minutes followed by a one to two hour observation period.", "Side effects include bloating, nausea, and a sore throat for 1 to 2 days.", "Complications are rare but include reaction to the anesthesia, bleeding, and a hole through the wall of the esophagus, stomach, or small intestine which could require surgery.", "Signs of a serious complication requiring urgent or emergent medical attention include chest pain, problems breathing, problems swallowing, throat pain that gets worse, vomiting with blood or the appearance of \"coffee-grounds\", worsening abdominal pain, bloody or black tarry stool, and fever.=== Endoscopic Retrograde Cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) ===ERCPA procedure using a long thin tube with a camera passed through the mouth into the first part of the small intestine to locate, diagnose, and treat disorders related to the bile and pancreatic ducts.", "These ducts carry fluids that help with digesting food from the liver, gallbladder, and pancreas and can become narrowed or blocked as a result of gallstones, infection, inflammation, pancreatic pseudocysts, and tumors of the bile ducts or pancreas.", "As a result one may experience back pain, yellowing of the skin, and an abnormal lab test showing an elevated bilirubin level which could necessitate this procedure.", "However, the procedure is not recommended if the patient has acute pancreatitis unless the level of bilirubin remains high or is increasing which could suggest the blockage is still present.", "The patient will likely be required to not eat or drink anything starting 8 hours prior to the procedure.", "After the patient is sedated, the physician will pass the scope through the mouth, esophagus, stomach, and into the duodenum to locate the opening where the ducts drain into the small intestine.", "The physician can then inject dye into these ducts and take X-rays which show a real time view, via fluoroscopy, allowing the physician to locate and relieve the blockage.", "This is done through multiple techniques including cutting the opening and creating a bigger hole for drainage, removing gallstones and other debris, dilating narrow parts of the ducts, or placing a stent which keeps the ducts open.", "The physician can also take a biopsy of the ducts to evaluate for cancer, infection, or inflammation.", "Side effects include bloating, nausea, or a sore throat for one to two days.", "Complications include pancreatitis, infection of the bile ducts or gallbladder, bleeding, reaction to the anesthesia, and perforation of any structures that the scope or its instruments pass but particularly the duodenum, bile duct, and pancreatic duct.", "Signs of a serious complication requiring urgent or emergent medical attention include bloody or black tarry stool, chest pain, fever, worsening abdominal pain, worsening throat pain, problems breathing, problems swallowing, vomit that is bloody or looks like coffee-grounds.", "Most of the time complications from this procedure require hospitalization for treatment." ], [ "Disorders", "=== Esophagus ======= Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) ====Gastroesophageal refluxA condition that is a result of stomach contents consistently coming back up into the esophagus causing troublesome symptoms or complications.", "Symptoms are considered troublesome based on how disruptive they are to a patient's daily life and well-being.", "This definition was standardized by the Montreal Consensus in 2006.Symptoms include a painful feeling in the middle of the chest and feeling stomach contents coming back up into the mouth.", "Other symptoms include chest pain, nausea, difficulty swallowing, painful swallowing, coughing, and hoarseness.", "Risk factors include obesity, pregnancy, smoking, hiatal hernia, certain medications, and certain foods.", "Diagnosis is usually based on symptoms and medical history, with further testing only after treatment has been ineffective.", "Further diagnosis can be achieved by measuring how much acid enters the esophagus or looking into the esophagus with a scope.", "Treatment and management options include lifestyle modifications, medications, and surgery if there is no improvement with other interventions.", "Lifestyle modifications include not lying down for three hours after eating, lying down on the left side, elevating head while laying by elevating head of the bed or using extra pillows, losing weight, stopping smoking, and avoiding coffee, mint, alcohol, chocolate, fatty foods, acidic foods, and spicy foods.", "Medications include antacids, proton pump inhibitors, H2 receptor blockers.", "Surgery is usually a Nissen fundoplication and is performed by a surgeon.", "Complications of longstanding GERD can include inflammation of the esophagus that may cause bleeding or ulcer formation, narrowing of the esophagus leading to swallowing issues, a change in the lining of the esophagus that can increase the chances of developing cancer (Barrett's esophagus), chronic cough, asthma, inflammation of the larynx leading to hoarseness, and wearing away of tooth enamel leading to dental issues.==== Barrett's esophagus ====A condition in which the lining of the esophagus changes to look more like the lining of the intestine and increases the risk of developing esophageal cancer.", "There are no specific symptoms although symptoms of GERD may be present for years prior as it is associated with a 10–15% risk of Barrett's esophagus.", "Risk factors include chronic GERD for more than 5 years, being age 50 or older, being non-Hispanic white, being male, having a family history of this disorder, belly fat, and a history of smoking.", "Protective factors include H. pylori infection, frequent use of aspirin or other non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, and diets high in fruits and vegetables.", "Diagnosis can be made by looking into the esophagus with a scope and possibly taking a biopsy of the lining of the esophagus.", "Treatment includes managing GERD, destroying abnormal parts of the esophagus, removing abnormal tissue in the esophagus, and removing part of the esophagus as performed by a general surgeon.", "Further management could include periodic surveillance with repeat scopes at certain intervals determined by the physician, likely not more frequently than every three to five years.", "Complications from this disorder can result in a type of cancer called esophageal adenocarcinoma." ], [ "Education and training", "=== United States ===Gastroenterology is a subspecialty of internal medicine and therefore requires three years of internal medicine residency training followed by three additional years in a dedicated gastroenterology fellowship.", "This training is certified by the American Board of Internal Medicine (ABIM) and the American Osteopathic Board of Internal Medicine (AOBIM) and must be completed at a program accredited by the Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education (ACGME).", "Other national societies that oversee training include the American College of Gastroenterology (ACG), the American Gastroenterological Association (AGA), and the American Society for Gastrointestinal Endoscopy (ASGE)." ], [ "Scope of practice", "Gastroenterologists see patients both in the clinic and the hospital setting.", "They can order diagnostic tests, prescribe medications, and perform a number of diagnostic and therapeutic procedures including colonoscopy, esophagogastroduodenoscopy (EGD), endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP), endoscopic ultrasound (EUS), and liver biopsy.=== Subspecialties ===Some gastroenterology trainees will complete a \"fourth-year\" (although this is often their seventh year of graduate medical education) in transplant hepatology, advanced interventional endoscopy, inflammatory bowel disease, motility, or other topics.Advanced endoscopy, sometimes called interventional or surgical endoscopy, is a sub-specialty of gastroenterology that focuses on advanced endoscopic techniques for the treatment of pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastrointestinal disease.", "Interventional gastroenterologists typically undergo an additional year of rigorous training in advanced endoscopic techniques including endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography, endoscopic ultrasound-guided diagnostic and interventional procedures, and advanced resection techniques including endoscopic mucosal resection and endoscopic submucosal dissection.", "Additionally, the performance of endoscopic bariatric procedures is also performed by some advanced endoscopists.", "'''Hepatology''', or '''hepatobiliary medicine''', encompasses the study of the liver, pancreas, and biliary tree, and is traditionally considered a sub-specialty of gastroenterology, while '''proctology''' encompasses disorders of the anus, rectum, and colon and is considered a sub-specialty of general surgery." ], [ "Professional organizations", "* American College of Gastroenterology (ACG) - was founded in 1932 by a group of 10 gastroenterologists in New York City and now consists of over 16,000 gastroenterologists from 86 countries.", "The ACG sponsors conferences regionally and nationally, publishes several journals including ''The American Journal of Gastroenterology, Clinical and Translational Gastroenterology, and ACG Case Reports Journal,'' hosts continuing medical education (CME) programs, supports initiatives for fellows-in-training, develops and promotes evidence-based guidelines, supports advocacy and public policy, and provides clinical research funding consisting of $27 million in research grants and career development awards ($2.2 million in 2022).", "* American Gastroenterological Association (AGA) - was founded in 1897 and now includes over 16,000 members worldwide.", "Their mission statement reads \"''Empowering clinicians and researchers to improve digestive health''.\"", "The AGA publishes two journals monthly titled ''Gastroenterology'' and ''Clinical Gastroenterology and Hepatology'', sponsors an annual meeting called Digestive Disease Week (DDW), provides more than $3 million each year in research grants to over 50 investigators through the AGA Research Foundation Awards Program ($2.56 million to 61 investigators in 2022), develops and promotes evidence-based guidelines, influences public policy through AGA’s Congressional Advocates Program and the AGA political action committee (PAC), and supports a variety of educational opportunities including those that qualify for continuing medical education (CME) and maintenance of certification (MOC) credits.", "* American Society for Gastrointestinal Endoscopy (ASGE) - was founded in 1941 and now includes around 15,000 members worldwide.", "Their mission statement reads \"''The American Society for Gastrointestinal Endoscopy is the global leader in advancing digestive care through education, advocacy and promotion of excellence and innovation in endoscopy''.\"", "The ASGE publishes a monthly journal titled ''Gastrointestinal Endoscopy'' (''GIE''), develops and promotes evidence-based guidelines, offers educational resources for its members, and provides advocacy resources for influencing public policy.", "* World Gastroenterology Organisation (WGO) - was founded in 1958 and consists of 119 Member Societies and 4 regional affiliated associations from around the world which represents a combined 60,000 individuals.", "The WGO mission statement reads \"''To promote, to the general public and healthcare professional alike, an awareness of the worldwide prevalence and optimal care of gastrointestinal and liver disorders, and to improve care of these disorders, through the provision of high quality, accessible and independent education and training''.\"", "The WGO publishes a newsletter titled the electronic World Gastroenterology News (''e-WGN''), develops global guidelines, engages in advocacy through World Digestive Health Day (WDHD) held yearly on 29 May, and provides educational resources including 23 training centers around the world and a Train the Trainers (TTT) program.", "* British Society of Gastroenterology* United European Gastroenterology" ], [ "Academic journals", "* ''The American Journal of Gastroenterology''* ''Clinical Gastroenterology and Hepatology''* ''Endoscopy''* ''Gastroenterology''* ''Gastrointestinal Endoscopy''* ''Gut''* ''Inflammatory Bowel Diseases''* ''Journal of Clinical Gastroenterology''* ''Journal of Crohn's and Colitis''* ''Neurogastroenterology & Motility''* ''World Journal of Gastroenterology''" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gulag" ], [ "Introduction", "A punishment cell block in one of the subcamps of Vorkutlag, 1945The '''Gulag''' was a system of forced labor camps in the Soviet Union.", "The word ''Gulag'' originally referred only to the division of the Soviet secret police that was in charge of running the forced labor camps from the 1930s to the early 1950s during Joseph Stalin's rule, but in English literature the term is popularly used for the system of forced labor throughout the Soviet era.", "The abbreviation GULAG (ГУЛАГ) stands for \"'''Г'''ла́вное '''У'''правле́ние исправи́тельно-трудовы́х '''ЛАГ'''ере́й\" (Main Directorate of Correctional Labour Camps), but the full official name of the agency changed several times.The Gulag is recognized as a major instrument of political repression in the Soviet Union.", "The camps housed a wide range of convicts, from petty to serious criminals, to political prisoners, a large number of whom were convicted by simplified procedures, such as NKVD troikas or other instruments of extrajudicial punishment.", "In 1918–1922, the agency was administered by the Cheka, followed by the GPU (1922–1923), the OGPU (1923–1934), later known as the NKVD (1934–1946), and the Ministry of Internal Affairs (MVD) in the final years.", "The Solovki prison camp, the first correctional labour camp which was constructed after the revolution, was opened in 1918 and legalized by a decree, \"On the creation of the forced-labor camps\", on April 15, 1919.The internment system grew rapidly, reaching a population of 100,000 in the 1920s.", "By the end of 1940, the population of the Gulag camps amounted to 1.5 million.", "The emergent consensus among scholars is that, of the 14 million prisoners who passed through the Gulag camps and the 4 million prisoners who passed through the Gulag colonies from 1930 to 1953, roughly 1.5 to 1.7 million prisoners perished there or they died soon after they were released.", "Some journalists and writers who question the reliability of such data heavily rely on memoir sources that come to higher estimations.", "Archival researchers have found \"no plan of destruction\" of the gulag population and no statement of official intent to kill them, and prisoner releases vastly exceeded the number of deaths in the Gulag.", "This policy can partially be attributed to the common practice of releasing prisoners who were suffering from incurable diseases as well as prisoners who were near death.Almost immediately after the death of Stalin, the Soviet establishment started to dismantle the Gulag system.", "A mass general amnesty was granted in the immediate aftermath of Stalin's death, but it was only offered to non-political prisoners and political prisoners who had been sentenced to a maximum of five years in prison.", "Shortly thereafter, Nikita Khrushchev was elected First Secretary, initiating the processes of de-Stalinization and the Khrushchev Thaw, triggering a mass release and rehabilitation of political prisoners.", "Six years later, on 25 January 1960, the Gulag system was officially abolished when the remains of its administration were dissolved by Khrushchev.", "The legal practice of sentencing convicts to penal labor continues to exist in the Russian Federation, but its capacity is greatly reduced.Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, winner of the Nobel Prize in Literature, who survived eight years of Gulag incarceration, gave the term its international repute with the publication of ''The Gulag Archipelago'' in 1973.The author likened the scattered camps to \"a chain of islands\", and as an eyewitness, he described the Gulag as a system where people were worked to death.", "In March 1940, there were 53 Gulag camp directorates (simply referred to as \"camps\") and 423 labor colonies in the Soviet Union.", "Many mining and industrial towns and cities in northern Russia, eastern Russia and Kazakhstan such as Karaganda, Norilsk, Vorkuta and Magadan, were blocks of camps which were originally built by prisoners and subsequently run by ex-prisoners." ], [ "Etymology", "GULAG (ГУЛАГ) stands for \"Гла́вное управле́ние исправи́тельно-трудовы́х лагере́й\" (Main Directorate of Correctional Labour Camps).", "It was renamed several times, e.g., to Main Directorate of Correctional Labor Colonies (), which names can be seen in the documents describing the subordination of various camps." ], [ "Overview", "Genrikh Yagoda (middle) inspecting the construction of the Moscow-Volga canal, 1935.Behind his right shoulder is a young Nikita Khrushchev.Some historians estimate that 14 million people were imprisoned in the Gulag labor camps from 1929 to 1953 (the estimates for the period from 1918 to 1929 are more difficult to calculate).", "Other calculations, by historian Orlando Figes, refer to 25 million prisoners of the Gulag in 1928–1953.A further 6–7 million were deported and exiled to remote areas of the USSR, and 4–5 million passed through labor colonies, plus who were already in, or had been sent to, labor settlements.According to some estimates, the total population of the camps varied from 510,307 in 1934 to 1,727,970 in 1953.According to other estimates, at the beginning of 1953 the total number of prisoners in prison camps was more than 2.4 million of which more than 465,000 were political prisoners.", "Between the years 1934 to 1953, 20% to 40% of the Gulag population in each given year were released.The institutional analysis of the Soviet concentration system is complicated by the formal distinction between GULAG and GUPVI.", "GUPVI (ГУПВИ) was the Main Administration for Affairs of Prisoners of War and Internees (, ), a department of NKVD (later MVD) in charge of handling of foreign civilian internees and POWs (prisoners of war) in the Soviet Union during and in the aftermath of World War II (1939–1953).", "In many ways the GUPVI system was similar to GULAG.Its major function was the organization of foreign forced labor in the Soviet Union.", "The top management of GUPVI came from the GULAG system.", "The major memoir noted distinction from GULAG was the absence of convicted criminals in the GUPVI camps.", "Otherwise the conditions in both camp systems were similar: hard labor, poor nutrition and living conditions, and high mortality rate.For the Soviet political prisoners, like Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, all foreign civilian detainees and foreign POWs were imprisoned in the GULAG; the surviving foreign civilians and POWs considered themselves prisoners in the GULAG.", "According to the estimates, in total, during the whole period of the existence of the GUPVI, there were over 500 POW camps (within the Soviet Union and abroad), which imprisoned over 4,000,000 POW.", "Most Gulag inmates were not political prisoners, although significant numbers of political prisoners could be found in the camps at any one time.Petty crimes and jokes about the Soviet government and officials were punishable by imprisonment.", "About half of political prisoners in the Gulag camps were imprisoned \"by administrative means\", i.e., without trial at courts; official data suggest that there were over 2.6 million sentences to imprisonment on cases investigated by the secret police throughout 1921–53.Maximum sentences varied depending on the type of crime and changed over time.", "From 1953 the maximum sentence for petty theft was six months, having previously been one year and seven years.", "Theft of state property however had a minimum sentence of seven years and a maximum of twenty five.", "In 1958 the maximum sentence for any crime was reduced from twenty five to fifteen years.In 1960, the Ministerstvo Vnutrennikh Del (MVD) ceased to function as the Soviet-wide administration of the camps in favour of individual republic MVD branches.", "The centralised detention administrations temporarily ceased functioning." ], [ "Contemporary usage of the word and the usage of other terms", "The fence at the old Gulag camp in Perm-36, founded in 1943, turned into a museum.", "Many Ukrainian nationalists were repressed and held at this camp.Although the term ''Gulag'' was originally used in reference to a government agency, in English and many other languages, the acronym acquired the qualities of a common noun, denoting ''the Soviet system of prison-based, unfree labor''.Even more broadly, \"Gulag\" has come to mean the Soviet repressive system itself, the set of procedures that prisoners once called the \"meat-grinder\": the arrests, the interrogations, the transport in unheated cattle cars, the forced labor, the destruction of families, the years spent in exile, the early and unnecessary deaths.Western authors use the term ''Gulag'' to denote all the prisons and internment camps in the Soviet Union.", "The term's contemporary usage is at times notably not directly related to the USSR, such as in the expression \"North Korea's Gulag\" for camps operational today.The word ''Gulag'' was not often used in Russian, either officially or colloquially; the predominant terms were ''the camps'' (лагеря, ''lagerya'') and ''the zone'' (зона, ''zona''), usually singular, for the labor camp system and for the individual camps.", "The official term, \"correctional labour camp\", was suggested for official use by the Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in the session of July 27, 1929." ], [ "History", "=== Background ===Prisoners on a ship on their way to Sakhalin, remote prison island, c. 1903The Tsar and the Russian Empire both used forced exile and forced labour as forms of judicial punishment.", "Katorga, a category of punishment which was reserved for those who were convicted of the most serious crimes, had many of the features which were associated with labor-camp imprisonment: confinement, simplified facilities (as opposed to the facilities which existed in prisons), and forced labor, usually involving hard, unskilled or semi-skilled work.", "According to historian Anne Applebaum, katorga was not a common sentence; approximately 6,000 katorga convicts were serving sentences in 1906 and 28,600 in 1916.Under the Imperial Russian penal system, those who were convicted of less serious crimes were sent to corrective prisons and they were also made to work.Forced exile to Siberia had been in use for a wide range of offenses since the seventeenth century and it was a common punishment for political dissidents and revolutionaries.", "In the nineteenth century, the members of the failed Decembrist revolt and Polish nobles who resisted Russian rule were sent into exile.", "Fyodor Dostoevsky was sentenced to die for reading banned literature in 1849, but the sentence was commuted to banishment to Siberia.", "Members of various socialist revolutionary groups, including Bolsheviks such as Sergo Ordzhonikidze, Vladimir Lenin, Leon Trotsky, and Joseph Stalin were also sent into exile.Convicts who were serving labor sentences and exiles were sent to the underpopulated areas of Siberia and the Russian Far East – regions that lacked towns or food sources as well as organized transportation systems.", "Despite the isolated conditions, some prisoners successfully escaped to populated areas.", "Stalin himself escaped three of the four times after he was sent into exile.", "Since these times, Siberia gained its fearful connotation as a place of punishment, a reputation which was further enhanced by the Soviet GULAG system.", "The Bolsheviks' own experiences with exile and forced labor provided them with a model which they could base their own system on, including the importance of strict enforcement.From 1920 to 1950, the leaders of the Communist Party and the Soviet state considered repression a tool that they should use to secure the normal functioning of the Soviet state system and preserve and strengthen their positions within their social base, the working class (when the Bolsheviks took power, peasants represented 80% of the population).In the midst of the Russian Civil War, Lenin and the Bolsheviks established a \"special\" prison camp system, separate from its traditional prison system and under the control of the Cheka.", "These camps, as Lenin envisioned them, had a distinctly political purpose.", "These early camps of the GULAG system were introduced in order to isolate and eliminate class-alien, socially dangerous, disruptive, suspicious, and other disloyal elements, whose deeds and thoughts were not contributing to the strengthening of the dictatorship of the proletariat.Forced labor as a \"method of reeducation\" was applied in the Solovki prison camp as early as the 1920s, based on Trotsky's experiments with forced labor camps for Czech war prisoners from 1918 and his proposals to introduce \"compulsory labor service\" voiced in ''Terrorism and Communism''.", "Various categories of prisoners were defined: petty criminals, POWs of the Russian Civil War, officials accused of corruption, sabotage and embezzlement, political enemies, dissidents and other people deemed dangerous for the state.", "In the first decade of Soviet rule, the judicial and penal systems were neither unified nor coordinated, and there was a distinction between criminal prisoners and political or \"special\" prisoners.The \"traditional\" judicial and prison system, which dealt with criminal prisoners, were first overseen by The People's Commissariat of Justice until 1922, after which they were overseen by the People's Commissariat of Internal Affairs, also known as the NKVD.", "The Cheka and its successor organizations, the GPU or State Political Directorate and the OGPU, oversaw political prisoners and the \"special\" camps to which they were sent.", "In April 1929, the judicial distinctions between criminal and political prisoners were eliminated, and control of the entire Soviet penal system turned over to the OGPU.", "In 1928 there were 30,000 individuals interned; the authorities were opposed to compelled labor.", "In 1927 the official in charge of prison administration wrote:The exploitation of prison labour, the system of squeezing \"golden sweat\" from them, the organisation of production in places of confinement, which while profitable from a commercial point of view is fundamentally lacking in corrective significance – these are entirely inadmissible in Soviet places of confinement.The legal base and the guidance for the creation of the system of \"corrective labor camps\" (, ), the backbone of what is commonly referred to as the \"Gulag\", was a secret decree from the Sovnarkom of July 11, 1929, about the use of penal labor that duplicated the corresponding appendix to the minutes of the Politburo meeting of June 27, 1929.One of the Gulag system founders was Naftaly Frenkel.", "In 1923 he was arrested for illegally crossing borders and smuggling.", "He was sentenced to 10 years' hard labor at Solovki, which later came to be known as the \"first camp of the Gulag\".", "While serving his sentence he wrote a letter to the camp administration detailing a number of \"productivity improvement\" proposals including the infamous system of labor exploitation whereby the inmates' food rations were to be linked to their rate of production, a proposal known as nourishment scale (шкала питания).", "This notorious you-eat-as-you-work system would often kill weaker prisoners in weeks and caused countless casualties.", "The letter caught the attention of a number of high communist officials including Genrikh Yagoda and Frenkel soon went from being an inmate to becoming a camp commander and an important Gulag official.", "His proposals soon saw widespread adoption in the Gulag system.After having appeared as an instrument and place for isolating counter-revolutionary and criminal elements, the Gulag, because of its principle of \"correction by forced labor\", quickly became, in fact, an independent branch of the national economy secured on the cheap labor force presented by prisoners.", "Hence it is followed by one more important reason for the constancy of the repressive policy, namely, the state's interest in unremitting rates of receiving a cheap labor force that was forcibly used, mainly in the extreme conditions of the east and north.", "The Gulag possessed both punitive and economic functions.=== Formation and expansion under Stalin ===The Gulag was an administration body that watched over the camps; eventually its name would be used for these camps retrospectively.", "After Lenin's death in 1924, Stalin was able to take control of the government, and began to form the gulag system.", "On June 27, 1929, the Politburo created a system of self-supporting camps that would eventually replace the existing prisons around the country.", "These prisons were meant to receive inmates that received a prison sentence that exceeded three years.", "Prisoners that had a shorter prison sentence than three years were to remain in the prison system that was still under the purview of the NKVD.The purpose of these new camps was to colonise the remote and inhospitable environments throughout the Soviet Union.", "These changes took place around the same time that Stalin started to institute collectivisation and rapid industrial development.", "Collectivisation resulted in a large scale purge of peasants and so-called Kulaks.", "The Kulaks were supposedly wealthy, comparatively to other Soviet peasants, and were considered to be capitalists by the state, and by extension enemies of socialism.", "The term would also become associated with anyone who opposed or even seemed unsatisfied with the Soviet government.By late 1929 Stalin began a program known as ''dekulakization''.", "Stalin demanded that the kulak class be completely wiped out, resulting in the imprisonment and execution of Soviet peasants.", "In a mere four months, 60,000 people were sent to the camps and another 154,000 exiled.", "This was only the beginning of the ''dekulakisation'' process, however.", "In 1931 alone 1,803,392 people were exiled.Although these massive relocation processes were successful in getting a large potential free forced labor work force where they needed to be, that is about all it was successful at doing.", "The \"special settlers\", as the Soviet government referred to them, all lived on starvation level rations, and many people starved to death in the camps, and anyone who was healthy enough to escape tried to do just that.", "This resulted in the government having to give rations to a group of people they were getting hardly any use out of, and was just costing the Soviet government money.", "The Unified State Political Administration (OGPU) quickly realised the problem, and began to reform the ''dekulakisation'' process.To help prevent the mass escapes the OGPU started to recruit people within the colony to help stop people who attempted to leave, and set up ambushes around known popular escape routes.", "The OGPU also attempted to raise the living conditions in these camps that would not encourage people to actively try and escape, and Kulaks were promised that they would regain their rights after five years.", "Even these revisions ultimately failed to resolve the problem, and the ''dekulakisation'' process was a failure in providing the government with a steady forced labor force.", "These prisoners were also lucky to be in the gulag in the early 1930s.", "Prisoners were relatively well off compared to what the prisoners would have to go through in the final years of the gulag.The Gulag was officially established on April 25, 1930, as the GULAG by the OGPU order 130/63 in accordance with the Sovnarkom order 22 p. 248 dated April 7, 1930.It was renamed as the GULAG in November of that year.The hypothesis that economic considerations were responsible for mass arrests during the period of Stalinism has been refuted on the grounds of former Soviet archives that have become accessible since the 1990s, although some archival sources also tend to support an economic hypothesis.", "In any case, the development of the camp system followed economic lines.", "The growth of the camp system coincided with the peak of the Soviet industrialisation campaign.", "Most of the camps established to accommodate the masses of incoming prisoners were assigned distinct economic tasks.", "These included the exploitation of natural resources and the colonization of remote areas, as well as the realisation of enormous infrastructural facilities and industrial construction projects.", "The plan to achieve these goals with \"special settlements\" instead of labor camps was dropped after the revealing of the Nazino affair in 1933.The 1931–32 archives indicate the Gulag had approximately 200,000 prisoners in the camps; while in 1935, approximately 800,000 were in camps and 300,000 in colonies.", "Gulag population reached a peak value (1.5 million) in 1941, gradually decreased during the war and then started to grow again, achieving a maximum by 1953.Besides Gulag camps, a significant amount of prisoners, which confined prisoners serving short sentence terms.The population of Gulag camps (blue) and Gulag colonies (red) in 1934–53.In the early 1930s, a tightening of the Soviet penal policy caused a significant growth of the prison camp population.During the Great Purge of 1937–38, mass arrests caused another increase in inmate numbers.", "Hundreds of thousands of persons were arrested and sentenced to long prison terms on the grounds of one of the multiple passages of the notorious Article 58 of the Criminal Codes of the Union republics, which defined punishment for various forms of \"counterrevolutionary activities\".", "Under NKVD Order No.", "00447, tens of thousands of Gulag inmates were executed in 1937–38 for \"continuing counterrevolutionary activities\".", "Between 1934 and 1941, the number of prisoners with higher education increased more than eight times, and the number of prisoners with high education increased five times.", "It resulted in their increased share in the overall composition of the camp prisoners.", "Among the camp prisoners, the number and share of the intelligentsia was growing at the quickest pace.", "Distrust, hostility, and even hatred for the intelligentsia was a common characteristic of the Soviet leaders.", "Information regarding the imprisonment trends and consequences for the intelligentsia derive from the extrapolations of Viktor Zemskov from a collection of prison camp population movements data.=== During World War II ======= Political role ====On the eve of World War II, Soviet archives indicate a combined camp and colony population upwards of 1.6 million in 1939, according to V. P. Kozlov.", "Anne Applebaum and Steven Rosefielde estimate that 1.2 to 1.5 million people were in Gulag system's prison camps and colonies when the war started.After the German invasion of Poland that marked the start of World War II in Europe, the Soviet Union invaded and annexed eastern parts of the Second Polish Republic.", "In 1940 the Soviet Union occupied Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Bessarabia (now the Republic of Moldova) and Bukovina.", "According to some estimates, hundreds of thousands of Polish citizens and inhabitants of the other annexed lands, regardless of their ethnic origin, were arrested and sent to the Gulag camps.", "However, according to the official data, the total number of sentences for political and anti-state (espionage, terrorism) crimes in the USSR in 1939–41 was 211,106.Approximately 300,000 Polish prisoners of war were captured by the USSR during and after the \"Polish Defensive War\".", "Almost all of the captured officers and a large number of ordinary soldiers were then murdered (see Katyn massacre) or sent to Gulag.", "Of the 10,000–12,000 Poles sent to Kolyma in 1940–41, most prisoners of war, only 583 men survived, released in 1942 to join the Polish Armed Forces in the East.", "Out of General Anders' 80,000 evacuees from Soviet Union gathered in Great Britain only 310 volunteered to return to Soviet-controlled Poland in 1947.During the Great Patriotic War, Gulag populations declined sharply due to a steep rise in mortality in 1942–43.In the winter of 1941 a quarter of the Gulag's population died of starvation.", "516,841 prisoners died in prison camps in 1941–43, from a combination of their harsh working conditions and the famine caused by the German invasion.", "This period accounts for about half of all gulag deaths, according to Russian statistics.In 1943, the term ''katorga works'' () was reintroduced.", "They were initially intended for Nazi collaborators, but then other categories of political prisoners (for example, members of deported peoples who fled from exile) were also sentenced to \"katorga works\".", "Prisoners sentenced to \"katorga works\" were sent to Gulag prison camps with the most harsh regime and many of them perished.==== Economic role ====Central shop in Norilsk built by prisoners of the NorillagLithuanian deportees preparing logs for rafting on the Mana RiverUp until World War II, the Gulag system expanded dramatically to create a Soviet \"camp economy\".", "Right before the war, forced labor provided 46.5% of the nation's nickel, 76% of its tin, 40% of its cobalt, 40.5% of its chrome-iron ore, 60% of its gold, and 25.3% of its timber.", "And in preparation for war, the NKVD put up many more factories and built highways and railroads.The Gulag quickly switched to the production of arms and supplies for the army after fighting began.", "At first, transportation remained a priority.", "In 1940 the NKVD focused most of its energy on railroad construction.", "This would prove extremely important when the German advance into the Soviet Union started in 1941.In addition, factories converted to produce ammunition, uniforms, and other supplies.", "Moreover, the NKVD gathered skilled workers and specialists from throughout the Gulag into 380 special colonies which produced tanks, aircraft, armaments, and ammunition.Despite its low capital costs, the camp economy suffered from serious flaws.", "For one, actual productivity almost never matched estimates: the estimates proved far too optimistic.", "In addition, scarcity of machinery and tools plagued the camps and the tools that the camps did have quickly broke.", "The Eastern Siberian Trust of the Chief Administration of Camps for Highway Construction destroyed ninety-four trucks in just three years.", "But the greatest problem was simple – forced labor was less efficient than free labor.", "In fact, prisoners in the Gulag were, on average, half as productive as free laborers in the USSR at the time, which may be partially explained by malnutrition.To make up for this disparity, the NKVD worked prisoners harder than ever.", "To meet rising demand, prisoners worked longer and longer hours, and on lower food-rations than ever before.", "A camp administrator said in a meeting: \"There are cases when a prisoner is given only four or five hours out of twenty-four for rest, which significantly lowers his productivity.\"", "In the words of a former Gulag prisoner: \"By the spring of 1942, the camp ceased to function.", "It was difficult to find people who were even able to gather firewood or bury the dead.", "\"The scarcity of food stemmed in part from the general strain on the entire Soviet Union, but also the lack of central aid to the Gulag during the war.", "The central government focused all its attention on the military and left the camps to their own devices.", "In 1942 the Gulag set up the Supply Administration to find their own food and industrial goods.", "During this time, not only did food become scarce, but the NKVD limited rations in an attempt to motivate the prisoners to work harder for more food, a policy that lasted until 1948.In addition to food shortages, the Gulag suffered from labor scarcity at the beginning of the war.", "The Great Terror of 1936–1938 had provided a large supply of free labor, but by the start of World War II the purges had slowed down.", "In order to complete all of their projects, camp administrators moved prisoners from project to project.", "To improve the situation, laws were implemented in mid-1940 that allowed giving short camp sentences (4 months or a year) to those convicted of petty theft, hooliganism, or labor-discipline infractions.", "By January 1941 the Gulag workforce had increased by approximately 300,000 prisoners.", "But in 1942 serious food shortages began, and camp populations dropped again.", "The camps lost still more prisoners to the war effort as the Soviet Union went into a total war footing in June 1941.Many laborers received early releases so that they could be drafted and sent to the front.Even as the pool of workers shrank, demand for outputs continued to grow rapidly.", "As a result, the Soviet government pushed the Gulag to \"do more with less\".", "With fewer able-bodied workers and few supplies from outside the camp system, camp administrators had to find a way to maintain production.", "The solution they found was to push the remaining prisoners still harder.", "The NKVD employed a system of setting unrealistically high production goals, straining resources in an attempt to encourage higher productivity.", "As the Axis armies pushed into Soviet territory from June 1941 on, labor resources became further strained, and many of the camps had to evacuate out of Western Russia.From the beginning of the war to halfway through 1944, 40 camps were set up, and 69 were disbanded.", "During evacuations, machinery received priority, leaving prisoners to reach safety on foot.", "The speed of Operation Barbarossa's advance prevented the evacuation of all prisoners in good time, and the NKVD massacred many to prevent them from falling into German hands.", "While this practice denied the Germans a source of free labor, it also further restricted the Gulag's capacity to keep up with the Red Army's demands.", "When the tide of the war turned, however, and the Soviets started pushing the Axis invaders back, fresh batches of laborers replenished the camps.", "As the Red Army recaptured territories from the Germans, an influx of Soviet ex-POWs greatly increased the Gulag population.=== After World War II ===Transpolar Railway was a project of the Gulag system that took place from 1947 to 1953.After World War II the number of inmates in prison camps and colonies, again, rose sharply, reaching approximately 2.5 million people by the early 1950s (about 1.7 million of whom were in camps).When the war in Europe ended in May 1945, as many as two million former Russian citizens were forcefully repatriated into the USSR.", "On February 11, 1945, at the conclusion of the Yalta Conference, the United States and United Kingdom signed a Repatriation Agreement with the Soviet Union.", "One interpretation of this agreement resulted in the forcible repatriation of all Soviets.", "British and United States civilian authorities ordered their military forces in Europe to deport to the Soviet Union up to two million former residents of the Soviet Union, including persons who had left the Russian Empire and established different citizenship years before.", "The forced repatriation operations took place from 1945 to 1947.Multiple sources state that Soviet POWs, on their return to the Soviet Union, were treated as traitors (see Order No.", "270).", "According to some sources, over 1.5 million surviving Red Army soldiers imprisoned by the Germans were sent to the Gulag.", "However, that is a confusion with two other types of camps.", "During and after World War II, freed POWs went to special \"filtration\" camps.", "Of these, by 1944, more than 90 percent were cleared, and about 8 percent were arrested or condemned to penal battalions.", "In 1944, they were sent directly to reserve military formations to be cleared by the NKVD.Furthermore, in 1945, about 100 filtration camps were set for repatriated ''Ostarbeiter'', POWs, and other displaced persons, which processed more than 4,000,000 people.", "By 1946, the major part of the population of these camps were cleared by NKVD and either sent home or conscripted (see table for details).", "226,127 out of 1,539,475 POWs were transferred to the NKVD, i.e.", "the Gulag.+Results of the checks and the filtration of the repatriants (by March 1, 1946)''''''Category Total % Civilian % POWs %Released and sent home 2,427,906 57.81 2,146,126 80.68 281,780 18.31Conscripted 801,152 19.08 141,962 5.34 659,190 42.82Sent to labor battalions of the Ministry of Defence 608,095 14.48 263,647 9.91 344,448 22.37Sent to NKVD as ''spetskontingent'' (i.e.", "sent to GULAG) 272,867 6.50 46,740 1.76 226,127 14.69Were waiting for transportation and worked for Soviet military units abroad 89,468 2.13 61,538 2.31 27,930 1.81'''Total''' '''4,199,488''' '''100''' '''2,660,013''' '''100''' '''1,539,475''' '''100'''After Nazi Germany's defeat, ten NKVD-run \"special camps\" subordinate to the Gulag were set up in the Soviet Occupation Zone of post-war Germany.", "These \"special camps\" were former Stalags, prisons, or Nazi concentration camps such as Sachsenhausen (special camp number 7) and Buchenwald (special camp number 2).", "According to German government estimates \"65,000 people died in those Soviet-run camps or in transportation to them.\"", "According to German researchers, Sachsenhausen, where 12,500 Soviet era victims have been uncovered, should be seen as an integral part of the Gulag system.During the Stalin era, Magadan was a major transit center for prisoners sent to the Kolyma camps.Yet the major reason for the post-war increase in the number of prisoners was the tightening of legislation on property offences in summer 1947 (at this time there was a famine in some parts of the Soviet Union, claiming about 1 million lives), which resulted in hundreds of thousands of convictions to lengthy prison terms, sometimes on the basis of cases of petty theft or embezzlement.", "At the beginning of 1953, the total number of prisoners in prison camps was more than 2.4 million of which more than 465,000 were political prisoners.Political prisoners eating lunch in the Minlag \"special camp\" coal mine.", "In \"special camps\" prisoners had to wear prison garb with personal numbers.In 1948 the system of \"special camps\" was established exclusively for a \"special contingent\" of political prisoners, convicted according to the more severe sub-articles of Article 58 (Enemies of people): treason, espionage, terrorism, etc., for various real political opponents, such as Trotskyites, \"nationalists\" (Ukrainian nationalism), white émigré, as well as for fabricated ones.The state continued to maintain the extensive camp system for a while after Stalin's death in March 1953, although the period saw the grip of the camp authorities weaken, and a number of conflicts and uprisings occur (''see'' Bitch Wars; Kengir uprising; Vorkuta uprising).The amnesty of 1953 was limited to non-political prisoners and for political prisoners sentenced to not more than , therefore mostly those convicted for common crimes were then freed.", "The release of political prisoners started in 1954 and became widespread, and also coupled with mass rehabilitations, after Nikita Khrushchev's denunciation of Stalinism in his Secret Speech at the 20th Congress of the CPSU in February 1956.The ''Gulag'' institution was closed by the MVD order No 020 of January 25, 1960 but forced labor colonies for political and criminal prisoners continued to exist.", "Political prisoners continued to be kept in one of the most famous camps Perm-36 until 1987 when it was closed.The Russian penal system, despite reforms and a reduction in prison population, informally or formally continues many practices endemic to the ''Gulag'' system, including forced labor, inmates policing inmates, and prisoner intimidation.In the late 2000s, some human rights activists accused authorities of gradual removal of Gulag remembrance from places such as Perm-36 and Solovki prison camp.According to Encyclopædia Britannica," ], [ "Death toll", "The Vorkuta GulagPrior to the dissolution of the Soviet Union, estimates of Gulag victims ranged from 2.3 to 17.6 million (see History of Gulag population estimates).", "Mortality in Gulag camps in 1934–40 was 4–6 times higher than average in the Soviet Union.", "Post-1991 research by historians accessing archival materials brought this range down considerably.", "In a 1993 study of archival Soviet data, a total of 1,053,829 people died in the Gulag from 1934 to 1953.It was common practice to release prisoners who were either suffering from incurable diseases or near death, so a combined statistics on mortality ''in the camps'' and mortality ''caused by the camps'' was higher.", "The tentative historical consensus is that, of the 18 million people who passed through the gulag from 1930 to 1953, between 1.6 million and 1.76 million perished as a result of their detention, and about half of all deaths occurred between 1941 and 1943 following the German invasion.", "If prisoner deaths from labor colonies and special settlements are included, the death toll rises to 2,749,163, according to J. Otto Pohl's incomplete data.In her 2018 study, Golfo Alexopoulos attempted to challenge this consensus figure by encompassing those whose life was shortened due to GULAG conditions.", "Alexopoulos concluded from her research that a systematic practice of the Gulag was to release sick prisoners on the verge of death; and that all prisoners who received the health classification \"invalid\", \"light physical labor\", \"light individualised labor\", or \"physically defective\" that together according to Alexopoulos encompassed at least one third of all inmates who passed through the Gulag died or had their lives shortened due to detention in the Gulag in captivity or shortly after release.The GULAG mortality estimated in this way yields the figure of 6 million deaths.", "Historian Orlando Figes and Russian writer Vadim Erlikman have posited similar estimates.", "The estimate of Alexopoulos, however, has obvious methodological difficulties and is supported by misinterpreted evidence, such as presuming that hundreds of thousands of prisoners \"directed to other places of detention\" in 1948 was a euphemism for releasing prisoners on the verge of death into labor colonies, when it was really referring to internal transport in the Gulag rather than release.In a University of Oxford doctoral dissertation, in 2020, the problem of medical release (''aktirovka'') and of mortality among 'certified invalids' (''aktirovannye'') was considered in detail by Mikhail Nakonechnyi.", "He concluded that the number of terminally ill people discharged early on medical grounds from the Gulag was about 1 million.", "Mikhail added 800,000–850,000 excess deaths to the death toll directly caused by the results of GULAG incarceration, which brings the death toll to 2.5 million people.=== Mortality rate ===In 2009, Steven Rosefielde stated more complete archival data increases camp deaths by 19.4 percent to 1,258,537, \"the best archivally-based estimate of Gulag excess deaths at present is 1.6 million from 1929 to 1953.\"", "Dan Healey in 2018 also stated the same thing \"New studies using declassified Gulag archives have provisionally established a consensus on mortality and \"inhumanity.\"", "The tentative consensus says that once secret records of the Gulag administration in Moscow show a lower death toll than expected from memoir sources, generally between 1.5 and 1.7 million (out of 18 million who passed through) for the years from 1930 to 1953.", "\"Certificates of death in the Gulag system for the period from 1930 to 1956 Year Deaths Mortality rate % 1930 7,980 4.2 1931 7,283 2.9 1932 13,197 4.8 1933 67,297 15.3 1934 25,187 4.28 1935 31,636 2.75 1936 24,993 2.11 1937 31,056 2.42 1938 108,654 5.35 1939 44,750 3.1 1940 41,275 2.72 1941 115,484 6.1 1942 352,560 24.9 1943 267,826 22.4 1944 114,481 9.2 1945 81,917 5.95 1946 30,715 2.2 1947 66,830 3.59 1948 50,659 2.28 1949 29,350 1.21 1950 24,511 0.95 1951 22,466 0.92 1952 20,643 0.84 1953 9,628 0.67 1954 8,358 0.69 1955 4,842 0.53 1956 3,164 0.4 Total 1,606,748 8.88" ], [ "Gulag administrators", " Name YearsFeodor (Teodors) Ivanovich Eihmans April 25, 1930 – June 16, 1930Lazar Iosifovich Kogan June 16, 1930 – June 9, 1932Matvei Davidovich Berman June 9, 1932 – August 16, 1937Israel Israelevich Pliner August 16, 1937 – November 16, 1938Gleb Vasilievich Filaretov November 16, 1938 – February 18, 1939Vasili Vasilievich Chernyshev February 18, 1939 – February 26, 1941Victor Grigorievich Nasedkin February 26, 1941 – September 2, 1947Georgy Prokopievich Dobrynin September 2, 1947 – January 31, 1951Ivan Ilich Dolgikh January 31, 1951 – October 5, 1954Sergei Yegorovich Yegorov October 5, 1954 – April 4, 1956" ], [ "Conditions", "Living and working conditions in the camps varied significantly across time and place, depending, among other things, on the impact of broader events (World War II, countrywide famines and shortages, waves of terror, sudden influx or release of large numbers of prisoners) and the type of crime committed.", "Instead of being used for economic gain, political prisoners were typically given the worst work or were dumped into the less productive parts of the gulag.", "For example Victor Herman, in his memoirs, compares the and the 2 camps, which were both near Vyatka.In Burepolom there were roughly 3,000 prisoners, all non-political, in the central compound.", "They could walk around at will, were lightly guarded, had unlocked barracks with mattresses and pillows, and watched western movies.", "However Nuksha 2, which housed serious criminals and political prisoners, featured guard towers with machine guns and locked barracks.", "In some camps prisoners were only permitted to send one letter a year and were not allowed to have photos of loved ones.Some prisoners were released early if they displayed good performance.", "There were several productive activities for prisoners in the camps.", "For example, in early 1935, a course in livestock raising was held for prisoners at a state farm; those who took it had their workday reduced to four hours.", "During that year the professional theater group in the camp complex gave 230 performances of plays and concerts to over 115,000 spectators.", "Camp newspapers also existed.Andrei Vyshinsky, chief procurator of the Soviet Union, wrote a memorandum to NKVD chief Nikolai Yezhov in 1938, during the Great Purge, which stated:Among the prisoners there are some so ragged and lice-ridden that they pose a sanitary danger to the rest.", "These prisoners have deteriorated to the point of losing any resemblance to human beings.", "Lacking food…they collect orts refuse and, according to some prisoners, eat rats and dogs.According to Yevgenia Ginzburg Gulag inmates could tell when Yezhov was no longer in charge as one day the conditions relaxed.", "A few days later Beria's name appeared in official prison notices.In general, the central administrative bodies showed a discernible interest in maintaining the labor force of prisoners in a condition allowing the fulfilment of construction and production plans handed down from above.", "Besides a wide array of punishments for prisoners refusing to work (which, in practice, were sometimes applied to prisoners that were too enfeebled to meet production quota), they instituted a number of positive incentives intended to boost productivity.", "These included monetary bonuses (since the early 1930s) and wage payments (from 1950 onward), cuts of individual sentences, general early-release schemes for norm fulfilment and overfulfilment (until 1939, again in selected camps from 1946 onward), preferential treatment, sentence reduction and privileges for the most productive workers (shock workers or Stakhanovites in Soviet parlance).Inmates were used as camp guards and could purchase camp newspapers as well as bonds.", "Robert W. Thurston writes that this was \"at least an indication that they were still regarded as participants in society to some degree.\"", "Sports team, particularly soccer teams were set up by the prison authorities.A shack in a gulag – a reconstruction in the Museum of the Occupation of Latvia.", "The number of prisoners confined to each shack is not statedBoris Sulim, a former prisoner who had worked in the Omsuchkan camp, close to Magadan, when he was a teenager stated:I was 18 years old and Magadan seemed a very romantic place to me.", "I got 880 rubles a month and a 3000 ruble installation grant, which was a hell of a lot of money for a kid like me.", "I was able to give my mother some of it.", "They even gave me membership in the Komsomol.", "There was a mining and ore-processing plant which sent out parties to dig for tin.", "I worked at the radio station which kept contact with the parties.", "...", "If the inmates were good and disciplined they had almost the same rights as the free workers.", "They were trusted and they even went to the movies.", "As for the reason they were in the camps, well, I never poked my nose into details.", "We all thought the people were there because they were guilty.Immediately after the German attack on the Soviet Union in June 1941 the conditions in camps worsened drastically: quotas were increased, rations cut, and medical supplies came close to none, all of which led to a sharp increase in mortality.", "The situation slowly improved in the final period and after the end of the war.Considering the overall conditions and their influence on inmates, it is important to distinguish three major strata of Gulag inmates:*''Kulaks'', ''osadniks'', ''ukazniks'' (people sentenced for violation of various ukases, e.g.", "Law of Spikelets, decree about work discipline, etc.", "), occasional violators of criminal law*Dedicated criminals: \"thieves in law\"*People sentenced for various political and religious reasons.=== Gulag and famine (1932–1933) ===The Soviet famine of 1932–1933 swept across many different regions of the Soviet Union.", "During this time, it is estimated that around six to seven million people starved to death.", "On 7 August 1932, a new decree drafted by Stalin (Law of Spikelets) specified a minimum sentence of ten years or execution for theft from collective farms or of cooperative property.", "Over the next few months, prosecutions rose fourfold.", "A large share of cases prosecuted under the law were for the theft of small quantities of grain worth less than fifty rubles.", "The law was later relaxed on 8 May 1933.Overall, during the first half of 1933, prisons saw more new incoming inmates than the three previous years combined.Prisoners in the camps faced harsh working conditions.", "One Soviet report stated that, in early 1933, up to 15% of the prison population in Soviet Uzbekistan died monthly.", "During this time, prisoners were getting around worth of food a day.", "Many inmates attempted to flee, causing an upsurge in coercive and violent measures.", "Camps were directed \"not to spare bullets\".=== Social conditions ===The convicts in such camps were actively involved in all kinds of labor with one of them being logging.", "The working territory of logging presented by itself a square and was surrounded by forest clearing.", "Thus, all attempts to exit or escape from it were well observed from the four towers set at each of its corners.Locals who captured a runaway were given rewards.", "It is also said that camps in colder areas were less concerned with finding escaped prisoners as they would die anyhow from the severely cold winters.", "In such cases prisoners who did escape without getting shot were often found dead kilometres away from the camp." ], [ "Geography", "Siberian taiga in the river valley near Verkhoyansk.", "The lowest temperature recorded there was −68°C (−90°F).Memorial in Astana, Kazakhstan, dedicated to the wives of Akmola Labor Camp prisoners.In the early days of Gulag, the locations for the camps were chosen primarily for the isolated conditions involved.", "Remote monasteries in particular were frequently reused as sites for new camps.", "The site on the Solovetsky Islands in the White Sea is one of the earliest and also most noteworthy, taking root soon after the Revolution in 1918.The colloquial name for the islands, \"Solovki\", entered the vernacular as a synonym for the labor camp in general.", "It was presented to the world as an example of the new Soviet method for \"re-education of class enemies\" and reintegrating them through labor into Soviet society.", "Initially the inmates, largely Russian intelligentsia, enjoyed relative freedom within the natural confinement of the islands.Local newspapers and magazines were published.", "Even some scientific research was carried out, e.g., a local botanical garden was maintained but unfortunately later lost completely.", "Eventually Solovki turned into an ordinary Gulag camp.", "Some historians maintain that it was a pilot camp of this type.", "In 1929 Maxim Gorky visited the camp and published an apology for it.", "The report of Gorky's trip to Solovki was included in the cycle of impressions titled \"Po Soiuzu Sovetov\", Part V, subtitled \"Solovki.\"", "In the report, Gorky wrote that \"camps such as 'Solovki' were absolutely necessary.", "\"With the new emphasis on Gulag as the means of concentrating cheap labor, new camps were then constructed throughout the Soviet sphere of influence, wherever the economic task at hand dictated their existence, or was designed specifically to avail itself of them, such as the White Sea–Baltic Canal or the Baikal–Amur Mainline, including facilities in big cities — parts of the famous Moscow Metro and the Moscow State University new campus were built by forced labor.", "Many more projects during the rapid industrialisation of the 1930s, war-time and post-war periods were fulfilled on the backs of convicts.", "The activity of Gulag camps spanned a wide cross-section of Soviet industry.", "Gorky organized in 1933 a trip of 120 writers and artists to the White Sea–Baltic Canal, 36 of them wrote a propaganda book about the construction published in 1934 and destroyed in 1937.The majority of Gulag camps were positioned in extremely remote areas of northeastern Siberia (the best known clusters are ''Sevvostlag'' (''The North-East Camps'') along Kolyma river and ''Norillag'' near Norilsk) and in the southeastern parts of the Soviet Union, mainly in the steppes of Kazakhstan (''Luglag'', ''Steplag'', ''Peschanlag'').", "A detailed map was made by the Memorial Foundation.These were vast and sparsely inhabited regions with no roads or sources of food, but rich in minerals and other natural resources, such as timber.", "The construction of the roads was assigned to the inmates of specialised railway camps.", "Camps were generally spread throughout the entire Soviet Union, including the European parts of Russia, Belarus, and Ukraine.", "There were several camps outside the Soviet Union, in Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland, and Mongolia, which were under the direct control of the Gulag.Part of 'Project 503' to build a railroad from Salekhard to Igarka near Turukhansk on the YeniseyThroughout the history of the Soviet Union, there were at least 476 separate camp administrations.", "The Russian researcher Galina Ivanova stated that,to date, Russian historians have discovered and described 476 camps that existed at different times on the territory of the USSR.", "It is well known that practically every one of them had several branches, many of which were quite large.", "In addition to the large numbers of camps, there were no less than 2,000 colonies.", "It would be virtually impossible to reflect the entire mass of Gulag facilities on a map that would also account for the various times of their existence.Since many of these existed only for short periods, the number of camp administrations at any given point was lower.", "It peaked in the early 1950s when there were more than 100 camp administrations across the Soviet Union.", "Most camp administrations oversaw several single camp units, some as many as dozens or even hundreds.", "The infamous complexes were those at Kolyma, Norilsk, and Vorkuta, all in arctic or subarctic regions.", "However, prisoner mortality in Norilsk in most periods was actually lower than across the camp system as a whole." ], [ "Special institutions", "* There were separate camps or zones within camps for juveniles (, ), the disabled (in Spassk), and mothers (, ) with babies.", "* Family members of \"Traitors of the Motherland\" (, ) were placed under a special category of repression.", "* Secret research laboratories known as ''Sharashka'' () held arrested and convicted scientists, some of them prominent, where they anonymously developed new technologies and also conducted basic research." ], [ "Historiography", "=== Origins and functions of the Gulag ===According to historian Stephen Barnes, the origins and functions of the Gulag can be looked at in four major ways:* The first approach was championed by Alexander Solzhenitsyn, and is what Barnes terms the '''moral explanation'''.", "According to this view, Soviet ideology eliminated the moral checks on the darker side of human nature – providing convenient justifications for violence and evil-doing on all levels: from political decision-making to personal relations.", "* Another approach is the '''political explanation''', according to which the Gulag (along with executions) was primarily a means for eliminating the regime's perceived political enemies (this understanding is favoured by historian Robert Conquest, amongst others).", "* The '''economic explanation''', in turn as set out by historian Anne Applebaum, argues that the Soviet regime instrumentalised the Gulag for its economic development projects.", "Although never economically profitable, it was perceived as such right up to Stalin's death in 1953.", "* Finally, Barnes advances his own, fourth explanation, which situates the Gulag in the context of modern projects of ''''cleansing'''' the social body of hostile elements, through spatial isolation and physical elimination of individuals defined as harmful.Hannah Arendt argues that as part of a totalitarian system of government, the camps of the Gulag system were experiments in \"total domination.\"", "In her view, the goal of a totalitarian system was not merely to establish limits on liberty, but rather to abolish liberty entirely in service of its ideology.", "She argues that the Gulag system was not merely political repression because the system survived and grew long after Stalin had wiped out all serious political resistance.", "Although the various camps were initially filled with criminals and political prisoners, eventually they were filled with prisoners who were arrested irrespective of anything relating to them as individuals, but rather only on the basis of their membership in some ever shifting category of imagined threats to the state.She also argues that the function of the Gulag system was not truly economic.", "Although the Soviet government deemed them all \"forced labor\" camps, this in fact highlighted that the work in the camps was deliberately pointless, since all Russian workers could be subject to forced labor.", "The only real economic purpose they typically served was financing the cost of their own supervision.", "Otherwise the work performed was generally useless, either by design or made that way through extremely poor planning and execution; some workers even preferred more difficult work if it was actually productive.", "She differentiated between \"authentic\" forced-labor camps, concentration camps, and \"annihilation camps\".In authentic labor camps, inmates worked in \"relative freedom and are sentenced for limited periods.\"", "Concentration camps had extremely high mortality rates and but were still \"essentially organized for labor purposes.\"", "Annihilation camps were those where the inmates were \"systematically wiped out through starvation and neglect.\"", "She criticizes other commentators' conclusion that the purpose of the camps was a supply of cheap labor.", "According to her, the Soviets were able to liquidate the camp system without serious economic consequences, showing that the camps were not an important source of labor and were overall economically irrelevant.Arendt argues that together with the systematized, arbitrary cruelty inside the camps, this served the purpose of total domination by eliminating the idea that the arrestees had any political or legal rights.", "Morality was destroyed by maximizing cruelty and by organizing the camps internally to make the inmates and guards complicit.", "The terror resulting from the operation of the Gulag system caused people outside of the camps to cut all ties with anyone who was arrested or purged and to avoid forming ties with others for fear of being associated with anyone who was targeted.", "As a result, the camps were essential as the nucleus of a system that destroyed individuality and dissolved all social bonds.", "Thereby, the system attempted to eliminate any capacity for resistance or self-directed action in the greater population.=== Archival documents ===Statistical reports made by the OGPU–NKVD–MGB–MVD between the 1930s and 1950s are kept in the State Archive of the Russian Federation formerly called Central State Archive of the October Revolution (CSAOR).", "These documents were highly classified and inaccessible.", "Amid glasnost and democratization in the late 1980s, Viktor Zemskov and other Russian researchers managed to gain access to the documents and published the highly classified statistical data collected by the OGPU-NKVD-MGB-MVD and related to the number of the Gulag prisoners, special settlers, etc.", "In 1995, Zemskov wrote that foreign scientists have begun to be admitted to the restricted-access collection of these documents in the State Archive of the Russian Federation since 1992.However, only one historian, namely Zemskov, was admitted to these archives, and later the archives were again \"closed\", according to Leonid Lopatnikov.", "Pressure from the Putin administration has exacerbated the difficulties of Gulag researchers.While considering the issue of reliability of the primary data provided by corrective labor institutions, it is necessary to take into account the following two circumstances.", "On the one hand, their administration was not interested to understate the number of prisoners in its reports, because it would have automatically led to a decrease in the food supply plan for camps, prisons, and corrective labor colonies.", "The decrement in food would have been accompanied by an increase in mortality that would have led to wrecking of the vast production program of the Gulag.", "On the other hand, overstatement of data of the number of prisoners also did not comply with departmental interests, because it was fraught with the same (i.e., impossible) increase in production tasks set by planning bodies.", "In those days, people were highly responsible for non-fulfilment of plan.", "It seems that a resultant of these objective departmental interests was a sufficient degree of reliability of the reports.Between 1990 and 1992, the first precise statistical data on the Gulag based on the Gulag archives were published by Viktor Zemskov.", "These had been generally accepted by leading Western scholars, despite the fact that a number of inconsistencies were found in this statistics.", "It is also necessary to note that not all the conclusions drawn by Zemskov based on his data have been generally accepted.", "Thus, Sergei Maksudov alleged that although literary sources, for example the books of Lev Razgon or Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, did not envisage the total number of the camps very well and markedly exaggerated their size.", "On the other hand, Viktor Zemskov, who published many documents by the NKVD and KGB, was far from understanding of the Gulag essence and the nature of socio-political processes in the country.", "He added that without distinguishing the degree of accuracy and reliability of certain figures, without making a critical analysis of sources, without comparing new data with already known information, Zemskov absolutizes the published materials by presenting them as the ultimate truth.", "As a result, Maksudov charges that Zemskov's attempts to make generalized statements with reference to a particular document, as a rule, do not hold water.OGPU chiefs responsible for construction of the White Sea–Baltic Canal, 1932: right: Frenkel; center: Berman; left: Afanasev (Head of the southern part of BelBaltLag)In response, Zemskov wrote that the charge that he allegedly did not compare new data with already known information could not be called fair.", "In his words, the trouble with most western writers is that they do not benefit from such comparisons.", "Zemskov added that when he tried not to overuse the juxtaposition of new information with \"old\" one, it was only because of a sense of delicacy, not to once again psychologically traumatize the researchers whose works used incorrect figures, as it turned out after the publication of the statistics by the OGPU-NKVD-MGB-MVD.According to French historian Nicolas Werth, the mountains of the materials of the Gulag archives, which are stored in funds of the State Archive of the Russian Federation and were being constantly exposed during the last fifteen years, represent only a very small part of bureaucratic prose of immense size left over after the decades of \"creativity\" by the \"dull and reptile\" organization managing the Gulag.", "In many cases, local camp archives, which had been stored in sheds, barracks, or other rapidly disintegrating buildings, simply disappeared in the same way as most of the camp buildings did.In 2004 and 2005, some archival documents were published in the edition ''Istoriya Stalinskogo Gulaga.", "Konets 1920-kh — Pervaya Polovina 1950-kh Godov.", "Sobranie Dokumentov v 7 Tomakh'' (''The History of Stalin's Gulag.", "From the Late 1920s to the First Half of the 1950s.", "Collection of Documents in Seven Volumes''), wherein each of its seven volumes covered a particular issue indicated in the title of the volume:# ''Mass Repression in the USSR'' (''Massovye Repressii v SSSR''); # ''Punitive System.", "Structure and Cadres'' (''Karatelnaya Sistema.", "Struktura i Kadry'');# ''Economy of the Gulag'' (''Ekonomika Gulaga'');# ''The Population of the Gulag.", "The Number and Conditions of Confinement'' (''Naselenie Gulaga.", "Chislennost i Usloviya Soderzhaniya'');# ''Specsettlers in the USSR'' (''Specpereselentsy v SSSR'');# ''Uprisings, Riots, and Strikes of Prisoners'' (''Vosstaniya, Bunty i Zabastovki Zaklyuchyonnykh''); and# ''Soviet Repressive and Punitive Policy.", "Annotated Index of Cases of the SA RF'' (''Sovetskaya Pepressivno-karatelnaya Politika i Penitentsiarnaya Sistema.", "Annotirovanniy Ukazatel Del GA RF'').The edition contains the brief introductions by the two \"patriarchs of the Gulag science\", Robert Conquest and Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, and 1431 documents, the overwhelming majority of which were obtained from funds of the State Archive of the Russian Federation.=== History of Gulag population estimates ===During the decades before the dissolution of the USSR, the debates about the population size of GULAG failed to arrive at generally accepted figures; wide-ranging estimates have been offered, and the bias toward higher or lower side was sometimes ascribed to political views of the particular author.", "Some of those earlier estimates (both high and low) are shown in the table below.+Historical estimates of the GULAG population size (in chronological order)'''GULAG population''' '''Year the estimate was made for''' '''Source''' '''Methodology'''15 million 1940–42 Mora & Zwiernag (1945) –2.3 million December 1937 Timasheff (1948) Calculation of disenfranchised populationUp to 3.5 million 1941 Jasny (1951) Analysis of the output of the Soviet enterprises run by NKVD50 million total number of personspassed through GULAG Solzhenitsyn (1975) Analysis of various indirect data, including own experience and testimonies of numerous witnesses17.6 million 1942 Anton Antonov-Ovseenko (1999) NKVD documents4–5 million 1939 Wheatcroft (1981) Analysis of demographic data.10.6 million 1941 Rosefielde (1981) Based on data of Mora & Zwiernak and annual mortality.5.5–9.5 million late 1938 Conquest (1991) 1937 Census figures, arrest and deaths estimates, variety of personal and literary sources.4–5 million every single year Volkogonov (1990s) a.", "''Note: Later numbers from Rosefielde, Wheatcroft and Conquest were revised down by the authors themselves.", "''Yurshor, Vorkuta areaThe glasnost political reforms in the late 1980s and the subsequent dissolution of the USSR led to the release of a large amount of formerly classified archival documents, including new demographic and NKVD data.", "Analysis of the official GULAG statistics by Western scholars immediately demonstrated that, despite their inconsistency, they do not support previously published higher estimates.", "Importantly, the released documents made possible to clarify terminology used to describe different categories of forced labor population, because the use of the terms \"forced labor\", \"GULAG\", \"camps\" interchangeably by early researchers led to significant confusion and resulted in significant inconsistencies in the earlier estimates.Archival studies revealed several components of the NKVD penal system in the Stalinist USSR: prisons, labor camps, labor colonies, as well as various \"settlements\" (exile) and of non-custodial forced labor.", "Although most of them fit the definition of forced labor, only labor camps, and labor colonies were associated with punitive forced labor in detention.", "Forced labor camps (\"GULAG camps\") were hard regime camps, whose inmates were serving more than three-year terms.", "As a rule, they were situated in remote parts of the USSR, and labor conditions were extremely hard there.", "They formed a core of the GULAG system.", "The inmates of \"corrective labor colonies\" served shorter terms; these colonies were located in less remote parts of the USSR, and they were run by local NKVD administration.Preliminary analysis of the GULAG camps and colonies statistics (see the chart on the right) demonstrated that the population reached the maximum before the World War II, then dropped sharply, partially due to massive releases, partially due to wartime high mortality, and then was gradually increasing until the end of Stalin era, reaching the global maximum in 1953, when the combined population of GULAG camps and labor colonies amounted to 2,625,000.The results of these archival studies convinced many scholars, including Robert Conquest or Stephen Wheatcroft to reconsider their earlier estimates of the size of the GULAG population, although the 'high numbers' of arrested and deaths are not radically different from earlier estimates.", "Although such scholars as Rosefielde or Vishnevsky point at several inconsistencies in archival data with Rosefielde pointing out the archival figure of 1,196,369 for the population of the Gulag and labor colonies combined on December 31, 1936, is less than half the 2.75 million labor camp population given to the Census Board by the NKVD for the 1937 census, it is generally believed that these data provide more reliable and detailed information that the indirect data and literary sources available for the scholars during the Cold War era.", "Although Conquest cited Beria's report to the Politburo of the labor camp numbers at the end of 1938 stating there were almost 7 million prisoners in the labor camps, more than three times the archival figure for 1938 and an official report to Stalin by the Soviet minister of State Security in 1952 stating there were 12 million prisoners in the labor camps.These data allowed scholars to conclude that during the period of 1928–53, about 14 million prisoners passed through the system of GULAG ''labor camps'' and 4–5 million passed through the ''labor colonies''.", "Thus, these figures reflect the number of convicted persons, and do not take into account the fact that a significant part of Gulag inmates had been convicted more than one time, so the actual number of convicted is somewhat overstated by these statistics.", "From other hand, during some periods of Gulag history the official figures of GULAG population reflected the camps' capacity, not the actual number of inmates, so the actual figures were 15% higher in, e.g.", "1946.The USSR implemented a number of labor disciplinary measures, due to the lack of productivity of its labour force in the early 1930s.", "1.8 million workers were sentenced to 6 months in forced labor with a quarter of their original pay, 3.3 million faced sanctions, and 60k were imprisoned for absentees in 1940 alone.", "The conditions of Soviet workers worsened in WW2 as 1.3 million were punished in 1942, and 1 million each were punished in subsequent 1943 and 1944 with the reduction of 25% of food rations.", "Further more, 460 thousand were imprisoned throughout these years." ], [ "Impact", "=== Culture ===The Gulag spanned nearly four decades of Soviet and East European history and affected millions of individuals.", "Its cultural impact was enormous.The Gulag has become a major influence on contemporary Russian thinking, and an important part of modern Russian folklore.", "Many songs by the authors-performers known as the ''bards'', most notably Vladimir Vysotsky and Alexander Galich, neither of whom ever served time in the camps, describe life inside the Gulag and glorified the life of \"zeks\".", "Words and phrases which originated in the labor camps became part of the Russian/Soviet vernacular in the 1960s and 1970s.The memoirs of Alexander Dolgun, Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, Varlam Shalamov and Yevgenia Ginzburg, among others, became a symbol of defiance in Soviet society.", "These writings harshly chastised the Soviet people for their tolerance and apathy regarding the Gulag, but at the same time provided a testament to the courage and resolve of those who were imprisoned.Another cultural phenomenon in the Soviet Union linked with the Gulag was the forced migration of many artists and other people of culture to Siberia.", "This resulted in a Renaissance of sorts in places like Magadan, where, for example, the quality of theatre production was comparable to Moscow's and Eddie Rosner played jazz.==== Literature ====Many eyewitness accounts of Gulag prisoners have been published:* Varlam Shalamov's ''Kolyma Tales'' is a short-story collection, cited by most major works on the Gulag, and widely considered one of the main Soviet accounts.", "* Victor Kravchenko wrote ''I Chose Freedom'' after defecting to the United States in 1944.As a leader of industrial plants he had encountered forced labor camps in across the Soviet Union from 1935 to 1941.He describes a visit to one camp at Kemerovo on the Tom River in Siberia.", "Factories paid a fixed sum to the KGB for every convict they employed.", "* Anatoli Granovsky wrote ''I Was an NKVD Agent'' after defecting to Sweden in 1946 and included his experiences seeing gulag prisoners as a young boy, as well as his experiences as a prisoner himself in 1939.Granovsky's father was sent to the gulag in 1937.", "* Julius Margolin's book ''A Travel to the Land Ze-Ka'' was finished in 1947, but it was impossible to publish such a book about the Soviet Union at the time, immediately after World War II.", "* Gustaw Herling-Grudziński wrote ''A World Apart'', which was translated into English by Andrzej Ciolkosz and published with an introduction by Bertrand Russell in 1951.By describing life in the gulag in a harrowing personal account, it provides an in-depth, original analysis of the nature of the Soviet communist system.", "* Victor Herman's book ''Coming out of the Ice: An Unexpected Life''.", "Herman experienced firsthand many places, prisons, and experiences that Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn was able to reference in only passing or through brief second hand accounts.", "* Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn's book ''The Gulag Archipelago'' was not the first literary work about labor camps.", "His previous book on the subject, \"One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich\", about a typical day in the life of a Gulag inmate, was originally published in the most prestigious Soviet monthly, ''Novy Mir'' (''New World''), in November 1962, but was soon banned and withdrawn from all libraries.", "It was the first work to demonstrate the Gulag as an instrument of governmental repression against its own citizens on a massive scale.", "''The First Circle'', an account of three days in the lives of prisoners in the ''Marfino'' ''sharashka'' or special prison was submitted for publication to the Soviet authorities shortly after ''One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich'' but was rejected and later published abroad in 1968.", "* Slavomir Rawicz's book \"The Long Walk: The True Story of a Trek to Freedom\": In 1941, the author and six other fellow prisoners escaped a Soviet labor camp in Yakutsk.", "* János Rózsás, a Hungarian writer, often referred to as the Hungarian Solzhenitsyn, wrote many books and articles on the issue of the Gulag.", "*Zoltan Szalkai, a Hungarian documentary filmmaker, made several films about gulag camps.", "* Karlo Štajner, a Croatian communist who was active in the former Kingdom of Yugoslavia and the manager of the Comintern Publishing House in Moscow 1932–39, was arrested one night and taken from his Moscow home after being accused of anti-revolutionary activities.", "He spent the next 20 years in camps from Solovki to Norilsk.", "After USSR–Yugoslavian political normalization he was re-tried and quickly found innocent.", "He left the Soviet Union with his wife, who had been waiting for him for 20 years, in 1956 and spent the rest of his life in Zagreb, Croatia.", "He wrote an impressive book titled ''7000 days in Siberia''.", "* ''Dancing Under the Red Star'' by Karl Tobien () tells the story of Margaret Werner, an athletic girl who moves to Russia right before Stalin came to power.", "She faces many hardships, as her father is taken away from her and imprisoned.", "Werner is the only American woman who was held in the Gulag to tell about it.", "* ''Alexander Dolgun's Story: An American in the Gulag'' (), by a member of the US Embassy, and ''I Was a Slave in Russia'' an American factory owner's son, were two more American citizens interned who wrote of their ordeal.", "They were interned due to their American citizenship for about eight years c.", "1946–55.", "* Yevgenia Ginzburg wrote two famous books about her remembrances, ''Journey Into the Whirlwind'' and ''Within the Whirlwind''.", "*Savić Marković Štedimlija, a pro-Croatian Montenegrin ideologist.", "Caught in Austria by the Red Army in 1945, he was sent to the USSR and spent ten years in the Gulag.", "After his release, Marković wrote his autobiographical account in two volumes titled ''Ten years in Gulag'' (''Deset godina u Gulagu'', Matica crnogorska, Podgorica, Montenegro 2004).", "* Anița Nandriș-Cudla's book, ''20 Years in Siberia 20 de ani în Siberia'' is the own life's account written by a Romanian peasant woman from Bucovina (Mahala village near Cernăuți) who managed to survive the harsh, forced labor system together with her three sons.", "Together with her husband and her three underage children, she was deported from Mahala village to the Soviet Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug, at the Polar Circle, without a trial or even a communicated accusation.", "The same night of June 12 to 13, 1941, (that is, just before Germany's invasion of the USSR), overall 602 fellow villagers were arrested and deported, without any prior notice.", "Her mother received the same sentence but was spared from deportation after the fact that she was a paraplegic was acknowledged by the authorities.", "It was later discovered that the reason for her deportation and forced labor was the fake and nonsensical claim that, allegedly, her husband had been a mayor in the Romanian administration, a politician and a rich peasant, none of the latter of which was true.", "Separated from her husband, she brought up the three boys, overcame typhus, scorbutus, malnutrition, extreme cold and harsh toils, to later return to Bucovina after rehabilitation.", "Her manuscript was written toward the end of her life, in the simple and direct language of a peasant with three years of public school education, and was secretly brought to Romania before the fall of Romanian communism, in 1982.Her manuscript was first published in 1991.Her deportation was shared mainly with Romanians from Bucovina and Basarabia, Finnish and Polish prisoners, as token proof to show that Gulag labor camps had also been used for the shattering/ extermination of the natives in the newly occupied territories of the Soviet Union.", "* Frantsishak Alyakhnovich – Solovki prisoner* Blagoy Popov, a Bulgarian communist and a defendant in the Leipzig trial, along with Georgi Dimitrov and Vasil Tanev, was arrested in 1937 during the Stalinist purges and spent seventeen years in Norillag.", "Popov was released in 1954, after the death of Stalin, and returned to Bulgaria.", "He wrote his autobiographical account in the book ''From the Leipzig trial to the Siberia camps'' (''От Лайпцигския процес в Сибирските лагери'', Изток-Запад, София, България, 2012 ).", "* Mkrtich Armen, an Armenian writer who was imprisoned in 1937 and rehabilitated in 1945, published a collection of his memories under the title \"They Ordered to Give You\" in 1964.", "* Gurgen Mahari, an Armenian writer and poet, who was arrested in 1936, released in 1947, arrested again in 1948 and sent into Siberian exile as an \"unreliable type\" until 1954, wrote \"Barbed Wires in Blossom\", a novella based largely on his personal experiences in a Soviet gulag.", "* Gulag Boss: A Soviet Memoir is a 2011 memoir by Fyodor Vasilevich Mochulsky (1918–1999), a Soviet Engineer and eventual head of numerous Gulag camps in the northern Russian region of Pechorlag, Pechora, from 1940 to 1946.=== Colonization ===The city of VorkutaSoviet state documents show that the goals of the gulag included colonization of sparsely populated remote areas and exploiting its resources using forced labor.", "In 1929, OGPU was given the task to colonize these areas.", "To this end, the notion of \"free settlement\" was introduced.", "On 12 April 1930 Genrikh Yagoda wrote to the OGPU Commission:When well-behaved persons had served the majority of their terms, they could be released for \"free settlement\" (вольное поселение, ''volnoye poseleniye'') outside the confinement of the camp.", "They were known as \"free settlers\" (; not to be confused with the term , \"exile settlers\").", "In addition, for persons who served full term, but who were denied the free choice of place of residence, it was recommended to assign them for \"free settlement\" and give them land in the general vicinity of the place of confinement.The gulag inherited this approach from the katorga system.It is estimated that of the 40,000 people collecting state pensions in Vorkuta, 32,000 are trapped former gulag inmates, or their descendants.=== Life after a term was served ===Persons who served a term in a camp or prison were restricted from taking a wide range of jobs.", "Concealment of a previous imprisonment was a triable offence.", "Persons who served terms as \"politicals\" were nuisances for \"First Departments\" (, outlets of the secret police at all enterprises and institutions), because former \"politicals\" had to be monitored.Many people who were released from camps were restricted from settling in larger cities." ], [ "Memorialization", "=== Gulag memorials ===Map of Stalin's Gulag camps in Gulag Museum in MoscowSt.", "PetersburgBoth Moscow and St. Petersburg have memorials to the victims of the Gulag made of boulders from the Solovki camp — the first prison camp in the Gulag system.", "Moscow's memorial is on Lubyanka Square, the site of the headquarters of the NKVD.", "People gather at these memorials every year on the Day of Victims of the Repression (October 30).=== Gulag Museum ===Gulag Museum in Moscow, founded in 2001 by historian Anton Antonov-OvseyenkoMoscow has the State Gulag Museum whose first director was Anton Antonov-Ovseyenko.", "In 2015, another museum dedicated to the Gulag was opened in Moscow." ], [ "See also", "* List of concentration and internment camps#Russia and the Soviet Union* Excess mortality in the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin* Forced labor in the Soviet Union* Forced settlements in the Soviet Union* Foreign forced labor in the Soviet Union* Human rights in the Soviet Union* Memorial (society) (a Russian human rights organization)* Population transfer in the Soviet Union* Sharashka===Similar establishments elsewhere===* Concentration camps in the Independent State of Croatia* Forced labour camps in Communist Albania** Burrel Prison** Qafë Bar Prison** Spaç Prison* Francoist concentration camps – the equivalent of the Gulag in Francoist Spain* Military Units to Aid Production – the equivalent of the Gulag in Cuba* Nazi concentration camps – the equivalent of the Gulag in Nazi Germany and German-occupied Europe* Prisons in North Korea** Kwalliso* Penal system in China** Laogai ** Re-education through labor** Xinjiang internment camps* Pitești Prison – the equivalent of the Gulag in the Socialist Republic of Romania* Re-education camp (Vietnam) – the equivalent of the Gulag in Vietnam* Prisons in Russia** Corrective labor colony" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Applebaum, Anne.", "2003.", "''Gulag: A History''.", "Broadway Books.", "hardcover, 720 pp., .", "* Ciszek, Walter.", "1997.", "''With God in Russia.''", "Ignatius Press.", "433 pp., .", "* * Ertz, Simon.", "2006.", "''Zwangsarbeit im stalinistischen Lagersystem: Eine Untersuchung der Methoden, Strategien und Ziele ihrer Ausnutzung am Beispiel Norilsk, 1935–1953''.", "Duncker & Humblot.", "273 pp., .", "* Figes, Orlando.", "2007.", "''The Whisperers: Private Life in Stalin's Russia''.", "Allen Lane.", "hardcover, 740 pp., .", "* Getty, J. Arch, and Oleg V. Naumov.", "1999.''", "The Road to Terror: Stalin and the Self-Destruction of the Bolsheviks, 1932–1939''.", "New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press.", "635 pp., .", "* Gheith, Jehanne M., and Katherine R. Jolluck.", "2010.", "''Gulag Voices: Oral Histories of Soviet Detention and Exile'', (''Palgrave Studies in Oral History'')''.''", "Palgrave Macmillan.", "*Rawicz, Slawomir.", "1995.", "''The Long Walk''.", "* Gregory, Paul R., and Valery Lazarev, eds.", "2003.''", "The Economics of Forced Labor: The Soviet Gulag''.", "Stanford: Hoover Institution Press.", ".", "*Herling-Grudzinski, Gustaw.", "1996.", "''A World Apart: Imprisonment in a Soviet Labor Camp During World War II''.", "Penguin.", "284 pp., .", "* Hochschild, Adam.", "2003.", "''The Unquiet Ghost: Russians Remember Stalin''.", "Boston: Houghton Mifflin.", "304 pp., paperback: .", "* Khlevniuk, Oleg V.", "2004.''", "The History of the Gulag: From Collectivization to the Great Terror''.", "New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press.", "hardcover, 464 pp., .", "* Kizny, Tomasz.", "2004.", "''Gulag: Life and Death Inside the Soviet Concentration Camps 1917–1990''.", "Firefly Books Ltd. 496 pp., .", "* Kozlov, V. P., ''et al''., eds.", "2004–5.", "''Istorija stalinskogo Gulaga: konec 1920-kh – pervaia polovina 1950-kh godov; sobranie dokumentov v 7 tomach'', 7 vols.. Moskva: ROSSPEN.", "* *Rossi, Jacques.", "1989.", "''The Gulag Handbook: An Encyclopedia Dictionary of Soviet Penitentiary Institutions and Terms Related to the Forced Labor Camps''.", ".", "*Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr.", "1973.", "''The Gulag Archipelago''.", "Harper & Row.", "660 pp., .", "* —— ''The Gulag Archipelago: Two''.", "Harper & Row.", "712 pp., .", "* Tobien, Karl.", "2006.", "''Dancing Under the Red Star: The Extraordinary Story of Margaret Werner, the Only American Woman to Survive Stalin's Gulag.''", "WaterBrook Press.", ".", "* Werth, Nicolas.", "1999.", "\"A State Against Its People: Violence, Repression, and Terror in the Soviet Union.\"", "Pp.", "33–260 in ''The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression'', edited by S. Courtois et al.", "Harvard University Press.", ".", "* —— 2007.", "''Cannibal Island: Death in a Siberian Gulag (Human Rights and Crimes against Humanity)'' with an introduction by J. T.", "Gross''.''", "Princeton University Press.", "248 pp., .", "* \" Remembering Stalin.\"", "''Azerbaijan International'' 13(4).", "2005.", "* \" The Literature of Stalin's Repressions.\"", "''Azerbaijan International'' 14(1).", "2006.", "* === Articles ===* Barenberg, Alan.", "2015.", "\"The Gulag in Vorkuta: Beyond Space and Time.\"", "''Laboratorium: Russian Review of Social Research'' 7(1)* Barenberg, Alan, Wilson T. Bell, Sean Kinnear, Steven Maddox, and Lynne Viola.", "2017.\"", "New directions in Gulag studies: a roundtable discussion.\"", "''Canadian Slavonic Papers'' 59(3/4):376–95.", "* Bell, Wilson T.", "2013.", "\"Was the Gulag an Archipelago?", "De‐Convoyed Prisoners and Porous Borders in the Camps of Western Siberia.\"", "''The Russian Review'' 72(1).", "* Kravchuk, Pavel.", "2013.''", "Gulag far and near.", "The story of the penitentiary system.", "''* Viola, Lynne.", "2018.", "\"New sources on Soviet perpetrators of mass repression: a research note.\"", "''Canadian Slavonic Papers'' 60(3/4):592–604..* Hardy, Jeffrey S.", "2017.\"", "Of pelicans and prisoners: avian–human interactions in the Soviet Gulag.\"", "''Canadian Slavonic Papers'' 60(3/4):375–406..* Healey, Dan.", "2015.", "\"Lives in the Balance: Weak and Disabled Prisoners and the Biopolitics of the Gulag.\"", "''Kritika'' 16(3)=== Memoirs ===* Baghirov, Ayyub.", "1999 2006.\"", "Bitter Days of Kolyma.\"", "''Azerbaijan International'' 14(1):58–71.", "*Bardach, Janusz.", "1999.", "''Man Is Wolf to Man: Surviving the Gulag.''", "University of California Press.", ".", "*Ciszek, Walter.", "1997.", "''He Leadeth Me: An Extraordinary Testament of Faith''.", "Doubleday.", "216 pp., .", "*Dolgun, Alexander, and Patrick Watson.", "1975.", "''Alexander Dolgun's Story: An American in the Gulag''.\"", "New York: Knopf.", "370 pp., .", "*Ginzburg, Eugenia.", "1967 2002.", "''Journey into the Whirlwind'', Harvest/HBJ Book.", "432 pp., .", "* —— 1982.", "''Within the Whirlwind'', Harvest/HBJ Book, 448 pp., .", "* Gliksman, Jerzy.", "1948.", "''Tell the West: An account of his experiences as a slave laborer in the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics''.", "Gresham Press.", "358pp.", "** Abridged edition: New York: National Committee for a Free Europe, 95pp.", "c.", "1948.", "*Hollander, Paul, ed.", "2006.\"", "Editor's Introduction: The Distinctive Features of Repression in Communist States.\"", "Pp.", "xv–lxxviii in ''From the Gulag to the Killing Fields: Personal Accounts of Political Violence and Repression in Communist States'', with a foreword by A. Applebaum.", "Intercollegiate Studies Institute.", ".", "(From the annotation: \"more than forty dramatic personal memoirs of Communist violence and repression from political prisoners across the globe.", "\")*Margolin, Julius.", "1952.ПУТЕШЕСТВИЕ В СТРАНУ ЗЭ-КА ''A Travel to the Land Ze-Ka'', full text, according to the original manuscript (written in 1947) *Margolin, Julius.", "2020 (1952).", "''Journey into the Land of the Zeks and Back: A Memoir of the Gulag'' (S. Hoffman, trans.).", "New York: Oxford University Press.", "* Mochulsky, Fyodor V. ''Gulag Boss: A Soviet Memoir''.", "Oxford University Press.", "272 pp., the first memoir from an NKVD employee translated into English*Noble, John H.", "1961.", "''I Was a Slave in Russia'', Broadview, Illinois: Cicero Bible Press.", "*Petkevich, Tamara.", "2010.", "''Memoir of a Gulag Actress''.", "Northern Illinois University.", "* Rossi, Jacques.", "2018.", "''Fragments of Lives: Chronicles of the Gulag'' (Antonelli-Street trans.).", "Prague: Karolinum.", "* Sadigzade, Ummugulsum.", "2005 2006.\"", "Prison Diary: Tears Are My Only Companions\", translated by A. Mustafayeva, edited by B. Blair.", "''Azerbaijan International'' 14(1):40–45.", "* Sadigzade, Ummugulsum, and her children.", "2006.\"", "Letters from Prison.\"", "''Azerbaijan International'' 14(1):48–53.", "(Children/family: Seyid Husein, Sayyara Sadigzade, Ogtay Sadigzade, Jighatay Sadigzade, Toghrul Sadigzade, and Gumral Sadigzade.", ")* Sadikhli, Murtuz.", "1991 2006.\"", "Memory of Blood.\"", "''Azerbaijan International'' 14(1):18–19.", "*Shalamov, Varlam.", "1995.", "''Kolyma Tales''.", "Penguin Books.", "528 pp., .", "* Shumuk, Danylo.", "1974.", "''Za Chidnim Obriyam'' ''Beyond the Eastern Horizon''.", "Paris: Smoloskyp.", "447 pp.", "* —— 1984.", "''Life sentence: Memoirs of a Ukrainian political prisoner''.", "Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Study.", "401 pp., .", "* Solomon, Michel.", "1971.''Magadan''.", "New York: Auerbach.", ".", "*Volovich, Hava.", "1999.", "''Till My Tale is Told: Women's Memoirs of Gulag'', ed.", "Simeon Vilensky.", "Indiana University Press.", "* Solzhenitsyn's, Shalamov's, Ginzburg's works at Lib.ru (in original Russian)* Вернон Кресс (alias of Петр Зигмундович Демант) \"Зекамерон XX века\", autobiographical novel *Бирюков А.М.", "Колымские истории: очерки.", "Новосибирск, 2004=== Fiction ===*Amirejibi, Chabua.", "2001.", "''Gora Mborgali''.", "Tbilisi, Georgia: Chabua.", "650 pp., .", "* Amis, Martin.", "2006.", "''House of Meetings''.", "New York: Vintage Books.", "242 pp.", ".", "* Booth, Martin.", "1998.", "''The Industry Of Souls''.", "United Kingdom: Dewi Lewis Publishing.", "250 pp., .", "* Huseyn, Mehdi.", "1964 2006.\"", "Underground Rivers Flow Into the Sea.\"", "''Azerbaijan International'' 14(1):96–99.", "(First Novel About Exile to the Gulag by an Azerbaijani Writer.", ")*Müller, Herta.", "2009.", "''Everything I Possess I Carry With Me.", "''* Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr.", "1962.", "''One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich''.", "Signet Classic.", "158 pp., .", "* —— 1968.", "''In the First Circle''.", "Northwestern University Press.", "580 pp., ." ], [ "External links", "* GULAG: Many Days, Many Lives, Online Exhibit, Center for History and New Media, George Mason University* Gulag: Forced Labor Camps, Online Exhibition, Blinken Open Society Archives* The website of the Virtual Gulag Museum projected by the scientific information center Memorial* GULAG History Museum in Moscow* Sound Archives.", "European Memories of the Gulag* Gulag prisoners at work, 1936–1937 Photo album at NYPL Digital Gallery* The GULAG, Revelations from the Russian Archives at Library of Congress* ''Brutal!''", "Drawings from the Gulag by Danzig Baldaev, a retired Soviet prison guard (YT)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Geiger counter" ], [ "Introduction", "The sound of a geiger counterA '''Geiger counter''' (, ; also known as a '''Geiger–Müller counter''' or '''G-M counter''') is an electronic instrument used for detecting and measuring ionizing radiation.", "It is widely used in applications such as radiation dosimetry, radiological protection, experimental physics and the nuclear industry.It detects ionizing radiation such as alpha particles, beta particles, and gamma rays using the ionization effect produced in a Geiger–Müller tube, which gives its name to the instrument.", "In wide and prominent use as a hand-held radiation survey instrument, it is perhaps one of the world's best-known radiation detection instruments.The original detection principle was realized in 1908 at the University of Manchester, but it was not until the development of the Geiger–Müller tube in 1928 that the Geiger counter could be produced as a practical instrument.", "Since then, it has been very popular due to its robust sensing element and relatively low cost.", "However, there are limitations in measuring high radiation rates and the energy of incident radiation." ], [ "Principle of operation", "Diagram of a Geiger counter using an \"end window\" tube for low-penetration radiation.", "A loudspeaker is also used for indication.A Geiger counter consists of a Geiger–Müller tube (the sensing element which detects the radiation) and the processing electronics, which display the result.The Geiger–Müller tube is filled with an inert gas such as helium, neon, or argon at low pressure, to which a high voltage is applied.", "The tube briefly conducts electrical charge when high energy particles or gamma radiation make the gas conductive by ionization.", "The ionization is considerably amplified within the tube by the Townsend discharge effect to produce an easily measured detection pulse, which is fed to the processing and display electronics.", "This large pulse from the tube makes the Geiger counter relatively cheap to manufacture, as the subsequent electronics are greatly simplified.", "The electronics also generate the high voltage, typically 400–900 volts, that has to be applied to the Geiger–Müller tube to enable its operation.", "This voltage must be carefully selected, as too high a voltage will allow for continuous discharge, damaging the instrument and invalidating the results.", "Conversely, too low a voltage will result in an electric field that is too weak to generate a current pulse.", "The correct voltage is usually specified by the manufacturer.", "To stop the discharge in the Geiger–Müller tube a small amount of halogen gas or organic material known as quenching mixture is added to the gas mixture.===Readout===There are two types of detected radiation readout: counts and radiation dose.", "* The counts display is the simplest, and shows the number of ionizing events detected, displayed either as a count rate, such as \"counts per minute\" or \"counts per second\", or as a total number of counts over a set time period (an integrated total).", "The counts readout is normally used when alpha or beta particles are being detected.", "* More complex to achieve is a display of radiation dose rate, displayed in units such as the sievert, which is normally used for measuring gamma or X-ray dose rates.", "A Geiger–Müller tube can detect the presence of radiation, but not its energy, which influences the radiation's ionizing effect.", "Consequently, instruments measuring dose rate require the use of an energy compensated Geiger–Müller tube, so that the dose displayed relates to the counts detected.", "The electronics will apply known factors to make this conversion, which is specific to each instrument and is determined by design and calibration.The readout can be analog or digital, and modern instruments offer serial communications with a host computer or network.There is usually an option to produce audible clicks representing the number of ionization events detected.", "This is the distinctive sound associated with handheld or portable Geiger counters.", "The purpose of this is to allow the user to concentrate on manipulation of the instrument while retaining auditory feedback on the radiation rate.===Limitations===There are two main limitations of the Geiger counter:# Because the output pulse from a Geiger–Müller tube is always of the same magnitude (regardless of the energy of the incident radiation), the tube cannot differentiate between radiation types.# The tube is less accurate at high radiation rates, because each ionization event is followed by a \"dead time\", an insensitive period during which any further incident radiation does not result in a count.", "Typically, the dead time will reduce indicated count rates above about 104 to 105 counts per second, depending on the characteristic of the tube being used.", "While some counters have circuitry which can compensate for this, for accurate measurements ion chamber instruments are preferred for high radiation rates." ], [ "Types and applications", "Geiger counter with pancake type probeLaboratory use of a Geiger counter with end-window probe to measure beta radiationThe intended detection application of a Geiger counter dictates the tube design used.", "Consequently, there are a great many designs, but they can be generally categorized as \"end-window\", windowless \"thin-walled\", \"thick-walled\", and sometimes hybrids of these types.===Particle detection===The first historical uses of the Geiger principle were to detect α- and β-particles, and the instrument is still used for this purpose today.", "For α-particles and low energy β-particles, the \"end-window\" type of a Geiger–Müller tube has to be used, as these particles have a limited range and are easily stopped by a solid material.", "Therefore, the tube requires a window which is thin enough to allow as many as possible of these particles through to the fill gas.", "The window is usually made of mica with a density of about 1.5–2.0 mg/cm2.α-particles have the shortest range, and to detect these the window should ideally be within 10 mm of the radiation source due to α-particle attenuation.", "However, the Geiger–Müller tube produces a pulse output which is the same magnitude for all detected radiation, so a Geiger counter with an end window tube cannot distinguish between α- and β-particles.", "A skilled operator can use varying distance from a radiation source to differentiate between α- and high energy β-particles.The \"pancake\" Geiger–Müller tube is a variant of the end-window probe, but designed with a larger detection area to make checking quicker.", "However, the pressure of the atmosphere against the low pressure of the fill gas limits the window size due to the limited strength of the window membrane.Some β-particles can also be detected by a thin-walled \"windowless\" Geiger–Müller tube, which has no end-window, but allows high energy β-particles to pass through the tube walls.", "Although the tube walls have a greater stopping power than a thin end-window, they still allow these more energetic particles to reach the fill gas.End-window Geiger counters are still used as a general purpose, portable, radioactive contamination measurement and detection instrument, owing to their relatively low cost, robustness and relatively high detection efficiency; particularly with high energy β-particles.", "However, for discrimination between α- and β-particles or provision of particle energy information, scintillation counters or proportional counters should be used.", "Those instrument types are manufactured with much larger detector areas, which means that checking for surface contamination is quicker than with a Geiger counter.===Gamma and X-ray detection===A Radhound Geiger counter measuring radiation emitted by a tree in ChernobylGeiger counters are widely used to detect gamma radiation and X-rays collectively known as photons, and for this the windowless tube is used.", "However, detection efficiency is low compared to alpha and beta particles.The article on the Geiger–Müller tube carries a more detailed account of the techniques used to detect photon radiation.", "For high energy photons the tube relies on the interaction of the radiation with the tube wall, usually a high Z material such as chrome steel of 1–2 mm thickness to produce electrons within the tube wall.", "These enter and ionize the fill gas.This is necessary as the low-pressure gas in the tube has little interaction with higher energy photons.", "However, as photon energies decrease to low levels there is greater gas interaction, and the direct gas interaction increases.", "At very low energies (less than 25 keV) direct gas ionisation dominates, and a steel tube attenuates the incident photons.", "Consequently, at these energies, a typical tube design is a long tube with a thin wall which has a larger gas volume, to give an increased chance direct interaction of a particle with the fill gas.Above these low energy levels, there is a considerable variance in response to different photon energies of the same intensity, and a steel-walled tube employs what is known as \"energy compensation\" in the form of filter rings around the naked tube, which attempts to compensate for these variations over a large energy range.", "A chrome steel Geiger–Müller tube is about 1% efficient over a wide range of energies.===Neutron detection===Geiger tube filled with BF3 for detection of thermal neutronsA variation of the Geiger tube known as a Bonner sphere can be used to exclusively measure radiation dosage from neutrons rather than from gammas via neutron capture.", "The tube, which can contain boron trifluoride or helium-3, is surrounded by a plastic moderator that reduces neutron energies prior to capture.", "Upon capturing on the target gas, the energy released from capture is observed in the tube and a count is registered in the detector.A modern one-piece Geiger–Müller counter, including Geiger–Müller tube type 70 019 (at the top)===Gamma measurement—personnel protection and process control===While \"Geiger counter\" is practically synonymous with the hand-held variety, the Geiger principle is in wide use in installed \"area gamma\" alarms for personnel protection, as well as in process measurement and interlock applications.", "The processing electronics of such installations have a higher degree of sophistication and reliability than those of hand-held meters.===Physical design===Pancake G-M tube used for alpha and beta detection; the delicate mica window is usually protected by a mesh when fitted in an instrument.For hand-held units there are two fundamental physical configurations: the \"integral\" unit with both detector and electronics in the same unit, and the \"two-piece\" design which has a separate detector probe and an electronics module connected by a short cable.In the 1930s a mica window was added to the cylindrical design allowing low-penetration radiation to pass through with ease.The integral unit allows single-handed operation, so the operator can use the other hand for personal security in challenging monitoring positions, but the two piece design allows easier manipulation of the detector, and is commonly used for alpha and beta surface contamination monitoring where careful manipulation of the probe is required or the weight of the electronics module would make operation unwieldy.", "A number of different sized detectors are available to suit particular situations, such as placing the probe in small apertures or confined spaces.Gamma and X-Ray detectors generally use an \"integral\" design so the Geiger–Müller tube is conveniently within the electronics enclosure.", "This can easily be achieved because the casing usually has little attenuation, and is employed in ambient gamma measurements where distance from the source of radiation is not a significant factor.", "However, to facilitate more localised measurements such as \"surface dose\", the position of the tube in the enclosure is sometimes indicated by targets on the enclosure so an accurate measurement can be made with the tube at the correct orientation and a known distance from the surface.There is a particular type of gamma instrument known as a \"hot spot\" detector which has the detector tube on the end of a long pole or flexible conduit.", "These are used to measure high radiation gamma locations whilst protecting the operator by means of distance shielding.Particle detection of alpha and beta can be used in both integral and two-piece designs.", "A pancake probe (for alpha/beta) is generally used to increase the area of detection in two-piece instruments whilst being relatively light weight.", "In integral instruments using an end window tube there is a window in the body of the casing to prevent shielding of particles.", "There are also hybrid instruments which have a separate probe for particle detection and a gamma detection tube within the electronics module.", "The detectors are switchable by the operator, depending the radiation type that is being measured.===Guidance on application use===In the United Kingdom the National Radiological Protection Board issued a user guidance note on selecting the best portable instrument type for the radiation measurement application concerned.", "This covers all radiation protection instrument technologies and includes a guide to the use of G-M detectors." ], [ "History", "Rutherford & Geiger particle counter (1908).", "Alpha particles from a source in the firing tube were admitted through aperture \"D\" to the detecting vessel, which was a brass tube with a central co-axial wire \"B\" at a relative potential of 1320 volts dc.", "The aperture had a mica window so the detecting vessel could run at a pressure of 2-5 mm of mercury.", "These conditions enabled creation of a Townsend avalanche for every alpha particle entering the vessel.", "At very low count rates these registered as \"kicks\" on an electrometer needle.Early Geiger–Müller tube made in 1932 by Hans Geiger for laboratory useIn 1908 Hans Geiger, under the supervision of Ernest Rutherford at the Victoria University of Manchester (now the University of Manchester), developed an experimental technique for detecting alpha particles that would later be used to develop the Geiger–Müller tube in 1928.This early counter was only capable of detecting alpha particles and was part of a larger experimental apparatus.", "The fundamental ionization mechanism used was discovered by John Sealy Townsend between 1897 and 1901, and is known as the Townsend discharge, which is the ionization of molecules by ion impact.It was not until 1928 that Geiger and Walther Müller (a PhD student of Geiger) developed the sealed Geiger–Müller tube which used basic ionization principles previously used experimentally.", "Small and rugged, not only could it detect alpha and beta radiation as prior models had done, but also gamma radiation.", "Now a practical radiation instrument could be produced relatively cheaply, and so the Geiger counter was born.", "As the tube output required little electronic processing, a distinct advantage in the thermionic valve era due to minimal valve count and low power consumption, the instrument achieved great popularity as a portable radiation detector.Modern versions of the Geiger counter use halogen quench gases, a technique invented in 1947 by Sidney H. Liebson.", "Halogen compounds have superseded the organic quench gases because of their much longer life and lower operating voltages; typically 400-900 volts." ], [ "Gallery", "File:Transuranic waste casks.jpg|Use of a \"hot spot\" detector on a long pole to survey waste casks.File:RM-80 GM with LCD-90 Micro Controller and Wireless Bluetooth.jpg|G-M pancake detector (right) feeding a microcontroller data-logger (left) sending data to a PC via bluetooth.", "A radioactive rock was placed on the detector causing the graph (in background) to rise.File:Cosmos 954 - Recovery 001.jpg|G-M counters being used in the search for debris of satellite Kosmos 954" ], [ "See also", "* Becquerel, the SI unit of the radioactive decay rate of a quantity of radioactive material* Civil defense Geiger counters, handheld radiation monitors, both G-M ''and'' ion chambers* Counting efficiency the ratio of radiation events reaching a detector and the number it counts* Dosimeter, a device used by personnel to measure what radiation dose they have received* Ionization chamber, the simplest ionising radiation detector* Gaseous ionization detector, an overview of the main gaseous detector types* Geiger–Müller tube, provides a more detailed description of Geiger–Müller tube operation and types* Geiger plateau, the correct operating voltage range for a Geiger–Müller tube* Photon counting* Radioactive decay, the process by which unstable atoms emit radiation* Safecast (organization), use of Geiger–Müller counter technology in citizen science* Scintillation counter, a gasless radiation detector* Sievert, the SI unit of stochastic effects of radiation on the human body" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* How a Geiger counter works." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "General Synod" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''General Synod''' is the title of the governing body of some church organizations." ], [ "Anglican Communion", "The General Synod of the Church of England, which was established in 1970 replacing the Church Assembly, is the legislative body of the Church of England.The equivalent In the Episcopal Church in the United States is the General Convention.Several other churches in the Anglican Communion also have General Synods:*Anglican Church of Australia*Anglican Church of Canada*Church of Ireland*Anglican Church in Aotearoa, New Zealand and Polynesia*Scottish Episcopal Church*Hong Kong Sheng Kung Hui (Anglican Church in Hong Kong)" ], [ "Other churches", "The United Church of Christ, based in the United States, also calls its main governing body a General Synod.", "It meets every two years and consists of over 600 delegates from various congregations and conferences.The Missionary Baptist Conference of the USA calls their main governing body a General Synod.", "It meets annually to set the theological and missional direction for the denomi-network.", "The Associate Reformed Presbyterian Church (ARP) has the General Synod as its highest church court.", "The ARP General Synod meets yearly and in recent years has, almost without exception, been held at the Bonclarken in North Caroline.", "The delegates to the General Synod consists of the elder representatives elected from each church's session and all ministers from all presbyteries that comprise the Church (excluding ministers and elders from the independent ARP Synods of Mexico and Pakistan).The Evangelical Church of Augsburg and Helvetic Confession in Austria and the United Evangelical Lutheran Church of Germany each call their main legislative bodies .", "The legislative body In the Evangelical Church in Prussia was called between 1846 and 1953.The governing body of the Reformed Church in America, a Calvinist denomination in the United States and Canada, is known as the General Synod., the governing body of the Church of Norway, is normally translated as General Synod.", "It convenes once a year, and consists of 85 representatives, of whom seven or eight are sent from each of the dioceses.The Batak Christian Protestant Church (BPCP), or ''Huria Kristen Batak Protestan'' (abbreviated HKBP), held a twice-a-year General Synod (Sinode Godang), to discuss about matters in HKBP, and to elect the new ''Ephorus'' (or Board) for the HKBP.", "The first General Synod of HKBP was held in 1922." ], [ "Other uses", "In North America, the Evangelical Lutheran General Synod of the United States of North America, often referred to as the General Synod, was a Lutheran church body that existed from 1820 to 1918." ], [ "See also", "* Structure of the Church of England* List of Church of England measures* General Assembly (Presbyterian church)" ], [ "External links", "* Queen's Speech at inauguration of seventh General Synod* Church of England's General Synod website* List of current members* United Church of Christ General Synod 25 (2005)* Associate Reformed Presbyterian Church Government" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gerrymandering" ], [ "Introduction", "Different ways to apportion electoral districtsIn representative democracies, '''gerrymandering''' (, originally ) is the political manipulation of electoral district boundaries with the intent to create undue advantage for a party, group, or socioeconomic class within the constituency.", "The manipulation may involve \"cracking\" (diluting the voting power of the opposing party's supporters across many districts) or \"packing\" (concentrating the opposing party's voting power in one district to reduce their voting power in other districts).", "Gerrymandering can also be used to protect incumbents.", "Wayne Dawkins, a professor at Morgan State University, describes it as politicians picking their voters instead of voters picking their politicians.The term ''gerrymandering'' is a portmanteau of a salamander and Elbridge Gerry, Vice President of the United States at the time of his death, who, as governor of Massachusetts in 1812, signed a bill that created a partisan district in the Boston area that was compared to the shape of a mythological salamander.", "The term has negative connotations, and gerrymandering is almost always considered a corruption of the democratic process.", "The resulting district is known as a ''gerrymander'' ().", "The word is also a verb for the process." ], [ "Etymology", "South Essex created by the Massachusetts legislature to favor the Democratic-Republican Party.", "The caricature satirizes the bizarre shape of the district as a dragon-like \"monster\", and Federalist newspaper editors and others at the time likened it to a salamander.The word ''gerrymander'' (originally written ''Gerry-mander''; a portmanteau of the name ''Gerry'' and the animal ''salamander'') was used for the first time in the ''Boston Gazette'' on 26 March 1812 in Boston, Massachusetts, United States.", "This word was created in reaction to a redrawing of Massachusetts Senate election districts under Governor Elbridge Gerry, later Vice President of the United States.", "Gerry, who personally disapproved of the practice, signed a bill that redistricted Massachusetts for the benefit of the Democratic-Republican Party.", "When mapped, one of the contorted districts in the Boston area was said to resemble a mythological salamander.", "Appearing with the term, and helping spread and sustain its popularity, was a political cartoon depicting a strange animal with claws, wings and a dragon-like head that supposedly resembled the oddly shaped district.The cartoon was most likely drawn by Elkanah Tisdale, an early-19th-century painter, designer, and engraver who lived in Boston at the time.", "Tisdale had the engraving skills to cut the woodblocks to print the original cartoon.", "These woodblocks survive and are preserved in the Library of Congress.", "The creator of the term ''gerrymander'', however, may never be definitively established.", "Historians widely believe that the Federalist newspaper editors Nathan Hale and Benjamin and John Russell coined the term, but there is no definitive evidence as to who created or uttered the word for the first time.The redistricting was a notable success for Gerry's Democratic-Republican Party.", "In the 1812 election, both the Massachusetts House and governorship were comfortably won by Federalists, losing Gerry his job, but the redistricted state senate remained firmly in Democratic-Republican hands.The word ''gerrymander'' was reprinted numerous times in Federalist newspapers in Massachusetts, New England, and nationwide for the rest of 1812.This suggests an organized activity by the Federalists to disparage Gerry in particular and the growing Democratic-Republican party in general.", "''Gerrymandering'' soon began to be used to describe cases of district shape manipulation for partisan gain in other states.", "According to the ''Oxford English Dictionary,'' the word's acceptance was marked by its publication in a dictionary (1848) and in an encyclopedia (1868).", "Since the eponymous ''Gerry'' is pronounced with a hard g as in ''get'', the word ''gerrymander'' was originally pronounced , but pronunciation as , with a soft g as in ''gentle,'' has become dominant.", "Residents of Marblehead, Massachusetts, Gerry's hometown, continue to use the original pronunciation.From time to time, other names have been suffixed with ''-mander'' to tie a particular effort to a particular politician or group.", "Examples are the 1852 \"Henry-mandering\", \"Jerrymander\" (referring to California Governor Jerry Brown), \"Perrymander\" (a reference to Texas Governor Rick Perry), \"Tullymander\" (after the Irish politician James Tully), and \"Bjelkemander\" (referencing Australian politician Joh Bjelke-Petersen)." ], [ "Tactics", "The image from above appearing in a news article by Elkanah Tisdale in 1813Gerrymandering's primary goals are to maximize the effect of supporters' votes and minimize the effect of opponents' votes.", "A partisan gerrymander's main purpose is to influence not only the districting statute but the entire corpus of legislative decisions enacted in its path.These can be accomplished in a number of ways:* \"Cracking\" involves spreading voters of a particular type among many districts in order to deny them a sufficiently large voting bloc in any particular district.", "Political parties in charge of redrawing district lines may create more \"cracked\" districts as a means of retaining, and possibly even expanding, their legislative power.", "By \"cracking\" districts, a political party can maintain, or gain, legislative control by ensuring that the opposing party's voters are not the majority in specific districts.", "For example, the voters in an urban area can be split among several districts in each of which the majority of voters are suburban, on the presumption that the two groups would vote differently, and the suburban voters would be far more likely to get their way in the elections.", "* \"Packing\" is concentrating many voters of one type into a single electoral district to reduce their influence in other districts.", "In some cases, this may be done to obtain representation for a community of common interest (such as to create a majority-minority district), rather than to dilute that interest over several districts to a point of ineffectiveness (and, when minority groups are involved, to avoid lawsuits charging racial discrimination).", "When the party controlling the districting process has a statewide majority, packing is usually not necessary to attain partisan advantage; the minority party can generally be \"cracked\" everywhere.", "Packing is therefore more likely to be used for partisan advantage when the party controlling the districting process has a statewide minority, because by forfeiting a few districts packed with the opposition, cracking can be used in forming the remaining ones.", "* \"Hijacking\" redraws two districts in such a way as to force two incumbents to run against each other in one district, ensuring that one of them will be eliminated.", "* \"Kidnapping\" moves an incumbent's home address into another district.", "Reelection can become more difficult when the incumbent no longer resides in the district or faces reelection in a new district with a new voter base.", "This is often employed against politicians who represent multiple urban areas: larger cities are removed from the district to make it more rural.These tactics are typically combined in some form, creating a few \"forfeit\" seats for packed voters of one type in order to secure more seats and greater representation for voters of another type.", "This results in candidates of one party (the one responsible for the gerrymandering) winning by small majorities in most of the districts, and another party winning by a large majority in only a few.", "Any party that endeavors to make a district more favorable to voting for it based on the physical boundary is gerrymandering." ], [ "Effects", "Gerrymandering is effective because of the wasted vote effect.", "''Wasted votes'' are votes that did not contribute to electing a candidate, either because they were in excess of the number needed for victory or because the candidate lost.", "By moving geographic boundaries, the incumbent party packs opposition voters into a few districts they will already win, wasting the extra votes.", "Other districts are more tightly constructed, with the opposition party allowed a bare minority count, thereby wasting all the minority votes for the losing candidate.", "These districts constitute the majority of districts and are drawn to produce a result favoring the incumbent party.A quantitative measure of the effect of gerrymandering is the efficiency gap, computed from the difference in the wasted votes for two different political parties summed over all the districts.", "Citing in part an efficiency gap of 11.69% to 13%, a U.S. District Court in 2016 ruled against the 2011 drawing of Wisconsin legislative districts.", "In the 2012 election for the state legislature, that gap in wasted votes meant that one party had 48.6% of the two-party votes but won 61% of the 99 districts.The wasted vote effect is strongest when a party wins by narrow margins across multiple districts, but gerrymandering narrow margins can be risky when voters are less predictable.", "To minimize the risk of demographic or political shifts swinging a district to the opposition, politicians can create more packed districts, leading to more comfortable margins in unpacked ones.===Effect on electoral competition===non-proportional system.", "For a state with 3 equally sized districts, 15 voters and 2 parties:Some political science research suggests that, contrary to common belief, gerrymandering does not decrease electoral competition and can even increase it.", "Some say that, rather than packing the voters of their party into uncompetitive districts, party leaders tend to prefer to spread their party's voters into multiple districts so that their party can win more races.", "(See scenario '''(c)''' in the box.)", "This may lead to increased competition.", "Instead of gerrymandering, some researchers find that other factors, such as partisan polarization and the incumbency advantage, have driven the recent decreases in electoral competition.", "Similarly, a 2009 study found that \"congressional polarization is primarily a function of the differences in how Democrats and Republicans represent the same districts rather than a function of which districts each party represents or the distribution of constituency preferences.", "\"One state in which gerrymandering has arguably had an adverse effect on electoral competition is California.", "In 2000, a bipartisan redistricting effort redrew congressional district lines in ways that all but guaranteed incumbent victories; as a result, California saw only one congressional seat change hands between 2000 and 2010.In response to this obvious gerrymandering, a 2010 referendum in California gave the power to redraw congressional district lines to the California Citizens Redistricting Commission, which had been created to draw California State Senate and Assembly districts by a 2008 referendum.", "In stark contrast to the redistricting efforts that followed the 2000 census, the redistricting commission has created a number of the most competitive congressional districts in the country.===Increased incumbent advantage and campaign costs===The effect of gerrymandering for incumbents is particularly advantageous, as they are far more likely to be reelected under conditions of gerrymandering.", "For example, in 2002, according to political scientists Norman Ornstein and Thomas Mann, only four challengers were able to defeat incumbent members of the U.S. Congress, the lowest number in modern American history.", "Incumbents are likely to be of the majority party orchestrating a gerrymander, and are usually easily renominated in subsequent elections, including incumbents among the minority.Mann, a Senior Fellow of Governance Studies at the Brookings Institution, has also noted that \"Redistricting is a deeply political process, with incumbents actively seeking to minimize the risk to themselves (via bipartisan gerrymanders) or to gain additional seats for their party (via partisan gerrymanders)\".", "The bipartisan gerrymandering Mann mentions refers to the fact that legislators often draw distorted legislative districts even when doing so does not give their party an advantage.Gerrymandering of state legislative districts can effectively guarantee an incumbent's victory by \"shoring up\" a district with higher levels of partisan support, without disproportionately benefiting a particular political party.", "This can be highly problematic from a governance perspective, because forming districts to ensure high levels of partisanship often leads to higher levels of partisanship in legislative bodies.", "If a substantial number of districts are designed to be polarized, then those districts' representation will also likely act in a heavily partisan manner, which can create and perpetuate partisan gridlock.Gerrymandering can thus have a deleterious effect on the principle of democratic accountability.", "With uncompetitive seats/districts reducing the fear that incumbent politicians may lose office, they have less incentive to represent their constituents' interests, even when those interests conform to majority support for an issue across the electorate as a whole.", "Incumbent politicians may look out more for their party's interests than for those of their constituents.Gerrymandering can affect campaign costs for district elections.", "If districts become increasingly stretched out, candidates may incur higher costs for transportation and campaign advertising across a district.", "The incumbent's advantage in campaign fundraising is another benefit of having a gerrymandered seat.===Less descriptive representation===Gerrymandering also has significant effects on the representation voters receive in gerrymandered districts.", "Because gerrymandering can be designed to increase the number of wasted votes among the electorate, the relative representation of particular groups can be drastically altered from their actual share of the voting population.", "This effect can significantly prevent a gerrymandered system from achieving proportional and descriptive representation, as the winners of elections are increasingly determined by who is drawing the districts, rather than the voters' preferences.Gerrymandering may be advocated to improve representation within the legislature among otherwise underrepresented minority groups by packing them into a single district.", "This can be controversial, as it may lead to those groups' remaining marginalized in the government as they become confined to a single district.", "Candidates outside that district no longer need to represent them to win elections.As an example, much of the redistricting conducted in the U.S. in the early 1990s involved the intentional creation of additional \"majority-minority\" districts where racial minorities such as African Americans were packed into the majority.", "This \"maximization policy\" drew support from both the Republican Party (which had limited support among African Americans and could concentrate its power elsewhere) and by minority representatives elected as Democrats from these constituencies, who then had safe seats.", "The 2012 election provides a number of examples of how partisan gerrymandering can adversely affect the descriptive function of states' congressional delegations.", "In Pennsylvania, for example, Democratic candidates for the House of Representatives received 83,000 more votes than Republican candidates, yet the Republican-controlled redistricting process in 2010 resulted in Democrats losing to their Republican counterparts in 13 of Pennsylvania's 18 districts.In the seven states where Republicans had complete control over the redistricting process, Republican House candidates received 16.7 million votes and Democratic House candidates received 16.4 million.", "The redistricting resulted in Republican victories in 73 out of the 107 affected seats; in those seven states, Republicans received 50.4% of the votes but won in over 68% of the congressional districts.", "While it is but one example of how gerrymandering can have a significant effect on election outcomes, this kind of disproportional representation of the public will seems problematic for the legitimacy of democratic systems, regardless of one's political affiliation.In Michigan, redistricting was conducted by a Republican legislature in 2011.Federal congressional districts were designed so that cities such as Battle Creek, Grand Rapids, Jackson, Kalamazoo, Lansing, and East Lansing were separated into districts with large conservative-leaning hinterlands that diluted the Democratic votes in those cities in Congressional elections.", "Since 2010, not one of those cities is within a district in which a Democratic nominee for the House of Representatives has a reasonable chance of winning, short of Democratic landslide.===Incumbent gerrymandering===Gerrymandering can also be done to help incumbents as a whole, effectively making every district a packed one and greatly reducing the potential for competitive elections.", "This is particularly likely to occur when the minority party has significant obstruction power: unable to enact a partisan gerrymander, the legislature instead agrees to ensure its own reelection.In an unusual occurrence in 2000, for example, the two dominant parties in the state of California cooperatively redrew both state and federal legislative districts to preserve the status quo, insulating the incumbents from unpredictable voting.", "This move proved completely effective, as no state or federal legislative office changed party in the 2004 election, although 53 congressional, 20 state senate, and 80 state assembly seats were potentially at risk.In 2006, the term \"70/30 district\" came to signify the equitable split of two evenly split (i.e.", "50/50) districts.", "The resulting districts gave each party a guaranteed seat and retained their respective power base.Since the first handshake deal in 1981, whereby Republicans informally controlled the state senate redistricting process and Democrats informally controlled the state assembly redistricting process, New York has experienced some of the nation's least competitive legislative elections.", "One study by the Brennan Center for Justice at New York University Law School found that over one ten-year period, as many members of the state legislature died in office as were defeated in elections.", "More than 99% of the incumbents contesting a primary or general election won their races.===Prison-based gerrymandering===Prison-based gerrymandering occurs when prisoners are counted as residents of a district, increasing its population with non-voters when assigning political apportionment.", "This phenomenon violates the principle of one person, one vote because, although many prisoners come from (and return to) urban communities, they are counted as \"residents\" of the rural districts that contain large prisons, artificially inflating the political representation in districts with prisons at the expense of voters in districts without them.", "Others contend that prisoners should not be counted as residents of their original districts when they do not reside there and are not legally eligible to vote." ], [ "Changes to achieve competitive elections", "Electoral divisions in the Sydney area, drawn by the politically independent Australian Electoral CommissionDue to the perceived issues associated with gerrymandering and its effect on competitive elections and democratic accountability, numerous countries have enacted reforms making the practice more difficult or less effective.", "Countries such as the UK, Australia, Canada and most of those in Europe have transferred responsibility for defining constituency boundaries to neutral or cross-party bodies.", "In Spain, they are constitutionally fixed since 1978.Open party-list proportional representation makes gerrymandering obsolete by erasing district lines and empowering voters to rank a list of candidates any party puts forth.", "This method is used in Austria, Brazil, Sweden, and Switzerland.In the U.S., such reforms are controversial and face particularly strong opposition from groups that benefit from gerrymandering.", "In a more neutral system, they might lose considerable influence.=== Redistricting by neutral or cross-party agency ===The most commonly advocated electoral reform proposal targeted at gerrymandering is to change the redistricting process.", "Under these proposals, an independent and presumably objective commission is created specifically for redistricting, rather than having the legislature do it.This is the system used in the UK, where independent boundary commissions determine the boundaries for constituencies in the House of Commons and the devolved legislatures, subject to ratification by the body in question (almost always granted without debate).", "A similar situation exists in Australia, where the independent Australian Electoral Commission and its state-based counterparts determine electoral boundaries for federal, state and local jurisdictions.To help ensure neutrality, members of a redistricting agency may be appointed from relatively apolitical sources, such as retired judges or longstanding members of the civil service, possibly with requirements for adequate representation among competing political parties.", "Additionally, members of the board can be denied information that might aid in gerrymandering, such as the demographic makeup or voting patterns of the population.As a further constraint, consensus requirements can be imposed to ensure that the resulting district map reflects a wider perception of fairness, such as a requirement for a supermajority approval of the commission for any district proposal.", "But consensus requirements can lead to deadlock, as occurred in Missouri following the 2000 census.", "There, the equally numbered partisan appointees were unable to reach consensus in a reasonable time, and so the courts had to determine district lines.In the U.S. state of Iowa, the nonpartisan Legislative Services Bureau (LSB, akin to the U.S. Congressional Research Service) determines electoral district boundaries.", "Aside from satisfying federally mandated contiguity and population equality criteria, the LSB mandates unity of counties and cities.", "Consideration of political factors such as location of incumbents, previous boundary locations, and political party proportions is specifically forbidden.", "Since Iowa's counties are chiefly regularly shaped polygons, the LSB process has led to districts that follow county lines.In 2005, the U.S. state of Ohio had a ballot measure to create an independent commission whose first priority was competitive districts, a sort of \"reverse gerrymander\".", "A complex mathematical formula was to be used to determine the competitiveness of a district.", "The measure failed voter approval chiefly due to voter concerns that communities of interest would be broken up.In 2017, Representative John Delaney submitted the Open Our Democracy Act of 2017 to the U.S. House of Representatives as a means to implement nonpartisan redistricting.=== Redistricting by partisan competition ===Many redistricting reforms seek to remove partisanship to ensure fairness in the redistricting process.", "The I-cut-you-choose method achieves fairness by putting the two major-parties in direct competition.", "I-cut-you-choose is a fair division method to divide resources amongst two parties, regardless of which party cuts first.", "This method typically relies on assumptions of contiguity of districts but ignores all other constraints such as keeping communities of interest together.", "This method has been applied to nominal redistricting problems but it generally has less public interest than other types of redistricting reforms.", "The I-cut-you-choose concept was popularized by the board game Berrymandering.", "Problems with this method arise when minor parties are shut-out of the process which will reinforce the two-party system.", "Additionally, while this method is provably fair to the two parties creating the districts, it is not necessarily fair to the communities they represent.===Transparency regulations===When a single political party controls both legislative houses of a state during redistricting, both Democrats and Republicans have displayed a marked propensity for couching the process in secrecy; in May 2010, for example, the Republican National Committee held a redistricting training session in Ohio where the theme was \"Keep it Secret, Keep it Safe\".", "The need for increased transparency in redistricting processes is clear; a 2012 investigation by The Center for Public Integrity reviewed every state's redistricting processes for both transparency and potential for public input, and ultimately assigned 24 states grades of either D or F.In response to these types of problems, redistricting transparency legislation has been introduced to US Congress a number of times in recent years, including the Redistricting Transparency Acts of 2010, 2011, and 2013.Such policy proposals aim to increase the transparency and responsiveness of the redistricting systems in the US.", "The merit of increasing transparency in redistricting processes is based largely on the premise that lawmakers would be less inclined to draw gerrymandered districts if they were forced to defend such districts in a public forum.===Changing the voting system===As gerrymandering relies on the wasted-vote effect, the use of a different voting system with fewer wasted votes can help reduce gerrymandering.", "In particular, the use of multi-member districts alongside voting systems establishing proportional representation such as party-list proportional representation or single transferable voting can reduce wasted votes and gerrymandering.", "Semi-proportional voting systems such as single non-transferable vote or cumulative voting are relatively simple and similar to ''first past the post'' and can also reduce the proportion of wasted votes and thus potential gerrymandering.", "Electoral reformers have advocated all three as replacement systems.Electoral systems with various forms of proportional representation are now found in nearly all European countries, resulting in multi-party systems (with many parties represented in the parliaments) with higher voter attendance in the elections, fewer wasted votes, and a wider variety of political opinions represented.Electoral systems with election of just one winner in each district (i.e., \"winner-takes-all\" electoral systems) and no proportional distribution of extra mandates to smaller parties tend to create two-party systems.", "This effect, labeled ''Duverger's law'' by political scientists, was described by Maurice Duverger.===Using fixed districts===Another way to avoid gerrymandering is simply to stop redistricting altogether and use existing political boundaries such as state, county, or provincial lines.", "While this prevents future gerrymandering, any existing advantage may become deeply ingrained.", "The United States Senate, for instance, has more competitive elections than the House of Representatives due to the use of existing state borders rather than gerrymandered districts—Senators are elected by their entire state, while Representatives are elected in legislatively drawn districts.The use of fixed districts creates an additional problem, however, in that fixed districts do not take into account changes in population.", "Individual voters can come to have very different degrees of influence on the legislative process.", "This malapportionment can greatly affect representation after long periods of time or large population movements.", "In the United Kingdom during the Industrial Revolution, several constituencies that had been fixed since they gained representation in the Parliament of England became so small that they could be won with only a handful of voters (''rotten boroughs'').", "Similarly, in the U.S. the Alabama Legislature refused to redistrict for more than 60 years, despite major changes in population patterns.", "By 1960 less than a quarter of the state's population controlled the majority of seats in the legislature.", "This practice of using fixed districts for state legislatures was effectively banned in the United States after the ''Reynolds v. Sims'' Supreme Court decision in 1964, establishing a rule of one man, one vote.===Objective rules to create districts===Another means to reduce gerrymandering is to create objective, precise criteria with which any district map must comply.", "Courts in the United States, for instance, have ruled that congressional districts must be contiguous in order to be constitutional.", "This, however, is not a particularly effective constraint, as very narrow strips of land with few or no voters in them may be used to connect separate regions for inclusion in one district, as is the case in Illinois's 4th congressional district.Depending on the distribution of voters for a particular party, metrics that maximize compactness can be opposed to metrics that minimize the efficiency gap.", "For example, in the United States, voters registered with the Democratic Party tend to be concentrated in cities, potentially resulting in a large number of \"wasted\" votes if compact districts are drawn around city populations.", "Neither of these metrics take into consideration other possible goals, such as proportional representation based on other demographic characteristics (such as race, ethnicity, gender, or income), maximizing competitiveness of elections (the greatest number of districts where party affiliation is 50/50), avoiding splits of existing government units (like cities and counties), and ensuring representation of major interest groups (like farmers or voters in a specific transportation corridor), though any of these could be incorporated into a more complicated metric.====Minimum district to convex polygon ratio====8th (left) and 10th congressional districts in Georgia, 2012.To avoid penalizing large areas, the measure is the ratio of the area of the district to the area of the polygon.", "District 8 will get a lower score than District 10.One method is to define a minimum district to convex polygon ratio.", "To use this method, every proposed district is circumscribed by the smallest possible convex polygon (its convex hull; think of stretching a rubberband around the outline of the district).", "Then, the area of the district is divided by the area of the polygon; or, if at the edge of the state, by the portion of the area of the polygon within state boundaries.The advantages of this method are that it allows a certain amount of human intervention to take place (thus solving the Colorado problem of splitline districting); it allows the borders of the district to follow existing jagged subdivisions, such as neighborhoods or voting districts (something isoperimetric rules would discourage); and it allows concave coastline districts, such as the Florida gulf coast area.", "It would mostly eliminate bent districts, but still permit long, straight ones.", "However, since human intervention is still allowed, the gerrymandering issues of packing and cracking would still occur, just to a lesser extent.====Shortest splitline algorithm====The Center for Range Voting has proposed a way to draw districts by a simple algorithm.", "The algorithm uses only the shape of the state, the number of districts wanted, and the population distribution as inputs.", "The algorithm (slightly simplified) is:# Start with the boundary outline of the state.# Let =A+B where is the number of districts to create, and A and B are two whole numbers, either equal (if is even) or differing by exactly one (if is odd).", "For example, if is 10, each of and would be 5.If is 7, would be 4 and would be 3.# Among all possible straight lines that split the state into two parts with the population ratio A:B, choose the ''shortest''.", "If there are two or more such shortest lines, choose the one that is most north–south in direction; if there is still more than one possibility, choose the westernmost.# We now have two hemi-states, each to contain a specified number (namely and ) of districts.", "Handle them recursively via the same splitting procedure.# Any human residence that is split in two or more parts by the resulting lines is considered to be a part of the most north-eastern of the resulting districts; if this does not decide it, then of the most northern.This district-drawing algorithm has the advantages of simplicity, ultra-low cost, a single possible result (thus no possibility of human interference), lack of intentional bias, and it produces simple boundaries that do not meander needlessly.", "It has the disadvantage of ignoring geographic features such as rivers, cliffs, and highways and cultural features such as tribal boundaries.", "This landscape oversight causes it to produce districts different from those a human would produce.", "Ignoring geographic features can induce very simple boundaries.While most districts produced by the method will be fairly compact and either roughly rectangular or triangular, some of the resulting districts can still be long and narrow strips (or triangles) of land.Like most automatic redistricting rules, the shortest splitline algorithm will fail to create majority-minority districts, for both ethnic and political minorities, if the minority populations are not very compact.", "This might reduce minority representation.Another criticism of the system is that splitline districts sometimes divide and diffuse the voters in a large metropolitan area.", "This condition is most likely to occur when one of the first splitlines cuts through the metropolitan area.", "It is often considered a drawback of the system because residents of the same agglomeration are assumed to be a community of common interest.", "This is most evident in the splitline allocation of Colorado.However, in cases when the splitline divides a large metropolitan area, it is usually because that large area has enough population for multiple districts.", "In cases which the large area only has the population for one district, then the splitline usually results in the urban area being in one district with the other district being rural.As of July 2007, shortest-splitline redistricting pictures, based on the results of the 2000 census, are available for all 50 states.====Minimum isoperimetric quotient====It is possible to define a specific minimum isoperimetric quotient, proportional to the ratio between the area and the square of the perimeter of any given congressional voting district.", "Although technologies presently exist to define districts in this manner, there are no rules in place mandating their use, and no national movement to implement such a policy.", "One problem with the simplest version of this rule is that it would prevent incorporation of jagged natural boundaries, such as rivers or mountains; when such boundaries are required, such as at the edge of a state, certain districts may not be able to meet the required minima.", "One way of avoiding this problem is to allow districts which share a border with a state border to replace that border with a polygon or semi-circle enclosing the state boundary as a kind of virtual boundary definition, but using the actual perimeter of the district whenever this occurs inside the state boundaries.", "Enforcing a minimum isoperimetric quotient would encourage districts with a high ratio between area and perimeter.====Efficiency gap calculation====The efficiency gap is a simply-calculable measure that can show the effects of gerrymandering.", "It measures wasted votes for each party: the sum of votes cast in losing districts (losses due to cracking) and excess votes cast in winning districts (losses due to packing).", "The difference in these wasted votes are divided by total votes cast, and the resulting percentage is the efficiency gap.In 2017, Boris Alexeev and Dustin Mixon proved that \"sometimes, a small efficiency gap is only possible with bizarrely shaped districts\".", "This means that it is mathematically impossible to always devise boundaries which would simultaneously meet certain Polsby–Popper and efficiency gap targets." ], [ "Use of databases and computer technology", "The introduction of modern computers alongside the development of elaborate voter databases and special districting software has made gerrymandering a far more precise science.", "Using such databases, political parties can obtain detailed information about every household including political party registration, previous campaign donations, and the number of times residents voted in previous elections and combine it with other predictors of voting behavior such as age, income, race, or education level.", "With this data, gerrymandering politicians can predict the voting behavior of each potential district with an astonishing degree of precision, leaving little chance for creating an accidentally competitive district.On the other hand, the introduction of modern computers would allow the United States Census Bureau to calculate more equal populations in every voting district that are based only on districts being the most compact and equal populations.", "This could be done easily using their Block Centers based on the Global Positioning System rather than street addresses.", "With this data, gerrymandering politicians will not be in charge, thus allowing competitive districts again.Online web apps such as Dave's Redistricting have allowed users to simulate redistricting states into legislative districts as they wish.", "According to Bradlee, the software was designed to \"put power in people's hands,\" and so that they \"can see how the process works, so it's a little less mysterious than it was 10 years ago.", "\"Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) can measure the extent to which redistricting plans favor a particular party or group in election, and can support automated redistricting simulators." ], [ "Voting systems", "===First-past-the-post===Gerrymandering is most likely to emerge in majoritarian systems, where the country is divided into several voting districts and the candidate with the most votes wins the district.", "If the ruling party is in charge of drawing the district lines, it can abuse the fact that in a majoritarian system all votes that do not go to the winning candidate are essentially irrelevant to the composition of a new government.", "Even though gerrymandering can be used in other voting systems, it has the most significant impact on voting outcomes in first-past-the-post systems.", "Partisan redrawing of district lines is particularly harmful to democratic principles in majoritarian two-party systems.", "In general, two party systems tend to be more polarized than proportional systems.", "Possible consequences of gerrymandering in such a system can be an amplification of polarization in politics and a lack of representation of minorities, as a large part of the constituency is not represented in policy making.", "However, not every state using a first-past-the-post system is being confronted with the negative impacts of gerrymandering.", "Some countries, such as Canada and the UK, authorize non-partisan organizations to set constituency boundaries in attempt to prevent gerrymandering.===Proportional systems===The introduction of a proportional system is often proposed as the most effective solution to partisan gerrymandering.", "In such systems, the entire constituency is being represented proportionally to their votes.", "Even though voting districts can be part of a proportional system, the redrawing of district lines would not benefit a party, as those districts are mainly of organizational value, except where the district magnitude is small or a system which favors larger parties, such as d'Hondt, is used.", "For example, instead of having three districts, a single large district would exist where the top three candidates in the election would all represent the district.", "It would be harder to gerrymander a district where there are multiple winners from that district.===Mixed systems===In mixed systems that use proportional and majoritarian voting principles, the usage of gerrymandering is a constitutional obstacle that states have to deal with.", "In mixed systems, the advantage a political actor can potentially gain from redrawing district lines is much less than in majoritarian systems.", "In addition, voting districts are mostly being used to avoid that elected parliamentarians are getting too detached from their constituency.", "The principle that determines the representation in parliament is usually the proportional aspect of the voting system.", "Seats in parliament are being allocated to each party in accordance to the proportion of their overall votes.", "In most mixed systems, winning a voting district merely means that a candidate is guaranteed a seat in parliament but does not expand a party's share in the overall seats.", "Gerrymandering can still be used to manipulate the outcome in voting districts.", "In most democracies with a mixed system, non-partisan institutions are in charge of drawing district lines and gerrymandering is a less common phenomenon." ], [ "Difference from malapportionment", "Gerrymandering should not be confused with malapportionment, whereby the number of eligible voters per elected representative can vary widely.", "Nevertheless, the ''-mander'' suffix has been applied to particular malapportionments.", "Sometimes political representatives use both gerrymandering and malapportionment to try to maintain power.", "One of the earliest examples of malapportionment, rotten boroughs, was practiced in England from the 13th century until the 1832 reform act.", "A striking modern example of malapportionment is the U.S. senate, where states receive equal representation despite widely varying populations." ], [ "Examples", "Several western democracies, notably Israel, the Netherlands and Slovakia employ an electoral system with only one (nationwide) voting district for election of national representatives.", "This virtually precludes gerrymandering.", "Other European countries such as Austria, the Czech Republic or Sweden, among many others, have electoral districts with fixed boundaries (usually one district for each administrative division).", "The number of representatives for each district can change after a census due to population shifts, but their boundaries do not change.", "This also effectively eliminates gerrymandering.Additionally, many countries where the president is directly elected by the citizens (e.g.", "France, Poland, among others) use only one electoral district for their presidential election with the winner of the popular vote winning the position, despite using multiple districts to elect representatives.===Australia=======National====Gerrymandering has not typically been considered a problem in the Australian electoral system largely because drawing of electoral boundaries has typically been done by non-partisan electoral commissions.", "There have been historical cases of malapportionment, whereby the distribution of electors to electorates was not in proportion to the population in several states.In the 1998 Australian federal election, the opposition Australian Labor Party, led by Kim Beazley, received 50.98% of the two-party-preferred vote in the House of Representatives, but won only 67/148 seats (45.05%).", "The incumbent Liberal National Coalition government led by Prime Minister John Howard won 49.02% of the vote and 80 of 148 seats (54.05%).", "Compared to the previous election, there was a swing of 4.61% against the Coalition, who lost 14 seats.", "After Howard's victory, many Coalition seats were extremely marginal, having only been won by less than 1% (less than 1200 votes).", "This election result is generally not attributed to gerrymandering or malapportionment.In 1996, the High Court of Australia in ''McGinty v Western Australia'' confirmed the constitutional legality of electoral systems where different constituencies were differently weighted from others in the same system; in particular, the case approved Western Australia's system.====South Australia====Sir Thomas Playford was Premier of the state of South Australia from 1938 to 1965 as a result of a system of malapportionment, which became known as the Playmander, despite it not strictly speaking involving a gerrymander.====Queensland====In the state of Queensland, malapportionment combined with a gerrymander under Country Party Premier Sir Joh Bjelke-Petersen (knighted by Queen Elizabeth II at his own request) became nicknamed the Bjelkemander in the 1970s and 1980s.The malapportionment had been originally designed to favor rural areas in the 1930s-1950s by a Labor government who drew their support from agricultural and mine workers in rural areas.", "This helped Labor to stay in government from 1932 to 1957.As demographics and political views shifted over time, this system came to favor the Country Party instead.The Country Party led by Frank Nicklin came to power in 1957, deciding to keep the malapportionment that favored them.", "In 1968, Joh Bjelke-Petersen became leader of the Country Party and Premier.", "In the 1970s, he further expanded the malapportionment and gerrymandering which then became known as the ''Bjelkemander''.", "Under the system, electoral boundaries were drawn so that rural electorates had as few as half as many voters as metropolitan ones and regions with high levels of support for the Labor Party were concentrated into fewer electorates, allowing Bjelke-Petersen's government to remain in power for despite attracting substantially less than 50% of the vote.In the 1986 election, for example, the National Party received 39.64% of the first preference vote and won 49 seats (in the 89 seat Parliament) whilst the Labor Opposition received 41.35% but won only 30 seats.", "Bjelke-Petersen also used the system to disadvantage Liberal Party (traditionally allied with the Country Party) voters in urban areas, allowing Bjelke-Petersen's Country Party to rule alone, shunning the Liberals.Bjelke-Petersen also used Queensland Police brutality to quell protests, and Queensland under his government was frequently described as a police state.", "In 1987 he was eventually forced to resign in disgrace after the Fitzgerald Inquiry revealed wide-ranging corruption in his cabinet and the Queensland Police, resulting in the prosecution and jailing of Country Party members.", "Before resigning, Bjelke-Petersen asked the Governor of Queensland to sack his own cabinet, in an unsuccessful attempt to cling to power.", "Labor won the next election, and have remained the dominant party in Queensland since then.", "The Country Party and Liberal Party eventually merged in Queensland to become the Liberal-National Party, while the Country Party in other states was renamed as the National Party.====Western Australia====The Western Australian Legislative Council was long gerrymandered via a malapportionment that clearly favored the rural conservative National Party, with the state split into electoral regions with significant differences in voter numbers.", "After the Labor Party won a landslide victory in both houses in the 2021 Western Australian state election, they abolished the electoral region system, replacing it with a single statewide constituency electing 37 members via optional preferential voting that creates a one-vote, one-value system.====City of Sydney Council====In 2014 the conservative Liberal Party NSW State Government gerrymandered the local City of Sydney council elections as part of their continued attempts to remove Clover Moore from elected positions.", "Moore had already been removed as a state government representative by laws banning serving simultaneously as a state representative and a local council member, and their attempt to remove her from the Council saw the State Government introduce a law giving all businesses in the area two votes and requiring the Council to constantly update the electoral roll and inform each business of its eligibility to vote.", "Moore called the laws an \"undemocratic gerrymander\" and election analyst Antony Green said the changes were \"clearly an attempt to disadvantage Clover Moore\".", "The laws were specific to the City of Sydney council and not rolled out across the rest of the state councils.", "The attempt failed, and Moore retained her position as Lord Mayor of Sydney through multiple further elections.===Bahamas===The 1962 Bahamian general election was likely influenced by gerrymandering.", "The election was the first to allow universal suffrage.", "The Progressive Liberal Party (PLP) received 44% of the vote, while the United Bahamian Party (UBP) won only 36% of the vote.", "The other 20% was for third parties and independents.", "Despite receiving a majority of the votes, the PLP won only 8 of the 33 seats in the House of Assembly, while the UBP won 18 seats.===Canada===Gerrymandering used to be prominent in Canadian politics, but is no longer prominent, after independent electoral boundary redistribution commissions were established in all provinces.", "Early in Canadian history, both the federal and provincial levels used gerrymandering to try to maximize partisan power.", "When Alberta and Saskatchewan were admitted to Confederation in 1905, their original district boundaries were set forth in the respective Alberta and Saskatchewan Acts.", "Federal Liberal cabinet members devised the boundaries to ensure the election of provincial Liberal governments.", "British Columbia used a combination of single-member and dual-member constituencies to solidify the power of the center-right British Columbia Social Credit Party until 1991.Since responsibility for drawing federal and provincial electoral boundaries was handed over to independent agencies, the problem has largely been eliminated at those levels of government.", "Manitoba was the first province to authorize a non-partisan group to define constituency boundaries in the 1950s.", "In 1964, the federal government delegated the drawing of boundaries for federal electoral districts to the non-partisan agency Elections Canada which answers to Parliament rather than the government of the day.As a result, gerrymandering is not generally a major issue in Canada except at the civic level.", "Although city wards are recommended by independent agencies, city councils occasionally overrule them.", "That is much more likely if the city is not homogenous and different neighborhoods have sharply different opinions about city policy direction.In 2006, a controversy arose in Prince Edward Island over the provincial government's decision to throw out an electoral map drawn by an independent commission.", "Instead, they created two new maps.", "The government adopted the second of them, which was designed by the caucus of the governing Progressive Conservative Party of Prince Edward Island.", "Opposition parties and the media attacked Premier Pat Binns for what they saw as gerrymandering of districts.", "Among other things, the government adopted a map that ensured that every current Member of the Legislative Assembly from the premier's party had a district to run in for re-election, but in the original map, several had been redistricted.", "However, in the 2007 provincial election only seven of 20 incumbent Members of the Legislative Assembly were re-elected (seven did not run for re-election), and the government was defeated.===Chile===The military government which ruled Chile from 1973 to 1990 was ousted in a national plebiscite in October 1988.Opponents of General Augusto Pinochet voted NO to remove him from power and to trigger democratic elections, while supporters (mostly from the right-wing) voted YES to keep him in office for another eight years.Five months prior to the plebiscite, the regime published a law regulating future elections and referendums, but the configuration of electoral districts and the manner in which National Congress seats would be awarded were only added to the law seven months after the referendum.For the Chamber of Deputies (lower house), 60 districts were drawn by grouping (mostly) neighboring communes (the smallest administrative subdivision in the country) within the same region (the largest).", "It was established that two deputies would be elected per district, with the most voted coalition needing to outpoll its closest rival by a margin of more than 2-to-1 to take both seats.", "The results of the 1988 plebiscite show that neither the \"NO\" side nor the \"YES\" side outpolled the other by said margin in any of the newly established districts.", "They also showed that the vote/seat ratio was lower in districts which supported the \"YES\" side and higher in those where the \"NO\" was strongest.", "In spite of this, at the 1989 parliamentary election, the center-left opposition was able to capture both seats (the so-called ''doblaje'') in twelve out of 60 districts, winning control of 60% of the Chamber.Senate constituencies were created by grouping all lower-chamber districts in a region, or by dividing a region into two constituencies of contiguous lower-chamber districts.", "The 1980 Constitution allocated a number of seats to appointed senators, making it harder for one side to change the Constitution by itself.", "The opposition won 22 senate seats in the 1989 election, taking both seats in three out of 19 constituencies, controlling 58% of the elected Senate, but only 47% of the full Senate.", "The unelected senators were eliminated in the 2005 constitutional reforms, but the electoral map has remained largely untouched (two new regions were created in 2007, one of which altered the composition of two senatorial constituencies; the first election to be affected by this minor change took place in 2013).===Croatia===During the process of declaration and recognition of independence of Croatia the administrative divisions of the country was reorganized into 20 newly established counties and the city of Zagreb.", "All of the counties had Croat ethnic majority and were in part established as a gerrymandering effort to delegitimize Republic of Serbian Krajina secession as well as any regionalist requests in the historic provinces of Istria and Dalmatia while at the same time strengthening dominant-party's control over the Chamber of Counties.", "Following the end of the Croatian War of Independence and during the UNTAES administration in Eastern Slavonia Serb political leader Vojislav Stanimirović accused Croatian authorities of intentional division of the Serb community in the region into Osijek-Baranja and Vukovar-Srijem County with an aim to dilute their political initiatives.Croatian Parliament electoral districts were also described as a form of gerrymandering preventing genuine political competition with each district selecting the same number of MPs while districts' population varied over the legally permitted ±5 percent.", "In 2010 Constitutional Court of Croatia stated in a report that population discrepancies among electoral districts is higher than ±5 percent and that districts' borders should be redrawn to address the concern.", "2021 Croatian census indicated even further differences in population with the difference in needed number of votes in the smallest (Electoral district IV) and the largest (Electoral district VII) district for a single parliamentary mandate being 10,5 thousands votes.", "In October 2022 President of the Constitutional Court of Croatia Miroslav Šeparović warned that this situation may jeopardize constitutionality of the following elections in Croatia.===El Salvador===On 30 December 2022, Salvadoran President Nayib Bukele tweeted that he believed that the country's 262 municipalities should be reduced to 50.Opposition politicians accused him of attempting to gerrymander the municipalities and consolidate his power ahead of the 2024 general election.", "On 20 February 2023, Legislative Assembly President Ernesto Castro announced that the Nuevas Ideas (NI) political party was formally evaluating a proposal to reduce the number of municipalities as suggested by Bukele.===France===France is one of the few countries to let legislatures redraw the map with no check.", "In practice, the Parliament of France sets up an executive commission.", "Districts called ''arrondissements'' were used in the Third Republic and under the Fifth Republic they are called ''circonscriptions''.", "During the Third Republic, some reforms of arrondissements, which were also used for administrative purposes, were largely suspected to have been arranged to favor the kingmaker in the National Assembly, the Radical Party.The dissolution of Seine and Seine-et-Oise départements by de Gaulle was seen as a case of gerrymandering to counter communist influence around Paris.In the modern regime, there were three designs: in 1958 (regime change), 1987 (by Charles Pasqua) and 2010 (by Alain Marleix), three times by conservative governments.", "Pasqua's drawing was known to have been particularly good at gerrymandering, resulting in 80% of the seats with 58% of the vote in 1993, and forcing Socialists in the 1997 snap election to enact multiple pacts with smaller parties in order to win again, this time as a coalition.", "In 2010, the Sarkozy government created 12 districts for expats.The Constitutional council was called twice by the opposition to decide about gerrymandering, but it never considered partisan disproportions.", "However, it forced the Marleix committee to respect an 80–120% population ratio, ending a tradition dating back to the Revolution in which ''départements'', however small in population, would send at least two MPs.===Germany===Since Germany utilizes a proportional representation system, gerrymandering is rarely a problem.", "There is, however, one situation in which gerrymandering can affect an election.", "In Germany for a party to win any seat, it has to win at least 5% of the vote or three constituencies.", "This latter rule was applied most recently in the 2021 federal election, in which the Left entered the Bundestag despite winning less than 5% of the vote.In 2000 the electoral constituencies were redrawn and the PDS, which entered the Bundestag in the elections of 1994 and 1998 with this rule, accused the SPD, who were in power at the time of redrawing the constituencies, of gerrymandering them by breaking up districts in East Berlin, a PDS stronghold, and combining them with West Berlin.", "In the 2002 federal election the PDS lost their third constituency and entered the Bundestag with only two seats.", "Had they won a third direct seat, they would have qualified for an additional 25 seats.Another scenario in which gerrymandering can affect German federal election is when a party wins more constituenies than their overall share of the popular vote—those extra seats, called \"Überhangmandate\", remain.", "In the Bundestag election of 2009, Angela Merkel's CDU/CSU gained 24 such extra seats, while no other party gained any; this skewed the result so much that the Federal Constitutional Court of Germany issued two rulings declaring the existing election laws invalid and requiring the Bundestag to pass a new law limiting such extra seats to no more than 15.In 2013, Germany's Federal Constitutional Court ruled on the constitutionality of Überhangmandate.", "From then on each other party would receive seats as well to remedy the disproportion, thereby making it impossible to have disproportionate election results.===Greece===Gerrymandering has been rather common in Greek history since organized parties with national ballots only appeared after the 1926 Constitution.", "The only case before that was the creation of the Piraeus electoral district in 1906, in order to give the Theotokis party a safe district.A notable case of gerrymandering in Greece was in the 1956 legislative election.", "While in previous elections the districts were based on the prefecture level (νομός), for 1956 the country was split in districts of varying sizes, some being the size of prefectures, some the size of sub-prefectures (επαρχία) and others somewhere in between.", "In small districts the winning party would take all seats, in intermediate size, it would take most and there was proportional representation in the largest districts.", "The districts were created in such a way that small districts were those that traditionally voted for the right while large districts were those that voted against the right.This system has become known as the three-phase (τριφασικό) system or the baklava system (because, as baklava is split into full pieces and corner pieces, the country was also split into disproportionate pieces).", "The opposition, being composed of the center and the left, formed a coalition with the sole intent of changing the electoral law and then calling new elections.", "Even though the centrist and leftist opposition won the popular vote (1,620,007 votes against 1,594,992), the right-wing ERE won the majority of seats (165 to 135) and was to lead the country for the next two years.===Hong Kong===In Hong Kong, functional constituencies are demarcated by the government and defined in statutes, making them prone to gerrymandering.", "The functional constituency for the information technology sector was particular criticized for gerrymandering and voteplanting.There are also gerrymandering concerns in the constituencies of district councils.===Hungary===In 2011, Fidesz politician János Lázár has proposed a redesign to Hungarian voting districts; considering the territorial results of previous elections, this redesign would favor right-wing politics according to the opposition.", "Since then, the law has been passed by the Fidesz-majority National Assembly.", "By the political think tanks and media close to the opposition, it took twice as many votes to gain a seat in some election districts as in some others.", "However, their findings are controversial.", "Gerrymandering was seen in the 2018 election results.===Ireland===Until the 1980s Dáil boundaries in Ireland were drawn not by an independent commission but by government ministers.", "Successive arrangements by governments of all political characters have been attacked as gerrymandering.", "Ireland uses the single transferable vote, and as well as the actual boundaries drawn, the main tool of gerrymandering has been the number of seats per constituency used, with three-seat constituencies normally benefiting the strongest parties in an area, whereas four-seat constituencies normally help smaller parties.In 1947 the rapid rise of new party Clann na Poblachta threatened the position of the governing party Fianna Fáil.", "The government of Éamon de Valera introduced the Electoral (Amendment) Act 1947, which increased the size of the Dáil from 138 to 147 and increased the number of three-seat constituencies from fifteen to twenty-two.", "The result was described by the journalist and historian Tim Pat Coogan as \"a blatant attempt at gerrymander which no Six County Unionist could have bettered.\"", "The following February the 1948 general election was held and Clann na Poblachta secured ten seats instead of the nineteen they would have received proportional to their vote.In the mid-1970s, the Minister for Local Government, James Tully, attempted to arrange the constituencies to ensure that the governing Fine Gael–Labour Party National Coalition would win a parliamentary majority.", "The Electoral (Amendment) Act 1974 was planned as a major reversal of previous gerrymandering by Fianna Fáil (then in opposition).", "Tully ensured that there were as many as possible three-seat constituencies where the governing parties were strong, in the expectation that the governing parties would each win a seat in many constituencies, relegating Fianna Fáil to one out of three.In areas where the governing parties were weak, four-seat constituencies were used so that the governing parties had a strong chance of still winning two.", "The election results created substantial change, as there was a larger than expected collapse in the vote.", "Fianna Fáil won a landslide victory in the 1977 Irish general election, two out of three seats in many cases, relegating the National Coalition parties to fight for the last seat.", "Consequently, the term \"Tullymandering\" was used to describe the phenomenon of a failed attempt at gerrymandering.===India===Gerrymandering in India is loosely claimed by many political analysts, however there is no conclusive evidence whether the exercise has benefited a particular political party or not.", "The last nationwide delimitation was done in 2009 and two successive elections threw two different results giving mandate to both the political parties one after the another.===Italy===A hypothesis of gerrymandering was theorized by constituencies drawn by the electoral act of 2017, so-called Rosatellum.===Kuwait===From the years 1981 until 2005, Kuwait was divided into 25 electoral districts in order to over-represent the government's supporters (the 'tribes').", "In July 2005, a new law for electoral reforms was approved which prevented electoral gerrymandering by cutting the number of electoral districts from 25 to 5.The government of Kuwait found that 5 electoral districts resulted in a powerful parliament with the majority representing the opposition.", "A new law was crafted by the government of Kuwait and signed by the Amir to gerrymander the districts to 10 allowing the government's supporters to regain the majority.===Malaysia===The practice of gerrymandering has been around in the country since its independence in 1957.The ruling coalition at that time, ''Barisan Nasional'' (BN; English: \"National Front\"), has been accused of controlling the election commission by revising the boundaries of constituencies.", "For example, during the 13th General Election in 2013, Barisan Nasional won 60% of the seats in the Malaysian Parliament despite only receiving 47% of the popular vote.", "Malapportionment has also been used at least since 1974, when it was observed that in one state alone (Perak), the parliamentary constituency with the most voters had more than ten times as many voters as the one with the fewest voters.", "These practices finally failed BN in the 14th General Election on 9 May 2018, when the opposing ''Pakatan Harapan'' (PH; English: \"Alliance of Hope\") won despite perceived efforts of gerrymandering and malapportionment from the incumbent.===Malta===The Labour Party that won in 1981, even though the Nationalist Party got the most votes, did so because of its gerrymandering.", "A 1987 constitutional amendment awarding compensatory seats to make the final seat tally closer reflect actual vote share prevented that situation from reoccurring.===Nepal===After the restoration of democracy in 1990, Nepali politics has well exercised the practice of gerrymandering with the view to take advantage in the election.", "It was often practiced by Nepali Congress, which remained in power in most of the time.", "Learning from this, the reshaping of constituency was done for constituent assembly and the opposition now wins elections.In 2015, the government rewrote the Constitution of Nepal, which included a rewriting of electoral boundaries.", "Parties in the southern region of Terai believe the new boundaries discriminated against marginalized groups, like the Madhesis, Tharus, and Janajatis, and that the boundaries \"packed\" the groups.", "Protesting occurred in Terai and other areas in southern Nepal, raising concern from across the country.===Philippines===Congressional districts in the Philippines were originally based on an ordinance from the 1987 Constitution, which was created by the Constitutional Commission, which was ultimately based on legislative districts as they were drawn in 1907.The same constitution gave Congress of the Philippines the power to legislate new districts, either through a national redistricting bill or piecemeal redistricting per province or city.", "Congress has never passed a national redistricting bill since the approval of the 1987 constitution, while it has incrementally created 34 new districts, out of the 200 originally created in 1987.This allows Congress to create new districts once a place reaches 250,000 inhabitants, the minimum required for its creation.", "With this, local dynasties, through congressmen, can exert influence in the district-making process by creating bills carving new districts from old ones.", "In time, as the population of the Philippines increases, these districts, or groups of it, will be the basis of carving new provinces out of existing ones.An example was in Camarines Sur, where two districts were divided into three districts which allegedly favors the Andaya and the Arroyo families; it caused Rolando Andaya and Dato Arroyo, who would have otherwise run against each other, run in separate districts, with one district allegedly not even surpassing the 250,000-population minimum.", "The Supreme Court later ruled that the 250,000 population minimum does not apply to an additional district in a province.", "The resulting splits would later be the cause of another gerrymander, where the province would be split into a new province called Nueva Camarines; the bill was defeated in the Senate in 2013.===Russia======Singapore===In recent decades, critics have accused the ruling People's Action Party (PAP) of unfair electoral practices to maintain significant majorities in the Parliament of Singapore.", "Among the complaints are that the government uses gerrymandering.", "The Elections Department was established as part of the executive branch under the Prime Minister of Singapore, rather than as an independent body.", "Critics have accused it of giving the ruling party the power to decide polling districts and polling sites through electoral engineering, based on poll results in previous elections.Members of opposition parties claim that the Group Representation Constituency system is \"synonymous to gerrymandering\", pointing out examples of Cheng San GRC and Eunos GRC which were dissolved by the Elections Department with voters redistributed to other constituencies after opposition parties gained ground in elections.=== South Africa ===The landmark 1948 general election was influenced by provisions of the Constitution granting rural areas more constituencies in Parliament than urban areas.", "Thus the white-supremacist National Party won a plurality against the more moderate United Party despite receiving fewer votes and implemented apartheid.=== Spain ===Until the establishment of the Second Spanish Republic in 1931, Spain used both single-member and multi-member constituencies in general elections.", "Multi-member constituencies were only used in some big cities.", "Some gerrymandering examples included the districts of Vilademuls or Torroella de Montgrí in Catalonia.", "These districts were created in order to prevent the Federal Democratic Republican Party to win a seat in Figueres or La Bisbal and to secure a seat to the dynastic parties.", "Since 1931, the constituency boundaries match the province boundaries.After the Francoist dictatorship, during the transition to democracy, these fixed provincial constituencies were reestablished in Section 68.2 of the current 1978 Spanish Constitution, so gerrymandering is impossible in general elections.", "There are not ''winner-takes-all'' elections in Spain except for the tiny territories of Ceuta and Melilla (which only have one representative each); everywhere else the number of representatives assigned to a constituency is proportional to its population and calculated according to a national law, so tampering with under- or over-representation is difficult too.European, some regional and municipal elections are held under single, at-large multi-member constituencies with proportional representation and gerrymandering is not possible either.In fact, there is not even a direct translation of the term \"gerrymandering\" into Spanish and first-generation Hispanic and Latino Americans have struggled with such an unfamiliar concept in the Spanish-speaking world.=== Sri Lanka ===Sri Lanka's new Local Government elections process has been the talking point of gerrymandering since its inception.", "Even though that talk was more about the ward-level, it is also seen in some local council areas too.===Sudan===In the election of 2010, there were numerous examples of gerrymandering throughout the entire country of Sudan.", "A report from the Rift Valley Institute uncovered violations of Sudan's electoral law, where constituencies were created that were well below and above the required limit.", "According to Sudan's National Elections Act of 2008, no constituency can have a population that is 15% greater or less than the average constituency size.", "The Rift Valley Report uncovered a number of constituencies that are in violation of this rule.", "Examples include constituencies in Jonglei, Warrap, South Darfur, and several other states.===Turkey===Turkey has used gerrymandering in the city of Istanbul in the 2009 municipal elections.", "Just before the election Istanbul was divided into new districts.", "Large low income neighborhoods were bundled with the rich neighborhoods to enable the AKP to win the municipal elections.===United Kingdom=======Northern Ireland=========Parliamentary Elections=====Prior to the establishment of Home Rule in Northern Ireland, the UK government had installed the single transferable vote (STV) system in Ireland to secure fair elections in terms of proportional representation in its Parliaments.", "After two elections under that system, in 1929 Stormont changed the electoral system to be the same as the rest of the United Kingdom: a single-member first past the post system.", "The only exception was for the election of four Stormont MPs to represent the Queen's University of Belfast.", "Some scholars believe that the boundaries were gerrymandered to under-represent Nationalists.", "Other geographers and historians, for instance Professor John H. Whyte, disagree.", "They have argued that the electoral boundaries for the Parliament of Northern Ireland were not gerrymandered to a greater level than that produced by any single-winner election system, and that the actual number of Nationalist MPs barely changed under the revised system (it went from 12 to 11 and later went back up to 12).", "Most observers have acknowledged that the change to a single-winner system was a key factor, however, in stifling the growth of smaller political parties, such as the Northern Ireland Labour Party and Independent Unionists.", "In the 1967 election, Unionists won 35.5% of the votes and received 60% of the seats, while Nationalists got 27.4% of the votes but received 40% of the seats.", "This meant that both the Unionist and Nationalist parties were over-represented, while the Northern Ireland Labour Party and Independents (amounting to more than 35% of the votes cast) were severely under-represented.After Westminster reintroduced direct rule in 1973, it restored the single transferable vote (STV) for elections to the Northern Ireland Assembly in the following year, using the same definitions of constituencies as for the Westminster Parliament.", "Currently, in Northern Ireland, all elections use STV except those for positions in the Westminster Parliament, which follow the pattern in the rest of the United Kingdom by using \"first past the post.", "\"=====Local authority Elections=====Gerrymandering (in ) in local elections was introduced in 1923 by the Leech Commission.", "This was a one-man commission: Sir John Leech, K.C.", "was appointed by Dawson Bates, Northern Ireland's Minister of Home Affairs, to redraw Northern Ireland's local government electoral boundaries.", "Leech was also chairman of the Advisory Committee who recommended the release or continued detention of the persons that the Northern Irish government was interning without trial at that time.", "Leech's changes (gerrymandered electoral boundaries, abolishing proportional representation), together with a resultant boycott by the Irish Nationalist community, resulted in Unionists gaining control of Londonderry County Borough Council, Fermanagh and Tyrone County Councils, and retaking eight rural district councils.", "These county councils, and most of the district councils, remained under Unionist control despite the majority of their population being Catholic until the UK government imposed Direct Rule in 1972.Leech's new electoral boundaries for the 1924 Londonderry County Borough Council election reduced the number of wards from four to three, only one of which had a Nationalist majority.", "This resulted in election of a Unionist council in every election, until the County Borough Council's replacement in 1969 by the unelected Londonderry Development Commission, in a city where Nationalists had a large majority and had won previous elections.Some critics and supporters spoke at the time of \"A Protestant Parliament for a Protestant People\".", "This passed also into local government, where supporters of the elected majorities were given jobs and appointments.", "Stephen Gwynn noted as early as 1911 that since the introduction of the Local Government (Ireland) Act 1898:In Armagh there are 68,000 Protestants, 56,000 Catholics.", "The County Council has twenty-two Protestants and eight Catholics.", "In Tyrone, Catholics are a majority of the population, 82,000 against 68,000; but the electoral districts have been so arranged that Unionists return sixteen as against thirteen Nationalists (one a Protestant).", "This Council gives to the Unionists two to one majority on its Committees, and out of fifty-two officials employs only five Catholics.", "In Antrim, which has the largest Protestant majority (196,000 to 40,000), twenty-six Unionists and three Catholics are returned.", "Sixty officers out of sixty-five are good Unionists and Protestants.Initially Leech drew the boundaries, but from the 1920s to the 1940s the province-wide government redrew them to reinforce the gerrymander.Cahir Healy, the long time MP for Counties Fermanagh and Tyrone highlighted the extent of gerrymandering in County Borough Councils elections of the 1930s: Fermanagh reported 30,196 Nationalists and 24,272 Unionists yet Nationalists retained only seven seats while Unionists retained 12.Similar results occurred in County Tyrone: 70,595 Nationalists retained 11 seats while 56,981 Unionists held 16 seats.====United Kingdom – Boundary review====The number of electors in a United Kingdom constituency can vary considerably, with the smallest constituency as of 2017 (Scotland's Na h-Eileanan an Iar (21,769 constituents) and Orkney and Shetland (34,552)) having fewer than a fifth of the electors of the largest (England's North West Cambridgeshire (93,223) and Isle of Wight (110,697)).", "This variation has resulted from:*Scotland and Wales being favored in the Westminster Parliament with deliberately smaller electoral quotas (average electors per constituency) than those in England and Northern Ireland.", "This inequality was initiated by the House of Commons (Redistribution of Seats) Act 1958, which eliminated the previous common electoral quota for the whole United Kingdom and replaced it with four separate national quotas for the respective Boundaries commissions to work to: England 69,534; Northern Ireland 67,145; Wales 58,383; and Scotland 54,741.", "* Current rules historically favoring geographically \"natural\" constituencies such as islands, which continue to give Wales and Scotland proportionally greater representation.", "* Population migrations, due to white flight and deindustrialization tending to decrease the number of electors in inner-city districts.Under the Sixth Periodic Review of Westminster constituencies, the Coalition government planned to review and redraw the parliamentary constituency boundaries for the House of Commons of the United Kingdom.", "The review and redistricting was to be carried out by the four UK boundary commissions to produce a reduction from 650 to 600 seats, and more uniform sizes, such that a constituency was to have no fewer than 70,583 and no more than 80,473 electors.", "The process was intended to address historic malapportionment and be complete by 2015.Preliminary reports suggesting the areas set to lose the fewest seats historically tended to vote Conservative, while other less populous and deindustrialized regions, such as Wales, which would lose a larger proportion of its seats, tending to have more Labour and Liberal Democrat voters, partially correcting the existing malapportionment.", "In January 2013, an opposition (Labour) motion to suspend the review until after the next general election was tabled in the House of Lords and a vote called in the United Kingdom House of Commons.", "The motion was passed with the help of the Liberal Democrats, going back on an election pledge.", ", a new review is in progress and a draft of the new boundaries has been published.===United States===U.S.", "congressional districts covering Travis County, Texas (outlined in red), in 2002, left, and 2004, right.", "In 2003, the majority Republicans in the Texas legislature redistricted the state, diluting the voting power of the heavily Democratic county by parceling its residents out to more Republican districts.", "''Shaw v. Reno'' was a United States Supreme Court case involving the redistricting and racial gerrymandering of North Carolina's 12th congressional district ''(pictured)''.The United States, among the first countries with an elected representative government, was the source of the term ''gerrymander'' as stated above.The practice of gerrymandering the borders of new states continued past the American Civil War and into the late 19th century.", "The Republican Party used its control of Congress to secure the admission of more states in territories friendly to their party—the admission of Dakota Territory as two states instead of one being a notable example.", "By the rules for representation in the Electoral College, each new state carried at least three electoral votes regardless of its population.All redistricting in the United States has been contentious because it has been controlled by political parties vying for power.", "As a consequence of the decennial census required by the United States Constitution, districts for members of the House of Representatives typically need to be redrawn whenever the number of members in a state changes.", "In many states, state legislatures redraw boundaries for state legislative districts at the same time.State legislatures have used gerrymandering along racial lines both to decrease and increase minority representation in state governments and congressional delegations.", "In Ohio, a conversation between Republican officials was recorded that demonstrated that redistricting was being done to aid their political candidates.", "Furthermore, the discussions assessed the race of voters as a factor in redistricting, on the premise that African-Americans tend to back Democratic Party candidates.", "Republicans removed approximately 13,000 African-American voters from the district of Jim Raussen, a Republican candidate for the House of Representatives, in an apparent attempt to tip the scales in what was once a competitive district for Democratic candidates.With the Civil Rights Movement and passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965, federal enforcement and protections of suffrage for all citizens were enacted.", "Gerrymandering for the purpose of reducing the political influence of a racial or ethnic minority group was prohibited.", "After the Voting Rights Act of 1965 was passed, some states created \"majority-minority\" districts to enhance minority voting strength.", "This practice, also called \"affirmative gerrymandering\", was supposed to redress historic discrimination and ensure that ethnic minorities would gain some seats and representation in government.", "In some states, bipartisan gerrymandering is the norm.", "State legislators from both parties sometimes agree to draw congressional district boundaries in a way that ensures the re-election of most or all incumbent representatives from both parties.Rather than allowing more political influence, some states have shifted redistricting authority from politicians and given it to non-partisan redistricting commissions.", "The states of Washington, Arizona, and California have created standing committees for redistricting following the 2010 census.", "It has been argued however that in California's case, gerrymandering still continued despite this change.", "Rhode Island and New Jersey have developed ''ad hoc'' committees, but developed the past two decennial reapportionments tied to new census data.", "Florida's amendments 5 and 6, meanwhile, established rules for the creation of districts but did not mandate an independent commission.Michigan voters in 2018 approved a proposal to create an independent commission to draw new congressional maps following the 2020 United States Census, thereby removing the responsibility from the state legislature.", "Additionally, Ohio voters in 2018 modified their existing redistricting statutes to have a commission draw new maps.", "However, the ability of the state legislature to draw congressional maps remained, and this proposes the risk of gerrymandering.", "Other states that have implemented commissions in the 2018 midterm cycle include Colorado.International election observers from the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights, who were invited to observe and report on the 2004 national elections, expressed criticism of the U.S. congressional redistricting process and made a recommendation that the procedures be reviewed to ensure genuine competitiveness of Congressional election contests.In June 2019, the United States Supreme Court ruled 5–4 in ''Lamone v. Benisek'' and ''Rucho v. Common Cause'' that federal courts lacked jurisdiction to hear challenges over partisan gerrymandering.===Venezuela===Prior to the 26 September 2010 legislative elections, gerrymandering took place via an addendum to the electoral law by the National Assembly of Venezuela.", "In the subsequent election, Hugo Chávez's political party, the United Socialist Party of Venezuela drew 48% of the votes overall, while the opposition parties (the Democratic Unity Roundtable and the Fatherland for All parties) collectively drew 52% of the votes.", "However, due to the re-allocation of electoral legislative districts prior to the election, Chávez's United Socialist Party of Venezuela was awarded over 60% of the spots in the National Assembly (98 deputies), while 67 deputies were elected for the two opposition parties combined." ], [ "Related terms", "In a play on words, the use of race-conscious procedures in jury selection has been termed \"jurymandering\"." ], [ "See also", "* Electoral fraud* Gerrymandering in the United States* ''Gill v. Whitford''* Modifiable areal unit problem* Schelling's model of segregation* Voter suppression* Wasted vote* Boundary problem (spatial analysis)" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* McGhee, Eric (11 May 2020). \"", "Partisan Gerrymandering and Political Science \".", "''Annual Review of Political Science''.", "'''23''' (1): 171–185.", "* La Raja, Raymond (11 May 2009).", "\"Redistricting: Reading Between the Lines\".", "''Annual Review of Political Science''.", "'''12''' (1): 203–223." ], [ "External links", "* Articles from the ACE Project: Alleged Gerrymandering in Malaysia: Over-representation of rural districts : Ending the Gerrymander in Chile: the constitutional reforms of 1988 * A handbook of electoral system Design from International IDEA* Anti-Gerrymandering policy in Australia* Redrawing Lines of Power: Redistricting 2011 Making Contact, produced by National Radio Project.", "12 April 2011.", "* All About Redistricting – Ideas for Reform* * * * Metric Geometry and Gerrymandering Group – consortium of Boston-area researchers" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gin" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Gin''' () is a distilled alcoholic drink flavoured with juniper berries and other botanical ingredients.Gin originated as a medicinal liquor made by monks and alchemists across Europe.", "The modern gin was modified in Flanders and the Netherlands to provide aqua vita from distillates of grapes and grains, becoming an object of commerce in the spirits industry.", "Gin became popular in England after the introduction of jenever, a Dutch and Belgian liquor.", "Although this development had been taking place since the early 17th century, gin became widespread after the 1688 Glorious Revolution led by William of Orange and subsequent import restrictions on French brandy.", "Gin emerged as the national alcoholic drink of England during the so-called Gin Craze of 1695–1735.Gin is produced from a wide range of herbal ingredients in a number of distinct styles and brands.", "After juniper, gin tends to be flavoured with herbs, spices, floral or fruit flavours, or often a combination.", "It is commonly mixed with tonic water in a gin and tonic.", "Gin is also used as a base spirit to produce flavoured, gin-based liqueurs, for example sloe gin, traditionally produced by the addition of fruit, flavourings and sugar." ], [ "Etymology", "The name ''gin'' is a shortened form of the older English word ''genever'', related to the French word and the Dutch word .", "All ultimately derive from , the Latin for juniper." ], [ "History", "===Origin: 13th-century mentions===The earliest known written reference to jenever appears in the 13th-century encyclopaedic work (Bruges), with the earliest printed recipe for jenever dating from 16th-century work (Antwerp).The monks used it to distill sharp, fiery, alcoholic tonics, one of which was distilled from wine infused with juniper berries.", "They were making medicines, hence the juniper.", "As a medicinal herb, juniper had been an essential part of doctors' kits for centuries: the Romans burned juniper branches for purification, and plague doctors stuffed the beaks of their plague masks with juniper to supposedly protect them from the Black Death.", "Across Europe, apothecaries handed out juniper tonic wines for coughs, colds, pains, strains, ruptures and cramps.", "These were a popular cure-all, though some thought these tonic wines to be a little too popular, and consumed for enjoyment rather than medicinal purposes.===17th century===The physician Franciscus Sylvius has been falsely credited with the invention of gin in the mid-17th century, as the existence of jenever is confirmed in Philip Massinger's play ''The Duke of Milan'' (1623), when Sylvius would have been about nine years old.", "It is further claimed that English soldiers who provided support in Antwerp against the Spanish in 1585, during the Eighty Years' War, were already drinking jenever for its calming effects before battle, from which the term ''Dutch courage'' is believed to have originated.By the mid-17th century, numerous small Dutch and Flemish distillers had popularized the re-distillation of malted barley spirit or malt wine with juniper, also anise, caraway, coriander, etc., which were sold in pharmacies and used to treat such medical problems as kidney ailments, lumbago, stomach ailments, gallstones, and gout.", "Gin emerged in England in varying forms by the early 17th century, and at the time of the Stuart Restoration, enjoyed a brief resurgence.", "Gin became vastly more popular as an alternative to brandy, when William III and Mary II became co-sovereigns of England, Scotland and Ireland after leading the Glorious Revolution.", "Particularly in crude, inferior forms, it was more likely to be flavoured with turpentine.", "Historian Angela McShane has described it as a \"Protestant drink\" as its rise was brought about by a Protestant king, fuelling his armies fighting the Catholic Irish and French.===18th century===Hogarth's ''Gin Lane'' (created 1750–1751).Gin drinking in England rose significantly after the government allowed unlicensed gin production, and at the same time imposed a heavy duty on all imported spirits such as French brandy.", "This created a larger market for poor-quality barley that was unfit for brewing beer, and in 1695–1735 thousands of gin-shops sprang up throughout England, a period known as the Gin Craze.", "Because of the low price of gin compared with other drinks available at the time and in the same location, gin began to be consumed regularly by the poor.", "Of the 15,000 drinking establishments in London, not including coffee shops and drinking chocolate shops, over half were gin shops.", "Beer maintained a healthy reputation as it was often safer to drink the brewed ale than unclean plain water.", "Gin, though, was blamed for various social problems, and it may have been a factor in the higher death rates which stabilized London's previously growing population.", "The reputation of the two drinks was illustrated by William Hogarth in his engravings ''Beer Street and Gin Lane'' (1751), described by the BBC as \"arguably the most potent anti-drug poster ever conceived\".", "The negative reputation of gin survives in the English language in terms like ''gin mills'' or the American phrase ''gin joints'' to describe disreputable bars, or ''gin-soaked'' to refer to drunks.", "The epithet ''mother's ruin'' is a common British name for gin, the origin of which is debated.The Gin Act 1736 imposed high taxes on retailers and led to riots in the streets.", "The prohibitive duty was gradually reduced and finally abolished in 1742.The Gin Act 1751 was more successful, but it forced distillers to sell only to licensed retailers and brought gin shops under the jurisdiction of local magistrates.", "Gin in the 18th century was produced in pot stills, and thus had a maltier profile than modern London gin.In London in the early 18th century, much gin was distilled legally in residential houses (there were estimated to be 1,500 residential stills in 1726) and was often flavoured with turpentine to generate resinous woody notes in addition to the juniper.", "As late as 1913, ''Webster's Dictionary'' states without further comment, \"'common gin' is usually flavoured with turpentine\".Another common variation was to distill in the presence of sulphuric acid.", "Although the acid itself does not distil, it imparts the additional aroma of diethyl ether to the resulting gin.", "Sulphuric acid subtracts one water molecule from two ethanol molecules to create diethyl ether, which also forms an azeotrope with ethanol, and therefore distils with it.", "The result is a sweeter spirit, and one that may have possessed additional analgesic or even intoxicating effects – see Paracelsus.Dutch or Belgian gin, also known as ''jenever'' or ''genever'', evolved from malt wine spirits, and is a distinctly different drink from later styles of gin.", "Schiedam, a city in the province of South Holland, is famous for its ''jenever''-producing history.", "The same for Hasselt in the Belgian province of Limburg.", "The ''oude'' (old) style of ''jenever'' remained very popular throughout the 19th century, where it was referred to as ''Holland'' or ''Geneva'' gin in popular, American, pre-Prohibition bartender guides.The 18th century gave rise to a style of gin referred to as ''Old Tom gin'', which is a softer, sweeter style of gin, often containing sugar.", "Old Tom gin faded in popularity by the early 20th century.===19th–20th centuries===George Cruikshank's engraving of The Gin Shop (1829).The invention and development of the column still (1826 and 1831) made the distillation of neutral spirits practical, thus enabling the creation of the \"London dry\" style that evolved later in the 19th century.In tropical British colonies gin was used to mask the bitter flavour of quinine, which was the only effective anti-malarial compound.", "Quinine was dissolved in carbonated water to form tonic water; the resulting cocktail is gin and tonic, although modern tonic water contains only a trace of quinine as a flavouring.", "Gin is a common base spirit for many mixed drinks, including the martini.", "Secretly produced \"bathtub gin\" was available in the speakeasies and \"blind pigs\" of Prohibition-era America as a result of the relatively simple production.Sloe gin is traditionally described as a liqueur made by infusing sloes (the fruit of the blackthorn) in gin, although modern versions are almost always compounded from neutral spirits and flavourings.", "Similar infusions are possible with other fruits, such as damsons.", "Another popular gin-based liqueur with a longstanding history is Pimm's No.1 Cup (25% alcohol by volume(ABV)), which is a fruit cup flavoured with citrus and spices.The National Jenever Museums are located in Hasselt in Belgium, and Schiedam in the Netherlands.===21st century===Since 2013, gin has been in a period of ascendancy worldwide, with many new brands and producers entering the category leading to a period of strong growth, innovation and change.", "More recently gin-based liqueurs have been popularised, reaching a market outside that of traditional gin drinkers, including fruit-flavoured and usually coloured \"Pink gin\", rhubarb gin, Spiced gin, violet gin, blood orange gin and sloe gin.", "Surging popularity and unchecked competition has led to consumer's conflation of gin with gin liqueurs and many products are straddling, pushing or breaking the boundaries of established definitions in a period of genesis for the industry." ], [ "Legal definition", "===Geographical indication ===Some legal classifications (protected denomination of origin) define gin as only originating from specific geographical areas without any further restrictions (e.g.", "Plymouth gin (PGI now lapsed), Ostfriesischer Korngenever, Slovenská borovička, Kraški Brinjevec, etc.", "), while other common descriptors refer to classic styles that are culturally recognised, but not legally defined (e.g.", "Old Tom gin).", "Sloe gin is also worth mentioning, as although technically a gin-based liqueur, it is unique in that the EU spirit drink regulations stipulate the colloquial term 'sloe gin' can legally be used without the \"liqueur\" suffix when certain production criteria are met.===Canada ===According to the Canadian Food and Drug Regulation, gin is produced through redistillation of alcohol from juniper berries or a mixture of more than one such redistilled food products.", "The Canadian Food and Drug Regulation recognises gin with three different definitions (Genever, Gin, London or Dry gin) that loosely approximate the US definitions.", "Whereas a more detailed regulation is provided for Holland gin or genever, no distinction is made between compounded gin and distilled gin.", "Either compounded or distilled gin can be labelled as Dry Gin or London Dry Gin if it does not contain any sweetening agents.", "For Genever and Gin, they shall not contain more than two percent sweetening agents.=== European Union ===Although many different styles of gin have evolved, it is legally differentiated into four categories in the European Union, as follows.==== Juniper-flavoured spirit drink ====Juniper-flavoured spirit drinks include the earliest class of gin, which is produced by pot distilling a fermented grain mash to moderate strength, ''e.g.", "'', 68% ABV, and then redistilling it with botanicals to extract the aromatic compounds.", "It must be bottled at a minimum of 30% ABV.", "Juniper-flavoured spirit-drinks may also be sold under the names Wacholder or Ginebra.==== Gin ====Gin is a juniper-flavoured spirit made not via the redistillation of botanicals, but by simply adding approved natural flavouring substances to a neutral spirit of agricultural origin.", "The predominant flavour must be juniper.", "Minimum bottled strength is 37.5% ABV.==== Distilled gin ====Distilled gin is produced exclusively by redistilling ethanol of agricultural origin with an initial strength of 96% ABV (the azeotrope of water and ethanol), in the presence of juniper berries and of other natural botanicals, provided that the juniper taste is predominant.", "Gin obtained simply by adding essences or flavourings to ethanol of agricultural origin is not distilled gin.", "Minimum bottled strength is 37.5% ABV.==== London gin ====London gin is obtained exclusively from ethanol of agricultural origin with a maximum methanol content of per hectolitre of 100% ABV equivalent, whose flavour is introduced exclusively through the re-distillation in traditional stills of ethanol in the presence of all the natural plant materials used, the resultant distillate of which is at least 70% ABV.", "London gin may not contain added sweetening exceeding of sugars per litre of the final product, nor colourants, nor any added ingredients other than water.", "The predominant flavour must be juniper.", "The term ''London gin'' may be supplemented by the term ''dry''.", "Minimum bottled strength is 37.5% ABV.===United States===In the United States of America, \"gin\" is defined as an alcoholic beverage of no less than 40% ABV (80 proof) that possesses the characteristic flavour of juniper berries.", "Gin produced only through the redistillation of botanicals can be further distinguished and marketed as \"distilled gin\"." ], [ "Production", "===Methods===Gin can be broadly differentiated into three basic styles reflecting modernization in its distillation and flavouring techniques:'''Pot distilled gin''' represents the earliest style of gin, and is traditionally produced by pot distilling a fermented grain mash (malt wine) from barley or other grains, then redistilling it with flavouring botanicals to extract the aromatic compounds.", "A ''double gin'' can be produced by redistilling the first gin again with more botanicals.", "Due to the use of pot stills, the alcohol content of the distillate is relatively low; around 68% ABV for a single distilled gin or 76% ABV for a double gin.", "This type of gin is often aged in tanks or wooden casks, and retains a heavier, malty flavour that gives it a marked resemblance to whisky.", "''Korenwijn'' (grain wine) and the ''oude'' (old) style of ''Geneva gin'' or ''Holland gin'' represent the most prominent gins of this class.", "'''Column distilled gin''' evolved following the invention of the Coffey still, and is produced by first distilling high proof (e.g.", "96% ABV) neutral spirits from a fermented mash or wash using a refluxing still such as a column still.", "The fermentable base for this spirit may be derived from grain, sugar beets, grapes, potatoes, sugar cane, plain sugar, or any other material of agricultural origin.", "The highly concentrated spirit is then redistilled with juniper berries and other botanicals in a pot still.", "Most often, the botanicals are suspended in a \"gin basket\" positioned within the head of the still, which allows the hot alcoholic vapours to extract flavouring components from the botanical charge.", "This method yields a gin lighter in flavour than the older pot still method, and results in either a ''distilled gin'' or ''London dry gin'', depending largely upon how the spirit is finished.", "'''Compound gin''' is made by compounding (blending) neutral spirits with essences, other natural flavourings, or ingredients left to infuse in neutral spirit without redistillation.=== Flavouring ===Popular botanicals or flavouring agents for gin, besides the required juniper, often include citrus elements, such as lemon and bitter orange peel, as well as a combination of other spices, which may include any of anise, angelica root and seed, orris root, cardamom, pine needles and cone, licorice root, cinnamon, almond, cubeb, savory, lime peel, grapefruit peel, dragon eye (longan), saffron, baobab, frankincense, coriander, grains of paradise, nutmeg, cassia bark or others.", "The different combinations and concentrations of these botanicals in the distillation process cause the variations in taste among gin products.Chemical research has begun to identify the various chemicals that are extracted in the distillation process and contribute to gin's flavouring.", "For example, juniper monoterpenes come from juniper berries.", "Citric and berry flavours come from chemicals such as limonene and gamma-terpinene linalool found in limes, blueberries and hops amongst others.", "Floral notes come from compounds such as geraniol and euganol.", "Spice-like flavours come from chemicals such as sabinene, delta-3-carene, and para-cymene.In 2018, more than half the growth in the UK Gin category was contributed by flavoured gin." ], [ "Consumption", "=== Classic gin cocktails ===A well known gin cocktail is the martini, traditionally made with gin and dry vermouth.", "Several other notable gin-based drinks include:*20th Century*Aviation*Bee's Knees *Bloody Margaret*Fallen Angel*French 75*Gibson*Gimlet*Gin and tonic*Gin Fizz*Gin Rickey*Lonkero*Moon River*Negroni*Old Etonian*Pink Gin*Ramos Gin Fizz*Singapore Sling*The Last Word*Tom Collins*Vesper*White Lady===Notable brands===*Archie Rose Distilling Co. – Sydney microdistillery*Aviation American Gin – Oregon, US, one of the early New Western style gins*Beefeater – England, first produced in 1820*BOLS Damrak – Netherlands, ''jenever''*The Botanist – Hebridean island of Islay, Scotland, made with 31 botanicals, 22 being native to the island*Blackwood's – Scotland*Bombay Sapphire – England, distilled with ten botanicals*Boodles British Gin – England*Booth's Gin – England*Broker's Gin – England*Catoctin Creek – organic gin from Virginia, US*Citadelle – France*Cork Dry Gin – Ireland*Gilbey's – England*Gilpin's Westmorland Extra Dry Gin – England*Ginebra San Miguel – Philippines*Gordon's – England, first distilled in 1763*Greenall's – England *Hendrick's Gin – Scotland, infused with flavours of cucumber and rose petal*Konig's Westphalian Gin – Germany*Leopolds Gin – Colorado, US*Masons Gin – North Yorkshire, England*Nicholson's – England, made in London from 1730*Plymouth – England, first distilled in 1793*Pickering's Gin – Scotland, from Edinburgh's first gin distillery in 150 years*Sacred Microdistillery – England, from one of London's new micro-distilleries*Seagram's – Quebec, Canada*Sipsmith – England*Smeets – Belgium, ''jenever''*Steinhäger – Germany*St. George – California, US*Taaka – Louisiana, US*Tanqueray – England, first distilled in 1830*Uganda Waragi – Uganda, triple distilled Waragi*Vickers – South Australia*Whitley Neill Gin – England" ], [ "See also", "* * *" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * *" ], [ "External links", "* EU definition original source – scroll down to paras: 20 nand 21 of Annex II – Spirit Drinks* Gin news page – Alcohol and Drugs History Society* Gin Palaces at The Dictionary of Victorian London* New Western Style Gins at .drinkspirits.com* Map of Scottish Gin Producers at ginspiredscotland.com* ''History of Gin'' at Difford's Guide" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gall–Peters projection" ], [ "Introduction", "The Gall–Peters projection of the world mapThe '''Gall–Peters projection''' is a rectangular, equal-area map projection.", "Like all equal-area projections, it distorts most shapes.", "It is a cylindrical equal-area projection with latitudes 45° north and south as the regions on the map that have no distortion.", "The projection is named after James Gall and Arno Peters.Gall described the projection in 1855 at a science convention and published a paper on it in 1885.Peters brought the projection to a wider audience beginning in the early 1970s through his \"Peters World Map\".", "The name \"Gall–Peters projection\" was first used by Arthur H. Robinson in a pamphlet put out by the American Cartographic Association in 1986.Maps based on the projection are promoted by UNESCO, and they are also widely used by British schools.", "The U.S. state of Massachusetts and Boston Public Schools began phasing in these maps in March 2017, becoming the first public school district and state in the United States to adopt Gall–Peters maps as their standard.The Gall–Peters projection achieved notoriety in the late 20th century as the centerpiece of a controversy about the political implications of map design." ], [ "Description", "Tissot's indicatrices of deformation===Formula===The projection is conventionally defined as::where ''λ'' is the longitude from the central meridian in degrees, ''φ'' is the latitude, and ''R'' is the radius of the globe used as the model of the earth for projection.", "For longitude given in radians, remove the factors.===Simplified formula===Stripping out unit conversion and uniform scaling, the formulae may be written::where '''' is the longitude from the central meridian (in radians), '''' is the latitude, and ''R'' is the radius of the globe used as the model of the earth for projection.", "Hence the sphere is mapped onto the vertical cylinder, and the cylinder is stretched to double its length.", "The stretch factor, 2 in this case, is what distinguishes the variations of cylindric equal-area projection.===Relation to cylindric equal-area projections===The various specializations of the cylindric equal-area projection differ only in the ratio of the vertical to horizontal axis.", "This ratio determines the ''standard parallel'' of the projection, which is the parallel at which there is no distortion and along which distances match the stated scale.", "The standard parallels of the Gall–Peters are 45° N and 45° S. Several other specializations of the equal-area cylindric have been described, promoted, or otherwise named." ], [ "Origins and naming", "The Gall–Peters projection was first described in 1855 by clergyman James Gall, who presented it along with two other projections at the Glasgow meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science (the BA).", "He gave it the name \"orthographic\" and formally published his work in 1885 in the ''Scottish Geographical Magazine''.", "The projection is suggestive of the Orthographic projection in that distances between parallels of the Gall–Peters are a constant multiple of the distances between the parallels of the orthographic.", "That constant is .In 1967, German filmmaker Arno Peters independently devised a similar projection, which he presented in 1973 as the \"Peters world map\".", "Peters's original description of his projection contained a geometric error that, taken literally, implies standard parallels of 46°02′ N/S.", "However the text accompanying the description made it clear that he had intended the standard parallels to be 45° N/S, making his projection identical to Gall's orthographic.", "In any case, the difference is negligible in a world map.The name \"Gall–Peters projection\" seems to have been used first by Arthur H. Robinson in a pamphlet put out by the American Cartographic Association in 1986.Before 1973 it had been known, when referred to at all, as the \"Gall orthographic\" or \"Gall's orthographic.\"", "Most Peters supporters today refer to it only as the \"Peters projection.\"", "During the years of controversy the cartographic literature tended to mention both attributions, settling on one or the other for the purposes of the article.", "In recent years \"Gall–Peters\" seems to dominate." ], [ "Peters world map controversy", "Mural at a school depicting the Gall–Peters projection, with continents coloured.The right and left borders of the Peters map are in the Bering Strait, so all of Russia is displayed on the right side.", "The Gall–Peters projection initially passed unnoticed when presented by Gall in 1855.It achieved more widespread attention after Arno Peters reintroduced it in 1973.He promoted it as a superior alternative to the commonly used Mercator projection, on the basis that the Mercator projection greatly distorts the relative sizes of regions on a map.", "In particular, he criticized that the Mercator projection causes wealthy Europe and North America to appear very large relative to poorer Africa and South America.", "These arguments swayed many socially concerned groups to adopt the Gall–Peters projection, including the National Council of Churches and the magazine ''New Internationalist''.His campaign was bolstered by the inaccurate claim that the Gall–Peters projection was the only \"area-correct\" map.", "In actuality, some of the oldest projections are equal-area (such as the sinusoidal projection), and hundreds have been described.", "He also inaccurately claimed that it possessed \"absolute angle conformality\", had \"no extreme distortions of form\", and was \"totally distance-factual\".", "Peters framed his criticisms of the Mercator projection with criticisms of the broader cartographic community.", "In particular, Peters wrote in ''The New Cartography'',As Peters's promotions gained popularity, the cartographic community reacted with hostility to his criticisms, as well as to the inaccuracy and lack of novelty of his claims.", "They called attention to the long list of cartographers who, over the preceding century, had formally expressed frustration with publishers' overuse of the Mercator and advocated for alternatives.", "In addition, several scholars criticized the particularly large distortions present in the Gall–Peters projection, and remarked on the irony of its undistorted presentation of the mid latitudes, including Peters's native Germany, at the expense of the low latitudes, which host more of the technologically underdeveloped nations.The increasing publicity of Peters's claims in 1986 motivated the American Cartographic Association (now Cartography and Geographic Information Society) to produce a series of booklets (including ''Which Map Is Best'') designed to educate the public about map projections and distortion in maps.", "In 1989 and 1990, after some internal debate, seven North American geographic organizations adopted a resolution rejecting all rectangular world maps, a category that includes both the Mercator and the Gall–Peters projections, though the North American Cartographic Information Society notably declined to endorse it.The two camps never made any real attempts toward reconciliation.", "The Peters camp largely ignored the protests of the cartographers, and did not acknowledge Gall's prior work until the controversy had largely run its course, late in Peters's life.", "While he likely devised the projection independently, his unscholarly conduct and refusal to engage the cartographic community undoubtedly contributed to the polarization and impasse.In the ensuing decades, J. Brian Harley credited the Peters phenomenon with demonstrating the social implications of map projections, while Jeremy Crampton considers all maps to be political, and sees the condemnation from the cartographic community as reactionary and perhaps demonstrative of immaturity in the profession." ], [ "See also", "* List of map projections* Gall stereographic projection: another of Gall's projections." ], [ "References", "'''Notes''''''Further reading'''* Snyder, John P. (1987), ''Map Projections—A Working Manual: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1395'', Washington: Government Printing Office.", "https://pubs.er.usgs.gov/publication/pp1395." ], [ "External links", "* The Size of the Matter—An article in ''The Times of India'' on why the Gall–Peters projection should be more widely used.", "* Peters Projection vs. Mercator Projection—A critique of the importance of the Gall–Peters projection." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gram Parsons" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Ingram Cecil Connor III''' (November 5, 1946 – September 19, 1973), known professionally as '''Gram Parsons''', was an American singer, songwriter, guitarist, and pianist.", "He recorded as a solo artist and with the International Submarine Band, the Byrds, and the Flying Burrito Brothers, popularizing what he called \"Cosmic American Music\", a hybrid of country, rhythm and blues, soul, folk, and rock.Parsons was born in Winter Haven, Florida, and developed an interest in country music while attending Harvard University.", "He founded the International Submarine Band in 1966, but the group disbanded prior to the 1968 release of its debut album, ''Safe at Home''.", "Parsons joined the Byrds in early 1968 and played a pivotal role in the making of the ''Sweetheart of the Rodeo'' album, a pioneering country rock album and a seminal progressive country recording.", "After leaving the group in late 1968, Parsons and fellow Byrd Chris Hillman formed The Flying Burrito Brothers in 1969; the band released its debut, ''The Gilded Palace of Sin'', the same year.", "The album was well received critically but failed commercially.", "After a sloppy cross-country tour, the band hastily recorded ''Burrito Deluxe''.", "Parsons was fired from the band before the album's release in early 1970.Parsons spent the first half of 1971 with Keith Richards of the Rolling Stones, living in his French villa Nellcôte during the recording sessions for ''Exile on Main Street'', though he contributed very little to the recording process itself.", "After traveling around Britain with friends in late 1971, he was treated for heroin addiction and returned to the U.S., where he was introduced to Emmylou Harris, who assisted him on vocals for his first solo record, ''GP'', released in 1973.Although the record received enthusiastic reviews, it failed to chart.", "His health deteriorated due to several years of drug abuse, foreshadowing his death from a toxic combination of morphine and alcohol in 1973 at the age of 26.A posthumous solo album, ''Grievous Angel'', peaked at number 195 on the ''Billboard'' chart.Parsons's relatively short career was described by AllMusic as \"enormously influential\" for country and rock, \"blending the two genres to the point that they became indistinguishable from each other.\"", "He has been credited with helping to found the country rock and alt-country genres.", "His posthumous honors include the Americana Music Association \"President's Award\" for 2003 and a ranking at No.", "87 on ''Rolling Stone'''s list of the \"100 Greatest Artists of All Time.\"" ], [ "Life and career", "===Early years (1946–1966)===Ingram Cecil Connor III was born on November 5, 1946, in Winter Haven, Florida, to Ingram Cecil \"Coon Dog\" (1917–1958) and Avis (née Snively) Connor (1923–1965).", "The Connors normally resided at their main residence in Waycross, Georgia, but Avis returned to her hometown in Florida to give birth.", "She was the daughter of citrus fruit magnate John A. Snively, who held extensive properties in Winter Haven and in Waycross.", "Gram's father, Ingram Connor II was a famous World War II flying ace, decorated with the Air Medal, who was present at the 1941 attack on Pearl Harbor.", "Biographer David Meyer characterized these parents as loving; he wrote in ''Twenty Thousand Roads'' that they are \"remembered as affectionate parents and a loving couple\".However, he also notes that \"unhappiness was eating away at the Connor family\": Avis suffered from depression, and both parents were alcoholics.", "Ingram Connor II died by suicide two days before Christmas in 1958, devastating the 12-year-old Gram and his younger sister, also named Avis.", "Avis, Gram's mother, subsequently married Robert Parsons, who adopted Gram and his sister; they took his surname.Gram Parsons briefly attended the prestigious Bolles School in Jacksonville, Florida, before transferring to the public Winter Haven High School; after failing his junior year, he returned to Bolles.", "For a time, the family found a stability of sorts.", "They were torn apart in early 1965, when Robert became embroiled in an extramarital affair and Avis' heavy drinking led to her death from cirrhosis on June 5, 1965, the day of Gram's graduation from Bolles.As his family was disintegrating around him, Parsons developed strong musical interests, particularly after seeing Elvis Presley perform in concert on February 22, 1956, in Waycross.", "Five years later, barely in his teens, he played in rock and roll cover bands such as the Pacers and the Legends, headlining in clubs owned by his stepfather in the Winter Haven/Polk County area.", "By the age of 16, he graduated to folk music, and in 1963 he teamed up with his first professional outfit, the Shilohs, in Greenville, South Carolina.", "Heavily influenced by The Kingston Trio and The Journeymen, the band played hootenannies, coffee houses and high school auditoriums; as Parsons was still enrolled in prep school, he performed with the group only in select engagements.", "Forays into New York City (where Parsons briefly lived with a female folk singer in a loft on Houston Street) included a performance at Florida's exhibition in the 1964 New York World's Fair and regular appearances at the Café Rafio on Bleecker Street in Greenwich Village in the summer of 1964.Although John Phillips (an acquaintance of Shiloh George Wrigley) arranged an exploratory meeting with Albert Grossman, the impresario balked at booking the group for a Christmas engagement at The Bitter End when he discovered that the Shilohs were still high school students.", "Following a recording session at the radio station of Bob Jones University, the group reached a creative impasse amid the emergence of folk rock and dissolved in the spring of 1965.Despite his middling grades and test scores, Parsons was admitted to Harvard University's class of 1966 on the basis of a strong admissions essay (or, more likely, because his family was wealthy—his grandfather owned one-third of all the citrus orchards in Florida).", "Although he claimed to have studied theology (an oblique reference to his close friendship with his residential tutor, Harvard Divinity School graduate student Jet Thomas) in subsequent interviews, Parsons seldom attended his general education courses before departing in early 1966 after one semester.", "He did not become seriously interested in country music until his time at Harvard, where he heard Merle Haggard for the first time.=== The International Submarine Band (1966–1967) ===In 1966, he and other musicians from the Boston folk scene formed a group called the International Submarine Band.", "After briefly residing in the Kingsbridge section of the Bronx, they relocated to Los Angeles the following year.", "Following several lineup changes, the band signed to Lee Hazlewood's LHI Records, where they spent late 1967 recording ''Safe at Home''.", "The album contains one of Parsons' best-known songs, \"Luxury Liner,\" and an early version of \"Do You Know How It Feels,\" which he revised later in his career.", "''Safe at Home'' would remain unreleased until mid-1968, by which time the International Submarine Band had broken up.The International Submarine Band appeared in the Peter Fonda film ''The Trip'' (1967) as a performing band in one of the clubs.", "Their song \"Lazy Days\" was offered for the film's soundtrack, however the soundtrack was later done by Mike Bloomfield's Electric Flag.", "In 1967, Peter Fonda had befriended Parsons through actor Brandon de Wilde.", "During this time, Fonda had recorded a version of the Parsons' song \"November Nights\" titled \"November Night\", dropping the 's'.", "The song was released as a single in March 1967, featuring \"November Night\" on the A-Side with the B-Side being a version of Donovan's \"Catch the Wind\".===The Byrds (1968)===By 1968, Parsons had come to the attention of the Byrds' bassist, Chris Hillman, via business manager Larry Spector as a possible replacement band member following the departures of David Crosby and Michael Clarke from the group in late 1967.Parsons had been acquainted with Hillman since the pair had met in a bank during 1967 and in February 1968 he passed an audition for the band, being initially recruited as a jazz pianist but soon switching to rhythm guitar and vocals as well.Although Parsons was an equal contributor to the band, he was not regarded as a full member of the Byrds by the band's record label, Columbia Records.", "Consequently, when the Byrds' recording contract was renewed on February 29, 1968, it was only original members Roger McGuinn and Chris Hillman who signed it.", "Parsons, like fellow new recruit Kevin Kelley, was hired as a sideman and received a salary from McGuinn and Hillman.", "In later years, this led Hillman to state, \"Gram was hired.", "He was not a member of the Byrds, ever.", "He was on salary; that was the only way we could get him to turn up.\"", "However, these comments overlook the fact that Parsons, like Kelley, was given equal billing alongside McGuinn, Hillman, and Kelley on the ''Sweetheart of the Rodeo'' album and in contemporary press coverage of the band.", "''Sweetheart of the Rodeo'' was originally conceived by band leader Roger McGuinn as a sprawling, double album history of American popular music.", "It was to begin with bluegrass music, then move through country and western, jazz, rhythm and blues, and rock music, before finally ending with the most advanced (for the time) form of electronic music.", "However, as recording plans were made, Parsons exerted a controlling influence over the group, persuading the other members to leave Los Angeles and record the album in Nashville, Tennessee.", "Along the way, McGuinn's original album concept was jettisoned in favor of a fully fledged country project, which included Parsons' songs such as \"One Hundred Years from Now\" and \"Hickory Wind\", along with compositions by Bob Dylan, Woody Guthrie, Merle Haggard, and others.Recording sessions for ''Sweetheart of the Rodeo'' commenced at Columbia Records' recording studios in the Music Row area of Nashville on March 9, 1968.Midway through, the sessions moved to Columbia Studios, Hollywood, Los Angeles.", "They finally came to a close on May 27, 1968.However, Parsons was still under contract to LHI Records and consequently, Hazlewood contested Parsons' appearance on the album and threatened legal action.", "As a result, McGuinn ended up replacing three of Parsons' lead vocals with his own on the finished album, a move that still rankled Parsons as late as 1973, when he told Cameron Crowe in an interview that McGuinn \"erased it and did the vocals himself and fucked it up.\"", "However, Parsons is still featured as lead vocalist on the songs \"You're Still on My Mind\", \"Life in Prison\", and \"Hickory Wind\".While in England with the Byrds in the summer of 1968, Parsons left the band due to his concerns over a planned concert tour of South Africa, and after speaking to Mick Jagger and Keith Richards about the tour, he cited opposition to that country's apartheid policies.", "There has been some doubt expressed by Hillman over the sincerity of Parsons' protest.", "It appears that Parsons was mostly apolitical, although he did refer to one of the younger African-American butlers in the Connor household as being \"like a brother\" to him in an interview.", "During this period Parsons became acquainted with Mick Jagger and Keith Richards of The Rolling Stones.", "Before Parsons' departure from the Byrds, he had accompanied the two Rolling Stones to Stonehenge (along with McGuinn and Hillman) in the English county of Wiltshire.", "Immediately after leaving the band, Parsons stayed at Richards' house and the pair developed a close friendship over the next few years, with Parsons reintroducing the guitarist to country music.", "According to Stones' confidant and close friend of Parsons, Phil Kaufman, the two would sit around for hours playing obscure country records and trading off on various songs with their guitars.===The Flying Burrito Brothers (1969–1970)=== Parsons's ''Nudie suit'' in the Country Music Hall of Fame in NashvilleReturning to Los Angeles, Parsons sought out Hillman, and the two formed The Flying Burrito Brothers with bassist Chris Ethridge and pedal steel player Sneaky Pete Kleinow.", "Their 1969 album ''The Gilded Palace of Sin'' marked the culmination of Parsons' post-1966 musical vision: a modernized variant of the Bakersfield sound that was popularized by Buck Owens amalgamated with strands of soul and psychedelic rock.", "The band appeared on the album cover wearing Nudie suits emblazoned with all sorts of hippie accoutrements, including marijuana, Tuinal, and Seconal-inspired patches on Parsons' suit.", "Along with the Parsons-Hillman originals \"Christine's Tune\" and \"Sin City\" were versions of the soul music classics \"The Dark End of the Street\" and \"Do Right Woman\", the latter featuring David Crosby on high harmony.", "The album's original songs were the result of a very productive songwriting partnership between Parsons and Hillman, who were sharing a bachelor pad in the San Fernando Valley during this period.", "The atypically pronounced (for Parsons) gospel-soul influence on this album likely evolved from the ecumenical tastes of bassist Chris Ethridge (who co-wrote \"Hot Burrito No.", "1 I'm Your Toy\" and \"Hot Burrito No.", "2\" with Parsons) and frequent jamming with Delaney & Bonnie and Richards during the album's gestation.Original drummer Eddie Hoh (best known for his work with The Monkees and Al Kooper) proved to be unable to perform adequate takes due to a substance abuse problem and was dismissed after two songs, leading the group to record the remainder of the album with a variety of session drummers, including former International Submarine Band drummer Jon Corneal (who briefly joined the group as an official member, appearing on a plurality of the tracks) and Popeye Phillips of Dr. Hook & the Medicine Show.", "Before commencing live performances, the group ultimately settled upon original Byrds drummer Michael Clarke.", "Technically different in comparison to his predecessors, Clarke's striking physical appearance proved to be the primary criterion in this decision; an associate of the band would later recall that \"the Burritos had to be pretty\" and \"Corneal didn't fit\" from that standpoint.While unsuccessful from a commercial standpoint, the album was measured by rock critic Robert Christgau as \"an ominous, obsessive, tongue-in-cheek country-rock synthesis, absorbing rural and urban, traditional and contemporary, at point of impact.\"", "Embarking on a cross-country tour via train, as Parsons suffered from periodic bouts of fear of flying, the group squandered most of their money in a perpetual poker game and received bewildered reactions in most cities.", "Parsons was frequently indulging in massive quantities of psilocybin and cocaine, so his performances were erratic at best, while much of the band's repertoire consisted of vintage honky-tonk and soul standards with few originals.", "Perhaps the most successful appearance occurred in Philadelphia, where the group opened for the reconstituted Byrds.", "Midway through their set, Parsons joined the headline act and fronted his former group on renditions of \"Hickory Wind\" and \"You Don't Miss Your Water\".", "The other Burritos surfaced with the exception of Clarke, and the joint aggregation played several songs, including \"Long Black Veil\" and \"Goin' Back\".The Flying Burrito Brothers appeared at the Sky River Rock Festival near Sultan, Washington, at the end of August.After returning to Los Angeles, the group recorded \"The Train Song\", written during an increasingly infrequent songwriting session on the train and produced by 1950s R&B legends Larry Williams and Johnny \"Guitar\" Watson.", "Despite a request from the Burritos that the remnants of their publicity budget be diverted to promotion of the single, it also flopped.", "During this period, Ethridge realized that he did not share Parsons' and Hillman's affinity for country music, precipitating his departure shortly thereafter.", "He was replaced by lead guitarist Bernie Leadon, while Hillman reverted to bass.By this time, Parsons's own use of drugs had increased so much that new songs were rare and much of his time was diverted to partying with the Stones, who briefly relocated to America in the summer of 1969 to finish their forthcoming ''Let It Bleed'' album and prepare for an autumn cross-country tour, their first series of regular live engagements in over two years.", "As the Stones prepared to play the nation's largest basketball arenas and early stadium concerts, the Burritos played to dwindling nightclub audiences; on one occasion, Jagger had to beseech Parsons to fulfill an obligation to his group.", "As Parsons \"became a trust-fund baby when he came of age,\" he was still receiving about $30,000 per year (equivalent to $210,000 in 2018) from his family trust during this period, \"distinguishing him from his many hungry, hard-scrabble peers.", "\"However, the singer's dedication to the Rolling Stones was rewarded when the Burrito Brothers were booked as one of the acts at the infamous Altamont Music Festival.", "Playing a short set including \"Six Days on the Road\" and \"Bony Moronie,\" Parsons left on one of the final helicopters and attempted to seduce Michelle Phillips.", "\"Six Days...\" was included in ''Gimme Shelter'', a documentary of the event.With mounting debt incurred, A&M hoped to recoup some of their losses by marketing the Burritos as a straight country group.", "To this end, manager Jim Dickson instigated a loose session where the band recorded several honky tonk staples from their live act, contemporary pop covers in a countrified vein (\"To Love Somebody\", \"Lodi\", \"I Shall Be Released\", \"Honky Tonk Women\"), and Larry Williams' \"Bony Moronie.\"", "This was soon scrapped in favor of a second album of originals on an extremely reduced budget.Faced with a dearth of new material, most of the album was hastily written in the studio by Leadon, Hillman, and Parsons, with two ''Gilded Palace of Sin'' outtakes thrown into the mix.", "The resulting album, entitled ''Burrito Deluxe'', was released in April 1970.Although it is considered less inspired than its predecessor, it is notable for the Parsons-Hillman-Leadon song \"Older Guys\" and for its take on Jagger and Richards' \"Wild Horses\", the first recording released of this famous song.", "Parsons was inspired to cover the song after hearing an advance tape of the ''Sticky Fingers'' track sent to Kleinow, who was scheduled to overdub a pedal steel part; although Kleinow's part was not included on the released Rolling Stones version, it is available on bootlegs.", "Ultimately—and to the chagrin of Hillman, who was not keen on the song amid the band's creative malaise—Jagger and Richards consented to the cover version.Like its predecessor, ''Burrito Deluxe'' underperformed commercially but also failed to carry the critical cachet of the debut.", "Disenchanted with the band, Parsons left the Burritos in mutual agreement with Hillman, who was long fatigued by his friend's unprofessionalism.", "Under Hillman's direction, the group recorded one more studio album before dissolving in the autumn of 1971.In a recent interview with ''American Songwriter'' Chris Hillman explained that \"the greatest legacy of the Flying Burrito Brothers and Gram is we were the alternative country band.", "We couldn't get on country radio and we couldn't get on rock radio!", "We were the outlaw country band for a brief period.", "\"===Solo career and touring with Emmylou Harris (1970–1973)===Parsons signed a solo deal with A&M Records and moved in with producer Terry Melcher in early 1970.Melcher, who had worked with the Byrds and the Beach Boys, was a member of the successful duo Bruce & Terry, also known as The Rip Chords.", "The two shared a mutual penchant for cocaine and heroin, and as a result, the sessions were largely unproductive, with Parsons eventually losing interest in the project.", "\"Terry loved Gram and wanted to produce him ...", "But neither of them could get anything done,\" recalled writer and mutual friend Eve Babitz.", "\"Long lost, the tapes from this session have gathered a legendary patina,\" writes David Meyer.", "The recording stalled, and the master tapes were checked out, but there is conflict as to whether \"Gram ... or Melcher took them\".He then accompanied the Rolling Stones on their 1971 U.K. tour in the hope of being signed to the newly formed Rolling Stones Records; by this juncture, Parsons and Richards had mulled the possibility of recording a duo album.", "Moving into Villa Nellcôte with the guitarist during the sessions for ''Exile on Main Street'' that commenced thereafter, Parsons remained in a consistently incapacitated state and frequently quarreled with his girlfriend, aspiring actress Gretchen Burrell.", "Eventually, Parsons was asked to leave by Anita Pallenberg, Richards' longtime domestic partner.", "Decades later, Richards suggested in his memoir that Jagger may have been the impetus for Parsons' departure because Richards was spending so much time playing music with Parsons.", "Rumors have persisted that he appears somewhere on the legendary album, and while Richards concedes that it is very likely he is among the chorus of singers on \"Sweet Virginia\", this has never been substantiated.", "Parsons attempted to rekindle his relationship with the band on their 1972 American tour to no avail.He returned to the US for a one-off concert with the Burritos, and at Hillman's request went to hear Emmylou Harris sing in a small club in Washington, D.C.", "They befriended each other and, within a year, he asked her to join him in Los Angeles for another attempt to record his first solo album.", "It came as a surprise to many when Parsons was enthusiastically signed to Reprise Records by Mo Ostin in mid-1972.The ensuing ''GP'' (1973) featured several members of Elvis Presley's TCB Band, led by lead guitarist James Burton.", "It included six new songs from a creatively revitalized Parsons alongside several country covers, including Tompall Glaser's \"Streets of Baltimore\" and George Jones' \"That's All It Took\".Parsons, by now featuring Harris as his duet partner, toured across the United States as Gram Parsons and the Fallen Angels in February–March 1973.Unable to afford the services of the TCB Band for a month, the group featured the talents of Colorado-based rock guitarist Jock Bartley (soon to climb to fame with Firefall), veteran Nashville session musician Neil Flanz on pedal steel, eclectic bassist Kyle Tullis (best known for his work with Dolly Parton and Larry Coryell) and former Mountain drummer N.D. Smart.", "The touring party also included Gretchen Parsons—by this point extremely envious of Harris—and Harris' young daughter.", "Coordinating the spectacle as road manager was Phil Kaufman, who had served time with Charles Manson on Terminal Island in the mid-sixties and first met Parsons while working for the Stones in 1968.Kaufman ensured that the performer stayed away from substance abuse, limiting his alcohol intake during shows and throwing out any drugs smuggled into hotel rooms.", "At first, the band was under-rehearsed and played poorly; however, they improved markedly with steady gigging and received rapturous responses at several leading countercultural venues, including Armadillo World Headquarters in Austin, Texas, Max's Kansas City in New York City, and Liberty Hall in Houston, Texas (where Neil Young and Linda Ronstadt sat in for a filmed performance).", "According to a number of sources, it was Harris who forced the band to practice and work up an actual set list.", "Nevertheless, the tour failed to galvanize sales of ''GP'', which never charted in the ''Billboard'' 200.For his next and final album, 1974's posthumously released ''Grievous Angel'', he again used Harris and members of the TCB Band for the sessions.", "The record generally received more enthusiastic reviews than its predecessor, ''GP''.", "Although Parsons only contributed two new songs to the album (\"In My Hour of Darkness\" and \"Return of the Grievous Angel\"), he was reportedly enthusiastic with his new sound and seemed to have finally adopted a diligent mindset to his musical career, limiting his intake of alcohol and opiates during most of the sessions.Before recording, Parsons and Harris played a preliminary four-show mini-tour as the headline act in a June 1973 Warner Brothers country rock package with the New Kentucky Colonels and Country Gazette.", "A shared backing band included former Byrds lead guitarist and Kentucky Colonel Clarence White, Pete Kleinow, and Chris Ethridge.", "On July 15, 1973, White was killed by a drunk driver in Palmdale, California, while loading equipment in his car for a concert with the New Kentucky Colonels.", "At White's funeral, Parsons and Bernie Leadon launched into an impromptu touching rendition of \"Farther Along\"; that evening, Parsons reportedly informed Phil Kaufman of his final wish: to be cremated in Joshua Tree.", "Despite the almost insurmountable setback, Parsons, Harris, and the other musicians decided to continue with plans for a fall tour.In the summer of 1973, Parsons' Topanga Canyon home burned to the ground, the result of a stray cigarette.", "Nearly all of his possessions were destroyed with the exception of a guitar and a prized Jaguar automobile.", "The fire proved to be the last straw in the relationship between Burrell and Parsons, who moved into a spare room in Kaufman's house.", "While not recording, he frequently hung out and jammed with members of New Jersey–based country rockers Quacky Duck and His Barnyard Friends and the proto-punk Jonathan Richman & the Modern Lovers, who were represented by former Byrds manager Eddie Tickner." ], [ "Personal life", "In 1967, Nancy Ross gave birth to Gram's daughter Polly Parsons.In 1971, after leaving the Stones' camp, Parsons married Gretchen Burrell (Gretchen Lisl Berrill Parsons Carpenter), at his stepfather's New Orleans estate.", "Allegedly, the relationship was far from stable, with Burrell cutting a needy and jealous figure while Parsons quashed her burgeoning film career.", "Many of the singer's closest associates and friends claim that Parsons was preparing to commence divorce proceedings at the time of his death; the couple had already separated by this point.Parsons and Burrell enjoyed the most idyllic time of their relationship in the second half of 1971, visiting old cohorts like Ian Dunlop and Family/Blind Faith/Traffic bassist Ric Grech in England.", "With the help of Grech and one of Grech's friends who also dabbled in country music and is now known as Hank Wangford, Parsons eventually stopped using heroin; a previous treatment suggested by William Burroughs proved unsuccessful.Before formally breaking up with Burrell, Parsons already had a woman waiting in the wings.", "While recording, he saw a photo of a beautiful woman at a friend's home and was instantly smitten.", "The woman in the photo was Margaret Fisher, a high school sweetheart of the singer from his Waycross, Georgia, days.", "Like Parsons, Fisher had drifted west and became established in the Bay Area rock scene.", "A meeting was arranged and the two instantly rekindled their relationship, with Fisher dividing her weeks between Los Angeles and San Francisco at Parsons' expense." ], [ "Death", "In the late 1960s, Parsons became enamored of and began to vacation at Joshua Tree National Park (then a National Monument) in southeastern California, where he frequently used psychedelics and reportedly experienced several UFO sightings.", "After splitting from Burrell, Parsons often spent his weekends in the area with Margaret Fisher and Phil Kaufman, with whom he had been living.", "Scheduled to resume touring in October 1973, Parsons decided to go on another recuperative excursion on September 17.Accompanying him were Fisher, personal assistant Michael Martin, and Martin's girlfriend Dale McElroy.", "Kaufman later said that Parsons' attorney was preparing divorce papers to serve to Burrell while Parsons remained in Joshua Tree on September 20.During the trip, Parsons often retreated to the desert, while the group visited bars in the nearby hamlet of Yucca Valley on both nights of their stay.", "Parsons consumed large amounts of alcohol and barbiturates.", "On September 18, Martin drove back to Los Angeles to resupply the group with marijuana.", "That night, after challenging Fisher and McElroy to drink with him (Fisher disliked alcohol and McElroy was recovering from a bout of hepatitis), he said, \"I'll drink for the three of us,\" and proceeded to drink six double tequilas.", "They then returned to the Joshua Tree Inn, where Parsons purchased morphine from an unknown young woman.", "After being injected by her in room #1, he overdosed.", "Fisher gave Parsons an ice-cube suppository, and later, a cold shower.", "Instead of moving Parsons around the room, she put him to bed in room #8 and went out to buy coffee in the hope of reviving him, leaving McElroy to stand guard.", "As his respirations became irregular and later ceased, McElroy attempted resuscitation.", "Her efforts failed and Fisher, watching from outside, was visibly alarmed.", "After further failed attempts, they decided to call an ambulance.", "Parsons was declared dead on arrival at Yucca Valley Hospital at 12:15 a.m. on September 19, 1973, in Yucca Valley.", "The official cause of death was an overdose of morphine and alcohol.According to Fisher in the 2005 biography ''Grievous Angel: An Intimate Biography of Gram Parsons,'' the amount of morphine consumed by Parsons would be lethal to three regular users.", "Keith Richards stated in the 2004 documentary film ''Fallen Angel'' that Parsons understood the danger of combining opiates and alcohol and should have been more cautious.", "Upon Parsons' death, Fisher and McElroy were returned to Los Angeles by Kaufman, who dispersed the remnants of Parsons' drugs in the desert.Before his death, Parsons said he wanted his body cremated at Joshua Tree and his ashes spread over Cap Rock, a prominent natural feature there.", "However, Parsons' stepfather Bob organized a private ceremony back in New Orleans and neglected to invite any of his friends from the music industry.", "Two accounts state that Bob Parsons stood to inherit Gram's share of his grandfather's estate if he could prove that Gram was a resident of Louisiana, explaining his eagerness to have him buried there.Parsons' makeshift memorial in Joshua Tree, CaliforniaTo fulfill Parsons' funeral wishes, Kaufman and a friend stole his body from Los Angeles International Airport and in a borrowed hearse, they drove it to Joshua Tree.", "Upon reaching the Cap Rock section of the park, they attempted to cremate Parsons' body by pouring five gallons of gasoline into the open coffin and throwing a lit match inside; what resulted was an enormous fireball.The two were arrested several days later.", "Since there was no law against stealing a dead body, they were only fined $750 for stealing the coffin and were not prosecuted for leaving of his charred remains in the desert.", "What remained of Parsons' body was eventually buried in Garden of Memories Cemetery in Metairie, Louisiana.The site of Parsons' cremation is today known as The Cap Rock Parking Lot.", "A local myth brings Parsons fans out to a large rock flake known to rock climbers as ''The Gram Parsons Memorial Hand Traverse''.", "This myth was popularized when someone added a slab that marked Parsons' cremation to the memorial rock.", "The slab has since been removed by the U.S. National Park Service, and relocated to the Joshua Tree Inn.", "There is no monument at Cap Rock noting Parsons' cremation at the site.", "Joshua Tree park guides are given the option to tell the story of Parsons' cremation during tours, but there is no mention of the act in official maps or brochures.", "Fans regularly assemble simple rock structures and writings on the rock, which the Park Service periodically removes." ], [ "Legacy", "Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic describes Parsons as \"enormously influential\" for both country and rock, \"blending the two genres to the point that they became indistinguishable from each other.", "... His influence could still be heard well into the next millennium.\"", "In his 2005 essay on Parsons for ''Rolling Stone'' magazine's \"100 Greatest Artist\" list, Keith Richards notes that Parsons' recorded music output was \"pretty minimal.\"", "Nevertheless, Richards claims that Parsons' \"effect on country music is enormous\" and adds that this is \"why we're talking about him now.", "\"In 2003 the Americana Music Awards awarded the late Gram Parsons with the President’s Award, accepted by his daughter Polly Parsons.", "“My father wanted more than anything to be accepted by Nashville, and tonight he is,” she said.", "“I’m sure he and Johnny Cash are kicking it off right now.”The 2003 film ''Grand Theft Parsons'' stars Johnny Knoxville as Phil Kaufman and chronicles a farcical version of the theft of Parsons' corpse.", "In 2006, the Gandulf Hennig-directed documentary film titled ''Gram Parsons: Fallen Angel'' was released.Emmylou Harris has continued to champion Parsons' work throughout her career, covering a number of his songs over the years, including \"Hickory Wind\", \"Wheels\", \"Sin City\", \"Luxury Liner\", and \"Hot Burrito No. 2\".", "Harris's songs \"Boulder to Birmingham\", from her 1975 album ''Pieces of the Sky'', and \"The Road\", from her 2011 album ''Hard Bargain'', are tributes to Parsons.", "In addition, her 1985 album ''The Ballad of Sally Rose'' is an original concept album that includes many allusions to Parsons in its narrative.", "The song \"My Man\", written by Bernie Leadon and performed by the Eagles on their album ''On the Border'', is a tribute to Gram Parsons.", "Both Leadon and Parsons were members of the Flying Burrito Brothers during the late 1960s and early 1970s.The 1973 album ''Crazy Eyes'' by Poco pays homage to Parsons, as Richie Furay composed the title track in honor of him, and sings one of Parsons' own compositions, \"Brass Buttons.\"", "The album was released four days before Parsons died.A music festival called Gram Fest or the Cosmic American Music Festival was held annually in honor of Parsons in Joshua Tree, California, between 1996 and 2006.The show featured tunes written by Gram Parsons and Gene Clark as well as influential songs and musical styles from other artists that were part of that era.", "Performers were also encouraged to showcase their own material.", "The underlying theme of the event is to inspire the performers to take these musical styles to the next level of the creative process.", "Past concerts have featured such notable artists as Sneaky Pete Kleinow, Chris Ethridge, Spooner Oldham, John Molo, Jack Royerton, Gib Guilbeau, Counting Crows, Bob Warford, Rosie Flores, David Lowery, Barry and Holly Tashian, George Tomsco, Jann Browne, Lucinda Williams, Polly Parsons, The \"Road Mangler\" Phil Kaufman, Ben Fong-Torres, Victoria Williams, Mark Olson, and Sid Griffin, as well as a variety of many other bands that had played over the two or three day event.", "In addition, the Gram Parsons Tribute, in Waycross, Georgia, is a music festival remembering Parsons in the town in which he grew up.", "Additional tributes spring up every year, the latest being the Southern California \"Gram On!\"", "celebration by The Rickenbastards in July, 2013, celebrating the life and legacy of a simple country boy with a dream, Gram Parsons.In February 2008, Gram's protégée, Emmylou Harris, was inducted into the Country Music Hall of Fame.", "Despite his influence, however, Parsons has yet to be inducted.", "Radley Balko has written that \"Parsons may be the most influential artist yet to be inducted to either the Rock and Roll or Country Music Hall(s) of Fame.", "And it's a damned shame.\"", "The Gram Parsons Petition Project (now Gram ParsonsInterNational) was begun in May 2008 in support of an ongoing drive to induct Parsons into the Country Music Hall of Fame.", "On September 19, 2008, the 35th anniversary of Parsons' death, it was first presented to the Country Music Association (CMA) and Hall as a \"List of Supporters\" together with the official Nomination Proposal.", "The online List of Supporters reached 10,000 on the 40th anniversary of his death, with more than 14,000 currently listed.", "Annual Gram Parsons InterNational concerts in Nashville and various other cities, now in the 14th year, support the petition cause.In 2004, Gram Parsons' daughter Polly Parsons produced two tribute concerts titled \"Return to Sin City: A Tribute to Gram Parsons\".", "Artists included: Keith Richards, James Burton, Lucinda Williams, Norah Jones, Dwight Yoakam, John Doe, Steve Earle, Jim Lauderdale, Kathleen Edwards, Jay Farrar, Jim James, Raul Malo, Susan Marshall, and the Sin City All Stars.", "The concert produced a DVD.", "100% of the proceeds from the tribute concerts were donated through the newly formed Gram Parsons Foundation to the Musician's Assistance Program (now MusiCares Foundation) which aids musicians in crisis.In November 2009, the musical theatre production ''Grievous Angel: The Legend of Gram Parsons'' premiered, starring Anders Drerup as Gram Parsons and Kelly Prescott as Emmylou Harris.", "Directed by Michael Bate and co-written by Bate and David McDonald, the production was inspired by a March 1973 interview that Bate conducted with Parsons, which became Parsons' last recorded conversation.In 2012, Swedish folk duo First Aid Kit released the single \"Emmylou\" from the album ''The Lion's Roar''.", "The song's chorus is a lyrical acknowledgment of the Gram Parsons and Emmylou Harris singing partnership, and to the romantic relationship between them that never fully developed before his death.In the fall of 2012 Florida festival promoter and musician Randy Judy presented his bio-musical ''Farther Along – The Music and Life of Gram Parsons'' at Magnoliafest at the Spirit of the Suwannee Music Park.A Cleveland, Ohio area band, New Soft Shoe, performs as a tribute band to Parsons' music.A St. Paul, Minnesota band, The Gilded Palace Sinners, is another Parsons' tribute group.In 2022 Dave Prinz, a co-founder of Amoeba Music, rediscovered Gram Parsons “Last Roundup” tapes featuring Emmylou Harris with Gram Parsons and the Fallen Angels.", "Prinz decided to initiate a campaign to fund the release independently, in partnership with daughter Polly Parsons.", "The campaign launched November 17, 2022, and was fully backed.Gram Parsons & The Fallen Angels' \"The Last Roundup: Live from The Bijou Café in Philadelphia 3/16/73\" was released on limited-edition vinyl for Record Store Day on Friday November 24, 2023 and was considered one of the hits of Record Store Day 2023." ], [ "Discography", " Year Album Label Chart Positions US US Country 1968 ''Safe at Home'' (International Submarine Band) LHI Records — — ''Sweetheart of the Rodeo'' (The Byrds) Columbia 77 — 1969 ''The Gilded Palace of Sin'' (Flying Burrito Brothers) A&M 164 — 1970 ''Burrito Deluxe'' (Flying Burrito Brothers) A&M — — 1973 ''GP'' Reprise — — 1974 ''Grievous Angel'' Reprise 195 — 1976 ''Sleepless Nights'' (Gram Parsons & the Flying Burrito Brothers) A&M 185 — 1979 ''The Early Years (1963–1965)'' Sierra — — 1982 ''Live 1973'' (Gram Parsons and the Fallen Angels) Sierra — — 1987 ''Dim Lights, Thick Smoke and Loud Loud Music'' (Flying Burrito Brothers) Edsel — — 1995 ''Cosmic American Music: The Rehearsal Tapes 1972'' Magnum America — — 2001 ''Another Side of This Life: The Lost Recordings of Gram Parsons'' Sundazed — — 2001 ''Sacred Hearts & Fallen Angels: The Gram Parsons Anthology'' Rhino — — 2006 ''The Complete Reprise Sessions'' Reprise — — 2007 ''Gram Parsons Archives Vol.1: Live at the Avalon Ballroom 1969''(Gram Parsons with the Flying Burrito Brothers) Amoeba — 45 2014 ''Gram Parsons Live In New York 1973''(Gram Parsons with Emmylou Harris) Plastic Soho — — 2018 ''The Solo Years'' Rhino UK — —2023''The Last Roundup: Live from the Bijou Café in Philadelphia 3/16/1973''(Gram Parsons and the Fallen Angels)Amoeba \"—\" denotes the release failed to chart." ], [ "Filmography", "* ''The Trip'' (1967) – band member of the International Submarine Band* ''Saturation 70'' (1969) – soundtrack and role" ], [ "Tribute albums", "* ''Conmemorativo: A Tribute to Gram Parsons'' (1993)* ''Return of the Grievous Angel: A Tribute to Gram Parsons'' (1999)" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* * * * * ''Road Mangler Deluxe,'' Phil Kaufman with Colin White, White-Boucke Publishing, 2005 (3rd edition).", "* ''Are You Ready for the Country: Elvis, Dylan, Parsons and the Roots of Country Rock,'' Peter Dogget, Penguin Books, 2001.", "* ''In the Country of Country: A Journey to the Roots of American Music,'' Nicholas Dawidoff, Vintage Books, 1998.", "* * ''Grievous Angel: An Intimate Biography of Gram Parsons,'' Jessica Hundley and Polly Parsons, Thunder's Mouth Press, 2005.", "* ''Proud to Be an Okie: Cultural Politics, Country Music, and Migration to Southern California,'' Peter La Chapelle.", "University of California Press, Berkeley, 2007.", "* ''Gram Parsons: God's Own Singer,'' Jason Walker, Soundcheck Books, London, 2012.", "* ''Moody Food,'' Ray Robertson, SFWP, 2006.", "* ''Live Fast, Die Young: Misadventures in Rock & Roll America'', Chris Price & Joe Harland.", "Summersdale.", "2010.", "* ''Trailblazers: Gram Parsons, Nick Drake & Jeff Buckley David Bret JRBooks, London, 2009." ], [ "External links", "* Gram Parsons fansite'''Articles'''* Reflections on Gram Parsons: the complete reprise sessions Swampland* Time for a Repress: ''The Gilded Palace of Sin'' by Bob Proehl, 30, March 2009 popmatters'''Metadata'''***'''Merchandise'''* Officially licensed Gram Parsons T-Shirts by Worn Free" ] ]
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[ [ "Go-fast boat" ], [ "Introduction", "A \"go-fast\" is a preferred boat for smugglersA '''go-fast boat''' is a small, fast power boat designed with a long narrow platform and a planing hull.During the United States alcohol prohibition era, these boats were used in \"rum-running\", transferring illegal liquor from larger vessels waiting outside US territorial waters to the mainland.", "Their high speed enabled them to avoid interception by the law enforcement.", "The present conception of such boats is based largely on designs by Donald Aronow for offshore powerboat racing in the 1960s.", "During this period, these boats were also used by drug smugglers to transfer drugs across the Caribbean to the United States." ], [ "Name", "Go-fast boats are also called \"cigarette boats\" and \"cigar boats\"—references to their shape, though some report that they are references to items they were used to smuggle.", "\"Cigarette boat\" is especially popular because it is a brand name for a line of go-fast boats that popularized and largely defined the class in the 1960s, made by Don Aronow's Cigarette Racing Team.", "\"Cigar boat\" is often preferred because it avoids confusion with that brand." ], [ "Construction", "US Navy SWCCs train with a modified go-fast boat during a training exercise in MississippiA typical go-fast is laid-up using a combination of fibreglass, kevlar and carbon fibre, using a deep \"\" style offshore racing hull ranging from long, narrow in beam, and equipped with two or more powerful engines, often totalling more than .", "The boats can typically travel at speeds over in calm waters, over in choppy waters, and maintain in the average Caribbean seas.", "They are heavy enough to cut through higher waves, although slower." ], [ "Use", "Reflecting their racing heritage, accommodations on these five-or-fewer-passenger boats are minimal.", "A small low cabin under the foredeck is typical, much smaller than a typical motor yacht of similar size.", "In addition to racing, most buyers buy these boats for their mystique, immense power, high top speeds, and sleek shape." ], [ "Illegal use", "A helicopter from the US Coast Guard's Helicopter Interdiction Tactical Squadron pursues a go-fast boat during trainingThese boats are difficult to detect by radar except on flat calm seas or at close range.", "The United States Coast Guard and the DEA found them to be stealthy, fast, seaworthy, and very difficult to intercept using conventional craft.", "Because of this, Coast Guards have developed their own high-speed craft and use helicopters equipped with anti-materiel rifles used to disable engines of fleeing boats.", "The US Coast Guard go-fast boat is a rigid-hulled inflatable boat (RHIB) equipped with radar and powerful engines.", "The RHIB is armed with several types of non-lethal weapons and an M240 GPMG." ], [ "Media portrayal", "In the 2006 film ''Miami Vice'', go-fast boats are used to smuggle drugs for cartels." ], [ "See also", "*Narco-submarine*''Night Train'' seizure, one of the largest drug seizures in history.", "*Poker run*Supercavitating propeller*Tunnel hull" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*''Don Aronow: The King of Thunderboat Row''.", "(1994), by Michael Aronow.", "Write Stuff Enterprises.", ", .", "*''Secrets of Tunnel Boat Design'', JD Russell, P. Eng." ], [ "External links", "* Congressional testimony on technologies for detecting go-fast boats" ] ]
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[ [ "Glasgow City Chambers" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''City Chambers''' or '''Municipal Buildings''' in Glasgow, Scotland, has functioned as the headquarters of Glasgow City Council since 1996, and of preceding forms of municipal government in the city since 1889.It is located on the eastern side of the city's George Square.", "It is a Category A listed building." ], [ "History", "The need for a new city chambers had been apparent since the 18th century, with the old Glasgow Tolbooth at Glasgow Cross becoming insufficient for the purposes of civic government in a growing town with greater political responsibilities.", "In 1814, the tolbooth was sold – with the exception of the steeple, which still remains – and the council chambers moved to the public buildings in the Saltmarket, near Glasgow Green.", "A subsequent move took the city council to the city and county buildings between Wilson Street and Ingram Street in 1844.In the early 1880s, City Architect John Carrick was asked to identify a suitable site for a purpose-built City Council Chambers.", "Carrick identified the east side of George Square, which was then bought.leftFollowing a design competition, the building was designed by the Scottish architect William Young in the Victorian style and construction started in 1882.The building was inaugurated by Queen Victoria in August 1888 and the first council meeting held within the chambers took place in October 1889.An extension connected by pairs of archways across John Street was completed in 1912 and Exchange House in George Street was completed in the mid-1980s.The new City Chambers initially housed Glasgow Town Council from 1888 to 1895, when that body was replaced by Glasgow Corporation.", "It remained the corporation's headquarters until it was replaced by Glasgow District Council under the wider Strathclyde Regional Council in May 1975.It then remained the Glasgow District Council headquarters until the abolition of the Strathclyde Region led to the formation of Glasgow City Council in April 1996." ], [ "Architecture", "===Exterior===The building is in the Beaux arts style, an interpretation of Renaissance Classicism incorporating Italianate styles with a vast range of ornate decoration, used to express the wealth and industrial export-led economic prosperity of the Second City of the Empire.", "The exterior sculpture, by James Alexander Ewing, included the central Jubilee Pediment as its centrepiece.", "Although originally intended to feature a figure symbolising Glasgow 'with the Clyde at her feet sending her manufactures to all the world', the Pediment was redesigned to celebrate Queen Victoria's Golden Jubilee.", "It depicts Victoria enthroned, surrounded by emblematic figures of Scotland, England, Ireland and Wales, alongside the colonies of the British Empire (mostly British India).", "Ewing also designed the apex sculptures of Truth, Riches, and Honour, and the statues of The Four Seasons on the Chamber's tower.", "The central apex figure of Truth is popularly known as Glasgow's Statue of Liberty, because of its close resemblance to the similarly posed, but very much larger, statue in New York harbour.===Interior===leftThe entrance hall of the Chambers displays a mosaic of the city's coat of arms on the floor, which dates from the 1950s when the city's coat of arms was last modified.", "The arms reflect legends about Glasgow's patron saint, Saint Mungo, and include four emblems – the bird, tree, bell, and fish – as remembered in the following verse::''Here's the Bird that never flew'':''Here's the Tree that never grew'':''Here's the Bell that never rang'':''Here's the Fish that never swam''The ornate banqueting hall, which is long by wide and high, is decorated with huge murals by the Glasgow Boys.", "The decoration was co-ordinated by architect William Leiper.", "The room hosted Nelson Mandela and Sir Alex Ferguson when they received the Freedom of the City in 1993 and 1999, respectively.", "The Council Chamber is clad in Spanish mahogany panelling and its windows are made of Venetian stained glass." ], [ "In popular culture", "The building was used as a stand in for the British Embassy in Moscow in the film ''An Englishman Abroad'' in 1983, and as the Vatican in ''Heavenly Pursuits'' in 1986.It was also used for the film ''The House of Mirth'' in 2000 and featured more recently in the television series ''Outlander''." ], [ "Gallery", "File:Glasgow City Chambers The Council Chamber.jpg|The Council ChambersFile:Glasgow City Chambers The Banqueting Hall.jpg|The Banqueting HallFile:Glasgow City Chambers Staircase.jpg|The StaircaseFile:Glasgow City Chambers interior.jpg|Mosaic ceiling of the ground floor LoggiaFile:Scotland - Glasgow City Chambers - 20141112102601.jpg|The main entrance" ], [ "See also", "* List of listed buildings in Glasgow/6* List of Category A listed buildings in Glasgow* Dunfermline City Chambers* Edinburgh City Chambers* List of tallest buildings and structures in Glasgow" ], [ "References" ] ]
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[ [ "Gone with the Wind (novel)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Gone with the Wind''''' is a novel by American writer Margaret Mitchell, first published in 1936.The story is set in Clayton County and Atlanta, both in Georgia, during the American Civil War and Reconstruction Era.", "It depicts the struggles of young Scarlett O'Hara, the spoiled daughter of a well-to-do plantation owner, who must use every means at her disposal to claw her way out of poverty following Sherman's destructive \"March to the Sea\".", "This historical novel features a coming-of-age story, with the title taken from the poem \"Non Sum Qualis eram Bonae Sub Regno Cynarae\", written by Ernest Dowson.", "''Gone with the Wind'' was popular with American readers from the outset and was the top American fiction bestseller in 1936 and 1937.As of 2014, a Harris poll found it to be the second favorite book of American readers, just behind the Bible.", "More than 30 million copies have been printed worldwide.", "''Gone with the Wind'' is a controversial reference point for subsequent writers of the South, both black and white.", "Scholars at American universities refer to, interpret, and study it in their writings.", "The novel has been absorbed into American popular culture.Mitchell received the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction for the book in 1937.It was adapted into the 1939 film of the same name, which is considered to be one of the greatest movies ever made and also received the Academy Award for Best Picture during the 12th annual Academy Awards ceremony.", "''Gone with the Wind'' is the only novel by Mitchell published during her lifetime." ], [ "Plot", "===Part I===On April 15, 1861, it is the eve of a rebellion in which seven southern states declare their secession from the United States (the \"Union\") over a desire to continue the institution of slavery, which was the economic engine of the South.", "In one of those states, Georgia, the family of wealthy Irish immigrant Gerald O'Hara owns a plantation (Tara).The oldest of the three O'Hara daughters, 16-year-old Scarlett, is dismayed to learn that the man she secretly loves, her county neighbor Ashley Wilkes, is set to announce his engagement to his cousin Melanie Hamilton.", "The next day, the Wilkeses throw an all-day party at their estate (\"Twelve Oaks\") where Scarlett notices someone leering at her.", "He turns out to be Rhett Butler, who has a reputation for seducing young women.", "Throughout the day, Scarlett attempts to turn Ashley's head by flirting with every man present, including Melanie's brother Charles Hamilton.", "In the afternoon, Scarlett gets Ashley alone and confesses her love for him, convinced he will return it.", "However, he says only that he cares for her as a friend and intends to marry Melanie.", "Stung, Scarlett pelts Ashley with insults and accuses him of being too cowardly to submit to his real feelings for her.", "As Ashley departs, Rhett reveals he has overheard their whole exchange.", "Scarlett feels humiliated.Later, war is declared, and the men are going to enlist.", "Feeling petty and vengeful, Scarlett accepts a marriage proposal from Charles.", "They marry, and two weeks later, Charles goes to war, where he promptly dies of measles two months later.", "Scarlett gives birth to his child, Wade Hampton Hamilton.", "As a widow, she is bound to dye her dresses black, wear a veil in public, and avoid conversations with young men.", "Scarlett mourns the loss of her youth, not the husband she barely knew.===Part II===Scarlett's mother, mistaking Scarlett's depression for grief, suggests that living with Melanie might lift her spirits.", "Melanie is living in Atlanta with her Aunt Sarah Jane, who is called by her childhood nickname \"Pittypat\".", "After moving there, Scarlett's spirit is revived by the excitement of living in a growing city.", "She busies herself with hospital work and sewing circles for the Confederate Army, although her heart is not in itshe does it mostly to avoid being gossiped about by the other women of Atlanta society.", "Additionally, she believes her efforts may aid Ashley, with whom she is still in love.Scarlett is mortified when she runs into Rhett while manning a sales stall at a public dance benefiting the troops.", "Rhett believes the war is a lost cause but is becoming rich as a blockade runner for profit.", "He sees through Scarlett's \"lady in mourning\" disguise and recognizes her longing to dance with the other young people, so he bids a lot of gold to win the honor of leading the first dance and chooses her as his partner.", "Scarlett scandalizes everyone by dancing joyfully while still dressed in widow's mourning.", "Her reputation is saved by Melanie, who is now her sister-in-law and highly respected in Atlanta; she argues that Scarlett is supporting the Confederate cause.", "Scarlett continues to act recklessly, flirting and dating while still in widow's clothes, always protected by Melanie's endorsement.", "She spends much of her time with Rhett, whose sexual attraction to Scarlett is ever-present.", "At one point, he enrages her with a silky proposition she become his mistress.", "Still, she appreciates Rhett for his money, his sophistication, and their shared irritation with the hypocrisy of Atlanta society.At Christmas (1863), Ashley is granted a furlough from the army and goes to Atlanta.", "Scarlett struggles to restrain her feelings for him.", "She remains convinced that he is secretly in love with her and is still married to Melanie out of duty.", "Scarlett is heartbroken when Melanie becomes pregnant with Ashley's child.===Part III===The war is going badly for the Confederacy.", "By September 1864, Atlanta is besieged from three sides.", "The city becomes desperate as hundreds of wounded Confederate soldiers pour in.", "Melanie goes into labor with only the inexperienced Scarlett and a young slave named Prissy to assist, as all the trained doctors are attending to the soldiers.", "The tattered Confederate States Army sets flame to Atlanta before they abandon it to the Union Army.", "Amidst the chaos, Melanie gives birth to a boy, Beau.Scarlett tracks down Rhett and begs him to take her, Wade, Melanie, Beau, and Prissy to Tara.", "Rhett laughs at this idea, explaining that Tara has likely been burned by the Yankees.", "Still, he steals an emaciated horse and a wagon and begins driving them out of Atlanta.", "At the edge of the city, Rhett has a change of heart and abandons Scarlett to join the army in their final, doomed push.", "Scarlett drives the wagon to Tara, which has avoided being burned like so many of her neighbors' homes.", "However, the situation is bleak: Scarlett's mother is dead, her father has lost his mind with grief, her sisters are sick with typhoid fever, the field slaves have left, the Yankees have burned all the cotton, and there is no food.A long struggle for survival begins, with Scarlett working in the fields.", "There are several hungry people and animals, along with an ever-present threat from Yankees who steal or burn what little they can find.", "At one point, Scarlett kills a Yankee soldier who attempts to invade her home and buries his body in the garden.", "A long post-war succession of Confederate soldiers returning home stop at Tara to find food and rest.", "Eventually, Ashley returns from the war, with his idealistic view of the world shattered.", "Finding themselves alone one day, he and Scarlett share a kiss.", "Unable to trust himself with her nearby, Ashley says he will take his family and move away.", "Scarlett says she can not let them leave when they have nowhere to go and promises to not throw herself at him again.===Part IV===Life at Tara begins to recover, but exorbitant taxes are levied on the plantation.", "Scarlett knows only one man with enough money to help herRhett.", "She puts on her only pretty dress (made from the velvet curtains at Tara) and finds him in a jailhouse in Atlanta.", "He is being held on a murder charge and likely to hang.", "Although she nearly wins him over with a southern belle routine, he declines to help after realizing her sweetness is an act meant to use his money.", "Leaving the jailhouse in a snit, Scarlett meets Frank Kennedy, a middle-aged storeowner who is betrothed to her sister, Suellen.", "Realizing that Frank also has money and that Suellen will turn her back on Tara once she is married, Scarlett hatches a plot to marry Frank.", "She lies to Frank that Suellen has changed her mind about marrying him.", "Dazed, Frank succumbs to Scarlett's charms and marries her two weeks later.", "Wanting to keep his wife happy, Frank gives Scarlett the money to pay the taxes.While Frank has a cold and is pampered by Aunt Pittypat, Scarlett goes over the accounts at Frank's store and finds that many owe him money.", "Terrified of the possibility of more taxes and irritated with Frank's poor business sense, she takes control of the store; her business practices emasculate Frank and leave many Atlantans resentful of her.", "With a loan from Rhett, she also buys and runs a small sawmill, which is viewed as even more scandalous conduct.", "To Frank's relief and Scarlett's dismay, she gets pregnant, which temporarily curtails her business activities.", "She convinces Ashley to come to Atlanta and manage her mill, all the while still in love with him.", "At Melanie's urging, Ashley reluctantly accepts.", "Melanie becomes the center of Atlanta society, and Scarlett gives birth to baby Ella Lorena.Georgia is under martial law, and life has taken on a more frightening tone.", "For protection, Scarlett keeps Frank's pistol tucked in the upholstery of his buggy.", "Her lone trips to and from the mill take her past a shanty town where criminals live.", "While on her way home one evening, she is accosted by two men who try to rob her.", "However, she escapes with the help of Big Sam, a black former foreman from Tara.", "Attempting to avenge his wife, Frank and the Ku Klux Klan raid the shanty town, where Frank is shot dead in the fracas.", "Rhett puts on a charade to keep the raiders from being arrested.", "He enters the Wilkeses' home with Hugh Elsing and Ashley, singing and pretending to be drunk.", "Yankee officers outside question Rhett, who says he and the other men had been at Belle Watling's brothel that evening, a story Belle later confirms to the officers.", "The men are indebted to Rhett, and his reputation among them improves.", "Meanwhile, the men's wivesexcept Melanieare livid at owing their husbands' lives to the town madam.", "At Frank's funeral, Rhett asks Scarlett to marry him.", "She refuses at first, but after a little repartee, he kisses her passionately, and in the heat of the moment, she accepts.", "One year later, Scarlett and Rhett announce their engagement, which becomes the talk of the town.===Part V===The Bonnie Blue Flag is an 1861 marching song that refers to the first unofficial flag of the Confederacy.Mr.", "and Mrs. Butler honeymoon in New Orleans, spending lavishly.", "Upon returning to Atlanta, they build a gaudy mansion on Peachtree Street.", "Rhett happily pays for the house to be built to Scarlett's specifications, but describes it as an \"architectural horror\".", "Shortly after moving into the house, the sardonic jabs between them turn into quarrels.", "Scarlett wonders why Rhett married her and then, \"with real hate in her eyes\", tells Rhett she is going to have a baby, which she does not want.", "Wade is seven years old in 1869 when his half-sister Eugenie Victoria, is born.", "She has blue eyes, and Melanie nicknames her \"Bonnie Blue\" in reference to the Bonnie Blue Flag of the Confederacy.", "After feeling well again, Scarlett makes a trip to the mill and talks to Ashley.", "In their conversation, she comes away believing Ashley still loves her and is jealous of Rhett.", "She returns home and tells Rhett she does not want more children.", "From then on, they sleep separately, and when Bonnie is two years old, she sleeps in a little bed beside Rhett.", "Rhett turns his attention completely toward Bonnie, pampering her and working to ensure her a good reputation for when she enters society.Meanwhile, Melanie plans a surprise birthday party for Ashley.", "Scarlett goes to the mill to stall him until the celebration – a rare opportunity to be alone together.", "The two reminisce about the old days and how far their lives have departed from what they imagined for themselves.", "They share an innocent embrace but are spotted in the moment by Ashley's sister, India.", "Before the party has even begun, a rumor of an affair between Ashley and Scarlett explodes across Atlanta, eventually reaching Rhett and Melanie.", "Melanie refuses to accept any criticism of Scarlett, and India is expelled from the Wilkes home.", "Rhett, drunker than Scarlett has ever seen him, returns home late from the party.", "Acting more violent than ever, he enjoins Scarlett to drink with him.", "However, she declines with deliberate rudeness.", "Rhett pins her to the wall and tells her they could have been happy together.", "He then takes her in his arms and carries her to her bedroom, where they engage in intercourse.", "The next morning, a chagrined Rhett leaves town with Bonnie and Prissy for three months.", "Scarlett is uncertain about her feelings surrounding Rhett, for whom she feels a mixture of desire and revulsion.", "She then learns she is pregnant with her fourth child.When Rhett returns, he comments on Scarlett's paleness, and she reveals her pregnancy.", "Rhett sarcastically asks if the father is Ashley; Scarlett calls him a cad and says that no woman would want his baby, to which he replies, \"Cheer up, maybe you'll have a miscarriage.\"", "She lunges at him, but misses and tumbles down the stairs.", "She is seriously ill for the first time in her life, having lost the baby and broken her ribs.", "Rhett is remorseful and fears Scarlett will die.", "Sobbing and drunk, he seeks consolation from Melanie and confesses he acted out of jealousy.", "Scarlett goes to Tara with Wade and Ella, seeking to regain her strength and vitality from there.", "She returns healthy to Atlanta and sells the mills to Ashley.", "Bonnie is four years old in 1873, and Atlanta society is charmed by Rhett's transformation into a doting father.", "Rhett buys Bonnie a Shetland pony, teaching her to ride sidesaddle and paying a trainer to teach the pony to jump.", "One day, Bonnie makes her father raise the bar to one-and-a-half feet.", "During the jump, she falls and dies of a broken neck.In the months following Bonnie's death, Rhett is often drunk and disheveled, while Scarlett, though equally bereaved, is more presentable.", "Melanie conceives a second child but loses the baby and soon dies due to complications.", "As she comforts the widowed Ashley, Scarlett realizes she stopped loving him long ago and perhaps she never did.", "She is shocked to realize that she has always loved Rhett, and he has loved her in return.", "She returns home, brimming with her new love and determined to begin anew with him.", "She discovers him sitting in the library.", "In the wake of Melanie's death, Rhett has decided he wants to rediscover the calm Southern dignity he once knew in his youth and is leaving Atlanta to find it.", "Scarlett tries to persuade Rhett to either stay or take her with him, but he explains that while he once loved Scarlett, the years of hurt and neglect have killed that love.", "He says he may \"come back often enough to keep gossip down\" (since they have decided not to get a divorce), but in reply to Scarlett's plea of \"What shall I do?\"", "he replies \"My dear, I don't give a damn.", "\", and silently goes up the stairs to his bedroom.", "In the midst of her grief, Scarlett consoles herself with the knowledge that she still has Tara.", "She plans to return there with the certainty that she can recover and win Rhett back, because \"tomorrow is another day.\"" ], [ "Characters", "===Main characters===* '''Katie Scarlett Hamilton-Kennedy-Butler née O'Hara:''' is the oldest O'Hara daughter.", "Scarlett's forthright Irish blood is always at variance with the French teachings of style from her mother.", "Scarlett marries Charles Hamilton, Frank Kennedy, and Rhett Butler, all the while wishing she were married instead to Ashley Wilkes.", "She has three children, one from each husband: Wade Hampton Hamilton (son to Charles Hamilton), Ella Lorena Kennedy (daughter to Frank Kennedy), and Eugenie Victoria \"Bonnie Blue\" Butler (daughter to Rhett Butler).", "She miscarries a fourth child during a quarrel with Rhett when she accidentally falls down the stairs.", "Scarlett is secretly scornful of Melanie Wilkes, wife to Ashley.", "Melanie shows nothing but love and devotion toward Scarlett and considers her a sister throughout her life because Scarlett married Melanie's brother Charles.", "Scarlett is unaware of the extent of Rhett's love for her or that she might love him.", "* '''Captain Rhett K. Butler:''' is Scarlett's admirer and her third husband.", "He is often publicly shunned for his scandalous behavior and sometimes accepted for his charm.", "Rhett declares he is not a marrying man and propositions Scarlett to be his mistress, but marries her after the death of Frank Kennedy.", "He says he won't risk losing her to someone else, since it is unlikely she will ever need money again.", "At the end of the novel, Rhett confesses to Scarlett, \"I loved you but I couldn't let you know it.", "You're so brutal to those who love you, Scarlett.\"", "Mitchell took the character's name from the prominent Rhett family of South Carolina.", "* '''Major George Ashley Wilkes:''' The gallant Ashley marries his cousin, Melanie, because, \"Like must marry like or there'll be no happiness.\"", "A man of honor, Ashley enlists in the Confederate States Army though he says he would have freed his slaves after his father's death if the war hasn't done it first.", "Although many of his friends and relations are killed in the Civil War, Ashley survives to see its brutal aftermath.", "Ashley is \"the Perfect Knight\", in the mind of Scarlett, even throughout her three marriages.", "\"She loved him and wanted him and did not understand him.", "\"* '''Melanie Wilkes née Hamilton:''' is Ashley's wife and cousin.", "Melanie is a humble, serene and gracious Southern woman.", "As the story unfolds, Melanie becomes progressively physically weaker, first by childbirth, then \"the hard work she had done at Tara\", and she dies after a miscarriage.", "As Rhett Butler says, \"She never had any strength.", "She's never had anything but heart.", "\"===Secondary characters=======Scarlett's immediate family====* '''Ellen O'Hara née Robillard:''' is Scarlett's mother.", "Of French ancestry, Ellen married Gerald O'Hara, who was 28 years her senior, after her true love, Philippe Robillard, died in a bar fight.", "She is Scarlett's ideal of a \"great lady\".", "Ellen ran all aspects of the household and nursed slaves as well as poor whites.", "She dies from typhoid in August 1864 after nursing Emmie Slattery.", "* '''Gerald O'Hara:''' is Scarlett's Irish father.", "An excellent horseman, Gerald likes to jump fences on horseback while intoxicated, which eventually leads to his death.", "Gerald's mind becomes addled after the death of his wife, Ellen.", "* '''Susan Elinor \"Suellen\" Benteen née O'Hara:''' is Scarlett's younger sister, born in 1846, whom Scarlett mostly despised due to her opinion of Suellen being \"an annoying sister with her whining and selfishness\".", "She became sickened by typhoid during the siege of Atlanta.", "After the war, Scarlett steals and marries Suellen's beau, Frank Kennedy.", "Later, Suellen marries Will Benteen and they have a child, Susie.", "* '''Caroline Irene \"Carreen\" O'Hara:''' is Scarlett's youngest sister, born in 1848.She was also ill with typhoid during the siege of Atlanta.", "She is infatuated with and later engaged to Brent Tarleton, who dies in the war.", "Broken-hearted by Brent's death, Carreen eventually joins a convent.", "* '''Gerald O'Hara Junior:''' are the three sons of Ellen and Gerald who died in infancy and are buried 100 yards from the house.", "Each was named after the father; they were born and died in quick succession.", "The headstone of each boy is inscribed \"Gerald O'Hara, Jr.\" * '''Charles Hamilton:''' is Melanie Wilkes' brother and Scarlett's first husband.", "Charles is a shy and loving man.", "Father to Wade Hampton, Charles dies of pneumonia caused by measles, before reaching a battlefield or seeing his son.", "* '''Wade Hampton Hamilton:''' is the son of Scarlett and Charles, born in early 1862.He was named for his father's commanding officer, Wade Hampton III.", "* '''Frank Kennedy:''' is Suellen O'Hara's former fiancé and Scarlett's second husband.", "Frank is an unattractive older man.", "He originally proposes to Suellen but instead, Scarlett marries him for his money to pay the taxes on Tara.", "Frank is unable to comprehend Scarlett's fears and her desperate struggle for survival after the war.", "He is unwilling to be as ruthless in business as Scarlett is.", "Unknown to Scarlett, Frank is involved in the Ku Klux Klan.", "He is \"shot through the head\", according to Rhett Butler, while attempting to defend Scarlett's honor after she is attacked.", "* '''Ella Lorena Kennedy:''' is the daughter of Scarlett and Frank.", "* '''Eugenie Victoria \"Bonnie Blue\" Butler:''' is Scarlett and Rhett's pretty and spoiled daughter, as Irish in looks and temper as Gerald O'Hara, with the same blue eyes.", "She is doted on by her father and later dies in a fatal accident while riding her horse.====Tara====* '''Mammy:''' is Scarlett's nurse.", "A slave, she originally was owned by Scarlett's grandmother and raised her mother, Ellen O'Hara.", "Mammy is \"head woman of the plantation\".", "* '''Pork:''' is Gerald O'Hara's valet and his first slave.", "He won Pork in a game of poker (as he did the plantation Tara, in a separate poker game).", "When Gerald died, Scarlett gave his pocket watch to Pork.", "She offered to have the watch engraved, but Pork declined the offer.", "* '''Dilcey:''' is Pork's wife and an enslaved woman of mixed Indian and African descent.", "Scarlett encourages her father to buy Dilcey and her daughter from John Wilkes, the latter as a favor to Dilcey that she never forgets.", "* '''Prissy:''' is Dilcey's daughter.", "Prissy is Wade's nurse and goes with Scarlett to Atlanta.", "* '''Jonas Wilkerson:''' is the Yankee overseer of Tara before the Civil War.", "* '''Big Sam:''' is a strong, hardworking field slave and the foreman at Tara.", "In post-war lawlessness, Sam rescues Scarlett from would-be thieves.", "* '''Will Benteen:''' is a \"South Georgia cracker\", Confederate soldier, and patient listener to the troubles of all.", "Will lost part of his leg in the war and walks with the aid of a wooden stump.", "He is taken in by the O'Haras on his journey home from the war; after his recovery, he stays on to manage the farm.", "Fond of Carreen O'Hara, he is disappointed when she decides to enter a convent.", "He later marries Suellen and has at least one child, Susie, with her.====Clayton County====* '''India Wilkes:''' is the sister of Honey and Ashley Wilkes.", "She is described as plain.", "India was courted by Stuart Tarleton before he and his brother Brent both fell in love with Scarlett.", "* '''Honey née Wilkes (married last name unknown):''' is the sister of India and Ashley Wilkes.", "Honey is described as having the \"odd lashless look of a rabbit\".", "* '''John Wilkes:''' is the owner of \"Twelve Oaks\" and patriarch of the Wilkes family.", "John Wilkes is educated and gracious.", "He dies during the siege of Atlanta.", "* '''Tarleton Boys: Boyd, Tom, and the twins, Brent and Stuart:''' The red-headed Tarleton boys were in frequent scrapes, loved practical jokes and gossip, and \"were worse than the plagues of Egypt\", according to their mother.", "The inseparable twins, Brent and Stuart, at 19 years old were six feet two inches tall.", "All four boys were killed in the war, the twins just moments apart at the Battle of Gettysburg.", "Boyd was buried somewhere in Virginia.", "* '''Tarleton Girls: Hetty, Camilla, 'Randa and Betsy:''' The stunning Tarleton girls have varying shades of red hair.", "* '''Beatrice Tarleton:''' is the mistress of the \"Fairhill\" plantation.", "She was a busy woman, managing a large cotton plantation, a hundred negroes, and eight children, and the largest horse-breeding farm in Georgia.", "Hot-tempered, she believed that \"a lick every now and then did her boys no harm\".", "* '''Calvert Family: Raiford, Cade, and Cathleen:''' are the O'Haras' Clayton County neighbors from another plantation, \"Pine Bloom\".", "Cathleen Calvert was Scarlett's friend.", "Their widowed father '''Hugh''' married a Yankee governess.", "Raiford is killed at Gettysburg.", "Next to Scarlett, Cathleen \"had had more beaux than any girl in the County\", but eventually married their former Yankee overseer, Mr.", "Hilton.", "* '''Fontaine Family: Joe, Tony and Alex''' are known for their hot tempers.", "Joe is killed at Gettysburg, while Tony murders Jonas Wilkerson in a barroom and flees to Texas, leaving Alex to tend to their plantation.", "'''Grandma Fontaine''', also known as \"'''Old Miss'''\", is the wife of old '''Doc Fontaine''', the boys' grandfather.", "\"'''Young Miss'''\" and young '''Dr.", "Fontaine''', the boys' parents, and '''Sally Fontaine née Munroe''', wife to Joe, make up the remaining family of the \"Mimosa\" plantation.", "* '''Emmie Wilkerson née Slattery:''' is a poor white woman.", "The daughter of Tom Slattery, her family lived on three acres along the swamp bottoms between the O'Hara and Wilkes plantations.", "Emmie gave birth to a stillborn illegitimate child fathered by Jonas Wilkerson, a Yankee and the overseer at Tara, with Ellen O'Hara attending as midwife during Emmie's labor and delivery.", "Emmie later married Jonas.", "After the war, flush with carpetbagger cash, they try to buy Tara, but Scarlett refuses the offer.====Atlanta====* '''Sarah Jane \"Pittypat\" Hamilton:''' acquired the nickname \"Pittypat\" in childhood because of the way she walked on her tiny feet.", "Aunt \"Pittypat\" is a spinster who lives in the red-brick house at the quiet end of Peachtree Street in Atlanta.", "The house is half-owned by Scarlett (after the death of Charles Hamilton).", "Her finances are managed by her brother, Henry, whom she doesn't especially care for.", "Aunt Pittypat raised Melanie and Charles Hamilton after the death of their father, with considerable help from her slave, \"Uncle\" Peter.", "* '''Henry Hamilton:''' is Aunt Pittypat's brother, an attorney, and the uncle of Charles and Melanie.", "* '''\"Uncle\" Peter:''' is an older slave, who serves as Aunt Pittypat's coach driver and general factotum.", "Uncle Peter looked after Melanie and Charles Hamilton when they were young.", "* ''' Beauregard \"Beau\" Wilkes:''' is Melanie and Ashley's son, who is born in Atlanta when the siege begins and transported to Tara after birth.", "* '''Archie:''' is an ex-convict and former Confederate soldier who was imprisoned for the murder of his adulterous wife (who was having an affair with his own brother) before the war.", "Archie is taken in by Melanie and later becomes Scarlett's coach driver.", "* '''Meade Family:''' Atlanta society considers '''Dr.", "Meade''' to be \"the root of all strength and all wisdom\".", "He looks after injured soldiers during the siege with assistance from Melanie and Scarlett.", "'''Mrs.", "Meade''' is on the bandage-rolling committee.", "Their two sons are killed in the war.", "* '''Merriwether Family:''' '''Mrs.", "Dolly Merriwether''' is an Atlanta dowager along with Mrs. Elsing and Mrs. Whiting.", "Post-war she sells homemade pies to survive, eventually opening her own bakery.", "Her father-in-law '''Grandpa Merriwether''' fights in the Home Guard and survives the war.", "Her daughter '''Maybelle''' marries '''René Picard''', a Louisiana Zouave.", "* '''Belle Watling:''' is a prostitute and brothel madam who is portrayed as a loyal Confederate.", "Melanie declares she will acknowledge Belle when she passes her in the street, but Belle tells her not to.====Robillard family====* '''Pierre Robillard:''' is the father of Ellen O'Hara.", "He was staunchly Presbyterian even though his family was Roman Catholic.", "The thought of his daughter becoming a nun was worse than her marrying Gerald O'Hara.", "* '''Solange Robillard née Prudhomme:''' is the mother of Ellen O'Hara and Scarlett's grandmother.", "She was a dainty Frenchwoman who was snooty and cold.", "* '''Eulalie and Pauline Robillard:''' are the married sisters of Ellen O'Hara who live in Charleston.", "* '''Philippe Robillard:''' is the cousin of Ellen O'Hara and her first love.", "Philippe died in a bar fight in New Orleans around 1844." ], [ "Biographical background and publication", "Born in 1900 in Atlanta, Margaret Mitchell was a Southerner and writer throughout her life.", "She grew up hearing stories about the American Civil War and the Reconstruction from her Irish-American grandmother, Annie Fitzgerald Stephens, who had endured its suffering while living on the family plantation, Rural Home.", "Her forceful and intellectual mother, Maybelle Stephens Mitchell, was a suffragist who fought for the rights of women to vote.As a young woman, Mitchell found love with an army lieutenant.", "He was killed in World War I, and she would carry his memory for the remainder of her life.", "After studying at Smith College for a year during which time her mother died from the 1918 pandemic flu, Mitchell returned to Atlanta.", "She married, but her husband was an abusive bootlegger.", "Mitchell took a job writing feature articles for the ''Atlanta Journal'' at a time when Atlanta debutantes of her class did not work.", "After divorcing her first husband, she married again to a man who shared her interest in writing and literature.", "He had been the best man at her first wedding.Margaret Mitchell began writing ''Gone with the Wind'' in 1926 to pass the time while recovering from a slow-healing injury from an auto crash.", "In April 1935, Harold Latham of Macmillan, an editor looking for new fiction, read her manuscript and saw that it could be a best-seller.", "After Latham agreed to publish the book, Mitchell worked for another six months checking the historical references and rewriting the opening chapter several times.", "Mitchell and her husband John Marsh, a copy editor by trade, edited the final version of the novel.", "Mitchell wrote the book's final moments first and then wrote the events that led to them.", "''Gone with the Wind'' was published in June 1936." ], [ "Title", "The author tentatively titled the novel ''Tomorrow Is Another Day'', from its last line.", "Other proposed titles included ''Bugles Sang True'', ''Not in Our Stars'', and ''Tote the Weary Load''.", "The title Mitchell finally chose is from the first line of the third stanza of the poem \"Non Sum Qualis Eram Bonae sub Regno Cynarae\" by Ernest Dowson:Scarlett O'Hara uses the title phrase when she wonders if her home on a plantation called \"Tara\" is still standing, or if it had \"gone with the wind which had swept through Georgia\".", "In a general sense, the title is a metaphor for the demise of a way of life in the South before the Civil War.", "When taken in the context of Dowson's poem about \"Cynara\", the phrase \"gone with the wind\" alludes to erotic loss.", "The poem expresses the regrets of someone who has lost his feelings for his \"old passion\", Cynara.", "Dowson's Cynara, a name that comes from the Greek word for artichoke, represents a lost love.It is also possible that the author was influenced by the connection of the phrase \"Gone with the wind\" with Tara in a line of James Joyce’s ''Ulysses'' in the chapter \"Aeolus\"." ], [ "Structure", "===Coming-of-age story===Margaret Mitchell arranged ''Gone with the Wind'' chronologically, focusing it on the life and experiences of the main character, Scarlett O'Hara, as she grew from adolescence into adulthood.", "During the time span of the novel, from 1861 to 1873, Scarlett ages from sixteen to twenty-eight years.", "This is a type of ''Bildungsroman'', a novel concerned with the moral and psychological growth of the protagonist from youth to adulthood (coming-of-age story).", "Scarlett's development is affected by the events of her time.", "Mitchell used a smooth linear narrative structure.", "The novel is known for its exceptional \"readability\".", "The plot is rich with vivid characters.===Genre===''Gone with the Wind'' is often placed in the literary subgenre of the historical romance novel.", "Pamela Regis has argued that is more appropriately classified as a historical novel, as it does not contain all of the elements of the romance genre.", "The novel has been described as an early classic of the erotic historical genre because it is thought to contain some degree of pornography." ], [ "Plot elements", "===Slavery===Slavery in ''Gone with the Wind'' is a backdrop to a story that is essentially about other things.", "Southern plantation fiction (also known as Anti-Tom literature, in reference to reactions to Harriet Beecher Stowe's anti-slavery novel, ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' of 1852) from the mid-19th century, culminating in ''Gone with the Wind'', is written from the perspective and values of the slaveholder and tends to present slaves as docile and happy.====Caste system====The characters in the novel are organized into two basic groups along class lines: the white planter class, such as Scarlett and Ashley, and the black house servant class.", "The slaves depicted in ''Gone with the Wind'' are primarily loyal house servants, such as Mammy, Pork, Prissy, and Uncle Peter.", "House servants are the highest \"caste\" of slaves in Mitchell's caste system.", "They choose to stay with their masters after the Emancipation Proclamation of 1863 and subsequent Thirteenth Amendment of 1865 sets them free.", "Of the servants who stayed at Tara, Scarlett thinks, \"There were qualities of loyalty and tirelessness and love in them that no strain could break, no money could buy.", "\"The field slaves make up the lower class in Mitchell's caste system.", "The field slaves from the Tara plantation and the foreman, Big Sam, are taken away by Confederate soldiers to dig ditches and never return to the plantation.", "Mitchell wrote that other field slaves were \"loyal\" and \"refused to avail themselves of the new freedom\", but the novel has no field slaves who stay on the plantation to work after they have been emancipated.American William Wells Brown escaped from slavery and published his memoir, or slave narrative, in 1847.He wrote of the disparity in conditions between the house servant and the field hand:During the time that Mr. Cook was overseer, I was a house servanta situation preferable to a field hand, as I was better fed, better clothed, and not obliged to rise at the ringing bell, but about a half-hour after.", "I have often laid and heard the crack of the whip, and the screams of the slave.====Faithful and devoted slave====Although the novel is more than 1,000 pages long, the character of Mammy never considers what her life might be like away from Tara.", "She recognizes her freedom to come and go as she pleases, saying, \"Ah is free, Miss Scarlett.", "You kain sen' me nowhar Ah doan wanter go\", but Mammy remains duty-bound to \"Miss Ellen's chile\".", "(No other name for Mammy is given in the novel.", ")Eighteen years before the publication of ''Gone with the Wind'', an article titled, \"The Old Black Mammy\", written in the ''Confederate Veteran'' in 1918, discussed the romanticized view of the mammy character persisting in Southern literature:for her faithfulness and devotion, she has been immortalized in the literature of the South; so the memory of her will never pass, but live on in the tales that are told of those \"dear dead days beyond recall\".Micki McElya, in her book ''Clinging to Mammy'', suggests the myth of the faithful slave, in the figure of Mammy, lingered because white Americans wished to live in a world in which African Americans were not angry over the injustice of slavery.The best-selling anti-slavery novel, ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' by Harriet Beecher Stowe, published in 1852, is mentioned briefly in ''Gone with the Wind'' as being accepted by the Yankees as \"revelation second only to the Bible\".", "The enduring interest of both ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' and ''Gone with the Wind'' has resulted in lingering stereotypes of 19th-century black slaves.", "''Gone with the Wind'' has become a reference point for subsequent writers about the South, both black and white alike.===Southern belle===The southern belle is an archetype for a young woman of the antebellum American South upper class.", "The southern belle was believed to be physically attractive but, more importantly, personally charming with sophisticated social skills.", "She is subject to the correct code of female behavior.", "The novel's heroine, Scarlett O'Hara, charming though not beautiful, is a classic southern belle.For young Scarlett, the ideal southern belle is represented by her mother, Ellen O'Hara.", "In \"A Study in Scarlett\", published in ''The New Yorker'', Claudia Roth Pierpont wrote:The Southern belle was bred to conform to a subspecies of the nineteenth-century \"lady\" ... For Scarlett, the ideal is embodied in her adored mother, the saintly Ellen, whose back is never seen to rest against the back of any chair on which she sits, whose broken spirit everywhere is mistaken for righteous calmHowever, Scarlett is not always willing to conform.", "Kathryn Lee Seidel, in her book, ''The Southern Belle in the American Novel'', wrote:part of her does try to rebel against the restraints of a code of behavior that relentlessly attempts to mold her into a form to which she is not naturally suited.The figure of a pampered southern belle, Scarlett lives through an extreme reversal of fortune and wealth and survives to rebuild Tara and her self-esteem.", "Her bad belle traits (Scarlett's deceitfulness, shrewdness, manipulation, and superficiality), in contrast to Melanie's good belle traits (trust, self-sacrifice, and loyalty), enable her to survive in the post-war South and pursue her main interest, which is to make enough money to survive and prosper.", "Although Scarlett was \"born\" around 1845, she is portrayed to appeal to modern-day readers for her passionate and independent spirit, determination, and obstinate refusal to feel defeated.====Historical background====Marriage was supposed to be the goal of all southern belles, as women's status was largely determined by that of their husbands.", "All social and educational pursuits were directed towards it.", "Despite the Civil War and the loss of a generation of eligible men, young ladies were still expected to marry.", "By law and Southern social convention, household heads were adult, white propertied males, and all white women and all African Americans were thought to require protection and guidance because they lacked the capacity for reason and self-control.The Atlanta Historical Society has produced a number of ''Gone with the Wind'' exhibits, among them a 1994 exhibit titled, \"Disputed Territories: ''Gone with the Wind'' and Southern Myths\".", "The exhibit asked, \"Was Scarlett a Lady?", "\", finding that historically most women of the period were not involved in business activities as Scarlett was during Reconstruction when she ran a sawmill.", "White women performed traditional jobs such as teaching and sewing, and generally disliked work outside the home.During the Civil War, Southern women played a major role as volunteer nurses working in makeshift hospitals.", "Many were middle- and upper-class women who had never worked for wages or seen the inside of a hospital.", "One such nurse was Ada W. Bacot, a young widow who had lost two children.", "Bacot came from a wealthy South Carolina plantation family that owned 87 slaves.In the fall of 1862, Confederate laws were changed to permit women to be employed in hospitals as members of the Confederate Medical Department.", "Twenty-seven-year-old nurse Kate Cumming from Mobile, Alabama, described the primitive hospital conditions in her journal:They are in the hall, on the gallery, and crowded into very small rooms.", "The foul air from this mass of human beings at first made me giddy and sick, but I soon got over it.", "We have to walk, and when we give the men any thing kneel, in blood and water; but we think nothing of it at all.===Battles===Battle of Kennesaw Mountain, June 27, 1864.The Civil War came to an end on April 26, 1865, when Confederate General Johnston surrendered his armies in the Carolinas Campaign to Union General Sherman.", "Several battles are mentioned or depicted in ''Gone with the Wind''.====Early and mid war years====* Seven Days Battles, June 25 – July 1, 1862, Richmond, Virginia, Confederate victory.", "* Battle of Fredericksburg, December 11–15, 1862, Fredericksburg, Virginia, Confederate victory.", "*Streight's Raid, April 19 – May 3, 1863, in northern Alabama.", "Union Colonel Streight and his men were captured by Confederate General Nathan Bedford Forrest.", "*Battle of Chancellorsville, April 30 – May 6, 1863, in Spotsylvania County, Virginia, near the village of Chancellorsville, Virginia, Confederate victory.", ":Ashley Wilkes is stationed on the Rapidan River, Virginia, in the winter of 1863, later captured and sent to a Union prison camp, Rock Island.", "* Siege of Vicksburg, May 18 – July 4, 1863, Vicksburg, Mississippi, Union victory.", "* Battle of Gettysburg, July 1–3, 1863, fought in and around the town of Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, Union victory.", "\"They expected death.", "They did not expect defeat.", "\"* Battle of Chickamauga, September 19–20, 1863, northwestern Georgia.", "The first fighting in Georgia and the most significant Union defeat.", "* Chattanooga Campaign, November–December 1863, Tennessee, Union victory.", "The city became the supply and logistics base for Sherman's 1864 Atlanta Campaign.====Atlanta Campaign====Sherman's Atlanta CampaignThe Atlanta Campaign (May–September 1864) took place in northwest Georgia and the area around Atlanta.Confederate General Johnston fights and retreats from Dalton (May 7–13) to Resaca (May 13–15) to Kennesaw Mountain (June 27).", "Union General Sherman suffers heavy losses to the entrenched Confederate army.", "Unable to pass through Kennesaw, Sherman swings his men around to the Chattahoochee River where the Confederate army is waiting on the opposite side of the river.", "Once again, General Sherman flanks the Confederate army, forcing Johnston to retreat to Peachtree Creek (July 20), five miles northeast of Atlanta.", "* Battle of Atlanta, July 22, 1864, just southeast of Atlanta.", "The city would not fall until September 2, 1864.Heavy losses for Confederate General Hood.", "* Battle of Ezra Church, July 28, 1864, Sherman's failed attack west of Atlanta where the railroad entered the city.", "* Battle of Utoy Creek, August 5–7, 1864, Sherman's failed attempt to break the railroad line at East Point, into Atlanta from the west, heavy Union losses.", "* Battle of Jonesborough, August 31 – September 1, 1864, Sherman successfully cut the railroad lines from the south into Atlanta.", "The city of Atlanta was abandoned by General Hood and then occupied by Union troops for the rest of the war.====March to the Sea====The Savannah Campaign was conducted in Georgia during November and December 1864.====President Lincoln's murder====Although Abraham Lincoln is mentioned in the novel 14 times, no reference is made to his assassination on April 14, 1865.===Manhood===Ashley Wilkes is the beau ideal of Southern manhood in Scarlett's eyes.", "A planter by inheritance, Ashley knew the Confederate cause had died.", "However Ashley's name signifies paleness.", "His \"pallid skin literalizes the idea of Confederate death\".Ashley contemplates leaving Georgia for New York City.", "Had he gone North, he would have joined numerous other ex-Confederate transplants there.", "Ashley, embittered by war, tells Scarlett he has been \"in a state of suspended animation\" since the surrender.", "He feels he is not \"shouldering a man's burden\" at Tara and believes he is \"much less than a manmuch less, indeed, than a woman\".A \"young girl's dream of the Perfect Knight\", Ashley is like a young girl himself.", "With his \"poet's eye\", Ashley has a \"feminine sensitivity\".", "Scarlett is angered by the \"slur of effeminacy flung at Ashley\" when her father tells her the Wilkes family was \"born queer\".", "(Mitchell's use of the word \"queer\" is for its sexual connotation because queer, in the 1930s, was associated with homosexuality.)", "Ashley's effeminacy is associated with his appearance, his lack of forcefulness and sexual impotency.", "He rides, plays poker, and drinks like \"proper men\", but his heart is not in it, Gerald claims.", "The embodiment of castration, Ashley wears the head of Medusa on his cravat pin.Scarlett's love interest, Ashley Wilkes, lacks manliness, and her husbandsthe \"calf-like\" Charles Hamilton, and the \"old-maid in britches\", Frank Kennedyare unmanly as well.", "Mitchell is critiquing masculinity in southern society since Reconstruction.", "Even Rhett Butler, the well-groomed dandy, is effeminate or \"gay-coded\".", "Charles, Frank and Ashley represent the impotence of the post-war white South.", "Its power and influence have been diminished.===Scallawag===The word \"scallawag\" is defined as a loafer, a vagabond, or a rogue.", "Scallawag had a special meaning after the Civil War as an epithet for a white Southerner who accepted and supported Republican reforms.", "Mitchell defines scallawags as \"Southerners who had turned Republican very profitably.\"", "Rhett Butler is accused of being a \"damned Scallawag\".", "In addition to scallawags, Mitchell portrays other types of scoundrels in the novel: Yankees, carpetbaggers, Republicans, prostitutes, and overseers.", "In the early years of the Civil War, Rhett is called a \"scoundrel\" for his \"selfish gains\" profiteering as a blockade-runner.As a scallawag, Rhett is despised.", "He is the \"dark, mysterious, and slightly malevolent hero loose in the world\".", "Literary scholars have identified elements of Mitchell's first husband, Berrien \"Red\" Upshaw, in the character of Rhett.", "Another sees the image of Italian actor Rudolph Valentino, whom Margaret Mitchell interviewed as a young reporter for ''The Atlanta Journal''.", "Fictional hero Rhett Butler has a \"swarthy face, flashing teeth and dark alert eyes\".", "He is a \"scamp, blackguard, without scruple or honor\"." ], [ "Themes", "===Survival===If ''Gone with the Wind'' has a theme it is that of survival.", "What makes some people come through catastrophes and others, apparently just as able, strong, and brave, go under?", "It happens in every upheaval.", "Some people survive; others don't.", "What qualities are in those who fight their way through triumphantly that are lacking in those that go under?", "I only know that survivors used to call that quality \"gumption.\"", "So I wrote about people who had gumption and people who didn't.— Margaret Mitchell, 1936" ], [ "Critical reception", "===Reviews===The sales of Margaret Mitchell's novel in the summer of 1936, as the nation was recovering from the Great Depression and at the virtually unprecedented high price of three dollars, reached about 1 million by the end of December.", "The book was a bestseller by the time reviews began to appear in national magazines.", "Herschel Brickell, a critic for the ''New York Evening Post'', lauded Mitchell for the way she \"tosses out the window all the thousands of technical tricks our novelists have been playing with for the past twenty years.", "\"Ralph Thompson, a book reviewer for ''The New York Times'', was critical of the length of the novel, and wrote in June 1936:I happen to feel that the book would have been infinitely better had it been edited down to say, 500 pages, but there speaks the harassed daily reviewer as well as the would-be judicious critic.", "Very nearly every reader will agree, no doubt, that a more disciplined and less prodigal piece of work would have more nearly done justice to the subject-matter.Some reviewers compared the book to William Thackeray's ''Vanity Fair'' and Leo Tolstoy's ''War and Peace''.", "Mitchell claimed Charles Dickens as an inspiration and called ''Gone with the Wind'' a \"'Victorian' type novel.", "\"Mitchell worried the high $3.00 price would ruin its chance for success.", "By the time Mary Louise received this copy from Mother and Dad in December 1937, the novel was the top American fiction bestseller for the second year in a row.Helen Keller, whose father had owned slaves and fought as a Confederate captain and who had later supported the NAACP and the ACLU, read the 12-volume Braille edition.The book brought her fond memories of her southern infancy but she also felt sadness comparing that with what she knew about the South.===Scholarship: Racial, ethnicity and social issues===''Gone with the Wind'' has been criticized for its stereotypical and derogatory portrayal of African Americans in the 19th century South.", "Former field hands during the early days of Reconstruction are described behaving \"as creatures of small intelligence might naturally be expected to do.", "Like monkeys or small children turned loose among treasured objects whose value is beyond their comprehension, they ran wildeither from perverse pleasure in destruction or simply because of their ignorance.", "\"Commenting on this passage of the novel, Jabari Asim, author of ''The N Word: Who Can Say It, Who Shouldn't, and Why'', says it is \"one of the more charitable passages in ''Gone With the Wind'', Margaret Mitchell hesitated to blame black 'insolence' during Reconstruction solely on 'mean niggers', of which, she said, there were few even in slavery days.", "\"Critics say that Mitchell downplayed the violent role of the Ku Klux Klan and their abuse of freedmen.", "Author Pat Conroy, in his preface to a later edition of the novel, describes Mitchell's portrayal of the Ku Klux Klan as having \"the same romanticized role it had in ''The Birth of a Nation'' and appears to be a benign combination of the Elks Club and a men's equestrian society\".Regarding the historical inaccuracies of the novel, historian Richard N. Current points out:No doubt it is indeed unfortunate that ''Gone with the Wind'' perpetuates many myths about Reconstruction, particularly with respect to blacks.", "Margaret Mitchell did not originate them and a young novelist can scarcely be faulted for not knowing what the majority of mature, professional historians did not know until many years later.In ''Gone with the Wind'', Mitchell explores some complexities in racial issues.", "Scarlett was asked by a Yankee woman for advice on whom to appoint as a nurse for her children; Scarlett suggested a \"darky\", much to the disgust of the Yankee woman who was seeking an Irish maid, a \"Bridget\".", "African Americans and Irish Americans are treated \"in precisely the same way\" in ''Gone with the Wind'', writes David O'Connell in his 1996 book, ''The Irish Roots of Margaret Mitchell's Gone With the Wind''.", "Ethnic slurs on the Irish and Irish stereotypes pervade the novel, O'Connell claims, and Scarlett is not an exception to the terminology.", "Irish scholar Geraldine Higgins notes that Jonas Wilkerson labels Scarlett: \"you highflying, bogtrotting Irish\".", "Higgins says that, as the Irish American O'Haras were slaveholders and African Americans were held in bondage, the two ethnic groups are not equivalent in the ethnic hierarchy of the novel.The novel has been criticized for promoting plantation values and romanticizing the white supremacy of the antebellum south.", "Mitchell biographer Marianne Walker, author of ''Margaret Mitchell and John Marsh: The Love Story Behind Gone with the Wind'', believes that those who attack the book on these grounds have not read it.", "She said that the popular 1939 film \"promotes a false notion of the Old South\".", "Mitchell was not involved in the screenplay or film production.James Loewen, author of ''Lies My Teacher Told Me: Everything Your American History Textbook Got Wrong'', says this novel is \"profoundly racist and profoundly wrong\".", "In 1984, an alderman in Waukegan, Illinois, challenged the book's inclusion on the reading list of the Waukegan School District on the grounds of \"racism\" and \"unacceptable language\".", "He objected to the frequent use of the racial slur ''nigger''.", "He also objected to several other books: ''The Nigger of the 'Narcissus''', ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'', and ''Adventures of Huckleberry Finn'' for the same reason.Mitchell's use of color in the novel is symbolic and open to interpretation.", "Red, green, and a variety of hues of each of these colors, are the predominant palette of colors related to Scarlett.The novel came under intense criticism for alleged racist and white supremacist themes in 2020 following the murder of George Floyd, and the ensuing protests and focus on systemic racism in the United States.===Awards and recognition===In 1937, Margaret Mitchell received the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction for ''Gone with the Wind'' and the second annual National Book Award for Fiction from the American Booksellers Association.", "It is ranked as the second favorite book by American readers, just behind the Bible, according to a 2008 Harris poll.", "The poll found the novel has its strongest following among women, those aged 44 or more, both Southerners and Midwesterners, both whites and Hispanics, and those who have not attended college.", "In a 2014 Harris poll, Mitchell's novel ranked again as second, after the Bible.", "The novel is on the list of best-selling books.", "As of 2010, more than 30 million copies have been printed in the United States and abroad.", "More than 24 editions of ''Gone with the Wind'' have been issued in China.", "''Time'' magazine critics Lev Grossman and Richard Lacayo included the novel on their list of the 100 best English-language novels published between 1923 and 2005.In 2003, the book was listed at number 21 on the BBC's The Big Read poll of the UK's \"best-loved novel\".=== Censorship ===''Gone with the Wind'' frequently has been the center of controversy.In 1978, the book was banned from English classrooms in the Anaheim Union High School District in Anaheim, California.", "In 1984, the book was challenged in the Waukegan, Illinois, School District due to the novel's use of the word ''nigger''." ], [ "Adaptations", "''Gone with the Wind'' has been adapted several times for stage and screen:* The novel was the basis of the classic Academy Award-winning 1939 film of the same name.", "The film has been considered one of the greatest Hollywood movies ever made, and upon release, was immensely popular in its own right.", "It was produced by David O. Selznick and stars Clark Gable, Vivien Leigh and Olivia de Havilland.", "* The book was adapted into a musical, ''Scarlett'', which opened in Tokyo in 1970 (in 1966 it was produced as a nine-hour play without music), and in London in 1972, where it was reduced to four hours.", "The London production opened in 1973 in Los Angeles, and again in Dallas in 1976.", "* The Japanese Takarazuka Revue produced a musical adaptation of the novel, ''Kaze to Tomo ni Sarinu'', which was performed by the all-female Moon Troupe in 1977.The most recent performance was in January 2014 by the Moon Troupe, with Todoroki Yuu as Rhett Butler and Ryu Masaki as Scarlett O'Hara.", "* A 2003 French musical adaptation was produced by Gérard Presgurvic, ''Autant en emporte le vent''.", "* The book was adapted into a British musical, ''Gone with the Wind'', and opened in 2008 in the U.K. at the New London Theatre in the West End.", "* A full-length three-act classical ballet version, with a score arranged from the works of Antonín Dvořák and choreographed by Lilla Pártay, premiered in 2007 as performed by the Hungarian National Ballet.", "It was revived in their 2013 season.", "* A new stage adaptation by Niki Landau premiered at the Manitoba Theatre Centre in Winnipeg, Canada in January 2013." ], [ "In popular culture", "1940 Women's Press Club skit in which Mammy Congress puts Scarlett O'Budgett into her corset before going to a 'lection party.", "''Gone with the Wind'' has appeared in many places and forms in popular culture:===Books, television and more===* A 1945 cartoon by World War II cartoonist Bill Mauldin shows an American soldier lying on the ground with Margaret Mitchell's bullet-riddled book.", "The caption reads: \"Dear, Dear Miss Mitchell, You will probably think this is an awful funny letter to get from a soldier, but I was carrying your big book, ''Gone with the Wind'', under my shirt and a  ...\"* The novelist Vladimir Nabokov considered ''Gone with the Wind'' to be a \"cheap novel\" and in his ''Bend Sinister'' a book meant to resemble it is used as toilet paper.", "* In the season 3 episode of ''I Love Lucy'', \"Lucy Writes a Novel\", which aired on April 5, 1954, \"Lucy\" (Lucille Ball) reads about a housewife who makes a fortune writing a novel in her spare time.", "Lucy writes her own novel, which she titles ''Real Gone with the Wind''.", "* ''Gone with the Wind'' is the book that S. E. Hinton's runaway teenage characters, Ponyboy and Johnny, read while hiding from the law in the young adult novel ''The Outsiders'' (1967).", "* A film parody titled \"Went with the Wind!\"", "aired in a 1976 episode of ''The Carol Burnett Show''.", "Burnett as Starlett descends a long staircase wearing a green curtain complete with hanging rod.", "The outfit, designed by Bob Mackie, is displayed at the Smithsonian Institution.", "* ''Mad'' magazine created a parody of the novel \"Groan with the Wind\" (1991), in which Ashley was renamed Ashtray and Rhett became Rhetch.", "It ends with Rhetch and Ashtray running off together.", "* A pictorial parody in which the slaves are white and the protagonists are black appeared in a 1995 issue of ''Vanity Fair'' titled \"Scarlett 'n the Hood\".", "* In a ''MADtv'' comedy sketch (2007), \"Slave Girl #8\" introduces three alternative endings to the film.", "In one ending, Scarlett pursues Rhett wearing a jet pack.The \"Curtain Dress\" from ''The Carol Burnett Show'' on display at the Smithsonian Institution in 2009===Collectibles===On June 30, 1986, the 50th anniversary of the day ''Gone with the Wind'' went on sale, the U.S. Post Office issued a 1-cent stamp showing an image of Margaret Mitchell.", "The stamp was designed by Ronald Adair and was part of the U.S.", "Postal Service's Great Americans series.On September 10, 1998, the U.S. Post Office issued a 32-cent stamp as part of its Celebrate the Century series recalling various important events in the 20th century.", "The stamp, designed by Howard Paine, displays the book with its original dust jacket, a white Magnolia blossom, and a hilt placed against a background of green velvet.To commemorate the 75th anniversary (2011) of the publication of ''Gone with the Wind'' in 1936, Scribner published a paperback edition featuring the book's original jacket art.===The Windies===The Windies are ardent ''Gone with the Wind'' fans who follow all the latest news and events surrounding the book and film.", "They gather periodically in costumes from the film or dressed as Margaret Mitchell.", "Atlanta, Georgia is their meeting place." ], [ "Legacy", "One story of the legacy of ''Gone with the Wind'' is that people worldwide incorrectly think it was the \"true story\" of the Old South and how it was changed by the American Civil War and Reconstruction.", "The film adaptation of the novel \"amplified this effect\".", "The plantation legend was \"burned\" into the mind of the public.", "Moreover, her fictional account of the war and its aftermath has influenced how the world has viewed the city of Atlanta for successive generations.Some readers of the novel have seen the film first and read the novel afterward.", "One difference between the film and the novel is the staircase scene, in which Rhett carries Scarlett up the stairs.", "In the film, Scarlett weakly struggles and does not scream as Rhett starts up the stairs.", "In the novel, \"he hurt her and she cried out, muffled, frightened.", "\"Earlier in the novel, in an intended rape at Shantytown (Chapter 44), Scarlett is attacked by a black man who rips open her dress while a white man grabs hold of the horse's bridle.", "She is rescued by another black man, Big Sam.", "In the film, she is attacked by a white man, while a black man grabs the horse's bridle.The Library of Congress began a multiyear \"Celebration of the Book\" in July 2012 with an exhibition on ''Books That Shaped America'', and an initial list of 88 books by American authors that have influenced American lives.", "''Gone with the Wind'' was included in the Library's list.", "Librarian of Congress, James H. Billington said:This list is a starting point.", "It is not a register of the 'best' American books – although many of them fit that description.", "Rather, the list is intended to spark a national conversation on books written by Americans that have influenced our lives, whether they appear on this initial list or not.", "Among books on the list considered to be the Great American Novel were ''Moby-Dick'', ''Adventures of Huckleberry Finn'', ''The Great Gatsby'', ''The Grapes of Wrath'', ''The Catcher in the Rye'', ''Invisible Man'', and ''To Kill a Mockingbird''.Throughout the world, the novel appeals due to its universal themes: war, love, death, racial conflict, class, gender and generation, which speak especially to women.", "In North Korea, readers relate to the novel's theme of survival, finding it to be \"the most compelling message of the novel\".", "Margaret Mitchell's personal collection of nearly 70 foreign language translations of her novel was given to the Atlanta Public Library after her death.On August 16, 2012, the Archdiocese of Atlanta announced that it had been bequeathed a 50% stake in the trademarks and literary rights to ''Gone With the Wind'' from the estate of Margaret Mitchell's deceased nephew, Joseph Mitchell.", "Margaret Mitchell had separated from the Catholic Church.", "However, one of Mitchell's biographers, Darden Asbury Pyron, stated that Margaret Mitchell had \"an intense relationship\" with her mother, who was a Roman Catholic." ], [ "Publication history", "===Original manuscript===The Crescent Apartments in Atlanta, Georgia, where Margaret Mitchell wrote her novel, is now operated as the Margaret Mitchell House and Museum.Although some of Mitchell's papers and documents related to the writing of ''Gone with the Wind'' were burned after her death, many documents, including assorted draft chapters, were preserved.", "The last four chapters of the novel are held by the Pequot Library of Southport, Connecticut.===Publication and reprintings (1936 – US)===The first printing of 10,000 copies contains the original publication date: \"Published May, 1936\".", "After the book was chosen as the Book-of-the-Month Club's selection for July, the publication was delayed until June 30.The second printing of 25,000 copies (and subsequent printings) contains the release date: \"Published June, 1936\".", "The third printing of 15,000 copies was made in June 1936.Additionally, 50,000 copies were printed for the Book-of-the-Month Club July selection.", "''Gone with the Wind'' was officially released to the American public on June 30, 1936.===Sequels and prequels===Although Mitchell refused to write a sequel to ''Gone with the Wind'', Mitchell's estate authorized Alexandra Ripley to write a sequel, which was titled ''Scarlett''.", "The book was subsequently adapted into a television mini-series in 1994.A second sequel was authorized by Mitchell's estate titled ''Rhett Butler's People'', by Donald McCaig.", "The novel parallels ''Gone with the Wind'' from Rhett Butler's perspective.", "In 2010, Mitchell's estate authorized McCaig to write a prequel, which follows the life of the house servant Mammy, whom McCaig names \"Ruth\".", "The novel, ''Ruth's Journey'', was released in 2014.The copyright holders of ''Gone with the Wind'' attempted to suppress publication of ''The Wind Done Gone'' by Alice Randall, which retold the story from the perspective of the slaves.", "A federal appeals court denied the plaintiffs an injunction (''Suntrust v. Houghton Mifflin'') against publication on the basis that the book was a parody and therefore protected by the First Amendment.", "The parties subsequently settled out of court and the book went on to become a ''New York Times'' Best Seller.A book sequel unauthorized by the copyright holders, ''The Winds of Tara'' by Katherine Pinotti, was blocked from publication in the United States.", "The novel was republished in Australia, avoiding U.S. copyright restrictions.Away from copyright lawsuits, Internet fan fiction has proved to be a fertile medium for sequels (some of them book-length), parodies, and rewritings of ''Gone with the Wind''.Numerous unauthorized sequels to ''Gone with the Wind'' have been published in Russia, mostly under the pseudonym Yuliya Hilpatrik, a cover for a consortium of writers.", "''The New York Times'' states that most of these have a \"Slavic\" flavor.Several sequels were written in Hungarian under the pseudonym Audrey D. Milland or Audrey Dee Milland, by at least four different authors (who are named in the colophon as translators to make the book seem a translation from the English original, a procedure common in the 1990s but prohibited by law since then).", "The first one picks up where Ripley's ''Scarlett'' ended, the next one is about Scarlett's daughter Cat.", "Other books include a prequel trilogy about Scarlett's grandmother Solange and a three-part miniseries of a supposed illegitimate daughter of Carreen.=== Copyright status ===''Gone with the Wind'' has been in the public domain in Australia since 1999 (50 years after Margaret Mitchell's death).", "On January 1, 2020, the book entered the public domain in the European Union (70 years after the author's death).", "Under an extension of copyright law, ''Gone with the Wind'' will not enter the public domain in the United States until 2031." ], [ "See also", "* ''Lost Laysen'', 1916 novella also written by Margaret Mitchell* Southern literature* Southern Renaissance* ''Le Monde'' 100 Books of the Century* Confederate novel" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Adams, Amanda.", "\"'Painfully Southern': Gone with the Wind, the Agrarians, and the Battle for the New South\", ''Southern Literary Journal'' (2007) 40:58–75.", "* Bevilacqua, Kathryne.", "\"History Lessons from Gone With the Wind\", ''Mississippi Quarterly'', 67 (Winter 2014), 99–125.", "* Bonner, Peter.", "\"Lost In Yesterday: Commemorating The 70th Anniversary of Margaret Mitchell's ''Gone With The Wind'' \".", "Marietta, GA: First Works Publishing Co., Inc., 2006.", "* Brown, Ellen F. and John Wiley, ''Margaret Mitchell's Gone With the Wind: A Bestseller's Odyssey from Atlanta to Hollywood''.", "Lanham, MD: Taylor Trade, 2011.", "* Dickey, Jennifer W. ''A Tough Little Patch of History: Gone with the Wind and the Politics of Memory''.", "Fayetteville, AR: University of Arkansas Press, 2014.", "* Farr, Finis.", "''Margaret Mitchell of Atlanta: The Author of Gone with the Wind''.", "New York: Morrow, 1965.", "* Gomez-Galisteo, M. Carmen ''The Wind Is Never Gone Sequels, Parodies and Rewritings of Gone with the Wind''.", "Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2011.", "* Haag, John.", "\"''Gone With the Wind'' in Nazi Germany\", ''Georgia Historical Quarterly'' 73#2 (1989): 278–304.in JSTOR* Harwell, Richard, ed.", "''Gone with the Wind as Book and Film'' Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press, 1983.", "* Harwell, Richard, ed.", "''Margaret Mitchell's Gone with the Wind Letters, 1936–1949''.", "New York: Macmillan, 1976.", "* Haskell, Molly.", "''Frankly My Dear: Gone with the Wind Revisited''.", "New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2010.", "* Pyron, Darden Asbury, ed.", "''Recasting: Gone with the Wind in American Culture''.", "Florida International University Press, 1983.", "* Pyron, Darden Asbury.", "''Southern Daughter: The Life of Margaret Mitchell and the Making of Gone with the Wind''.", "Athens, GA: Hill Street Press, 1991.", "* Rubin, Anne Sarah.", "\"Revisiting Classic Civil War Books: 'Why ''Gone with the Wind'' Still Matters; or, Why I Still Love ''Gone with the Wind'', ''Civil War History'' (March 2013) 59#1 pp 93–98 online" ], [ "External links", "*** * ''Gone with the Wind'' (public domain in Australia) at eBooks@Adelaide (The University of Adelaide Library)* Margaret Mitchell: American Rebel – American Masters documentary (PBS)* ''The Scarlett Letter'', a quarterly publication devoted to the ''Gone with the Wind'' phenomenon" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "George Washington Carver" ], [ "Introduction", "'''George Washington Carver''' ( 1864 – January 5, 1943) was an American agricultural scientist and inventor who promoted alternative crops to cotton and methods to prevent soil depletion.", "He was one of the most prominent black scientists of the early 20th century.While a professor at Tuskegee Institute, Carver developed techniques to improve types of soils depleted by repeated plantings of cotton.", "He wanted poor farmers to grow other crops, such as peanuts and sweet potatoes, as a source of their own food and to improve their quality of life.", "Under his leadership, the Experiment Station at Tuskegee published over forty practical bulletins for farmers, many written by him, which included recipes; many of the bulletins contained advice for poor farmers, including combating soil depletion with limited financial means, producing bigger crops, and preserving food.Apart from his work to improve the lives of farmers, Carver was also a leader in promoting environmentalism.", "He received numerous honors for his work, including the Spingarn Medal of the NAACP.", "In an era of high racial polarization, his fame reached beyond the black community.", "He was widely recognized and praised in the white community for his many achievements and talents.", "In 1941, ''Time'' magazine dubbed Carver a \"Black Leonardo\".Color film of Carver shot in 1937 at the Tuskegee Institute by African American surgeon Allen Alexander was added to the National Film Registry of the Library of Congress in 2019.The 12 minutes of footage includes Carver in his apartment, office and laboratory, as well as images of him tending flowers and displaying his paintings." ], [ "Early years", "The farmhouse of Moses Carver (built in 1881), near the place where George Carver lived as a youthCarver was born into slavery, in Diamond Grove, (now Diamond, Newton County, Missouri), near Crystal Place, sometime in the early 1860s.", "The date of his birth is uncertain and was not known to Carver; but it was before slavery was abolished in Missouri, which occurred in January 1865, during the American Civil War.", "His enslaver, Moses Carver, was a German American immigrant, who had purchased George's parents, Mary and Giles, from William P. McGinnis on October 9, 1855, for $700 (~$ in ).Giles died before George was born and when he was a week old, he, his sister, and his mother were kidnapped by night raiders from Arkansas.", "George's brother, James, was rushed to safety from the kidnappers.", "The kidnappers sold the trio in Kentucky.", "Moses Carver hired John Bentley to find them, but he found only the infant George.", "Moses negotiated with the raiders to gain the boy's return and rewarded Bentley.", "After slavery was abolished, Moses Carver and his wife, Susan, raised George and his older brother, James, as their own children.", "They encouraged George to continue his intellectual pursuits, and \"Aunt Susan\" taught him the basics of reading and writing.Black people were not allowed at the public school in Diamond Grove.", "George decided to go to a school for black children 10 miles (16 km) south, in Neosho.", "When he reached the town, he found the school closed for the night.", "He slept in a nearby barn.", "By his own account, the next morning he met a kind woman, Mariah Watkins, from whom he wished to rent a room.", "When he identified himself as \"Carver's George\", as he had done his whole life, she replied that from now on his name was \"George Carver\".", "George liked Mariah Watkins and her words, \"You must learn all you can, then go back out into the world and give your learning back to the people\", made a great impression on him.At age 13, because he wanted to attend the academy there, he moved to the home of another foster family, in Fort Scott, Kansas.", "After witnessing the killing of a black man by a group of white people, Carver left the city.", "He attended a series of schools before earning his diploma at Minneapolis High School in Minneapolis, Kansas.During his time spent in Minneapolis, there was another George Carver in town, which caused confusion over receiving mail.", "Carver chose a middle initial at random and began requesting letters to him be addressed to George W. Carver.", "Someone once asked if the \"W\" stood for Washington, and Carver grinned and said, \"Why not?\"", "However, he never used Washington as his middle name, and signed his name as either George W. Carver or simply George Carver." ], [ "College education", "Carver at work in his laboratoryCarver applied to several colleges before being accepted at Highland University in Highland, Kansas.", "When he arrived, they refused to let him attend because of his race.", "In August 1886, Carver traveled by wagon with J. F. Beeler from Highland to Eden Township in Ness County, Kansas.", "He homesteaded a claim near Beeler, where he maintained a small conservatory of plants and flowers and a geological collection.", "He manually plowed of the claim, planting rice, corn, Indian corn and garden produce, as well as various fruit trees, forest trees, and shrubbery.", "He also earned money by odd jobs in town and worked as a ranch hand.In early 1888, Carver obtained a $300 (~$ in ) loan at the Bank of Ness City for education.", "By June he left the area.", "In 1890, Carver started studying art and piano at Simpson College in Indianola, Iowa.", "His art teacher, Etta Budd, recognized Carver's talent for painting flowers and plants; she encouraged him to study botany at Iowa State Agricultural College (now Iowa State University) in Ames.When he began there in 1891, he was the first black student at Iowa State.", "Carver's Bachelor's thesis for a degree in Agriculture was \"Plants as Modified by Man\", dated 1894.Iowa State University professors Joseph Budd and Louis Pammel convinced Carver to continue there for his master's degree.", "Carver did research at the Iowa Experiment Station under Pammel during the next two years.", "His work at the experiment station in plant pathology and mycology first gained him national recognition and respect as a botanist.", "Carver received his Master of Science degree in 1896.Carver taught as the first black faculty member at Iowa State.Despite occasionally being addressed as \"doctor\", Carver never received an official doctorate, and in a personal communication with Pammel, he noted that it was a \"misnomer\", given to him by others due to his abilities and their assumptions about his education.", "Though he did not have an earned doctorate, both Simpson College and Selma University awarded him honorary doctorates of science in his lifetime.", "In addition, Iowa State awarded him a posthumous doctor of humane letters degree in 1994." ], [ "Tuskegee Institute", "George Washington Carver, front row, center, poses with fellow faculty of Tuskegee Institute in this photograph taken by Frances Benjamin Johnston.In 1896, Booker T. Washington, the first principal and president of the Tuskegee Institute (now Tuskegee University), invited Carver to head its Agriculture Department.", "Carver taught there for 47 years, developing the department into a strong research center and working with two additional college presidents during his tenure.", "He taught methods of crop rotation, introduced several alternative cash crops for farmers that would also improve the soil of areas heavily cultivated in cotton, initiated research into crop products (chemurgy), and taught generations of black students farming techniques for self-sufficiency.Carver designed a mobile classroom to take education out to farmers.", "He called it a \"Jesup wagon\" after the New York financier and philanthropist Morris Ketchum Jesup, who provided funding to support the program.To recruit Carver to Tuskegee, Washington gave him an above average salary and two rooms for his personal use, although both concessions were resented by some other faculty.", "Because he had earned a master's in a scientific field from a \"white\" institution, some faculty perceived him as arrogant.", "Unmarried faculty members normally had to share rooms, with two to a room, in the spartan early days of the institute.One of Carver's duties was to administer the Agricultural Experiment Station farms.", "He had to manage the production and sale of farm products to generate revenue for the institute.", "He soon proved to be a poor administrator and clashed with other faculty members, especially George Ruffin Bridgeforth.", "In 1900, Carver complained that the physical work and the letter-writing required were too much.", "In 1904, an Institute committee reported that Carver's reports on yields from the poultry yard were exaggerated, and Washington confronted Carver about the issue.", "Carver replied in writing, \"Now to be branded as a liar and party to such hellish deception it is more than I can bear, and if your committee feel that I have willfully lied or was party to such lies as were told my resignation is at your disposal.\"", "During Washington's last five years at Tuskegee, Carver submitted or threatened his resignation several times: when the administration reorganized the agriculture programs, when he disliked a teaching assignment, to manage an experiment station elsewhere, and when he did not get summer teaching assignments in 1913–14.In each case, Washington smoothed things over.A photograph of George Washington Carver taken by Frances Benjamin Johnston, 1906.Carver started his academic career as a researcher and teacher.", "In 1911, Washington wrote a letter to him complaining that Carver had not followed orders to plant particular crops at the experiment station.", "This revealed Washington's micro-management of Carver's department, which he had headed for more than 10 years by then.", "Washington at the same time refused Carver's requests for a new laboratory, research supplies for his exclusive use, and respite from teaching classes.", "Washington praised Carver's abilities in teaching and original research but said about his administrative skills:When it comes to the organization of classes, the ability required to secure a properly organized and large school or section of a school, you are wanting in ability.", "When it comes to the matter of practical farm managing which will secure definite, practical, financial results, you are wanting again in ability.In 1911, Carver complained that his laboratory had not received the equipment which Washington had promised 11 months before.", "He also complained about Institute committee meetings.", "Washington praised Carver in his 1911 memoir, ''My Larger Education: Being Chapters from My Experience''.", "Washington called Carver \"one of the most thoroughly scientific men of the Negro race with whom I am acquainted\".", "After Washington died in 1915, his successor made fewer demands on Carver for administrative tasks.From 1915 to 1923, Carver concentrated on researching and experimenting with new uses for peanuts, sweet potatoes, soybeans, pecans, and other crops, as well as having his assistants research and compile existing uses.", "This work, and especially his speaking to a national conference of the Peanut Growers Association in 1920 and in testimony before Congress in 1921 to support passage of a tariff on imported peanuts, brought him wide publicity and increasing renown.", "In these years, he became one of the most well-known African Americans of his time." ], [ "Rise to fame", "C. H. Alston, this one referencing the World War II effort (circa 1943)Carver developed techniques to improve soils depleted by repeated plantings of cotton.", "Together with other agricultural experts, he urged farmers to restore nitrogen to their soils by practicing systematic crop rotation: alternating cotton crops with plantings of sweet potatoes or legumes, such as peanuts, soybeans and cowpeas.", "These crops both restored nitrogen to the soil and were good for human consumption.", "Following the crop rotation practice resulted in improved cotton yields and gave farmers alternative cash crops.", "To train farmers to successfully rotate and cultivate the new crops, Carver developed an agricultural extension program for Alabama that was similar to the one at Iowa State.", "To encourage better nutrition in the South, he widely distributed recipes using the alternative crops.He founded an industrial research laboratory, where he and assistants worked to popularize the new crops by developing hundreds of applications for them.", "They did original research as well as promoting applications and recipes, which they collected from others.", "Carver distributed his information as agricultural bulletins.Carver's work was known by officials in the national capital before he became a public figure.", "President Theodore Roosevelt publicly admired his work.", "Former professors of Carver's from Iowa State University were appointed to positions as Secretary of Agriculture: James Wilson, a former dean and professor of Carver's, served from 1897 to 1913.Henry Cantwell Wallace served from 1921 to 1924.He knew Carver personally because his son Henry A. Wallace and the researcher were friends.", "The younger Wallace served as U.S. Secretary of Agriculture from 1933 to 1940, and as Franklin Delano Roosevelt's vice president from 1941 to 1945.The American industrialist, farmer, and inventor William C. Edenborn of Winn Parish, Louisiana, grew peanuts on his demonstration farm.", "He consulted with Carver.In 1916, Carver was made a member of the Royal Society of Arts in England, one of only a handful of Americans at that time to receive this honor.", "Carver's promotion of peanuts gained him the most notice.By 1920, the U.S. peanut farmers were being undercut by low prices on imported peanuts from the Republic of China.", "In 1921, peanut farmers and industry representatives planned to appear at Congressional hearings to ask for a tariff.", "Based on the quality of Carver's presentation at their convention, they asked the African-American professor to testify on the tariff issue before the Ways and Means Committee of the United States House of Representatives.", "Due to segregation, it was highly unusual for an African American to appear as an expert witness, but Carver appeared and unpacked numerous exhibits and samples to make his case for greater food and industrial uses for the peanut.", "Southern congressmen mocked him, but as he talked about the importance of the peanut and its uses for American agriculture and manufacturing, committee members repeatedly extended the time for his testimony.", "The Fordney–McCumber Tariff was enacted in 1922, and included a duty on imported peanuts.", "Carver's testimony, including samples of peanut milk, peanut flour, industrial dyes made from peanuts, and other peanut-based products, made him widely known as a public figure." ], [ "Life while famous", "A United States Farm Security Administration portrait, March 1942A peanut specimen collected by CarverDuring the last two decades of his life, Carver seemed to enjoy his celebrity status.", "He was often on the road promoting Tuskegee University, peanuts, sweet potatoes, and racial harmony.", "Although he only published six agricultural bulletins after 1922, he published articles in peanut industry journals and wrote a syndicated newspaper column, \"Professor Carver's Advice\".", "Business leaders came to seek his help, and he often responded with free advice.", "Three American presidents—Theodore Roosevelt, Calvin Coolidge and Franklin Roosevelt—met with him, and the Crown Prince of Sweden studied with him for three weeks.", "From 1923 to 1933, Carver toured white Southern colleges for the Commission on Interracial Cooperation.With his increasing notability, Carver became the subject of biographies and articles.", "Raleigh H. Merritt contacted him for his biography published in 1929.Merritt wrote:At present not a great deal has been done to utilize Dr.", "Carver's discoveries commercially.", "He says that he is merely scratching the surface of scientific investigations of the possibilities of the peanut and other Southern products.In 1932, the writer James Saxon Childers wrote that Carver and his peanut products were almost solely responsible for the rise in U.S. peanut production after the boll weevil devastated the American cotton crop beginning about 1892.His article, \"A Boy Who Was Traded for a Horse\" (1932), in ''The American Magazine'', and its 1937 reprint in ''Reader's Digest'', contributed to this myth about Carver's influence.", "Other popular media tended to exaggerate Carver's impact on the peanut industry.From 1933 to 1935, Carver worked to develop peanut oil massages to treat infantile paralysis (polio).", "Ultimately, researchers found that the massages, not the peanut oil, provided the benefits of maintaining some mobility to paralyzed limbs.From 1935 to 1937, Carver participated in the USDA Disease Survey.", "Carver had specialized in plant diseases and mycology for his master's degree.In 1937, Carver attended two chemurgy conferences, an emerging field in the 1930s, during the Great Depression and the Dust Bowl, concerned with developing new products from crops.", "He was invited by Henry Ford to speak at the conference held in Dearborn, Michigan, and they developed a friendship.", "That year Carver's health declined, and Ford later installed an elevator at the Tuskegee dormitory where Carver lived, so that the elderly man would not have to climb stairs.Carver had been frugal in his life, and in his seventies he established a legacy by creating a museum of his work, as well as the George Washington Carver Foundation at Tuskegee in 1938 to continue agricultural research.", "He donated nearly in his savings to create the foundation.Carver headed the modern organic movement in the southern agricultural system.", "Carver's background for his interest in organic farming sprouted from his father being killed during the Civil War, and when his mother was kidnapped by Confederate slave raiders.", "Now an orphan, Carver found comfort in botany when he was just 11 years old in Kansas.", "Carver learned about herbal medicine, natural pesticides, and natural fertilizers that yielded plentiful crops from his caretaker.", "When crops and house plants were dying, he would use his knowledge and go and nurse them back to health.", "As a teenager, he was termed the \"plant doctor\".When his study about infection in soybean reached Booker T. Washington, he invited him to come and teach at the Tuskegee Agricultural school.Although the emancipation allowed Black families 40 acres and a mule, President Johnson revoked this and gave the land to white plantation owners instead.", "This prompted Black farmers to exchange what was once their land, and in turn, a small part of the land's harvest.", "This led to sharecropping.", "Carver soon realized that farmers were not obtaining enough food to survive, and how the industrialization of cotton had contaminated the soil.", "Carver wanted to find a way to organically transform Alabama's failing soil.", "He found that alternating nitrogen-rich crops would let the soil get back to its natural state.", "Keeping crops like sweet potatoes, peanuts, and cowpeas would produce more food surplus and different types of food for farmers.", "Carver worked to pioneer organic fertilizers like swamp muck and compost for the farmers to use.", "These fertilizers were more sustainable to the planet and helped farmers to spend less money on fertilizers since they were recycling products.", "Carver pushed for woodland preservation, to help improve the quality of the topsoil.", "He urged farmers to feed their hogs acorns.", "The acorns contained natural pesticides and feeding them acorns was cheaper for the farms too.", "Carver's efforts towards the holistic and organic approach are still in practice today.", "In his research, Carver discovered Permaculture.", "Permaculture could be used to produce carbon from the atmosphere, produce a higher quantity of crops, and let crops flourish despite global warming." ], [ "Relationships", "''\"Austin Curtis – Scientist successor to Dr.", "Carver\"'', cartoon by C. H. AlstonCarver never married.", "At age 40, he began a courtship with Sarah L. Hunt, an elementary school teacher and the sister-in-law of Warren Logan, Treasurer of Tuskegee Institute.", "This lasted three years until she took a teaching job in California.", "In her 2015 biography, Christina Vella reviews his relationships and suggests that Carver was bisexual and constrained by mores of his historic period.When he was 70, Carver established a friendship and research partnership with the scientist Austin W. Curtis Jr.", "This young black man, a graduate of Cornell University, had some teaching experience before coming to Tuskegee.", "Carver bequeathed to Curtis his royalties from an authorized 1943 biography by Rackham Holt.", "After Carver died in 1943, Curtis was fired from Tuskegee Institute.", "He left Alabama and resettled in Detroit.", "There he manufactured and sold peanut-based personal care products." ], [ "Death", "Upon returning home one day, Carver suffered a bad fall down a flight of stairs; he was found unconscious by a maid who took him to a hospital.", "Carver died January 5, 1943, at the age of 78 or 79 from complications (anemia) resulting from this fall.", "His death came when he was sitting up in bed while painting a Christmas card which said, “Peace on earth and goodwill to all men.” Carver biographer Prema Ramakrishnan said of him that \"His death was characteristic of him and his entire life’s work.\"", "He was buried next to Booker T. Washington at Tuskegee University.", "Due to his frugality, Carver's life savings totaled $60,000, all of which he donated in his last years and at his death to the Carver Museum and to the George Washington Carver Foundation.On his grave was written, \"He could have added fortune to fame, but caring for neither, he found happiness and honor in being helpful to the world.\"" ], [ "Personal life", "===Christianity===Carver believed he could have faith both in God and science and integrated them into his life.", "He testified on many occasions that his faith in Jesus was the only mechanism by which he could effectively pursue and perform the art of science.", "Carver became a Christian when he was still a young boy, as he wrote in connection to his conversion in 1931:He was not expected to live past his 21st birthday due to failing health.", "He lived well past the age of 21, and his belief deepened as a result.", "Throughout his career, he always found friendship with other Christians.", "He relied on them especially when criticized by the scientific community and media regarding his research methodology.Carver viewed faith in Jesus Christ as a means of destroying both barriers of racial disharmony and social stratification.", "He was as concerned with his students' character development as he was with their intellectual development.", "He compiled a list of \"eight cardinal virtues\" whose possession defines \"a lady or a gentleman\":A monument to Carver at the Missouri Botanical Garden in St. Louis* Be clean both inside and out.", "* Who neither looks up to the rich nor down on the poor.", "* Who loses, if needs be, without squealing.", "* Who wins without bragging.", "* Who is always considerate of women, children and old people.", "* Who is too brave to lie.", "* Who is too generous to cheat.", "* Who take his share of the world and lets other people have theirs.Beginning in 1906 at Tuskegee, Carver led a Bible class on Sundays for several students at their request.", "He regularly portrayed stories by acting them out.===Voice pitch===Even as an adult Carver spoke with a high pitch.", "Historian Linda O. McMurry noted that he \"was a frail and sickly child\" who suffered \"from a severe case of whooping cough and frequent bouts of what was called croup\".", "McMurry contested the diagnosis of croup, holding rather that \"His stunted growth and apparently impaired vocal cords suggest instead tubercular or pneumococcal infection.", "Frequent infections of that nature could have caused the growth of polyps on the larynx and may have resulted from a gamma globulin deficiency. ...", "until his death the high pitch of his voice startled all who met him, and he suffered from frequent chest congestion and loss of voice.\"" ], [ "Honors", "A painting by Betsy Graves Reyneau* 1923, Spingarn Medal from the NAACP, awarded annually for outstanding achievement.", "* 1928, honorary doctorate from Simpson College* 1939, the Roosevelt Medal for Outstanding Contribution to Southern Agriculture* 1940, Carver established the George Washington Carver Foundation at the Tuskegee Institute.", "* 1941, The George Washington Carver Museum was dedicated at the Tuskegee Institute.", "* 1942, Ford built a replica of Carver's birth cabin at the Henry Ford Museum and Greenfield Village in Dearborn as a tribute.", "* 1942, Ford dedicated a laboratory in Dearborn named after Carver.", "* 1943, Liberty ship launched* 1947, George Washington Carver Area High School, named in his honor is opened by the Chicago Public Schools in the Riverdale/Far South Side area of Chicago, Illinois, United States.", "* 1950, George Washington Carver State Park named* 1951–1954, U.S. Mint features Carver on a 50 cents silver commemorative coin* 1965, Ballistic missile submarine launched.", "* 1969, Iowa State University constructs Carver Hall in honor of Carver—a graduate of the university.", "* 1943?, the US Congress designated January 5, the anniversary of his death, as George Washington Carver Recognition Day.", "* 1999, USDA names a portion of its Beltsville, Maryland, campus the George Washington Carver Center.", "* 2002, Iowa Award, the state's highest citizen award.", "* 2004, George Washington Carver Bridge, Des Moines, Iowa* 2007, the Missouri Botanical Gardens has a garden area named in his honor, with a commemorative statue and material about his work*2022, Gov.", "Kim Reynolds signed legislation naming Feb. 1st every year as George Washington Carver Day in Iowa* Willowbrook Neighborhood Park in Willowbrook, California was renamed George Washington Carver Park in his honor.", "* Schools named for Carver include the George Washington Carver Elementary School of the Compton Unified School District in Los Angeles County, California, the George Washington Carver School of Arts and Science of the Sacramento City Unified School District in Sacramento, California, and the Dr. George Washington Carver Elementary School, a Newark public school in Newark, New Jersey.", "* Taxa named after him include: ''Colletotrichum carveri'' and ''Metasphaeria carveri'', both named by Job Bicknell Ellis and Benjamin Matlack Everhart in 1902; ''Cercospora carveriana'', named by Pier Andrea Saccardo and Domenico Saccardo in 1906; ''Taphrina carveri'' named by Anna Eliza Jenkins in 1939; and ''Pestalotia carveri'', named by E. F. Guba in 1961." ], [ "Legacy", "In 1948 the U.S. Government released a commemorative stamp issued on Carver's birthday, five years after his death.A movement to establish a U.S. national monument to Carver began before his death.", "Because of World War II, such non-war expenditures had been banned by presidential order.", "Missouri senator Harry S. Truman sponsored a bill in favor of a monument.", "In a committee hearing on the bill, one supporter said:The bill is not simply a momentary pause on the part of busy men engaged in the conduct of the war, to do honor to one of the truly great Americans of this country, but it is in essence a blow against the Axis, it is in essence a war measure in the sense that it will further unleash and release the energies of roughly 15,000,000 Negro people in this country for full support of our war effort.The bill passed unanimously in both houses.On July 14, 1943, President Franklin D. Roosevelt dedicated $30,000 (~$ in ) for the George Washington Carver National Monument west-southwest of Diamond, Missouri, the area where Carver had spent time in his childhood.", "This was the first national monument dedicated to an African American and the first to honor someone other than a president.", "The national monument complex includes a bust of Carver, a -mile nature trail, a museum, the 1881 Moses Carver house, and the Carver cemetery.", "The national monument opened in July 1953.In December 1947, a fire broke out in the Carver Museum, and much of the collection was unfortunately, damaged.", "''Time'' magazine reported that all but 3 of the 48 Carver paintings at the museum were destroyed.", "His best-known painting, displayed at the World's Columbian Exposition of 1893 in Chicago, depicts a yucca and cactus.", "This canvas survived and has undergone conservation.", "It is displayed together with several of his other paintings.Carver-Washington commemorative half dollarCarver was featured on U.S. 1948 commemorative stamps.", "From 1951 to 1954, he was depicted on the commemorative Carver-Washington half dollar coin along with Booker T. Washington.", "A second stamp honoring Carver, of face value 32¢, was issued on February 3, 1998, as part of the Celebrate the Century stamp sheet series.", "Two ships, the Liberty ship SS ''George Washington Carver'' and the nuclear submarine USS ''George Washington Carver'' (SSBN-656), were named in his honor.In 1977, Carver was elected to the Hall of Fame for Great Americans.", "In 1990, he was inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame.", "In 1994, Iowa State University awarded Carver a Doctor of Humane Letters.", "In 2000, Carver was a charter inductee in the USDA Hall of Heroes as the \"Father of Chemurgy\".In 2002, scholar Molefi Kete Asante listed George Washington Carver as one of 100 Greatest African Americans.In 2005, Carver's research at the Tuskegee Institute was designated a National Historic Chemical Landmark by the American Chemical Society.", "On February 15, 2005, an episode of ''Modern Marvels'' included scenes from within Iowa State University's Food Sciences Building and about Carver's work.", "In 2005, the Missouri Botanical Garden in St. Louis, Missouri, opened a George Washington Carver garden in his honor, which includes a life-size statue of him.Many institutions continue to honor George Washington Carver.", "Dozens of elementary schools and high schools are named after him.", "National Basketball Association star David Robinson and his wife, Valerie, founded an academy named after Carver; it opened on September 17, 2001, in San Antonio, Texas.", "The Carver Community Cultural Center, a historic center located in San Antonio, is named for him." ], [ "Reputed inventions", "Carver has been given credit in popular folklore for many inventions that did not come out of his lab.", "Three patents (one for cosmetics; , and two for paints and stains; , and ) were issued to Carver in 1925 to 1927; however, they were not commercially successful.", "Aside from these patents and some recipes for food, Carver left no records of formulae or procedures for making his products.", "He did not keep a laboratory notebook.Mackintosh notes that, \"Carver did not explicitly claim that he had personally discovered all the peanut attributes and uses he cited, but he said nothing to prevent his audiences from drawing the inference.", "\"Carver's research was intended to produce replacements from common crops for commercial products, which were generally beyond the budget of the small one-horse farmer.", "A misconception grew that his research on products for subsistence farmers were developed by others commercially to change Southern agriculture.", "Carver's work to provide small farmers with resources for more independence from the cash economy foreshadowed the \"appropriate technology\" work of E. F. Schumacher.===Peanut products===Dennis Keeney, director of the Leopold Center for Sustainable Agriculture at Iowa State University, wrote in the ''Leopold Letter'' (newsletter):Carver worked on improving soils, growing crops with low inputs, and using species that fixed nitrogen (hence, the work on the cowpea and the peanut).", "Carver wrote in 'The Need of Scientific Agriculture in the South': \"The virgin fertility of our soils and the vast amount of unskilled labor have been more of a curse than a blessing to agriculture.", "This exhaustive system for cultivation, the destruction of forest, the rapid and almost constant decomposition of organic matter, have made our agricultural problem one requiring more brains than of the North, East or West.Carver worked for years to create a company to market his products.", "The most important was the Carver Penol Company, which sold a mixture of creosote and peanuts as a patent medicine for respiratory diseases such as tuberculosis.", "Sales were lackluster and the product was ineffective according to the Food and Drug Administration.", "Other ventures were The Carver Products Company and the Carvoline Company.", "Carvoline Antiseptic Hair Dressing was a mix of peanut oil and lanolin.", "Carvoline Rubbing Oil was a peanut oil for massages.Carver is often mistakenly credited with the invention of peanut butter.", "By the time Carver published \"How to Grow the Peanut and 105 Ways of Preparing it For Human Consumption\" in 1916, many methods of preparation of peanut butter had been developed or patented by various pharmacists, doctors and food scientists working in the US and Canada.", "The Aztecs were known to have made peanut butter from ground peanuts as early as the 15th century.", "Canadian pharmacist Marcellus Gilmore Edson was awarded (for its manufacture) in 1884, 12 years before Carver began his work at Tuskegee.===Sweet potato products===Carver is also associated with developing sweet potato products.", "In his 1922 sweet potato bulletin, Carver listed a few dozen recipes, \"many of which I have copied verbatim from Bulletin No.", "129, U. S. Department of Agriculture\".", "Carver's records included the following sweet potato products: 73 dyes, 17 wood fillers, 14 candies, 5 library pastes, 5 breakfast foods, 4 starches, 4 flours, and 3 molasses.", "He also had listings for vinegars, dry coffee and instant coffee, candy, after-dinner mints, orange drops, and lemon drops." ], [ "Carver bulletins", "During his more than four decades at Tuskegee, Carver's official published work consisted mainly of 44 practical bulletins for farmers.", "His first bulletin in 1898 was on feeding acorns to farm animals.", "His final bulletin in 1943 was about the peanut.", "He also published six bulletins on sweet potatoes, five on cotton, and four on cowpeas.", "Some other individual bulletins dealt with alfalfa, wild plum, tomato, ornamental plants, corn, poultry, dairying, hogs, preserving meats in hot weather, and nature study in schools.His most popular bulletin, ''How to Grow the Peanut and 105 Ways of Preparing it for Human Consumption'', was first published in 1916 and has been reprinted numerous times.", "It provides a short overview of peanut crop production and contains a list of recipes from other agricultural bulletins, cookbooks, magazines, and newspapers, such as the ''Peerless Cookbook'', ''Good Housekeeping'', and ''Berry's Fruit Recipes''.", "While Carver's was not the first American agricultural bulletin devoted to peanuts, his bulletins seem to have been more popular and widespread than those that preceded his." ], [ "See also", "* African-American history* Carver College* Carver Academy, Texas* Carver Court, a historic housing development in Chester County, Pennsylvania* George Washington Carver Center for Arts and Technology, a public high school in Towson, Maryland* Carver High School (disambiguation)* Carver Junior College, Cocoa, Florida, closed in 1963* Carver Middle School (disambiguation)* List of people on stamps of the United States" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "General references", "===Scholarly studies===* Hersey, Mark D. ''My Work Is That of Conservation: An Environmental Biography of George Washington Carver'' (University of Georgia Press; 2011) 306 pages.", "* Hersey, Mark.", "\"Hints and Suggestions to Farmers: George Washington Carver and Rural Conservation in the South\".", "''Environmental History'' 11#2 (2006): 239–268.", "* Mackintosh, Barry.", "\"George Washington Carver: The Making of a Myth\".", "''Journal of Southern History'' 42#4 (1976): 507–528.in JSTOR* Barry Mackintosh, \"George Washington Carver and the Peanut: New Light on a Much-loved Myth\", ''American Heritage'' 28(5): 66–73, 1977.", "* McMurry, L. O.", "\"Carver, George Washington\".", "''American National Biography Online'' February 2000* McMurry, Linda O.", "''George Washington Carver: Scientist and Symbol'' (Oxford University Press, 1982).", "online ; Google copy)===Popular works===* Carver, George Washington.", "\"1897 or Thereabouts: George Washington Carver's Own Brief History of His Life\".", "George Washington Carver National Monument.", "* Collins, David R. ''George Washington Carver: Man's Slave, God's Scientist'', (Mott Media, 1981)* William J. Federer, ''George Washington Carver: His Life & Faith in His Own Words'', AmeriSearch (2003) * Kremer, G. R. ed.", "''George Washington Carver: In His Own Words'', University of Missouri Press; 1987, Reprint edition (1991) * H. M. Morris, ''Men of Science, Men of God'' (1982)* E. C. Barnett and D. Fisher, ''Scientists Who Believe'' (1984)" ], [ "Further reading", "* Gray, James Marion.", "''George Washington Carver''.", "Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Silver Burdett Press, 1991.", "* Holt, Rackham.", "''George Washington Carver: An American Biography'', rev.", "ed.", "Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1963.", "* Kremer, Gary R. ''Race and Meaning: The African American Experience in Missouri'', University of Missouri Press, 2014.", "* McKissack, Pat, and Fredrick McKissack.", "''George Washington Carver: The Peanut Scientist'', rev.", "ed.", "Berkeley Heights, NJ: Enslow Publishers, 2002.", "* Moore, Eva.", "''The Story of George Washington Carver'', New York: Scholastic, 1995.", "* Vella, Christina.", "''Carver'', Louisiana State University Press, 2015." ], [ "External links", "'''Archival collections'''* Guide to the George Washington Carver Letter to Dana H. Johnson.", "Special Collections and Archives, The UC Irvine Libraries, Irvine, California.", "* Finding Aid to the George Washington Carver Collection.", "Special Collections Department, Iowa State University Library, Ames, Iowa.", "* William and Annette Curtis collection of George Washington Carver items, MSS 6223 at L. Tom Perry Special Collections, Brigham Young University'''Other'''* National Park Service::: Legends of Tuskegee: George Washington Carver from the National Park Service:: George Washington Carver National Monument from the National Park Service* Carver Tribute from Tuskegee University* The Legacy of George Washington Carver from Iowa State University* National Historic Chemical Landmark from the American Chemical Society* George Washington Carver Correspondence Collection Manuscript collection in Special Collections, National Agricultural Library.", "* Biotechnology Organization Award* * George Washington Carver Digital Collection, Iowa State University.", "* * \" The Boy Who Was Traded for a Horse\", a 1948 radio drama presentation from ''Destination Freedom'', written by Richard Durham'''Print publications'''* George Washington Carver.", "\"How to Grow the Peanut and 105 Ways of Preparing it for Human Consumption\" , ''Tuskegee Institute Experimental Station Bulletin'' 31.", "* George Washington Carver.", "\"How the Farmer Can Save His Sweet Potatoes and Ways of Preparing Them for the Table\", ''Tuskegee Institute Experimental Station Bulletin'' 38, 1936.", "* George Washington Carver.", "\"How to Grow the Tomato and 115 Ways to Prepare it for the Table\", ''Tuskegee Institute Experimental Station Bulletin'' 36, 1936.", "* Peter D. Burchard, \"George Washington Carver: For His Time and Ours\", National Park Service: George Washington Carver National Monument.", "2006.", "* Louis R. Harlan (ed.", "), ''The Booker T. Washington Papers'', Volume 4, pp.", "127–128.Chicago: University of Illinois Press.", "1975.", "* Raleigh H. Merritt, ''From Captivity to Fame or the Life of George Washington Carver'', Boston: Meador Publishing.", "1929.", "* George Washington Carver * Mary Bagley, George Washington Carver: Biography, Inventions & Quotes (2013)." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Grok" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Grok''''' is a neologism coined by American writer Robert A. Heinlein for his 1961 science fiction novel ''Stranger in a Strange Land''.", "While the ''Oxford English Dictionary'' summarizes the meaning of ''grok'' as \"to understand intuitively or by empathy, to establish rapport with\" and \"to empathize or communicate sympathetically (with); also, to experience enjoyment\", Heinlein's concept is far more nuanced, with critic Istvan Csicsery-Ronay Jr. observing that \"the book's major theme can be seen as an extended definition of the term.\"", "The concept of ''grok'' garnered significant critical scrutiny in the years after the book's initial publication.", "The term and aspects of the underlying concept have become part of communities such as computer science." ], [ "Descriptions in ''Stranger in a Strange Land''", "Critic David E. Wright Sr. points out that in the 1991 \"uncut\" edition of ''Stranger'', the word ''grok'' \"was used first ''without any explicit definition'' on page 22\" and continued to be used without being explicitly defined until page 253 (emphasis in original).", "He notes that this first intensional definition is simply \"to drink\", but that this is only a metaphor \"much as English 'I see' often means the same as 'I understand'\".", "Critics have bridged this absence of explicit definition by citing passages from ''Stranger'' that illustrate the term.", "A selection of these passages follows:" ], [ "Etymology", "Robert A. Heinlein originally coined the term ''grok'' in his 1961 novel ''Stranger in a Strange Land'' as a Martian word that could not be defined in Earthling terms, but can be associated with various literal meanings such as \"water\", \"to drink\", \"to relate\", \"life\", or \"to live\", and had a much more profound figurative meaning that is hard for terrestrial culture to understand because of its assumption of a singular reality.According to the book, drinking water is a central focus on Mars, where it is scarce.", "Martians use the merging of their bodies with water as a simple example or symbol of how two entities can combine to create a new reality greater than the sum of its parts.", "The water becomes part of the drinker, and the drinker part of the water.", "Both ''grok'' each other.", "Things that once had separate realities become entangled in the same experiences, goals, history, and purpose.", "Within the book, the statement of divine immanence verbalized among the main characters, \"thou art God\", is logically derived from the concept inherent in the term ''grok''.Heinlein describes Martian words as \"guttural\" and \"jarring\".", "Martian speech is described as sounding \"like a bullfrog fighting a cat\".", "Accordingly, ''grok'' is generally pronounced as a guttural ''gr'' terminated by a sharp ''k'' with very little or no vowel sound (a narrow IPA transcription might be ).", "William Tenn suggests Heinlein in creating the word might have been influenced by Tenn's very similar concept of ''griggo'', earlier introduced in Tenn's story \"Venus and the Seven Sexes\" (published in 1949).", "In his later afterword to the story, Tenn says Heinlein considered such influence \"very possible\"." ], [ "Adoption and modern usage", "===In computer programmer culture===Uses of the word in the decades after the 1960s are more concentrated in computer culture, such as an ''InfoWorld'' columnist in 1984 imagining a computer saying, \"There isn't any software!", "Only different internal states of hardware.", "It's all hardware!", "It's a shame programmers don't grok that better.", "\"The Jargon File, which describes itself as a \"Hacker's Dictionary\" and has been published under that name three times, puts ''grok'' in a programming context:The entry existed in the very earliest forms of the Jargon File in the early 1980s.", "A typical tech usage from the ''Linux Bible, 2005'' characterizes the Unix software development philosophy as \"one that can make your life a lot simpler once you grok the idea\".The book ''Perl Best Practices'' defines ''grok'' as understanding a portion of computer code in a profound way.", "It goes on to suggest that to ''re-grok'' code is to reload the intricacies of that portion of code into one's memory after some time has passed and all the details of it are no longer remembered.", "In that sense, ''to grok'' means to load everything into memory for immediate use.", "It is analogous to the way a processor caches memory for short term use, but the only implication by this reference was that it was something a human (or perhaps a Martian) would do.The main web page for cURL, an open source tool and programming library, describes the function of cURL as \"cURL groks URLs\".The book ''Cyberia'' covers its use in this subculture extensively:The keystroke logging software used by the NSA for its remote intelligence gathering operations is named GROK.One of the most powerful parsing filters used in ElasticSearch software's logstash component is named ''grok''.A reference book by Carey Bunks on the use of the GNU Image Manipulation Program is titled '' Grokking the GIMP''A common tool used for cloud development is a tool called ''ngrok'', short for ''network grok''.", "It is a utility that creates a secure tunnel on a local machine, along with a public URL for accessing that machine.", "===In counterculture===*Tom Wolfe, in his book ''The Electric Kool-Aid Acid Test'' (1968), describes a character's thoughts during an acid trip: \"He looks down, two bare legs, a torso rising up at him and like he is just noticing them for the first time... he has never seen any of this flesh before, this stranger.", "He groks over that...\"*In his counterculture Volkswagen repair manual, ''How to Keep Your Volkswagen Alive: A Manual of Step-by-Step Procedures for the Compleat Idiot'' (1969), dropout aerospace engineer John Muir instructs prospective used VW buyers to \"grok the car\" before buying.", "*The word was used numerous times by Robert Anton Wilson in his works ''The Illuminatus!", "Trilogy'' and ''Schrödinger's Cat Trilogy''." ], [ "See also", "* Anschauung – related \"sense-perception\" concept in Kantian philosophy** Being-in-the-world – a term in the existentialist philosophy of Martin Heidegger, aimed at deconstructing the subject–object distinction* Introjection vs assimilation in Fritz and Laura Perls' gestalt therapy – analogous to memorizing vs grokking* Knowledge by acquaintance and knowledge by description – a distinction in philosophy between familiarity with a person, place, or thing and knowledge of facts* Logos – a term in Western philosophy that has been used to describe various forms of knowledge and reasoning* Phenomenology (psychology) – the study of subjective experience*" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * SF citations for grok gathered for the ''Oxford English Dictionary'' by Jesse Sheidlower* * * * WikiQuote on ''Stranger in a Strange Land'' includes many uses of ''grok''" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Geelong Football Club" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Geelong Football Club''', nicknamed the '''Cats''', is a professional Australian rules football club based in Geelong, Victoria, Australia.", "The club competes in the Australian Football League (AFL), the sport's premier competition.The club formed in 1859, making it the second-oldest club in the AFL, after Melbourne, and one of the oldest football clubs in the world.In the 1860s, Geelong participated in a series of Challenge Cup competitions, and was a foundation member of both the Victorian Football Association (VFA) in 1877 and the Victorian Football League (VFL) in 1897, now the national AFL.", "The club won the Western District Challenge Cup in 1875, a then-record seven VFA premierships between 1878 and 1886, and six VFL premierships by 1963, after which it experienced a 44-year waiting period until it won its next premiership, a Grand Final-record 119-point victory in 2007.Geelong won a further three premierships in 2009, 2011 and 2022.Geelong play most of their home games at Kardinia Park (known for sponsorship reasons as GMHBA Stadium) and play the remainder at the Melbourne Cricket Ground.", "Geelong's traditional guernsey colours are white with navy blue hoops.", "The club's nickname was first used in 1923 after a run of losses prompted a local cartoonist to suggest that the club needed a black cat to bring it good luck.", "Geelong also field teams in other competitions; a reserves men's team in the Victorian Football League (VFL), a senior women's team in the AFL Women's (AFLW) and a reserves women's team in the VFL Women's (VFLW) competitions.", "The club's official team song and anthem is \"We Are Geelong\"." ], [ "History", "The club was founded in 1859 in the city of Geelong, Australia, and is the second oldest AFL club.", "It is believed to be the fourth oldest football club in Australia and one of the oldest in the world and one of the most successful.", "Initially playing under its own rules, some of which, notably, were permanently introduced into Australian Football, it adopted the Laws of Australian Football in the early 1860s after a series of compromises with the Melbourne Football Club.Geelong went on to play for most of its existence in the premier competitions, the first competition, the Caledonian Society Cup, a foundation club of both the Victorian Football Association (VFA) in 1877 and the Victorian Football League (VFL) in 1897., VFL and continues in the elite Australian Football League (AFL).", "The Cats have been the VFL/AFL premiers ten times, with four in the AFL era (since 1990) in 2007, 2009, 2011, and most recently, 2022, to be the second most successful club over that period one behind Hawthorn.", "They have also won ten McClelland Trophies, the most of any AFL/VFL club.Many of the club's official records before 1920 have disappeared." ], [ "Club identity and culture", "=== Guernseys ===Club attire in 1895 (Jim McShane pictured)Geelong's traditional navy blue and white hooped guernsey has been worn since the club's inception in the mid-1800s.", "The design is said to represent the white seagulls and blue water of Corio Bay.The team has worn various away guernseys since 1998, all featuring the club's logo and traditional colours.=== Nickname ===Geelong has been nicknamed the 'Cats' since 1923, when the ''Herald'' sporting local cartoonist, \"Wells\" (Samuel Garnet Wells), suggested that adopting a black cat as a mascot might bring a football club good luck in his ''Herald'' cartoon of 6 July 1923.===Song: \"We Are Geelong\"===\"We Are Geelong\" is the song sung after a game won by the Geelong Football Club.", "It is sung to the tune of \"Toreador\" from ''Carmen''.", "The lyrics were written by former premiership player John Watts.", "Only the first verse is used at matches and by the team after a victory.", "The song currently used by the club was recorded by the Fable Singers in April 1972.: ''We are Geelong, the greatest team of all'': ''We are Geelong; we're always on the ball'': ''We play the game as it should be played'': ''At home or far away'': ''Our banners fly high, from dawn to dark'': ''Down at Kardinia Park.", "'': ''So!", "Stand up and fight, remember our tradition'': ''Stand up and fight, it's always our ambition'': ''Throughout the game to fight with all our might'': ''Because we're the mighty blue and white'': ''And when the ball is bounced, to the final bell'': ''Stand up and fight like hell!''" ], [ "Stadium and training facilities", "Geelong's administrative headquarters is its home stadium, GMHBA Stadium or also known as Kardinia Park.", "The club trains here during the season, however it also trains at its alternate training venue, the Deakin University Elite Sports Precinct.", "The latter features an MCG-sized oval and is used often by the club in the pre-season, when Kardinia Park is being used for other events." ], [ "Rivalries", "=== Hawthorn ===The rivalry between Hawthorn and Geelong is defined by two Grand Finals: those of 1989 and 2008.In the 1989 Grand Final, Geelong played the man, resulting in major injuries for several Hawks players, Mark Yeates knocking out Dermott Brereton at the opening bounce; Hawthorn controlled the game, leading by approximately 40 points for most of the match; in the last quarter, Geelong almost managed to come from behind to win, but fell short by six points.", "In the 2008 Grand Final, Geelong was the heavily backed favourite and had lost only one match for the season, but lost by 26 points; Geelong then won its next eleven matches against Hawthorn over the following five years, under a curse, which was dubbed the \"Kennett curse\" which was attributed to disrespectful comments made by Hawthorn president Jeff Kennett following the 2008 Grand Final.", "It was later revealed that after the 2008 grand final, Paul Chapman initiated a pact between other Geelong players to never lose to Hawthorn again.", "The curse was broken in a preliminary final in 2013, after Paul Chapman played his final match for Geelong the previous week.", "Hawthorn went on to win the next three premierships.", "In 2016 Geelong again defeated Hawthorn in the qualifying final.", "In twenty matches between the two sides between 2008 and 2017, twelve were decided by less than ten points, with Geelong victorious in eleven of those twelve matches.=== Collingwood ===In 1925, Geelong won their first flag over Collingwood.", "In 1930, Collingwood defeated Geelong in the grand final making it four flags in-a-row for the Pies.", "Geelong would later deny Collingwood three successive premierships in 1937, winning a famous grand final by 32 points.The two sides played against each other in 6 finals between 1951 and 1955, including the 1952 Grand Final when Geelong easily beat Collingwood by 46 points.", "In 1953, Collingwood ended Geelong's record 23-game winning streak in the home and away season, and later defeated them by 12 points in the grand final, denying the Cats a third successive premiership.Since 2007, the clubs have again both been at the top of the ladder and have met regularly in finals.", "Geelong won a memorable preliminary final by five points on their way to their first flag in 44 years.", "In 2008, Collingwood inflicted Geelong's only home-and-away loss, by a massive 86 points, but the teams did not meet in the finals.", "They would meet in preliminary finals in 2009 and 2010, each winning one ''en route'' to a premiership.", "They finally met again in a Grand Final in 2011, which Geelong won by 38 points; Geelong inflicted Collingwood's only three losses for the 2011 season." ], [ "Corporate", "=== Sponsorship ===At 98 years as of 2023, Geelong's sponsorship with the Ford Motor Company is the longest active sports sponsorship of any sports team in the world, with continuous sponsorship dating back to 1925, a record recognised by Guinness.", "Year Kit Manufacturer Major Sponsor Shorts Sponsor Back Sponsor1977–92 — Ford — —1993 — Ford —1994–96 — Ford1997–98Adidas1999–2002Fila2003–06Slazenger2007nib2008–16ISC2017–Cotton OnGMHBA=== Supporter base ===2009 Grand Final against St KildaWell-known supporter Troy West, nicknamed \"Catman\"Geelong players prepare to break a banner, which is created by its supporters, before a match against in June 2013.+ Table of club membership, with home attendance figures (since 1984) Season Members Average homeattendanceRef 1984 7,709 20,577 1985 7,718 19,463 1986 6,985 15,319 1987 6,981 20,462 1988 9,667 20,790 1989 7,760 29,296 1990 15,087 24,711 1991 11,356 23,525 1992 13,535 27,698 1993 15,500 26,920 1994 14,312 26,461 1995 15,922 25,317 1996 17,346 25,161 1997 18,858 28,324 1998 19,971 28,371 1999 21,032 24,840 2000 25,595 27,729 2001 25,420 27,093 2002 23,756 27,040 2003 24,017 25,971 2004 25,021 25,747 2005 30,821 27,783 2006 32,290 27,428 2007 30,169 31,547 2008 36,850 29,474 2009 37,160 30,069 2010 40,326 39,129 2011 39,343 35,401 2012 40,200 31,508 2013 42,884 36,650 2014 43,803 33,915 2015 44,312 29,582 2016 50,571 30,497 2017 54,854 35,111 2018 63,818 34,207 2019 65,063 33,405 2020 60,066 4,569 2021 70,293 14,262 2022 71,943 26,875 2023 82,155 31,271" ], [ "Players and staff", "Chris Scott is the club's current head coach.=== Current playing list and coaches ====== Officials ===* '''President:''' Craig Drummond* '''Vice President:''' Diana Taylor* '''Chief Executive Officer:''' Steve Hocking* '''General Manager – Football:''' Simon Lloyd" ], [ "Club records", "=== Premierships and awards === '''Premierships''' Competition LevelWinsYears Won'''Australian Football League'''Seniors101925, 1931, 1937, 1951, 1952, 1963, 2007, 2009, 2011, 2022Reserves (1919–1999)131923, 1924, 1930, 1937, 1938, 1948, 1960, 1963, 1964, 1975, 1980, 1981, 1982 Under 19s (1946–1991)11962'''Victorian Football League'''Seniors (1877–1896)71878, 1879, 1880, 1882, 1883, 1884, 1886Reserves (2000–present)32002, 2007, 2012 '''Other titles and honours''''''McClelland Trophy'''Seniors111952, 1954, 1962, 1963, 1980, 1981, 1992, 2007, 2008, 2019, 2022'''Challenge Cup'''Seniors11863–64'''VFL Night Series'''Seniors11961'''AFL pre-season competition'''Seniors22006, 2009 '''Finishing positions''' '''Australian Football League'''Minor premiership15 1897, 1901, 1925, 1931, 1937, 1951, 1952, 1953, 1954, 1980, 1992, 2007, 2008, 2019, 2022Grand Finalist9 1930, 1953, 1967, 1989, 1992, 1994, 1995, 2008, 2020Wooden spoons51908, 1915, 1944, 1957, 1958=== Win–loss record ===: ''Statistics are correct to end of 2023 season''+ Geelong's win–loss record against other VFL/AFL clubs Club T W L D Win% 49 \t28 21 0 57.1 15 10 4 1 70.0 41 24 17 0 58.5 224 103 119 2 46.4 241 104 136 1 43.4 223 103 115 5 47.3 183 103 79 1 56.6 44 28 16 0 63.4 15 12 3 0 80.0 15 9 5 1 63.3 170 93 76 1 55.0 224 134 88 2 60.3 170 106 63 1 62.7 41 27 13 1 67.1 202 107 92 3 53.7 221 134 86 1 60.9 231 127 103 1 55.2 14 8 6 0 57.1 58 30 27 1 52.6 167 107 58 2 64.7 Totals 2548 1397 1127 24 55.3 Key W Wins L Losses D Draws T Total Win% Winning percentage === Match records ===+ Table of club VFL/AFL match records Club record Round Venue Opponent DetailsRef Highest score Round 7, 1992 Carrara Geelong 37.17 (239) v Brisbane Bears 11.9 (75) Lowest score Round 3, 1899 Corio Oval Geelong 0.8 (8) v Fitzroy 4.8 (32) Highest losing score Round 6, 1989 Princes Park Geelong 25.13 (163) v Hawthorn 26.15 (171) Lowest winning score Round 9, 1897 Corio Oval Geelong 1.9 (15) v Melbourne 0.10 (10) Biggest winning margin Round 19, 2011 Kardinia Park 186 points Geelong 37.11 (233) v Melbourne 7.5 (47) Biggest losing margin Round 21, 1986 Princes Park 135 points – Geelong 13.12 (90) v Hawthorn 35.15 (225) Record attendance (home and away game) Round 9, 2010 Melbourne Cricket Ground 91,115 Record attendance (finals matches, excluding Grand Finals) 1968 VFL season preliminary final Melbourne Cricket Ground 103,649\t Record attendance (finals match) 1967 VFL Grand Final Melbourne Cricket Ground 109,396=== Team of the Century ===" ], [ "Reserves team", "The '''Geelong reserves''' (also known as the '''Bendigo Bank Cats''' for sponsorship reasons) are the reserves side of the club, playing in the Victorian Football League.===History===Geelong's reserves side began competing in the Victorian Junior Football League, later known as the VFL/AFL reserves, in 1922.The team won thirteen premierships during that time (1923, 1924, 1930, 1937, 1938, 1948, 1960, 1963, 1964, 1975, 1980, 1981 and 1982), the most of any club.Since the demise of the AFL reserves competition, the Geelong reserves have competed in the Victorian Football League.", "Unlike all other Victorian AFL clubs, Geelong has never operated in a reserves affiliation with an existing VFL club, having instead operated its stand-alone reserves team continuously.", "The team is composed of both reserves players from the club's primary and rookie AFL lists, and a separately maintained list of players eligible only for VFL matches.", "Home games are played at GMHBA Stadium, with some played as curtain-raisers to senior AFL matches.The side is also known as the Bendigo Bank Cats, referring to the club's commercial partnership with Bendigo Bank.===Club honours===* '''Premierships (3)''': 2002, 2007, 2012* '''Runners-ups (2)''': 2006, 2013* '''Minor premierships (2)''': 2002, 2013* '''Wooden spoons (1)''': 2005" ], [ "Women's teams", "In 2017, following the inaugural AFL Women's (AFLW) season, Geelong was among eight clubs that applied for licenses to enter the competition from 2019 onwards.", "In September 2017, the club was announced as one of two clubs, along with , to receive a license to join the competition in 2019.The club has also had a team in the second-tier VFL Women's league since 2017.=== AFLW season summaries === LeagueSeason ClubSeason Ladder W–L–D Finals Coach Captain(s) Best and fairest Leading goal kicker201920196th^3–4–0Lost Preliminary FinalPaul HoodMelissa HickeyMeg McDonaldMia-Rae Clifford (6)2020202010th^2–4–0—Olivia PurcellRichelle Cranston (5)2021202113th1–8–0—Meg McDonaldAmy McDonaldRichelle Cranston (5)2022 (S6)2022 (S6)12th2–8–0—Daniel Lowther Amy McDonald Phoebe McWilliams (10)2022 (S7)2022 (S7)5th7–3–0Lost Elimination FinalAmy McDonaldChloe Scheer (13)202320236th6–4–0Lost Preliminary FinalGeorgie PrespakisChloe Scheer (20)^ Denotes the ladder was split into two conferences.", "Figure refers to the club's overall finishing position in the home-and-away season.=== VFLW season summaries === LeagueSeason ClubSeason Ladder W–L–D Finals Coach Captain Best and fairest Leading goal kicker 201720175 / 148–6–0—Paul HoodRebecca GoringLily MithenKate Darby (19)201820184 / 1310–3–1Runners-upRichelle CranstonKate Darby (17)201920196 / 138–6–0Lost Elimination FinalNatalie Wood''Rotating''†Rebecca WebsterMadisen Maguire (11)2020''Season cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic''202120212 / 1210–4–0Grand FinalistAndrew BruceMichelle FedeleClaudia GunjacaOlivia Barber (10)20222022 4 / 12 10–4–0Lost Elimination FinalBreanna BeckleyPaige SheppardMia Skinner (21)20232023 8 / 12 7–6–1 — Elise Coventry Chloe Leonard Charlotte Simpson Olivia Cicolini (11) † In 2019, the team captaincy rotated through the following 5 players: Kate Darby, Danielle Higgins, Jordan Ivey, Maddy Keryk, Amy McDonald.", "''Sources: Club historical data and VFLW stats''" ], [ "Activism", "===Same Sex Marriage===During the Australian Marriage Law Postal Survey, Geelong supported the Yes vote.===Voice to Parliament===Geelong is a supporter of the Voice to Parliament." ], [ "See also", "* Sport in Australia* Sport in Victoria* List of Geelong Football Club players, captains and coaches* 1963 Miracle Match" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Footnotes", ";References;Bibliography*" ], [ "External links", "* Official website of the Geelong Football Club* Official AFL website* Geelong Football Club Honour Roll – list of all Presidents, captains, coaches and Best & Fairest winners since 1879.", "* Geelong Cats results - Latest scores for Geelong Football Club" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Galileo (satellite navigation)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Galileo''' is a global navigation satellite system (GNSS) that went live in 2016, created by the European Union through the European Space Agency (ESA), operated by the European Union Agency for the Space Programme (EUSPA), headquartered in Prague, Czechia, with two ground operations centres in Fucino, Italy, and Oberpfaffenhofen, Germany.", "The €10 billion project is named after the Italian astronomer Galileo Galilei.", "One of the aims of Galileo is to provide an independent high-precision positioning system so European political and military authorities do not have to rely on the US GPS, or the Russian GLONASS systems, which could be disabled or degraded by their operators at any time.", "The use of basic (lower-precision) Galileo services is free and open to everyone.", "A fully encrypted higher-precision service is available for free to government-authorized users.", "Galileo is also to provide a new global search and rescue (SAR) function as part of the MEOSAR system.The first Galileo test satellite GIOVE-A was launched 28 December 2005, while the first satellite to be part of the operational system was launched on 21 October 2011.Galileo started offering Early Operational Capability (EOC) on 15 December 2016, providing initial services with a weak signal.", "In October 2018, four more Galileo satellites were brought online, increasing the number of active satellites to 18.In November 2018, FCC approves use of Galileo in the US.", "As of December 2023, there are 23 launched satellites that operate in the constellation, five are not available.", "It is expected that the next generation of satellites will begin to become operational after 2025 to replace older equipment, which can then be used for backup capabilities.The Galileo system has a greater accuracy than GPS, having an accuracy of less than 1 m when using broadcast ephemeris (GPS: 3 m) and a signal-in-space ranging error (SISRE) of 1.6 cm (GPS: 2.3 cm) when using real-time corrections for satellite orbits and clocks." ], [ "History", "EUSPA, which operates the Galileo system, in Prague=== Main objectives ===In 1999, the different concepts of the three main contributors of the ESA (Germany, France and Italy) for Galileo were compared and reduced to one by a joint team of engineers from all three countries.", "The first stage of the Galileo programme was agreed upon officially on 26 May 2003 by the European Union and the European Space Agency.", "The system is intended primarily for civilian use, unlike the more military-oriented systems of the United States (GPS), Russia (GLONASS) and China (BeiDou).", "The European system will only be subject to shutdown for military purposes in extreme circumstances (such as an armed conflict).", "Italy and Germany led the development of the first generation of the Galileo programme, while France is playing a more prominent role in the development of the Galileo Second Generation (G2G).=== Funding ===The European Commission had some difficulty funding the project's next stage, after several allegedly \"per annum\" sales projection graphs for the project were exposed in November 2001 as \"cumulative\" projections, which for each year projected included all previous years of sales.", "The attention that was brought to this multi-billion euro growing error in sales forecasts resulted in a general awareness in the commission and elsewhere that it was unlikely that the programme would yield the return on investment that had previously been suggested to investors and decision-makers.", "On 17 January 2002, a spokesman for the project stated that, as a result of US pressure and economic difficulties, \"Galileo is almost dead\".A few months later, however, the situation changed dramatically.", "European Union member states decided it was important to have a satellite-based positioning and timing infrastructure that the US could not easily turn off in times of political conflict.The European Union and the European Space Agency agreed in March 2002 to fund the project, pending a review in 2003 (which was completed on 26 May 2003).", "The starting cost for the period ending in 2005 is estimated at €1.1 billion.", "The required satellites (the planned number is 30) were to be launched between 2011 and 2014, with the system up and running and under civilian control from 2019.The final cost is estimated at €3 billion, including the infrastructure on Earth, constructed in 2006 and 2007.The plan was for private companies and investors to invest at least two-thirds of the cost of implementation, with the EU and ESA dividing the remaining cost.", "The base ''Open Service'' is to be available without charge to anyone with a Galileo-compatible receiver, with an encrypted higher-bandwidth improved-precision ''Commercial Service'' originally planned to be available at a cost, but in February 2018 the high accuracy service (HAS) (providing Precise Point Positioning data on the E6 frequency) was agreed to be made freely available, with the authentication service remaining commercial.", "By early 2011 costs for the project had run 50% over initial estimates.=== Tension with the United States ===US Deputy Secretary of Defense Paul Wolfowitz to the Ministers of the EU states, pointing out possible compatibility issues.Galileo is intended to be an EU civilian GNSS that allows all users access to it.", "Initially GPS reserved the highest quality signal for military use, and the signal available for civilian use was intentionally degraded (Selective Availability).", "This changed with President Bill Clinton signing a policy directive in 1996 to turn off Selective Availability.", "Since May 2000 the same precision signal has been provided to both civilians and the military.Since Galileo was designed to provide the highest possible precision (greater than GPS) to anyone, the US was concerned that an enemy could use Galileo signals in military strikes against the US and its allies (some weapons like missiles use GNSSs for guidance).", "The frequency initially chosen for Galileo would have made it impossible for the US to block the Galileo signals without also interfering with its own GPS signals.", "The US did not want to lose their GNSS capability with GPS while denying enemies the use of GNSS.", "Some US officials became especially concerned when Chinese interest in Galileo was reported.An anonymous EU official claimed that the US officials implied that they might consider shooting down Galileo satellites in the event of a major conflict in which Galileo was used in attacks against American forces.", "The EU's stance is that Galileo is a neutral technology, available to all countries and everyone.", "At first, EU officials did not want to change their original plans for Galileo, but they have since reached the compromise that Galileo is to use different frequencies.", "This allows the blocking or jamming of either GNSS without affecting the other.==== GPS and Galileo ====One of the reasons given for developing Galileo as an independent system was that position information from GPS can be made significantly inaccurate by the deliberate application of universal selective availability (SA) by the US military.", "GPS is widely used worldwide for civilian applications; Galileo's proponents argued that civil infrastructure, including aircraft navigation and landing, should not rely solely upon a system with this vulnerability.On 2 May 2000, the selective availability was disabled by the President of the United States, Bill Clinton; in late 2001 the entity managing the GPS confirmed that it did not intend to enable selective availability ever again.", "Though Selective Availability capability still exists, on 19 September 2007 the US Department of Defense announced that newer GPS satellites would not be capable of implementing Selective Availability; the wave of Block IIF satellites launched in 2009, and all subsequent GPS satellites, are stated not to support selective availability.", "As old satellites are replaced in the GPS Block III programme, selective availability will cease to be an option.", "The modernisation programme also contains standardised features that allow GPS III and Galileo systems to inter-operate, allowing receivers to be developed to utilise GPS and Galileo together to create an even more accurate GNSS.=== Cooperation with the United States ===In June 2004, in a signed agreement with the United States, the European Union agreed to switch to a binary offset carrier modulation 1.1, or BOC(1,1), allowing the coexistence of both GPS and Galileo, and the future combined use of both systems.", "The European Union also agreed to address the \"mutual concerns related to the protection of allied and US national security capabilities\".=== First experimental satellites: GIOVE-A and GIOVE-B ===The first experimental satellite, GIOVE-A, was launched in December 2005 and was followed by a second test satellite, GIOVE-B, launched in April 2008.After successful completion of the In-Orbit Validation (IOV) phase, additional satellites were launched.", "On 30 November 2007, the 27 EU transport ministers involved reached an agreement that Galileo should be operational by 2013, but later press releases suggest it was delayed to 2014.=== Funding again, governance issues ===In mid-2006, the public-private partnership fell apart, and the European Commission decided to nationalise the Galileo programme.In early 2007, the EU had yet to decide how to pay for the system and the project was said to be \"in deep crisis\" due to lack of more public funds.", "German Transport Minister Wolfgang Tiefensee was particularly doubtful about the consortium's ability to end the infighting at a time when only one testbed satellite had been successfully launched.Although a decision was yet to be reached, on 13 July 2007 EU countries discussed cutting €548 million (US$755 million, £370 million) from the union's competitiveness budget for the following year and shifting some of these funds to other parts of the financing pot, a move that could meet part of the cost of the union's Galileo satellite navigation system.", "European Union research and development projects could be scrapped to overcome a funding shortfall.In November 2007, it was agreed to reallocate funds from the EU's agriculture and administration budgets and to soften the tendering process in order to invite more EU companies.In April 2008, the EU transport ministers approved the Galileo Implementation Regulation.", "This allowed the €3.4 billion to be released from the EU's agriculture and administration budgets to allow the issuing of contracts to start construction of the ground station and the satellites.In June 2009, the European Court of Auditors published a report, pointing out governance issues, substantial delays and budget overruns that led to project stalling in 2007, leading to further delays and failures.In October 2009, the European Commission cut the number of satellites definitively planned from 28 to 22, with plans to order the remaining six at a later time.", "It also announced that the first OS, PRS and SoL signal would be available in 2013, and the CS and SOL some time later.", "The €3.4 billion budget for the 2006–2013 period was considered insufficient.", "In 2010, the think-tank Open Europe estimated the total cost of Galileo from start to 20 years after completion at €22.2 billion, borne entirely by taxpayers.", "Under the original estimates made in 2000, this cost would have been €7.7 billion, with €2.6 billion borne by taxpayers and the rest by private investors.In November 2009, a ground station for Galileo was inaugurated near Kourou (French Guiana).", "The launch of the first four in-orbit validation (IOV) satellites was planned for the second half of 2011, and the launch of full operational capability (FOC) satellites was planned to start in late 2012.In March 2010, it was verified that the budget for Galileo would only be available to provide the 4 IOV and 14 FOC satellites by 2014, with no funds then committed to bring the constellation above this 60% capacity.", "Paul Verhoef, the satellite navigation program manager at the European Commission, indicated that this limited funding would have serious consequences commenting at one point \"To give you an idea, that would mean that for three weeks in the year you will not have satellite navigation\" in reference to the proposed 18-vehicle constellation.In July 2010, the European Commission estimated further delays and additional costs of the project to grow up to €1.5–1.7 billion, and moved the estimated date of completion to 2018.After completion the system will need to be subsidised by governments at €750 million per year.", "An additional €1.9 billion was planned to be spent bringing the system up to the full complement of 30 satellites (27 operational + 3 active spares).In December 2010, EU ministers in Brussels voted Prague, in the Czech Republic, as the headquarters of the Galileo project.In January 2011, infrastructure costs up to 2020 were estimated at €5.3 billion.", "In that same month, Wikileaks revealed that Berry Smutny, the CEO of the German satellite company OHB-System, said that Galileo \"is a stupid idea that primarily serves French interests\".", "The BBC learned in 2011 that €500 million (£440 million) would become available to make the extra purchase, taking Galileo within a few years from 18 operational satellites to 24.Soyuz rocket on 21 October 2011.The first two Galileo In-Orbit Validation satellites were launched by Soyuz ST-B flown from Centre Spatial Guyanais on 21 October 2011, and the remaining two on 12 October 2012.As of 2017, the satellites are fully useful for precise positioning and geodesy with a limited usability in navigation.Twenty-two further satellites with Full Operational Capability (FOC) were on order .", "The first four pairs of satellites were launched on 22 August 2014, 27 March 2015, 11 September 2015 and 17 December 2015." ], [ "Clock failures", "In January 2017, news agencies reported that six of the passive hydrogen masers (PHM) and three of the rubidium atomic clocks (RAFS) had failed.", "Four of the full operational satellites have each lost at least one clock; but no satellite has lost more than two.", "The operation has not been affected as each satellite is launched with four clocks (2 PHM and 2 RAFS).", "The possibility of a systemic flaw is being considered.", "SpectraTime, the Swiss producer of both on-board clock types, declined to comment.", "According to ESA, they concluded with their industrial partners for the rubidium atomic clocks that some implemented testing and operational measures were required.", "Additionally some refurbishment is required for the rubidium atomic clocks that still have to be launched.", "For the passive hydrogen masers operational measures are being studied to reduce the risk of failure.", "China and India use the same SpectraTime-built atomic clocks in their satellite navigation systems.", "ESA has contacted the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) who initially reported not having experienced similar failures.", "However, at the end of January 2017, Indian news outlets reported that all three clocks aboard the IRNSS-1A satellite (launched in July 2013 with a 10-year life expectancy) had failed and that a replacement satellite would be launched in the second half of 2017: these atomic clocks were said to be supplied under a four-million-euro deal.In July 2017, the European Commission reported that the main causes of the malfunctions have been identified and measures have been put in place to reduce the possibility of further malfunctions of the satellites already in space.", "According to European sources, ESA took measures to correct both identified sets of problems by replacing a faulty component that can cause a short circuit in the rubidium clocks and improve the passive hydrogen maser clocks as well on satellites still to be launched.=== Outages ======= 2019 ====From 11 July till 18 July 2019, the whole constellation experienced an \"unexplained\" signal outage with all active satellites showing \"NOT USABLE\" status on the Galileo status page.", "The cause of the incident was an equipment malfunction in the Galileo ground infrastructure that affected the calculation of time and orbit predictions.==== 2020 ====On 14 December 2020, starting at 0:00 UTC, Galileo experienced a system-wide performance degradation lasting for 6 hours.", "GNSS receivers ignoring a 'marginal' status flag in the Galileo data could have experienced a pseudorange error of up to almost 80 km.", "The problem was related to an abnormal behaviour of a ground segment atomic clock in the time determination function of the system.", "In the parallel functioning Precise Timing Facilities in the Fucino and Oberpfaffenhofen Galileo Control Centres an issue occurred in Fucino whilst maintenance was performed on the parallel system in Oberpfaffenhofen." ], [ "International involvement", "In September 2003, China joined the Galileo project.", "China was to invest €230 million (US$302 million, £155 million, CNY 2.34 billion) in the project over the following years.In July 2004, Israel signed an agreement with the EU to become a partner in the Galileo project.On 3 June 2005, the European Union and Ukraine signed an agreement for Ukraine to join the project, as noted in a press release.", "As of November 2005, Morocco also joined the programme.In September 2005, India signed an agreement with the EU to join the project.In mid-2006, the public–private partnership fell apart and the European Commission decided to nationalise Galileo as an EU programme.", "In November 2006, China opted instead to upgrade BeiDou navigation system, its then-regional satellite navigation system.", "The decision was due to security concerns and issues with Galileo financing.On 30 November 2007, the 27 member states of the European Union unanimously agreed to move forward with the project, with plans for bases in Germany and Italy.", "Spain did not approve during the initial vote, but approved it later that day.", "This greatly improved the viability of the Galileo project: \"The EU's executive had previously said that if agreement was not reached by January 2008, the long-troubled project would essentially be dead\".On 3 April 2009, Norway too joined the programme pledging €68.9 million toward development costs and allowing its companies to bid for the construction contracts.", "Norway, while not a member of the EU, is a member of ESA.On 18 December 2013, Switzerland signed a cooperation agreement to fully participate in the program, and retroactively contributed €80 million for the period 2008–2013.As a member of ESA, it already collaborated in the development of the Galileo satellites, contributing the hydrogen-maser clocks.", "Switzerland's financial commitment for the period 2014–2020 will be calculated in accordance with the standard formula applied for the Swiss participation in the EU research Framework Programme.In March 2018, the European Commission announced that the United Kingdom may be excluded from parts of the project (especially relating to the secured service PRS) following its exit from the European Union (EU).", "As a result, Airbus was to relocate work on the Ground Control Segment (GCS) from its Portsmouth premises to an EU state.", "British officials have been reported to be seeking legal advice on whether they can reclaim the €1.4 billion invested by the United Kingdom, of the €10 billion spent to date.", "In a speech at the EU Institute for Security Studies conference, the EU Chief Negotiator in charge of the Brexit negotiations, Michel Barnier, stressed the EU position that the UK had decided to leave the EU and thus all EU programmes, including Galileo.", "In August 2018, the UK stated that it would look into creating a competing satellite navigation system to Galileo post-Brexit.", "In December 2018, British Prime Minister Theresa May announced that the UK would no longer seek to reclaim the investment, and Science Minister Sam Gyimah resigned over the matter." ], [ "System description", "=== Space segment ===Constellation visibility from a location on Earth's surfaceAs of 2012, the system was scheduled to have 15 satellites operational in 2015 and reach full operation in 2020 with the following specifications:* 30 in-orbit spacecraft (24 in full service and 6 spares)* Orbital altitude: (MEO)* Orbital period: 14 hours and 5 minutes (every 17 revolutions, done in 10 sidereal days, a satellite passes over the same location)* 3 orbital planes, 56.0° inclination, ascending nodes separated by 120.0° longitude (8 operational satellites and 2 active spares per orbital plane)* Satellite lifetime: >12 years* Satellite mass: * Satellite body dimensions: * Span of solar arrays: * Power of solar arrays: 1.5 kW (end of life)* Power of navigation antennas: 155–265 W=== Ground segment ===Galileo Control Centre at the DLR Oberpfaffenhofen siteGalileo In-Orbit Test (IOT) L-band (1,000 – 2,000 MHz) antenna at ESTRACK Redu StationThe system's orbit and signal accuracy is controlled by a ground segment consisting of:* Two ground control centres, located in Oberpfaffenhofen and Fucino for Satellite and Mission Control* Seven telemetry, tracking & control (TT&C) stations, located in Kiruna, 2x Kourou, Nouméa, Réunion, Redu and Papeete* Ten mission data uplink stations (ULS), two per site, located in Svalbard, Kourou, Papeete, Sainte-Marie, Réunion and Nouméa* Several worldwide distributed reference sensor stations (GSS), including one in the Kerguelen Islands* A data dissemination network between all geographically distributed locations* One service centre, located in Madrid, to help Galileo users.=== Signals ===The system transmits three signals: E1 (1575.42 MHz), E5 (1191.795 MHz) consisting of E5a (1176.45 MHz) and E5b (1207.14 MHz), and E6 (1278.75 MHz): Galileo FOC signals Parameters E1-I E1-Q E5a E5b E6-I E6-Q Carrier frequency (MHz) 1,575.42 1,575.42 1,176.45 1,207.14 1,278.75 1,278.75 Modulation CBOC (6, 1, 1/11) BOCcos (15, 2.5) AltBOC (15, 10) AltBOC (15, 10) BPSK (5) BOCcos (10, 5)=== Services ===The Galileo system will have four main services:;Open Service (OS):This will be available without charge for use by anyone with appropriate mass-market equipment; simple timing, and positioning down to 1 m for a double frequency receiver, best case.", ";High Accuracy Service (HAS; resulting from the re-scope of the former Galileo Commercial Service): Accuracy to 20 cm free of charge.", ";Public Regulated Service (PRS; encrypted): Designed to be more robust, with anti-jamming mechanisms and reliable problem detection.", "Limited to authorized governmental bodies.", ";Search and Rescue Service (SAR): The Galileo SAR Service is a Medium Earth Orbiting Search and Rescue (MEOSAR) service and part of the International Cospas-Sarsat Programme.==== Quarterly Service Performance Reports ====The European GNSS Service Centre provides public quarterly performance reports regarding the Open Service and Search and Rescue Service since 2017.Generally, the reported performance parameters measurements surpass the target values.The Galileo April, May, June 2021 Quarterly Open Service Performance Report by the European GNSS Service Centre reported the UTC Time Dissemination Service Accuracy was ≤ 4.3 nanoseconds, computed by accumulating samples over the previous 12 months and exceeding the ≤ 30 ns target value.", "The Signal In Space Error (SISE) was also well within the ≤  target value for Single and (more accurate) Dual Frequency receivers.", "The Galileo navigation message includes the differences between Galileo System Time (GST), UTC and GPS Time (GPST) (to promote interoperability).The Galileo April, May, June 2021 Quarterly Search and Rescue Service Performance Report by the European GNSS Service Centre reported the various performance parameters measurements surpassed their target values.=== Concept ===Space Passive Hydrogen Maser used in Galileo satellites as a master clock for an onboard timing systemPrototype Rb atomic clock for a Galileo satellite made in 2002Each Galileo satellite has two master passive hydrogen maser atomic clocks and two secondary rubidium atomic clocks which are independent of one other.", "As precise and stable space-qualified atomic clocks are critical components to any satellite-navigation system, the employed quadruple redundancy keeps Galileo functioning when onboard atomic clocks fail in space.", "The onboard passive hydrogen maser clocks' precision is four times better than the onboard rubidium atomic clocks and estimated at 1 second per 3 million years (a timing error of a nanosecond or 1 billionth of a second (10 or second) translates into a 30 cm positional error on Earth's surface), and will provide an accurate timing signal to allow a receiver to calculate the time that it takes the signal to reach it.", "The Galileo satellites are configured to run one hydrogen maser clock in primary mode and a rubidium clock as hot backup.", "Under normal conditions, the operating hydrogen maser clock produces the reference frequency from which the navigation signal is generated.", "Should the hydrogen maser encounter any problem, an instantaneous switchover to the rubidium clock would be performed.", "In case of a failure of the primary hydrogen maser the secondary hydrogen maser could be activated by the ground segment to take over within a period of days as part of the redundant system.", "A clock monitoring and control unit provides the interface between the four clocks and the navigation signal generator unit (NSU).", "It passes the signal from the active hydrogen master clock to the NSU and also ensures that the frequencies produced by the master clock and the active spare are in phase, so that the spare can take over instantly should the master clock fail.", "The NSU information is used to calculate the position of the receiver by trilaterating the difference in received signals from multiple satellites.The onboard passive hydrogen maser and rubidium clocks are very stable over a few hours.", "If they were left to run indefinitely, though, their timekeeping would drift, so they need to be synchronized regularly with a network of even more stable ground-based reference clocks.", "These include active hydrogen maser clocks and clocks based on the caesium frequency standard, which show a far better medium and long-term stability than rubidium or passive hydrogen maser clocks.", "These clocks on the ground are gathered together within the parallel functioning Precise Timing Facilities in the Fucino and Oberpfaffenhofen Galileo Control Centres.", "The ground based clocks also generate a worldwide time reference called Galileo System Time (GST), the standard for the Galileo system and are routinely compared to the local realisations of UTC, the UTC(k) of the European frequency and time laboratories.For more information of the concept of global satellite navigation systems, see GNSS and GNSS positioning calculation." ], [ "European GNSS Service Centre", "The European GNSS Service Centre is the point of contact for Galileo users' assistance.The European GNSS Service Centre (GSC), located in Madrid, is an integral part of Galileo and provides the single interface between the Galileo system and Galileo users.", "GSC publishes Galileo official documentation, promotes Galileo current and future services worldwide, supports standardisation and distributes Galileo almanacs, ephemeris and metadata.The GSC User Helpdesk is the point of contact for Galileo user's assistance.", "GSC answers queries and gathers incident notifications from users on Galileo.", "The helpdesk is continuously available for all worldwide Galileo users through the GSC web portal.GSC provides updated Galileo constellation status and informs on planned and unplanned events through Notice Advisory to Galileo Users (NAGU).", "GSC publishes Galileo reference documentation and general information on Galileo services and signals description and Galileo performance reports." ], [ "Search and rescue", "Galileo provides a global search and rescue (SAR) function as part of the MEOSAR system.", "Like Russia's Glonass, the United States' Global Positioning System (GPS) satellites, and some Chinese BeiDou satellites, Galileo satellites are equipped with a transponder which relays 406 MHz distress frequency signals from emergency beacons by a Forward Link Service (FLS) to the Rescue coordination centre, which will then initiate a rescue operation.After receipt of an emergency beacon signal, the Galileo SAR system provides a signal, the Return Link Message (RLM), ''to'' the emergency beacon, informing the person(s) in distress that the activated beacon has been detected and help is on the way.", "This return message feature is new in a satellite constellation and is considered a major upgrade compared to the existing Cospas-Sarsat system, which up to then did not provide feedback to the user.", "Tests in February 2014 found that for Galileo's search and rescue function, operating as part of the existing International Cospas-Sarsat Programme, 77% of simulated distress locations can be pinpointed within , and 95% within .The Galileo Return Link Service (RLS) went live in January 2020 for all RLS capable emergency beacons." ], [ "Constellation", "+ Summary of satellites, as of 20 Autumn 2023 Block Launchperiod Satellite launches In operationand healthy Full success Failure Planned GIOVE 2005–2008 2 0 0 0 IOV 2011–2012 4 0 0 3 FOC From 2014 22 2 10 20 G2G From 2024 0 0 12 0 Total 28 2 22 23 === Galileo satellite test beds: GIOVE ===GIOVE-A was successfully launched 28 December 2005.In 2004, the Galileo System Test Bed Version 1 (GSTB-V1) project validated the on-ground algorithms for Orbit Determination and Time Synchronisation (OD&TS).", "This project, led by ESA and European Satellite Navigation Industries, has provided industry with fundamental knowledge to develop the mission segment of the Galileo positioning system.", "* GIOVE-A is the first GIOVE (Galileo In-Orbit Validation Element) test satellite.", "It was built by Surrey Satellite Technology Ltd (SSTL), and successfully launched on 28 December 2005 by the European Space Agency and the Galileo Joint Undertaking (GJU).", "Operation of GIOVE-A ensured that Galileo meets the frequency-filing allocation and reservation requirements for the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), a process that was required to be complete by June 2006.", "* GIOVE-B, built by Astrium and Thales Alenia Space, has a more advanced payload than GIOVE-A.", "It was successfully launched on 27 April 2008 at 22:16 UTC aboard a Soyuz-FG/Fregat rocket provided by Starsem.A third satellite, GIOVE-A2, was originally planned to be built by SSTL for launch in the second half of 2008.Construction of GIOVE-A2 was terminated due to the successful launch and in-orbit operation of GIOVE-B.The GIOVE Mission segment operated by European Satellite Navigation Industries used the GIOVE-A/B satellites to provide experimental results based on real data to be used for risk mitigation for the IOV satellites that followed on from the testbeds.", "ESA organised the global network of ground stations to collect the measurements of GIOVE-A/B with the use of the GETR receivers for further systematic study.", "GETR receivers are supplied by Septentrio as well as the first Galileo navigation receivers to be used to test the functioning of the system at further stages of its deployment.", "Signal analysis of GIOVE-A/B data confirmed successful operation of all the Galileo signals with the tracking performance as expected.=== In-Orbit Validation (IOV) satellites ===These testbed satellites were followed by four IOV Galileo satellites that are much closer to the final Galileo satellite design.", "The search and rescue (SAR) feature is also installed.", "The first two satellites were launched on 21 October 2011 from Centre Spatial Guyanais using a Soyuz launcher, the other two on 12 October 2012.This enables key validation tests, since earth-based receivers such as those in cars and phones need to \"see\" a minimum of four satellites in order to calculate their position in three dimensions.", "Those 4 IOV Galileo satellites were constructed by Astrium GmbH and Thales Alenia Space.", "On 12 March 2013, a first fix was performed using those four IOV satellites.", "Once this In-Orbit Validation (IOV) phase has been completed, the remaining satellites will be installed to reach the Full Operational Capability.=== Full Operational Capability (FOC) satellites ===Model of a Galileo satellite==== FOC Batch 1 ====On 7 January 2010, it was announced that the contract to build the first 14 FOC satellites was awarded to OHB System and for the navigation payload to Surrey Satellite Technology Limited (SSTL).", "The first batch of Galileo First Generation satellites known as \"Batch-1\" consists of the Galileo-FOC FM1 to Galileo-FOC FM14 satellites.Fourteen satellites were built at a cost of €566 million (£510 million; US$811 million).", "Arianespace will launch the satellites for a cost of €397 million (£358 million; US$569 million).", "The European Commission also announced that the €85 million contract for system support covering industrial services required by ESA for integration and validation of the Galileo system had been awarded to Thales Alenia Space.", "Thales Alenia Space subcontract performances to Astrium GmbH and security to Thales Communications.==== FOC Batch 2 ====In February 2012, an additional order of 8 FOC satellites was awarded to OHB Systems for €250 million (US$327 million), after outbidding EADS Astrium tender offer.", "The second batch of Galileo First Generation satellites known as \"Batch-2\" consists of the Galileo-FOC FM15 to Galileo-FOC FM22 satellites.", "Thus bringing the total to 22 FOC satellites.", "The satellites were built by OHB, with the contribution of Surrey Satellite Technology (SSTL).==== FOC Batch 3 ====In June and October 2017, two additional orders for 8 and 4 FOC satellites were awarded to OHB Systems for €324 million and €157.75 million.", "This third and final batch of Galileo First Generation satellites known as \"Batch-3\" consists of the Galileo-FOC FM23 to Galileo-FOC FM34 satellites.", "The satellites are being built by OHB in Bremen, Germany, with the contribution of Surrey Satellite Technology (SSTL) in Guildford, United Kingdom.", "When completed Batch-3 brings the total to 34 FOC satellites.==== FOC launches ====On 7 May 2014, the first two FOC satellites landed in Guyana for their joint launch planned in summer Originally planned for launch during 2013, problems tooling and establishing the production line for assembly led to a delay of a year in serial production of Galileo satellites.", "These two satellites (Galileo satellites GSAT-201 and GSAT-202) were launched on 22 August 2014.The names of these satellites are Doresa and Milena named after European children who had previously won a drawing contest.", "On 23 August 2014, launch service provider Arianespace announced that the flight VS09 experienced an anomaly and the satellites were injected into an incorrect orbit.", "They ended up in elliptical orbits and thus could not be used for navigation.", "However, it was later possible to use them to perform a physics experiment, so they were not a complete loss.Satellites GSAT-203 (Adam) and GSAT-204 (Anastasia) were launched successfully on 27 March 2015 from Guiana Space Centre using a Soyuz four stage launcher.Satellites GSAT-205 (Alba) and GSAT-206 (Oriana) were launched successfully on 11 September 2015 from Guiana Space Centre using a Soyuz four stage launcher.Satellites GSAT-208 (Liene) and GSAT-209 (Andriana) were successfully launched from Kourou, French Guiana, using the Soyuz four stage launcher on 17 December 2015.Satellites GSAT-210 (Daniele) and GSAT-211 (Alizée) were launched on 24 May 2016.Starting in November 2016, deployment of the last twelve satellites will use a modified Ariane 5 launcher, named Ariane 5 ES, capable of placing four Galileo satellites into orbit per launch.Satellites GSAT-207 (Antonianna), GSAT-212 (Lisa), GSAT-213 (Kimberley), GSAT-214 (Tijmen) were successfully launched from Kourou, French Guiana, on 17 November 2016 on an Ariane 5 ES.On 15 December 2016, Galileo started offering Initial Operational Capability (IOC).", "The services currently offered are Open Service, Public Regulated Service and Search and Rescue Service.The first Batch-2 satellites GSAT-215 (Nicole), GSAT-216 (Zofia), GSAT-217 (Alexandre), GSAT-218 (Irina) were successfully launched from Kourou, French Guiana, on 12 December 2017 on an Ariane 5 ES.Satellites GSAT-219 (Tara), GSAT-220 (Samuel), GSAT-221 (Anna), GSAT-222 (Ellen) were successfully launched from Kourou, French Guiana, on 25 July 2018 on an Ariane 5 ES.The first Batch-3 satellites GSAT-223 (Nikolina) and GSAT-224 (Shriya) were successfully launched from Kourou, French Guiana, on 5 December 2021 on a Soyuz four stage launcher.Shriya successfully joined the constellation on 29 August 2022.=== Second generation (G2G) satellites ===As of 2014, ESA and its industry partners have begun studies on Galileo Second Generation (G2G) satellites, which were to be presented to the EC for the late 2020s launch period.", "One idea was to employ electric propulsion, which would eliminate the need for an upper stage during launch and allow satellites from a single batch to be inserted into more than one orbital plane.", "The new generation satellites are expected to be available by 2025.and serve to augment the existing network.", "On 20 January 2021, the European Commission announced that it had awarded a €1.47 billion contract to Thales Alenia Space (TAS) and Airbus Defence and Space for 6 spacecraft by each manufacturer.", "The signing of the contracts to Thales Alenia Space and Airbus Defence and Space, scheduled on 29 January 2021, was suspended by the European Court of Justice following a protest filed by OHB SE, the losing bidder.", "The OHB protest at the ECJ's General Court is based on “allegations of theft of trade secrets”, and seeks both a suspension of the contract signatures and the cancellation of the contract award.", "In May 2021 ESA reported it signed the contracts to design and build the first batch of Galileo Second Generation (G2G) satellites with Thales Alenia Space and Airbus Defence and Space.", "The 12 G2G satellites will feature electric propulsion, enhanced navigation signals and capabilities, inter-satellite links and reconfigurability in space." ], [ "Applications and impact", "=== Science projects using Galileo ===In July 2006, an international consortium of universities and research institutions embarked on a study of potential scientific applications of the Galileo constellation.", "This project, named GEO6, is a broad study oriented to the general scientific community, aiming to define and implement new applications of Galileo.Among the various GNSS users identified by the Galileo Joint Undertaking, the GEO6, project addresses the Scientific User Community (UC).", "The GEO6 project aims at fostering possible novel applications within the scientific UC of GNSS signals, and particularly of Galileo.The AGILE project is an EU-funded project devoted to the study of the technical and commercial aspects of location-based services (LBS).", "It includes technical analysis of the benefits brought by Galileo (and EGNOS) and studies the hybridisation of Galileo with other positioning technologies (network-based, WLAN, etc.).", "Within these projects, some pilot prototypes were implemented and demonstrated.On the basis of the potential number of users, potential revenues for Galileo Operating Company or Concessionaire (GOC), international relevance, and level of innovation, a set of Priority Applications (PA) will be selected by the consortium and developed within the time-frame of the same project.These applications will help to increase and optimise the use of the EGNOS services and the opportunities offered by the Galileo Signal Test-Bed (GSTB-V2) and the Galileo (IOV) phase.All Galileo satellites are equipped with laser retroreflector arrays which allow them to be tracked by the stations of the International Laser Ranging Service.", "Satellite laser ranging to Galileo satellites are used for the validation of satellite orbits, determination of Earth rotation parameters and for the combined solutions incorporating laser and microwave observations.=== Receivers ===Samsung Galaxy S8+ smartphones receiving Galileo and other GNSS signalsAll major GNSS receiver chips support Galileo and hundreds of end-user devices are compatible with Galileo.", "The first, dual-frequency-GNSS-capable Android devices, which track more than one radio signal from each satellite, E1 and E5a frequencies for Galileo, were the Huawei Mate 20 line, Xiaomi Mi 8, Xiaomi Mi 9 and Xiaomi Mi MIX 3., there were more than 140 Galileo-enabled smartphones on the market of which 9 were dual-frequency enabled.", "An extensive list of enabled devices, for various uses, on land, sea and in air is frequently updated at the EU website.", "On 24 December 2018, the European Commission passed a mandate for all new smartphones to implement Galileo for E112 support.Effective from 1st April 2018, all new vehicles sold in Europe must support eCall, an automatic emergency response system that dials 112 and transmits Galileo location data in the event of an accident.Until late 2018, Galileo was not authorized for use in the United States and, as a consequence, only variably worked on devices that could receive Galileo signals, within United States territory.", "The Federal Communications Commission's (FCC) position on the matter was (and remains) that non-GPS radio navigation satellite systems (RNSS) receivers must be granted a licence to receive said signals.", "A waiver of this requirement for Galileo was requested by the EU and submitted in 2015, and on 6 January 2017, public comment on the matter was requested.", "On 15 November 2018, the FCC granted the requested waiver, explicitly allowing non-federal consumer devices to access Galileo E1 and E5 frequencies.", "However, most devices, including smartphones still require operating system updates or similar updates to allow the use of Galileo signals within the United States (most smartphones since the Apple iPhone 6S and Samsung Galaxy S7 have the hardware capability, and simply require a software modification).=== Coins ===European Satellite Navigation commemorative coin, backThe European Satellite Navigation project was selected as the main motif of a very high-value collectors' coin: the Austrian European Satellite Navigation commemorative coin, minted on 1 March 2006.The coin has a silver ring and gold-brown niobium \"pill\".", "In the reverse, the niobium portion depicts navigation satellites orbiting the Earth.", "The ring shows different modes of transport, for which satellite navigation was developed: an aircraft, a car, a lorry, a train and a container ship." ], [ "See also", "=== Competing systems ===* BeiDou (BDS) – global system deployed and operated by China.", "* GLONASS – global system deployed and operated by Russia.", "* GPS – global system deployed and operated by the United States.", "* Michibiki (QZSS) – regional navigation system deployed and operated by Japan, receivable in the Asia-Oceania regions, with a focus on Japan.", "* NavIC – regional system deployed and operated by India, receivable in the South Asia and Western Asia regions.=== Other ===* List of Galileo satellites* Commercialization of space* European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service* Multiplexed binary offset carrier modulation – the modulation type chosen for Galileo Open Service signals and modernized GPS signals*International Terrestrial Reference System and Frame – the coordinate system used by Galileo" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* The Galileo Project – Galileo Design consolidation, European Commission, 2003* Guenter W. Hein, Jeremie Godet, et al.", ": Status of Galileo Frequency and Signal Design, Proc.", "ION GPS 2002.", "* Dee Ann Divis: Military role for Galileo emerges.", "GPS World, May 2002, Vol.", "13, No.", "5, p. 10.", "* Dr Richard North: Galileo – The Military and Political Dimensions.", "2004.", "*" ], [ "Further reading", "* Psiaki, M. L., \"Block Acquisition of weak GPS signals in a software receiver\", Proceedings of ION GPS 2001, the 14th International Technical Meeting of the Satellite Division of the Institute of Navigation, Salt Lake City, Utah, 11–14 September 2001, pp. 2838–2850.", "* Bandemer, B., Denks, H., Hornbostel, A., Konovaltsev, A., \"Performance of acquisition methods for Galileo SW receivers\", European Journal of Navigation, Vol.4, No.", "3, pp.", "17–19, July 2006* Van Der Jagt, Culver W. ''Galileo : The Declaration of European Independence'' : a dissertation (2002).", "CALL #JZ1254 .V36 2002, Description xxv, 850 p. : ill. ; 30 cm + 1 CD-ROM" ], [ "External links", "* European GNSS Service Centre (GSC)* European Commission* Galileo Reference Documents* ESA website* European GNSS Supervisory Authority (GSA) – Europa* Galileo-enabled devices* Navipedia information on Galileo—Wiki initiated by the European Space Agency" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gavrilo Princip" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Gavrilo Princip''' (, ; 25 July 189428 April 1918) was a Bosnian Serb student who assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir presumptive to the throne of Austria-Hungary, and his wife Sophie, Duchess von Hohenberg, in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914.The killing of the Archduke and his wife set off the July Crisis, a chain of events that within one month led to the outbreak of World War I.Princip was born in western Bosnia to a poor Serb family.", "At the age of 13, he was sent to Sarajevo, the capital of Austrian-occupied Bosnia, to study at the Merchants' School, before transferring to the gymnasium, where he became politically aware.", "In 1911, he joined Young Bosnia, a secret local society aiming to free Bosnia from Austrian rule and achieve the unification of the South Slavs.", "After attending anti-Austrian demonstrations in Sarajevo, he was expelled from school and walked to Belgrade, Serbia to continue his education.", "During the First Balkan War, Princip traveled to Southern Serbia to volunteer with the Serbian army's irregular forces fighting against the Ottoman Empire but was rejected for being too small and weak.In 1913, following the unexpected success of the Serbians in the war against the Ottomans, the Austrian military governor of Bosnia, Oskar Potiorek, declared a state of emergency, dissolved the parliament, imposed martial rule, and banned all Serbian public, cultural, and educational societies.", "Inspired by a spate of assassination attempts against Imperial officials by Slavic nationalists and anarchists, Princip convinced two other young Bosnians to join a plot to assassinate the heir to the Habsburg Empire during his announced visit to Sarajevo.", "The Black Hand, a Serbian secret society with ties to Serbian military intelligence, provided the conspirators with weapons and training before facilitating their re-entry into Bosnia.On Sunday 28 June 1914 during the royal couple's visit to Sarajevo, the then-teenager Princip mortally wounded both Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophie by firing a pistol into their convertible car that had unexpectedly stopped from him.", "Princip was arrested immediately and tried alongside twenty-four others, all Bosnians and thus Austro-Hungarian subjects.", "At his trial, Princip stated: \"I am a Yugoslav nationalist, aiming for the unification of all Yugoslavs, and I do not care what form of state, but it must be free from Austria.\"", "Princip was spared the death penalty because of his age (19) and sentenced to twenty years in prison.", "He was imprisoned at the Terezín fortress.", "The Serbian government itself did not inspire the assassination but the Austrian Foreign Office and Army used the murders as a reason for a preventive war which led directly to World War I.Princip died on 28 April 1918 from tuberculosis exacerbated by poor prison conditions which had already caused one of his arms to be amputated." ], [ "Early life", "Gavrilo Princip was born in the remote hamlet of Obljaj, near Bosansko Grahovo, on .", "He was the second of his parents' nine children, six of whom died in infancy.", "Princip's mother Marija wanted to name him after her late brother, Špiro, but he was named Gavrilo at the insistence of a local Eastern Orthodox priest, who claimed that naming the sickly infant after the Archangel Gabriel would help him survive.Gavrilo Princip's parents, Marija and Petar Princip Princip family home in ObljajA Serb family, the Princips had lived in northwestern Bosnia for many centuries.", "His ancestors came from Grahovo, Nikšić in Montenegro, emigrating in the early 1700s, they were members of the Jovičević clan and adhered to the Serbian Orthodox Christian faith.", "Princip's parents, Petar and Marija (née Mićić), were poor farmers who lived off the little land that they owned.", "They belonged to a class of Christian peasants known as ''kmetovi'' (serfs), who were often oppressed by their Muslim landlords.", "Petar, who insisted on \"strict correctness\", never drank or swore and was ridiculed by his neighbours as a result.", "In his youth, he fought in the Herzegovina Uprising against the Ottoman Empire.", "Following the revolt, he returned to being a farmer in the Grahovo valley, where he worked approximately of land and was forced to give a third of his income to his landlord.", "To supplement his income and feed his family, he resorted to transporting mail and passengers across the mountains between northwestern Bosnia and Dalmatia.Despite his father's initial opposition, as he needed a shepherd to guard his sheep, Princip began attending primary school in 1903, aged nine.", "He overcame a difficult first year and became very successful in his studies, for which he was awarded a collection of Serbian epic poetry by his headmaster.", "At the age of 13, Princip moved to Sarajevo, where his elder brother Jovan intended to enroll him at Sarajevo's Austro-Hungarian Military Academy.", "However, by the time Princip reached Sarajevo, Jovan had changed his mind after a shopkeeper advised him not to make his younger brother \"an executioner of his own people\".", "Princip was enrolled into the Merchants' School instead.", "Jovan paid for his tuition with the money he earned performing manual labour, carrying logs from the forests surrounding Sarajevo to mills within the city.", "After three years of study, Gavrilo transferred to the Sarajevo Gymnasium." ], [ "Joining Young Bosnia", "Following the annexation of the region by the Austro-Hungarian empire in 1908, Bosnia, like the other southern Slavic states under imperial rule, yearned for independence.", "As a result, various student groups emerged interested in movements such as romantic nationalism, nihilism, or anti imperialism, while at school and through his roommate Danilo Ilić, Princip was also exposed to socialist, anarchist, and communist writing.", "Princip started to associate with like-minded young nationalist revolutionaries and came to admire Bogdan Žerajić, a Bosnian Serb who had attempted to assassinate the Austro-Hungarian Governor of Bosnia and Herzegovina, before taking his own life.", "Žerajić, who was from Herzegovina like Princip, came to epitomize, in the eyes of many, the ideal of self sacrifice.", "On the anniversary of his death, Serb youths from Sarajevo started to visit his grave to lay flowers.", "According to Luigi Albertini, this is where, after spending nights reflecting at the grave, that Princip resolved to participate in his own attack.", "In 1911, Princip graduated from the fourth grade and joined Young Bosnia (), a society with members from all three major Bosnian ethnic groups, that sought the liberation of Bosnia from Austro-Hungarian rule and the unification of all Southern Slavs in a common nation.", "Some believed that the newly independent Kingdom of Serbia, as the free part of the south Slavs, was obligated to help unify the southern Slavic peoples.", "Because the local authorities had forbidden students to form organisations and clubs, Princip and other members of Young Bosnia met in secret.", "During their meetings, they discussed literature, ethics and politics.On 18 February 1912, Princip took part in a demonstration against the Habsburg authority in Sarajevo, organised by Luka Jukić, a Croat student from Bosnia.", "The demonstrators burned a Hungarian flag and many were injured and arrested by the police.", "During the scuffle Princip was hit with a sabre and his clothes were torn.", "The following day the students declared a general strike, and for the first time in Bosnian history, Croats, Serbs and Muslims took part together.", "A student present that day claimed that \"Princip went from class to class, threatening with his knuckle-duster all the boys who wavered in coming to the new demonstrations.\"", "As a result of his conduct and his involvement in the demonstrations against Austro-Hungarian authorities, Princip was expelled from school and in the spring of 1912 decided to go to Belgrade, making the 280-kilometre (170 mi) journey on foot.", "According to one account, he fell to his knees and kissed the ground upon crossing the border into Serbia.", "Having left Sarajevo without telling his brother, Princip lived without money and in difficult conditions alongside other Bosnian students.", "In June 1912, he went to the First Belgrade Gymnasium to take the fifth grade exam which he failed.Three-man assassination team Trifko Grabež, Milan Ciganović and Princip in Kalemegdan Park, May 1914When war broke out between the Balkan states and Turkey in October 1912, Princip went to a recruitment office in Belgrade to volunteer his service with the , the irregular Serbian units.", "Upon being rejected because of his small build, he traveled to a different recruitment office this time in Prokuplje, north of the Turkish frontier in southern Serbia.", "After taking one look at him, Major Vojislav Tankosić, the commander of all Komite units, rejected him for being too small and looking too weak.", "Humiliated, Princip returned first briefly to Belgrade then back to the village of Hadžići.", "According to Vladimir Dedijer, his failure to be accepted in the army on the account that he looked weak, was one of the primary motives which pushed Princip to do something exceptionally brave.", "In the South Slav lands, the unexpected success of the Serbian army resulted in numerous celebrations and demonstrations of support.", "In reaction on 2 May 1913, while Princip was in Sarajevo, the Austro-Hungarian Governor of Bosnia and Herzegovina General Potiorek declared a state of emergency, suspended the 1910 constitution of Bosnia and Herzegovina, implemented martial law, seized control of all schools, and prohibited all Serb public, cultural, and educational societies.In the summer of 1913 Princip passed the fifth and sixth grades of high school, then in early 1914 he left Sarajevo for Belgrade, stopping briefly in his village to see his parents.", "While in Belgrade preparing for his sixth-class examinations in the First Belgrade High School, Princip was shown by his friend Nedeljko Čabrinović a newspaper cutting announcing Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria's visit to Bosnia in June.", "Princip decided to lead a group of assassins back to Bosnia and attack the Archduke during his official visit to Sarajevo.", "He convinced Čabrinović and his old schoolfriend Trifko Grabež to join the plot.", "They also talked about killing Oskar Potiorek, the provincial governor, as a means of protest against the emergency régime.", "To find weapons, Princip asked his Bosnian Muslim friend, Djulaga Bukovac, a veteran of the Balkan wars.", "Bukovac introduced them to Milan Ciganović, another Bosnian expatriate who had fought under Major Tankošić during the Second Balkan War.", "Ciganović was also a freemason and an associate of the Black Hand, the secretive, ultra-nationalist Serbian group responsible for the regicide of 1903.Ciganović then approached Tankosić, another Black Hand member of Bosnian descent, from whom he obtained the weapons.", "On 27 May 1914, Ciganović supplied the three young Bosnians with five Browning pistols, six grenades, and several vials of poison.", "Ciganović took the would-be assassins to Topčider forest, just outside the centre of Belgrade, training them on how to use the weapons.", "Princip proved to be the best marksman.", "The three-man assassination team left Belgrade on 28 May 1914, taking a river boat that took them to Šabac, they then split up crossing separately the border into Bosnia.", "Each of them was carrying two bombs tied around their waist as well as revolvers, ammunition and a bottle of cyanide in their pockets.", "Before leaving Serbia, Princip wrote to his former roommate in Sarajevo Danilo Ilić, to notify him of his assassination plan and to ask him to recruit more people.", "Ilić recruited Muhamed Mehmedbašić, a Bosnian Muslim carpenter, Cvetko Popović, and Vaso Čubrilović, both Bosnian Serb students aged eighteen and seventeen." ], [ "Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand", "Gavrilo Princip fatally shooting the royal couple as illustrated by Achille BeltrameArchduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria and his wife, Duchess Sophie Chotek, arrived in Sarajevo by train shortly before 10 a.m. on 28 June 1914.Their car was the third car of a six-car motorcade heading towards Sarajevo Town Hall.", "The car's top was rolled back to allow the crowds a good view of its occupants.Princip and the five other conspirators lined the route.", "They were spaced out along the Appel Quay, each one with instructions to assassinate the Archduke when the royal car reached their position.", "The first conspirator on the route to see the royal car was Muhamed Mehmedbašić.", "Standing by the Austro-Hungarian Bank, Mehmedbašić lost his nerve and allowed the car to pass without taking action.", "At 10:15 am, when the motorcade passed the central police station, nineteen-year-old student Nedeljko Čabrinović hurled a hand grenade at the Archduke's car.", "The driver accelerated when he saw the object flying towards him, and the bomb, which had a 10-second delay, exploded under the fourth car.", "Two of the occupants were seriously wounded.", "After Čabrinović's failed attempt, the motorcade sped away and Princip and the remaining conspirators failed to act due to the motorcade's high speed.After the Archduke gave his scheduled speech at Town Hall, he decided to visit the victims of Čabrinović's grenade attack at the Sarajevo Hospital.", "To avoid the city centre, General Oskar Potiorek decided that the royal car should travel straight along the Appel Quay to the hospital.", "However, Potiorek forgot to inform the driver, a Czech named Leopold Lojka, about this decision.", "On the way to the hospital, Lojka, following the original plan, turned onto a side street where Princip was in front of a local delicatessen.", "After the Governor shouted at him, Lojka stopped in front of a shop and began to reverse.", "As he did so the engine stalled and the gears locked.", "Princip stepped forward, drew a Browning semi-automatic pistol, and at point-blank range fired twice into the car, first hitting the Archduke in the neck, and then hitting the Duchess in the abdomen.", "They both died shortly after.The Austro-Hungarian government who saw Serbia's nationalist aspirations as a threat to its own multi-ethnic empire, used the assassination as the perfect pretext to take action against Serbia.", "A chain of events triggered the July Crisis which led to the outbreak of World War I.", "On 28 July, 1914, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, followed by the declarations of war by Germany, France, Russia and Great Britain." ], [ "Arrest and trial", "Princip, seated centre of first row, during the trial.Browning gun, presented as evidence during the trial.Before Princip could fire for a third time, the pistol was wrested from his hand and he was pushed to the ground.", "He managed to swallow a capsule of cyanide, which failed to kill him.", "The trial opened on 12 October and lasted until 23 October 1914.Princip and twenty-four people were indicted.", "All six assassins, except Mehmedbašić, were under twenty at the time of the assassination, while the group was dominated by Bosnian Serbs, four of the indicted were Bosnian Croats and all of them were Austro-Hungarian citizens, none being from Serbia.", "The state's attorney charged twenty-two of the accused with high treason and murder and three with complicity in the murder.", "Princip stated that he regretted the killing of the Duchess and meant to kill Potiorek, but was nonetheless proud of what he had done.", "The Austrian police investigators were eager to emphasise the exclusively Serbian nature of the assassination plot for political reasons, but during his trial Princip insisted that, even though he was an ethnic Serb, his commitment was to freeing all south Slavs.", "All the chief conspirators mentioned the revolutionary destruction of Austria-Hungary and the liberation of the South Slavs as the motivation behind their act.The Austro-Hungarian authorities tried to hide the fact that the conspirators included Croats and Bosniaks, going as far as changing the name of one of them in the press reports, to portray the entire scheme as being of Serbian origin and carried out only by Serbs.", "Since it provided the weapons to the assassins and helped them cross the border, the Black Hand was implicated in the assassination.", "This did not prove that the Serbian government knew about the assassination, let alone approved of it, but was enough for Austria-Hungary to issue a démarche to Serbia known as the July Ultimatum, which led up to the outbreak of World War I.", "According to David Fromkin what the killings gave Vienna was not a reason, but an excuse, for destroying Serbia.Princip was nineteen years old at the time and too young to be executed, as he was twenty-seven days shy of the twenty-year minimum age limit required by Habsburg law.", "On Thursday 28 October 1914 the court found Princip guilty of murder and high treason, he received the maximum sentence of twenty years in prison, he was to serve out his sentence in a military prison within the Habsburg fortress of Theresienstadt in northern Bohemia (now in the Czech Republic)." ], [ "Imprisonment and death", "Terezín fortressPrincip was chained to a wall in solitary confinement at the Small Fortress in Terezín, where he lived in harsh conditions and developed tuberculosis.", "The disease ate away his bones so badly that his right arm had to be amputated.", "In January 1916, Princip unsuccessfully attempted to hang himself with a towel.", "From February to June 1916, Princip met with Martin Pappenheim, a psychiatrist in the Austro-Hungarian army, four times.", "Pappenheim wrote that Princip asserted that the First World War would have occurred even if the assassination had not taken place, and that he \"cannot feel himself responsible for the catastrophe\".Princip died on 28 April 1918, three years and ten months after the assassination.", "At the time of his death, weakened by malnutrition and disease, he weighed around .", "Fearing his bones might become relics for Slavic nationalists, Princip's prison guards secretly took the body to an unmarked grave, but a Czech soldier assigned to the burial remembered the location, and in 1920 Princip and the other \"Heroes of Vidovdan\" were exhumed and brought to Sarajevo, where they were buried together beneath the Vidovdan Heroes Chapel \"built to commemorate for eternity our Serb heroes\" at the Holy Archangels Cemetery, which includes a citation from the Montenegrin poet Njegoš: \"Blessed is he who lives forever.", "He had something to be born for.\"" ], [ "Legacy", "Long after his death, Princip's legacy is still disputed and he remains a historically significant but polarising figure.", "For the Habsburg monarchy and its supporters, he was a murderous terrorist; Royal Yugoslavia portrayed him as a Yugoslav hero; during World War II, Nazis and Croatian fascist Ustasha viewed him as a degenerate criminal and a left-wing anarchist; and for socialist Yugoslavia, he represented a youthful hero of armed resistance, a freedom fighter who fought to liberate all the peoples of Yugoslavia from Imperial rule, fighting for the workers and the oppressed.", "In the 1990s, Princip started to be seen by some as a Serbian nationalist acting for the creation of a Greater Serbia.", "Political movements and regimes have either praised or demonized him to promote their ideology.Today he is still celebrated as a hero by numerous Serbs and regarded as a terrorist by many Croats and Bosniaks.", "Asim Sarajlić, a senior MP of the Bosniak nationalist Party of Democratic Action, stated in 2014 that Princip brought an end to \"a golden era of history under Austrian rule\" and that \"we are strongly against the mythology of Princip as a fighter of freedom\".", "Many of Bosnia's Serbs continue to venerate his memory: Nenad Samardžija, the Serb governor of East Sarajevo, said in 2014 that \"we once all lived in one state (Yugoslavia), and we never looked on it as any kind of terrorist act\" but \"a movement of young people who wanted to liberate themselves from colonial slavery\".=== Memorials and commemoration ===200x200px200x200pxThe 200x200pxThe house where Princip lived in Sarajevo was destroyed during World War I.", "After the war, it was rebuilt as a museum in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia.", "Yugoslavia was conquered by Germany in 1941 and Sarajevo became part of the Independent State of Croatia.", "The Croatian Ustaše destroyed the house again.", "After the establishment of Communist Yugoslavia in 1944, the house was rebuilt, became a museum again, and there was another museum dedicated to him within the city of Sarajevo.", "During the Yugoslav Wars of the 1990s, the house was destroyed again and then rebuilt for the third time in 2015.Princip's pistol was confiscated by the authorities and eventually given, along with the Archduke's blood-stained undershirt, to Anton Puntigam, a Jesuit priest who was a close friend of the Archduke and had given the Archduke and his wife their last rites.", "The pistol and shirt remained in the possession of the Austrian Jesuits until they were offered on long-term loan to the Museum of Military History in Vienna in 2004.It is now part of the permanent exhibition there.", "During the Yugoslavian era, Latin Bridge, the site of the assassination, was renamed ''Princip's Bridge'' in remembrance; it reverted to its old name in 1992.In Sarajevo about a half-dozen memorials to Gavrilo Princip have been erected on the site and torn down with each change in power.In 1917, a pillar was constructed at the corner of where the assassination took place.", "It was destroyed the following year.", "In 1941, the 1930 plaque commemorating Princip was removed by the local Germans when the German Army invaded.", "It was presented to Adolf Hitler as a birthday gift and kept in a museum, only to be lost after 1945.After World War II, a new plaque went up which claimed that \"Gavrilo Princip threw off the German occupiers\".", "During the Bosnian War, embossed footprints marking where Princip fired the fatal shots were torn out.As the centenary of the assassination neared, an apolitical plaque was put up at the corner where the assassination took place, which states: \"From this place on 28 June 1914, Gavrilo Princip assassinated the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sofia.\"", "On 21 April 2014, a bust of Princip was unveiled in Tovariševo, and on the centenary itself, a statue was erected in East Sarajevo.", "A year later, a statue of Princip was unveiled in Belgrade by the President of Serbia Tomislav Nikolić and the President of Republika Srpska Milorad Dodik, as a gift from Republika Srpska to Serbia.", "At the unveiling Nikolić gave a speech, saying in part: \"Princip was a hero, a symbol of liberation ideas, tyrant-killer, idea-holder of liberation from slavery, which spanned through Europe\".On 11 November 2018, the 100th anniversary of the end of World War I, Princess Anita of Hohenberg, the eldest great-grandchild of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, and Branislav Princip, grandnephew of Gavrilo Princip, shook hands in a symbolic act of reconciliation in Graz, Austria." ], [ "Portrayals", "=== Film ===In the German drama film ''1914'' (1931), Carl Balhaus played Gavrilo Princip.", "Irfan Mensur played Princip in ''The Day That Shook the World'' (1975), based on the assassination.", "In the Austrian biopic '''' (1990, original German title ''Gavre Princip - Himmel unter Steinen'') by Peter Patzak about Princip's life, he was portrayed by British actor and director Reuben Pillsbury.", "He was portrayed by Eugen Knecht in ''Sarajevo'' (2014), a German-Austrian television film based on the assassination, and by Joel Basman in ''The King's Man'' (2021), the third film in the Kingsman fiction film series." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "=== Bibliography ===**********************=== Websites ===**************" ], [ "Further reading", "*********Cédric Simonin, ''Les dernières heures du monde d'avant - L'attentat de Sarajevo'', Erick Bonnier, 2022" ], [ "External links", "* Gavrilo Princip's statement during trial* Prison interview with Gavrilo Princip" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Greenwich Village" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Greenwich Village''', or simply '''The Village''', is a neighborhood on the west side of Lower Manhattan in New York City, bounded by 14th Street to the north, Broadway to the east, Houston Street to the south, and the Hudson River to the west.", "Greenwich Village also contains several subsections, including the West Village west of Seventh Avenue and the Meatpacking District in the northwest corner of Greenwich Village.Its name comes from ''Groenwijck'', Dutch for \"Green District\".", "In the 20th century, Greenwich Village was known as an artists' haven, the bohemian capital, the cradle of the modern LGBT movement, and the East Coast birthplace of both the Beat Generation and counterculture of the 1960s.", "Greenwich Village contains Washington Square Park, as well as two of New York City's private colleges, New York University (NYU) and The New School.", "In later years it has been associated with hipsters.Greenwich Village is part of Manhattan Community District 2, and is patrolled by the 6th Precinct of the New York City Police Department.", "Greenwich Village has undergone extensive gentrification and commercialization; the four ZIP Codes that constitute the Village – 10011, 10012, 10003, and 10014 – were all ranked among the ten most expensive in the United States by median housing prices in 2014, according to ''Forbes'', with residential property sale prices in the West Village neighborhood typically exceeding US in 2017." ], [ "Geography", "===Boundaries===MacDougal Street in Greenwich VillageThe neighborhood is bordered by Broadway to the east, the North River (part of the Hudson River) to the west, Houston Street to the south, and 14th Street to the north.", "It is roughly centered on Washington Square Park and New York University.", "Adjacent to Greenwich Village are the neighborhoods of NoHo and the East Village to the east, SoHo and Hudson Square to the south, and Chelsea and Union Square to the north.", "The East Village was formerly considered part of the Lower East Side and has never been considered a part of Greenwich Village.", "The western part of Greenwich Village is known as the West Village; the dividing line of its eastern border is debated but commonly cited as Seventh Avenue or Sixth Avenue.", "The Far West Village is another sub-neighborhood of Greenwich Village that is bordered on its west by the Hudson River and on its east by Hudson Street.Into the early 20th century, Greenwich Village was distinguished from the upper-class neighborhood of Washington Square—based on the major landmark of Washington Square Park or Empire Ward in the 19th century.", "''Encyclopædia Britannica'''s 1956 article on \"New York (City)\" states (under the subheading \"Greenwich Village\") that the southern border of the Village is Spring Street, reflecting an earlier understanding.", "Today, Spring Street overlaps with the modern, newer SoHo neighborhood designation, while the modern ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' cites the southern border as Houston Street.===Grid plan===The intersection of West 4th and West 12th StreetsStreet signs at intersection of West 10th and West 4th StreetsAs Greenwich Village was once a rural, isolated hamlet to the north of the 17th century European settlement on Manhattan Island, its street layout is more organic than the planned grid pattern of the 19th century grid plan (based on the Commissioners' Plan of 1811).", "Greenwich Village was allowed to keep the 18th century street pattern of what is now called the West Village: areas that were already built up when the plan was implemented, west of what is now Greenwich Avenue and Sixth Avenue, resulted in a neighborhood whose streets are dramatically different, in layout, from the ordered structure of the newer parts of Manhattan.Many of the neighborhood's streets are narrow and some curve at odd angles.", "This is generally regarded as adding to both the historic character and charm of the neighborhood.", "In addition, as the meandering Greenwich Street used to be on the Hudson River shoreline, much of the neighborhood west of Greenwich Street is on landfill, but still follows the older street grid.", "When Sixth and Seventh Avenues were extended in the early 20th century, they were built diagonally to the existing street plan, and many older, smaller streets had to be demolished.Unlike the streets of most of Manhattan above Houston Street, streets in the Village are typically named rather than numbered.", "While some of the formerly named streets (including Factory, Herring and Amity Streets) are now numbered, they still do not always conform to the usual grid pattern when they enter the neighborhood.", "For example, West 4th Street runs east–west across most of Manhattan, but runs north–south in Greenwich Village, causing it to intersect with West 10th, 11th, and 12th Streets before ending at West 13th Street.A large section of Greenwich Village, made up of more than 50 northern and western blocks in the area up to 14th Street, is part of a Historic District established by the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission.", "The District's convoluted borders run no farther south than 4th Street or St. Luke's Place, and no farther east than Washington Square East or University Place.", "Redevelopment in that area is severely restricted, and developers must preserve the main façade and aesthetics of the buildings during renovation.Most of the buildings of Greenwich Village are mid-rise apartments, 19th century row houses, and the occasional one-family walk-up, a sharp contrast to the high-rise landscape in Midtown and Downtown Manhattan.===Political representation===Politically, Greenwich Village is in New York's 10th congressional district.", "It is also in the New York State Senate's 25th district, the New York State Assembly's 66th district, and the New York City Council's 3rd district." ], [ "History", "===Early years===Map of old Greenwich Village.", "A section of Bernard Ratzer's map of New York and its suburbs, made for Henry Moore, royal governor of New York, when Greenwich was more than 2 miles (3 km) from the city.In the 16th century, Lenape referred to its farthest northwest corner, by the cove on the Hudson River at present-day Gansevoort Street, as Sapokanikan (\"tobacco field\").", "The land was cleared and turned into pasture by the Dutch and their enslaved Africans, who named their settlement (also spelled , \"North district\", equivalent to 'Northwich/Northwick').", "In the 1630s, Governor Wouter van Twiller farmed tobacco on here at his \"Farm in the Woods\".", "The English conquered the Dutch settlement of New Netherland in 1664, and Greenwich Village developed as a hamlet separate from the larger New York City to the south on land that would eventually become the Financial District.", "In 1644, the eleven Dutch African settlers in the area were granted half freedoms after the first Black legal protest in America.", "All received parcels of land in what is now Greenwich Village, in an area that became known as the Land of the Blacks.The earliest known reference to the village's name as \"Greenwich\" dates back to 1696, in the will of Yellis Mandeville of Greenwich; however, the village was not mentioned in the city records until 1713.Sir Peter Warren began accumulating land in 1731 and built a frame house capacious enough to hold sittings of the New York General Assembly when smallpox rendered the city dangerous in 1739 and subsequent years; on one occasion in 1746, the house of Mordecai Gomez was used.", "Warren's house, which survived until the Civil War era, overlooked the North River from a bluff; its site on the block bounded by Perry and Charles Streets, Bleecker and West 4th Streets, can still be recognized by its mid-19th century rowhouses inserted into a neighborhood still retaining many houses of the 1830–37 boom.", "From 1797 until 1829, the bucolic village of Greenwich was the location of New York State's first penitentiary, Newgate Prison, on the Hudson River at what is now West 10th Street, near the Christopher Street pier.", "The building was designed by Joseph-François Mangin, who would later co-design New York City Hall.", "Although the intention of its first warden, Quaker prison reformer Thomas Eddy, was to provide a rational and humanitarian place for retribution and rehabilitation, the prison soon became an overcrowded and pestilent place, subject to frequent riots by the prisoners which damaged the buildings and killed some inmates.", "By 1821, the prison, designed for 432 inmates, held 817 instead, a number made possible only by the frequent release of prisoners, sometimes as many as 50 a day.", "Since the prison was north of the New York City boundary at the time, being sentenced to Newgate became known as being \"sent up the river\".", "This term became popularized once prisoners started being sentenced to Sing Sing Prison, in the town of Ossining upstream of New York City.The oldest house remaining in Greenwich Village is the Isaacs-Hendricks House, at 77 Bedford Street (built 1799, much altered and enlarged 1836, third story 1928).", "When the Church of St. Luke in the Fields was founded in 1820, it stood in fields south of the road (now Christopher Street) that led from Greenwich Lane (now Greenwich Avenue) down to a landing on the North River.", "In 1822, a yellow fever epidemic in New York encouraged residents to flee to the healthier air of Greenwich Village, and afterwards many stayed.", "The future site of Washington Square was a potter's field from 1797 to 1823 when up to 20,000 of New York's poor were buried here, and still remain.", "The handsome Greek revival rowhouses on the north side of Washington Square were built about 1832, establishing the fashion of Washington Square and lower Fifth Avenue for decades to come.", "Well into the 19th century, the district of Washington Square was considered separate from Greenwich Village.In 1825, the ''Commercial Advertiser'' was writing that \"Greenwich is no longer a country village.", "Such has been the growth of our city that the building of one block more will connect the two places\" of Greenwich and New York.", "By 1850, the city had developed entirely around Greenwich Village such that the two were no longer considered separate.===Reputation as urban bohemia===Gay Street at the corner of Waverly Place; the street's name refers to a colonial family, not the LGBT character of Greenwich VillageGreenwich Village historically was known as an important landmark on the map of American bohemian culture in the early and mid-20th century.", "The neighborhood was known for its colorful, artistic residents and the alternative culture they propagated.", "Due in part to the progressive attitudes of many of its residents, the Village was a focal point of new movements and ideas, whether political, artistic, or cultural.", "This tradition as an enclave of avant-garde and alternative culture was established during the 19th century and continued into the 20th century, when small presses, art galleries, and experimental theater thrived.", "In 1969, enraged members of the gay community, in search for equality, started the Stonewall riots.", "The Stonewall Inn was later recognized as a National Historic Landmark for having been the location where the gay rights movement originated.", "On June 27, 2019, the National LGBTQ Wall of Honor was inaugurated at the Stonewall Inn.The Tenth Street Studio Building was situated at 51 West 10th Street between Fifth and Sixth Avenues.", "The building was commissioned by James Boorman Johnston and designed by Richard Morris Hunt.", "Its innovative design soon represented a national architectural prototype, and featured a domed central gallery, from which interconnected rooms radiated.", "Hunt's studio within the building housed the first architectural school in the United States.", "Soon after its completion in 1857, the building helped to make Greenwich Village central to the arts in New York City, drawing artists from all over the country to work, exhibit, and sell their art.", "In its initial years Winslow Homer took a studio there, as did Edward Lamson Henry, and many of the artists of the Hudson River School, including Frederic Church and Albert Bierstadt.Whitney Museum of American Art's original location, at 8–12 West 8th Street, between Fifth Avenue and MacDougal Street; currently home to the New York Studio School of Drawing, Painting and Sculpture.From the late 19th century until the present, the Hotel Albert has served as a cultural icon of Greenwich Village.", "Opened during the 1880s and originally located at 11th Street and University Place, called the Hotel St. Stephan and then, after 1902, called the Hotel Albert while under the ownership of William Ryder, it served as a meeting place, restaurant and dwelling for several important artists and writers from the late 19th century well into the 20th century.", "After 1902, the owner's brother Albert Pinkham Ryder lived and painted there.", "Some other noted guests who lived there include: Augustus St. Gaudens, Robert Louis Stevenson, Mark Twain, Hart Crane, Walt Whitman, Anaïs Nin, Thomas Wolfe, Robert Lowell, Horton Foote, Salvador Dalí, Philip Guston, Jackson Pollock, and Andy Warhol.", "During the golden age of bohemianism, Greenwich Village became famous for such eccentrics as Joe Gould (profiled at length by Joseph Mitchell) and Maxwell Bodenheim, dancer Isadora Duncan, writer William Faulkner, and playwright Eugene O'Neill.", "Political rebellion also made its home here, whether serious (John Reed) or frivolous (Marcel Duchamp and friends set off balloons from atop Washington Square Arch, proclaiming the founding of \"The Independent Republic of Greenwich Village\" on January 24, 1917).The Cherry Lane Theatre is located in Greenwich Village.The annual Greenwich Village Halloween Parade is the world's largest Halloween parade, with millions of spectators annually, and has its roots in New York's queer community.In 1924, the Cherry Lane Theatre was established.", "Located at 38 Commerce Street, it is New York City's oldest continuously running Off-Broadway theater.", "A landmark in Greenwich Village's cultural landscape, it was built as a farm silo in 1817, and also served as a tobacco warehouse and box factory before Edna St. Vincent Millay and other members of the Provincetown Players converted the structure into a theatre they christened the Cherry Lane Playhouse, which opened on March 24, 1924, with the play ''The Man Who Ate the Popomack''.", "During the 1940s The Living Theatre, Theatre of the Absurd, and the Downtown Theater movement all took root there, and it developed a reputation as a showcase for aspiring playwrights and emerging voices.In one of the many Manhattan properties that Gertrude Vanderbilt Whitney and her husband owned, Gertrude Whitney established the ''Whitney Studio Club'' at 8 West 8th Street in 1914, as a facility where young artists could exhibit their works.", "By the 1930s it had evolved into her greatest legacy, the Whitney Museum of American Art, on the site of today's New York Studio School of Drawing, Painting and Sculpture.", "The Whitney was founded in 1931, as an answer to the Museum of Modern Art, founded 1928, and its collection of mostly European modernism and its neglect of American Art.", "Gertrude Whitney decided to put the time and money into the museum after the New York Metropolitan Museum of Art turned down her offer to contribute her twenty-five-year collection of modern art works.", "In 1936, the renowned Abstract Expressionist artist and teacher Hans Hofmann moved his art school from East 57th Street to 52 West 9th Street.", "In 1938, Hofmann moved again to a more permanent home at 52 West 8th Street.", "The school remained active until 1958, when Hofmann retired from teaching.On January 8, 1947, stevedore Andy Hintz was fatally shot by hitmen John M. Dunn, Andrew Sheridan, and Danny Gentile in front of his apartment.", "Before he died on January 29, he told his wife that \"Johnny Dunn shot me.\"", "The three gunmen were immediately arrested.", "Sheridan and Dunn were executed.The Village hosted the nation's first racially integrated nightclub, when Café Society was opened in 1938 at 1 Sheridan Square by Barney Josephson.", "Café Society showcased African American talent and was intended to be an American version of the political cabarets that Josephson had seen in Europe before World War I.", "Notable performers there included: Pearl Bailey, Count Basie, Nat King Cole, John Coltrane, Miles Davis, Ella Fitzgerald, Coleman Hawkins, Billie Holiday, Lena Horne, Burl Ives, Lead Belly, Anita O'Day, Charlie Parker, Les Paul and Mary Ford, Paul Robeson, Kay Starr, Art Tatum, Sarah Vaughan, Dinah Washington, Josh White, Teddy Wilson, Lester Young, and the Weavers, who also in Christmas 1949, played at the Village Vanguard.The annual Greenwich Village Halloween Parade, initiated in 1974 by Greenwich Village puppeteer and mask maker Ralph Lee, is the world's largest Halloween parade and America's only major Halloween nighttime parade, attracting more than 60,000 costumed participants, two million in-person spectators, and a worldwide television audience of over 100 million.", "The parade has its roots in New York's queer community.===Postwar===The Stonewall Inn, a designated U.S. National Historic Landmark and National Monument, as the site of the June 1969 Stonewall riots and the cradle of the modern gay rights movement.|alt=A two-story building with brick on the first floor, with two arched doorways, and gray stucco on the second floor off of which hang numerous rainbow flags.Greenwich Village again became important to the bohemian scene during the 1950s, when the Beat Generation focused its energies there.", "Fleeing from what they saw as oppressive social conformity, a loose collection of writers, poets, artists, and students (later known as the Beats) and the Beatniks, moved to Greenwich Village, and to North Beach in San Francisco, in many ways creating the U.S. East Coast and West Coast predecessors, respectively, to the East Village-Haight Ashbury hippie scene of the next decade.", "The Village (and surrounding New York City) would later play central roles in the writings of, among others, Maya Angelou, James Baldwin, William S. Burroughs, Truman Capote, Allen Ginsberg, Jack Kerouac, Rod McKuen, Marianne Moore, and Dylan Thomas, who collapsed at the Chelsea Hotel, and died at St. Vincents Hospital at 170 West 12th Street, in the Village after drinking at the White Horse Tavern on November 5, 1953.Off-Off-Broadway began in Greenwich Village in 1958 as a reaction to Off Broadway, and a \"complete rejection of commercial theatre\".", "Among the first venues for what would soon be called \"Off-Off-Broadway\" (a term supposedly coined by critic Jerry Tallmer of the ''Village Voice'') were coffeehouses in Greenwich Village, in particular, the Caffe Cino at 31 Cornelia Street, operated by the eccentric Joe Cino, who early on took a liking to actors and playwrights and agreed to let them stage plays there without bothering to read the plays first, or to even find out much about the content.", "Also integral to the rise of Off-Off-Broadway were Ellen Stewart at La MaMa, originally located at 321 E. 9th Street, and Al Carmines at the Judson Poets' Theater, located at Judson Memorial Church on the south side of Washington Square Park.Blue Note Jazz ClubThe Village had a cutting-edge cabaret and music scene.", "''The Village Gate'', the ''Village Vanguard'', and the ''Blue Note'' (since 1981) regularly hosted some of the biggest names in jazz.", "Greenwich Village also played a major role in the development of the folk music scene of the 1960s.", "Music clubs included ''Gerde's Folk City'', ''The Bitter End,'' ''Cafe Au Go Go'', ''Cafe Wha?", "'', ''The Gaslight Cafe'' and ''The Bottom Line''.", "Three of the four members of the Mamas & the Papas met there.", "Guitarist and folk singer Dave Van Ronk lived there for many years.", "Village resident and cultural icon Bob Dylan by the mid-60s had become one of the world's foremost popular songwriters, and often developments in Greenwich Village would influence the simultaneously occurring folk rock movement in San Francisco and elsewhere, and vice versa.", "Dozens of other cultural and popular icons got their start in the Village's nightclub, theater, and coffeehouse scene during the 1950s, 1960s, and early 1970s.", "Many artists garnered critical acclaim, some before and some after, performed in the Village.", "This list includes Eric Andersen, Joan Baez, Jackson Browne, the Clancy Brothers and Tommy Makem, Richie Havens, Jimi Hendrix, Janis Ian, the Kingston Trio, the Lovin' Spoonful, Bette Midler, Liza Minnelli, Joni Mitchell, Maria Muldaur, Laura Nyro, Phil Ochs, Tom Paxton, Peter, Paul, and Mary, Carly Simon, Simon & Garfunkel, Nina Simone, Barbra Streisand, James Taylor, and the Velvet Underground.", "The Greenwich Village of the 1950s and 1960s was at the center of Jane Jacobs's book ''The Death and Life of Great American Cities'', which defended it and similar communities, while criticizing common urban renewal policies of the time.Founded by New York-based artist Mercedes Matter and her students, the New York Studio School of Drawing, Painting and Sculpture is an art school formed in the mid-1960s in the Village.", "Officially opened September 23, 1964, the school is still active, at 8 W. 8th Street, the site of the original Whitney Museum of American Art.Greenwich Village was home to a safe house used by the radical anti-war movement known as the Weather Underground.", "On March 6, 1970, their safehouse was destroyed when an explosive device they were constructing was accidentally detonated, killing three of their members (Ted Gold, Terry Robbins, and Diana Oughton).The Village has been a center for movements that challenged the wider American culture, most notably its seminal role in sparking the gay liberation movement.", "The Stonewall riots were a series of spontaneous, violent protests by members of the gay community against a police raid that took place in the early morning hours of June 28, 1969, at the Stonewall Inn, 53 Christopher Street.", "Considered together, the demonstrations are widely considered to constitute the single most important event leading to the gay liberation movement and the modern fight for LGBT rights in the United States.", "On June 23, 2015, the Stonewall Inn was the first landmark in New York City to be recognized by the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission on the basis of its status in LGBT history, and on June 24, 2016, the Stonewall National Monument was named the first U.S. National Monument dedicated to the LGBTQ-rights movement.", "Greenwich Village contains the world's oldest gay and lesbian bookstore, Oscar Wilde Bookshop, founded in 1967, while The Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual & Transgender Community Center – best known as simply \"The Center\" – has occupied the former Food & Maritime Trades High School at 208 West 13th Street since 1984.In 2006, the Village was the scene of an assault involving seven lesbians and a straight man that sparked appreciable media attention, with strong statements defending both sides of the case.", "On June 20, 2023, the intersection of Fifth Avenue and Washington Square North was officially renamed Edie Windsor and Thea Speyer Way at the state level by New York Governor Kathy Hochul, in honor of the Greenwich Village plaintiffs who prevailed at the United States Supreme Court in 2013, in finding the Defense of Marriage Act, which had limited the definition of marriage as being valid strictly between one man and one woman, to be unconstitutional.===Preservation===The Washington Square Arch, an unofficial icon of Greenwich Village and nearby New York UniversitySince the end of the 20th century, many artists and local historians have mourned the fact that the bohemian days of Greenwich Village are long gone, because of the extraordinarily high housing costs in the neighborhood.", "The artists fled to other New York City neighborhoods including SoHo, Tribeca, Dumbo, Williamsburg, and Long Island City.", "Nevertheless, residents of Greenwich Village still possess a strong community identity and are proud of their neighborhood's unique history and fame, and its well-known liberal live-and-let-live attitudes.Historically, local residents and preservation groups have been concerned about development in the Village and have fought to preserve its architectural and historic integrity.", "In the 1960s, Margot Gayle led a group of citizens to preserve the Jefferson Market Courthouse (later reused as Jefferson Market Library), while other citizen groups fought to keep traffic out of Washington Square Park, and Jane Jacobs, using the Village as an example of a vibrant urban community, advocated to keep it that way.Since then, preservation has been a part of the Village ethos.", "Shortly after the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission (LPC) was established in 1965, it acted to protect parts of Greenwich Village, designating the small Charlton-King-Vandam Historic District in 1966, which contains the city's largest concentration of row houses in the Federal style, as well as a significant concentration of Greek Revival houses, and the even smaller MacDougal-Sullivan Gardens Historic District in 1967, a group of 22 houses sharing a common back garden, built in the Greek Revival style and later renovated with Colonial Revival façades.", "In 1969, the LPC designated the Greenwich Village Historic District – which remained the city's largest for four decades – despite preservationists' advocacy for the entire neighborhood to be designated an historic district.", "Advocates continued to pursue their goal of additional designation, spurred in particular by the increased pace of development in the 1990s.====Rezoned areas====396–397 West Street at West 10th Street is a former hotel which dates from 1904, and is part of the Weehawken Street Historic District.The Greenwich Village Society for Historic Preservation (GVSHP), a nonprofit organization dedicated to the architectural and cultural character and heritage of the neighborhood, successfully proposed new districts and individual landmarks to the LPC.", "Those include:*Gansevoort Market Historic District was the first new historic district in Greenwich Village in 34 years.", "The 112 buildings on 11 blocks protect the city's distinctive Meatpacking District with its cobblestone streets, warehouses and rowhouses.", "About 70 percent of the area proposed by GVSHP in 2000 was designated a historic district by the LPC in 2003, while the entire area was listed on the State and National Registers of Historic Places in 2007.", "*Weehawken Street Historic District, designated in 2006, is a 14-building, three-block district near the Hudson River centering on tiny Weehawken Street and containing an array of architecture including a sailors' hotel, former stables, and a wooden house.", "*Greenwich Village Historic District Extension I, designated in 2006, brought 46 more buildings on three blocks into the district, thus protecting warehouses, a former public school and police station, and early 19th century rowhouses.", "Both the Weehawken Street Historic District and the Greenwich Village Historic District Extension I were designated by the LPC in response to the larger proposal for a Far West Village Historic District submitted by GVSHP in 2004.", "*Greenwich Village Historic District Extension II, designated in 2010, embracing 225 buildings on 12 blocks, contains 19th century houses, 19th and 20th century tenements, and a variety of cultural landmarks.", "*South Village Historic District, designated in 2013, covers 235 buildings on 13 blocks, representing the largest single expansion of landmark protections in Greenwich Village since 1969.It includes well-preserved and renovated 19th century houses, colorful tenements, and a variety of sites important to the area's rich immigrant, artistic, and Italian-American history, as well as several low-rise, historically significant New York University buildings on Washington Square South.The Landmarks Preservation Commission designated as landmarks several individual sites proposed by the Greenwich Village Society for Historic Preservation, including the former Bell Telephone Labs Complex (1861–1933), now Westbeth Artists' Housing, designated in 2011; the Silver Towers/University Village Complex (1967), designed by I.M.", "Pei and including the Picasso sculpture ''Portrait of Sylvette'', designated in 2008; and three early 19th-century federal houses at 127, 129 and 131 MacDougal Street.Several contextual rezonings were enacted in Greenwich Village in recent years to limit the size and height of allowable new development in the neighborhood, and to encourage the preservation of existing buildings.", "The following were proposed by the GVSHP and passed by the City Planning Commission:*Far West Village Rezoning, approved in 2005, was the first downzoning in Manhattan in many years, putting in place new height caps, thus ending construction of high-rise waterfront towers in much of the Village and encouraging the reuse of existing buildings.", "*Washington and Greenwich Street Rezoning, approved in 2010, was passed in near-record time to protect six blocks from out-of-scale hotel development and maintain the low-rise character.====NYU dispute====Washington Mews in Greenwich VillageNew York University and Greenwich Village preservationists have frequently become embroiled in conflicts between the university's campus expansion efforts and the preservation of the scale and character of the Village.As one press critic put it in 2013, \"For decades, New York University has waged architectural war on Greenwich Village.\"", "In recent years, the university has clashed most prominently with community groups such as the Greenwich Village Society for Historic Preservation over the construction of new NYU academic buildings and residence halls.", "During the design of Furman Hall in 2000, the site of which is adjacent to the Judson Memorial Church, community groups sued the university, claiming the construction of a 13-story tower on the site would \"loom behind the campanile of the church\" and \"mar the historic silhouette of Greenwich Village as viewed from Washington Square Park\".", "Despite a justice in State Supreme Court dismissing the case, the university agreed to a settlement with the groups to avoid future appeals, which included reducing the building to 9 stories and restoring the facades of two historic houses located on the site, the Judson House and a red-brick town house where Edgar Allan Poe once lived, which NYU reconstructed as they appeared in the 19th century.Another dispute arose during the construction of the 26-story Founders Hall, a residence hall planned to be constructed on the site of St. Ann's Church at 120 East Twelfth Street.", "Amidst protests of the demolition of the church, the university decided to maintain and restore the facade and steeple of the building, parts of which were deteriorating or missing, and it now stands freely directly in front of the 12th Street entrance of the building.", "Further controversy also arose over the height of the building, as well as how the university would integrate the church's facade into the building's uses; however, in 2006, NYU began construction and the new dorm was completed in December 2008.In recent years, the most conflict has arisen over the proposed NYU 2031 plan, which the university released in 2010 as its plan for long-term growth, both within and outside of Greenwich Village.", "This included a court battle over the City of New York's right to transfer three plots of Department of Transportation-owned land to the university for constructing staging, which plaintiffs claimed required the consent of the state legislature.", "Ultimately, the Appellate Division of New York's Supreme Court ruled in the university's favor after a lower court blocked the expansion plan; however, so far, the university has only begun construction on 181 Mercer Street, the first building in the planned expansion southwards." ], [ "Demographics", "same-sex couples.For census purposes, the New York City government classifies Greenwich Village as part of the West Village neighborhood tabulation area.", "According to the 2010 United States Census, the population of West Village was 66,880, a change of −1,603 (−2.4%) from the 68,483 counted in 2000.Covering an area of , the neighborhood had a population density of .", "The racial makeup of the neighborhood was 80.9% (54,100) White, 2% (1,353) African American, 0.1% (50) Native American, 8.2% (5,453) Asian, 0% (20) Pacific Islander, 0.4% (236) from other races, and 2.4% (1,614) from two or more races.", "Hispanic or Latino residents of any race were 6.1% (4,054) of the population.", "Greenwich Village is home to a significant concentration of same-sex couples.The entirety of Community District 2, which comprises Greenwich Village and SoHo, had 91,638 inhabitants as of NYC Health's 2018 Community Health Profile, with an average life expectancy of 85.8 years.", "This is higher than the median life expectancy of 81.2 for all New York City neighborhoods.", "Most inhabitants are adults: a plurality (42%) are between the ages of 25–44, while 24% are between 45 and 64, and 15% are 65 or older.", "The ratio of youth and college-aged residents was lower, at 9% and 10%, respectively.As of 2017, the median household income in Community Districts 1 and 2 (including the Financial District and Tribeca) was $144,878, though the median income in Greenwich Village individually was $119,728.In 2018, an estimated 9% of Greenwich Village and SoHo residents lived in poverty, compared to 14% in all of Manhattan and 20% in all of New York City.", "Rent burden, or the percentage of residents who have difficulty paying their rent, is 38% in Greenwich Village and SoHo, compared to the boroughwide and citywide rates of 45% and 51%, respectively.", "Based on this calculation, , Greenwich Village and SoHo are considered high-income relative to the rest of the city and not gentrifying.===Manhattan's 3rd Little Italy===Throughout the 1930s, many Italian-Americans starting leaving Little Italy and moved on the north side of Houston Street and around Bleecker Street and Carmine Street.", "Many of them being immigrants from Naples and Sicily.", "Up until the late 2000s, the village was home to one of the largest Italian speaking communities in the United States." ], [ "Points of interest", "Greenwich Village includes several collegiate institutions.", "Since the 1830s, New York University (NYU) has had a campus there.", "In 1973 NYU moved from its campus in University Heights in the West Bronx (the current site of Bronx Community College), to Greenwich Village with many buildings around Gould Plaza on West 4th Street.", "In 1976 Yeshiva University established the Benjamin N. Cardozo School of Law in the northern part of Greenwich Village.", "In the 1980s Hebrew Union College was built in Greenwich Village.", "The New School, with its Parsons The New School for Design, a division of The New School, and the School's Graduate School expanded in the 2000s, with the renovated, award-winning design of the Sheila C. Johnson Design Center at 66 Fifth Avenue on 13th Street.", "The Cooper Union is located in Greenwich Village, at Astor Place, near St. Mark's Place on the border of the East Village.", "Pratt Institute established its latest Manhattan campus in an adaptively reused Brunner & Tryon-designed loft building on 14th Street, east of Seventh Avenue.", "The university campus building expansion was followed by a gentrification process in the 1980s.", "There are numerous historic buildings in the neighborhood including Emma Lazarus's former residence on West 10th Street and Edward Hopper's former studio (now the NYU Silver School of Social Work).Christopher Park, part of the Stonewall National MonumentThe historic Washington Square Park is the center and heart of the neighborhood.", "Additionally, the Village has several other, smaller parks: Christopher, Father Fagan, Little Red Square, Minetta Triangle, Petrosino Square, and Time Landscape.", "There are also city playgrounds, including DeSalvio Playground, Minetta, Thompson Street, Bleecker Street, Downing Street, Mercer Street, Cpl.", "John A. Seravelli, and William Passannante Ballfield.", "One of the most famous courts, is \"The Cage\", officially known as the West Fourth Street Courts.", "Sitting atop the West Fourth Street–Washington Square station at Sixth Avenue, the courts are used by basketball and American handball players from across the city.", "The Cage has become one of the most important tournament sites for the citywide \"Streetball\" amateur basketball tournament.", "Since 1975, New York University's art collection has been housed at the Grey Art Gallery bordering Washington Square Park, at 100 Washington Square East.", "The Grey Art Gallery is notable for its museum-quality exhibitions of contemporary art.The Village has a bustling performing arts scene.", "It is home to many Off Broadway and Off-Off-Broadway theaters; for instance, ''Blue Man Group'' has taken up residence in the Astor Place Theater.", "''The Village Gate'' (until 1992), the ''Village Vanguard'' and the ''Blue Note'' are still presenting some of the biggest names in jazz on a regular basis.", "Other music clubs include ''The Bitter End,'' and ''Lion's Den''.", "The Village has its own orchestra aptly named the ''Greenwich Village Orchestra''.", "Comedy clubs dot the Village as well, including ''Comedy Cellar'', where many American stand-up comedians got their start.Several publications have offices in the Village, most notably the monthly magazines ''American Heritage'' and ''Fortune'' and formerly also the citywide newsweekly the ''Village Voice''.", "The National Audubon Society, having relocated its national headquarters from a mansion in Carnegie Hill to a restored and very green, former industrial building in NoHo, relocated to smaller but even greener LEED certified building at 225 Varick Street, on Houston Street near the Film Forum.", "The Salvation Army's former American headquarters at 120–130 West 14th Street is in the northern portion of Greenwich Village." ], [ "Police and crime", "NYPD 6th PrecinctGreenwich Village is patrolled by the 6th Precinct of the NYPD, located at 233 West 10th Street.", "The 6th Precinct ranked 68th safest out of 69 patrol areas for per-capita crime in 2010.This is due to a high incidence of property crime.", ", with a non-fatal assault rate of 10 per 100,000 people, Greenwich Village's rate of violent crimes per capita is less than that of the city as a whole.", "The incarceration rate of 100 per 100,000 people is lower than that of the city as a whole.The 6th Precinct has a lower crime rate than in the 1990s, with crimes across all categories having decreased by 80.6% between 1990 and 2018.The precinct reported 1 murder, 20 rapes, 153 robberies, 121 felony assaults, 163 burglaries, 1,031 grand larcenies, and 28 grand larcenies auto in 2018.In 1916, Greenwich Village was the site of a lynching, one of the few in New York since the American Civil War.", "Italian immigrant and working-class shoemaker Paulo Boleta was beaten and trampled to death by a mob after randomly firing his revolver on a crowded street, wounding one bystander." ], [ "Fire safety", "Greenwich Village is served by two New York City Fire Department (FDNY) fire stations:*Engine Company 24/Ladder Company 5/Battalion 2 – 227 6th Avenue*Squad 18 – 132 West 10th Street" ], [ "Health", ", preterm births are more common in Greenwich Village and SoHo than in other places citywide, though births to teenage mothers are less common.", "In Greenwich Village and SoHo, there were 91 preterm births per 1,000 live births (compared to 87 per 1,000 citywide), and 1 teenage birth per 1,000 live births (compared to 19.3 per 1,000 citywide), though the teenage birth rate is based on a small sample size.", "Greenwich Village and SoHo have a low population of residents who are uninsured.", "In 2018, this population of uninsured residents was estimated to be 4%, less than the citywide rate of 12%, though this was based on a small sample size.The concentration of fine particulate matter, the deadliest type of air pollutant, in Greenwich Village and SoHo is , more than the city average.", "Sixteen percent of Greenwich Village and SoHo residents are smokers, which is more than the city average of 14% of residents being smokers.", "In Greenwich Village and SoHo, 4% of residents are obese, 3% are diabetic, and 15% have high blood pressure, the lowest rates in the city—compared to the citywide averages of 24%, 11%, and 28% respectively.", "In addition, 5% of children are obese, the lowest rate in the city, compared to the citywide average of 20%.Ninety-six percent of residents eat some fruits and vegetables every day, which is more than the city's average of 87%.", "In 2018, 91% of residents described their health as \"good,\" \"very good,\" or \"excellent,\" more than the city's average of 78%.", "For every supermarket in Greenwich Village and SoHo, there are 7 bodegas.The nearest major hospitals are Beth Israel Medical Center in Stuyvesant Town, as well as the Bellevue Hospital Center and NYU Langone Medical Center in Kips Bay, and NewYork-Presbyterian Lower Manhattan Hospital in the Civic Center area." ], [ "Post offices and ZIP Codes", "West Village Post OfficeGreenwich Village is located within four primary ZIP Codes.", "The subsection of West Village, south of Greenwich Avenue and west of Sixth Avenue, is located in 10014, while the northwestern section of Greenwich Village north of Greenwich Avenue and Washington Square Park and west of Fifth Avenue is in 10011.The northeastern part of the Village, north of Washington Square Park and east of Fifth Avenue, is in 10003.The neighborhood's southern portion, the area south of Washington Square Park and east of Sixth Avenue, is in 10012.The United States Postal Service operates three post offices near Greenwich Village:*Patchin Station – 70 West 10th Street*Village Station – 201 Varick Street*West Village Station – 527 Hudson Street" ], [ "Education", "Greenwich Village and SoHo generally have a higher rate of college-educated residents than the rest of the city .", "The vast majority of residents age 25 and older (84%) have a college education or higher, while 4% have less than a high school education and 12% are high school graduates or have some college education.", "By contrast, 64% of Manhattan residents and 43% of city residents have a college education or higher.", "The percentage of Greenwich Village and SoHo students excelling in math rose from 61% in 2000 to 80% in 2011, and reading achievement increased from 66% to 68% during the same time period.Greenwich Village and SoHo's rate of elementary school student absenteeism is lower than the rest of New York City.", "In Greenwich Village and SoHo, 7% of elementary school students missed twenty or more days per school year, less than the citywide average of 20%.", "Additionally, 91% of high school students in Greenwich Village and SoHo graduate on time, more than the citywide average of 75%.===Schools===Greenwich Village residents are zoned to two elementary schools: PS 3, Melser Charrette School, and PS 41, Greenwich Village School.", "Residents are zoned to Baruch Middle School 104.Residents apply to various New York City high schools.", "The private Greenwich Village High School was formerly located in the area, but later moved to SoHo.Greenwich Village is home to New York University, which owns large sections of the area and most of the buildings around Washington Square Park.", "To the north is the campus of The New School, which is housed in several buildings that are considered historical landmarks because of their innovative architecture.", "The New School's Sheila Johnson Design Center doubles as a public art gallery.", "Cooper Union has been located in the East Village since its founding in 1859.===Libraries===Jefferson Market Library, once a courthouse, now serves as a branch of the New York Public Library.The New York Public Library (NYPL) operates two branches in Greenwich Village.", "The Jefferson Market Library is located at 425 Avenue of the Americas (Sixth Avenue).", "The building was a courthouse in the 19th and 20th centuries before being converted into a library in 1967, and it is now a city-designated landmark.", "The Hudson Park branch is located at 66 Leroy Street.", "The branch is housed in Carnegie library that was built in 1906 and expanded in 1920." ], [ "Transportation", "Greenwich Village is served by the IND Eighth Avenue Line (), the IND Sixth Avenue Line (), the BMT Canarsie Line (), and the IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line () of the New York City Subway.", "The 14th Street/Sixth Avenue, 14th Street/Eighth Avenue, West Fourth Street–Washington Square, and Christopher Street–Sheridan Square stations are in the neighborhood.", "Local New York City Bus routes, operated by the Metropolitan Transportation Authority, include the M55, M7, M11, M14, and M20.On the PATH, the , , and stations are in Greenwich Village." ], [ "Notable residents", "Greenwich Village has long been a popular neighborhood for numerous artists and other notable people.", "Past and present notable residents include:Robert De NiroRobert Downey Jr.Hank GreenbergEmma Stone*Edward Albee (1928–2016), playwright*Alec Baldwin (born 1958), actor*Richard Barone, musician, producer*Paul Bateson (born 1940), convicted murderer who was in ''The Exorcist''*Brie Bella (born 1983), wrestler*Nate Berkus (born 1971), interior designer*David Blue (1941–1982), folksinger and companion of Bob Dylan*Matthew Broderick (born 1962), actor*Barbara Pierce Bush (born 1981), daughter of former U.S. President George W. Bush*Francesco Carrozzini (born 1982), film director and photographer*Jessica Chastain (born 1977), actress*Ramsey Clark (1927–2021), lawyer and activist*Patricia Clarkson (born 1959), actress*Francesco Clemente (born 1952) contemporary artist*Jacob Cohen (1923–1983), statistician and psychologist*Anderson Cooper (born 1967), CNN anchor*Aleister Crowley (1875–1947), English occultist.", "*Hugh Dancy (born 1975), actor*Claire Danes (born 1979), actress*Robert De Niro (born 1943), actor*Brian De Palma (born 1940), film director and screenwriter*Floyd Dell (1887–1969), novelist, playwright, poet and managing editor of ''The Masses''*Leonardo DiCaprio (born 1974), actor*Robert Downey Jr. (born 1965), actor and singer*Steve Earle (born 1955), musician*Crystal Eastman (1881–1928), lawyer and leader in the fight for woman's suffrage*Eric Eisner, Hollywood lawyer and former president of The Geffen Film Company*Maurice Evans (1901–1989), British actor noted for his interpretations of Shakespearean characters*Andrew Garfield (born 1983), actor*Hank Greenberg (1911–1986), Hall of Fame baseball player*John P. Hammond (born 1942), blues singer and guitarist*Jerry Herman (1931–2019), composer and lyricist*Dustin Hoffman (born 1937), actor*Edward Hopper (1882–1967), painter*Marc Jacobs (born 1963), fashion designer*Richard Johnson, gossip columnist known for the Page Six column in the ''New York Post'', which he edited for 25 years.", "*Wes Joice (1931-1997), owner of the literary hangout, The Lion's Head*Max Kellerman (born 1973), sports commentator*Eva Kotchever (1891–1943), owner of Eve's Hangout, also called Eve Adams' Tearoom, situated at 129 MacDougal St, deported to Europe and murdered at Auschwitz.", "*Annie Leibovitz (born 1949), photographer*Arthur MacArthur IV (born 1938), musician, son of General Douglas MacArthur*Andrew McCarthy (born 1962), actor, writer and television director*Bob Melvin (born 1961), Major League Baseball player and manager*Edna St. Vincent Millay, poet and playwright*Matthew Modine (born 1959), actor and activist*Julianne Moore (born 1960), actress*Nickolas Muray (born Miklós Mandl; 1892–1965), Hungarian-born American photographer and Olympic fencer*Bebe Neuwirth (born 1958), actress*Edward Norton (born 1969), actor and filmmaker*Rosie O'Donnell, actress and comedian*Mary-Kate Olsen, actress and fashion designer*Mary-Louise Parker, actress*Sarah Jessica Parker (born 1965), actress*Sean Parker (born 1979), entrepreneur*Edgar Allan Poe (1809–1849), poet and novelist*Leontyne Price (born 1927), soprano*Daniel Radcliffe (born 1989), actor*Gilda Radner (1946–1989), actress and comedian*Rachael Ray, television personality and cook*Julia Roberts (born 1967), actress*Susan Sarandon (born 1946), actress*John Sebastian (born 1944), musician*Amy Sedaris (born 1961), actress*Adrienne Shelly (1966–2006), actress, film director and screenwriter.", "*James Spader, actor*Anita Steckel (1930–2012), feminist artist known for paintings and photomontages with sexual imagery*Pat Steir (born 1938), painter and printmaker*Emma Stone (born 1988), actress*Uma Thurman (born 1970), actress*Tiny Tim (1932–1996), singer*Marisa Tomei (born 1964), actress*Calvin Trillin (born 1935), feature writer for ''The New Yorker'' magazine.", "*Liv Tyler (born 1977), actress*Edgard Varèse (1883–1965), French-born composer*Chloe Webb (born 1956), actress.", "*Anna Wintour (born 1949), editor-in-chief of ''Vogue'' magazine" ], [ "In popular culture", "===Comics===*In the DC Comics universe, Wonder Woman lived in the \"Village\" in New York City (never called by its full name, but clearly depicted as Greenwich Village) during the late 1960s and early 1970s, when she had lost most of her superpowers.", "Madame Xanadu lived on Chrystie Street, described alternately as being in \"Greenwich Village\" and the \"East Village.", "\"*In the Marvel Comics universe, Master of the Mystic Arts and Sorcerer Supreme, Doctor Strange, lives in a brownstone mansion in Greenwich Village.", "Doctor Strange's Sanctum Sanctorum is located at 177A Bleecker Street.", "*The first generation of Marvel's X-Men frequently visited the Village while not studying at Xavier's School for Gifted Youngsters.", "*In Akimi Yoshida's ''Banana Fish'' sequel/side story, ''Garden of Light'', Eiji Okumura is stated to live in Greenwich Village as an accomplished photographer.===Film===*In Alfred Hitchcock's ''Rear Window'' (1954) James Stewart's character lives in a Greenwich Village apartment.", "*In ''Wonderful Town'' (1953), the Sherwood sisters leave 1935 Columbus, Ohio, for Greenwich Village to pursue their dreams of becoming a writer (Ruth) and an actress (Eileen).", "Their apartment was said to be on Christopher Street, though the actual apartment of author Ruth McKenney and her sister Eileen McKenney was at 14 Gay Street.", "*In ''Funny Face'' (1957), Jo Stockton (Audrey Hepburn) works at a bookstore called Embryo Concepts in the Village, where she is discovered by Dick Avery (Fred Astaire).", "*In ''When Harry Met Sally...'' (1989), Sally drops Harry off in front of the Washington Square Arch after they share a drive from University of Chicago.", "*In ''Wait Until Dark'' (1967), Susy Hendrix (Audrey Hepburn) lives at 4 St. Luke's Place.", "*''Next Stop, Greenwich Village'' (1976) chronicles the story of a young Jewish boy in 1953 who moves to the Village, looking to break into acting.", "*''The Pope of Greenwich Village'' (1984) centers on a maître d' (Mickey Rourke) in the Italian section of the Village.", "*''Big Daddy'' (1999), Adam Sandler and Cole/Dylan Sprouse's characters live in a Greenwich Village loft.", "*''Chinese Coffee'' (2000), an independent film by Al Pacino, which features Pacino and Jerry Orbach, is set in Greenwich Village in 1982.", "*''The Collector of Bedford Street'' (2002) is a documentary about a neighborhood block association on Bedford Street that establishes a trust fund for a mentally disabled man named Larry Selman.", "*In ''I Am Legend'' (2007), Robert Neville (Will Smith) lives in Washington Square.", "*Greenwich Village is the setting for the restaurant 22 Bleecker in the Catherine Zeta-Jones, Aaron Eckhart and Abigail Breslin movie ''No Reservations'' (2007).", "*In ''Wanderlust'' (2012) the characters played by Paul Rudd and Jennifer Aniston live in a New York City apartment located in the West Village.", "*The Coen brothers' ''Inside Llewyn Davis'' (2013) depicts the Village in the early 1960s, focusing on the emerging folk scene.", "*In the Marvel Cinematic Universe live—action film, ''Avengers: Infinity War'' (2018), a battle between Tony Stark, Peter Parker, Doctor Strange, Wong, and the Black Order takes place in the Village.===Games===*Alex's stage in ''Street Fighter III: 2nd Impact'' takes place in Greenwich Village.", "*Greenwich Village is a playable multiplayer map in the ''Freedom Fighters'' (2003) video game.===Literature===*In her non-fiction, Jane Jacobs frequently cites Greenwich Village as an example of a vibrant urban community, most notably in her 1961 book ''The Death and Life of Great American Cities''.", "*Frank and April Wheeler of the 1961 novel ''Revolutionary Road'', and the 2008 film of the same name, used to share an apartment on Bethune Street in the West Village prior to the events of the story.*O.", "Henry's 1907 short story, \"The Last Leaf\", is set in Greenwich Village.", "*The anti-hero of the 1961 book ''Mother Night'' by author Kurt Vonnegut, and the 1996 film of the same name, Howard W. Campbell Jr., resides in Greenwich Village after World War II and prior to his arrest by the Israelis.", "*In Lesley M. M. Blume's children's novel, ''Cornelia and the Audacious Escapades of the Somerset Sisters'', the main characters reside in Greenwich Village.", "*The suggestion of moving to the Village shocks newlywed New York aristocrat Jamie \"Rick\" Ricklehouse in Nora Johnson's 1985 novel ''Tender Offer''.", "The implication is telling of the Village's reputation in the New York of the 1960s before mass gentrification when it was perceived as lowly and beneath upper class society.", "*In Philip Roth's 2000 novel ''The Human Stain'' the main character Coleman Silk lives in the Village while studying at NYU.===Music===*\"Sapokanikan\" by Joanna Newsom is written about historical events that include the history of Greenwich Village.", "*\"Cornelia Street\" by Taylor Swift is written about the singer's time when she rented an apartment there.", "*The cover photo for ''The Freewheelin' Bob Dylan'' (1963) of Dylan and his then-girlfriend Suze Rotolo was taken on Jones Street near West 4th Street in Greenwich Village, near their apartment.", "*In an interview with Jann Wenner, John Lennon said, \"I should have been born in New York, I should have been born in the Village, that's where I belong.", "\"*Buddy Holly and his wife Maria Elena Santiago lived in Apartment 4H of the Brevoort Apartments, at 11 Fifth Avenue in Greenwich Village.", "Here he recorded the series of acoustic songs, including \"Crying, Waiting, Hoping\" and \"What to Do,\" known as the \"Apartment Tapes,\" which were released after his death.===Television===90 Bedford Street, used for establishing shot in ''Friends''*The ABC sitcom ''Barney Miller'' (1975–82) was set at the fictional 12th precinct NYPD station in Greenwich Village.", "*The CBS sitcom ''Kate & Allie'' (1984–1989) was set in Greenwich Village.", "*The NBC sitcom ''Friends'' (1994–2004) is set in the Village.", "Central Perk was supposedly on Mercer or Houston Street, down the block from the Angelika Film Center; and Phoebe lived at 5 Morton Street.", "The building in the exterior shot of Chandler, Joey, Rachel, and Monica's apartment building is at the corner of Grove and Bedford Streets in the West Village.", "One of the show's working titles was ''Once Upon a Time in the West Village''.", "However, the address on Rachel's wedding invitation is 495 Grove Street, which is actually in Brooklyn.", "*The Village features prominently throughout the six seasons of ''Mad Men''.", "In Season 1, Don Draper is having an affair with artist Midge Daniels, who lives in the Village.", "In Season 4, Don moves to an apartment on Waverly Place and Sixth Avenue (specified, for example, in \"Public Relations\").", "And in Season 6, Betty Francis goes to Greenwich Village looking for a family friend, in \"The Doorway\", and Joan Harris and her girlfriend Kate go on a night on the town that culminates at the Electric Circus, in \"To Have and to Hold\".", "*On ''Sex and the City'' (1998–2004), exterior shots of Carrie Bradshaw's apartment building are of 66 Perry Street, even though her address is given as on the Upper East Side.", "*The NBC Sitcom ''The Cosby Show'' (1984–92) made several references to the Village during its run, and the townhouse used for exterior shots, though purportedly set in Brooklyn for purposes of the show, is actually located at 10 St. Luke's Place.", "*''Mad About You'' was set in the Village.", "The Buchman's apartment building was at 5th Avenue & 12th Street, just a few blocks north of Washington Square Park.", "*''The Real World: Back to New York'', the 2001 season of the MTV reality television series ''The Real World'', was filmed in the Village.", "*''Village Barn'' (1948–50), the first country music show on network television (NBC) originated from a nightclub of the same name in the basement of 52 West 8th Street.", "*Greenwich Village is the setting for Disney's ''Wizards of Waverly Place'' and ''Girl Meets World''.===Theater===*The play ''Bell, Book and Candle'' is partly set in Greenwich Village." ], [ "See also", "*Cedar Tavern*The Church of the Ascension*Greenwich Village Society for Historic Preservation*List of New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan below 14th Street*The Market NYC*National Register of Historic Places listings in Manhattan below 14th Street*Village Care of New York*Village People" ], [ "References", "=== Notes ====== Citations ====== Sources ===*** Greenwich Village , by Anna Alice Chapin, 1919, from Project Gutenberg" ], [ "External links", "* Greenwich Village Society for Historic Preservation" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "George S. Kaufman" ], [ "Introduction", "'''George Simon Kaufman''' (November 16, 1889June 2, 1961) was an American playwright, theater director and producer, humorist, and drama critic.", "In addition to comedies and political satire, he wrote several musicals for the Marx Brothers and others.", "He won the Pulitzer Prize for Drama for the musical ''Of Thee I Sing'' (with Morrie Ryskind and Ira Gershwin) in 1932, and won again in 1937 for the play ''You Can't Take It with You'' (with Moss Hart).", "He also won the Tony Award for Best Director in 1951 for the musical ''Guys and Dolls''." ], [ "Early years", "George S. Kaufman was born to Joseph S. Kaufman, a hatband manufacturer, and Nettie Meyers in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.", "He had a younger sister, Ruth.", "His other sister was Helen, nicknamed \"Helse\".", "Kaufman's family was Jewish.", "He graduated from high school in 1907 and studied law for three months.", "He grew disenchanted and took on a series of odd jobs, selling silk and working in wholesale ribbon sales." ], [ "Career", "Kaufman began contributing humorous material to the column that Franklin P. Adams wrote for the ''New York Mail''.", "He became close friends with Adams, who helped him get his first newspaper job—humor columnist for ''The Washington Times''—in 1912.By 1915 he was a drama reporter on ''The New York Tribune'', working under Heywood Broun.", "In 1917 Kaufman joined ''The New York Times'', becoming drama editor and staying with the newspaper until 1930.Kaufman took his editorial responsibilities seriously.", "According to legend, on one occasion a press agent asked: \"How do I get our leading lady's name in the ''Times''?\"", "Kaufman: \"Shoot her.", "\"===Theater===George S. Kaufman and Moss Hart in 1937Kaufman's Broadway debut was September 4, 1918, at the Knickerbocker Theatre, with the premiere of the melodrama ''Someone in the House''.", "He coauthored the play with Walter C. Percival, based on a magazine story written by Larry Evans.", "The play opened on Broadway (running for only 32 performances) during that year's serious flu epidemic, when people were being advised to avoid crowds.", "With \"dour glee\", Kaufman suggested that the best way to avoid crowds in New York City was to attend his play.Every Broadway season from 1921 through 1958 had a play written or directed by Kaufman.", "Since Kaufman's death in 1961, revivals of his work on Broadway were produced in the 1960s, the 1970s, the 1980s, the 2000s, and the 2010s.", "Kaufman wrote only one play alone, ''The Butter and Egg Man'' in 1925.With Marc Connelly, he wrote ''Merton of the Movies'', ''Dulcy'', and ''Beggar on Horseback''; with Ring Lardner, he wrote ''June Moon''; with Edna Ferber, he wrote ''The Royal Family'', ''Dinner at Eight'', and ''Stage Door''; with John P. Marquand, he wrote a stage adaptation of Marquand's novel ''The Late George Apley''; and with Howard Teichmann, he wrote ''The Solid Gold Cadillac''.", "According to his biography on PBS, \"he wrote some of the American theater's most enduring comedies\" with Moss Hart.", "Their work includes ''Once in a Lifetime'' (in which he also performed), ''Merrily We Roll Along'', ''The Man Who Came to Dinner'', and ''You Can't Take It with You'', which won the Pulitzer Prize in 1937.For a period, Kaufman lived at 158 West 58th Street in New York City.", "The building later was the setting for ''Stage Door''.", "It is now the Park Savoy Hotel, and for many years was considered a single room occupancy hotel.====Musical theater====Despite his claim that he knew nothing about music and hated it in the theater, Kaufman collaborated on many musical theater projects.", "His most successful of such efforts include two Broadway shows crafted for the Marx Brothers, ''The Cocoanuts'', written with Irving Berlin, and ''Animal Crackers'', written with Morrie Ryskind, Bert Kalmar, and Harry Ruby.", "According to Charlotte Chandler, \"By the time ''Animal Crackers'' opened ... the Marx Brothers were becoming famous enough to interest Hollywood.", "Paramount signed them to a contract\".", "Kaufman was one of the writers who excelled in writing intelligent nonsense for Groucho Marx, a process that was collaborative, given Groucho's skills at expanding upon the scripted material.", "Though the Marx Brothers were notoriously critical of their writers, Groucho and Harpo Marx expressed admiration and gratitude towards Kaufman.", "Dick Cavett, introducing Groucho onstage at Carnegie Hall in 1972, told the audience that Groucho considered Kaufman to be \"his god\".While ''The Cocoanuts'' was being developed in Atlantic City, Irving Berlin was hugely enthusiastic about including the song \"Always\", which he had written as a wedding present for his bride.", "Kaufman was less enthusiastic, and refused to rework the libretto to include this number.", "The song ultimately became a huge hit for Berlin, recorded by many popular performers.", "According to Laurence Bergreen, \"Kaufman's lack of enthusiasm caused Irving to lose confidence in the song, and 'Always' was deleted from the score of ''The Cocoanuts'' – though not from its creator's memory. ...", "Kaufman, a confirmed misogynist, had had no use for the song in ''The Cocoanuts'', but his disapproval did not deter Berlin from saving it for a more important occasion.\"", "''The Cocoanuts'' would remain Irving Berlin's only Broadway musical – until his last one, ''Mr.", "President'' – that did not include at least one eventual hit song.Kaufman recalled the matter differently.", "In an article in ''Stage'' magazine, he recalled that Berlin woke him up at 5 am one morning to play a new song he had just written.", "\"Even ''my'' deficient musical sense recognized that here was a song that was going to be popular.", "I listened to it two or three times, then took a stab at it myself, and as dawn came up over the Atlantic, Irving and I were happily singing 'Always' together—its first performance on any stage.", "I went back to bed a happy man, and stayed happy until rehearsals started, when it turned out that 'Always' had not been written for our show at all, but purely for Irving's music-publishing house.", "In its place in ''The Cocoanuts'' was a song called 'A Little Bungalow,' which we never could reprise in Act Two because the actors couldn't remember it that long.", "\"Humor derived from political situations was of particular interest to Kaufman.", "He collaborated on the hit musical ''Of Thee I Sing'', which won the 1932 Pulitzer Prize, the first musical so honored, and its sequel ''Let 'Em Eat Cake'', as well as one troubled, but eventually successful, satire that had several incarnations, ''Strike Up the Band''.", "Working with Kaufman on these ventures were Ryskind, George Gershwin, and Ira Gershwin.", "Also, Kaufman, with Moss Hart, wrote the book to ''I'd Rather Be Right'', a musical starring George M. Cohan as Franklin Delano Roosevelt (the U.S. president at the time), with songs by Richard Rodgers and Lorenz Hart.", "He also co-wrote the 1935 comedy-drama ''First Lady''.", "In 1945, Kaufman adapted ''H.M.S.", "Pinafore'' into ''Hollywood Pinafore''.Kaufman also contributed to major New York revues, including ''The Band Wagon'' (which shared songs, but not plot with the 1953 film version) with Arthur Schwartz and Howard Dietz.", "His often-anthologized sketch \"The Still Alarm\" from the revue ''The Little Show'' lasted long after the show closed.", "Another well-known sketch of his is \"If Men Played Cards as Women Do\".", "Also, musicals have been based on Kaufman properties, such as the 1981 musical version of ''Merrily We Roll Along'', adapted by George Furth and Stephen Sondheim.", "The musical ''Sherry!''", "(1967) was based on his play ''The Man Who Came to Dinner''.====Directing and producing====''The Front Page'' (1928)''Of Mice and Men'' (1937), with Wallace Ford and Broderick CrawfordKaufman directed the original or revival stage productions of many plays and musicals, including ''The Front Page'' by Charles MacArthur and Ben Hecht (1928), ''Of Thee I Sing'' (1931 and 1952), ''Of Mice and Men'' by John Steinbeck (1937), ''My Sister Eileen'' by Joseph Fields and Jerome Chodorov (1940), ''Hollywood Pinafore'' (1945), ''The Next Half Hour'' (1945), ''Park Avenue'' (1946, also co-wrote the book), ''Town House'' (1948), ''Bravo!''", "(1948, also co-wrote the script), ''Metropole'' (1949), the Frank Loesser musical ''Guys and Dolls'', for which he won the 1951 Best Director Tony Award, ''The Enchanted'' (1950), ''The Small Hours'' (1951, also co-wrote the script), ''Fancy Meeting You Again'' (1952, also co-wrote the script), ''The Solid Gold Cadillac'' (1953, also co-wrote the script), and ''Romanoff and Juliet'' by Peter Ustinov (1957).Kaufman produced many of his own plays, as well as those of other writers.", "For a short time, from ''circa'' 1940 to 1946, Kaufman, with Moss Hart and Max Gordon, owned and operated the Lyceum Theatre.===Film and television===Many of Kaufman's plays were adapted into Hollywood and British films.", "Among the more well-received were ''Dinner At Eight'', ''Stage Door'' (almost completely rewritten by others for the film version) and ''You Can't Take It with You'' (changed significantly by others for the film version), which won the Best Picture Oscar in 1938, and ''The Dark Tower''.", "He also occasionally wrote directly for the movies, most significantly the screenplay for ''A Night at the Opera'' for the Marx Brothers.", "His only credit as a film director was ''The Senator Was Indiscreet'' (1947) starring William Powell.From 1949 until midway through the 1952–1953 season, he appeared as a panelist on the CBS television series ''This Is Show Business''.", "Kaufman made a remark about the excessive airing of \"Silent Night\" during the Christmas season, \"Let's make this one program\", he said, \"on which no one sings 'Silent Night'.\"", "The resulting public outcry prompted his dismissal by CBS.", "In response, Fred Allen said, \"There were only two wits on television: Groucho Marx and George S. Kaufman.", "Without Kaufman, television has reverted to being half-witted.\"", "It would be more than a year before Kaufman appeared on TV again.===Bridge===Kaufman was a prominent player of bridge, probably both auction bridge and contract bridge.", "''The New Yorker'' published many of his humorous items about the card game; at least some have been reprinted more than once, including:*\"Kibitzers' Revolt\" and the suggestion that bridge clubs should post notice whether the North–South or the East–West pairs are holding good cards.", "*Kaufman was notoriously impatient with poor players.", "One such partner asked permission to use the men's room, according to legend, and Kaufman replied: \"Gladly.", "For the first time today I'll know what you have in your hand.", "\"*On sitting South: (1) \"No matter who writes the books or articles, South holds the most terrific cards I ever saw.", "There is a lucky fellow if ever I saw one.\"", "(2) Oswald Jacoby reported a deal that Kaufman played marvelously in 1952, after which he cracked, \"I'd rather sit South than be the President.", "\"*On , \"I'd like a review of the bidding with all the original inflections.", "\"His first wife Beatrice Bakrow Kaufman was also an avid bridge player, and an occasional poker player with Algonquin men, who wrote at least one ''New Yorker'' article on bridge herself, in 1928." ], [ "Personal life", "Beatrice Kaufman in 1934In the 1920s, Kaufman was a member of the Algonquin Round Table, a circle of writers and show business people.", "From the 1920s through the 1950s, Kaufman was as well known for his personality as he was for his writing.", "In the Moss Hart autobiography ''Act One'', Hart portrayed Kaufman as a morose and intimidating figure, uncomfortable with any expressions of affection between human beings—in life or on the page.", "Hart writes that Max Siegel said: \"Maybe I should have warned you.", "Mr Kaufman hates any kind of sentimentality—can't stand it!", "\"This perspective, along with a number of taciturn observations made by Kaufman himself, led to a simplistic but commonly held belief that Hart was the emotional soul of the creative team while Kaufman was a misanthropic writer of punchlines.", "Kaufman preferred never to leave Manhattan.", "He once said: \"I never want to go any place where I can't get back to Broadway and 44th by midnight.", "\"Called \"Public Lover Number One\", he \"dated some of the most beautiful women on Broadway\".", "Kaufman found himself in the center of a scandal in 1936 when, in the midst of a child custody suit, the former husband of actress Mary Astor threatened to publish one of Astor's diaries purportedly containing extremely explicit details of an affair between Kaufman and the actress.", "The diary was eventually destroyed by the court, unread, in 1952, but details of the supposed contents were published in ''Confidential'' magazine, ''Hollywood Babylon'' by Kenneth Anger (both always have been considered unreliable sources) and in various other questionable publications.", "Some of the sexually explicit portions of Mary Astor’s writing about Kaufman were reprinted in ''New York'' magazine in 2012 and ''Vanity Fair'' magazine in 2016.Kaufman had an affair with actress Natalie Schafer during the 1940s.Kaufman joined the theater club, The Lambs, in 1944.Kaufman was married to his first wife Beatrice from 1917 until her death in 1945.They had one daughter, Anne Kaufman (Booth).", "Four years later, he married actress Leueen MacGrath on May 26, 1949, with whom he collaborated on a number of plays before their divorce in August 1957.Kaufman died in New York City on June 2, 1961, at the age of 71.His granddaughter, Beatrice Colen, was an actress who had recurring appearances on both ''Happy Days'' and ''Wonder Woman''.In 1979, Donald Oliver compiled and edited a collection of Kaufman's humorous pieces, with a foreword by Dick Cavett." ], [ "Portrayals", "Kaufman was portrayed by the actor David Thornton in the 1994 film ''Mrs.", "Parker and the Vicious Circle'' and by Jason Robards in the 1963 film ''Act One''.", "In the 2014 Broadway adaptation of the latter by James Lapine, he was played by Tony Shalhoub.The title character of the 1991 Coen brothers film ''Barton Fink'', who is a playwright, bears a strong physical resemblance to Kaufman.Kaufman is portrayed in the film ''Mank'' by actor Adam Shapiro." ], [ "Awards", " Awarding institution Award title Year Production Results Notes Pulitzer Prize Pulitzer Prize for Drama 1932 ''Of Thee I Sing'' Won award in collaboration of Morris Ryskind, Ira Gershwin Pulitzer Prize Pulitzer Prize for Drama 1937 ''You Can't Take It With You'' Award won in collaboration with Moss Hart Tony Awards Tony Award for Best Direction of a Musical 1951 ''Guys and Dolls''" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * George S. Kaufman at Internet Off-Broadway Database* * * George S. Kaufman Papers at the Wisconsin Center for Film and Theater Research* George S. Kaufman Papers at the Library of Congress* George S. Kaufman.com* George S. Kaufman at doollee.com , The Playwrights Database* (a tribute to Kaufman)*" ] ]
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[ [ "Gilbert N. Lewis" ], [ "Introduction", " '''Gilbert Newton Lewis''' (October 23 or October 25, 1875 – March 23, 1946) was an American physical chemist and a dean of the college of chemistry at University of California, Berkeley.", "Lewis was best known for his discovery of the covalent bond and his concept of electron pairs; his Lewis dot structures and other contributions to valence bond theory have shaped modern theories of chemical bonding.", "Lewis successfully contributed to chemical thermodynamics, photochemistry, and isotope separation, and is also known for his concept of acids and bases.", "Lewis also researched on relativity and quantum physics, and in 1926 he coined the term \"photon\" for the smallest unit of radiant energy.G.", "N. Lewis was born in 1875 in Weymouth, Massachusetts.", "After receiving his PhD in chemistry from Harvard University and studying abroad in Germany and the Philippines, Lewis moved to California in 1912 to teach chemistry at the University of California, Berkeley, where he became the dean of the college of chemistry and spent the rest of his life.", "As a professor, he incorporated thermodynamic principles into the chemistry curriculum and reformed chemical thermodynamics in a mathematically rigorous manner accessible to ordinary chemists.", "He began measuring the free energy values related to several chemical processes, both organic and inorganic.", "In 1916, he also proposed his theory of bonding and added information about electrons in the periodic table of the chemical elements.", "In 1933, he started his research on isotope separation.", "Lewis worked with hydrogen and managed to purify a sample of heavy water.", "He then came up with his theory of acids and bases, and did work in photochemistry during the last years of his life.Though he was nominated 41 times, G. N. Lewis never won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, resulting in a major Nobel Prize controversy.", "On the other hand, Lewis mentored and influenced numerous Nobel laureates at Berkeley including Harold Urey (1934 Nobel Prize), William F. Giauque (1949 Nobel Prize), Glenn T. Seaborg (1951 Nobel Prize), Willard Libby (1960 Nobel Prize), Melvin Calvin (1961 Nobel Prize) and so on, turning Berkeley into one of the world's most prestigious centers for chemistry.", "On March 23, 1946, Lewis was found dead in his Berkeley laboratory where he had been working with hydrogen cyanide; many postulated that the cause of his death was suicide.", "After Lewis' death, his children followed their father's career in chemistry, and the Lewis Hall on the Berkeley campus is named after him." ], [ "Biography", "===Early life===Lewis was born in 1875 and raised in Weymouth, Massachusetts, where there exists a street named for him, G.N.", "Lewis Way, off Summer Street.", "Additionally, the wing of the new Weymouth High School Chemistry department has been named in his honor.", "Lewis received his primary education at home from his parents, Frank Wesley Lewis, a lawyer of independent character, and Mary Burr White Lewis.", "He read at age three and was intellectually precocious.", "In 1884 his family moved to Lincoln, Nebraska, and in 1889 he received his first formal education at the university preparatory school.In 1893, after two years at the University of Nebraska, Lewis transferred to Harvard University, where he obtained his B.S.", "in 1896.After a year of teaching at Phillips Academy in Andover, Lewis returned to Harvard to study with the physical chemist T. W. Richards and obtained his Ph.D. in 1899 with a dissertation on electrochemical potentials.", "After a year of teaching at Harvard, Lewis took a traveling fellowship to Germany, the center of physical chemistry, and studied with Walther Nernst at Göttingen and with Wilhelm Ostwald at Leipzig.", "While working in Nernst's lab, Lewis apparently developed a lifelong enmity with Nernst.", "In the following years, Lewis started to criticize and denounce his former teacher on many occasions, calling Nernst's work on his heat theorem \"''a regrettable episode in the history of chemistry''\".", "A Swedish friend of Nernst's, Wilhelm Palmær, was a member of the Nobel Chemistry Committee.", "There is evidence that he used the Nobel nominating and reporting procedures to block a Nobel Prize for Lewis in thermodynamics by nominating Lewis for the prize three times, and then using his position as a committee member to write negative reports.===Harvard, Manila, and MIT===After his stay in Nernst's lab, Lewis returned to Harvard in 1901 as an instructor for three more years.", "He was appointed instructor in thermodynamics and electrochemistry.", "In 1904 Lewis was granted a leave of absence and became Superintendent of Weights and Measures for the Bureau of Science in Manila, Philippines.", "The next year he returned to Cambridge, Massachusetts when the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) appointed him to a faculty position, in which he had a chance to join a group of outstanding physical chemists under the direction of Arthur Amos Noyes.", "He became an assistant professor in 1907, associate professor in 1908, and full professor in 1911.===University of California, Berkeley===G.", "N. Lewis left MIT in 1912 to become a professor of physical chemistry and dean of the College of Chemistry at the University of California, Berkeley.", "On June 21, 1912, he married Mary Hinckley Sheldon, daughter of a Harvard professor of Romance languages.", "They had two sons, both of whom became chemistry professors, and a daughter.", "In 1913, he joined the Alpha Chi Sigma at Berkeley, the professional chemistry fraternity.Lewis' graduate advisees at Berkeley went on to be exceptionally successful with the Nobel Committee.", "14 Nobel prizes were eventually awarded to the men he took as students.", "The best-known of these include Harold Urey (1934 Nobel Prize), William F. Giauque (1949 Nobel Prize), Glenn T. Seaborg (1951 Nobel Prize), Willard Libby (1960 Nobel Prize), Melvin Calvin (1961 Nobel Prize).", "Due to his efforts, the college of chemistry at Berkeley became one of the top chemistry centers in the world.While at Berkeley he also refused entry to women, including preventing Margaret Melhase from conducting graduate studies.", "Melhase had previously co-discovered Cesium-137 with Seaborg as an undergraduate.", "In 1913, he was elected to the National Academy of Sciences.", "He was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1918.He resigned in 1934, refusing to state the cause for his resignation; it has been speculated that it was due to a dispute over the internal politics of that institution or to the failure of those he had nominated to be elected.", "His decision to resign may also have been sparked by his resentment over the award of the 1934 Nobel Prize for chemistry to his student, Harold Urey, for his 1931 isolation of deuterium and the confirmation of its spectrum.", "This was a prize Lewis almost certainly felt he should have shared for his efforts to purify and characterize heavy water." ], [ "Death", "On 23 March 1946, a graduate student found Lewis's lifeless body under a laboratory workbench at Berkeley.", "Lewis had been working on an experiment with liquid hydrogen cyanide, and deadly fumes from a broken line had leaked into the laboratory.", "The coroner ruled that the cause of death was coronary artery disease, because of a lack of any signs of cyanosis, but some believe that it may have been a suicide.", "Berkeley Emeritus Professor William Jolly, who reported the various views on Lewis's death in his 1987 history of UC Berkeley's College of Chemistry, ''From Retorts to Lasers'', wrote that a higher-up in the department believed that Lewis had committed suicide.If Lewis's death was indeed a suicide, a possible explanation was depression brought on by a lunch with Irving Langmuir.", "Langmuir and Lewis had a long rivalry, dating back to Langmuir's extensions of Lewis's theory of the chemical bond.", "Langmuir had been awarded the 1932 Nobel Prize in chemistry for his work on surface chemistry, while Lewis had not received the Prize despite having been nominated 41 times.", "On the day of Lewis's death, Langmuir and Lewis had met for lunch at Berkeley, a meeting that Michael Kasha recalled only years later.", "Associates reported that Lewis came back from lunch in a dark mood, played a morose game of bridge with some colleagues, then went back to work in his lab.", "An hour later, he was found dead.", "Langmuir's papers at the Library of Congress confirm that he had been on the Berkeley campus that day to receive an honorary degree.Lewis Hall at Berkeley, built in 1948, is named in his honor." ], [ "Scientific achievements", "===Thermodynamics===Most of Lewis’ lasting interests originated during his Harvard years.", "The most important was thermodynamics, a subject in which Richards was very active at that time.", "Although most of the important thermodynamic relations were known by 1895, they were seen as isolated equations, and had not yet been rationalized as a logical system, from which, given one relation, the rest could be derived.", "Moreover, these relations were inexact, applying only to ideal chemical systems.", "These were two outstanding problems of theoretical thermodynamics.", "In two long and ambitious theoretical papers in 1900 and 1901, Lewis tried to provide a solution.", "Lewis introduced the thermodynamic concept of activity and coined the term \"fugacity\".", "His new idea of fugacity, or \"escaping tendency\", was a function with the dimensions of pressure which expressed the tendency of a substance to pass from one chemical phase to another.", "Lewis believed that fugacity was the fundamental principle from which a system of real thermodynamic relations could be derived.", "This hope was not realized, though fugacity did find a lasting place in the description of real gases.Lewis’ early papers also reveal an unusually advanced awareness of J. W. Gibbs's and P. Duhem's ideas of free energy and thermodynamic potential.", "These ideas were well known to physicists and mathematicians, but not to most practical chemists, who regarded them as abstruse and inapplicable to chemical systems.", "Most chemists relied on the familiar thermodynamics of heat (enthalpy) of Berthelot, Ostwald, and Van ’t Hoff, and the calorimetric school.", "Heat of reaction is not, of course, a measure of the tendency of chemical changes to occur, and Lewis realized that only free energy and entropy could provide an exact chemical thermodynamics.", "He derived free energy from fugacity; he tried, without success, to obtain an exact expression for the entropy function, which in 1901 had not been defined at low temperatures.", "Richards too tried and failed, and not until Nernst succeeded in 1907 was it possible to calculate entropies unambiguously.", "Although Lewis’ fugacity-based system did not last, his early interest in free energy and entropy proved most fruitful, and much of his career was devoted to making these useful concepts accessible to practical chemists.At Harvard, Lewis also wrote a theoretical paper on the thermodynamics of blackbody radiation in which he postulated that light has a pressure.", "He later revealed that he had been discouraged from pursuing this idea by his older, more conservative colleagues, who were unaware that Wilhelm Wien and others were successfully pursuing the same line of thought.", "Lewis’ paper remained unpublished; but his interest in radiation and quantum theory, and (later) in relativity, sprang from this early, aborted effort.", "From the start of his career, Lewis regarded himself as both chemist and physicist.===Valence theory===Lewis' '''cubical atoms''' (as drawn in 1902)About 1902 Lewis started to use unpublished drawings of cubical atoms in his lecture notes, in which the corners of the cube represented possible electron positions.", "Lewis later cited these notes in his classic 1916 paper on chemical bonding, as being the first expression of his ideas.A third major interest that originated during Lewis’ Harvard years was his valence theory.", "In 1902, while trying to explain the laws of valence to his students, Lewis conceived the idea that atoms were built up of a concentric series of cubes with electrons at each corner.", "This “cubic atom” explained the cycle of eight elements in the periodic table and was in accord with the widely accepted belief that chemical bonds were formed by transfer of electrons to give each atom a complete set of eight.", "This electrochemical theory of valence found its most elaborate expression in the work of Richard Abegg in 1904, but Lewis’ version of this theory was the only one to be embodied in a concrete atomic model.", "Again Lewis’ theory did not interest his Harvard mentors, who, like most American chemists of that time, had no taste for such speculation.", "Lewis did not publish his theory of the cubic atom, but in 1916 it became an important part of his theory of the shared electron pair bond.In 1916, he published his classic paper on chemical bonding \"''The Atom and the Molecule''\" in which he formulated the idea of what would become known as the covalent bond, consisting of a shared pair of electrons, and he defined the term odd molecule (the modern term is free radical) when an electron is not shared.", "He included what became known as Lewis dot structures as well as the cubical atom model.", "These ideas on chemical bonding were expanded upon by Irving Langmuir and became the inspiration for the studies on the nature of the chemical bond by Linus Pauling.===Acids and bases===In 1923, he formulated the electron-pair theory of acid–base reactions.", "In this theory of acids and bases, a \"Lewis acid\" is an ''electron-pair acceptor'' and a \"Lewis base\" is an ''electron-pair donor''.", "This year he also published a monograph on his theories of the chemical bond.Based on work by J. Willard Gibbs, it was known that chemical reactions proceeded to an equilibrium determined by the free energy of the substances taking part.", "Lewis spent 25 years determining free energies of various substances.", "In 1923 he and Merle Randall published the results of this study, which helped formalize modern chemical thermodynamics.===Heavy water===Lewis was the first to produce a pure sample of deuterium oxide (heavy water) in 1933 and the first to study survival and growth of life forms in heavy water.", "By accelerating deuterons (deuterium nuclei) in Ernest O. Lawrence's cyclotron, he was able to study many of the properties of atomic nuclei.", "During the 1930s, he was mentor to Glenn T. Seaborg, who was retained for post-doctoral work as Lewis' personal research assistant.", "Seaborg went on to win the 1951 Nobel Prize in Chemistry and have the element seaborgium named in his honor while he was still alive.=== O4 Tetraoxygen ===In 1924, by studying the magnetic properties of solutions of oxygen in liquid nitrogen, Lewis found that O4 molecules were formed.", "This was the first evidence for tetratomic oxygen.=== Relativity and quantum physics ===Dedication to Lewis by Richard C. Tolman a 1934 copy of Tolman's ''Relativity, Thermodynamics and Cosmology''In 1908 he published the first of several papers on relativity, in which he derived the mass-energy relationship in a different way from Albert Einstein's derivation.", "In 1909, he and Richard C. Tolman combined his methods with special relativity.", "In 1912 Lewis and Edwin Bidwell Wilson presented a major work in mathematical physics that not only applied synthetic geometry to the study of spacetime, but also noted the identity of a spacetime squeeze mapping and a Lorentz transformation.In 1926, he coined the term \"photon\" for the smallest unit of radiant energy (light).", "Actually, the outcome of his letter to ''Nature'' was not what he had intended.", "In the letter, he proposed a photon being a structural element, not energy.", "He insisted on the need for a new variable, ''the number of photons''.", "Although his theory differed from the quantum theory of light introduced by Albert Einstein in 1905, his name was adopted for what Einstein had called a '''light quantum''' (Lichtquant in German).===Other achievements===In 1921, Lewis was the first to propose an empirical equation describing the failure of strong electrolytes to obey the law of mass action, a problem that had perplexed physical chemists for twenty years.", "His empirical equations for what he called ionic strength were later confirmed to be in accord with the Debye–Hückel equation for strong electrolytes, published in 1923.Over the course of his career, Lewis published on many other subjects besides those mentioned in this entry, ranging from the nature of light quanta to the economics of price stabilization.", "In the last years of his life, Lewis and graduate student Michael Kasha, his last research associate, established that phosphorescence of organic molecules involves emission of light from one electron in an excited triplet state (a state in which two electrons have their spin vectors oriented in the ''same'' direction, but in different orbitals) and measured the paramagnetism of this triplet state." ], [ "See also", "*History of molecular theory" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*Coffey, Patrick (2008) ''Cathedrals of Science: The Personalities and Rivalries That Made Modern Chemistry''.", "Oxford University Press." ], [ "External links", "** Key Participants: G. N. Lewis - ''Linus Pauling and the Nature of the Chemical Bond: A Documentary History''*Eric Scerri, ''The Periodic Table, Its Story and Its Significance'', Oxford University Press, 2007, see chapter 8 especially* National Academy of Sciences Biographical Memoir" ] ]
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[ [ "Governor of Michigan" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''governor of Michigan''' is the head of government, and chief executive of the U.S. state of Michigan.", "The current governor is Gretchen Whitmer, a member of the Democratic Party, who was inaugurated on January 1, 2019, as the state's 49th governor.", "She was re-elected to serve a second term in 2022.The governor is elected to a four-year term and is limited to two terms." ], [ "Qualifications", "Governors of Michigan, as well as their lieutenant governors, must be United States citizens who have been qualified electors in Michigan for the four years preceding election and must be at least 30 years of age.", "A constitutional amendment adopted at the 2010 general election provides that a person is ineligible for any elected office, including governor and lieutenant governor, if convicted of a felony involving dishonesty, deceit, fraud, or a breach of the public trust, and if the conviction were related to the person's official capacity while holding any elective office or position of employment in local, state, or federal government." ], [ "Elections and term of office", "From statehood until the election of 1966, governors were elected to two-year terms.", "Elections are held in November, and the governor assumes office the following January, except in the case of death or resignation.", "From statehood until 1851, elections were held in odd-numbered years.", "A new state constitution was drafted in 1850 and took effect in 1851.As part of the process bringing the constitution into effect, there was a single one-year term of governor in 1851.Thereafter elections were held in even years.The constitution adopted in 1963 changed the governor's term to four years, starting in 1967.Since then, gubernatorial elections have been offset by two years between the U.S. presidential elections (e.g., presidential elections were in 2008 and 2012, while gubernatorial elections in that time period were in 2010 and 2014).", "Gubernatorial elections are held concurrently with state Senate elections.", "The winner of the gubernatorial election takes office at noon on January 1 of the year following the election.In 1992, an amendment to the Michigan constitution imposed a lifetime term limit of two four-year terms for the office of governor.", "Before this, governors were not limited as to how many terms they could serve; John Engler, the governor at the time, served three terms as his first term occurred before the restriction.", "Engler was reelected in 1994 and 1998 before being term limited in 2002." ], [ "Powers and duties", "The governor has responsibilities to:* sign or veto laws passed by the legislature; including a line item veto* reorganize state executive government agencies and departments;* appoint, with advice and consent of the Senate, and oversee most department heads;* appoint judges, subject to ratification by the electorate;* appoint members of boards and commissions;* propose a state budget;* give the annual ''State of the State address'';* sue other executives to comply with the law;* command the state militia; and* grant pardons for any crime, except cases involving impeachment by the legislature.The governor appoints the members of the governing boards of 10 of the state's 13 public universities and department commissions." ], [ "History of the office", "Governor Stevens T. Mason, the first governor of the State of MichiganForty-seven people have been governor of the state over forty-nine distinct periods, with two, John S. Barry and Frank Fitzgerald, serving non-consecutive terms.", "Before statehood, there were five governors of the Michigan Territory.", "Stevens T. Mason, Michigan's first governor, also served as a territorial governor.", "He was elected governor at age 23 as a member of the Democratic Party in 1835 and served until 1840.Mason was the youngest state governor in United States history.Jennifer Granholm became the first female governor of Michigan on January 1, 2003, when she succeeded Engler; she served for 8 years, until January 1, 2011." ], [ "See also", "*Lieutenant Governor of Michigan" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ] ]
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[ [ "Götterdämmerung" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''''''' (; '''''Twilight of the Gods'''''), WWV 86D, is the last in Richard Wagner's cycle of four epic music dramas titled (''The Ring of the Nibelung'', or ''The Ring Cycle'' or ''The Ring'' for short).", "It received its premiere at the on 17 August 1876, as part of the first complete performance of the whole work.The title is a translation into German of the Old Norse phrase '''', which in Norse mythology refers to a prophesied war among various beings and gods that ultimately results in the burning, immersion in water, and renewal of the world.", "As with the rest of the ''Ring'', however, Wagner's account diverges significantly from these Old Norse sources.The autograph manuscript of the work is preserved in the Richard Wagner Foundation." ], [ "Composition" ], [ "Roles", "+RoleVoice typePremiere cast, 17 August 1876Conductor: Hans RichterSiegfriedtenorGeorg UngerBrünnhildesopranoAmalie MaternaGuntherbaritoneEugen GuraGutrunesopranoMathilde WeckerlinHagenbassGustav SiehrAlberichbaritoneKarl HillWaltrautemezzo-sopranoLuise JaideFirst NorncontraltoJohanna Jachmann-WagnerSecond Nornmezzo-sopranoJosephine SchefskyThird NornsopranoFriederike GrünWoglindesopranoLilli LehmannWellgundesopranoMarie LehmannFlosshildemezzo-sopranoMinna Lammert ''Vassals, women''" ], [ "Synopsis", "The Norns weave the Rope of Destiny, an illustration for Wagner's ''Ring'' by Franz Stassen, 1914=== Prologue ===Prelude to the Prologue'''''Scene 1'''''The three Norns, daughters of Erda, the goddess of Nature, gather beside Brünnhilde's rock, weaving the Rope of Destiny.", "From it they read of the past, the present, and of the future when Valhalla will be set on fire and the end of the gods will come (''\"Welch' Licht leuchtet dort?\"'').", "As their narration approaches the point when they want to sing about the fate of Alberich's ring and its curse and as the themes of Siegfried and the Curse of the ring are heard, the rope breaks.", "Lamenting the loss of their wisdom, the Norns disappear, returning to their mother Erda beneath the earth (''\"Zu End' ewiges Wissen!", "\"'').Orchestral Interlude - ''Tagesgrauen'' (''Dawn'')'''''Scene 2'''''As day breaks, Siegfried and Brünnhilde emerge from their dwelling high on a mountaintop surrounded by magic fire (''\"Zu neuen Thaten, theurer Helde\"'').", "Brünnhilde sends Siegfried off to new heroic deeds, urging him to keep their love in mind.", "Siegfried proclaims himself to be simply an executor of her will, and as a pledge of his fidelity he gives her the ring of power that he took from Fafner's hoard.", "In a duet, both of them extoll their loving bond, which nothing can untie, even when distance keeps them apart (''\"O!", "heilige Götter!\"'').", "Bearing Brünnhilde's shield and mounting her steed Grane, Siegfried then rides away.", "'''''Orchestral Interlude''''' - ''Siegfrieds Rheinfahrt'' (''Siegfried's Rhine Journey'')=== Act 1 ===Brünnhilde is visited by her Valkyrie sister Waltraute (Arthur Rackham, 1912)'''''Scene 1'''''The act begins on the shores of the Rhine in the Hall of the Gibichungs, a people named after the deceased king Gibich.", "Gunther, his son and heir, sits enthroned.", "Gunther's half-brother and chief minister Hagen advises him to find a wife for himself and a husband for Gutrune, the sister of them both, to enlarge the glory and might of their dynasty and secure it for the future.", "He suggests Brünnhilde, the noblest of women, as appropriate for Gunther, and Siegfried, the dragon-slayer, the greatest of heroes, as the best husband for Gutrune.", "Neither Gunther nor Gutrune knows how to win themselves such partners, but Hagen reminds Gutrune that he has given her a potion she can use to make Siegfried forget any woman he has ever seen and fall in love with her; enamoured of Gutrune, Siegfried will then also be surely willing to bring Brünnhilde, who sleeps on a mountaintop encircled by fire only the fearless can pass, to Gunther in order to gain from him the permission for marriage with Gutrune.", "Gunther and Gutrune, not knowing that Siegfried and Brünnhilde are actually in love with each other, agree enthusiastically with this plan.", "'''''Scene 2'''''Siegfried lands near the Gibichung Hall with his boat, seeking to meet Gunther, of whose fame he has heard during his journey (''\"Heil, Siegfried, theurer Held!\"'').", "Gunther extends hospitality to the hero, and Gutrune offers him the potion.", "Unaware of deception, Siegfried toasts Brünnhilde and their mutual love and drinks.", "In a while he loses his memory of her and is struck by desire for Gutrune.", "Drugged, Siegfried then offers to win a wife for Gunther, who tells him about Brünnhilde and the magic fire, which only a fearless person can cross.", "They swear blood-brotherhood, mixing their blood in a drinking horn (''\"Blühenden Lebens labendes Blut\"'').", "Hagen holds the horn but does not join in the oath, and the two new brothers then leave for Brünnhilde's rock.", "Hagen, left on guard duty, gloats that his so-called masters are unwittingly bringing the ring to him (''\"Hier sitz ich zur Wacht\"'' - ''Hagens Wacht'' - ''Hagen's Watch'').Orchestral Interlude'''''Scene 3'''''Meanwhile, Brünnhilde is visited on her rock by her Valkyrie sister Waltraute, who recounts that Wotan returned from his wanderings with his spear shattered.", "The spear was the symbol of the god's authority and the source and instrument of his power, carved with all the treaties through which he ruled.", "Unable to influence events any more, he has ordered branches of the World tree to be piled around Walhalla by its heroes and waits in resignation for his ravens to bring him news about the ring (''\"Höre mit Sinn, was ich dir sage!\"''", "- ''Waltraute's Monologue'').", "Waltraute begs Brünnhilde to return the ring to the Rhinemaidens, but Brünnhilde refuses to relinquish the pledge of Siegfried's love, and Waltraute rides away in despair.Crossing the ring of fire, Siegfried arrives disguised as Gunther by using the Tarnhelm and claims Brünnhilde for his wife (''\"Brünnhild', ein Freier kam\"'').", "Though Brünnhilde, terrified by the appearance of an unknown man, tries to resist him, without the divine powers she has earlier renounced for love's sake she has now nothing with which to defend herself but the ring, which Siegfried manages to snatch cruelly from her hand during a fight, being immune to its coercive power thanks to his fearlessness.", "Putting the ring on his own hand instead, Siegfried then spends the night with Brünnhilde on her rock, placing the magic sword Nothung between them as a witness to his loyalty to Gunther and his keeping the promise to bring Brünnhilde untouched (''\"Nun Nothung, zeuge du\"'').=== Act 2 ===Stage design by Josef Hoffmann for original production in 1876 – Act II, Scene 2''Prelude to Act 2'''''''Scene 1'''''As Hagen sits sleeping on night watch, his father Alberich appears and urges him to obtain the ring (''\"Schläfst du, Hagen, mein Sohn?\"'').", "Hagen, barely conscious, swears to do so and Alberich vanishes with pleas for Hagen to remain loyal to him.", "Orchestral Interlude - ''Morgenröthe'' (''The Blush of Dawn'')'''''Scene 2'''''Siegfried arrives at dawn via Tarnhelm-magic back to the settlement of the Gibichungs, having resumed his natural form and left Brünnhilde on a boat on the Rhine with Gunther.", "He explains to Gutrune how he managed to change his form back from Gunther's just in time for Brünnhilde to not be able to recognize the deceit.", "'''''Scene 3'''''Hagen summons the Gibichung vassals to welcome Gunther and his bride (''Hagens Ruf'' - ''Hagen's Call'').", "He does this by sounding the war-alarm.", "The vassals are surprised to learn that the occasion is not battle, but their master's wedding and party.", "Hagen announces that Gunther has won himself a wife and orders them to slay sacrificial animals so that gods may grant a happy marriage.", "The vassals are then told to defend their new queen's honour if someone were to wrong her.", "'''''Scene 4'''''Gunther lands on the Rhine's shore in front of Siegfried, Gutrune, Hagen, and the assembled Gibichung men and women and leads in a downcast Brünnhilde as his trophy.", "With false pomp he then triumphantly announces a double wedding: Brünnhilde to himself, and Gutrune to Siegfried (''\"Brünnhild', die hehrste Frau\"'').", "Brünnhilde almost faints in despair as she now sees her beloved, who doesn't even recognize her, with a different woman.", "However, she notices the ring on Siegfried's hand, and realizes she has been betrayed (''\"Betrug!", "Betrug!", "Schändlichster Betrug!\"'').", "Declaring publicly that the man who conquered her and took the ring was not Gunther but Siegfried in disguise she exposes Gunther as an impostor who tried to increase his own prestige through the deeds of someone else.", "Filled with unquenchable desperate rage she also denounces Siegfried and falsely accuses him of having an intercourse with her while in Gunther's form, thus breaking his blood-brotherhood with Gunther.", "Siegfried denies Brünnhilde's charge, but the vassals urge him to prove his innocence by taking an oath.", "Hagen offers his spear as the weapon by which Siegfried can do so.", "Siegfried agrees and swears upon Hagen's spear-point that he may be killed with it if he has ever loved Brünnhilde (''\"Helle Wehr, heilige Waffe!\"'').", "She also seizes the spear and swears that Siegfried may be killed with it for swearing the false oath.", "Once again Hagen supervises silently as others take oaths to his advantage.", "The naively light-hearted Siegfried, wishing for his wedding day to be joyful, then leads Gutrune and the bystanders exuberantly off to the wedding feast, as if nothing too significant has happened.", "'''''Orchestral Interlude''''''''''Scene 5'''''Brünnhilde, Hagen, and Gunther do not join the celebration and stay alone by the shore.", "Deeply shamed by Brünnhilde's outburst in front of his subjects and thus threatened in his authority, Gunther agrees to Hagen's suggestion that Siegfried must be killed in order for Gunther to regain his standing.", "Indeed, to see Siegfried die is Gunther's duty, since the hero has apparently broken the sacred bond of blood-brotherhood during the night on the rock with Brünnhilde, which betrayal condemns him by law to the rightful punishment of death.", "Brünnhilde, seeking revenge for Siegfried's manifest treachery, joins the plot and tells Hagen that Siegfried would be vulnerable only to a stab in the back.", "Hagen and Gunther decide to lure Siegfried on a hunting-trip and murder him.", "They sing a trio in which Brünnhilde and Gunther vow in the name of Wotan, \"guardian of oaths\", to kill Siegfried, while Hagen repeats his pledge to Alberich: to acquire the ring and rule the world through its power (''Rache-Terzett'' - ''Vengeance Trio'').=== Act 3 ===''The Rhinemaidens warn Siegfried'' (Arthur Rackham, 1912)''Prelude to Act 3'''''''Scene 1'''''In the woods by the bank of the Rhine, the Rhinemaidens swim playfully and sing a song to the Sun, mourning their lost Rhine gold (''\"Frau Sonne sendet lichte Strahlen\"'').", "Siegfried happens by, separated from the hunting party while searching for prey.", "The Rhinemaidens urge him to return the ring to the Rhine and thus avoid its curse, but he laughs at them in heroic pride and says he prefers to die rather than bargain for his life.", "They swim away, predicting that Siegfried will die this very day and that his heir, a lady, will treat them more fairly.", "'''''Scene 2'''''Siegfried rejoins the hunters, who include Gunther and Hagen.", "While resting, he sings them in high spirits a hero's song about the adventures of his youth (''\"Mime hieß ein mürrischer Zwerg\"''), recounting his life with Mime, the forging of Nothung, slaying the dragon Fafner and understanding the language of birds.", "Hagen gives him another potion, which restores his memory, and Siegfried tells of discovering the sleeping Brünnhilde and awakening her with a kiss.", "Upon hearing this, now having the apparent evidence of Siegfried's betrayal of the blood-brotherhood in front of Gunther and his men, Hagen stabs Siegfried in the back with his spear, declares that he had avenged perjury and calmly walks away.", "In his final agony Siegfried recollects the awakening of Brünnhilde and his love for her and with the memory of blessed fear the feeling for Brünnhilde had taught him, seeing her giving him greetings in a vision, dies (''\"Brünnhilde!", "Heilige Braut!\"'').", "His body is carried away in a solemn funeral procession that forms the interlude as the scene is changed and recapitulates many of the themes associated with Siegfried and the Wälsungs.", "'''''Orchestral Interlude''''' - ''Siegfrieds Trauermusik'' (''Siegfried's Funeral March'')Arrangement from Richard Wagner's 1876 opera ''Götterdämmerung'': Siegfried's Funeral March and Finale'''''Scene 3'''''Back in the Gibichung Hall, Gutrune awaits Siegfried's return.", "Hagen arrives ahead of the funeral party.", "Gutrune is devastated when Siegfried's corpse is brought in.", "Confronted with his sister's pain, Gunther blames Siegfried's death on Hagen, who replies that Siegfried had incurred the penalty of his false oath.", "Moreover, he claims the ring on Siegfried's finger by right of conquest.", "When Gunther objects, Hagen appeals to the vassals to support his lawful claim.", "Gunther draws his sword but Hagen attacks and easily kills him.", "As he moves to take the ring, however, Siegfried's hand rises miraculously in a threatening gesture.", "Hagen as well as all present recoil in utmost fear.Brünnhilde, with her features as if transfigured, suddenly makes her entrance (''\"Schweigt eures Jammers jauchzenden Schwall!", "\"''), having in the meantime met on the river's shores the daughters of the Rhine, who talked to her about the ring and its curse.", "She proclaims Siegfried innocent, as she now recognizes that he betrayed her only due to an intrigue, and declares that Siegfried's betrayal and death were necessary for her to become all-knowing and completely free.", "As the queen of the Gibichungs she then issues orders for a huge funeral pyre for the dead hero to be assembled by the river (''\"Starke Scheite schichtet mir dort\"'') and takes the ring from Siegfried's hand.", "With her eyes turned upwards to the sky, Brünnhilde in an apostrophe addresses Wotan, the ruler of oaths and laws, and proclaims that the death of the free hero Siegfried has atoned for the god's guilt; renouncing and overcoming through the might of grieving love the power of the ring, she bequeaths it to the Rhinemaidens, who are to claim it from her own ashes after fire has cleansed it of its curse, and declares that Wotan can finally truly rest in peace (''\"Mein Erbe nun nehm' ich zu eigen\"'').", "Brünnhilde then lights the funeral pyre with a firebrand and with \"anxiously longed-for tidings\" sends Wotan's ravens home to command Loge, the god of fire that still burns on her rock, to fly to Walhalla and set it on fire (''\"Fliegt heim, ihr Raben!\"'').", "After a final eulogy to the dead hero, Brünnhilde, willing to be reunited with her love, mounts her horse Grane and as a valkyrie rides into the flames, joining Siegfried in death.A sequence of leitmotifs portray the fire flaring up, and the hall of the Gibichungs catching fire and collapsing.", "The Rhine overflows its banks, quenching the flames, and the Rhinemaidens swim in to claim the ring.", "Hagen in a frenzy tries at the last moment to stop them and seize the ring for himself, but they drag him into the depths and drown him (''\"Zurück vom Ring!", "\"''), the theme of the curse of the ring being then heard for the last time.", "As they celebrate the return of the Rhinegold to their river and the breaking of its curse, a red glow spreads through the sky.", "The surviving Gibichungs now see the interior of Walhalla with gods and heroes visible as described by Waltraute in Act I, Scene 3.A new fire flares up around the Hall of the Gods, hiding it from sight; the gods are consumed in flames and the curtain falls.", "At the very end of the work there emerges the sound of the ''Liebeserlösung'' motive - the redemption-through-love leitmotif." ], [ "Noted excerpts", "Two extended orchestral selections— ''Dawn and Siegfried's Rhine Journey'', an abridged excerpt from the Prologue without the singers; and ''Siegfried's Funeral March'', lifted uncut from Act III — are often presented outside the opera house, and are published separately from the lengthy work.", "Early versions of these selections were approved by Wagner.", "These excerpts include specially composed endings so that the excerpt is better able to stand on its own as a complete composition.Other notable excerpts include:* Siegfried and Brünnhilde's duet (Prologue).", "This is part of ''Dawn and Siegfried's Rhine Journey''.", "* Hagen's Watch (Act I)* Hagen summons the vassals and the Wedding March (Act II)* Brünnhilde's Immolation Scene (Act III) as a soprano solo with orchestra (Hagen's single line is omitted)." ], [ "Reactions", "Robert A.", "Hall, Jr. has analysed the opera in terms of cultural symbolism.", "Hermann Danuser has discussed the dramaturgy of the ending of ''Götterdämmerung'' in the context of the entire ''Ring'' cycle.", "William Kinderman has evaluated a large-scale instance of musical recapitulation in Act III of the opera.", "Warren J. Darcy has expostulated on the potential influence of Wagner's readings of the philosophy of Arthur Schopenhauer on the music of the ''Ring'' cycle, particularly on the ending of ''Götterdämmerung''.The historian John Roberts suggested that the killing of Siegfried by Hagen with a stab in the back gave inspiration for the myth that the German Army did not lose World War I, but was instead defeated by a treasonous \"stab in the back\" from civilians, in particular Jews and Socialists.The German bass Kurt Moll pointed out that the part of the principal villain, Hagen, is unique in the bass repertoire: it requires a shouting, blaring vocal technique that risks damaging the singer's voice; only very large-voiced, powerful singers can sing it.", "Moll himself avoided the role.Friedrich Nietzsche's 1888–1889 book, ''Götzendämmerung''—Twilight of the Idols—is a pun on the title of ''Götterdämmerung'', with ''Götze'' being the German word for \"idol\" or \"false god\"." ], [ "Recordings" ], [ "References", "'''Notes'''" ], [ "External links", "* ''Götterdämmerung''.", "Wagner's autograph in the Richard Wagner Foundation* * Richard Wagner – ''Götterdämmerung'', gallery of historic postcards with motifs from Richard Wagner's operas* ''Götterdämmerung'', WagnerOperas* Vocal score of ''Götterdämmerung''* Complete libretto in German* Libretto in German and English" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gilbert and Sullivan" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Gilbert and Sullivan''' refers to the Victorian-era theatrical partnership of the dramatist W. S. Gilbert (1836–1911) and the composer Arthur Sullivan (1842–1900) and to the works they jointly created.", "The two men collaborated on fourteen comic operas between 1871 and 1896, of which ''H.M.S.", "Pinafore'', ''The Pirates of Penzance'' and ''The Mikado'' are among the best known.Gilbert, who wrote the libretti for these operas, created fanciful \"topsy-turvy\" worlds where each absurdity is taken to its logical conclusion—fairies rub elbows with British lords, flirting is a capital offence, gondoliers ascend to the monarchy, and pirates emerge as noblemen who have gone astray.", "Sullivan, six years Gilbert's junior, composed the music, contributing memorable melodies that could convey both humour and pathos.Their operas have enjoyed broad and enduring international success and are still performed frequently throughout the English-speaking world.", "Gilbert and Sullivan introduced innovations in content and form that directly influenced the development of musical theatre through the 20th century.", "The operas have also influenced political discourse, literature, film and television and have been widely parodied and pastiched by humorists.", "The producer Richard D'Oyly Carte brought Gilbert and Sullivan together and nurtured their collaboration.", "He built the Savoy Theatre in 1881 to present their joint works (which came to be known as the Savoy Operas) and founded the D'Oyly Carte Opera Company, which performed and promoted Gilbert and Sullivan's works for over a century." ], [ "Beginnings", "===Gilbert before Sullivan===Bab Ballad'' \"Gentle Alice Brown\"Gilbert was born in London on 18 November 1836.His father, William, was a naval surgeon who later wrote novels and short stories, some of which included illustrations by his son.", "In 1861, to supplement his income, the younger Gilbert began writing illustrated stories, poems and articles of his own, many of which would later be mined as inspiration for his plays and operas, particularly Gilbert's series of illustrated poems, the ''Bab Ballads''.In the ''Bab Ballads'' and his early plays, Gilbert developed a unique \"topsy-turvy\" style in which humour was derived by setting up a ridiculous premise and working out its logical consequences, however absurd.", "Director and playwright Mike Leigh described the \"Gilbertian\" style as follows:Gilbert developed his innovative theories on the art of stage direction, following the playwright and theatrical reformer Tom Robertson.", "At the time Gilbert began writing, theatre in Britain was in disrepute.", "Gilbert helped to reform and elevate the respectability of the theatre, especially beginning with his six short family-friendly comic operas, or \"entertainments\", for Thomas German Reed.Poster for ''Ages Ago'', during a rehearsal for which Frederic Clay introduced Gilbert to SullivanAt a rehearsal for one of these entertainments, ''Ages Ago'', in 1870, the composer Frederic Clay introduced Gilbert to his friend, the young composer Arthur Sullivan.", "Over the next year, before the two first collaborated, Gilbert continued to write humorous verse, stories and plays, including the comic operas ''Our Island Home'' (1870) and ''A Sensation Novel'' (1871), and the blank verse comedies ''The Princess'' (1870), ''The Palace of Truth'' (1870) and ''Pygmalion and Galatea'' (1871).===Sullivan before Gilbert===Sullivan was born in London on 13 May 1842.His father was a military bandmaster, and by the time Arthur had reached the age of eight, he was proficient with all the instruments in the band.", "In school he began to compose anthems and songs.", "In 1856, he received the first Mendelssohn Scholarship and studied at the Royal Academy of Music and then at Leipzig, where he also took up conducting.", "His graduation piece, completed in 1861, was a suite of incidental music to Shakespeare's ''The Tempest''.", "Revised and expanded, it was performed at the Crystal Palace in 1862 and was an immediate sensation.", "He began building a reputation as England's most promising young composer, composing a symphony, a concerto, and several overtures, among them the ''Overture di Ballo'', in 1870.The Crystal Palace, where several early Sullivan works were first performedHis early major works for the voice included ''The Masque at Kenilworth'' (1864); an oratorio, ''The Prodigal Son'' (1869); and a dramatic cantata, ''On Shore and Sea'' (1871).", "He composed a ballet, ''L'Île Enchantée'' (1864) and incidental music for a number of Shakespeare plays.", "Other early pieces that were praised were his ''Symphony in E'', ''Cello Concerto'', and ''Overture in C (In Memoriam)'' (all three of which premiered in 1866).", "These commissions were not sufficient to keep Sullivan afloat.", "He worked as a church organist and composed numerous hymns, popular songs, and parlour ballads.Sullivan's first foray into comic opera was ''Cox and Box'' (1866), written with the librettist F. C. Burnand for an informal gathering of friends.", "Public performance followed, with W. S. Gilbert (then writing dramatic criticism for the magazine ''Fun'') saying that Sullivan's score \"is, in many places, of too high a class for the grotesquely absurd plot to which it is wedded.\"", "Nonetheless, it proved highly successful, and is still regularly performed today.", "Sullivan and Burnand's second opera, ''The Contrabandista'' (1867) was not as successful." ], [ "Operas", "===First collaborations=======''Thespis''====A contemporary illustration of ''Thespis'' from ''The Illustrated London News'' of 6 January 1872In 1871, producer John Hollingshead brought Gilbert and Sullivan together to produce a Christmas entertainment, ''Thespis'', at his Gaiety Theatre, a large West End house.", "The piece was an extravaganza in which the classical Greek gods, grown elderly, are temporarily replaced by a troupe of 19th-century actors and actresses, one of whom is the eponymous Thespis, the Greek father of the drama.", "Its mixture of political satire and grand opera parody mimicked Offenbach's ''Orpheus in the Underworld'' and ''La belle Hélène'', which (in translation) then dominated the English musical stage.", "''Thespis'' opened on Boxing Day and ran for 63 performances.", "It outran five of its nine competitors for the 1871 holiday season, and its run was extended beyond the length of a normal run at the Gaiety, but no one at the time foresaw that this was the beginning of a great collaboration.", "Unlike the later Gilbert and Sullivan works, it was hastily prepared, and its nature was more risqué, like Gilbert's earlier burlesques, with a broader style of comedy that allowed for improvisation by the actors.", "Two of the male characters were played by women, whose shapely legs were put on display in a fashion that Gilbert later condemned.", "The musical score to ''Thespis'' was never published and is now lost, except for one song that was published separately, a chorus that was re-used in ''The Pirates of Penzance'', and the Act II ballet music.Over the next three years, Gilbert and Sullivan did not have occasion to work together again, but each man became more eminent in his field.", "Gilbert worked with Frederic Clay on ''Happy Arcadia'' (1872) and Alfred Cellier on ''Topsyturveydom'' (1874) and wrote ''The Wicked World'' (1873), ''Sweethearts'' (1874) and several other libretti, farces, extravaganzas, fairy comedies, dramas and adaptations.", "Sullivan completed his ''Festival Te Deum'' (1872); another oratorio, ''The Light of the World'' (1873); his only song cycle, ''The Window; or, The Song of the Wrens'' (1871); incidental music to ''The Merry Wives of Windsor'' (1874); and more songs, parlour ballads, and hymns, including \"Onward, Christian Soldiers\" (1872).", "At the same time, the audience for theatre was growing because of the rapidly expanding British population; improvement in education and the standard of living, especially of the middle class; improving public transport; and installation of street lighting, which made travel home from the theatre safer.", "The number of pianos manufactured in England doubled between 1870 and 1890 as more people began to play parlour music at home and more theatres and concert halls opened.====''Trial by Jury''====In 1874, Gilbert wrote a short libretto on commission from producer-conductor Carl Rosa, whose wife would have played the leading role, but her death in childbirth cancelled the project.", "Not long afterwards, Richard D'Oyly Carte was managing the Royalty Theatre and needed a short opera to be played as an afterpiece to Offenbach's ''La Périchole''.", "Carte knew about Gilbert's libretto for Rosa and suggested that Sullivan write a score for it.", "Gilbert read the piece to Sullivan in February 1875, and the composer was delighted with it; ''Trial by Jury'' was composed and staged in a matter of weeks.D.", "H. Friston's engraving of the original production of ''Trial by Jury''The piece is one of Gilbert's humorous spoofs of the law and the legal profession, based on his short experience as a barrister.", "It concerns a breach of promise of marriage suit.", "The defendant argues that damages should be slight, since \"he is such a very bad lot,\" while the plaintiff argues that she loves the defendant fervently and seeks \"substantial damages.\"", "After much argument, the judge resolves the case by marrying the lovely plaintiff himself.", "With Sullivan's brother, Fred, as the Learned Judge, the opera was a runaway hit, outlasting the run of ''La Périchole''.", "Provincial tours and productions at other theatres quickly followed.Fred Sullivan was the prototype for the \"patter\" (comic) baritone roles in the later operas.", "F. C. Burnand wrote that he \"was one of the most naturally ''comic little men'' I ever came across.", "He, too, was a first-rate practical musician.... As he was the most absurd person, so was he the very kindliest....\" Fred's creation would serve as a model for the rest of the collaborators' works, and each of them has a crucial ''comic little man'' role, as Burnand had put it.", "The \"patter\" baritone (or \"principal comedian\", as these roles later were called) would often assume the leading role in Gilbert and Sullivan's comic operas, and was usually allotted the speedy patter songs.After the success of ''Trial by Jury'', Gilbert and Sullivan were suddenly in demand to write more operas together.", "Over the next two years, Richard D'Oyly Carte and Carl Rosa were two of several theatrical managers who negotiated with the team but were unable to come to terms.", "Carte proposed a revival of ''Thespis'' for the 1875 Christmas season, which Gilbert and Sullivan would have revised, but he was unable to obtain financing for the project.", "In early 1876, Carte requested that Gilbert and Sullivan create another one-act opera on the theme of burglars, but this was never completed.===Early successes=======''The Sorcerer''====Carte's real ambition was to develop an English form of light opera that would displace the bawdy burlesques and badly translated French operettas then dominating the London stage.", "He assembled a syndicate and formed the Comedy Opera Company, with Gilbert and Sullivan commissioned to write a comic opera that would serve as the centrepiece for an evening's entertainment.An early poster showing scenes from ''The Sorcerer'', ''Pinafore'', and ''Trial by Jury''Gilbert found a subject in one of his own short stories, \"The Elixir of Love\", which concerned the complications arising when a love potion is distributed to all the residents of a small village.", "The leading character was a Cockney businessman who happened to be a sorcerer, a purveyor of blessings (not much called for) and curses (very popular).", "Gilbert and Sullivan were tireless taskmasters, seeing to it that ''The Sorcerer'' (1877) opened as a fully polished production, in marked contrast to the under-rehearsed ''Thespis''.", "While ''The Sorcerer'' won critical acclaim, it did not duplicate the success of ''Trial by Jury''.", "Nevertheless, it ran for more than six months, and Carte and his syndicate were sufficiently encouraged to commission another full-length opera from the team.====''H.M.S.", "Pinafore''====Gilbert and Sullivan scored their first international hit with ''H.M.S.", "Pinafore'' (1878), satirising the rise of unqualified people to positions of authority and poking good-natured fun at the Royal Navy and the English obsession with social status (building on a theme introduced in ''The Sorcerer'', love between members of different social classes).", "As with many of the Gilbert and Sullivan operas, a surprise twist changes everything dramatically near the end of the story.Gilbert oversaw the designs of sets and costumes, and he directed the performers on stage.", "He sought realism in acting, shunned self-conscious interaction with the audience, and insisted on a standard of characterisation in which the characters were never aware of their own absurdity.", "He insisted that his actors know their words perfectly and obey his stage directions, which was something new to many actors of the day.", "Sullivan personally oversaw the musical preparation.", "The result was a crispness and polish new to the English musical theatre.", "Jessie Bond wrote later:''H.M.S.", "Pinafore'' ran in London for 571 performances, an exceptional run for the period.", "Hundreds of unauthorised, or \"pirated\", productions of ''Pinafore'' appeared in America.", "During the run of ''Pinafore'', Richard D'Oyly Carte split up with his former investors.", "The disgruntled former partners, who had invested in the production with no return, staged a public fracas, sending a group of thugs to seize the scenery during a performance.", "Stagehands managed to ward off their backstage attackers.", "This event cleared the way for Carte, in alliance with Gilbert and Sullivan, to form the D'Oyly Carte Opera Company, which then produced all their succeeding operas.The libretto of ''H.M.S.", "Pinafore'' relied on stock character types, many of which were familiar from European opera (and some of which grew out of Gilbert's earlier association with the German Reeds): the heroic protagonist (tenor) and his love-interest (soprano); the older woman with a secret or a sharp tongue (contralto); the baffled lyric baritone—the girl's father; and a classic villain (bass-baritone).", "Gilbert and Sullivan added the element of the comic patter-singing character.", "With the success of ''H.M.S.", "Pinafore'', the D'Oyly Carte repertory and production system was cemented, and each opera would make use of these stock character types.", "Before ''The Sorcerer'', Gilbert had constructed his plays around the established stars of whatever theatre he happened to be writing for, as had been the case with ''Thespis'' and ''Trial by Jury''.", "Building on the team he had assembled for ''The Sorcerer'', Gilbert no longer hired stars; he created them.", "He and Sullivan selected the performers, writing their operas for ensemble casts rather than individual stars.The Pirate KingThe repertory system ensured that the comic patter character who performed the role of the sorcerer, John Wellington Wells, would become the ruler of the Queen's navy as Sir Joseph Porter in ''H.M.S.", "Pinafore'', then join the army as Major-General Stanley in ''The Pirates of Penzance'', and so on.", "Similarly, Mrs. Partlet in ''The Sorcerer'' transformed into Little Buttercup in ''Pinafore'', then into Ruth, the piratical maid-of-all-work in ''Pirates''.", "Relatively unknown performers whom Gilbert and Sullivan engaged early in the collaboration would stay with the company for many years, becoming stars of the Victorian stage.", "These included George Grossmith, the principal comic; Rutland Barrington, the lyric baritone; Richard Temple, the bass-baritone; and Jessie Bond, the mezzo-soprano soubrette.====''The Pirates of Penzance''====''The Pirates of Penzance'' (New Year's Eve, 1879) also poked fun at grand opera conventions, sense of duty, family obligation, the \"respectability\" of civilisation and the peerage, and the relevance of a liberal education.", "The story also revisits ''Pinafore''s theme of unqualified people in positions of authority, in the person of the \"modern Major-General\" who has up-to-date knowledge about everything except the military.", "The Major-General and his many daughters escape from the tender-hearted Pirates of Penzance, who are all orphans, on the false plea that he is an orphan himself.", "The pirates learn of the deception and re-capture the Major-General, but when it is revealed that the pirates are all peers, the Major-General bids them: \"resume your ranks and legislative duties, and take my daughters, all of whom are beauties!", "\"The piece premiered in New York rather than London, in an (unsuccessful) attempt to secure the American copyright, and was another big success with both critics and audiences.", "Gilbert, Sullivan and Carte tried for many years to control the American performance copyrights over their operas, without success.", "Nevertheless, ''Pirates'' was a hit both in New York, again spawning numerous imitators, and then in London, and it became one of the most frequently performed, translated and parodied Gilbert and Sullivan works, also enjoying successful 1981 Broadway and 1982 West End revivals by Joseph Papp that continue to influence productions of the opera.In 1880, Sullivan's cantata ''The Martyr of Antioch'' premiered at the Leeds Triennial Music Festival, with a libretto adapted by Sullivan and Gilbert from an 1822 epic poem by Henry Hart Milman concerning the 3rd-century martyrdom of St. Margaret of Antioch.", "Sullivan became the conductor of the Leeds festival beginning in 1880 and conducted the performance.", "The Carl Rosa Opera Company staged the cantata as an opera in 1898.===Savoy Theatre opens=======''Patience''====George Grossmith as Bunthorne in ''Patience'', 1881''Patience'' (1881) satirised the aesthetic movement in general and its colourful poets in particular, combining aspects of A. C. Swinburne, Dante Gabriel Rossetti, Oscar Wilde, James McNeill Whistler and others in the rival poets Bunthorne and Grosvenor.", "Grossmith, who created the role of Bunthorne, based his makeup, wig and costume on Swinburne and especially Whistler, as seen in the adjacent photograph.", "The work also lampoons male vanity and chauvinism in the military.", "The story concerns two rival aesthetic poets, who attract the attention of the young ladies of the village, formerly engaged to the members of a cavalry regiment.", "But both poets are in love with Patience, the village milkmaid, who detests one of them and feels that it is her duty to avoid the other despite her love for him.", "Richard D'Oyly Carte was the booking manager for Oscar Wilde, a then lesser-known proponent of aestheticism, and dispatched him on an American lecture tour in conjunction with the opera's U.S. run, so that American audiences might better understand what the satire was all about.During the run of ''Patience'', Carte built the large, modern Savoy Theatre, which became the partnership's permanent home.", "It was the first theatre (and the world's first public building) to be lit entirely by electric lighting.", "''Patience'' moved into the Savoy after six months at the Opera Comique and ran for a total of 578 performances, surpassing the run of ''H.M.S.", "Pinafore''.====''Iolanthe''====''Iolanthe'' (1882) was the first of the operas to open at the Savoy.", "The fully electric Savoy made possible numerous special effects, such as sparkling magic wands for the female chorus of fairies.", "The opera poked fun at English law and the House of Lords and made much of the war between the sexes.", "The critics felt that Sullivan's work in ''Iolanthe'' had taken a step forward.", "''The Daily Telegraph'' commented, \"The composer has risen to his opportunity, and we are disposed to account ''Iolanthe'' his best effort in all the Gilbertian series.\"", "Similarly, ''The Theatre'' judged that \"the music of ''Iolanthe'' is Dr Sullivan's ''chef d'oeuvre''.", "The quality throughout is more even, and maintained at a higher standard, than in any of his earlier works...\"Barnett as The Fairy Queen''Iolanthe'' is one of several of Gilbert's works, including ''The Wicked World'' (1873), ''Broken Hearts'' (1875), ''Princess Ida'' (1884) and ''Fallen Fairies'' (1909), where the introduction of men and \"mortal love\" into a tranquil world of women wreaks havoc with the status quo.", "Gilbert had created several \"fairy comedies\" at the Haymarket Theatre in the early 1870s.", "These plays, influenced by the fairy work of James Planché, are founded upon the idea of self-revelation by characters under the influence of some magic or some supernatural interference.In 1882, Gilbert had a telephone installed in his home and at the prompt desk at the Savoy Theatre so that he could monitor performances and rehearsals from his home study.", "Gilbert had referred to the new technology in ''Pinafore'' in 1878, only two years after the device was invented and before London even had telephone service.", "Sullivan had one installed as well, and on 13 May 1883, at a party to celebrate the composer's 41st birthday, the guests, including the Prince of Wales (later Edward VII), heard a direct relay of parts of ''Iolanthe'' from the Savoy.", "This was probably the first live \"broadcast\" of an opera.During the run of ''Iolanthe'', in 1883, Sullivan was knighted by Queen Victoria.", "Although it was the operas with Gilbert that had earned him the broadest fame, the honour was conferred for his services to serious music.", "The musical establishment, and many critics, believed that this should put an end to his career as a composer of comic opera—that a musical knight should not stoop below oratorio or grand opera.", "Sullivan, despite the financial security of writing for the Savoy, increasingly viewed his work with Gilbert as unimportant, beneath his skills, and repetitious.", "Furthermore, he was unhappy that he had to simplify his music to ensure that Gilbert's words could be heard.", "But paradoxically, in February 1883, just after ''Iolanthe'' opened, Sullivan had signed a five-year agreement with Gilbert and Carte requiring him to produce a new comic opera on six months' notice.====''Princess Ida''====''Princess Ida'', Act II Finale: Hildebrand and soldiers rush through the gate.", "''Princess Ida'' (1884) spoofed women's education and male chauvinism and continued the theme from ''Iolanthe'' of the war between the sexes.", "The opera is based on Tennyson's poem ''The Princess: A Medley''.", "Gilbert had written a blank verse farce based on the same material in 1870, called ''The Princess'', and he reused a good deal of the dialogue from his earlier play in the libretto of ''Princess Ida''.", "''Ida'' is the only Gilbert and Sullivan work with dialogue entirely in blank verse and is also the only one of their works in three acts.", "Lillian Russell had been engaged to create the title role, but Gilbert did not believe that she was dedicated enough, and when she missed a rehearsal, he dismissed her.", "''Princess Ida'' was the first of the Gilbert and Sullivan operas that, by the partnership's previous standards, was not a success.", "A particularly hot summer in London did not help ticket sales.", "The piece ran for a comparatively short 246 performances and was not revived in London until 1919.Sullivan had been satisfied with the libretto, but two months after ''Ida'' opened, Sullivan told Carte that \"it is impossible for me to do another piece of the character of those already written by Gilbert and myself.\"", "As ''Princess Ida'' showed signs of flagging, Carte realised that, for the first time in the partnership's history, no new opera would be ready when the old one closed.", "On 22 March 1884, he gave Gilbert and Sullivan contractual notice that a new opera would be required in six months' time.", "In the meantime, when ''Ida'' closed, Carte produced a revival of ''The Sorcerer''.===Dodging the magic lozenge=======''The Mikado''====Poster for ''The Mikado''The most successful of the Savoy Operas was ''The Mikado'' (1885), which made fun of English bureaucracy, thinly disguised by a Japanese setting.", "Gilbert initially proposed a story for a new opera about a magic lozenge that would change the characters, which Sullivan found artificial and lacking in \"human interest and probability\", as well as being too similar to their earlier opera, ''The Sorcerer''.", "As dramatised in the film ''Topsy-Turvy'', the author and composer were at an impasse until 8 May 1884, when Gilbert dropped the lozenge idea and agreed to provide a libretto without any supernatural elements.The story focuses on a \"cheap tailor\", Ko-Ko, who is promoted to the position of Lord High Executioner of the town of Titipu.", "He loves his ward, Yum-Yum, but she loves a musician, who is really the son of the emperor of Japan (the Mikado) and who is in disguise to escape the attentions of the elderly and amorous Katisha.", "The Mikado has decreed that executions must resume without delay in Titipu.", "When news arrives that the Mikado will be visiting the town, Ko-Ko assumes that he is coming to ascertain whether Ko-Ko has carried out the executions.", "Too timid to execute anyone, Ko-Ko cooks up a conspiracy to misdirect the Mikado, which goes awry.", "Eventually, Ko-Ko must persuade Katisha to marry him to save his own life and the lives of the other conspirators.With the opening of trade between England and Japan, Japanese imports, art and styles became fashionable, and a Japanese village exhibition opened in Knightsbridge, London, making the time ripe for an opera set in Japan.", "Gilbert said, \"I cannot give you a good reason for our... piece being laid in Japan.", "It... afforded scope for picturesque treatment, scenery and costume, and I think that the idea of a chief magistrate, who is... judge and actual executioner in one, and yet would not hurt a worm, may perhaps please the public.", "\"Setting the opera in Japan, an exotic locale far away from Britain, allowed Gilbert and Sullivan to satirise British politics and institutions more freely by clothing them in superficial Japanese trappings.", "Gilbert wrote, \"The Mikado of the opera was an imaginary monarch of a remote period and cannot by any exercise of ingenuity be taken to be a slap on an existing institution.\"", "G. K. Chesterton compared it to Swift's ''Gulliver's Travels'': \"Gilbert pursued and persecuted the evils of modern England till they had literally not a leg to stand on, exactly as Swift did...", "I doubt if there is a single joke in the whole play that fits the Japanese.", "But all the jokes in the play fit the English.", "... About England Pooh-bah is something more than a satire; he is the truth.\"", "Several of the later operas are similarly set in foreign or fictional locales, including ''The Gondoliers'', ''Utopia, Limited'' and ''The Grand Duke''.", "''The Mikado'' became the partnership's longest-running hit, enjoying 672 performances at the Savoy Theatre, and surpassing the runs of ''Pinafore'' and ''Patience''.", "It remains the most frequently performed Savoy Opera.", "It has been translated into numerous languages and is one of the most frequently played musical theatre pieces in history.====''Ruddigore''====''Ruddigore'' (1887), a topsy-turvy take on Victorian melodrama, was less successful than most of the earlier collaborations with a run of 288 performances.", "The original title, ''Ruddygore'', together with some of the plot devices, including the revivification of ghosts, drew negative comments from critics.", "Gilbert and Sullivan respelled the title and made a number of changes and cuts.", "Nevertheless, the piece was profitable, and the reviews were not all bad.", "For instance, ''The Illustrated London News'' praised the work and both Gilbert and, especially, Sullivan: \"Sir Arthur Sullivan has eminently succeeded alike in the expression of refined sentiment and comic humour.", "In the former respect, the charm of graceful melody prevails; while, in the latter, the music of the most grotesque situations is redolent of fun.\"", "Further changes were made, including a new overture, when Rupert D'Oyly Carte revived ''Ruddigore'' after the First World War, and the piece was regularly performed by the D'Oyly Carte Opera Company thereafter.Some of the plot elements of ''Ruddigore'' were introduced by Gilbert in his earlier one-act opera, ''Ages Ago'' (1869), including the tale of the wicked ancestor and the device of the ghostly ancestors stepping out of their portraits.", "When ''Ruddigore'' closed, no new opera was ready.", "Gilbert again proposed a version of the \"lozenge\" plot for their next opera, and Sullivan reiterated his reluctance to set it.", "While the two men worked out their artistic differences, and Sullivan finished other obligations, Carte produced revivals of such old favourites as ''H.M.S.", "Pinafore'', ''The Pirates of Penzance'', and ''The Mikado''.====''The Yeomen of the Guard''====W.H.", "Denny as Wilfred and Jessie Bond as Phoebe in ''Yeomen''''The Yeomen of the Guard'' (1888), their only joint work with a serious ending, concerns a pair of strolling players—a jester and a singing girl—who are caught up in a risky intrigue at the Tower of London during the 16th century.", "The dialogue, though in prose, is quasi-early modern English in style, and there is no satire of British institutions.", "For some of the plot elements, Gilbert had reached back to his 1875 tragedy, ''Broken Hearts''.", "''The Times'' praised the libretto: \"It should... be acknowledged that Mr. Gilbert has earnestly endeavoured to leave familiar grooves and rise to higher things\".", "Although not a grand opera, the new libretto provided Sullivan with the opportunity to write his most ambitious theatre score to date.", "The critics, who had recently lauded the composer for his successful oratorio, ''The Golden Legend'', considered the score to ''Yeomen'' to be Sullivan's finest, including its overture, which was written in sonata form, rather than as a sequential pot-pourri of tunes from the opera, as in most of his other overtures.", "The ''Daily Telegraph'' said:''Yeomen'' was a hit, running for over a year, with strong New York and touring productions.", "During the run, on 12 March 1889, Sullivan wrote to Gilbert,Sullivan insisted that the next opera must be a grand opera.", "Gilbert did not feel that he could write a grand opera libretto, but he offered a compromise that Sullivan eventually accepted.", "The two would write a light opera for the Savoy, and at the same time, Sullivan a grand opera (''Ivanhoe'') for a new theatre that Carte was constructing to present British opera.", "After a brief impasse over the choice of subject, Sullivan accepted an idea connected with Venice and Venetian life, as \"this seemed to me to hold out great chances of bright colour and taking music.", "\"====''The Gondoliers''====Rutland Barrington and Courtice Pounds as Giuseppe and Marco in ''The Gondoliers''''The Gondoliers'' (1889) takes place partly in Venice and partly in a kingdom ruled by a pair of gondoliers who attempt to remodel the monarchy in a spirit of \"republican equality.\"", "Gilbert recapitulates a number of his earlier themes, including the satire of class distinctions figuring in many of his earlier librettos.", "The libretto also reflects Gilbert's fascination with the \"Stock Company Act\", highlighting the absurd convergence of natural persons and legal entities, which plays an even larger part in the next opera, ''Utopia Limited''.", "Press accounts were almost entirely favourable.", "The ''Illustrated London News'' reported:Sullivan's old collaborator on ''Cox and Box'' (later the editor of ''Punch'' magazine), F. C. Burnand, wrote to the composer: \"Magnificento!...I envy you and W.S.G.", "being able to place a piece like this on the stage in so complete a fashion.\"", "The opera enjoyed a run longer than any of their other joint works except for ''H.M.S.", "Pinafore'', ''Patience'' and ''The Mikado''.", "There was a command performance of ''The Gondoliers'' for Queen Victoria and the royal family at Windsor Castle in 1891, the first Gilbert and Sullivan opera to be so honoured.", "''The Gondoliers'' was Gilbert and Sullivan's last great success.===Carpet quarrel===Though Gilbert and Sullivan's working relationship was mostly cordial and even friendly, it sometimes became strained, especially during their later operas, partly because each man saw himself as allowing his work to be subjugated to the other's, and partly caused by the opposing personalities of the two: Gilbert was often confrontational and notoriously thin-skinned (though prone to acts of extraordinary kindness), while Sullivan eschewed conflict.", "Gilbert imbued his libretti with absurdist \"topsy-turvy\" situations in which the social order was turned upside down.", "After a time, these subjects were often at odds with Sullivan's desire for realism and emotional content.", "Gilbert's political satire often poked fun at the wealthy and powerful whom Sullivan sought out for friendship and patronage.Original facade of the Savoy Theatre c.1881Gilbert and Sullivan disagreed several times over the choice of a subject.", "After each of ''Princess Ida'' and ''Ruddigore'', which were less successful than their seven other operas from ''H.M.S.", "Pinafore'' to ''The Gondoliers'', Sullivan asked to leave the partnership, saying that he found Gilbert's plots repetitive and that the operas were not artistically satisfying to him.", "While the two artists worked out their differences in those cases, Carte kept the Savoy open with revivals of their earlier works.", "On each occasion, after a few months' pause, Gilbert responded with a libretto that met Sullivan's objections, and the partnership was able to continue.In April 1890, during the run of ''The Gondoliers'', Gilbert challenged Carte over the expenses of the production.", "Among other items to which Gilbert objected, Carte had charged the cost of a new carpet for the Savoy Theatre lobby to the partnership.", "Gilbert believed that this was a maintenance expense that should be charged to Carte alone.", "Gilbert confronted Carte, who refused to reconsider the accounts.", "Gilbert stormed out and wrote to Sullivan that \"I left him with the remark that it was a mistake to kick down the ladder by which he had risen\".", "Helen Carte wrote that Gilbert had addressed Carte \"in a way that I should not have thought you would have used to an offending menial\".", "On 5 May 1890, Gilbert wrote to Sullivan: \"The time for putting an end to our collaboration has at last arrived.", "… I am writing a letter to Carte ... giving him notice that he is not to produce or perform any of my libretti after Christmas 1890.\"", "As biographer Andrew Crowther has explained:In the midst of the quarrel, Gilbert dedicated a collection of Savoy opera lyrics, ''Songs of a Savoyard'', to the composerThings soon degraded, Gilbert lost his temper with his partners and brought a lawsuit against Carte.", "Sullivan supported Carte by making an affidavit erroneously stating that there were minor legal expenses outstanding from a battle Gilbert had in 1884 with Lillian Russell when, in fact, those expenses had already been paid.", "When Gilbert discovered this, he asked for a retraction of the affidavit; Sullivan refused.", "Gilbert felt it was a moral issue and could not look past it.", "Sullivan felt that Gilbert was questioning his good faith, and in any event Sullivan had other reasons to stay in Carte's good graces: Carte was building a new theatre, the Royal English Opera House (now the Palace Theatre), to produce Sullivan's only grand opera, ''Ivanhoe''.", "After ''The Gondoliers'' closed in 1891, Gilbert withdrew the performance rights to his libretti, vowing to write no more operas for the Savoy.Gilbert next wrote ''The Mountebanks'' with Alfred Cellier and the flop ''Haste to the Wedding'' with George Grossmith, and Sullivan wrote ''Haddon Hall'' with Sydney Grundy.", "Gilbert eventually won the lawsuit, but his actions and statements had been hurtful to his partners.", "Nevertheless, the partnership had been so profitable that, after the financial failure of the Royal English Opera House, Carte and his wife sought to reunite the author and composer.", "In late 1891, after many failed attempts at reconciliation, Gilbert and Sullivan's music publisher, Tom Chappell, stepped in to mediate between two of his most profitable artists, and within two weeks he had succeeded, eventually leading to two further collaborations between Gilbert and Sullivan.===Last works===The drawing room scene from Act II of ''Utopia, Limited''''Utopia, Limited'' (1893), their penultimate opera, was a very modest success, and their last, ''The Grand Duke'' (1896), was an outright failure.", "Neither work entered the canon of regularly performed Gilbert and Sullivan works until the D'Oyly Carte Opera Company made the first complete professional recordings of the two operas in the 1970s.", "Gilbert had also offered Sullivan another libretto, ''His Excellency'' (1894), but Gilbert's insistence on casting Nancy McIntosh, his protege from ''Utopia'', led to Sullivan's refusal, and ''His Excellency'' was instead composed by F. Osmond Carr.", "Meanwhile, the Savoy Theatre continued to revive the Gilbert and Sullivan operas, in between new pieces, and D'Oyly Carte touring companies also played them in repertory.The ''Entr'acte'' expresses its pleasure that Gilbert and Sullivan are reunitedAfter ''The Grand Duke'', the partners saw no reason to work together again.", "A last unpleasant misunderstanding occurred in 1898.At the premiere of Sullivan’s opera ''The Beauty Stone'' on 28 May, Gilbert arrived at the Savoy Theatre with friends, assuming that Sullivan had reserved some seats for him.", "Instead, he was informed that Sullivan objected to his presence.", "The composer later denied that this was true.", "The last time they met was at the Savoy Theatre on 17 November 1898 at the celebration of the 21st anniversary of the first performance of ''The Sorcerer''.", "They did not speak to each other.", "Sullivan, by this time in exceedingly poor health, died in 1900, although to the end he continued to write new comic operas for the Savoy with other librettists, most successfully with Basil Hood in ''The Rose of Persia'' (1899).", "Gilbert also wrote several works, some with other collaborators, in the 1890s.", "By the time of Sullivan's death in 1900, Gilbert wrote that any memory of their rift had been \"completely bridged over,\" and \"the most cordial relations existed between us.\"", "He stated that \"Sullivan ... because he was a composer of the rarest genius, was as modest and as unassuming as a neophyte should be, but seldom is...I remember all that he has done for me in allowing his genius to shed some of its lustre upon my humble name.", "\"Richard D'Oyly Carte died in 1901, and his widow, Helen, continued to direct the activities of the D'Oyly Carte Opera Company at the Savoy and on tour.", "Gilbert went into semi-retirement, although he continued to direct revivals of the Savoy Operas and wrote new plays occasionally.", "Between 1906 and 1909, he assisted Mrs. Carte in staging two repertory seasons at the Savoy Theatre.", "These were very popular and revived interest in the works.", "Gilbert was knighted during the first repertory season.", "After Sullivan's death, Gilbert wrote only one more comic opera, ''Fallen Fairies'' (1909; music by Edward German), which was not a success." ], [ "Legacy and assessment", "Gilbert died in 1911, and Richard's son, Rupert D'Oyly Carte, took over the opera company upon his step-mother's death in 1913.His daughter, Bridget, inherited the company upon his death in 1948.The D'Oyly Carte Opera Company toured nearly year-round, except for its many London seasons and foreign tours, performing exclusively the Gilbert and Sullivan operas, until it closed in 1982.During the 20th century, the company gave well over 35,000 performances.", "The Savoy operas, from the beginning, were produced extensively in North America and Australasia, and soon afterwards in Germany, Russia, and elsewhere in Europe and around the world.1921 cartoon of Gilbert and Sullivan audiencesIn 1922, Sir Henry Wood explained the enduring success of the collaboration as follows:G. K. Chesterton similarly praised the combination of the two artists, anticipating the operas' success into the \"remote future\".", "He wrote that Gilbert's satire was \"too intelligent to be intelligible\" by itself, and that perhaps only Sullivan could have given \"wings to his words ... in exactly the right degree frivolous and exactly the right degree fastidious.", "The words' precise degree of levity and distance from reality ... seemed to be expressed ... in the very notes of the music; almost ... in the note of the laughter that followed it.\"", "In 1957, a review in ''The Times'' gave this rationale for \"the continued vitality of the Savoy operas\":Because of the unusual success of the operas, the D'Oyly Carte Opera Company were able, from the start, to license the works to other professional companies, such as the J. C. Williamson Gilbert and Sullivan Opera Company, and to amateur troupes.", "For almost a century, until the British copyrights expired at the end of 1961, and even afterwards, the D'Oyly Carte Opera Company influenced productions of the operas worldwide, creating a \"performing tradition\" for most of the operas that is still referred to today by many directors, both amateur and professional.", "Indeed, Gilbert, Sullivan and Carte had an important influence on amateur theatre.", "Cellier and Bridgeman wrote in 1914 that, prior to the creation of the Savoy operas, amateur actors were treated with contempt by professionals.", "After the formation of amateur Gilbert and Sullivan companies in the 1880s licensed to perform the operas, professionals recognised that the amateur performing groups \"support the culture of music and the drama.", "They are now accepted as useful training schools for the legitimate stage, and from the volunteer ranks have sprung many present-day favourites.\"", "Cellier and Bridgeman attributed the rise in quality and reputation of the amateur groups largely to \"the popularity of, and infectious craze for performing, the Gilbert and Sullivan operas\".", "The National Operatic and Dramatic Association (NODA) was founded in 1899.It reported, in 1914, that nearly 200 British troupes were performing Gilbert and Sullivan that year, constituting most of the amateur companies in the country (this figure included only the societies that were members of NODA).", "The association further reported that almost 1,000 performances of the Savoy operas had been given in Britain that year, many of them to benefit charities.", "Cellier and Bridgeman noted that strong amateur groups were performing the operas in places as far away as New Zealand.", "In the U.S., and elsewhere where British copyrights on the operas were not enforced, both professional and amateur companies performed the works throughout the 20th century – the Internet Broadway Database counts about 150 productions on Broadway alone from 1900 to 1960.The Savoy Company, an amateur group formed in 1901 in Philadelphia, continues to perform today.", "In 1948, ''Life'' magazine reported that about 5,000 performances of Gilbert and Sullivan operas were given annually in the US, exceeding the number of performances of Shakespeare plays.After the copyrights on the operas expired, other professional companies were free to perform and record the operas, even in Britain and The Commonwealth.", "Many performing companies arose to produce the works, such as Gilbert and Sullivan for All in Britain, and existing companies, such as English National Opera, Carl Rosa Opera Company and Australian Opera, added Gilbert and Sullivan to their repertories.", "The operas were presented by professional repertory companies in the US, including the competing Light Opera of Manhattan and NYGASP in New York City.", "In 1980, a Broadway and West End production of ''Pirates'' produced by Joseph Papp brought new audiences to Gilbert and Sullivan.", "Between 1988 and 2003, a new iteration of the D'Oyly Carte Opera Company revived the operas on tour and in the West End.", "Today, various professional repertory companies, such as NYGASP, Opera della Luna, National Gilbert & Sullivan Opera Company, Opera North, Ohio Light Opera, Scottish Opera and other regional opera companies, and numerous amateur societies, churches, schools and universities continue to produce the works.", "The most popular G&S works also continue to be performed from time to time by major opera companies, and recordings of the operas, overtures and songs from the operas continue to be released.", "Since 1994, the International Gilbert and Sullivan Festival has been held every August in England (except 2020), with some two dozen or more performances of the operas given on the main stage, and several dozen related \"fringe\" events given in smaller venues.", "The Festival records and offers videos of its most popular professional and amateur productions.", "In connection with the 2009 festival, a contemporary critic wrote, \"The appeal of G&S’s special blend of charm, silliness and gentle satire seems immune to fashion.\"", "There continue to be hundreds of amateur companies performing the Gilbert and Sullivan works worldwide.===Recordings and broadcasts===Advertisement for the first recording of ''The Mikado'', 1917The first commercial recordings of individual numbers from the Savoy operas began in 1898.In 1917 the Gramophone Company (HMV) produced the first album of a complete Gilbert and Sullivan opera, ''The Mikado'', followed by recordings of eight more.", "Electrical recordings of most of the operas were then issued by HMV and Victor, beginning in the late 1920s, supervised by Rupert D'Oyly Carte.", "The D'Oyly Carte Opera Company continued to produce well-regarded recordings until 1979, helping to keep the operas popular through the decades.", "Many of these recordings have been reissued on CD.", "After the company was revived in 1988, it recorded seven of the operas.After the copyrights on the operas expired, numerous companies around the world released popular audio and video recordings of the operas.", "In 1966 and again in the 1980s, BBC Radio presented complete cycles of the thirteen extant Gilbert and Sullivan operas, with dialogue.", "Ad hoc casts of operatic singers conducted by Sir Malcolm Sargent in the 1950s and 60s and Sir Charles Mackerras in the 1990s have made audio sets of several Savoy operas, and in the 1980s Alexander Faris conducted video recordings of eleven of the operas (omitting the last two) with casts including show-business stars as well as professional singers.", "Joseph Papp's Broadway production of ''The Pirates of Penzance'' was put on record in 1981.Since 1994, the International Gilbert and Sullivan Festival has released numerous professional and amateur CDs and videos of its productions.", "Ohio Light Opera has recorded several of the operas in the 21st century.", "The Really Authentic Gilbert and Sullivan Performance Trust (RAGSPT) of Dunedin, New Zealand, recorded all 13 extant Savoy Operas between 2002 and 2012 and licensed the recordings on Creative Commons.===Cultural influence===Punch'' cartoon, showing Sullivan and Gilbert.For nearly 150 years, Gilbert and Sullivan have pervasively influenced popular culture in the English-speaking world, and lines and quotations from their operas have become part of the English language (even if not originated by Gilbert), such as \"short, sharp shock\", \"What never?", "Well, hardly ever!", "\", \"let the punishment fit the crime\", and \"A policeman's lot is not a happy one\".", "The operas have influenced political style and discourse, literature, film and television, have been widely parodied by humorists, and have been quoted in legal rulings.The American and British musical owes a tremendous debt to G&S, who were admired and copied by early musical theatre authors and composers such as Ivan Caryll, Adrian Ross, Lionel Monckton, P. G. Wodehouse, Guy Bolton and Victor Herbert, and later Jerome Kern, Ira Gershwin, Yip Harburg, Irving Berlin, Ivor Novello, Oscar Hammerstein II, and Andrew Lloyd Webber.", "Gilbert's lyrics served as a model for such 20th-century Broadway lyricists as Cole Porter, Ira Gershwin, and Lorenz Hart.", "Noël Coward wrote: \"I was born into a generation that still took light music seriously.", "The lyrics and melodies of Gilbert and Sullivan were hummed and strummed into my consciousness at an early age.", "My father sang them, my mother played them, my nurse, Emma, breathed them through her teeth.... My aunts and uncles... sang them singly and in unison at the slightest provocation....\"Professor Carolyn Williams has noted: \"The influence of Gilbert and Sullivan – their wit and sense of irony, the send ups of politics and contemporary culture – goes beyond musical theater to comedy in general.", "Allusions to their work have made their way into our own popular culture\".", "Gilbert and Sullivan expert and enthusiast Ian Bradley agrees:The works of Gilbert and Sullivan are themselves frequently pastiched and parodied.", "Well known examples of this include Tom Lehrer's ''The Elements'' and ''Clementine''; Allan Sherman's ''I'm Called Little Butterball'', ''When I Was a Lad'', ''You Need an Analyst'' and ''The Bronx Bird-Watcher''; and The Two Ronnies' 1973 Christmas Special.", "Other comedians have used Gilbert and Sullivan songs as a key part of their routines, including Hinge and Bracket, Anna Russell, and the ''HMS Yakko'' episode of the animated TV series ''Animaniacs''.", "Songs from Gilbert and Sullivan are often pastiched in advertising, and elaborate advertising parodies have been published, as have the likenesses of various Gilbert and Sullivan performers throughout the decades.", "Gilbert and Sullivan comic operas are commonly referenced in literature, film and television in various ways that include extensive use of Sullivan's music or where action occurs during a performance of a Gilbert and Sullivan opera, such as in the film ''The Girl Said No''.", "There are also a number of Gilbert and Sullivan biographical films, such as Mike Leigh's ''Topsy-Turvy'' (2000) and ''The Story of Gilbert and Sullivan'' (1953), as well as shows about the partnership, including a 1938 Broadway show, ''Knights of Song'' and a 1975 West End show called ''Tarantara!", "Tarantara!", "''It is not surprising, given the focus of Gilbert on politics, that politicians and political observers have often found inspiration in these works.", "Chief Justice of the United States William Rehnquist added gold stripes to his judicial robes after seeing them used by the Lord Chancellor in a production of ''Iolanthe''.", "Alternatively, Lord Chancellor Charles Falconer is recorded as objecting so strongly to ''Iolanthe'''s comic portrayal of Lord Chancellors that he supported moves to disband the office.", "British politicians, beyond quoting some of the more famous lines, have delivered speeches in the form of Gilbert and Sullivan pastiches.", "These include Conservative Peter Lilley's speech mimicking the form of \"I've got a little list\" from ''The Mikado'', listing those he was against, including \"sponging socialists\" and \"young ladies who get pregnant just to jump the housing queue\"." ], [ "Collaborations", "1880 ''Pirates'' poster===Major works and original London runs===* ''Thespis''; or, ''The Gods Grown Old'' (1871) 63 performances* ''Trial by Jury'' (1875) 131 performances* ''The Sorcerer'' (1877) 178 performances* ''H.M.S.", "Pinafore''; or, ''The Lass That Loved a Sailor'' (1878) 571 performances* ''The Pirates of Penzance''; or, ''The Slave of Duty'' (1879) 363 performances* ''The Martyr of Antioch'' (cantata) (1880) (Gilbert helped to modify the poem by Henry Hart Milman)* ''Patience''; or ''Bunthorne's Bride'' (1881) 578 performances* ''Iolanthe''; or, ''The Peer and the Peri'' (1882) 398 performances* ''Princess Ida''; or, ''Castle Adamant'' (1884) 246 performances* ''The Mikado''; or, ''The Town of Titipu'' (1885) 672 performances* ''Ruddigore''; or, ''The Witch's Curse'' (1887) 288 performances* ''The Yeomen of the Guard''; or, ''The Merryman and his Maid'' (1888) 423 performances* ''The Gondoliers''; or, ''The King of Barataria'' (1889) 554 performances* ''Utopia, Limited''; or, ''The Flowers of Progress'' (1893) 245 performances* ''The Grand Duke''; or, ''The Statutory Duel'' (1896) 123 performances===Parlour ballads===* \"The Distant Shore\" (1874)* \"The Love that Loves Me Not\" (1875)* \"Sweethearts\" (1875), based on Gilbert's 1874 play, ''Sweethearts''===Overtures===The overtures from the Gilbert and Sullivan operas remain popular, and there are many recordings of them.", "Most of them are structured as a ''potpourri'' of tunes from the operas.", "They are generally well-orchestrated, but not all of them were composed by Sullivan.", "However, even those delegated to his assistants were based on an outline he provided, and in many cases incorporated his suggestions or corrections.", "Sullivan invariably conducted them (as well as the entire operas) on opening night, and they were included in the published scores approved by Sullivan.Those Sullivan wrote himself include the overtures to ''Thespis'', ''Iolanthe'', ''Princess Ida'', ''The Yeomen of the Guard'', ''The Gondoliers'' and ''The Grand Duke''.", "Sullivan's authorship of the overture to ''Utopia, Limited'' cannot be verified with certainty, as his autograph score is now lost, but it is likely attributable to him, as it consists of only a few bars of introduction, followed by a straight copy of music heard elsewhere in the opera (the Drawing Room scene).", "''Thespis'' is now lost, but there is no doubt that Sullivan wrote its overture.", "Very early performances of ''The Sorcerer'' used a section of Sullivan's incidental music to Shakespeare's ''Henry the VIII'', as he did not have time to write a new overture, but this was replaced in 1884 by one executed by Hamilton Clarke.", "Of those remaining, the overtures to ''H.M.S.", "Pinafore'' and ''The Pirates of Penzance'' are by Alfred Cellier, the overture to ''Patience'' is by Eugene d'Albert, The overtures to ''The Mikado'' and ''Ruddigore'' are by Hamilton Clarke (although the ''Ruddigore'' overture was later replaced by one written by Geoffrey Toye).Most of the overtures are in three sections: a lively introduction, a slow middle section, and a concluding allegro in sonata form, with two subjects, a brief development, a recapitulation and a coda.", "Sullivan himself did not always follow this pattern.", "The overture to ''Princess Ida'', for instance, has only an opening fast section and a concluding slow section.", "The overture to ''Utopia Limited'' is dominated by a slow section, with only a very brief original passage introducing it.In the 1920s, the D'Oyly Carte Opera Company commissioned its musical director at the time, Geoffrey Toye, to write new overtures for ''Ruddigore'' and ''The Pirates of Penzance''.", "Toye's ''Ruddigore'' overture entered the general repertory, and today is more often heard than the original overture by Clarke.", "Toye's ''Pirates'' overture did not last long and is now presumed lost.", "Sir Malcolm Sargent devised a new ending for the overture to ''The Gondoliers'', adding the \"cachucha\" from the second act of the opera.", "This gave the ''Gondoliers'' overture the familiar fast-slow-fast pattern of most of the rest of the Savoy Opera overtures, and this version has competed for popularity with Sullivan's original version." ], [ "Alternative versions", "===Translations===Gilbert and Sullivan operas have been translated into many languages, including Yiddish, Hebrew, Portuguese, Swedish, Dutch, Danish, Estonian, Hungarian, Russian, Japanese, French, Italian, Spanish (reportedly including a zarzuela-style ''Pinafore''), Catalan and others.There are many German versions of Gilbert and Sullivan operas, including the popular ''Der Mikado''.", "There is even a German version of ''The Grand Duke''.", "Some German translations of the operas were made by Friedrich Zell and Richard Genée, librettists of ''Die Fledermaus'' and other Viennese operettas, who even translated one of Sullivan's lesser-known operas, ''The Chieftain'', as ''(Der Häuptling)''.===Ballets===* ''Pineapple Poll'', created by John Cranko in 1951 at Sadler's Wells Theatre; in repertoire at the Birmingham Royal Ballet.", "The ballet is based on Gilbert's 1870 Bab Ballad \"The Bumboat Woman's Story\", as is ''H.M.S.", "Pinafore''.", "Cranko expanded the plotline of Gilbert's poem and added a happy ending.", "The music is arranged by Sir Charles Mackerras from themes by Sullivan.", "* ''Pirates of Penzance - The Ballet!", "'', created for the Queensland Ballet in 1991===Adaptations===Frontispiece to ''The Pinafore Picture Book'', 1908Gilbert adapted the stories of ''H.M.S.", "Pinafore'' and ''The Mikado'' into children's books called ''The Pinafore Picture Book'' and ''The Story of The Mikado'' giving, in some cases, backstory that is not found in the librettos.", "Many other children's books have since been written retelling the stories of the operas or adapting characters or events from them.", "In the 19th century, the most popular Gilbert and Sullivan songs and music were adapted as dance pieces.Many musical theatre and film adaptations of the operas have been produced, including the following:* ''The Swing Mikado'' (1938; Chicago – all-black cast)* ''The Hot Mikado'' (1939) and ''Hot Mikado'' (1986)* ''The Jazz Mikado'' (1927, Berlin)* ''Hollywood Pinafore'' (1945)* ''The Cool Mikado'' (1962 film)* ''The Black Mikado'' (1975)* ''Dick Deadeye, or Duty Done'' (1975 animated film)* ''The Pirate Movie'' (1982 film)* ''The Ratepayers' Iolanthe'' (1984; Olivier Award-winning musical) adapted by Ned Sherrin and Alistair Beaton* ''The Metropolitan Mikado'' (political satire adapted by Sherrin and Beaton, first performed at Queen Elizabeth Hall (1985) starring Louise Gold, Simon Butteriss, Rosemary Ashe, Robert Meadmore and Martin Smith)* ''Di Yam Gazlonim'' by Al Grand (1986; a Yiddish adaptation of ''Pirates''; a New York production was nominated for a 2007 Drama Desk Award)* ''Pinafore!", "(A Saucy, Sexy, Ship-Shape New Musical)'' (adapted by Mark Savage, first performed at the Celebration Theater in Los Angeles, California in 2001; only one character is female, and all but one of the male characters are gay.", "* ''Gondoliers'': A Mafia-themed adaptation of the opera, broadly rewritten by John Doyle and orchestrated and arranged Sarah Travis, was given at the Watermill Theatre and transferred to the Apollo Theatre in the West End in 2001.The production used Doyle's signature conceit of the actors playing their own orchestra instruments.", "* ''Parson's Pirates'' by Opera della Luna (2002)* ''The Ghosts of Ruddigore'' by Opera della Luna (2003)* ''Pinafore Swing'', Watermill Theatre (2004: another Doyle adaptation in which the actors double as the orchestra)" ], [ "See also", "* List of songwriter tandems* People associated with Gilbert and Sullivan" ], [ "Notes, references and sources", "===Notes======References======Sources===* * * * * * * * * * * ** * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* The Gilbert and Sullivan Archive* Gilbert & Sullivan 101 at Musicals101.com* Gilbert and Sullivan: From London to America at University of Rochester Libraries* The Gilbert and Sullivan Discography===Appreciation societies and performing group links===* The Gilbert and Sullivan Society, London* at ''The Gilbert and Sullivan Archive'':** Appreciation societies ** Professional performing groups ** Amateur performing groups" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Garfield" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Garfield''''' is an American comic strip created by Jim Davis.", "Originally published locally as ''Jon'' in 1976, then in nationwide syndication from 1978 as ''Garfield'', it chronicles the life of the title character Garfield the cat, his human owner Jon Arbuckle, and Odie the dog.", "As of 2013, it was syndicated in roughly 2,580 newspapers and journals and held the Guinness World Record for being the world's most widely syndicated comic strip.Though its setting is rarely mentioned in print, ''Garfield'' takes place in Jim Davis's hometown of Muncie, Indiana, according to the television special ''Happy Birthday, Garfield''.", "Common themes in the strip include Garfield's laziness, obsessive eating, love of coffee and lasagna, disdain of Mondays, and dieting.", "Garfield is also shown to manipulate people to get whatever he wants.", "The strip's focus is mostly on the interactions among Garfield, Jon, and Odie, but other recurring characters appear as well.On August 6, 2019, before its merger with CBS Corporation to become ViacomCBS (now Paramount Global), New York City–based Viacom announced that it would acquire Paws, Inc., including most rights to the ''Garfield'' franchise (the comics, merchandise and animated cartoons).", "The deal did not include the rights to the live-action ''Garfield'' films, which are still owned by The Walt Disney Company through its 20th Century Studios label, as well as the upcoming animated film ''The Garfield Movie'' which is set for worldwide distribution by Sony Pictures under its Columbia Pictures label, except in China, scheduled for 2024.Jim Davis continues to make comics, and a new Garfield animated series is in production for Paramount Global subsidiary Nickelodeon." ], [ "History", "Jim Davis is the creator of ''Garfield''.Cartoonist Jim Davis was born and raised in Muncie, Indiana.", "In 1973, while working as an assistant for T.K.", "Ryan's ''Tumbleweeds'', he created the comic strip ''Gnorm Gnat'', which ran only in the ''Pendleton Times'' of Pendleton, Indiana, from 1973 to 1975 and met with little success.", "Davis had tried to syndicate the strip, but was unsuccessful; he noted that one editor told him that his \"art was good, his gags were great, but nobody can identify with bugs.\"", "Davis decided to peruse current comic strips to determine what species of animal characters might be more popular.", "He felt that dogs were doing well, but noticed no prominent cats.", "Davis figured he could create a cat star, having grown up on a farm with twenty-five cats.", "Thus was created the character of Garfield.The first ''Jon'' strip, which ran in the ''Pendleton Times'' on January 8, 1976The title character Garfield was based on the cats Davis grew up around; he took his name and personality from Davis' grandfather, James A. Garfield Davis, whom he described as \"a large, cantankerous man.\"", "Garfield's human owner Jon Arbuckle derived his name from a 1950s coffee commercial.", "Jon's roommate Lyman, added to give Jon someone to talk with, carried on the name of an earlier ''Gnorm Gnat'' character.", "The final character was Lyman's dog Spot, who was renamed Odie so as to avoid confusion with a dog also named Spot in the comic strip ''Boner's Ark''.", "From 1976 to early 1978, these characters appeared in a strip called ''Jon'' which also ran in the ''Times''.", "The ''Jon'' comic strip was largely unknown until 2019, when YouTuber Quinton Hoover found several digital scans of the ''Jon'' publications from the Pendleton Community Library and Indiana State Library.", "''Jon'' first appeared in the ''Pendleton Times'' on January 8, 1976, just two weeks after ''Gnorm Gnat'' ended.In March 1978, United Feature Syndicate accepted the strip for national distribution (which had been retitled ''Garfield'' on September 1, 1977), and the last ''Pendleton Times'' strip ran on March 2, 1978.United Feature Syndicate debuted the strip nationwide debut in 41 newspapers, starting on June 19, 1978.After a test run, the ''Chicago Sun-Times'' dropped the ''Garfield'' strip, only to reinstate it after readers' complaints.The appearance of the characters gradually changed over time.", "The left panel is taken from the March 7, 1980, strip; the right is from the July 6, 1990, strip.The strip underwent stylistic changes, evolving from the style of the 1976–83 strips, to a more cartoonish look from 1984 onward.", "This change has mainly affected Garfield's design, which underwent a \"Darwinian evolution\" in which he began walking on his hind legs, \"slimmed down\", and \"stopped looking ... through squinty little eyes\" His evolution, according to Davis, was to make it easier to \"push Odie off the table\" or \"reach for a piece of pie\".", "''Garfield'' quickly became a commercial success.", "By the beginning of 1981, less than three years after its nationwide launch, the strip was in 850 newspapers and had sold over $15 million in merchandise.", "To manage the merchandise, Davis founded Paws, Inc.", "In 1982 the strip was appearing in more than 1,000 newspapers.By 2002, ''Garfield'' became the world's most syndicated strip, appearing in 2,570 newspapers with 263 million readers worldwide; by 2004, ''Garfield'' appeared in nearly 2,600 newspapers and sold from $750 million to $1 billion worth of merchandise in 111 countries.", "In 1994, Davis's company, Paws, Inc., purchased all rights to the strips from 1978 to 1993 from United Feature.While retaining creative control and being the only signer, Davis now only writes and usually does the rough sketches.", "Since the late 1990s most of the work has been done by long-time assistants Brett Koth and Gary Barker.", "Inking and coloring work is done by other artists, while Davis spends most of the time supervising production and merchandising the characters." ], [ "Content", "The strip's title character is Garfield, an obese orange tabby cat.", "Garfield's personality is defined by his sarcasm, laziness, and gluttony, with the character showing a particular affinity for lasagna.", "His owner is Jon Arbuckle, a man with an affinity for stereotypically nerdy pastimes.", "Jon's other pet is Odie, a dim-witted yellow dog.", "Most strips center around interactions among the three characters' conflicting personalities.", "Regular themes include Jon's frustration with Garfield's antics; Garfield's disdain for Odie; and Jon's interactions with his girlfriend and the pets' veterinarian, Dr. Liz Wilson.", "Many strips feature Jon, Garfield, and Odie visiting Jon's unnamed parents and brother Doc Boy on their family farm.", "Other side characters include various mice and spiders within the house, both frequent targets of abuse and scorn from Garfield; Garfield's teddy bear Pooky; Garfield's girlfriend Arlene, a pink cat; Nermal, a gray striped kitten who enjoys tormenting Garfield over his perceived age; and various other pets who live in the neighborhood.Part of the strip's broad pop cultural appeal is due to its lack of social or political commentary; though this was Davis's original intention, he also admitted that his \"grasp of politics isn't strong\", joking that, for many years, he thought \"OPEC was a denture adhesive\".Originally created with the intentions to \"come up with a good, marketable character\", ''Garfield'' has spawned merchandise earning $750 million to $1 billion annually.", "In addition to the various merchandise and commercial tie-ins, the strip has spawned several animated television specials, two animated television series, two theatrical feature-length live-action/CGI animated films, and three fully CGI animated direct-to-video films." ], [ "Marketing", "''Garfield'' was originally created by Davis with the intention to come up with a \"good, marketable character\".", "Now the world's most syndicated comic strip, ''Garfield'' has spawned a \"profusion\" of merchandise including clothing, toys, games, books, Caribbean cruises, credit cards, dolls, DVDs of the movies or the TV series, and related media." ], [ "Media", "Garfield graffiti in Berlin (Germany)===Books===Starting in 1980, the comic strip has been collected in anthologies.", "The first, ''Garfield at Large'', was published in March 1980 by Ballantine Books.", "These books helped increase the strip's popularity through sales, leading to several of them reaching the top of the ''New York Times'' best sellers list.", "For these compilation books, Davis devised a book layout which is considerably longer and less tall than the average book.", "This allowed the strip to be oriented in the same format as it appeared in the newspaper, as opposed to earlier comic strip anthologies which often stacked the panels vertically.", "This book style has since been referred to in the publishing industry as the \"Garfield format\" and has been adapted by other publishers.", "Davis noted that it became popular for other comic strip anthologies in particular, such as those of ''The Far Side''.===Internet===Garfield.com was the strip's official website, which contained archives of past strips along with games and an online store.", "Jim Davis had also collaborated with Ball State University and Pearson Digital Learning to create ProfessorGarfield.org, an educational website with interactive games focusing on math and reading skills, and with Children's Technology Group to create MindWalker, a web browser that allows parents to limit the websites their children can view to a preset list.A variety of edited ''Garfield'' strips have been made available on the Internet, with some being hosted on their own unofficial, dedicated sites.", "Dating from 2005, a site called the \"Garfield Randomizer\" created a three-panel strip using panels from previous ''Garfield'' strips.", "Another approach, known as \"Silent Garfield\", involved removing Garfield's thought balloons from the strips.", "Some examples date from 2006.A webcomic called ''Arbuckle'' does the above but also redraws the originals in a different art style.", "The ''Arbuckle'' website creator writes: \"'Garfield' changes from being a comic about a sassy, corpulent feline, and becomes a compelling picture of a lonely, pathetic, delusional man who talks to his pets.", "Consider that Jon, according to Garfield canon, cannot hear his cat's thoughts.", "This is the world as he sees it.", "This is his story\".Another variation along the same lines, called \"Realfield\" or \"Realistic Garfield\", was to redraw Garfield as a real cat and remove his thought balloons.", "Still another approach to editing the strips involved removing Garfield and other main characters from the originals completely, leaving Jon talking to himself.", "While strips in this vein could be found online as early as 2006, the 2008 site ''Garfield Minus Garfield'' by Dan Walsh received enough online attention to be covered by news media.", "Reception was largely positive: at its peak, the site received as many as 300,000 hits per day.", "Fans connected with Jon's \"loneliness and desperation\" and found his \"crazy antics\" humorous; Jim Davis himself called Walsh's strips an \"inspired thing to do\" and said that \"some of the strips work better than the originals\".", "Ballantine Books, which publishes the ''Garfield'' books, released a volume of ''Garfield Minus Garfield'' strips on October 28, 2008.The volume retains Davis as author and features a foreword by Walsh.On June 19, 2020, the website was shut down during the strip's 42nd anniversary, following Viacom's acquisition of Paws, Inc. in August 2019.The website now redirects to Nick.com, with an alternative link to GoComics.=== Television===Garfield's animation debut was on ''The Fantastic Funnies'', which aired on CBS on May 15, 1980, voiced by actor Scott Beach.", "''Garfield'' was one of the strips featured, introduced as a newcomer (the strip was only two years old at the time).", "From 1982 to 1991, twelve primetime ''Garfield'' cartoon specials and one hour-long primetime documentary celebrating the character's 10th anniversary were aired; Lorenzo Music voiced Garfield in all of them.", "A Saturday morning cartoon show, ''Garfield and Friends'', aired for seven seasons from 1988 to 1994.This adaption also starred Music as the voice of Garfield.", "''The Garfield Show'', a CGI series, started development in 2007 to coincide with the strip's 30th anniversary in 2008.It premiered in France in December 2008 and made its U.S. debut on Cartoon Network on November 2, 2009.A new series is currently in development at Nickelodeon after Paramount Global acquired the franchise.====TV series==== Title Broadcast date End dateNetwork ''Garfield and Friends'' CBS ''The Garfield Show'' France 3Cartoon Network ''Garfield Originals'' France 3 Untitled ''Garfield'' series TBANickelodeon====Primetime specials==== Title Broadcast date Emmy result ''Here Comes Garfield'' ''Garfield on the Town'' ''Garfield in the Rough'' ''Garfield's Halloween Adventure'' ''Garfield in Paradise'' ''Garfield Goes Hollywood'' ''A Garfield Christmas'' ''Garfield: His 9 Lives'' ''Garfield's Babes and Bullets'' ''Garfield's Thanksgiving'' ''Garfield's Feline Fantasies'' ''Garfield Gets a Life'' ===Films===A live-action/computed animated film titled ''Garfield: The Movie'' was released in theaters on June 11, 2004 and a sequel titled ''Garfield: A Tail of Two Kitties'' was released on June 16, 2006.Both films were released by 20th Century Fox with actor Bill Murray voicing the character in both films.", "Despite receiving negative reviews from critics, the films were both commercial successes.", "Three direct-to-video films were released by Paws, Inc. in cooperation with Davis Entertainment: ''Garfield Gets Real'' on November 20, 2007, ''Garfield's Fun Fest'' on August 5, 2008, and ''Garfield's Pet Force'' on June 16, 2009.On May 24, 2016, it was announced that Alcon Entertainment would develop a new CG animated ''Garfield'' film, with John Cohen and Steven P. Wegner producing, and Mark Dindal directing the feature.", "In August 2019, Viacom acquired the rights to Garfield, leaving the status of the movie for the time uncertain, with Dindal confirming that the film was still in production in December 2020.On November 1, 2021, Chris Pratt was announced as the voice of Garfield, with animation being provided by DNEG, a production company of the film.", "David Reynolds was announced as the screenwriter of the film, reuniting him with Dindal after they worked together on ''The Emperor's New Groove''.", "Sony Pictures will maintain global distribution rights for the film, apart from China.", "On May 24, 2022, Samuel L. Jackson joined the voice cast as Vic, Garfield's father.", "In September 2022, the film was scheduled to be released on May 24, 2024.===Video games===A ''Garfield'' video game was developed by Atari, Inc. for its Atari 2600 home video game system and appears in their 1984 catalog.", "However, after Atari's spinoff and sale of its home games and computers division, owner Jack Tramiel decided the character's royalties were too expensive given the declining state of the video game industry at the time, and the game was cancelled.", "A ROM image of the game was however released with Jim Davis' blessing.", "''Garfield: Big Fat Hairy Deal'' is a 1987 video game for the Atari ST, ZX Spectrum, Commodore 64, Amstrad CPC and the Amiga based on the comic strip.", "Towa Chiki made ''A Week of Garfield'' for the Family Computer, released only in Japan in 1989.Sega also made the 1995 video game ''Garfield: Caught in the Act'' for the Sega Genesis/Mega Drive, Game Gear and Windows 3.1 computers.", "Other companies made games, such as ''A Tale of Two Kitties'' for the DS, published by Game Factory, ''Garfield's Nightmare'' for DS, ''Garfield's Funfest'' for DS, and ''Garfield Labyrinth'' for Game Boy.", "On PlayStation 2 were ''Garfield'' and ''Garfield 2'' (known in the US as ''Garfield, a Tale of Two Kitties'').", "''Garfield Lasagna World Tour'' was also made for PS2.", "''Garfield: Saving Arlene'' was only released in Japan and in the United Kingdom.", "And recent additions for mobile devices are \"Garfield's Diner\" and \"Garfield's Zombie Defense\".Konami also released a Garfield handheld electronic game titled ''Lasagnator'' in 1991, which met with mild success.In 2012, a series of Garfield video games was launched by French publisher Anuman Interactive, including ''My Puzzles with Garfield!", "'', ''Multiplication Tables with Garfield'', ''Garfield Kart'', and ''Garfield's Match Up''.Garfield appears as a playable character in several Nickelodeon crossover games, including ''Nickelodeon All-Star Brawl'', ''Nickelodeon Kart Racers 3: Slime Speedway'', and ''Nickelodeon All-Star Brawl 2''.===Stage===Joseph Papp, producer of ''A Chorus Line'', discussed making a Garfield stage musical, but due to some complications, it never got off ground.", "A full-length stage musical, titled \"Garfield Live\", was planned to kick off its US tour in September 2010, but got moved to January 18, 2011, where it premiered in Muncie, Indiana.", "The book was written by Jim Davis, with music and lyrics by Michael Dansicker and Bill Meade, and it was booked by AWA Touring Services.", "The opening song, \"Cattitude\" can be heard on the national tour's website, along with two more, \"On the Fence\", and \"Going Home!\".", "When the North-American tour concluded in 2012, it toured throughout Asia.===Comic book===In agreement with Paws, Boom!", "Studios launched in May 2012 a monthly ''Garfield'' comic book, with the first issue featuring a story written by Mark Evanier (who has supervised ''Garfield and Friends'' and ''The Garfield Show'') and illustrated by Davis's long-time assistant Gary Barker.===Art book===In 2016, Hermes Press signed an agreement with Paws, Inc to publish an art book on the art of author Jim Davis, titled ''The Art of Jim Davis' Garfield''.", "The book includes an essay by author R.C.", "Harvey and other original material, and was released in July 2016 for the San Diego Comic-Con.===Restaurant===In 2018, a ghost restaurant themed after the franchise known as GarfieldEATS was opened in Dubai.", "Customers order food through the official mobile app, which also contains games and allows users to purchase episodes of ''Garfield and Friends''.", "The restaurant serves lasagna, Garfield-shaped pizza, \"Garfuccinos\", and Garfield-shaped dark chocolate bars.", "A second location opened in Toronto in 2019.Due to the COVID-19 pandemic as well as a dispute over rent, the restaurant closed in 2020." ], [ "Main characters", " Characters ''The Fantastic Funnies'' ''Garfield'' Television Specials Television series Theatrical films Direct-to-DVD films ''Garfield and Friends'' ''The Garfield Show'' ''The Movie'' ''A Tail of Two Kitties'' ''The Garfield Movie'' ''Garfield Gets Real'' ''Garfield's Fun Fest'' ''Garfield's Pet Force'' 1980 1982–1991 1988–1994 2009–2016 2004 2006 2024 2007 2008 2009 Garfield Scott Beach Lorenzo Music Frank Welker Bill Murray Chris Pratt Frank Welker Jon Arbuckle Thom Huge Thom Huge Thom Huge Wally Wingert Breckin Meyer Wally Wingert Sandy Kenyon Odie Gregg Berger Harvey Guillén Gregg Berger Dr. Liz Wilson Julie K. Payne Jennifer Love Hewitt Vanessa Marshall Nermal Desirée Goyette Jason Marsden David Eigenberg Jason Marsden Arlene Audrey Wasilewski Debra Messing Audrey WasilewskiThrough the Garfield strips, there have been many additional characters, but the main ones are described here.===Garfield==='''First appearance: June 19, 1978'''Mike Pence wishing Garfield a happy birthday during the June 19th 2003 House SessionGarfield is an orange, fuzzy tabby cat born in the kitchen of an Italian restaurant (later revealed in the television special ''Garfield: His 9 Lives'' to be Mama Leoni's Italian Restaurant) who immediately ate all the pasta and lasagna in sight, thus developing his love and obsession for lasagna and pizza.Gags in the strips commonly deal with Garfield's obesity (in one strip, Jon jokes: \"I wouldn't say Garfield is fat, but the last time he got on a Ferris wheel, the two guys on top starved to death\") and his disdain of any form of exertion or work.", "He is known for saying \"breathing is exercise\".Though Garfield can be very cynical, he does have a soft side for his teddy bear, Pooky, food, and sleep, and during one Christmas he says, \"They say I have to get up early, be nice to people, skip breakfast… I wish it would never end.\"", "However, in the feature film ''Garfield Gets Real'' and its sequels, Garfield is better behaved, friendlier towards Jon and Odie, less self-centered, and more sympathetic.It has been wondered by many readers if Garfield can actually be understood by the human characters around him.", "Sometimes, it seems like Jon can hear him.", "However, it is mentioned in more than one strip that Jon cannot understand Garfield.", "However, in the feature film ''Garfield Gets Real'' and its sequels, Garfield and the other animals (save for Odie) are able to talk to, and be understood by, Jon and the other humans.", "In the April 1 (April Fools' Day), 1997, strip drawn by the artists of ''Blondie'' as part of the comic strip switcheroo, Garfield, still with thought balloons, can be understood by Jon.To break the fourth wall, June 19 is celebrated within the strip as Garfield's birthday.", "The appearance in 1979 claimed it to be his first birthday, although in the first appearance of the strip (June 19, 1978), he was portrayed as a fully grown cat, implying that the birthday is for the strip itself.===Jon Arbuckle==='''First appearance: June 19, 1978'''Jon (Full name: Jonathan Q. Arbuckle) is Garfield's owner, usually depicted as an awkward clumsy geek who has trouble finding a date.", "Jon had a crush on Liz (Garfield's veterinarian) and is now dating her.", "Jon disapproves of Garfield's \"don't care, not interested\", attitude and often encourages his pet to take an interest in the world around him, sometimes stating an interesting fact or asking a philosophical question in an attempt to prompt Garfield into thought.", "Garfield tends to brush off these attempts with a simple yet logical remark, and despite the trouble Garfield causes, Jon has a heart of gold and is very tolerant of Garfield's shortcomings, a fact which Garfield often takes advantage of.", "In the December 23, 1980, strip, Jon states that he is thirty years old (nominally meaning he should presently be in his sixties, although he has not aged physically).", "His birthday is July 28.Jon loves (or occasionally hates) Garfield and all cats.", "Many gags focus on this; his inability to get a date is usually attributed to his lack of social skills, his poor taste in clothes (Garfield remarked in one strip after seeing his closet that \"two hundred moths committed suicide\"; in another, the \"geek police\" ordered Jon to \"throw out his tie\"), and his eccentric interests which range from stamp collecting to measuring the growth of his toenails to watching movies with \"polka ninjas\".", "Other strips portray him as lacking intelligence (he is seen reading a pop-up book in one strip).Jon was born on a farm that apparently contained few amenities; in one strip, his father, upon seeing indoor plumbing, remarks: \"Woo-ha!", "Ain't science something?\"", "Jon occasionally visits his parents, brother and grandmother at their farm.", "It was implied that Jon is inspired by a drawing of Davis himself when he was first drawing the strip.", "Jon was portrayed as a cartoonist in the first strip and occasional others in the early years; Davis stated his intent had been to express his own frustrations as a cartoonist.", "Ultimately, Jon's job has been referenced far more frequently in ''Garfield'' animated series than in the strip.===Odie==='''First appearance: August 8, 1978'''Odie is a yellow, long-eared beagle with a large, slobbering tongue, who walks on all four legs, though occasionally he will walk on two like Garfield.", "He was originally owned by Jon's friend Lyman, though Jon adopted him after Lyman was written out of the strip.", "The book ''Garfield: His 9 Lives'' (1984) retcons Odie's origin: there is no mention of Lyman, and Odie was a puppy when he was acquired by Jon as company for Garfield (when Garfield was a kitten).Odie is younger than Garfield and usually portrayed as naïve, happy, affectionate and blissfully unaware of Garfield's cynical, sadistic nature, despite the physical abuse Garfield exhibits toward him, including regularly kicking him off the kitchen table or tricking him into going over the edge himself.", "On some occasions, however, he is depicted more intelligently, as in one strip, in which he holds a heavy rock to prevent Garfield from doing this, and actually hurts Garfield's foot.", "In one strip when Garfield and Jon are out of the house, Odie is seen reading ''War and Peace'' and watching ''An Evening With Mozart'' on television, but in \"Ask a Dog\" strips, he is depicted as illiterate and has to be read to by Garfield.", "Odie has only thought once.", "In another strip, published on January 28, 2010, he is seen solving Jon's sudoku puzzle.===Dr.", "Liz Wilson==='''First appearance: June 26, 1979'''Dr.", "Liz Wilson is Garfield and Odie's sarcastic veterinarian and a long time crush of Jon Arbuckle.", "She has a somewhat deadpan, sardonic persona and almost always reacts negatively to Jon's outlandish and goofball behavior but can even find it endearing on occasion.", "Jon often attempts to ask her out on a date, but rarely succeeds; however, in an extended story arc from June 20 to July 29, 2006 (with the main event taking place on July 28), Liz and Jon kiss, and have been a couple ever since." ], [ "Recurring subjects and themes", "Many of the gags focus on Garfield's obsessive eating and obesity; his dislike of spiders; his hatred of Mondays, diets, and any form of exertion; his constant shedding (which annoys Jon); and his abuse of Odie and Jon as well as his obsession with mailing Nermal to Abu Dhabi, or simply throwing him ''through'' the front door.", "Though he will eat nearly anything (with the exception of raisins and spinach), Garfield is particularly fond of lasagna; he also enjoys eating Jon's houseplants and other pets (mainly birds and fish).He also has odd relationships with household pests; Garfield generally spares mice, and even cooperates with them to cause mischief (much to Jon's chagrin), but will readily swat or pound spiders flat.", "Other gags focus on Jon's poor social skills and inability to get a date; before he started dating Liz, he often tried to get dates, usually without success (in one strip, after failing to get a date with \"Nancy\", he tries getting a date with her mother and grandmother; he ended up getting \"shot down by three generations\").", "When he does get a date, it usually goes awry; Jon's dates have slashed his tires, been tranquilized, and called the police when he stuck carrots in his ears.", "The storylines featuring Jon's dates rarely appear now.", "Before, he had dates with many odd characters, whereas now, he exclusively dates Liz.Garfield's world has specific locations that appear normally on the comic strips, like the vet's office (a place he loathes).", "Irma's Diner is another occasional setting.", "Irma is a chirpy but slow-witted and unattractive waitress/manager, and one of Jon's few friends.", "The terrible food is the center of most of the jokes, along with the poor management.", "Jon periodically visits his parents and brother on the farm.", "This results in week-long comical displays of stupidity by Jon and his family, and their interactions.", "There is a comic strip where Jon's brother Doc Boy is watching two socks in the dryer spinning and Doc Boy calls it entertainment.On the farm, Jon's mother will cook huge dinners; Garfield hugs her for this.", "Jon has a grandmother who, in a strip, once kicked Odie; Garfield subsequently hugged her.", "Jon's parents have twice visited Jon, Garfield, and Odie in the city.", "Jon's father drove into town on his tractor (which he double-parked) and brought a rooster to wake him up.", "As Garfield has a love for food, they will often eat out at restaurants.", "Most trips end up embarrassing because Garfield will pig out, or Jon will do something stupid, including wearing an ugly shirt, which happened one night when he took Liz on a date.", "When Jon takes Liz on a date, Garfield occasionally tags along—once, he ate the bread and other food at an Italian restaurant they went to.Frequently, the characters break the fourth wall, mostly to explain something to the readers, talk about a subject that often sets up the strip's punchline (like Jon claiming that pets are good for exercise right before he finds Garfield in the kitchen and chases him out), or give a mere glare when a character is belittled or not impressed.", "Sometimes, this theme revolves around the conventions of the strip; for example, in one strip, Garfield catches a cold and complains about it, noting that his thoughts are stuffed up.===Short storylines===One particular semi-recurring storyline features Jon and Liz on a date in a restaurant.", "They sometimes are waited on by the Italian Armando, who is refined and sophisticated and shows a great loathing towards Jon, presumably for his immature and uncouth behavior at the prestigious eatery.", "On other occasions, the couple receives a different waiter, such as a large ogre-like man who intimidates Jon when he is about to report a complaint about the food.Another commonly recurring character, although hardly ever seen, is Jon's neighbor, Mrs. Feeny.", "Garfield seems to take both enormous pride and excess zeal in doing whatever it takes to harass her, to the point that she even erects an electric fence (which does not stop him).Other unique themes are things like \"Garfield's Believe it or Don't\", \"Garfield's Law\", \"Garfield's History of Dogs\", and \"Garfield's History of Cats\", which show science, history, and the world from Garfield's point of view.", "Another particular theme is \"National Fat Week\", where Garfield spends the week making fun of skinny people.", "Also, there was a storyline involving Garfield catching Odie eating his food and \"kicking Odie into next week\".", "Soon, Garfield realizes that \"Lunch isn't the same without Odie.", "He always slips up behind me, barks loudly and makes me fall into my food\" (Garfield subsequently falls into his food by himself).A few days after the storyline began, Garfield is lying in his bed with a \"nagging feeling I'm forgetting something\", with Odie landing on Garfield in the next panel.", "Jon and Liz began to go out more frequently.", "Jon has started hiring pet sitters to look after Garfield and Odie, though they do not always work out.", "Two particular examples are Lillian, an eccentric (and very nearsighted) old lady with odd quirks, and Greta, a muscle-bound woman who was hired to look after the pets during New Year's Eve.Most of December is spent preparing for Christmas, with a predictable focus on presents.", "Other Christmas themed strips include Jon's attempts at decorating the tree and house, or the attempt to buy the tree.", "Some years, the Christmas strips started as early as the end of November.", "Another example is \"Splut Week\", when Garfield tries to avoid pies that are thrown at him.", "For most of Garfield's history, being hit with a pie has inevitably resulted in the onomatopoeia \"splut\", hence the name.Every week before June 19, the strip focuses on Garfield's birthday, which he dreads because of his fear of getting older.", "This started happening after his sixth birthday.", "However, before his 29th birthday, Liz put Garfield on a diet.", "On June 19, 2007, Garfield was given the greatest birthday present: \"I'M OFF MY DIET!\"", "Occasionally the strip celebrates Halloween as well with scary-themed jokes, such as mask gags.", "There are also seasonal jokes, with snow-related gags common in January or February and beach- or heat-themed jokes in the summer.Right panel of the October 27, 1989, stripOne storyline, which ran the week before Halloween in 1989, is unique among Garfield strips in that it is not meant to be humorous.", "It depicts Garfield awakening in a future in which the house is abandoned and he no longer exists.", "In Garfield's ''Twentieth Anniversary Collection'', in which the strips are reprinted, Jim Davis discusses the genesis for this series:One of the recurring storylines involves Garfield getting lost or running away.", "The longest one of these lasted for over a month (in 1986, from August 25 to September 28); it began with Jon telling Garfield to go get the newspaper.", "Garfield walks outside to get it, but speculates about what will happen if he wanders off – and decides to find out.", "Jon notices Garfield has been gone too long, so he sends Odie out to find him.", "He quickly realizes his mistake (Odie, being not too bright, also gets lost).Jon starts to get lonely, so he offers a reward for the return of Garfield and Odie.", "He is not descriptive, so animals including an elephant, monkeys, a seal, a snake, a kangaroo and joey, and turtles are brought to Jon's house for the reward.", "After a series of events, including Odie being adopted by a small girl, both pets meeting up at a circus that they briefly join, and both going to a pet shop, Garfield and Odie make it back home.Another story involved Jon going away on a business trip around Christmas time, leaving Garfield a week's worth of food, which he devoured instantly.", "Garfield then leaves the house and gets locked out.", "He then reunites with his mother, and eventually makes it back home in the snow on Christmas Eve (December 3–23, 1984).", "Part of this storyline was taken from the 1983 Emmy-winning special ''Garfield on the Town''." ], [ "Paws, Inc.", "Paws, Inc. was founded in 1981 by Jim Davis to support the Garfield comic strip and its licensing.", "It is located in Muncie, Indiana, and has a staff of nearly 50 artists and licensing administrators.", "In 1994, the company purchased all rights to the Garfield comic strips from 1978 to 1993 from United Feature Syndicate.", "However, the original black and white daily strips and original color Sunday strips remain copyrighted to United Feature Syndicate.", "The full-color daily strips and recolored Sunday strips are copyrighted to Paws as they are considered a different product.", "Though rights to the strip remain with Paws, Inc., it is currently distributed by Universal Press Syndicate.", "In August 2019, Davis sold Paws, Inc. to Viacom, who has placed Garfield under the Nickelodeon banner." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Bibliography", "===Primary sources===* * ===Secondary sources===* * * * * * * * *" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * Archive of Garfield.com on its last day before conversion* ''Garfield'' at Don Markstein's Toonopedia.", "Archived from the original on August 1, 2016.", "* Garfield Show''* Official website of the stage musical" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Graham Chapman" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Graham Chapman''' (8 January 1941 – 4 October 1989) was a British actor, comedian and writer.", "He was one of the six members of the surreal comedy group Monty Python.", "He portrayed authority figures such as The Colonel and the lead role in two Python films, ''Monty Python and the Holy Grail'' (1975) and ''Life of Brian'' (1979).Chapman was born in Leicester and was raised in Melton Mowbray.", "He enjoyed science, acting, and comedy and after graduating from Emmanuel College, Cambridge and St Bartholomew's Hospital Medical College, he turned down a career as a doctor to be a comedian.", "Chapman eventually established a writing partnership with John Cleese, which reached its critical peak with Monty Python during the 1970s.", "He subsequently left Britain for Los Angeles, where he attempted to be a success on American television, speaking on the college circuit and producing the pirate film ''Yellowbeard'' (1983), before returning to Britain in the early 1980s.Chapman was openly homosexual and a supporter of gay rights and was in a long-term partnership with David Sherlock.", "He was an alcoholic during his time at Cambridge and the Python years; he quit drinking shortly before working on ''Life of Brian''.", "He became an enthusiast and patron of the Dangerous Sports Club in his later years.", "In 1989, Chapman died of tonsil cancer which had spread to his spine.", "His life and legacy were commemorated at a memorial service at St Bartholomew's with the other five Pythons two months after his death." ], [ "Early life and education", "A blue plaque at Melton Mowbray Grammar School (now King Edward VII School), which Chapman attendedGraham Chapman was born on 8 January 1941 at the Stoneygate Nursing Home, Stoneygate, Leicester, Leicestershire, the son of policeman Walter Chapman and Edith Towers.", "Walter Chapman was a police constable at the time of Graham's birth; he ended his career as a chief inspector.", "He had been trained as a French polisher for a coffin-maker before entering the police force in the 1930s.Chapman had an elder brother, John, who was born in 1936.They had, according to Chapman and his brother, an \"extremely poor upbringing\".", "One of Chapman's earliest memories was seeing the remains of Polish airmen who had suffered an aeroplane accident near Leicester, later saying the sight remained in his memory.Chapman was educated at Melton Mowbray Grammar School.", "He showed a strong affinity for science, sports and amateur dramatics and was singled out for attention when a local paper reviewed his performance of Mark Antony in Shakespeare's ''Julius Caesar''.", "Graham and his brother John were both avid fans of radio comedy, being especially fond of ''The Goon Show'' and Robert Moreton's skill of telling jokes the wrong way round and reversing punchlines.", "Biographer Jim Yoakum said \"the radio shows didn't necessarily make him laugh\".In 1959, Chapman began to study medicine at Emmanuel College, Cambridge.", "He joined the Cambridge Footlights, where he first began writing with John Cleese.", "Following graduation, Chapman joined the Footlights show ''Cambridge Circus'' and toured New Zealand, deferring his medical studies for a year.", "After the tour, he continued his studies at St Bartholomew's Medical College, but became torn between whether to pursue a career in medicine or acting.", "His brother John later said, \"He Graham wasn't ever driven to go into medicine... it wasn't his life's ambition.\"" ], [ "Career", "=== Pre-Python career ===Following their Footlights success, Chapman and Cleese began to write professionally for the BBC, initially for David Frost but also for Marty Feldman.", "Frost had recruited Cleese, and in turn Cleese decided he needed Chapman as a sounding board.", "Chapman also contributed sketches to the radio series ''I'm Sorry, I'll Read That Again'' and wrote material on his own and with Bill Oddie.", "He wrote for ''The Illustrated Weekly Hudd'' (starring Roy Hudd), ''Cilla Black'', ''This Is Petula Clark'' and ''This Is Tom Jones''.", "Chapman, Cleese and Tim Brooke-Taylor later joined Feldman in the television comedy series ''At Last the 1948 Show''.", "It was Chapman's first significant role as a performer as well as a writer and he displayed a gift for deadpan comedy (such as in the sketch \"The Minister Who Falls to Pieces\") and imitating various British dialects.", "The series was the first to feature Chapman's sketch of wrestling with himself.Despite the series' success, Chapman was still unsure about abandoning his medical career.", "In between the two series of ''At Last The 1948 Show'', he completed his studies at St Bartholomew's and became professionally registered as a doctor.", "Chapman and Cleese also wrote for the long-running television comedy series ''Doctor in the House'', and both appeared on a one-off television special, ''How to Irritate People'' alongside Brooke-Taylor and future Python member Michael Palin.", "One of Cleese's and Chapman's sketches, featuring a used car salesman refusing to believe a customer's model had broken down, became the inspiration for the Dead Parrot sketch.", "Chapman also co-wrote several episodes of ''Doctor in the House'' follow up, ''Doctor in Charge'', with Bernard McKenna.=== Monty Python ===In 1969, Chapman and Cleese joined the other Pythons, Michael Palin, Eric Idle, Terry Jones and Terry Gilliam, for their sketch comedy series ''Monty Python's Flying Circus''.", "The group's writing was split into well-defined teams, with Chapman collaborating almost exclusively with Cleese.", "Chapman was particularly keen to remove stereotypical punchlines in sketches and created The Colonel, who would stop them in mid-flow by saying they were \"too silly\".Chapman ended several ''Monty Python's Flying Circus'' sketches mid-flow dressed as The Colonel, complaining they were \"too silly\".Although the pair were officially equal partners, Cleese later thought that Chapman contributed comparatively little in the way of direct writing, saying \"he would come in, say something marvelous and then drift off in his own mind\".", "The other Pythons have said that Chapman's biggest contribution in the writing room was an intuition for what was funny.", "Gilliam later recalled that \"Graham would do the nudge that would push it into something extraordinary\".", "The series was an immediate success, and Chapman was delighted to learn that medical students at St Bartholomew's crowded round the television in the bar to watch it.", "Chapman was frequently late for rehearsing or recording, leading to the other Pythons calling him \"the late Graham Chapman\".Chapman's main contribution to the \"Dead Parrot sketch\", derived from the piece within ''How to Irritate People'' and involving a customer returning a faulty toaster, was \"How can we make this ''madder''?", "\", turning the toaster into a dead Norwegian Blue parrot.", "Cleese later said he and Chapman believed that \"there was something very funny there, if we could find the right context for it\".", "Cleese was in particular concerned that the Cheese Shop sketch simply was not funny, in that it was just mainly a man listing different makes of cheese.", "Chapman urged his partner to continue with it, telling him \"Trust me, it's funny.\"", "When it was read out at the next script meeting, Cleese found that the others, particularly Palin, thought it was hilarious.", "The group felt that Chapman had the best acting skills among them.", "Cleese complimented Chapman by saying that he was \"particularly a wonderful actor\".Chapman played the lead role in two Python films, ''Holy Grail'' and ''Life of Brian''.", "He was chosen to play the lead in ''Holy Grail'' because of the group's respect for his straight acting skills, and because the other members wanted to play lesser, funnier characters.", "Chapman did not mind being filmed fully nude in front of a crowd in ''Life of Brian'', but the scene, filmed in Tunisia, caused problems with the female Muslim extras.=== Other work ===In 1975, Chapman and Douglas Adams wrote a pilot for a television series, entitled ''Out of the Trees'', but it received poor ratings after being broadcast at the same time as ''Match of the Day'' and only the initial episode was produced.", "In 1978, Chapman co-wrote the comedy film ''The Odd Job'' with McKenna and starred as one of the main characters.", "Chapman wanted his friend Keith Moon to play a co-lead role alongside him, but Moon could not pass an acting test, so the part went to David Jason who had previously appeared on ''Do Not Adjust Your Set'' with Pythons Idle, Jones and Palin.", "The film was moderately successful.", "Chapman guest-starred on several television series including ''The Big Show''.In 1976, Chapman began writing a pirate film, ''Yellowbeard'' (1983), which came out of conversations between Chapman and Moon while in Los Angeles.", "Moon had always wanted to play Long John Silver, so Chapman began to write a script for him.", "Moon died in 1978 and the work stalled, eventually being rewritten by McKenna, then by Peter Cook.", "The film, which starred Chapman as the eponymous pirate, also featured appearances from Cook, Marty Feldman, Cleese, Idle, Spike Milligan and Cheech & Chong.", "It marked the last appearance of Feldman, who suffered a fatal heart attack in December 1982.The project was fraught with financial difficulties and at times there was not enough money to pay the crew.", "It was released to mixed reviews.", "David Robinson, reviewing the film in ''The Times'', said that \"the Monty Python style of comic anarchy requires more than scatology, rude words and funny faces\".Chapman published his memoirs, ''A Liar's Autobiography'', in 1980, choosing the title because he said \"it's almost ''impossible'' to tell the truth\".", "He returned to Britain permanently after ''Yellowbeard'' was released.", "He became involved with the extreme sports club Dangerous Sports Club, which popularised bungee jumping.", "Chapman was scheduled to perform a bungee jump himself, but it was cancelled due to safety concerns.After reuniting with the other Pythons in the film ''The Meaning of Life'' (1983), Chapman began a lengthy series of US college tours, talking about The Pythons, the Dangerous Sports Club and his friend Moon, among other subjects.", "''Saturday Night Live'' creator and Python fan Lorne Michaels persuaded Chapman to star in ''The New Show''.In 1988, Chapman appeared in the Iron Maiden video \"Can I Play with Madness\".", "The same year, he starred in a pilot of a proposed television series, ''Jake's Journey'', but financial problems prevented a full series from being made.", "In 1988, he also appeared on stage with three other Pythons (Gilliam, Jones and Palin) at the 41st British Academy Film Awards where Monty Python received the BAFTA Award for Outstanding British Contribution To Cinema.Broadcast in November 1989, the 20th anniversary television special, ''Parrot Sketch Not Included – 20 Years of Monty Python'', hosted by Python fan Steve Martin, was Chapman's final onscreen appearance with the other five Python members.", "Chapman was intended to be cast in the ''Red Dwarf'' episode \"Timeslides\", but died before shooting could begin." ], [ "Personal life", "Chapman lived in this house in Highgate with his partner David Sherlock during the 1970s.Chapman first met his long-term partner David Sherlock in Ibiza in 1966.He later described realising he was homosexual as \"an important moment in my life\".The following year, he told his close friends, including Cleese and Feldman, about his relationship.", "Chapman and Sherlock moved to Belsize Park in 1968, and the pair enjoyed visiting gay clubs in Central London.", "In the early 1970s, after Chapman had found fame with Monty Python, they moved to a house in Highgate, North London.In 1972, on a television show hosted by English jazz and blues singer George Melly, Chapman first disclosed his homosexuality publicly, becoming one of the first celebrities to do so.", "He was a vocal spokesman for gay rights, supporting the Gay Liberation Front.", "In 1972, Chapman supported the newspaper ''Gay News'', which listed him as one of the publication's \"special friends\" in recognition.", "During a college tour, Chapman mentioned that a television audience member had written to the Pythons to complain about them having a gay member, citing a Bible passage that said any man who lies with a man should be taken out and stoned.", "Idle replied jokingly that they had found the perpetrator and killed him.In 1971, Chapman and Sherlock adopted John Tomiczek as their son.", "Chapman met Tomiczek when Tomiczek was a 14-year-old run-away from Liverpool.", "After discussions with Tomiczek's father, it was agreed that Chapman would become Tomiczek's legal guardian.", "Both Sherlock and Tomiczek remained a constant presence in Chapman's life.", "During the 1970s, Chapman became increasingly concerned about the Pythons' income and finances.", "He subsequently moved to Los Angeles to avoid British income tax.", "In the mid-1980s, he returned to the UK and moved to Maidstone, Kent, with Sherlock and Tomiczek.", "Tomiczek later became Chapman's business manager; he died of a heart attack in 1992 at age 35.Chapman took up pipe smoking aged 15, which became a lifelong habit.", "He began drinking heavily during his time at Cambridge and St. Bartholomew's, favouring gin.", "By the time Monty Python went out on tour in 1973, Chapman's drinking had begun to affect his performance, causing him to miss cues to go on stage.", "He was known to suffer from delirium tremens (DTs).", "He stopped drinking during Christmas 1977, concerned about being able to act in ''Life of Brian'' successfully, and remained sober for the rest of his life." ], [ "Illness and death", "In 1988, Chapman made a routine visit to a dentist, who found a small, malignant tumour on one of his tonsils, leading to both being removed via a tonsillectomy.", "The following year, the cancer had spread into Chapman's spinal column, where another tumour was surgically removed.", "Chapman had several chemotherapy treatments and surgeries during the final months of his life, but ultimately the cancer was declared inoperable.", "According to his brother, Chapman was visibly upset by the death of his mother that July, by which time he was terminally ill.", "Shortly afterwards, Chapman filmed scenes for the 20th anniversary of the first broadcast of ''Monty Python's Flying Circus'', the final time he appeared on television.Chapman died on 4 October 1989 in Maidstone Hospital from resulting complications, aged 48.At the time of his death, he was being visited by Sherlock, brother John and his sister-in-law, and fellow Pythons Palin and Cleese, the latter of whom had to be led out of the room to deal with his grief.", "Peter Cook had intended to visit, but arrived too late and was visibly shaken by the news.", "Chapman's death occurred on the eve of the twentieth anniversary of the Pythons' collective debut on British television, and Jones called it \"the worst case of party-pooping in all history\".=== Memorial service ===The five surviving Python members had decided to stay away from Chapman's private funeral to prevent it from becoming a media circus and to give his family some privacy.", "They sent a wreath in the shape of the Python foot, with the message: \"To Graham from the other Pythons with all our love.", "PS: Stop us if we're getting too silly\".", "The Rolling Stones also sent a floral arrangement, saying \"Thanks for all the laughs.", "\"A public memorial service for Chapman was held at St Bartholomew's on 3 December, two months after his death.", "The service began with a chorus of the hymn \"Jerusalem\" sung in Engrish with a mock Chinese accent.", "Cleese delivered a eulogy to Chapman with shock humour that he believed Chapman would have appreciated and became the first person at a televised British memorial service to say \"fuck\".", "Palin also delivered a eulogy to Chapman, as did Idle, quipping that Chapman had decided to die rather than listen to Palin again.", "Idle led the other surviving Pythons and Chapman's close friends and family in a rendition of the song \"Always Look on the Bright Side of Life\", from ''Life of Brian'', and later closed his remarks by saying: \"I'd just like to be the last person at this meeting to say 'fuck'.", "\"Ten years after Chapman's death, his ashes were first rumoured to have been \"blasted into the skies in a rocket\" with assistance from the Dangerous Sports Club.", "In a second rumour, Chapman's ashes had been scattered on the mountains of Snowdonia, Wales, where he had visited regularly as a climber." ], [ "Legacy", "Following Chapman's death, reformations of the Pythons have included an urn said to contain his ashes.", "At the 1998 Aspen Comedy Arts festival, the urn, brought onstage by a stiff English butler, was \"accidentally\" knocked over by Terry Gilliam, spilling the \"ashes\" on-stage.", "The apparently cremated remains were then removed with a DustBuster.", "Idle recalled meeting Sherlock, saying \"I wish he Chapman was here now\" and Sherlock replied \"Oh, but he is.", "He's in my pocket!", "\"Asteroid 9617 Grahamchapman, named in Chapman's honour, is one of six asteroids named after the Python members.In 1997, Sherlock allowed Jim Yoakum to start the \"Graham Chapman Archives\".", "Later that year, the novel ''Graham Crackers: Fuzzy Memories, Silly Bits, and Outright Lies'' was released.", "It is a semi-sequel to ''A Liar's Autobiography'', with Chapman's works compiled by Yoakum.", "A compendium of writings, ''Calcium Made Interesting: Sketches, Letters, Essays & Gondolas'', also compiled and edited by Yoakum, was published in 2005 in association with the David Sherlock and John Tomiczek trust.", "In 2000, Chapman's play ''O Happy Day'' was performed by Dad's Garage Theatre Company in Atlanta, Georgia, with the assistance of Cleese and Palin.", "In 2006, the album and DVD release ''Looks Like Another Brown Trouser Job'' came out, featuring a college lecture recorded in April 1988.In June 2011, it was announced that Cleese, Jones, Gilliam and Palin would perform in a 3D-animated version of Chapman's memoir ''A Liar's Autobiography: Volume VI''.", "Co-director Jeff Simpson worked closely with Chapman's estate and the surviving Python members to \"get this exactly right\".", "The film, titled ''A Liar's Autobiography: The Untrue Story of Monty Python's Graham Chapman'', was shown at the Toronto International Film Festival in September 2012 and premiered in the UK the following month as part of the BFI London Film Festival.", "The voices of Cleese, Gilliam, Jones and Palin were spliced into commentary recorded by Chapman reading from his memoir and taped shortly before his death.", "The film's official trailer quoted Chapman as saying, \"This is the best film I've been in since I died.", "\"In September 2012, a British Comedy Society blue plaque commemorating Chapman was unveiled at The Angel pub in Highgate by Jones, Palin, Barry Cryer, Ray Davies and Carol Cleveland.", "Palin said, \"Highgate was his patch, and he should be celebrated because he was a very good, brilliant, funny, nice, wise, kind man, who occasionally drank too much.", "\"In December 2014, a green plaque funded by Leicestershire County Council was placed on Chapman's former home in Burton Road, Melton Mowbray.", "A year later, a blue plaque at the entrance of Chapman's old school, King Edward VII School, was reported as stolen but was later found inside the building.", "In March 2017, the plaque was moved to Melton Mowbray town centre." ], [ "Filmography", "=== Film === Year Film Role Notes 1969 ''The Magic Christian'' Oxford Crew UncreditedAlso writer 1970 ''Doctor in Trouble'' Roddy ''The Rise and Rise of Michael Rimmer'' FromageAlso writer 1971 ''And Now for Something Completely Different'' Various roles ''The Statue'' News reader 1975 ''Monty Python and the Holy Grail'' King Arthur, various roles Also writer 1978 ''The Odd Job'' Arthur Harris Also writer/producer 1979 ''Monty Python's Life of Brian'' Brian, various rolesAlso writer 1982 ''Monty Python Live at the Hollywood Bowl''Various roles 1983 ''Monty Python's The Meaning of Life'' ''The Crimson Permanent Assurance'' Clerk Short filmUncredited ''Yellowbeard'' Captain Yellowbeard Also writer 1987 ''Still Crazy Like a Fox'' Detective Inspector Palmer TV film 1988 ''Jake's Journey'' Sir George/Queen TV filmAlso writer 1989 ''Stage Fright'' Smart Alec Uncredited 2012 ''A Liar's Autobiography: The Untrue Story of Monty Python's Graham Chapman'' Himself (Archive footage) Voice 2014 ''Monty Python Live (Mostly)'' The Colonel and other characters (archive footage) Also writer=== Television === Year Film Role Notes 1967 ''At Last the 1948 Show'' Various roles Also writer; 13 episodes 1967–1970 ''No – That's Me Over Here!''", "Man on Train Also creator; 1 episode 1968 ''Broaden Your Mind'' Various roles 1 episode 1969–1974 ''Monty Python's Flying Circus'' Various roles Also writer; 45 episodes 1972 ''Monty Python's Fliegender Zirkus'' Various roles 2 episodes 1976 ''Saturday Night Live'' Himself 1 episode 1976 ''Out of the Trees'' Various roles Also writer; 1 episode" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Graham Chapman at PythOnline Pythons Page* * * * * Graham Chapman at the BBC Comedy Guide* Graham Chapman at the Comedy Zone* Graham Chapman at Gay Greats" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gray whale" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''gray whale''' ('''''Eschrichtius robustus'''''), also known as the '''grey whale''', '''gray back whale''', '''Pacific gray whale''', '''Korean gray whale''', or '''California gray whale''', is a baleen whale that migrates between feeding and breeding grounds yearly.", "It reaches a length of , a weight of up to and lives between 55 and 70 years, although one female was estimated to be 75–80 years of age.", "The common name of the whale comes from the gray patches and white mottling on its dark skin.", "Gray whales were once called devil fish because of their fighting behavior when hunted.", "The gray whale is the sole living species in the genus ''Eschrichtius''.", "It is the sole living genus in the family Eschrichtiidae, however some recent studies classify it as a member of the family Balaenopteridae.", "This mammal is descended from filter-feeding whales that appeared during the Neogene.The gray whale is distributed in a Northeast Pacific (North American), and an endangered Northwest Pacific (Asian), population.", "North Atlantic populations were extirpated (perhaps by whaling) on the European coast before 500 CE, and on the American and African coast around the late 17th to early 18th centuries.", "However, in the 2010s there have been a number of sightings of gray whales in the Mediterranean Sea and even off Southern hemisphere Atlantic coasts." ], [ "Taxonomy", "Skeleton The gray whale is traditionally placed as the only living species in its genus and family, ''Eschrichtius'' and Eschrichtiidae, but an extinct species was discovered and placed in the genus in 2017, the Akishima whale (''E.", "akishimaensis'').", "Some recent studies place gray whales as being outside the rorqual clade, but as the closest relatives to the rorquals.", "But other recent DNA analyses have suggested that certain rorquals of the family Balaenopteridae, such as the humpback whale, ''Megaptera novaeangliae'', and fin whale, ''Balaenoptera physalus'', are more closely related to the gray whale than they are to some other rorquals, such as the minke whales.", "The American Society of Mammalogists has followed this classification.John Edward Gray placed it in its own genus in 1865, naming it in honour of physician and zoologist Daniel Frederik Eschricht.", "The common name of the whale comes from its coloration.", "The subfossil remains of now extinct gray whales from the Atlantic coasts of England and Sweden were used by Gray to make the first scientific description of a species then surviving only in Pacific waters.", "The living Pacific species was described by Cope as ''Rhachianectes glaucus'' in 1869.Skeletal comparisons showed the Pacific species to be identical to the Atlantic remains in the 1930s, and Gray's naming has been generally accepted since.", "Although identity between the Atlantic and Pacific populations cannot be proven by anatomical data, its skeleton is distinctive and easy to distinguish from that of all other living whales.Many other names have been ascribed to the gray whale, including desert whale, devilfish, gray back, mussel digger and rip sack.", "The name ''Eschrichtius gibbosus'' is sometimes seen; this is dependent on the acceptance of a 1777 description by Erxleben.=== Taxonomic history ===A number of 18th century authors described the gray whale as ''Balaena gibbosa'', the \"whale with six bosses\", apparently based on a brief note by :The gray whale was first described as a distinct species by based on a subfossil found in the brackish Baltic Sea, apparently a specimen from the now extinct north Atlantic population.", "Lilljeborg, however, identified it as \"''Balaenoptera robusta''\", a species of rorqual.", "realized that the rib and scapula of the specimen was different from those of any known rorquals, and therefore erected a new genus for it, ''Eschrichtius''.", "were convinced that the bones described by Lilljeborg could not belong to a living species but that they were similar to fossils that Van Beneden had described from the harbour of Antwerp (most of his named species are now considered nomina dubia) and therefore named the gray whale ''Plesiocetus robustus'', reducing Lilljeborg's and Gray's names to synonyms.Charles Melville Scammon produced one of the earliest descriptions of living Pacific gray whales, and notwithstanding that he was among the whalers who nearly drove them to extinction in the lagoons of the Baja California Peninsula, they were and still are associated with him and his description of the species.", "At this time, however, the extinct Atlantic population was considered a separate species (''Eschrischtius robustus'') from the living Pacific population (''Rhachianectes glaucus'').Things got increasingly confused as 19th century scientists introduced new species at an alarming rate (e.g.", "''Eschrichtius pusillus'', ''E.", "expansus'', ''E.", "priscus'', ''E.", "mysticetoides''), often based on fragmentary specimens, and taxonomists started to use several generic and specific names interchangeably and not always correctly (e.g.", "''Agalephus gobbosus'', ''Balaenoptera robustus'', ''Agalephus gibbosus'').", "Things got even worse in the 1930s when it was finally realised that the extinct Atlantic population was the same species as the extant Pacific population, and the new combination ''Eschrichtius gibbosus'' was proposed." ], [ "Description", "thumbThe gray whale has a dark slate-gray color and is covered by characteristic gray-white patterns, scars left by parasites which drop off in its cold feeding grounds.", "Individual whales are typically identified using photographs of their dorsal surface and matching the scars and patches associated with parasites that have fallen off the whale or are still attached.", "They have two blowholes on top of their head, which can create a distinctive heart-shaped blow at the surface in calm wind conditions.Gray whales measure from in length for newborns to for adults (females tend to be slightly larger than adult males).", "Newborns are a darker gray to black in color.", "A mature gray whale can reach , with a typical range of , making them the ninth largest sized species of cetacean.A close-up of a gray whale's double blow hole and some of its encrusted barnaclesNotable features that distinguish the gray whale from other mysticetes include its baleen that is variously described as cream, off-white, or blond in color and is unusually short.", "Small depressions on the upper jaw each contain a lone stiff hair, but are only visible on close inspection.", "Its head's ventral surface lacks the numerous prominent furrows of the related rorquals, instead bearing two to five shallow furrows on the throat's underside.", "The gray whale also lacks a dorsal fin, instead bearing 6 to 12 dorsal crenulations (\"knuckles\"), which are raised bumps on the midline of its rear quarter, leading to the flukes.", "This is known as the dorsal ridge.", "The tail itself is across and deeply notched at the center while its edges taper to a point.===Pacific groups===The two populations of Pacific gray whales (east and west) are morphologically and phylogenically different.", "Other than DNA structures, differences in proportions of several body parts and body colors including skeletal features, and length ratios of flippers and baleen plates have been confirmed between Eastern and Western populations, and some claims that the original eastern and western groups could have been much more distinct than previously thought, enough to be counted as subspecies.", "Since the original Asian and Atlantic populations have become extinct, it is difficult to determine the unique features among whales in these stocks.", "However, there have been observations of some whales showing distinctive, blackish body colors in recent years.", "This corresponds with the DNA analysis of last recorded stranding in China.", "Differences were also observed between Korean and Chinese specimens." ], [ "Populations", "===North Pacific===breachingGray whale spouting along shores of YachatsTwo Pacific Ocean populations are known to exist: one population that is very low, whose migratory route is presumed to be between the Sea of Okhotsk and southern Korea, and a larger one with a population of about 27,000 individuals in the eastern Pacific traveling between the waters off northernmost Alaska and Baja California Sur.", "Mothers make this journey accompanied by their calves, usually hugging the shore in shallow kelp beds, and fight viciously to protect their young if they are attacked, earning gray whales the moniker, devil fish.The western population has had a very slow growth rate despite heavy conservation action over the years, likely due to their very slow reproduction rate.", "The state of the population hit an all-time low in 2010, when no new reproductive females were recorded, resulting in a minimum of 26 reproductive females being observed since 1995.Even a very small number of additional annual female deaths will cause the subpopulation to decline.", "However, as of 2018, evidence has indicated that the western population is markedly increasing in number, especially off Sakhalin Island.", "Following this, the IUCN downlisted the population's conservation status from critically endangered to endangered.===North Atlantic===The gray whale became extinct in the North Atlantic in the 18th century.", "Other than speculations, large portions of historical characteristic of migration and distribution are unclear such as locations of calving grounds and existences of resident groups.They had been seasonal migrants to coastal waters of both sides of Atlantic, including the Baltic Sea, Wadden Sea, the Gulf of St. Lawrence, the Bay of Fundy, Hudson Bay (possibly), and Pamlico Sound.", "Radiocarbon dating of subfossil or fossil European (Belgium, the Netherlands, Sweden, the United Kingdom) coastal remains confirms this, with whaling the possible cause.", "Remains dating from the Roman epoch were found in the Mediterranean during excavation of the antique harbor of Lattara near Montpellier, France, in 1997, raising the question of whether Atlantic gray whales migrated up and down the coast of Europe from Wadden Sea to calve in the Mediterranean.", "A 2018 study utilizing ancient DNA barcoding and collagen peptide matrix fingerprinting confirmed that Roman era whale bones east of the Strait of Gibraltar were gray whales (and North Atlantic right whales), confirming that gray whales once ranged into the Mediterranean.", "Similarly, radiocarbon dating of American east coastal subfossil remains confirm that gray whales existed there at least through the 17th century.", "This population ranged at least from Southampton, New York, to Jupiter Island, Florida, the latest from 1675.In his 1835 history of Nantucket Island, Obed Macy wrote that in the early pre-1672 colony a whale of the kind called \"scragg\" entered the harbor and was pursued and killed by the settlers.", "A.", "B.", "Van Deinse points out that the \"scrag whale\", described by P. Dudley in 1725 as one of the species hunted by the early New England whalers, was almost certainly the gray whale.During the 2010s there have been rare sightings of gray whales in the North Atlantic Ocean or the connecting Mediterranean Sea, including one off the coast of Israel and one off the coast of Namibia.", "These apparently were migrants from the North Pacific population through the Arctic Ocean.", "A 2015 study of DNA from subfossil gray whales indicated that this may not be a historically unique event.", "That study suggested that over the past 100,000 years there have been several migrations of gray whales between the Pacific and Atlantic, with the most recent large scale migration of this sort occurring about 5000 years ago.", "These migrations corresponded to times of relatively high temperatures in the Arctic Ocean.", "In 2021, one individual was seen at Rabat, Morocco, followed by sightings at Algeria and Italy.===Prewhaling abundance===Researchers used a genetic approach to estimate pre-whaling abundance based on samples from 42 gray whales, and reported DNA variability at 10 genetic loci consistent with a population size of 76,000–118,000 individuals, three to five times larger than the average census size as measured through 2007.NOAA has collected surveys of gray whale population since at least the 1960s.", "They state that \"the most recent population estimate from 2007 was approximately 19,000 whales, with a high probability (88%) that the population is at 'optimum sustainable population' size, as defined by the Marine Mammal Protection Act.", "They speculate that the ocean ecosystem has likely changed since the prewhaling era, making a return to prewhaling numbers infeasible.", "Factors limiting or threatening current population levels include ship strikes, entanglement in fishing gear, and changes in sea-ice coverage associated with climate change.===Integration and recolonization===Calf with mouth open showing baleen, AlaskaSeveral whales seen off Sakhalin and on Kamchatka Peninsula have been confirmed to migrate towards eastern side of Pacific and join the larger eastern population.", "In January 2011, a gray whale that had been tagged in the western population was tracked as far east as the eastern population range off the coast of British Columbia.", "Recent findings from either stranded or entangled specimens indicate that the original western population have become functionally extinct, and possibly all the whales that have appeared on Japanese and Chinese coasts in modern times are vagrants or re-colonizers from the eastern population.In mid-1980, there were three gray whale sightings in the eastern Beaufort Sea, placing them further east than their known range at the time.", "Recent increases in sightings are confirmed in Arctic areas of the historic range for Atlantic stocks, most notably on several locations in the Laptev Sea including the New Siberian Islands in the East Siberian Sea, and around the marine mammal sanctuary of the Franz Josef Land, indicating possible earlier pioneers of re-colonizations.", "These whales were darker in body color than those whales seen in Sea of Okhotsk.", "In May 2010, a gray whale was sighted off the Mediterranean shore of Israel.", "It has been speculated that this whale crossed from the Pacific to the Atlantic via the Northwest Passage, since an alternative route around Cape Horn would not be contiguous to the whale's established territory.", "There has been gradual melting and recession of Arctic sea ice with extreme loss in 2007 rendering the Northwest Passage \"fully navigable\".", "The same whale was sighted again on May 30, 2010, off the coast of Barcelona, Spain.In May 2013, a gray whale was sighted off Walvis Bay, Namibia.", "Scientists from the Namibian Dolphin Project confirmed the whale's identity and thus provides the only sighting of this species in the Southern Hemisphere.", "Photographic identification suggests that this is a different individual than the one spotted in the Mediterranean in 2010.As of July 2013, the Namibian whale was still being seen regularly.In March 2021, a gray whale was sighted near Rabat, the capital of Morocco.", "In April, additional sightings were made off Algeria and Italy.In December 2023, a gray whale was sighted off Sunny Isles Beach, Florida.Genetic analysis of fossil and prefossil gray whale remains in the Atlantic Ocean suggests several waves of dispersal from the Pacific to the Atlantic related to successive periods of climactic warming – during the Pleistocene before the last glacial period and the early Holocene immediately following the opening of the Bering Strait.", "This information and the recent sightings of Pacific gray whales in the Atlantic, suggest that another range expansion to the Atlantic may be starting." ], [ "Life history", "A whale swims off the coast near the Santa Monica Mountains.===Reproduction===Embryos of gray whale (1874 illustration) and outline of head showing spoutholeBreeding behavior is complex and often involves three or more animals.", "Both male and female whales reach puberty between the ages of 6 and 12 with an average of eight to nine years.", "Females show highly synchronized reproduction, undergoing oestrus in late November to early December.", "During the breeding season, it is common for females to have several mates.", "This single ovulation event is believed to coincide with the species' annual migration patterns, when births can occur in warmer waters.", "Most females show biennial reproduction, although annual births have been reported.", "Males also show seasonal changes, experiencing an increase in testes mass that correlates with the time females undergo oestrus.", "Currently there are no accounts of twin births, although an instance of twins ''in utero'' has been reported.The gestation period for gray whales is approximately 13  months, with females giving birth every one to three years.", "In the latter half of the pregnancy, the fetus experiences a rapid growth in length and mass.", "Similar to the narrow breeding season, most calves are born within a six-week time period in mid January.", "The calf is born tail first, and measures about 14–16 ft in length, and a weight of 2,000 lbs.", "Females lactate for approximately seven months following birth, at which point calves are weaned and maternal care begins to decrease.", "The shallow lagoon waters in which gray whales reproduce are believed to protect the newborn from sharks and orcas.On 7 January 2014, a pair of newborn or aborted conjoined twin gray whale calves were found dead in the Laguna Ojo de Liebre (Scammon's Lagoon), off the west coast of Mexico.", "They were joined by their bellies.===Feeding===Santa Barbara, CaliforniaThe whale feeds mainly on benthic crustaceans (such as amphipods and ghost shrimp), which it eats by turning on its side and scooping up sediments from the sea floor.", "This unique feeding selection makes gray whales one of the most strongly reliant on coastal waters among baleen whales.", "It is classified as a baleen whale and has baleen, or whalebone, which acts like a sieve, to capture small sea animals, including amphipods taken in along with sand, water and other material.", "Off Vancouver Island, gray whales commonly feed on shrimp-like mysids.", "When mysids are abundant gray whales are present in fairly large numbers.", "Despite mysids being a prey of choice, gray whales are opportunistic feeders and can easily switch from feeding planktonically to benthically.", "When gray whales feed planktonically, they roll onto their right side while their fluke remains above the surface, or they apply the skimming method seen in other baleen whales (skimming the surface with their mouth open).", "This skimming behavior mainly seems to be used when gray whales are feeding on crab larvae.", "Other prey items include polychaete worms, herring eggs, various forms of larvae, and small fish.", "Gray whales feed benthically, by diving to the ocean floor and rolling on to their side, (gray whales, like blue whales seem to favor rolling onto their right side) and suck up prey from the sea floor.", "Gray whales seem to favor feeding planktonically in their feeding grounds, but benthically along their migration route in shallower water.", "Mostly, the animal feeds in the northern waters during the summer; and opportunistically feeds during its migration, depending primarily on its extensive fat reserves.", "Another reason for this opportunistic feeding may be the result of population increases, resulting in the whales taking advantage of whatever prey is available, due to increased competition.", "Feeding areas during migration seem to include the Gulf of California, Monterey Bay and Baja California Sur.", "Calf gray whales drink of their mothers' 53% fat milk per day.The main feeding habitat of the western Pacific subpopulation is the shallow ( depth) shelf off northeastern Sakhalin Island, particularly off the southern portion of Piltun Lagoon, where the main prey species appear to be amphipods and isopods.", "In some years, the whales have also used an offshore feeding ground in depth southeast of Chayvo Bay, where benthic amphipods and cumaceans are the main prey species.", "Some gray whales have also been seen off western Kamchatka, but to date all whales photographed there are also known from the Piltun area.1200pxDiagram of the gray whale seafloor feeding strategyA gray whale feeding near Yaquina Head, OregonA gray whale viewed from above===Migration===Predicted distribution models indicate that overall range in the last glacial period was broader or more southerly distributed, and inhabitations in waters where species presences lack in present situation, such as in southern hemisphere and south Asian waters and northern Indian Ocean were possible due to feasibility of the environment on those days.", "Range expansions due to recoveries and re-colonization in the future is likely to be happen and the predicted range covers wider than that of today.", "The gray whale undergoes the longest migration of any mammal.====Eastern Pacific population====A gray whale breaching in a lagoon on the coast of MexicoEach October, as the northern ice pushes southward, small groups of eastern gray whales in the eastern Pacific start a two- to three-month, trip south.", "Beginning in the Bering and Chukchi seas and ending in the warm-water lagoons of Mexico's Baja California Peninsula and the southern Gulf of California, they travel along the west coast of Canada, the United States and Mexico.Traveling night and day, the gray whale averages approximately per day at an average speed of .", "This round trip of is believed to be the longest annual migration of any mammal.", "By mid-December to early January, the majority are usually found between Monterey and San Diego such as at Morro bay, often visible from shore.", "The whale watching industry provides ecotourists and marine mammal enthusiasts the opportunity to see groups of gray whales as they migrate.By late December to early January, eastern grays begin to arrive in the calving lagoons and bays on the west coast of Baja California Sur.", "The three most popular are San Ignacio, Magdalena Bay to the south, and, to the north, Laguna Ojo de Liebre (formerly known in English as Scammon's Lagoon after whaleman Charles Melville Scammon, who discovered the lagoons in the 1850s and hunted the grays).Gray whales once ranged into Sea of Cortez and Pacific coasts of continental Mexico south to the Islas Marías, Bahía de Banderas, and Nayarit/Jalisco, and there were two modern calving grounds in Sonora (Tojahui or Yavaros) and Sinaloa (Bahia Santa Maria, Bahia Navachiste, La Reforma, Bahia Altata) until being abandoned in the 1980s.These first whales to arrive are usually pregnant mothers looking for the protection of the lagoons to bear their calves, along with single females seeking mates.", "By mid-February to mid-March, the bulk of the population has arrived in the lagoons, filling them with nursing, calving and mating gray whales.Throughout February and March, the first to leave the lagoons are males and females without new calves.", "Pregnant females and nursing mothers with their newborns are the last to depart, leaving only when their calves are ready for the journey, which is usually from late March to mid-April.", "Often, a few mothers linger with their young calves well into May.", "Whale watching in Baja's lagoons is particularly popular because the whales often come close enough to boats for tourists to pet them.By late March or early April, the returning animals can be seen from Puget Sound to Canada.=====Resident groups=====A gray whale swims near surf on Nootka Island within residential range.A population of about 200 gray whales stay along the eastern Pacific coast from Canada to California throughout the summer, not making the farther trip to Alaskan waters.", "This summer resident group is known as the Pacific Coast feeding group.Any historical or current presence of similar groups of residents among the western population is currently unknown, however, whalers' logbooks and scientific observations indicate that possible year-round occurrences in Chinese waters and Yellow and Bohai basins were likely to be summering grounds.", "Some of the better documented historical catches show that it was common for whales to stay for months in enclosed waters elsewhere, with known records in the Seto Inland Sea and the Gulf of Tosa.", "Former feeding areas were once spread over large portions on mid-Honshu to northern Hokkaido, and at least whales were recorded for majority of annual seasons including wintering periods at least along east coasts of Korean Peninsula and Yamaguchi Prefecture.", "Some recent observations indicate that historic presences of resident whales are possible: a group of two or three were observed feeding in Izu Ōshima in 1994 for almost a month, two single individuals stayed in Ise Bay for almost two months in the 1980s and in 2012, the first confirmed living individuals in Japanese EEZ in the Sea of Japan and the first of living cow-calf pairs since the end of whaling stayed for about three weeks on the coastline of Teradomari in 2014.One of the pair returned to the same coasts at the same time of the year in 2015 again.", "Reviewing on other cases on different locations among Japanese coasts and islands observed during 2015 indicate that spatial or seasonal residencies regardless of being temporal or permanental staying once occurred throughout many parts of Japan or on other coastal Asia.====Western population====Gray and other whales were depicted on the Bangudae Petroglyphs, indicating their historical presences along Korean Peninsula.A gray whale in the water off Sakhalin Island.The current western gray whale population summers in the Sea of Okhotsk, mainly off Piltun Bay region at the northeastern coast of Sakhalin Island (Russian Federation).", "There are also occasional sightings off the eastern coast of Kamchatka (Russian Federation) and in other coastal waters of the northern Okhotsk Sea.", "Its migration routes and wintering grounds are poorly known, the only recent information being from occasional records on both the eastern and western coasts of Japan and along the Chinese coast.", "Gray whale had not been observed on Commander Islands until 2016.The northwestern pacific population consists of approximately 300 individuals, based on photo identification collected off of Sakhalin Island and Kamchatka.The Sea of Japan was once thought not to have been a migration route, until several entanglements were recorded.", "Any records of the species had not been confirmed since after 1921 on Kyushu.", "However, there were numerous records of whales along the Genkai Sea off Yamaguchi Prefecture, in Ine Bay in the Gulf of Wakasa, and in Tsushima.", "Gray whales, along with other species such as right whales and Baird's beaked whales, were common features off the north eastern coast of Hokkaido near Teshio, Ishikari Bay near Otaru, the Shakotan Peninsula, and islands in the La Pérouse Strait such as Rebun Island and Rishiri Island.", "These areas may also have included feeding grounds.", "There are shallow, muddy areas favorable for feeding whales off Shiretoko, such as at Shibetsu, the Notsuke Peninsula, Cape Ochiishi on Nemuro Peninsula, Mutsu Bay, along the Tottori Sand Dunes, in the Suou-nada Sea, and Ōmura Bay.The historical calving grounds were unknown but might have been along southern Chinese coasts from Zhejiang and Fujian Province to Guangdong, especially south of Hailing Island and to near Hong Kong.", "Possibilities include Daya Bay, Wailou Harbour on Leizhou Peninsula, and possibly as far south as Hainan Province and Guangxi, particularly around Hainan Island.", "These areas are at the southwestern end of the known range.", "It is unknown whether the whales' normal range once reached further south, to the Gulf of Tonkin.", "In addition, the existence of historical calving ground on Taiwan and Penghu Islands (with some fossil records and captures), and any presence in other areas outside of the known ranges off Babuyan Islands in Philippines and coastal Vietnamese waters in Gulf of Tonkin are unknown.", "There is only one confirmed record of accidentally killing of the species in Vietnam, at Ngoc Vung Island off Ha Long Bay in 1994 and the skeleton is on exhibition at the Quang Ninh Provincial Historical Museum.", "Gray whales are known to occur in Taiwan Strait even in recent years.It is also unknown whether any winter breeding grounds ever existed beyond Chinese coasts.", "For example, it is not known if the whales visited the southern coasts of the Korean Peninsula, adjacent to the Island of Jeju), Haiyang Island, the Gulf of Shanghai, or the Zhoushan Archipelago.", "There is no evidence of historical presence in Japan south of Ōsumi Peninsula; only one skeleton has been discovered in Miyazaki Prefecture.", "once considered the Seto Inland Sea to be a historical breeding ground, but only a handful of capture records support this idea, although migrations into the sea have been confirmed.", "Recent studies using genetics and acoustics, suggest that there are several wintering sites for western gray whales such as Mexico and the East China sea.", "However, their wintering ground habits in the western North Pacific are still poorly understood and additional research is needed.====Recent migration in Asian waters====Gray whale at Aogashima, Izu Islands in March, 2017.Even though South Korea put the most effort into conservation of the species among the Asian nations, there are no confirmed sightings along the Korean Peninsula or even in the Sea of Japan in recent years.The last confirmed record in Korean waters was the sighting of a pair off Bangeojin, Ulsan in 1977.Prior to this, the last was of catches of 5 animals off Ulsan in 1966.There was a possible sighting of a whale within the port of Samcheok in 2015.There had been 24 records along Chinese coasts including sighting, stranding, intended hunts, and bycatches since 1933.The last report of occurrence of the species in Chinese waters was of a stranded semi adult female in the Bohai Sea in 1996, and the only record in Chinese waters in the 21st century was of a fully-grown female being killed by entanglement in Pingtan, China in November, 2007.DNA studies indicated that this individual might have originated from the eastern population rather than the western.Most notable observations of living whales after the 1980s were of 17 or 18 whales along Primorsky Krai in late October, 1989 (prior to this, a pair was reported swimming in the area in 1987), followed by the record of 14 whales in La Pérouse Strait on 13th, June in 1982 (in this strait, there was another sighting of a pair in October, 1987).", "In 2011, presences of gray whales were acoustically detected among pelagic waters in East China Sea between Chinese and Japanese waters.Since the mid-1990s, almost all the confirmed records of living animals in Asian waters were from Japanese coasts.", "There have been eight to fifteen sightings and stray records including unconfirmed sightings and re-sightings of the same individual, and one later killed by net-entanglement.", "The most notable of these observations are listed below:* The feeding activities of a group of two or three whales that stayed around Izu Ōshima in 1994 for almost a month were recorded underwater by several researchers and whale photographers.", "* A pair of thin juveniles were sighted off Kuroshio, Kōchi, a renowned town for whale-watching tourism of resident and sub-resident populations of Bryde's whales, in 1997.This sighting was unusual because of the location on mid-latitude in summer time.", "* Another pair of sub-adults were confirmed swimming near the mouth of Otani River in Suruga Bay in May, 2003.", "* A sub-adult whale that stayed in the Ise and Mikawa Bay for nearly two months in 2012 was later confirmed to be the same individual as the small whale observed off Tahara near Cape Irago in 2010, making it the first confirmed constant migration out of Russian waters.", "The juvenile observed off Owase in Kumanonada Sea in 2009 might or might not be the same individual.", "The Ise and Mikawa Bay region is the only location along Japanese coasts that has several records since the 1980s (a mortal entanglement in 1968, above mentioned short-stay in 1982, self-freeing entanglement in 2005), and is also the location where the first commercial whaling started.", "Other areas with several sighting or stranding records in recent years are off the Kumanonada Sea in Wakayama, off Oshika Peninsula in Tōhoku, and on coastlines close to Tomakomai, Hokkaido.", "* Possibly the first confirmed record of living animals in Japanese waters in the Sea of Japan since the end of whaling occurred on 3 April 2014 at Nodumi Beach, Teradomari, Niigata.", "Two individuals, measuring ten and five metres respectively, stayed near the mouth of Shinano River for three weeks.", "It is unknown whether this was a cow-calf pair, which would have been a first record in Asia.", "All of the previous modern records in the Sea of Japan were of by-catches.", "* One of the above pair returned on the same beaches at the same time of a year in 2015.", "*A juvenile or possibly or not with another larger individual remained in Japanese waters between January or March and May 2015.It was first confirmed occurrences of the species on remote, oceanic islands in Japan.", "One or more visited waters firstly on Kōzu-shima and Nii-Jima for weeks then adjacent to Miho no Matsubara and behind the Tokai University campus for several weeks.", "Possibly the same individual was seen off Futo as well.", "This later was identified as the same individual previously recorded on Sakhalin in 2014, the first re-recording one individual at different Asian locations.", "* A young whale was observed by land-based fishermen at Cape Irago in March, 2015.", "* One of the above pair appeared in 2015 off southeastern Japan and then reappeared off Tateyama in January, 2016.The identity of this whale was confirmed by Nana Takanawa who photographed the same whale on Niijima in 2015.Likely the same individual was sighted off Futo and half an hour later off Akazawa beach in Itō, Shizuoka on the 14th.", "The whale then stayed next to a pier on Miyake-jima and later at Habushi beach on Niijima, the same beach the same individual stayed near on the previous year.", "* One whale of was beached nearby Wadaura on March 4, 2016.Investigations on the corpse indicate that this was likely a different individual from the above animal.", "* A carcass of young female was firstly reported floating along Atami on 4 April then was washed ashore on Ito on the 6th.", "* As of April 20, 2017, one or more whale(s) have been staying within Tokyo Bay since February although at one point another whale if or if not the same individual sighted off Hayama, Kanagawa.", "It is unclear the exact number of whales included in these sightings; two whales reported by fishermen and Japanese coastal guard reported three whales on 20th or 21st." ], [ "Whaling", "===North Pacific===Charles Melville Scammon's 1874 illustration of a gray whale====Eastern population====Humans and orcas are the adult gray whale's only predators, although orcas are the more prominent predator.", "Aboriginal hunters, including those on Vancouver Island and the Makah in Washington, have hunted gray whales.Commercial whaling by Europeans of the species in the North Pacific began in the winter of 1845–46, when two United States ships, the ''Hibernia'' and the ''United States'', under Captains Smith and Stevens, caught 32 in Magdalena Bay.", "More ships followed in the two following winters, after which gray whaling in the bay was nearly abandoned because \"of the inferior quality and low price of the dark-colored gray whale oil, the low quality and quantity of whalebone from the gray, and the dangers of lagoon whaling.", "\"Gray whaling in Magdalena Bay was revived in the winter of 1855–56 by several vessels, mainly from San Francisco, including the ship ''Leonore'', under Captain Charles Melville Scammon.", "This was the first of 11 winters from 1855 through 1865 known as the \"bonanza period\", during which gray whaling along the coast of Baja California reached its peak.", "Not only were the whales taken in Magdalena Bay, but also by ships anchored along the coast from San Diego south to Cabo San Lucas and from whaling stations from Crescent City in northern California south to San Ignacio Lagoon.", "During the same period, vessels targeting right and bowhead whales in the Gulf of Alaska, Sea of Okhotsk, and the Western Arctic would take the odd gray whale if neither of the more desirable two species were in sight.In December 1857, Charles Scammon, in the brig ''Boston'', along with his schooner-tender ''Marin'', entered Laguna Ojo de Liebre (Jack-Rabbit Spring Lagoon) or later known as Scammon's Lagoon (by 1860) and found one of the gray's last refuges.", "He caught 20 whales.", "He returned the following winter (1858–59) with the bark ''Ocean Bird'' and schooner tenders ''A.M.", "Simpson'' and ''Kate''.", "In three months, he caught 47 cows, yielding of oil.", "In the winter of 1859–60, Scammon, again in the bark ''Ocean Bird'', along with several other vessels, entered San Ignacio Lagoon to the south where he discovered the last breeding lagoon.", "Within only a couple of seasons, the lagoon was nearly devoid of whales.Between 1846 and 1874, an estimated 8,000 gray whales were killed by American and European whalemen, with over half having been killed in the Magdalena Bay complex (Estero Santo Domingo, Magdalena Bay itself, and Almejas Bay) and by shore whalemen in California and Baja California.Spyhopping off the Alaskan coastA second, shorter, and less intensive hunt occurred for gray whales in the eastern North Pacific.", "Only a few were caught from two whaling stations on the coast of California from 1919 to 1926, and a single station in Washington (1911–21) accounted for the capture of another.", "For the entire west coast of North America for the years 1919 to 1929, 234 gray whales were caught.", "Only a dozen or so were taken by British Columbian stations, nearly all of them in 1953 at Coal Harbour.", "A whaling station in Richmond, California, caught 311 gray whales for \"scientific purposes\" between 1964 and 1969.From 1961 to 1972, the Soviet Union caught 138 gray whales (they originally reported not having taken any).", "The only other significant catch was made in two seasons by the steam-schooner ''California'' off Malibu, California.", "In the winters of 1934–35 and 1935–36, the ''California'' anchored off Point Dume in Paradise Cove, processing gray whales.", "In 1936, gray whales became protected in the United States.====Western population====The Japanese began to catch gray whales beginning in the 1570s.", "At Kawajiri, Nagato, 169 gray whales were caught between 1698 and 1889.At Tsuro, Shikoku, 201 were taken between 1849 and 1896.Several hundred more were probably caught by American and European whalemen in the Sea of Okhotsk from the 1840s to the early 20th century.", "Whalemen caught 44 with nets in Japan during the 1890s.", "The real damage was done between 1911 and 1933, when Japanese whalemen killed 1,449 after Japanese companies established several whaling stations on Korean Peninsula and on Chinese coast such as near the Daya bay and on Hainan Island.", "By 1934, the western gray whale was near extinction.", "From 1891 to 1966, an estimated 1,800–2,000 gray whales were caught, with peak catches of between 100 and 200 annually occurring in the 1910s.As of 2001, the Californian gray whale population had grown to about 26,000.As of 2016, the population of western Pacific (seas near Korea, Japan, and Kamchatka) gray whales was an estimated 200.===North Atlantic===The North Atlantic population may have been hunted to extinction in the 18th century.", "Circumstantial evidence indicates whaling could have contributed to this population's decline, as the increase in whaling activity in the 17th and 18th centuries coincided with the population's disappearance.", "A.", "B.", "Van Deinse points out the \"scrag whale\", described by P. Dudley in 1725, as one target of early New England whalers, was almost certainly the gray whale.", "In his 1835 history of Nantucket Island, Obed Macy wrote that in the early pre-1672 colony, a whale of the kind called \"scragg\" entered the harbor and was pursued and killed by the settlers.", "Gray whales (Icelandic ''sandlægja'') were described in Iceland in the early 17th century.", "Formations of commercial whaling among the Mediterranean basin(s) have been considered to be feasible as well." ], [ "Conservation", "Joint American-Russian freeing effort of whales entrapped by ice floe in Beaufort Sea.Gray whales have been granted protection from commercial hunting by the International Whaling Commission (IWC) since 1949, and are no longer hunted on a large scale.Limited hunting of gray whales has continued since that time, however, primarily in the Chukotka region of northeastern Russia, where large numbers of gray whales spend the summer months.", "This hunt has been allowed under an \"aboriginal/subsistence whaling\" exception to the commercial-hunting ban.", "Anti-whaling groups have protested the hunt, saying the meat from the whales is not for traditional native consumption, but is used instead to feed animals in government-run fur farms; they cite annual catch numbers that rose dramatically during the 1940s, at the time when state-run fur farms were being established in the region.", "Although the Soviet government denied these charges as recently as 1987, in recent years the Russian government has acknowledged the practice.", "The Russian IWC delegation has said that the hunt is justified under the aboriginal/subsistence exemption, since the fur farms provide a necessary economic base for the region's native population.Currently, the annual quota for the gray whale catch in the region is 140 per year.", "Pursuant to an agreement between the United States and Russia, the Makah tribe of Washington claimed four whales from the IWC quota established at the 1997 meeting.", "With the exception of a single gray whale killed in 1999, the Makah people have been prevented from hunting by a series of legal challenges, culminating in a United States federal appeals court decision in December 2002 that required the National Marine Fisheries Service to prepare an Environmental Impact Statement.", "On September 8, 2007, five members of the Makah tribe shot a gray whale using high-powered rifles in spite of the decision.", "The whale died within 12 hours, sinking while heading out to sea.As of 2018, the IUCN regards the gray whale as being of ''least concern'' from a conservation perspective.", "However, the specific subpopulation in the northwest Pacific is regarded as being ''critically endangered''.", "The northwest Pacific population is also listed as endangered by the U.S. government's National Marine Fisheries Service under the U.S.", "Endangered Species Act.", "The IWC Bowhead, Right and Gray Whale subcommittee in 2011 reiterated the conservation risk to western gray whales is large because of the small size of the population and the potential anthropogenic impacts.Gray whale migrations off of the Pacific Coast were observed, initially, by Marineland of the Pacific in Palos Verdes, California.", "The Gray Whale Census, an official gray whale migration census that has been recording data on the migration of the Pacific gray whale has been keeping track of the population of the Pacific gray whale since 1985.This census is the longest running census of the Pacific gray whale.", "Census keepers volunteer from December 1 through May, from sun up to sun down, seven days a week, keeping track of the amount of gray whales migrating through the area off of Los Angeles.", "Information from this census is listed through the American Cetacean Society of Los Angeles (ACSLA).South Korea and China list gray whales as protected species of high concern.", "In South Korea, the was registered as the 126th national monument in 1962, although illegal hunts have taken place thereafter, and there have been no recent sightings of the species in Korean waters.===Rewilding proposal===In 2005, two conservation biologists proposed a plan to airlift 50 gray whales from the Pacific Ocean to the Atlantic Ocean.", "They reasoned that, as Californian gray whales had replenished to a suitable population, surplus whales could be transported to repopulate the extinct British population.", "this plan has not been undertaken." ], [ "Threats", "According to the Government of Canada's Management Plan for gray whales, threats to the eastern North Pacific population of gray whales include: increased human activities in their breeding lagoons in Mexico, climate change, acute noise, toxic spills, aboriginal whaling, entanglement with fishing gear, boat collisions, and possible impacts from fossil fuel exploration and extraction.Western gray whales are facing large-scale offshore oil and gas development programs near their summer feeding grounds, as well as fatal net entrapments off Japan during migration, which pose significant threats to the future survival of the population.", "The substantial nearshore industrialization and shipping congestion throughout the migratory corridors of the western gray whale population represent potential threats by increasing the likelihood of exposure to ship strikes, chemical pollution, and general disturbance.Offshore gas and oil development in the Okhotsk Sea within of the primary feeding ground off northeast Sakhalin Island is of particular concern.", "Activities related to oil and gas exploration, including geophysical seismic surveying, pipelaying and drilling operations, increased vessel traffic, and oil spills, all pose potential threats to western gray whales.", "Disturbance from underwater industrial noise may displace whales from critical feeding habitat.", "Physical habitat damage from drilling and dredging operations, combined with possible impacts of oil and chemical spills on benthic prey communities also warrants concern.", "The western gray whale population is considered to be endangered according to IUCN standards.Along Japanese coasts, four females including a cow-calf pair were trapped and killed in nets in the 2000s.", "There had been a record of dead whale thought to be harpooned by dolphin-hunters found on Hokkaido in the 1990s.", "Meats for sale were also discovered in Japanese markets as well.2019 has had a record number of gray whale strandings and deaths, with 122 strandings in United States waters and 214 in Canadian waters.", "The cause of death in some specimens appears to be related to poor nutritional condition.", "It is hypothesized that some of these strandings are related to changes in prey abundance or quality in the Arctic feeding grounds, resulting in poor feeding.", "Some scientists suggest that the lack of sea ice has been preventing the fertilization of amphipods, a main source of food for gray whales, so that they have been hunting krill instead, which is far less nutritious.", "More research needs to be conducted to understand this issue.A recent study provides some evidence that solar activity is correlated to gray whale strandings.", "When there was a high prevalence of sunspots, gray whales were five times more likely to strand.", "A possible explanation for this phenomenon is that solar storms release a large amount of electromagnetic radiation, which disrupts Earth's magnetic field and/or the whale's ability to analyze it.", "This may apply to the other species of cetaceans, such as sperm whales.", "However, there is not enough evidence to suggest that whales navigate through the use of magnetoreception (an organism's ability to sense a magnetic field).Orcas are \"a prime predator of gray whale calves.\"", "Typically three to four orcas ram a calf from beneath in order to separate it from its mother, who defends it.", "Humpback whales have been observed defending gray whale calves from orcas.", "Orcas will often arrive in Monterey Bay to intercept gray whales during their northbound migration, targeting females migrating with newborn calves.", "They will separate the calf from the mother and hold the calf under water to drown it.", "The tactic of holding whales under water to drown them is certainly used by orcas on adult gray whales as well.", "It is roughly estimated that 33% of the gray whales born in a given year might be killed by predation." ], [ "Captivity", "A gray whale in captivityBecause of their size and need to migrate, gray whales have rarely been held in captivity, and then only for brief periods of time.", "The first captive gray whale, who was captured in Scammon's Lagoon, Baja California in 1965, was named Gigi and died two months later from an infection.", "The second gray whale, who was captured in 1972 from the same lagoon, was named Gigi II and was released a year later after becoming too large for the facilities.", "The third gray whale, J.J., first beached herself in Marina del Rey, California where she was rushed to SeaWorld San Diego.", "After 14 months, she was released because she also grew too large to be cared for in the existing facilities.", "At and when she was released, J.J. was the largest marine mammal ever to be kept in captivity." ], [ "See also", "*Gray Whale Cove State Beach*Gray Whale Ranch*List of cetaceans" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* * * * *** * * **" ], [ "Further reading", "****" ], [ "External links", "* US National Marine Fisheries Service Gray Whale web page** Arkive – images & video of gray whale* Society for Marine Mammalogy – Gray Whale Species Account* * Voices in the Sea – Sounds of the Gray Whale" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Jinn" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jinn''' (, '''') – also romanized as '''djinn''' or anglicized as '''genies''' – are invisible creatures in early religion in pre-Islamic Arabia and later in Islamic culture and beliefs.Like humans, they are accountable for their deeds and can be either believers (Muslims) or disbelievers (''kafir''), depending on whether they accept God's guidance.", "Since jinn are neither innately evil nor innately good, Islam acknowledged spirits from other religions and was able to adapt them during its expansion.", "Jinn are not a strictly Islamic concept; they may represent several pagan beliefs integrated into Islam.", "To assert a strict monotheism and the Islamic concept of ''tawhid'' (oneness of God), Islam denies all affinities between the jinn and God, thus placing the jinn parallel to humans, also subject to God's judgment and afterlife.", "The Quran condemns the pre-Islamic Arabian practice of worshipping or seeking protection from them.Although generally invisible, jinn are supposed to be composed of thin and subtle bodies (), and can change at will.", "They favour a snake form, but can also choose to appear as scorpions, lizards, or as humans.", "They may even engage in sexual affairs with humans and produce offspring.", "If they are injured by someone, they usually seek revenge or possess the assailant's body, refusing to leave it until forced to do so by exorcism.", "Jinn do not usually meddle in human affairs, preferring to live with their own kind in tribes similar to those of pre-Islamic Arabia.Individual jinn appear on charms and talismans.", "They are called upon for protection or magical aid, often under the leadership of a king.", "Many people who believe in jinn wear amulets to protect themselves against the assaults of jinn, sent out by sorcerers and witches.", "A commonly-held belief maintains that jinn cannot hurt someone who wears something with the name of God written upon it.", "While some Muslim scholars in the past had ambivalent attitudes towards jinn, contemporary Muslim scholarship increasingly associate jinn with idolatry." ], [ "Etymology and translation", "The winged genie in the bucket and cone motif, depicting a demi-divine entity, probably a forerunner of the pre-Islamic tutelary deities, who became the jinn in Islam.", "Relief from the north wall of the Palace of king Sargon II at Dur Sharrukin, 713–716 BCE.", "''Jinn'' is an Arabic collective noun deriving from the Semitic root (, ''jann''), whose primary meaning is 'to hide' or 'to adapt'.", "Some authors interpret the word to mean, literally, 'beings that are concealed from the senses'.", "Cognates include the Arabic '''' (, 'possessed' or, generally, 'insane'), '''' (, 'garden', 'eden' or 'heaven'), and '''' (, 'embryo').", "''Jinn'' is properly treated as a plural (however in Classical Arabic, may also appear as ''jānn'', ), with the singular being ''jinnī'' ().The origin of the word ''jinn'' remains uncertain.", "Some scholars relate the Arabic term ''jinn'' to the Latin ''genius'' – a guardian spirit of people and places in Roman religion – as a result of syncretism during the reign of the Roman empire under Tiberius and Augustus; however, this derivation is also disputed.", "Supporters argue that both Roman genii as well as Arabian jinn are considered to be lesser deities inhabiting local sanctuaries, trees or springs, and persons or families.", "Aramaic ''ginnaya'' () with the meaning of 'tutelary deity' or 'guardian' are attributed to similar functions and are another possible origin of the term ''jinn''.Another suggestion holds that the word is of Persian origin and appeared in the form of the Avestic ''Jaini'', a wicked (female) spirit.", "Jaini were among various creatures in the possibly even pre-Zoroastrian mythology of peoples of Iran.", "Wensick advocates a purely Arabic origin of the term, asserting that according to the common Semitic view psychic and bodily affections are caused by spirits.", "An object reacting upon such an affect would be an incarnation of said spirit.", "Since these spirits are covered from the sight of humans, they would have been called jinn.The anglicized form ''genie'' is a borrowing of the French '''', also from the Latin ''genius''.", "It first appeared in 18th-century translations of the ''Thousand and One Nights'' from the French, where it had been used owing to its rough similarity in sound and sense and further applies to benevolent intermediary spirits, in contrast to the malevolent spirits called 'demon' and 'heavenly angels', in literature.", "In Assyrian art, creatures ontologically between humans and divinities are also called ''genie''.Though not a precise fit, descriptive analogies that have been used for these beings in Western thought include ''demon'', ''spirit'' and ''fairy'', depending on source.", "In turn, the Arabic translation for the Greek Nymph ('''arūsa'') is also used for jinn by Middle Eastern sources.", "Although the term ''spirit'' is frequently used, it has been criticised for not capturing the corporeal nature of the jinn, and that the term ''genie'' should be used instead." ], [ "Pre-Islamic era", "Sinai desert cobra.", "Snakes are the animals most frequently associated with jinn.", "Black snakes are commonly believed to be evil jinn, whereas white snakes are held to be benign (Muslim) jinn.The exact origins of belief in jinn are not entirely clear.", "Belief in jinn in the pre-Islamic Arab religion is testified not only by the Quran, but also by pre-Islamic literature in the seventh century.", "Some scholars of the Middle East hold that they originated as malevolent spirits residing in deserts and unclean places, who often took the forms of animals; others hold that they were originally pagan nature deities who gradually became marginalized as other deities took greater importance.=== Fear and veneration ===Jinn were already worshipped by many Arabs during the Pre-Islamic period.", "Julius Wellhausen observed that jinn were often thought to \"inhabit or haunt desolate, dark and dingy places in the desert\".", "For that reason, they were held responsible for various diseases and mental illnesses.", "Emilie Savage-Smith, asserts that malicious jinn and good gods were distinct in pre-Islamic Arabia, but admits that such distinction is not absolute.", "In the regions north to the Hejaz, Palmyra and Baalbek, the terms ''jinni'' and ''ilah'' (deity) were often used interchangeably.", "Julius Wellhausen likewise agrees that in pre-Islamic Arabia it was assumed there are at least some friendly and helpful beings among the jinn.", "He distinguishes between a god and a jinni, not on the basis of morality, but on the basis of worship; the jinn are worshipped in private while the gods are worshipped in public.Al-Jahiz credits the pre-Islamic Arabs with believing that the society of jinn constitutes several tribes and groups, analogous to pre-Islamic Arabian culture.", "Jinn could also protect, marry, kidnap, possess, and kill people.", "Despite being invisible, jinn are considered to have bodies (''ajsām''), as described by Zakariya al-Qazwini, they are among animals, along with humans, burdened beasts (like horses), cattles, wild beasts, birds, and reptiles.", "Jinn are further known as shapeshifters, often assuming the form of an animal, favoring the form of a snake.", "Other chthonic animals regarded as forms of jinn include scorpions and lizards.", "Both scorpions and serpents have been venerated in the ancient Near East.When they shift into a human form however, they are said to stay partly animal and are not fully human.", "Although the power of jinn usually exceed those of humans, it is conceivable a man could kill a jinni in single combat, but feared for attacking without being seen.", "Some sources even speak of killed jinn leaving behind a carcass similar to either a serpent or a scorpion.=== Poetry and Soothsaying ===Despite that they were often feared or inspired awe, the jinn were also pictured to befriend humans or have romantic feelings for them.", "According to common Arabian belief, soothsayers, pre-Islamic philosophers, and poets were inspired by the jinn.The Arabian poet al-Aʿshā (d. after 3/625) is said to got his inspiration for his poetry by a friend named Misḥal (\"daʿawtu khalīlī Misḥalan\") and further calls him his jinni-brother (\"akhī ʾl-jinnī\").", "Similarly, the poet Thābit (d. 54/674) who later converted to Islam and became known as \"the poet of the prophet\", referred to his jinni-friend as his \"sharp-sighted brother from the jinn\" (\"wa-akhī min al-jinn al-baṣīr\").", "The relationship between jinn and humans can also be romantic in nature.", "According to one famous Arabian story, the jinni Manzur fell in love with a human woman called Habbah.", "He is supposed to have taught her the arts of healing.", "The mutual relationship between jinn and humans is different than that of a jinni and a soothsayer (''kāhin'').", "The soothsayer is presented as someone who is totally controlled by the jinni entering.", "The soothsayer was consulted to reveal hidden information or settle disputes, as it was believed, the jinn speaking through them reveal hidden knowledge." ], [ "Islam", "=== Quran ===The 72nd chapter of the Qur'an entitled Al-Jinn (The Jinn), as well as the heading and introductory ''bismillah'' of the next chapter entitled al-Muzzammil (The Enshrouded One)|alt=Jinn are mentioned approximately 29 times in the Quran.", "The Quran does confirm their existence to Muslims, but assumes that the audience is familiar with the subject without elaborating on the jinn in further detail.", "According to the , Muhammad was sent as a prophet to both human and jinn communities, and that prophets and messengers were sent to both communities.Throughout the Quran humans and jinn (''al-ins wa-l-jinn'') appear frequently as a pair, designating their equal status in regards of their creation and rejecting that jinn share divinity with the Creator.", "The term ''ins'' derives from ''anisa'', which means \"to be familiar with\", and refers to recognisable familiar human beings.", "In contrast, the term ''jinn'' refers to foreign, invisible, or unknown anthropomorphic beings, which are nonetheless subject to the same considerations as the former.", "They were both created to worship God ().", "Because they are supposed to worship God from free will, they are both able for good and evil deeds (, ).", "They are, like humans, rational beings formed of nations ().Surah al-jinn is about the revelation to jinn.", "The same Surah mentions righteous jinn on one hand, and malicious jinn on the other.", "The jinn can neither harm nor benefit humans, for they are occupied with looking after themselves and their own place on the cosmos.", "This is in notable contrast to demons and devils in the Judeo-Christian tradition.", "The Quran doesn't condemn the jinn as a source of harm, but by mistaking them for beings deserving cultic veneration ().", "Jinn and humans are blamed for ascribing divine attributes to another creature (i.e.", "jinn); jinn to themselves and humans to the jinn.Despite their similarities, there are important differences between these two species recognised.", "Whereas humans are made from \"clay\" or \"dirt\", jinn were created from \"smokeless fire\" (, ), which is possibly the reason why they are credited with some extraordinary abilities, such as invisibility, transformation, and ascending into the air like devils ().", "Despite some superhuman powers, the jinn occupy no fundamentally different position in the Quran than humans.", "Like humans, the jinn have no knowledge of the future.", "Like humanity, jinn face epistemic limitations regarding \"the hidden/occult\" (''ar-ghayb'') and have to rely on God's messengers, and face eschatological judgement.=== Exegesis ===Kashan, Iran, late 12th–13th century mina’i-fritware bowl.", "The scene in this bowl can be understood as depicting the enthroned (Second) Sulaymān with messengers to either side, crowned human headed winged jinn.In Quranic interpretation, the term ''jinn'' can be used in two different ways:# a specific invisible being, offspring of ''abu Jann'' considered to be, along with humans, ''thaqalān'' (accountable for their deeds), created out of \"fire and air\" (, ''mārijin min nār'').", "# any object that cannot be detected by human sensory organs, including angels, devils, and the (spiritual) interior of human beings.Belief in jinn is not included among the six articles of Islamic faith, as belief in angels is.", "Nontheless, many Muslim scholars, including the Hanbalī scholar ibn Taymiyya and the Ẓāhirī scholar ibn Hazm, believe they are essential to the Islamic faith, since they are mentioned in the Quran.", "It is generally accepted by the majority of Muslim scholars that jinn can possess individuals.", "This is considered to be part of the doctrines (''aqidah'') of the \"people of the Sunnah\" (''ahl as-sunnah wal-jammah'a'') in the tradition of Ash'ari.", "The Atharī scholars ibn Taimiyya and ibn Qayyim agree on this matter.", "From among the Sunni schools of theology, only the Māturīdīs seems to debate possession.", "Al-Rustughfanī deemed jinn-possession impossible.", "Al-Māturīdī focuses on the dynamics between jinn and humans based on .", "He states that seeking refuge among the jinn increases fear and anxiety, however, not because of the jinn, but due to the psychological dependence of the individual towards external powers.", "By that, he refers to seeking refuge among the jinn as a form of ''širk'', due to the reliance on a created thing instead of God.=== Jurisprudence ===The Singer Ibrahim and the jinn.", "Ibrahim has been imprisoned by his master Muhammad al-Amin and visited by a jinn in guise of an old man.", "The jinn offers him food and drink and is so impressed by Ibrahim's voice that he convinces Muhammad to free him.The jinn are obligated to follow the divine law (''sharīʿa''), as derived from the Quran by Muslim jurists (''faqīh'').", "Thus, the jinn are considered, along with humans, to be ''mukallāf''.Since both creations must perform the required prayers (''salah''), Muslim jurists debated if one is allowed to perform the prayer behind a jinni.", "Shibli cites two Hanbalite scholars who regard this as permissible without hesitation.", "Since Muhammad was sent to jinn and humans, both are ''mukallāf'' and subject to the command to pray.Because humans and jinn are capable of procreation, Muslim jurists dealt with the issue of permissibility of intercourse between these two types of creatures.", "Some ''Ḥadīths'', though considered fabricated (''mawḍūʻ'') by some ''muhaddith (hadith scholars)'', pushed the necessity for an explanation: Although there are recorded cases between human-jinn relationships most Muslim jurists agree that such a relationship is not permissible.", "Even those scholars who allowed such relationships, still considered them undesirable (''makruh'').", "Offspring of human-jinn relationships are nonetheless, usually considered to be gifted and talented people with special abilities.Although conjuring jinn is considered unbelief (''kufr'') by Islamic scholars, most agree that they are capable of performing magic.===Folklore===Examples of the Jinn of the Air depicted on Seljuk 13th century tilework from Kubad Abad.The jinn (also known as: , , ) were adopted by later Islamic culture, since the Quran affirms their existence.", "Although depictions are categorized into ''little tradition'' (folklore) and ''greater tradition'' (official Islam) for research purposes, both depictions are largely the same.The Quran does not consider foreign mythological beings to be devils, but entities erroneously ascribed divine power to.", "Therefore, jinn were considered a third class of invisible beings, often neutral or morally ambiguous, not consequently equated with devils.", "Islam allowed to integrate local beliefs about spirits and deities from Iran, Africa, Turkey and India, into a monotheistic framework without demonizing them.", "Thus, they exist alongside other mythological entities, such as demons (''divs'') and ''peri'' (fairies).The moral attitude of the jinn is usually associated with their religion.", "Good jinn are usually considered ''Muslim jinn'' or ''jinn Islam'', whereas unbelieving jinn were tempted by the devils (''shayatin'') and are called ''kāfir jinn'' or ''jinn kāfir''.", "Besides Islam, they could also practise Christianity and Judaism.", "Good jinn might teach people moral lessons and might be benevolent, or aid spiritual persons, such as shamans (''kam'') in Central Asia, or spiritual healers in Senegal.Most of the time, jinn are believed not to interfere with humans and live mostly in desolate or abandoned places.", "This is, for example, evident from the Turkish phrase ''İn Cin top oynuyor''.", "It is only when they are angered or disturbed, for example, if their children are trodden upon or hot water is thrown on them, that they take revenge on humans.", "For this reason, Muslims utter \"destur\" (permission), before doing something which might accidentally hurt jinn, such as sprinkling hot water on public grounds or into bushes, so present jinn are advised to leave the place.Angered or straightforwardly evil mannered jinn, could hurt people by inflicting physical damage, causing illness, or taking control over a human's body.", "A human, however, can't be controlled by jinn at any time.", "The individual needs to be in a state of ''dha'iyfah'' (Arabic: ضَعِيفَة, \"(mental) weakness\").", "Feelings of insecurity, mental instability, unhappy love and depression (being \"tired from the soul\") are forms of ''dha'iyfah''.", "In that case, it is believed that an exorcism is required to save the person from the assaulting jinni.", "To protect oneself from jinn, many Muslims wear amulets with the name of God graved on.", "Jinn are also said to be scared of iron and wolves." ], [ "Modern and post-modern era", "The cave chamber ''Majlis al Jinn'', believed to be a gathering place of the jinn in Omani lore=== Post-modern literature and movies ===Jinn feature in the magical realism genre, introduced into Turkish literature by Latife Tekin (1983), who uses magical elements known from pre-Islamic and Islamic Anatolian lore.", "Since the 1980s, this genre has become prominent in Turkish literature.", "The story by Tekin deals with folkloric and religious belief in a rationalized society.Contrary to the neutral to positive depiction of jinn in Tekin's novels, since 2004 jinn became a common trope in Middle Eastern horror movies.", "The presentation of jinn usually combines Quranic with oral and cultural beliefs about jinn.", "Out of 89 films, 59 have direct references to jinn as the antagonist, 12 use other sorts of demons, while other types of horror, such as the impending apocalypse, hauntings, or ghosts, constitute only 14 films.", "The popularity of jinn as choosen mosnter can best be explained by their affirmation in the Quran.", "They are still a popular trope today.", "A study from 2020 shows that jinn are still the favorite Horror element among teenagers.", "Jinn further feature in Iranian horror movies.=== Prevalence of belief ===Though discouraged by some teachings of modern Islam, cultural beliefs about jinn remain popular among Muslim societies and their understanding of cosmology and anthropology.", "Affirmation on the existence of jinn as sapient creatures living along with humans is still widespread in the Middle Eastern world and West Africa.", "Mental illnesses are still often attributed to jinn possession.", "In modern Iran, (evil) jinn are often substituted by devils.", "Similarly, in many modern tales, the term ''jinn'' is for ''div'' (demon), causing a shift in meaning.", "Nontheless, belief in jinn remains popular.According to a survey undertaken by the Pew Research Center in 2012, at least 86% of Muslims in Morocco, 84% in Bangladesh, 63% in Turkey, 55% in Iraq, 53% in Indonesia, 47% in Thailand and 15% elsewhere in Central Asia, affirm a belief in the existence of jinn.", "The low rate in Central Asia might be influenced by Soviet religious oppression.", "36% of Muslims in Bosnia and Herzegovina believe in jinn, which is higher than the European average (30%), although only 21% believe in sorcery and 13% would wear talisman for protection against jinn.", "12% support offerings and appeal given to the jinn.", "Sleep paralysis is understood as a \"jinn attack\" by many sleep paralysis sufferers in Egypt, as discovered by a Cambridge neuroscience study Jalal, Simons-Rudolph, Jalal, & Hinton (2013).", "The study found that as many as 48% of those who experience sleep paralysis in Egypt believe it to be an assault by the jinn.", "Almost all of these sleep paralysis sufferers (95%) would recite verses from the Quran during sleep paralysis to prevent future \"jinn attacks\".", "In addition, some (9%) would increase their daily Islamic prayer (''ṣalāh'') to get rid of these assaults by jinn.", "Sleep paralysis is generally associated with great fear in Egypt, especially if believed to be supernatural in origin.Similarly, European patients with a Muslim background often attribute mental illnesses to jinn.", "Most common are attributations to jinn are symptoms of hallucination and psychotic symptoms, but can also include mood disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), Capgras syndrome, and epilepsy.", "It has been noted that not all Muslims who believe in jinn, believe they can possess people.", "Furthermore, belief in possession is not limited to Muslims.", "Contrary to the assumption that higher education is proportional to disenchantment, belief in jinn-possession remains intact even after medical graduation." ], [ "Visual art", "Although there are very few visual representations of jinn in Islamic art, when they do appear, it is usually related to a specific event or individual jinn.Visual representations of jinn appear in manuscripts and their existence is often implied in works of architecture by the presence of apotropaic devices like serpents, which were intended to ward off evil spirits.", "Lastly, King Solomon is illustrated very often with jinn as the commander of an army that included them.=== In the ''Kitāb al-Bulhān'' ===One of the Seven jinn-kings in the late 14th-century Book of Wonders.", "The red king of the djinns, Al-Ahmar.In the ''Book of Wonders'' compiled in the 14th century by Abd al-Hasan al-Isfahani, there are illustrations of various supernatural beings (demons, ''ʿafārīt'', jinn, the evil eye, devils, lilith, celestial spirits, etc.", ").Each celestial spirits is referred to as a \"King of the Jinn\", represented alongside his spiritual helpers and alongside the corresponding talismanic symbols.", "For instance, the 'Red King of Tuesday' was depicted in the ''Book of Wonders'' as a sinister form astride a lion.", "In the same illustration, he holds a severed head and a sword, because the 'Red King of Tuesday' was aligned with Mars, the god of war.", "Alongside that, there were illustrations of the 'Gold King' and the 'White King'.Aside from the seven 'Kings of the Jinn', the ''Book of Wonders'' included an illustration of ''Huma'' (Arabic: حمى), or the 'Fever'.", "''Huma'' was depicted as three-headed and as embracing the room around him, in order to capture someone and bring on a fever in them.Ornamentation of intertwined serpents above the door of the Citadel of Aleppo.=== Architectural representation ===Takht-i Marmar, the marble throne supported by jinn and divs (demons), Gulistan Palace, Teheran, created for Fath Ali Shah (r. 1797–1833).In addition to these representations of jinn in vicinity to kingship, there were also architectural references to jinn throughout the Islamic world.", "In the Citadel of Aleppo, the entrance gate Bab al-Hayyat made reference to jinn in the stone relief carvings of serpents; likewise, the water gate at Ayyubid Harran housed two copper sculptures of jinn, serving as talismans to ward off both snakes and evil jinn in the form of snakes.Alongside these depictions of the jinn found at the Aleppo Citadel, depictions of the jinn can be found in the Rūm Seljuk palace.", "There are a phenomenal range of creatures that can be found on the eight-pointed tiles of the Seal of Sulaymān device.", "Among these were the jinn, that belonged among Solomon's army and as Solomon claimed to have control over the jinn, so did the Rūm Seljuk sultan that claimed to be the Sulaymān of his time.", "In fact, one of the most common representations of jinn are alongside or in association with King Solomon.", "It was thought that King Solomon had very close ties to the jinn, and even had control over many of them.", "The concept that a great and just ruler has the ability to command jinn was one that extended far past only King Solomon– it was also thought that emperors, such as Alexander the Great, could control an army of jinn in a similar way.", "Given this association, Jinn were often seen with Solomon in a princely or kingly context, such as the small, animal-like jinn sitting beside King Solomon on his throne illustrated in an illuminated manuscript of ''Aja'ib al-Makhluqat'' by Zakariya al-Qazwini, written in the 13th century.=== Talismanic representation ===Image of a talisman (''Tawiz''), supposed to ward off jinn, evil eye, sorcery, and demons.The jinn had an indirect impact on Islamic art through the creation of talismans that were alleged to guard the bearer from the jinn and were enclosed in leather and included Qur'anic verses.", "It was not unusual for those talismans to be inscribed with separated Arabic letters, because the separation of those letters was thought to positively affect the potency of the talisman overall.", "An object that was inscribed with the word of ''Allah'' was thought to have the power to ward off evil from the person who obtained the object, though many of these objects also had astrological signs, depictions of prophets, or religious narratives." ], [ "Jinn and magical practises", "Zawba'a or Zoba'ah, the jinn-king of FridayJinn might be invoked, along with demons and devils, for means of sorcery, incantation, protection, or divination.", "Soothsayers (''kāhin'') are credited with the ability to ask jinn about things of the past, since their lives are believed to last longer than that of humans.Common beliefs regarding sorcery and commanding jinn are attested in ibn al-Nadim's ''Kitāb al-Fihrist''.", "Since he locates such practises not as a branch of science or philosophy, but rather in a chapter about stories and fables, the author might not have believed in the efficiency on sorcery himself.", "He reports that the art of commanding jinn and demons is traced back to Solomon and Jamshid.", "The first who would have practised a lawful method of incantation is supposed to be Abū Naṣr Aḥmad b. Hilāl.", "Ibn Nadim explains lawful and unlawful subjugating of jinn and demons as distinct: While the former controls the jinn by the power of God's divine names, the latter pleases demons and devils by prohibited offerings and sinful acts.", "Al-Jāḥiẓ is another author who tells about another man allegedly controlling jinn and demons: In the Umayyad period, ibn Hilāl is said to have the power to summon demons and jinn.", "He further claimed to have married a daughter of Satan and begotten a child.There is evidence that subjugation of spirits, jinn, and demons, was also cultivated by various Islamic authorities.", "Al-Ṭabasī, who was considered a reliable ''muḥadīth'' (scholar of ''ḥadīth'') and pious ascetic, wrote an extensive treatise (''al-Shāmil fī al-baḥr al-kāmil'') on subjugating demons and jinn.", "According to Zakariya al-Qazwini, it was well-known that jinn obeyed al-Ṭabasī.", "He gives an example, that al-Ṭabasī demonstrated the jinn to the famous scholar Ghazālī, who saw them as shadows on the wall.", "He professes that jinn only obey when the individual turns away from the temptations of creation and devoting oneself towards God.", "The al-Shāmil gives detailed instructions for preparations of various incantations.", "Unlike, for example in the writings of al-Razi, the ''al-Shāmil'' has no direct link to Hellenistic or Hermetic magic or philosophy.", "Magic was also used in the Ottoman Empire as evident from the Talismanic shirts of Murad III.Related to the occult traditions in Islamic culture is the belief in the \"Seven kings of the Week\", also known as ''rūḥāiya ulia'' (higher spirits; angels) and ''rūḥāiya sufula'' (lower spirits; demons).", "These beings are, for example, invoked for the preparation of Magic squares.", "This belief is attested by the Book of Wonders.", "It contains artistic depictions of several supernatural beings (demons, jinn, the evil eye, fever (Huma, Arabic: حمى), devils, lilith, etc.).", "Some of these beings indicate that the work connects Hebrew, Christian, and Islamic magical traditions.", "The original work is attributed to al-Bakhi, who founded a system of astrological magic based on Neo-Platonic thought.", "Although many pages are damaged, it is possible to reconstruct their meanings from Ottoman copies.", "Each king is depicted with helpers and associated talismanic symbols.+AssociationsPlanetDayAngel that monitors the associated ''‘Afārīt''(Arabic; Hebrew equivalent)''‘Afārīt''Type of madness (, ''junūn'') and parts of the body attackedRemarksCommon nameKnown other namesSunSundayRuqya'il (); Raphael (רפאל)'''Al-Mudhdhahab/ Al-Mudhhib/ Al-Mudhhab''' (; The Golden One)Abu 'Abdallah Sa'idthe name \"''Al-Mudh·dhahab''\" refers to the jinn's skin tone.MoonMondayJibril (); Gabriel (גבריאל)'''Al-Abyaḍ''' (; The White One)Murrah al-Abyad Abu al-Harith; Abu an-NurWhole bodythe name \"''Al-Abyaḍ''\" refers to the jinn's skin tone, however he is portrayed as a \"dark black, charcoal\" figure.", "The possible connection of this name is with another name ''\"Abū an-Nūr\"'' (\"Father of Light\"); his names are the same as whose applied to ''Iblīs''.MarsTuesdaySamsama'il (); Samael (סמאל)'''Al-Aḥmar''' (; The Red One)Abu Mihriz; Abu Ya'qubHead, uterusthe name \"''Al-Aḥmar''\" refers to the jinn's skin tone.MercuryWednesdayMikail (); Michael (מיכאל)'''Būrqān/ Borqaan''' (; Two Thunders)Abu al-'Adja'yb; Al-AswadBackJupiterThursdaySarfya'il (); Zadkiel (צדקיאל)'''Shamhuresh''' (شمهورش)Abu al-Walid; At-TayyarBellyVenusFriday'Anya'il (); Anael (ענאל)'''Zawba'ah''' (; Cyclone, Whirlwind)Abu HassanIt is said the \"whirlwind\" (''zawba'ah''), to be caused by an evil jinn which travels inside it.SaturnSaturdayKasfa'il (); Cassiel (קפציאל)'''Maymun''' (; Prosperous)Abu NuhFeetHis name means \"monkey\"" ], [ "Comparative mythology", "===Ancient Mesopotamian religion===Beliefs in entities similar to the jinn are found throughout pre-Islamic Middle Eastern cultures.", "The ancient Sumerians believed in Pazuzu, a wind demon, who was shown with \"a rather canine face with abnormally bulging eyes, a scaly body, a snake-headed penis, the talons of a bird and usually wings.\"", "Ancient Mesopotamian religion has ''udug'', Babylonian ''utukku'', a class of demons that were believed to haunt remote wildernesses, graveyards, mountains, and the sea, all locations where jinn were later thought to reside.", "The Babylonians also believed in the rabisu, a vampiric demon believed to leap out and attack travelers at unfrequented locations, similar to the post-Islamic ''ghūl'', a specific kind of jinn whose name is etymologically related to that of the Sumerian ''galla'', a class of Underworld demon.Lamashtu, also known as ''Labartu'', was a divine demoness said to devour human infants.", "Lamassu, also known as Shedu, were guardian spirits, sometimes with evil propensities.", "The Assyrians believed in the alû, sometimes described as a wind demon residing in desolate ruins who would sneak into people's houses at night and steal their sleep.In the ancient Syrian city of Palmyra, entities similar to jinn were known as ''ginnayê'', an Aramaic name which may be etymologically derived from the name of the ''genii'' from Roman mythology.", "Like jinn among modern-day Bedouin, ''ginnayê'' were thought to resemble humans.", "They protected caravans, cattle, and villages in the desert and tutelary shrines were kept in their honor.", "They were frequently invoked in pairs.===Judaism===Ašmodai) in bird-like form, with typical rooster feet, as depicted in ''Compendium rarissimum totius Artis Magicae'' 1775The Jewish depiction of jinn (Hebrew: ''Shedim'') closely resemble that of the Islamic depictions in many regards.", "The story of Solomon being replaced by the evil jinn-king is well known in both Quranic exegesis and the Talmud.", "Likewise, they may be rebellious and evil or lawful obeying the holy scripture (i.e.", "the Torah).", "Their resemblance to humans is captured in a description in the Babylonian Talmud: \"In three regards the shedim are like angels, and in three like humans: They have wings, they fly from one end of the world to another, they know the future listening from behind the veil of the angels; and in three regards they resemble humans: They eat and drink, procreate, and die like humans.", "\"In earlier midrashim they are corporeal beings.", "If they take on human forms, their feet would remain that of roosters (instead of hooves in Muslim depiction).", "Later, in Judaism such entities developed into more abstract beings, in contrast to Islam where they retained their corporeal image.", "However, like their Islamic-counterparts they are credited with possession.", "Like Muslim excorcism on jinn, Jewish excorcism as well includes negotiations with these beings, asking for their religion, sex, name, and intention.", "The treatment of possession by jinn (''jnun'', ''shedim'', etc.)", "differs from that of traditional Jewish cure of spirit possession associated with ghosts (Dybbuk).===Buddhism===As in Islam, the idea of spiritual entities converting to one's own religion can be found in Buddhism.", "According to lore, Buddha preached to Devas and Asura, spiritual entities who, like humans, are subject to the cycle of life, and who resemble the Islamic notion of jinn, who are also ontologically placed among humans in regard to eschatological destiny.===Christianity===Abraham Ecchellensis writes that the jinn would be the children of Lilith and devils, and therefore would share three qualities with humans - such as procreation, eating, and dying - but share three qualities with devils in regard to flying, invisibility, and passing through solid substances; this depiction is linked to the Jewish account on ''shedim''.", "Because of their human-like qualities, they are less noxious to humans than devils, and many would indeed live in some familiarity and even friendship with humans.", "In India, certain young jinn would assume a human form to play games with native children of human parents.Van Dyck's Arabic translation of the Old Testament uses the alternative collective plural \"jann\" (Arab:الجان; translation:al-jānn) to render the Hebrew word usually translated into English as \"familiar spirit\" (אוב, Strong #0178) in several places (Leviticus 19:31, 20:6; 1 Samuel 28:3,7,9; 1 Chronicles 10:13).Some scholars evaluated whether the jinn might be compared to fallen angels in Christian traditions.", "Comparable to Augustine's descriptions of fallen angels as ethereal, jinn seem to be considered as the same substance.", "Although the concept of fallen angels is not absent in the Quran, the jinn nevertheless differ in their major characteristics from that of fallen angels: While fallen angels fell from heaven, the jinn did not, but try to climb up to it in order to receive the news of the angels.", "Jinn are closer to daemons." ], [ "See also", "* Throne Verse* ''The Case of the Animals versus Man''* Daemon* Human–animal hybrid#Theriocephaly studies* Marid* Nasnas* Qareen* Shadow person* Shedim* Superstitions in Muslim societies* ''Three Thousand Years of Longing'', a 2022 film starring Idris Elba as a djinn.", "* Uthra* Will-o'-the-wisp* Yōkai" ], [ "References", "===Notes======Citations=== ===Sources===* * * (pub.", "so far)* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "** *** * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Etymology of ''genie''" ] ]
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[ [ "Gallurese" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Gallurese''' () is a Romance dialect of the Italo-Dalmatian family spoken in the region of Gallura, northeastern Sardinia.", "Gallurese is variously described as a distinct southern dialect of Corsican or transitional language of the dialect continuum between Corsican and Sardinian.", "\"Gallurese International Day\" () takes place each year in Palau (Sardinia) with the participation of orators from other areas, including Corsica.Gallurese is generally considered a southern Corsican dialect, sharing close resemblance in morphology and vocabulary with the dialects of Sartene and Porto-Vecchio on Corsica, whereas its phonology and syntax are similar to those of Sardinian.", "One third of Gallurese vocabulary is also influenced by Logudorese Sardinian, Catalan, and Spanish.The Sassarese dialect, spoken in the area of Sassari, shares similar transitional traits between Tuscan, Corsican and Sardinian but, in comparison with Gallurese, is definitely closer to the Logudorese dialects of Sardinian." ], [ "History", "The most ancient literary sources in Gallurese date back to the early 17th century, mainly as poetry and religious odes.", "Some late Middle Age fragments suggest that the formation of the language could be dated to the early 15th century.", "The origin and the development of Gallurese are debated.", "Max Leopold Wagner and Maurice Le Lannou argued that successive migration waves from Southern Corsica, promoted under the Aragonese rule to repopulate an area devastated by famine and pandemics, were crucial in the formation of a transitional language." ], [ "Typical constitutional elements of Gallurese", "Corsican dialects, including Gallurese.", "*the plural form of nouns in ''-i'' (''ghjanni'' or ''polti'' 'doors') are like in Corsican and Italian, and not as in ''-s'' like in Sardinian (''jannas'', ''portas''), French, Spanish, Catalan, etc.", "* Latin 'll' has become ''-dd-'' (like ''casteddu, coraddu'' 'castle', 'coral'), the same as in Sardinian, southern Corsican and Sicilian (but ''castellu, corallu'' in northern Corsican);*''-r-'' modified to ''-l-'' (''poltu'' 'port', while ''portu'' in Corsican and Sardinian);*''-chj-'' and ''-ghj-'' sounds (''ghjesgia'' 'church', ''occhji'' 'eyes'), like in Corsican, while Sardinian is ''cresia, ogros''.", "* articles ''lu'', ''la'', ''li'', like in ancient Corsican dialects (''u'', ''a'', ''i'' in modern Corsican, ''su'', ''sa'', ''sos'', ''sas'' in Sardinian);" ], [ "Relation to Corsican", "Gallurese is classified by some linguists as a dialect of Corsican, and by others as a dialect of Sardinian.", "In any case, a great deal of similarity exists between Southern Corsican dialects and Gallurese, while there is relatively more distance from the neighbouring Sardinian varieties.Concluding the debate speech, the Sardinian linguist Mauro Maxia stated as follows:The Regional Government of Sardinia has recognized Gallurese, along with Sassarese as separate languages, distinct from Sardinian.===Sample of text===An excerpt from a hymn dedicated to the Virgin Mary.", "Standard Italian Southern Corsican Gallurese Sassarese Logudorese Sardinian English translationYou were born of enchantmentDelightful beautyThe best of LuogosantoThe most beautiful in Gallura.", "You are so beautiful that every heartFalls in love with youA flower to my eyesThe best one that there is.I am old and greyAnd my time is passing byBut I am always cheering upThe same way as when you met me.No matter how many fields I must tillI will always honor LuogosantoFor it is a land of enchantmentFor whoever comes to visit it.", "The Patron of GalluraIs here for us in LuogosantoCrowned by hymnsSuch a splendid creature." ], [ "See also", "* Sardinia* Corsican language* Sassarese* Sardinian language" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*Maxia, Mauro.", "''Studi sardo-corsi: Dialettologia e storia della lingua tra le due isole''.", "Accademia della Lingua Gallurese; Istituto di Filologia (2010).", "* Elementi di grammatica gallurese, Antoninu Rubattu*Von Wartburg, Walther.", "''La fragmentation linguistique de la Romania''.", "Paris, Librairie C. Klincksieck, 1967." ] ]
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[ [ "Gary Busey" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Gary Busey''' (; born June 29, 1944) is an American actor.", "He portrayed Buddy Holly in ''The Buddy Holly Story'' (1978), for which he was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actor and won the National Society of Film Critics Award for Best Actor.", "His other starring roles include ''A Star is Born'' (1976), ''D.C.", "Cab'' (1983), ''Silver Bullet'' (1985), ''Eye of the Tiger'' (1986), ''Lethal Weapon'' (1987), ''Hider in the House'' (1989), ''Predator 2'' (1990), ''Point Break'' (1991), ''Under Siege'' (1992), ''The Firm'' (1993), ''Drop Zone'' (1994), ''Black Sheep'' (1996) and ''Lost Highway'' (1997)." ], [ "Early life", "Busey was born in Goose Creek, Texas.", "While he was in fourth grade, Busey moved to Tulsa, Oklahoma, where he later attended Bell Junior High School, then attended and graduated from Nathan Hale High School.", "Busey attended Coffeyville Community College before attending Pittsburg State University in Pittsburg, Kansas, on a football scholarship, where he became interested in acting.", "After a knee injury, he then transferred to Oklahoma State University in Stillwater, Oklahoma, to study theater.", "He quit school just one unit short of graduation." ], [ "Career", "===Early career===Busey (standing), Mark Hamill and Jack Elam from ''The Texas Wheelers'', 1974Busey began his show business career as a drummer in The Rubber Band.", "He appears on several Leon Russell recordings, credited as playing drums under the name \"Teddy Jack Eddy\" a character he created when he was a cast member of a local television comedy show in Tulsa, Oklahoma, called ''The Uncanny Film Festival and Camp Meeting'' on station KTUL (which starred fellow Tulsan Gailard Sartain as \"Dr. Mazeppa Pompazoidi\").", "For his skits on Uncanny Film Festival, Busey drew on his American Hero, belligerent, know-it-all character.", "When he told Gailard Sartain his character needed a name, Sartain replied, \"Take three: Teddy, Jack and Eddy.", "\"He played in a band called Carp, which released one album on Epic Records in 1969.Busey continued to play several small roles in both film and television during the 1970s.", "In 1975, as the character \"Harvey Daley\", he was the last person killed on the series ''Gunsmoke'' (in the third-to-last episode, No.", "633 – \"The Busters\").===Rise to prominence===A Star Is Born'' in 1976In 1974, Busey played Truckie Wheeler in the ABC television comedy ''The Texas Wheelers''.", "During that same year he made his major film debut with a supporting role in Michael Cimino's buddy action caper ''Thunderbolt and Lightfoot'', starring Clint Eastwood and Jeff Bridges.In 1976, he was hired by Barbra Streisand and her producer-boyfriend Jon Peters to play Bobby Ritchie, road manager to Kris Kristofferson's character in the remake film ''A Star is Born''.", "On the DVD commentary of the film, Streisand says Busey was great and that she had seen him on a TV series and thought he had the right qualities to play the role.In 1978, he starred as rock legend Buddy Holly in ''The Buddy Holly Story'' with Sartain as The Big Bopper.", "For his performance, Busey received the greatest critical acclaim of his career and the movie earned an Academy Award nomination for Best Actor and the National Society of Film Critics' Best Actor award for him.", "In the same year he also starred in the small yet acclaimed drama ''Straight Time'' and the surfing movie ''Big Wednesday'', which is now a minor cult classic.===Mid-career===In the 1980s, Busey's films included the critically acclaimed western ''Barbarosa'', the comedies ''D.C.", "Cab'' and ''Insignificance'', and the Stephen King adaptation ''Silver Bullet''.", "He played one of the primary antagonists opposite Mel Gibson and Danny Glover in the action comedy ''Lethal Weapon''.In the 1990s, he had prominent supporting roles in successful action films such as ''Predator 2'', ''Point Break'' and ''Under Siege''.", "He also appeared in ''Rookie of the Year'', ''The Firm'', ''Black Sheep'', ''Lost Highway'', and ''Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas''.Busey sang the song \"Stay All Night\" on ''Saturday Night Live'' in 1979 (season 4, episode 14), and on the ''Late Show with David Letterman'' in the 1990s.In 2002, Busey voiced the character Phil Cassidy in the video game ''Grand Theft Auto: Vice City'' and later reprised the role in the prequel ''Grand Theft Auto: Vice City Stories'' in 2006.In 2003, he starred in a Comedy Central reality show, ''I'm with Busey''.", "In 2005, he also voiced himself in an episode of ''The Simpsons'' and appeared in the popular miniseries ''Into the West''.", "Busey controversially appeared in the 2006 Turkish nationalist film ''Valley of the Wolves: Iraq'' (), which was accused of fascism, anti-Americanism, and antisemitism.Busey starred in the horror film ''The Gingerdead Man'' (2005) as the titular character and crazed killer Millard Findlemeyer.", "In 2007, he appeared as himself in a prominent recurring role on HBO's ''Entourage'', in which he parodied his eccentric image, ultimately appearing on three episodes of the show.", "In 2008, he joined the second season of the reality show ''Celebrity Rehab with Dr. Drew''.", "In 2009, Busey appeared as a roaster at the Comedy Central Roast of Larry the Cable Guy.===Later work===In a series of 2010 YouTube advertisements for Vitamin Water, Busey appeared as Norman Tugwater, a lawyer who defends professional athletes' entitlements to a cut from Fantasy Football team owners.", "Busey returned to reality television on ''Celebrity Apprentice 4'' in 2011, and appeared again in ''Celebrity Apprentice 6''.", "There, he briefly reprised his role as Buddy Holly by performing \"Not Fade Away\".In 2014, he became a celebrity spokesperson for Amazon Fire TV.", "Also that year, he appeared in, and became the first American winner of ''Celebrity Big Brother 14''.", "In 2015, he competed on the 21st season of ''Dancing with the Stars''.", "He was paired with professional dancer Anna Trebunskaya.", "Busey and Trebunskaya made it to Week 4 of competition but were then eliminated and finished in 10th place.In 2019, Busey starred as God in the Off-Broadway musical ''Only Human'' at the Theatre at St. Clements in New York.", "The plot of ''Only Human'' is described as follows: \"Before they were enemies, they were co-workers.", "Jesus and Lucifer never saw eye-to-eye, but when an extreme case of creative differences gets the best of them, all hell breaks loose.", "Literally.\"", "In a statement on playing God in the upcoming production, he said, \"God is everything love is and that love becomes the beginning of blessings and miracles.", "Playing this role of God is easy because I'm not acting, I'm just believing.", "\"In the web series ''Gary Busey Pet Judge'' (2020) he presided as a pet court show judge to help resolve problems." ], [ "Personal life", "Busey in 2007Busey has three children, Jake, Alectra, and Luke.On December 4, 1988, Busey was severely injured in a motorcycle accident in which he was not wearing a helmet.", "His skull was fractured, and he suffered permanent brain damage.In 1996, Busey publicly announced that he was a Christian, saying: \"I am proud to tell Hollywood I am a Christian.", "For the first time I am now free to be myself.\"", "Busey cites the motorcycle accident, as well as a 1995 cocaine overdose as events that strengthened his Christian faith.In 1997, Busey underwent successful surgery to remove a cancerous, plum-sized tumor from his sinus cavity.", "The growth was found after Busey began suffering nose bleeds.During the filming of the second season of ''Celebrity Rehab'' in 2008, Busey was referred to psychiatrist Charles Sophy.", "Sophy suspected that Busey's brain injury has had a greater effect on him than was realized.", "He described it as essentially weakening his mental \"filters\" and causing him to speak and act impulsively.", "Sophy recommended Busey take valproic acid (Depakote), with which Busey agreed.In 2011, Busey endorsed Newt Gingrich during Gingrich's 2012 presidential campaign, but later withdrew his endorsement.", "In 2015, he endorsed Donald Trump for the 2016 United States Presidential election.", "After the election, Busey stated that he was \"very happy\" that Trump won, but declined to further discuss it, not wishing to talk about politics." ], [ "Filmography", "===Selected filmography===* ''Wild in the Streets'' (1968)* ''Angels Hard as They Come'' (1971)* ''The Magnificent Seven Ride!''", "(1972)* ''Dirty Little Billy'' (1972)* ''The Last American Hero'' (1973)* ''Hex'' (1973)* ''Thunderbolt and Lightfoot'' (1974)* ''The Gumball Rally'' (1976)* ''A Star Is Born'' (1976)* ''Straight Time'' (1978)* ''The Buddy Holly Story'' (1978)* ''Big Wednesday'' (1978)* ''Carny'' (1980)* ''Foolin' Around'' (1980)* ''Barbarosa'' (1982)* ''D.C.", "Cab'' (1983)* ''Insignificance'' (1985)* ''Silver Bullet'' (1985)* ''Eye of the Tiger'' (1986)* ''Lethal Weapon'' (1987)* ''Predator 2'' (1990)* ''Point Break'' (1991)* ''Under Siege'' (1992)* ''The Firm'' (1993)* ''Rookie of the Year'' (1993)* ''Surviving the Game'' (1994)* ''Drop Zone'' (1994)* ''Black Sheep'' (1996)* ''Lost Highway'' (1997)* ''Soldier'' (1998)* ''Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas'' (1998)* ''Hot Boyz'' (1999)* ''Quigley'' (2003)* ''Piranha 3DD'' (2012)* ''Entourage'' (2015)" ], [ "Awards and nominations", " Year Association Category Work Result1978Los Angeles Film Critics AssociationBest Actor''The Buddy Holly Story'' New Generation AwardNew York Film Critics CircleBest Actor 1979Academy AwardsBest Actor in a Leading RoleGolden Globe AwardsBest Motion Picture Actor – Musical/ComedyNational Society of Film CriticsBest Actor1980British Academy of Film and Television ArtsMost Promising Newcomer to Leading Film Roles1987CableACE AwardsActor in a Dramatic Series''The Hitchhiker''1994''Fallen Angels''" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* *" ] ]
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[ [ "-gry puzzle" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''''-gry'' puzzle''' is a popular word puzzle that asks for the third English word that ends with the letters ''-gry'' other than ''angry'' and ''hungry''.", "Specific wording varies substantially, but the puzzle has no clear answer, as there are no other common English words that end in ''-gry''.", "Interpretations of the puzzle suggest it is either an answerless hoax; a trick question; a sincere question asking for an obscure word; or a corruption of a more straightforward puzzle, which may have asked for words containing ''gry'' (such as ''gryphon'').", "Of these, countless trick question variants and obscure English words (or nonce words) have been proposed.", "The lack of a conclusive answer has ensured the enduring popularity of the puzzle, and it has become one of the most frequently asked word puzzles.The ultimate origin and original form of the puzzle is unknown, but it was popularized in 1975, starting in the New York area, and has remained popular into the 21st century.", "Various similar puzzles exist, though these have straightforward answers.", "The most notable is \"words ending in ''-dous''\", which has been popular since the 1880s." ], [ "Answers", "Various proposed answers exist, stating that the question is one of the following:* A hoax – there is no answer, and its purpose (or effect) is to frustrate.", "* A trick question, with various answers depending on precise wording.", "* A sincere question asking for an obscure word, most often proposed as , , or .", "This does not apply to wordings that explicitly ask for a very common word.", "* A corruption of a more straightforward word puzzle, namely a word containing the sequence \"gry\", though not necessarily at the (tail) end, in which case the answer is which is uncommon but in use.This topic is a source of lively interest, both to lovers of word puzzles and lovers of words.", "For both groups, much of the appeal lies in the quest, either to trace the origin of the puzzle or compile a complete list of words ending in ''-gry''.More recently, the word ''hangry''—a portmanteau of 'hungry' and 'angry'—has been used to refer to an irritable state induced by lack of food.", "Oxford Dictionaries (controlled by, but less restrictive than, the Oxford English Dictionary) added ''hangry'' on 27 August 2015, and the full Oxford English Dictionary added ''hangry'' in 2018." ], [ "History", "There are anecdotal reports of various forms of the puzzle dating to the 1950s or earlier; the ultimate origin is presumably an oral tradition or a lost book of puzzles.", "However, the first documented evidence is from early 1975 in the New York metropolitan area, and the puzzle rapidly gained popularity in this year.", "The most likely source is the talk show of Bob Grant, from some program in early or mid March 1975.Merriam-Webster, publishers of the leading American dictionaries, first heard of this puzzle in a letter dated March 17, 1975, from Patricia Lasker of Brooklyn, New York.", "Lasker says her plant manager heard the question on an unnamed quiz show.", "Since that time Merriam-Webster has received about four letters each year asking the question.The puzzle first appears in print in Anita Richterman's \"Problem Line\" column in ''Newsday'' on April 29, 1975.One \"M.Z.\"", "from Wantagh, New York states that the problem was asked on a TV quiz program.", "Richterman states that she asked a learned professor of English for help when she first received the inquiry, and he did not respond for over a month.", "This agrees with the Merriam-Webster report, suggesting a quiz show in early or mid March 1975.In Anita Richterman's column on May 9, 1975, several correspondents reported that they had heard the puzzle on the Bob Grant radio talk show on WMCA in New York City.", "This suggests either that the earlier claims of a (TV) quiz show confused a talk show with a quiz show, or that there was another unspecified quiz show that was then repeated by Grant.", "The majority of readers gave the answer \"gry\", an obsolete unit of measure invented by John Locke.", "It is unclear whether this was the answer given on the Grant show, or what the precise wording had been.By fall 1975 the puzzle had reached the Delaware Valley, again apparently by radio, by which time the puzzle seems to have mutated to a form in which the missing word is an adjective that describes the state of the world.The puzzle has had occasional bouts of popularity: after its initial popularity in 1975, it was popular in 1978, then again in 1995–1996.===Reports of earlier versions===The most credible report of an early version was given on Stumpers-L, which reported a trick question formulation from an eight-page pamphlet entitled ''Things to Think About'', probably dating to the 1940s:" ], [ "Alternative versions", "===Trick versions===#This version only works when spoken: There are three words in English that end in a \"gree\".", "The first two are \"angry\" and \"hungry\", and if you've listened closely, you'll agree that I've already told you the third one.#*The answer is \"agree\".#There are three words in the English language that end with the letters 'g', 'r', and 'y'.", "Two are \"hungry\" and \"angry\".", "The third word is something everyone uses every day.", "Everyone knows what the third word means.", "What is the third word?#*The answer is \"energy\".", "The riddle says that the word ends in the letters g-r-y; it says nothing about the order of the letters.", "Many words end with \"-rgy\", but energy is something everyone uses every day.#Here is another spoken version: There are at least three words in the English language that end in \"g\" or \"y\".", "One of them is \"hungry\", and another one is \"angry\".", "There is a third word, a short one, which you probably say every day.", "If you are listening carefully to everything I say, you just heard me say it three times.", "What is it?#*The answer is \"say\".", "This version depends upon the listener confusing the spoken word \"or\" and the spoken letter \"r\".#There are three words in the English language that end in \"gry\".", "Two words that end in \"gry\" are \"hungry\" and \"angry\".", "Everyone knows what the third word means, and everyone uses them every day.", "If you listened very carefully, I have already stated to you what the third word is.", "The three words that solve this riddle are...?#*The answer is the three-word sentence \"I am hungry\".", "This version asks for three words that end in \"gry\", not three words each of which ends in \"gry\".#This version is a play on the use-mention ambiguity exploited by other versions: I know two words that end in \"gry\".", "Neither one is angry or hungry.", "What are they?#*The answer is \"angry\" and \"hungry\".", "Since these are words, they are not capable of being angry or hungry.#Here is a version invented by Frank Rubin on December 4, 2003: Give me three English words, commonly spoken, ending in g-r-y.#*There are many possible answers, such as \"Beg for mercy\", or \"Bring your money\".#This version also uses the use-mention ambiguity: There are three words in the English language that end g-r-y.", "One is angry and another is hungry.", "The third word is something that \"everyone\" uses.", "If you have listened carefully, I have already told you what it is.#*The answer is \"every\".", "First word is \"fuming\" which ends with \"g\".", "The word \"fuming\" is angry (when personified).", "Second word is \"eager\" which ends with \"r\".", "The word \"eager\" is hungry (when personified).", "Third word is \"every\" which ends with \"y\".", "The word \"everyone\" uses the word \"every\".===Meta-puzzle versions===The remaining versions are a form of meta-puzzle, in the sense that they make no use of the actual letters \"gry\" themselves, which therefore are a red herring.", "The red herring only works because there is another puzzle that does use these letters (even though that puzzle has no good answer).#This version only works when spoken.", "Think of words ending in ''-gry'' (g-r-y).", "\"Angry\" and \"Hungry\" are two of them.", "There are only three words in \"the English language\".", "What is the third word?", "Hint: The word is something that everyone uses every day.", "If you have listened carefully, I have already told you what it is.#*The answer is \"language\", and the logic is as follows: There are only three words in \"the English language\"; the third word is \"language\".", "Since this version requires quotation marks around the phrase, \"the English language\", the written version gives away the trick.#Angry and hungry are two words in the English language that end in \"gry\".", "\"What\" is the third word.", "The word is something that everyone uses every day.", "If you have listened carefully, I have already told you what it is.#*The answer is \"what\".", "But again, the quotation marks spoil the puzzle when it is printed.#There are three words in the English language that end with \"gry\".", "Two of these are \"angry\" and \"hungry\".", "The third word is a very common word, and you use it often.", "If you have read what I have told you, you will see that I have given you the third word.", "What is the third word?", "Think very carefully.#*The answer is \"three\", the third word in the paragraph.", "The rest of the paragraph is a red herring.#There are three words in the English language that end in \"gry\".", "The first \"one\" is \"hungry\", the second \"one\" is \"angry\", what is the third \"one\"?", "If you have read this carefully I have given a clue.#*The answer is the word \"one\", which is the third \"one\".", "Again the quotation marks ruin the written puzzle, so this version is usually written without the quotation marks and with the word \"one\" capitalized." ], [ "Similar puzzles", "There are numerous similar puzzles, giving letter sequences that rarely occur in words.", "The most-notable of these is the ''-dous'' puzzle of finding words ending in ''-dous'', which was popular in the 1880s.", "This took various forms, sometimes simply listing all words or all common words, sometimes being posed as a riddle, giving the three common words, ''tremendous'', ''stupendous'', and ''hazardous'', and requesting the rarer fourth, which is ''jeopardous''.", "This form originated in 1883, with an A.A. of Glasgow writing to George Augustus Henry Sala in his \"Echoes of the Week\" column in the ''Illustrated London News''.This question has had enduring popularity, even inspiring a contest, though the words have proven less stable: today ''jeopardous'' is considered too rare, and the formerly unpopular ''horrendous'' has taken its place; this change occurred as early as 1909.At times other words such as ''hybridous'' have been accepted.", "Today ''hazardous'' is typically the omitted word, and differs from the others in being a visible compound ''hazard'' + ''-ous''.", "This puzzle has continued in popularity through the end of the 20th century, with recent versions giving it as an alternative to the gry puzzle.There is a Russian puzzle which goes: \"There are three words in the Russian language which end in -zo.", "Two of them are ''zhelezo'' \"iron\" and ''puzo'' \"belly\".", "What is the third word?\"", "There is quite a handful of other nouns that end in -zo, in the Russian language, but most of them are fairly obscure terms like авизо, abbreviations or proper names like Кензо.", "Another similar one is words ending in ''-cion'', of which the common words are ''coercion'', ''scion'', and ''suspicion''.The most similar to the gry puzzle in form is to find three words that contain the letter sequence ''shion'', to which the answer is ''cu'''shion''''', ''fa'''shion''''', and ''pari'''shion'''er''; this is typically stated by giving ''cushion'' and ''fashion'', and requesting the third word, namely ''parishioner''.", "This can be modified to finding words ''ending'' with ''-shion'', in which case the answer is the obsolete word ''parishion'', which is a synonymous variant of ''parishioner''.", "This has not been nearly as popular as the gry puzzle." ], [ "Solution techniques", "The standard way to solve such puzzles is to use a reverse dictionary, or to perform an exhaustive search through a dictionary, either manually, which is tedious and error-prone, or using computer tools such as grep, which requires an electronic word list.", "At the origin of the gry puzzle, the standard reverse dictionary in modern English was the \"Air Force Reverse Dictionary\" (formally the ''Normal and Reverse Word List'', compiled under the direction of A. F. Brown), which did not have additional answers for gry.", "The most plausible answer at the time was ''meagry'', found in the ''Oxford English Dictionary''.", "A more elaborate strategy is to list words that have endings similar to gry, such as ''-gary'', and then search a larger dictionary for obsolete variants ending in ''-gry'', for example ''begry'' for ''beggary''.From around 1980 electronic word lists became widely available on Unix systems, and searching for answers to the gry puzzle was an occasional benchmark; this also turned up ''gryphon'' in some cases, if match is not required to be at the end.", "This is now easily done in milliseconds on modern personal computers:grep gry$ /usr/share/dict/words # Search for words ending in grygrep gry /usr/share/dict/words # Search for words containing gry" ], [ "References", "*" ], [ "Further reading", "* Eckler, A. Ross.", "\"-Gry Words in the OED\".", "''Word Ways'', 25:4 (November 1992): 253–54.", "* Francis, Darryl.", "\"Some New -Gry Words\".", "''Word Ways'', 30:3 (August 1997).", "* Partridge, Harry B.", "\"Gypsy Hobby Gry\".", "''Word Ways'', 23:1 (February 1990): 9-11.A response to Scheetz's article, \"In Goodly Gree\", q.v.", "* Pearce, Murray R. \"Who's Flaithbhertach MacLoingry?\"", "''Word Ways'', 23:1 (February 1990): 6–8.A response to Scheetz's article, \"In Goodly Gree\", q.v.", "* Scheetz, George H. \"Colloquy\".", "''Word Ways'', 10 (August 1977): 152.Scheetz expands on Beaman, q.v.", "* The first comprehensive historical overview of the -gry puzzle, including a list of 51 words ending in -gry.", "Scheetz was invited to write this article by A. Ross Eckler, editor of ''Word Ways''." ], [ "External links", "* Merriam-Webster: What is the third common \"-gry\" word?", "* rec.puzzles Frequently Asked Questions: 2.2.What are the three common English words that end in -GRY?" ] ]
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[ [ "Giosuè Carducci" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Giosuè Alessandro Giuseppe Carducci''' (; 27 July 1835 – 16 February 1907) was an Italian poet, writer, literary critic and teacher.", "He was noticeably influential, and was regarded as the official national poet of modern Italy.", "In 1906, he became the first Italian to receive the Nobel Prize in Literature.", "The Swedish Academy's motivation was that \"not only in consideration of his deep learning and critical research, but above all as a tribute to the creative energy, freshness of style, and lyrical force which characterize his poetic masterpieces.\"" ], [ "Biography", "Giosuè CarducciHe was born in Valdicastello (part of Pietrasanta), a small town in the Province of Lucca in the northwest corner of the region of Tuscany.", "His father, a doctor, was an advocate of the unification of Italy and was involved with the Carbonari.", "Because of his politics, the family was forced to move several times during Carducci's childhood, eventually settling for a few years in Florence.From the time he was in school, he was fascinated with the restrained style of Greek and Roman Antiquity, and his mature work reflects a restrained classical style, often using the classical meters of such Latin poets as Horace and Virgil.", "He translated Book 9 of Homer's ''Iliad'' into Italian.Carducci was awarded a scholarship to study at the prestigious Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa.", "After graduating in 1856, he began teaching school.", "The following year, he published his first collection of poems, ''Rime''.", "These were difficult years for Carducci: his father died, and his brother committed suicide.In 1859, he married Elvira Menicucci, and they had four children.", "He briefly taught Greek at a high school in Pistoia, and then was appointed Professor of Italian Literature at the University of Bologna.", "Here, one of his students was Giovanni Pascoli, who became an eminent poet himself and later succeeded him at the university.Carducci was a popular lecturer and a fierce critic of literature and society.", "In his youth he was an atheist, whose political views were vehemently hostile to the Catholic Church.", "In the course of his life his views on religion shifted towards a socially oriented theism which he exposed in his famous \"Discorso sulla libertà perpetua di San Marino\" (\"A Speech on San Marino's Perpetual Freedom\"), pronounced on September the 30th, 1894 before the authorities and people of that ancient Republic and celebrating \"the Universal God of Peoples, Mazzini's and Washington's God\".His anti-clerical revolutionary vehemence was prominently showcased in one famous poem, the deliberately blasphemous and provocative (\"Hymn to Satan\").", "\"Satan\" / \"Lucifer\" was considered by Italian leftists of the time as a metaphor of the rebellious and freethinking spirit.", "The poem was composed in 1863 as a dinner party toast, published in 1865, then republished in 1869 by Bologna's radical newspaper, ''Il Popolo'', as a provocation timed to coincide with the First Vatican Council, a time when revolutionary fervor directed against the papacy was running high as republicans pressed both politically and militarily for an end to the Vatican's domination over the papal states.While \"Inno a Satana\" had quite a revolutionary impact, Carducci's finest poetry came in later years.", "His collections ''Rime Nuove'' (''New Rhymes'') and ''Odi Barbare'' (''Barbarian Odes'') contain his greatest works.He was the first Italian to receive the Nobel Prize in Literature, in 1906.He was also appointed senator by the King of Italy (1890).", "In politics he remained a strong Liberal throughout his life; through the years he progressively evolved from republicanism to a sort of support to monarchy.", "He was a Freemason of the Grand Orient of Italy.", "His father Michele, a physician, was also a member of the Italian Carboneria.", "Although his reputation rests primarily on his poetry, he also produced a large body of prose works.", "Indeed, his prose writings, including literary criticism, biographies, speeches and essays, fill some 20 volumes.", "Carducci was also an excellent translator and translated some of Goethe and Heine into Italian.The Museum of the Risorgimento, Bologna is housed in the Casa Carducci, the house where he died at the age of 71, and contains an exhibit on the author." ], [ "Legacy", "Carducci confessed his sins and was reconciled to the Catholic Church in 1895.On 11 September 1978, Pope John Paul I mentioned him as a \"model\" for university professors and teachers of Latin." ], [ "Works", "It is not always easy to follow the development of Carducci's poetry through the collections he edited.", "The poet in fact organized his compositions several times and in different ways and gave a definitive arrangement only later in the edition of his ''Opere'' published for Zanichelli between 1889 and 1909.The following is a list of poetic works published in one volume, then rearranged into the 20 volumes of his ''Opere''.", "* ''Rime'', San Miniato, 1857.", "* '''', 1868.", "* ''Poesie'', Firenze, Barbera, 1871.", "* ''Primavere elleniche'', 1872.", "* ''Nuove poesie'', 1873.", "* ''Odi barbare'', 1877.", "* ''Juvenilia'', 1880.", "* ''Levia Gravia'', 1881.", "* '''', 1882.", "* ''Nuove odi barbare'', 1882.", "* '''', 1887.", "* ''Terze odi barbare'', 1889.", "* ''Delle Odi barbare.", "Libri II ordinati e corretti'', 1893.", "* '''', 1899.", "* ''Poesie.", "MDCCCL-MCM'', 1901.Below are the poetic volumes in the ''Opere''.", "The volumes, however, do not correspond to the chronological order with which the poet had published his first collections, but refer more than anything else to the distinctions of genres and therefore we find poems of the same period in different collections.", "The collections follow this order:* ''Juvenilia'', in six books, 1850–1860* ''Levia Gravia'', in two books, 1861–1871* ''Inno a Satana'', 1863* ''Giambi ed Epodi'', in two books, 1867–1879* ''Intermezzo'', 1874–1887* ''Rime Nuove'', in nine books, 1861–1887* ''Odi barbare'', in two books, 1873–1889* ''Rime e Ritmi'', 1889–1898* ''Della Canzone di Legnano'', Part I, 1879=== ''Juvenilia'' ===The first collection of lyrical poems, which Carducci collected and divided in six books under the title ''Juvenilia'' (1850–1860), is undoubtedly inspired by the classical tradition of the ''Amici pedanti'' group that was constituted at that time for the purpose of fighting the romanticism of the Florentines.", "In the verses of the collection we can immediately see his imitation of the ancient classics, of the stilnovo style, of Dante and Petrarch and, among the moderns, Vittorio Alfieri, Monti, Foscolo and Leopardi.But the Carduccian spirit is already visible; his love for the beauty of style, the purity of sentiments and the celebration of liberty, as well as the ability to appreciate all that is genuine, therefore also the language of the common people." ], [ "See also", "* Jessie White Mario" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Nobel Prize Presentation Speech*Carducci Essentials: the Poems of Giosuè Carducci Translated in English, LiteraryJoint Press, 2021" ], [ "External links", "* * List of works* * * * Carducci: all the poems* Carducci poems Original Italian text" ] ]
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[ [ "List of glues" ], [ "Introduction", ":''See '''adhesive''' for general discussion of glue.", "''This is a list of various types of '''glue'''.", "Historically, the term \"glue\" only referred to protein colloids prepared from animal flesh.", "The meaning has been extended to refer to any fluid adhesive.There are many adhesive substances that are considered or commonly referred to as \"glue\"." ], [ "Plant- and animal-based adhesives", " Type Subtypes Source(s)Manufacture Chemistry Volatiles Safety PropertiesShelf lifeWorking timeSettingStrengthSolvents Uses DateRoasted hydrocarbonsTar, pitch, and asphalt/ bitumen Made from plants (especially wood) or fossil hydrocarbonsnatural or artificial destructive distillation Hydrocarbon goo of no specific chemical formula Emits Volatile organic compounds, especially when heated health effects understudied (see Asphalt#Health and safety) dark, viscous, more flexible when heatedIndefinite, may stiffenIndefiniteReversibly becomes more flexible and fluid when heatedwater-repellant, Sealant, hafting prehistoric Mixed-protein glues Casein glue Milk, limestone and brineMilk curd is mixed with alkalis non-toxic (preservatives excepted)Once wet, 6–7 hours.~4 hours for softwood, 8 for hardwood; must be under pressure for >0.5-2 hrstensile strength exceeds most woods, 2,200-3,00 pounds per square inchwater-resistant, depending on alkalis used Woodworking, paper glue, fireproof laminatesMedieval or earlierSoybean glueAs for casein glue, but using soy proteinSoy protein is mixed with alkalisAlbumin glues (blood glues and egg albumin adhesive, EAA)blood (serum albumin) or eggsprehistoricGelatin glues hide glue, including rabbit-skin glue;bone glue, and fish glue including isinglass Animal connective tissueand boneshides are acid-treated, neutralized, and repeatedly soaked; the soaking-water is dried into chipshydrolyzed collagenUntil it coolsThermoplastic.", "Somewhat brittle when setWater-soluble Cabinetmaking, bookbinding, lutherie, glue-sizeKeratin gluesHoof glue and horn gluehooves of ungulates, animal hornsHooves or horns are fragmented, boiled into goo, and acidifiedpartially- hydrolyzed keratinUntil it coolsThermoplastic.", "Hardens as it cools, but does not become brittleGluing and stiffening textiles, cabinetmaking, glass sealantFibrin gluehuman fibrinogen and human thrombin when two parts are mixed, they form fibrin10–60 secondsconverts to fibrinMedicineWaxesBeeswaxmade by insectsStarch gluespotato starch, rice glue, wheatpastestarches (plant energy-storage chemicals)Starch may be purified before being mixed with water; leaving gluten in makes a more permanent bondDextrin gluesBritish gum, Coccoinausually derived from potato starchmid-19th centuryPolysaccharide gluesmucilage, agar, alginTree gums/resinsBalsam (fir) resins, such as Canada balsam, Dammar gum, Gum Arabic (also called acacia gum), MasticLatex rubber cement(cow gum)latex, a coagulating plant fluid, also made syntheticallylatex is dissolved in an organic solventorganic solvent evaporates as it setssolvent may be hazardous; latex is an allergenMethyl cellulosecellulose, a plant structural material, and methyl chlorideheating cellulose with an alkali and reacting it with methyl chloride" ], [ "[[Solvent]]-type glues", "Solvent adhesives temporarily dissolve the substance they are gluing, and bond by solvent-welding material together with the re-solidified material.", "Type Subtypes Source(s)Manufacture Chemistry Volatiles Safety PropertiesShelf lifeWorking timeSettingStrengthSolvents Uses DateKetonesAcetonedissolves ABS plasticit is volatilePolystyrene cement/Butanone/methyl ethyl ketone (MEK)dissolves polystyreneit is volatileVapour is heavier-than-air and explosive.", "Toxic, neuropsychological effects.", "Rapidly absorbed through undamaged skin and lungs.", "Produces toxic ozone.DichloromethaneDissolves:* Polycarbonate* Polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA), commonly called \"acrylic glass\" among other brand namesit is volatile, boiling at 39.6°C (103.3°F; 312.8K)Will also glue acrylic to wood.", "Clear, waterproof, exterior grades exist.24 hours to set fully." ], [ "Synthetic glues", "===Synthetic monomer glues===A tube of Super Glue cyanoacrylate Type Subtypes Source(s)Manufacture Chemistry Volatiles Safety PropertiesShelf lifeWorking timeSettingStrengthSolvents Uses DateAcrylonitrilesynthetic monomerCyanoacrylate (\"Superglue\", \"Krazy Glue\")synthetic monomerMethyl acrylate (\"acrylic\")synthetic monomer===Synthetic polymer glues=======Thermoplastic polymers====Thermoplastic glues including hot-melt adhesives cure reversibly as they cool, like the gelatin and keratin glues listed above.", "They frequently don't emit volatiles unless overheated.", "Type Subtypes Source(s)Manufacture Chemistry Volatiles Safety PropertiesShelf lifeSettingStrengthSolvents Uses Date Ethylene-vinyl acetatesyntheticpolyethylene mixed with about 11% vinyl acetatePolyolefins(polyethylene, polypropylene, etc.", ")syntheticthermosetting Polyamidessynthetic Polyesterssynthetic Polyurethanessynthetic Polycaprolactonesyntheticbiodegradablevery low melting temperature, and heat conductivity means it can be moulded by hand.", "Can be used to mould itself.", "* Styrene acrylic copolymer – e.g.", "\"No More Nails\"====Thermosetting polymers====Thermosetting glues or thermosets cure irreversibly by polymerization.", "The polymerization can be triggered by heat or other radiation, or high pressure or a catalyst/hardener may be added.", "Type Subtypes Source(s)Manufacture Chemistry Volatiles Safety PropertiesShelf lifeWorking timeSettingStrengthSolvents Uses Date Phenol formaldehyde resins (PF), also called phenolic resins Resorcinol glue, Para tertiary butylphenol formaldehyde resinsyntheticresorcinol or similar is mixed with phenol to make a resin; cured by adding formaldehydeoffgasses phenol and formeldehydephenol and formeldehyde are toxic, PTBPF causes contact allergiesTemperature-, UV-, and microbe-resistant.", "No gap-filling; joint must fit tightly.", "Brown in colour, sands off.A few years, unmixed.Temperature-dependent.", "Will not cure at temperatures below .Needs to be clampedStructuralWater-soluble until set, waterproof after.laminating plywood, especially for exterior use; woodworkingUrea-formaldehyde gluesyntheticurea and formaldehydeoffgasses urea and formeldehydeformeldehyde is toxic, urea is an irritantthermosettingPolysulfidessyntheticWill melt acrylic, polycarbonate, ABS and PVC plastic.", "Can be used to glue nylon, epoxy, and polyoxymethylene.", "* Epoxy resins** Epoxy putty* Polyvinyls** Polyvinyl acetate (PVA) Includes white glue (e.g.", "Elmer's Glue) and yellow carpenter's glue (Aliphatic resin) (Brands include Titebond and Lepage)** Polyvinyl alcohol** Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)** Polyvinyl chloride emulsion (PVCE) – a water-miscible emulsion that polymerizes as it cures** Polyvinylpyrrolidone (component of glue sticks)* Silicone resins* Silyl modified polymers" ], [ "By use", "* Postage stamp gum may be a mixture of assorted starch and resin adhesives* Library paste is usually starch-based* Meat glue is a variety of culinary binding agents" ], [ "References" ] ]
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[ [ "Geyser" ], [ "Introduction", "A cross-section of a geyser in actionA '''geyser''' (, ) is a spring characterized by an intermittent discharge of water ejected turbulently and accompanied by steam.", "As a fairly rare phenomenon, the formation of geysers is due to particular hydrogeological conditions that exist only in a few places on Earth.", "Generally all geyser field sites are located near active volcanic areas, and the geyser effect is due to the proximity of magma.", "Generally, surface water works its way down to an average depth of around where it contacts hot rocks.", "The resultant boiling of the pressurized water results in the geyser effect of hot water and steam spraying out of the geyser's surface vent.A geyser's eruptive activity may change or cease due to ongoing mineral deposition within the geyser plumbing, exchange of functions with nearby hot springs, earthquake influences, and human intervention.", "Like many other natural phenomena, geysers are not unique to Earth.", "Jet-like eruptions, often referred to as cryogeysers, have been observed on several of the moons of the outer solar system.", "Due to the low ambient pressures, these eruptions consist of vapor without liquid; they are made more easily visible by particles of dust and ice carried aloft by the gas.", "Water vapor jets have been observed near the south pole of Saturn's moon Enceladus, while nitrogen eruptions have been observed on Neptune's moon Triton.", "There are also signs of carbon dioxide eruptions from the southern polar ice cap of Mars.", "In the case of Enceladus, the plumes are believed to be driven by internal energy.", "In the cases of the venting on Mars and Triton, the activity may be a result of solar heating via a solid-state greenhouse effect.", "In all three cases, there is no evidence of the subsurface hydrological system which differentiates terrestrial geysers from other sorts of venting, such as fumaroles." ], [ "Etymology", "The term 'geyser' in English dates back to the late 18th century and comes from Geysir, which is a geyser in Iceland.", "Its name means \"one who gushes\"." ], [ "Geology", "=== Form and function ===Steamboat Geyser in Yellowstone National Park|thumb|250pxGeysers are nonpermanent geological features.", "Geysers are generally associated with volcanic areas.", "As the water boils, the resulting pressure forces a superheated column of steam and water to the surface through the geyser's internal plumbing.", "The formation of geysers specifically requires the combination of three geologic conditions that are usually found in volcanic terrain: intense heat, water, and a waterworks system.The heat needed for geyser formation comes from magma that needs to be close to the surface of the earth.", "In order for the heated water to form a geyser, a plumbing system (made of fractures, fissures, porous spaces, and sometimes cavities) is required.", "This includes a reservoir to hold the water while it is being heated.", "Geysers are generally aligned along faults.=== Eruptions ===150px 150px150px 150pxStrokkur geyser erupting (clockwise from top left)# Steam rises from heated water# Pulses of water swell upward# Surface is broken# Ejected water spouts upward and falls back down into the pipeGeyser activity, like all hot spring activity, is caused by surface water gradually seeping down through the ground until it meets rock heated by magma.", "In non-eruptive hot springs, the geothermally heated water then rises back toward the surface by convection through porous and fractured rocks, while in geysers, the water instead is explosively forced upwards by the high steam pressure created when water boils below.", "Geysers also differ from non-eruptive hot springs in their subterranean structure; many consist of a small vent at the surface connected to one or more narrow tubes that lead to underground reservoirs of water and pressure tight rock.As the geyser fills, the water at the top of the column cools off, but because of the narrowness of the channel, convective cooling of the water in the reservoir is impossible.", "The cooler water above presses down on the hotter water beneath, not unlike the lid of a pressure cooker, allowing the water in the reservoir to become superheated, i.e.", "to remain liquid at temperatures well above the standard-pressure boiling point.Ultimately, the temperatures near the bottom of the geyser rise to a point where boiling begins, forcing steam bubbles to rise to the top of the column.", "As they burst through the geyser's vent, some water overflows or splashes out, reducing the weight of the column and thus the pressure on the water below.", "With this release of pressure, the superheated water flashes into steam, boiling violently throughout the column.", "The resulting froth of expanding steam and hot water then sprays out of the geyser vent.A key requirement that enables a geyser to erupt is a material called geyserite found in rocks nearby the geyser.", "Geyserite, mostly silicon dioxide (SiO2), is dissolved from the rocks and is deposited on the walls of the geyser's plumbing system and on the surface.", "The deposits make the channels carrying the water up to the surface pressure-tight.", "This allows the pressure to be carried all the way to the top and not leak out into the loose gravel or soil that are normally under the geyser fields.Eventually the water remaining in the geyser cools back to below the boiling point and the eruption ends; heated groundwater begins seeping back into the reservoir, and the whole cycle begins again.", "The duration of eruptions and time between successive eruptions vary greatly from geyser to geyser; Strokkur in Iceland erupts for a few seconds every few minutes, while Grand Geyser in the United States erupts for up to 10 minutes every 8–12 hours.=== General categorization ===There are two types of geysers: ''fountain geysers'' which erupt from pools of water, typically in a series of intense, even violent, bursts; and ''cone geysers'' which erupt from cones or mounds of siliceous sinter (including geyserite), usually in steady jets that last anywhere from a few seconds to several minutes.", "Old Faithful, perhaps the best-known geyser at Yellowstone National Park, is an example of a cone geyser.", "Grand Geyser, the tallest predictable geyser on earth, (although Geysir in Iceland is taller, it is not predictable), also at Yellowstone National Park, is an example of a fountain geyser.There are many volcanic areas in the world that have hot springs, mud pots and fumaroles, but very few have erupting geysers.", "The main reason for their rarity is because multiple intense transient forces must occur simultaneously for a geyser to exist.", "For example, even when other necessary conditions exist, if the rock structure is loose, eruptions will erode the channels and rapidly destroy any nascent geysers.Geysers are fragile phenomena and if conditions change, they may go dormant or extinct.", "Many have been destroyed simply by people throwing debris into them while others have ceased to erupt due to dewatering by geothermal power plants.", "However, the Geysir in Iceland has had periods of activity and dormancy.", "During its long dormant periods, eruptions were sometimes artificially induced—often on special occasions—by the addition of surfactant soaps to the water." ], [ "Biology", "Hyperthermophiles produce some of the bright colors of Grand Prismatic Spring, Yellowstone National ParkThe specific colours of geysers derive from the fact that despite the apparently harsh conditions, life is often found in them (and also in other hot habitats) in the form of thermophilic prokaryotes.", "No known eukaryote can survive over .In the 1960s, when the research of the biology of geysers first appeared, scientists were generally convinced that no life can survive above around —the upper limit for the survival of cyanobacteria, as the structure of key cellular proteins and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) would be destroyed.", "The optimal temperature for thermophilic bacteria was placed even lower, around .However, the observations proved that it is actually possible for life to exist at high temperatures and that some bacteria even prefer temperatures higher than the boiling point of water.", "Dozens of such bacteria are known.Thermophiles prefer temperatures from , whilst hyperthermophiles grow better at temperatures as high as .", "As they have heat-stable enzymes that retain their activity even at high temperatures, they have been used as a source of thermostable tools, that are important in medicine and biotechnology, for example in manufacturing antibiotics, plastics, detergents (by the use of heat-stable enzymes lipases, pullulanases and proteases), and fermentation products (for example ethanol is produced).", "Among these, the first discovered and the most important for biotechnology is ''Thermus aquaticus''." ], [ "Major geyser fields and their distribution", "Distribution of major geysers in the world.Geysers are quite rare, requiring a combination of water, heat, and fortuitous plumbing.", "The combination exists in few places on Earth.=== Yellowstone National Park, U.S. ===Yellowstone is the largest geyser locale, containing thousands of hot springs, and approximately 300 to 500 geysers.", "It is home to half of the world's total number of geysers in its nine geyser basins.", "It is located mostly in Wyoming, USA, with small portions in Montana and Idaho.", "Yellowstone includes the world's tallest active geyser (Steamboat Geyser in Norris Geyser Basin).=== Valley of Geysers, Russia ===Breathing Geyser Double, Valley of Geysers in Kamchatka KraiThe Valley of Geysers () located in the Kamchatka Peninsula of Russia is the second largest concentration of geysers in the world.", "The area was discovered and explored by Tatyana Ustinova in 1941.Approximately 200 geysers exist in the area along with many hot-water springs and perpetual spouters.", "The area was formed due to a vigorous volcanic activity.", "The peculiar way of eruptions is an important feature of these geysers.", "Most of the geysers erupt at angles, and only very few have the geyser cones that exist at many other of the world's geyser fields.", "On June 3, 2007, a massive mudflow influenced two thirds of the valley.", "It was then reported that a thermal lake was forming above the valley.", "Few days later, waters were observed to have receded somewhat, exposing some of the submerged features.", "Velikan Geyser, one of the field's largest, was not buried in the slide and has recently been observed to be active.=== El Tatio, Chile ===A geyser bubbling at El Tatio geyser fieldThe name \"El Tatio\" comes from the Quechua word for ''oven''.", "El Tatio is located in the high valleys on the Andes surrounded by many active volcanoes in Chile, South America at around above mean sea level.", "The valley is home to approximately 80 geysers at present.", "It became the largest geyser field in the Southern Hemisphere after the destruction of many of the New Zealand geysers, and is the third largest geyser field in the world.", "The salient feature of these geysers is that the height of their eruptions is very low, the tallest being only high, but with steam columns that can be over high.", "The average geyser eruption height at El Tatio is about .=== Taupō Volcanic Zone, New Zealand ===The Taupō Volcanic Zone is located on New Zealand's North Island.", "It is long by and lies over a subduction zone in the Earth's crust.", "Mount Ruapehu marks its southwestern end, while the submarine Whakatāne seamount ( beyond Whakaari / White Island) is considered its northeastern limit.", "Many geysers in this zone were destroyed due to geothermal developments and a hydroelectric reservoir, but several dozen geysers still exist.", "In the beginning of the 20th century, the largest geyser ever known, the Waimangu Geyser existed in this zone.", "It began erupting in 1900 and erupted periodically for four years until a landslide changed the local water table.", "Eruptions of Waimangu would typically reach and some superbursts are known to have reached .", "Recent scientific work indicates that the Earth's crust below the zone may be as little as thick.", "Beneath this lies a film of magma wide and long.=== Iceland ===Due to the high rate of volcanic activity in Iceland, it is home to some of the most famous geysers in the world.", "There are around 20–29 active geysers in the country as well as numerous formerly active geysers.", "Icelandic geysers are distributed in the zone stretching from south-west to north-east, along the boundary between the Eurasian Plate and the North American Plate.", "Most of the Icelandic geysers are comparatively short-lived, it is also characteristic that many geysers here are reactivated or newly created after earthquakes, becoming dormant or extinct after some years or some decades.Two most prominent geysers of Iceland are located in Haukadalur.", "''The Great Geysir'', which first erupted in the 14th century, gave rise to the word ''geyser''.", "By 1896, Geysir was almost dormant before an earthquake that year caused eruptions to begin again, occurring several times a day, but in 1916, eruptions all but ceased.", "Throughout much of the 20th century, eruptions did happen from time to time, usually following earthquakes.", "Some man-made improvements were made to the spring and eruptions were forced with soap on special occasions.", "Earthquakes in June 2000 subsequently reawakened the giant for a time but it is not currently erupting regularly.", "The nearby Strokkur geyser erupts every 5–8 minutes to a height of some .Geysers are known to have existed in at least a dozen other areas on the island.", "Some former geysers have developed historical farms, which benefitted from the use of the hot water since medieval times.=== Extinct and dormant geyser fields ===There used to be two large geysers fields in Nevada—Beowawe and Steamboat Springs—but they were destroyed by the installation of nearby geothermal power plants.", "At the plants, geothermal drilling reduced the available heat and lowered the local water table to the point that geyser activity could no longer be sustained.Many of New Zealand's geysers have been destroyed by humans in the last century.", "Several New Zealand geysers have also become dormant or extinct by natural means.", "The main remaining field is Whakarewarewa at Rotorua.", "Two thirds of the geysers at Orakei Korako were flooded by the construction of the hydroelectric Ohakuri dam in 1961.The Wairakei field was lost to a geothermal power plant in 1958.The Rotomahana field was destroyed by the 1886 eruption of Mount Tarawera." ], [ "Misnamed geysers", "There are various other types of geysers which are different in nature compared to the normal steam-driven geysers.", "These geysers differ not only in their style of eruption but also in the cause that makes them erupt.=== Artificial geysers ===In a number of places where there is geothermal activity, wells have been drilled and fitted with impermeable casements that allow them to erupt like geysers.", "The vents of such geysers are artificial, but are tapped into natural hydrothermal systems.", "These so-called ''artificial geysers'', technically known as ''erupting geothermal wells'', are not true geysers.", "Little Old Faithful Geyser, in Calistoga, California, is an example.", "The geyser erupts from the casing of a well drilled in the late 19th century.", "According to Dr. John Rinehart in his book ''A Guide to Geyser Gazing'' (1976 p. 49), a man had drilled into the geyser in search for water.", "He had \"simply opened up a dead geyser\".In the case of the Big Mine Run Geyser in Ashland, Pennsylvania, the heat powering the geyser (which erupts from an abandoned mine vent) comes not from geothermal power, but from the long-simmering Centralia mine fire.=== Perpetual spouter ===This is a natural hot spring that spouts water constantly without stopping for recharge.", "Some of these are incorrectly called geysers, but because they are not periodic in nature they are not considered true geysers." ], [ "Commercialization", "geyser Strokkur in Iceland – a tourist spot.Geysers are used for various activities such as electricity generation, heating and tourism.", "Many geothermal reserves are found all around the world.", "The geyser fields in Iceland are some of the most commercially viable geyser locations in the world.", "Since the 1920s hot water directed from the geysers has been used to heat greenhouses and to grow food that otherwise could not have been cultivated in Iceland's inhospitable climate.", "Steam and hot water from the geysers has also been used for heating homes since 1943 in Iceland.", "In 1979 the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) actively promoted development of geothermal energy in the \"Geysers-Calistoga Known Geothermal Resource Area\" (KGRA) near Calistoga, California through a variety of research programs and the Geothermal Loan Guarantee Program.", "The Department is obligated by law to assess the potential environmental impacts of geothermal development." ], [ "Extraterrestrial geyser-like features", "There are many bodies in the Solar System where eruptions which superficially resemble terrestrial geysers have been observed or are believed to occur.", "Despite being commonly referred to as geysers, they are driven by fundamentally different processes, consist of a wide range of volatiles, and can occur on vastly disparate scales; from the modestly sized Martian carbon dioxide jets to the immense plumes of Enceladus.", "Generally, there are two broad categories of feature commonly referred to as geysers: sublimation plumes, and cryovolcanic plumes (also referred to as cryogeysers).", "'''Sublimation plumes''' are jets of sublimated volatiles and dust from shallow sources under icy surfaces.", "Known examples include the CO2 jets on Mars, and the nitrogen eruptions on Neptune's moon Triton.On Mars carbon dioxide jets are believed to occur in the southern polar region of Mars during spring, as a layer of dry ice accumulated over winter is warmed by the sun.", "Although these jets have not yet been directly observed, they leave evidence visible from orbit in the form of dark spots and lighter fans atop the dry ice.", "These features consist primarily of sand and dust blown out by the outbursts, as well as spider-like patterns of channels created below the ice by the rapid flow of CO2 gas.", "There are a plethora of theories to explain the eruptions, including heating from sunlight, chemical reactions, or even biological activity.Triton was found to have active eruptions of nitrogen and dust by ''Voyager 2'' when it flew past the moon in 1989.These plumes were up to 8km high, where winds would blow them up to 150km downwind, creating long, dark streaks across the otherwise bright south polar ice cap.", "There are various theories as to what drives the activity on Triton, such as solar heating through transparent ice, cryovolcanism, or basal heating of nitrogen ice sheets.", "'''Cryovolcanic plumes''' or '''cryogeysers''' generally refer to large-scale eruptions of predominantly water vapour from active cryovolcanic features on certain icy moons.", "Such plumes occur on Saturn's moon Enceladus and Jupiter's moon Europa.Plumes of water vapour, together with ice particles and smaller amounts of other components (such as carbon dioxide, nitrogen, ammonia, hydrocarbons and silicates), have been observed erupting from vents associated with the \"tiger stripes\" in the south polar region of Enceladus by the ''Cassini'' orbiter.", "These plumes are the source of the material in Saturn's E ring.", "The mechanism which causes these eruptions are generated remains uncertain, as well as to what extent they are physically linked to Enceladus' subsurface ocean, but they are believed to be powered at least in part by tidal heating.", "''Cassini'' flew through these plumes several times, allowing direct analysis of water from inside another solar system body for the first time.In December 2013, the Hubble Space Telescope detected water vapor plumes potentially 200km high above the south polar region of Europa.", "Re-examination of ''Galileo'' data also suggested that it may have flown through a plume during a flyby in 1997.Water was also detected by the Keck Observatory in 2016, announced in a 2019 Nature article speculating the cause to be a cryovolcanic eruption.", "It is thought that Europa's lineae might be venting this water vapor into space in a similar manner to the \"tiger stripes\" of Enceladus." ], [ "See also", "* * * * * * *" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Bryan, T. Scott (1995).", "''The geysers of Yellowstone''.", "Niwot, Colorado: University Press of Colorado.", "* Glennon, J.A., Pfaff, R.M.", "(2003).", "''The extraordinary thermal activity of El Tatio Geyser Field, Antofagasta Region, Chile'', Geyser Observation and Study Association (GOSA) Transactions, vol 8.pp. 31–78.", "* Glennon, J.A.", "(2007). ''", "About Geysers'', University of California, Santa Barbara.", "Originally posted January 1995, updated June 4, 2007.Accessed 8 June 2007.", "* Kelly W.D., Wood C.L.", "(1993).", "''Tidal interaction: A possible explanation for geysers and other fluid phenomena in the Neptune-Triton system'', in Lunar and Planetary Inst., Twenty-Fourth Lunar and Planetary Science Conference.", "Part 2: 789–790.", "* * Schreier, Carl (2003).", "''Yellowstone's geysers, hot springs and fumaroles (Field guide)'' (2nd ed.).", "Homestead Pub.", "* * Allen, E.T.", "and Day, A.L.", "(1935) ''Hot Springs of the Yellowstone National Park'', Publ.", "466.Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington, D.C., 525 p.* Barth, T.F.W.", "(1950) Volcanic Geology: ''Hot Springs and Geysers of Iceland'', Publ.", "587.Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington, D.C., 174 p.* * * * * * * * * * Hreggvidsson, G.O.", "; Kaiste, E.; Holst, O.; Eggertsson, G.; Palsdottier, A.; Kristjansson, J.K. ''An Extremely Thermostable Cellulase from the Thermophilic Eubacterium Rhodothermus marinus.''", "Applied and Environmental Microbiology.", "'''1996''', 62(8), 3047–3049.", "* * * Iogen doubles EcoEthanol Capacity.", "April 28, 2003.", "(accessed May 17, '''2003''').", "* * * * Ryback and L.J.P.", "Muffler, ed., ''Geothermal Systems: Principles and Case Histories'' (New York: John Wiley & Sons, '''1981'''), 26.", "* Harsh K. Gupta, ''Geothermal Resources: An Energy Alternative'' (Amsterdam: Elsevier Scientific Publishing, '''1980'''), 186.", "* The Earth Explored: ''Geothermal Energy'', 19857 videocassette.", "* Brimner, Larry Dane.", "''Geysers''.", "New York: Children's Press, '''2000'''.", "* Downs, Sandra.", "''Earth's Fiery Fury.''", "Brookfield, CT: Twenty-First Century Books, '''2000'''.", "* Gallant, Roy A.", "''Geysers: When Earth Roars.''", "New York: Scholastic Library Publishing, '''1997'''.", "*" ], [ "External links", "* ''Geysers and How They Work'' by Yellowstone National Park* Geyser Observation and Study Association (GOSA)* GeyserTimes.org* Geysers of Yellowstone: Online Videos and Descriptions* ''About Geysers'' by Alan Glennon* ''Geysers'', The UnMuseum* ''Johnston's Archive Geyser Resources''* ''The Geology of the Icelandic geysers'' by Dr. Helgi Torfason, geologist* ''Geysers and the Earth's Plumbing Systems'' by Meg Streepey* National Geographic*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gaussian elimination" ], [ "Introduction", "Animation of Gaussian elimination.", "Red row eliminates the following rows, green rows change their order.In mathematics, '''Gaussian elimination''', also known as '''row reduction''', is an algorithm for solving systems of linear equations.", "It consists of a sequence of row-wise operations performed on the corresponding matrix of coefficients.", "This method can also be used to compute the rank of a matrix, the determinant of a square matrix, and the inverse of an invertible matrix.", "The method is named after Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777–1855).", "To perform row reduction on a matrix, one uses a sequence of elementary row operations to modify the matrix until the lower left-hand corner of the matrix is filled with zeros, as much as possible.", "There are three types of elementary row operations:* Swapping two rows,* Multiplying a row by a nonzero number,* Adding a multiple of one row to another row.Using these operations, a matrix can always be transformed into an upper triangular matrix, and in fact one that is in row echelon form.", "Once all of the leading coefficients (the leftmost nonzero entry in each row) are 1, and every column containing a leading coefficient has zeros elsewhere, the matrix is said to be in reduced row echelon form.", "This final form is unique; in other words, it is independent of the sequence of row operations used.", "For example, in the following sequence of row operations (where two elementary operations on different rows are done at the first and third steps), the third and fourth matrices are the ones in row echelon form, and the final matrix is the unique reduced row echelon form.Using row operations to convert a matrix into reduced row echelon form is sometimes called ''''''.", "In this case, the term ''Gaussian elimination'' refers to the process until it has reached its upper triangular, or (unreduced) row echelon form.", "For computational reasons, when solving systems of linear equations, it is sometimes preferable to stop row operations before the matrix is completely reduced." ], [ "Definitions and example of algorithm", "The process of row reduction makes use of elementary row operations, and can be divided into two parts.", "The first part (sometimes called forward elimination) reduces a given system to row echelon form, from which one can tell whether there are no solutions, a unique solution, or infinitely many solutions.", "The second part (sometimes called back substitution) continues to use row operations until the solution is found; in other words, it puts the matrix into reduced row echelon form.Another point of view, which turns out to be very useful to analyze the algorithm, is that row reduction produces a matrix decomposition of the original matrix.", "The elementary row operations may be viewed as the multiplication on the left of the original matrix by elementary matrices.", "Alternatively, a sequence of elementary operations that reduces a single row may be viewed as multiplication by a Frobenius matrix.", "Then the first part of the algorithm computes an LU decomposition, while the second part writes the original matrix as the product of a uniquely determined invertible matrix and a uniquely determined reduced row echelon matrix.=== Row operations ===There are three types of elementary row operations which may be performed on the rows of a matrix:# Swap the positions of two rows.# Multiply a row by a non-zero scalar.# Add to one row a scalar multiple of another.If the matrix is associated to a system of linear equations, then these operations do not change the solution set.", "Therefore, if one's goal is to solve a system of linear equations, then using these row operations could make the problem easier.=== Echelon form ===For each row in a matrix, if the row does not consist of only zeros, then the leftmost nonzero entry is called the ''leading coefficient'' (or ''pivot'') of that row.", "So if two leading coefficients are in the same column, then a row operation of type 3 could be used to make one of those coefficients zero.", "Then by using the row swapping operation, one can always order the rows so that for every non-zero row, the leading coefficient is to the right of the leading coefficient of the row above.", "If this is the case, then matrix is said to be in row echelon form.", "So the lower left part of the matrix contains only zeros, and all of the zero rows are below the non-zero rows.", "The word \"echelon\" is used here because one can roughly think of the rows being ranked by their size, with the largest being at the top and the smallest being at the bottom.For example, the following matrix is in row echelon form, and its leading coefficients are shown in red:It is in echelon form because the zero row is at the bottom, and the leading coefficient of the second row (in the third column), is to the right of the leading coefficient of the first row (in the second column).A matrix is said to be in reduced row echelon form if furthermore all of the leading coefficients are equal to 1 (which can be achieved by using the elementary row operation of type 2), and in every column containing a leading coefficient, all of the other entries in that column are zero (which can be achieved by using elementary row operations of type 3).=== Example of the algorithm ===Suppose the goal is to find and describe the set of solutions to the following system of linear equations:The table below is the row reduction process applied simultaneously to the system of equations and its associated augmented matrix.", "In practice, one does not usually deal with the systems in terms of equations, but instead makes use of the augmented matrix, which is more suitable for computer manipulations.", "The row reduction procedure may be summarized as follows: eliminate from all equations below , and then eliminate from all equations below .", "This will put the system into triangular form.", "Then, using back-substitution, each unknown can be solved for.", ": System of equations Row operations Augmented matrix The matrix is now in echelon form (also called triangular form) The second column describes which row operations have just been performed.", "So for the first step, the is eliminated from by adding to .", "Next, is eliminated from by adding to .", "These row operations are labelled in the table asOnce is also eliminated from the third row, the result is a system of linear equations in triangular form, and so the first part of the algorithm is complete.", "From a computational point of view, it is faster to solve the variables in reverse order, a process known as back-substitution.", "One sees the solution is , , and .", "So there is a unique solution to the original system of equations.Instead of stopping once the matrix is in echelon form, one could continue until the matrix is in ''reduced'' row echelon form, as it is done in the table.", "The process of row reducing until the matrix is reduced is sometimes referred to as Gauss–Jordan elimination, to distinguish it from stopping after reaching echelon form." ], [ "History", "The method of Gaussian elimination appears – albeit without proof – in the Chinese mathematical text Chapter Eight: ''Rectangular Arrays'' of ''The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art''.", "Its use is illustrated in eighteen problems, with two to five equations.", "The first reference to the book by this title is dated to 179 AD, but parts of it were written as early as approximately 150 BC.", "It was commented on by Liu Hui in the 3rd century.The method in Europe stems from the notes of Isaac Newton.", "In 1670, he wrote that all the algebra books known to him lacked a lesson for solving simultaneous equations, which Newton then supplied.", "Cambridge University eventually published the notes as ''Arithmetica Universalis'' in 1707 long after Newton had left academic life.", "The notes were widely imitated, which made (what is now called) Gaussian elimination a standard lesson in algebra textbooks by the end of the 18th century.", "Carl Friedrich Gauss in 1810 devised a notation for symmetric elimination that was adopted in the 19th century by professional hand computers to solve the normal equations of least-squares problems.", "The algorithm that is taught in high school was named for Gauss only in the 1950s as a result of confusion over the history of the subject.Some authors use the term ''Gaussian elimination'' to refer only to the procedure until the matrix is in echelon form, and use the term Gauss–Jordan elimination to refer to the procedure which ends in reduced echelon form.", "The name is used because it is a variation of Gaussian elimination as described by Wilhelm Jordan in 1888.However, the method also appears in an article by Clasen published in the same year.", "Jordan and Clasen probably discovered Gauss–Jordan elimination independently." ], [ "Applications", "Historically, the first application of the row reduction method is for solving systems of linear equations.", "Below are some other important applications of the algorithm.=== Computing determinants ===To explain how Gaussian elimination allows the computation of the determinant of a square matrix, we have to recall how the elementary row operations change the determinant:* Swapping two rows multiplies the determinant by −1* Multiplying a row by a nonzero scalar multiplies the determinant by the same scalar* Adding to one row a scalar multiple of another does not change the determinant.If Gaussian elimination applied to a square matrix produces a row echelon matrix , let be the product of the scalars by which the determinant has been multiplied, using the above rules.", "Then the determinant of is the quotient by of the product of the elements of the diagonal of :Computationally, for an matrix, this method needs only arithmetic operations, while using Leibniz formula for determinants requires operations (number of summands in the formula), andrecursive Laplace expansion requires operations (number of sub-determinants to compute, if none is computed twice).", "Even on the fastest computers, these two methods are impractical or almost impracticable for above 20.=== Finding the inverse of a matrix ===A variant of Gaussian elimination called Gauss–Jordan elimination can be used for finding the inverse of a matrix, if it exists.", "If is an square matrix, then one can use row reduction to compute its inverse matrix, if it exists.", "First, the identity matrix is augmented to the right of , forming an block matrix .", "Now through application of elementary row operations, find the reduced echelon form of this matrix.", "The matrix is invertible if and only if the left block can be reduced to the identity matrix ; in this case the right block of the final matrix is .", "If the algorithm is unable to reduce the left block to , then is not invertible.For example, consider the following matrix:To find the inverse of this matrix, one takes the following matrix augmented by the identity and row-reduces it as a 3 × 6 matrix:By performing row operations, one can check that the reduced row echelon form of this augmented matrix isOne can think of each row operation as the left product by an elementary matrix.", "Denoting by the product of these elementary matrices, we showed, on the left, that , and therefore, .", "On the right, we kept a record of , which we know is the inverse desired.", "This procedure for finding the inverse works for square matrices of any size.=== Computing ranks and bases ===The Gaussian elimination algorithm can be applied to any matrix .", "In this way, for example, some 6 × 9 matrices can be transformed to a matrix that has a row echelon form likewhere the stars are arbitrary entries, and are nonzero entries.", "This echelon matrix contains a wealth of information about : the rank of is 5, since there are 5 nonzero rows in ; the vector space spanned by the columns of has a basis consisting of its columns 1, 3, 4, 7 and 9 (the columns with in ), and the stars show how the other columns of can be written as linear combinations of the basis columns.", "This is a consequence of the distributivity of the dot product in the expression of a linear map as a matrix.All of this applies also to the reduced row echelon form, which is a particular row echelon format." ], [ "Computational efficiency", "The number of arithmetic operations required to perform row reduction is one way of measuring the algorithm's computational efficiency.", "For example, to solve a system of equations for unknowns by performing row operations on the matrix until it is in echelon form, and then solving for each unknown in reverse order, requires divisions, multiplications, and subtractions, for a total of approximately operations.", "Thus it has a time complexity of .This complexity is a good measure of the time needed for the whole computation when the time for each arithmetic operation is approximately constant.", "This is the case when the coefficients are represented by floating-point numbers or when they belong to a finite field.", "If the coefficients are integers or rational numbers exactly represented, the intermediate entries can grow exponentially large, so the bit complexity is exponential.However, there is a variant of Gaussian elimination, called the Bareiss algorithm, that avoids this exponential growth of the intermediate entries and, with the same arithmetic complexity of , has a bit complexity of .This algorithm can be used on a computer for systems with thousands of equations and unknowns.", "However, the cost becomes prohibitive for systems with millions of equations.", "These large systems are generally solved using iterative methods.", "Specific methods exist for systems whose coefficients follow a regular pattern (see system of linear equations).To put an matrix into reduced echelon form by row operations, one needs arithmetic operations, which is approximately 50% more computation steps.=== Strongly-polynomial-time algorithm ===A further improvement was made by Jack Edmonds in 1967.He proved that Gaussian elimination can be done in strongly-polynomial time.", "The main challenge is how to represent the rational numbers generated during the computation:* One version is to represent each rational number in its reduced form (two coprime integers).", "However, this requires us to reduce each intermediate fraction using the Euclidean algorithm, which is weakly-polynomial-time but not strongly-polynomial-time (it is polynomial in the Turing machine model but not in the arithmetic model).", "* Another version is to store each rational number in the form in which it is computed, with no reduction at all.", "This algorithm requires a polynomial number of operations in the arithmetic model, but the encoding size grows exponentially, so it is not polynomial in the Turing model.", "As an example, if the input matrix has 2's on the main diagonal and 1's below the main diagonal and 0's above the main diagonal, and we always pivot on the element of the main diagonal, then the numbers in step ''k'' are .", "* Edmonds used a third way to represent the fractions, which is partially reduced, and proved that it leads to a run-time that is polynomial in both the arithmetic model and the Turing machine model.As a corollary, the following problems can be solved in strongly-polynomial time: * Testing whether ''m'' given rational vectors are linearly independent.", "* Computing the Determinant of a rational matrix.", "* Computing a solution of a rational equation system ''Ax'' = ''b''.", "* Computing the inverse matrix of a nonsingular rational matrix.", "* Computing the rank of a rational matrix.=== Numeric instability ===One possible problem is numerical instability, caused by the possibility of dividing by very small numbers.", "If, for example, the leading coefficient of one of the rows is very close to zero, then to row-reduce the matrix, one would need to divide by that number.", "This means that any error existed for the number that was close to zero would be amplified.", "Gaussian elimination is numerically stable for diagonally dominant or positive-definite matrices.", "For general matrices, Gaussian elimination is usually considered to be stable, when using partial pivoting, even though there are examples of stable matrices for which it is unstable." ], [ "Generalizations", "Gaussian elimination can be performed over any field, not just the real numbers.Buchberger's algorithm is a generalization of Gaussian elimination to systems of polynomial equations.", "This generalization depends heavily on the notion of a monomial order.", "The choice of an ordering on the variables is already implicit in Gaussian elimination, manifesting as the choice to work from left to right when selecting pivot positions.Computing the rank of a tensor of order greater than 2 is NP-hard.", "Therefore, if , there cannot be a polynomial time analog of Gaussian elimination for higher-order tensors (matrices are array representations of order-2 tensors)." ], [ "Pseudocode", "As explained above, Gaussian elimination transforms a given matrix into a matrix in row-echelon form.In the following pseudocode, Ai, j denotes the entry of the matrix in row and column with the indices starting from 1.The transformation is performed ''in place'', meaning that the original matrix is lost for being eventually replaced by its row-echelon form.", "h := 1 /* ''Initialization of the pivot row'' */ k := 1 /* ''Initialization of the pivot column'' */ '''while''' h ≤ m '''and''' k ≤ n /* ''Find the k-th pivot:'' */ i_max := argmax (i = h ... m, abs(Ai, k)) '''if''' Ai_max, k = 0 /* ''No pivot in this column, pass to next column'' */ k := k + 1 '''else''' '''swap rows'''(h, i_max) /* ''Do for all rows below pivot:'' */ '''for''' i = h + 1 ... m: f := Ai, k / Ah, k /* ''Fill with zeros the lower part of pivot column:'' */ Ai, k := 0 /* ''Do for all remaining elements in current row:'' */ '''for''' j = k + 1 ... n: Ai, j := Ai, j - Ah, j * f /* ''Increase pivot row and column'' */ h := h + 1 k := k + 1This algorithm differs slightly from the one discussed earlier, by choosing a pivot with largest absolute value.", "Such a ''partial pivoting'' may be required if, at the pivot place, the entry of the matrix is zero.", "In any case, choosing the largest possible absolute value of the pivot improves the numerical stability of the algorithm, when floating point is used for representing numbers.Upon completion of this procedure the matrix will be in row echelon form and the corresponding system may be solved by back substitution." ], [ "See also", "*Fangcheng (mathematics)*Gram–Schmidt process - another process for bringing a matrix into some canonical form." ], [ "References", "=== Works cited ===* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* * * .", "* .", "* * *" ], [ "External links", "* Interactive didactic tool" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Guantanamo Bay Naval Base" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Guantanamo Bay Naval Base''' (), officially known as '''Naval Station Guantanamo Bay''' or '''NSGB''', (also called '''GTMO''', pronounced '''Gitmo''' as jargon by members of the U.S. military) is a United States military base located on of land and water on the shore of Guantánamo Bay at the southeastern end of Cuba.", "It has been leased to the United States with no end date since 1903 as a coaling station and naval base, making it the oldest overseas U.S. naval base.", "The lease was $2,000 in gold per year until 1934, when the payment was set to match the value of gold in dollars; in 1974, the yearly lease was set to $4,085.Since taking power in 1959, the Cuban communist government has consistently protested against the U.S. presence on Cuban soil, arguing that the base \"was imposed on Cuba by force\" and is \"illegal under international law.\"", "Since 2002, the naval base has contained a military prison, for alleged unlawful combatants captured in Afghanistan, Iraq, and other places during the War on Terror.", "Cases of alleged torture of prisoners by the U.S. military, and their denial of protection under the Geneva Conventions, have been criticized.The 1903 lease has no fixed expiration date, and as such it can only be ended if the US Navy decided to abandon the area or both countries agreed mutually to end the lease." ], [ "Geography", "220x220pxEnlargeable, detailed map of Guantánamo Bay Naval BaseThe Naval Base occupies three main geographical sections: Leeward Point, Windward Point, and Guantánamo Bay.", "Guantánamo Bay physically divides the Naval Station into sections.", "The bay extends past the boundaries of the base into Cuba, where the bay is then referred to as Bahía de Guantánamo.", "Guantánamo Bay contains several cays, which are identified as Hospital Cay, Medico Cay, North Toro Cay, and South Toro Cay.Leeward Point of the Naval Station is the site of the active airfield.", "Major geographical features on Leeward Point include Mohomilla Bay and the Guantánamo River.", "Three beaches exist on the Leeward side.", "Two are available for use by base residents, while the third, Hicacal Beach, is closed.Windward Point contains most of the activities at the Naval Station.", "There are nine beaches available to base personnel.", "The highest point on the base is John Paul Jones Hill (named after the Revolutionary War hero of the same name) at a total of .", "The geography of Windward Point is such that there are many coves and peninsulas along the bay shoreline providing ideal areas for mooring ships.According to Stephen Benz, Stephen Crane described the area as \"craggy\" and \"cut with ravines.\"", "He also described the coastline as covered in ridges and \"chalky cliffs\"." ], [ "History", "195x195px=== Spanish era ===The area surrounding Guantanamo Bay was originally inhabited by the Taíno people.", "On 30 April 1494, Christopher Columbus, on his second voyage, arrived and spent the night.", "The place where Columbus landed is now known as Fisherman's Point.", "Columbus declared the bay ''Puerto Grande''.", "The bay and surrounding areas briefly came under British control during the War of Jenkins' Ear.", "Prior to the outbreak of the conflict, the bay was referred to as ''Walthenham Harbor'' by British cartographers.", "The British expeditionary force renamed the bay ''Cumberland Bay''.", "They eventually retreated from the area after an attempt to march to Santiago de Cuba was repulsed by Spanish troops.===Spanish–American War ===During the Spanish–American War, the U.S. fleet attacking Santiago secured Guantánamo's harbor for protection during the hurricane season of 1898.The Marines landed at Guantanamo Bay with naval support, and American and Cuban forces routed the defending Spanish troops.", "There is a monument on McCalla Hill to one Navy officer and five Marines who died in battle at Guantanamo Bay.The war ended with the Treaty of Paris of 1898, in which Spain formally relinquished control of Cuba.", "Although the war was over, the United States maintained a strong military presence on the island.", "In 1901 the United States government passed the Platt Amendment as part of an Army Appropriations Bill.", "Section VII of this amendment readAfter initial resistance by the Cuban Constitutional Convention, the Platt Amendment was incorporated into the Constitution of the Republic of Cuba in 1901.The Constitution took effect in 1902, and land for a naval base at Guantanamo Bay was granted to the United States the following year.=== Permanent lease ===The 1903 lease agreement, which has no fixed expiration date, was executed in two parts.", "The first, signed in February, consisted of the following provisions: #'''Agreement''' – The United States of America and the Republic of Cuba, desiring to maintain the Independence of Cuba, will enter into a lease for lands necessary for US Naval Stations.#'''Article 1''' – Describes the boundaries of the areas being leased, Guantanamo Bay and Bahia Honda.", "#'''Article 2''' – The U.S. may occupy, use, and modify the properties to fit the needs of a coaling and naval station, only.", "Vessels in the Cuban trade shall have free passage.", "#'''Article 3''' – Cuba retains ultimate sovereignty, but during the occupation, the U.S. exercises sole jurisdiction over the areas described in Article 1.Under conditions to be agreed on, the U.S. has the right to acquire, by purchase or eminent domain, any land included therein.The second part, signed five months later in July 1903, consisted of the following provisions: #'''Article 1''' – Payment is $2000 gold coin, annually.", "All private lands within the boundaries shall be acquired by Cuba.", "The U.S. will advance rental payments to Cuba to facilitate those purchases.", "#'''Article 2''' – The U.S. shall pay for a survey of the sites and mark the boundaries with fences.#'''Article 3''' – There will be no commercial or other enterprise within the leased areas.#'''Article 4''' – Mutual extradition#'''Article 5''' – Not ports of entry.", "#'''Article 6''' – Ships shall be subject to Cuban port police.", "The U.S. will not obstruct entry or departure into the bay.", "#'''Article 7''' – This proposal is open for seven months.", "SIGNED Theodore Roosevelt and Jose M Garcia Montes.In 1934, the United States unilaterally changed the payment from gold coin to U.S. dollars per the Gold Reserve Act.", "The lease amount was set at US$3,386.25, based on the price of gold at the time.", "In 1973, the U.S. adjusted the lease amount to $3,676.50, and in 1974 to $4,085, based on further increases to the price of gold in USD.", "Payments have been sent annually, but only one lease payment has been accepted since the Cuban Revolution and Fidel Castro claimed that this check was deposited due to confusion in 1959.The Cuban government has not deposited any other lease check since that time.Shards from 1906=== Before and during World War II ===The Naval Base became a prime area for winter training for the Atlantic fleet.", "Due to the large increase in population during the training months, the Naval Base quickly established facilities to support everyday functions.", "Guantanamo Bay fleet range system began its construction as early as 1905 under Captain Rogers.", "Four primary ranges were built during its construction: Range Alpha, Range Beta, Range Charlie, and Range Delta.", "Due to the size of the base, sections were shut down in order for range operations to proceed.", "Ironically, the concrete range system's size and cost led to its downfall.", "Strong evidence suggests the fleet ranges were used throughout World War I and the beginning of World War II.", "During World War II, the base was set up to use a nondescript number for postal operations.", "The base used the Fleet Post Office, Atlantic, in New York City, with the address: 115 FPO NY.", "The base was also an important intermediate distribution point for merchant shipping convoys from New York City and Key West, Florida, to the Panama Canal and the islands of Puerto Rico, Jamaica, and Trinidad and Tobago.===Cold War and beyond===United States–Cuban border, Guantanamo Bay Naval BaseFrom 1953 to 1959, thousands of Cubans commuted daily from outside the base to jobs within it.", "In mid-1958, vehicular traffic was stopped; workers were required to walk through the base's several gates.", "Public Works Center buses were pressed into service almost overnight to carry the tides of workers to and from the gate.", "The \"Cactus Curtain\" is a term describing the line separating the naval base from Cuban-controlled territory, an allusion to Europe's Iron Curtain, the Bamboo Curtain in East Asia, and the similar Ice Curtain in the Bering Strait.", "After the Cuban Revolution, some Cubans sought refuge on the Guantanamo Bay Naval Base.", "In late 1961, Cuban troops planted an long, wide barrier of ''Opuntia'' (prickly pear) cactus along the northeastern section of the fence surrounding the base in order to prevent checkpoint evasion when moving between the base and Cuba proper.The curtain forms part of a \"no man's land\" that encircles the base.", "This area is complete with perimeter patrols, outposts featuring sandbags, and watchtowers, and has been complemented with barbed wire fences, minefields, and cacti.", "Apart from the cacti, both U.S. and Cuban troops erected, maintained, and otherwise manned these defenses, primarily to prevent checkpoint evasion and possible invasion from the other side.disposal in July 1997.U.S.", "and Cuban troops placed some 55,000 anti-personnel and anti-tank land mines across the \"no man's land\" around the perimeter of the naval base, creating the second-largest minefield in the world, and the largest in the Western Hemisphere.", "Initially, the mines were laid down by US troops, who also laid down signs stating that the landmines were \"precautions\" and should not be viewed as \"aggressive\".", "In response, Cuban troops also laid down their own mines, with both sides completing their minefields in 1961.Between 1961 and 1965, landmine explosions resulted in the deaths of at least 10 people, including as the result of engineering accidents and late-night partygoers.", "On 16 May 1996, U.S. President Bill Clinton ordered the demining of the American field.", "They have since been replaced with motion and sound sensors to detect intruders on the base.", "The Cuban government has not removed its corresponding minefield outside the perimeter.During the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962, the families of military personnel were evacuated from the base.", "Notified of the evacuation on 22 October, evacuees were told to pack one suitcase per family member, to bring evacuation and immunization cards, to tie pets in the yard, to leave the keys to the house on the dining table, and to wait in front of the house for buses.", "Dependents travelled to the airfield for flights to the United States, or to ports for passage aboard evacuation ships.", "After the crisis was resolved, family members were allowed to return to the base in December 1962.From 1939, the base's water was supplied by pipelines that drew water from the Yateras River about northeast of the base.", "The U.S. government paid a fee for this; in 1964, it was about $14,000 a month for about per day.", "In 1964, the Cuban government stopped the flow.", "The base had about of water in storage, and strict water conservation was put into effect immediately.", "The U.S. first imported water from Jamaica by barge, then relocated a desalination plant from San Diego (Point Loma).", "When the Cuban government accused the United States of \"stealing water,\" base commander John D. Bulkeley ordered that the pipelines be cut and a section removed.", "A length of the diameter pipe and a length of the diameter pipe were lifted from the ground and the openings sealed.During the 1960s and 1970s, the base had problems with alcohol and racial tension.", "Harassment and strip searches also became a regular occurrence for Cuban workers on the base.United States training ship ''Monongahela'', around 1903Several old guns from the USS ''Monongahela'' (1862) have been salvaged and placed around the base.", "The old warship served as a storeship at Guantanamo until destroyed by fire on 17 March 1908.A gun was salvaged from her wreck and put on display at the Naval Station.", "Since the gun was deformed by the heat from the fire, it was nicknamed \"Old Droopy\".", "A similar gun, possibly also salvaged from the ''Monongahela'', is on display near the Bay View Club on the Naval Station.By 2006, only two elderly Cubans, Luis Delarosa and Harry Henry, still crossed the base's North East Gate daily to work on the base, because the Cuban government prohibited new recruitment since 1959.They both retired at the end of 2012.At the United Nations Human Rights Council in 2013, Cuba's Foreign Minister demanded the U.S. return the base." ], [ "Current operations", "Wind turbines atop John Paul Jones Hill, the highest point on the baseThe military facility has over 8,500 U.S. sailors and Marines stationed there.", "It is the only military base the U.S. maintains in a socialist country.In 2005, the U.S. Navy completed a $12 million wind-power project at the base, erecting four 950 kilowatt, wind turbines, reducing the need for diesel fuel to power the existing diesel generators (the base's primary electricity generation).", "In 2006, the wind turbines reduced diesel fuel consumption by annually.=== Units and commands ===Access to the Naval Station is very limited and must be pre-approved through the appropriate local chain of command with the Commander of the station as the final approval.", "Since berthing facilities are limited, visitors must be sponsored indicating that they have an approved residence for the duration of the visit.", "; Resident units * Headquarters, Naval Station Guantanamo Bay* Customer Service Desk (CSD)* Joint Task Force Guantanamo** Headquarters, JTF Guantanamo** Joint Detention Group** Joint Intelligence Group** Joint Medical Group** U.S. Coast Guard Maritime Security Detachment Guantanamo Bay**AFN Guantanamo Bay radio and television unit* Marine Corps Security Force Company* Naval Computer and Telecommunications Area Master Station Atlantic Detachment Guantanamo Bay* Naval Hospital Guantanamo Bay* Navy Supply* Navy Security Forces* SEABEE Detachment* U.S. Coast Guard Aviation Detachment Guantanamo Bay; Assigned units * Fleet Composite Squadron Ten (VC-10) (1965–1993)* U.S. Marine Corps Ground Defense Force (GDF) (1971–2000 Redesignated as Marine Corps Security Forces Company on 1 Sep 2000)* Naval Security Group Activity (Company L) (1966–2001)* Shore Intermediate Maintenance Activity (SIMA) (1903–1995)* Fleet Training Group (FTG) (1943–1995); Homeported watercraft * YC 1639 (open lighter)* ''Leeward'' (YFB-92) (ferry boat)* ''Windward'' (YFB-93) (ferry boat)* YON 258 (non-self propelled fuel oil barge)* (large harbor tug)* LCU 1671 and MK-8: landing craft used as an alternate ferry for transportation to areas inaccessible by the primary ferry and for moving hazardous cargo.", "* GTMO-5, GTMO-6 and GTMO-7 (50-ft. utility boats): used for personnel transportation during off-ferry hours.", "; Civilian contractorsBesides servicemembers, the base houses a large number of civilian contractors working for the military.", "Many of these contractors are migrant workers from Jamaica and the Philippines, and are thought to constitute up to 40% of the base's population.Major contractors working at NSGB have included the following:* KBR* Schuyler Line Navigation Company (SLNC)* Satellite Communication Systems Incorporated* Centerra* EMCOR* Islands Mechanical Contractor* Munilla Construction Management* RQ Construction* MCM Construction* J&J Worldwide Services===Cargo shipping===Ocean transportation is provided by Schuyler Line Navigation Company, a U.S.", "Flag Ocean Carrier.", "Schuyler Line operates under government contract to supply sustainment and building supplies to the base.=== Airfields ===There are two airfields within the base, Leeward Point Field and McCalla Field.", "Leeward Point Field is the active military airfield, with the ICAO code MUGM and IATA code NBW.", "McCalla Field was designated as the auxiliary landing field in 1970, but was no longer a viable airfield by the 1990s.==== Leeward Point Field ====Leeward Point Field was constructed with a 6,000-foot main runway in 1943; the runway was extended in 1953 to 8,000 feet to accommodate jet aircraft.", "Leeward Point Field has a single active runway, 10/28, measuring .", "The former runway, 9/27 was .", "Currently, Leeward Point Field operates several aircraft and helicopters supporting base operations.", "Leeward Point Field was home to Fleet Composite Squadron 10 (VC-10) until the unit was phased out in 1993.VC-10 was one of the last active-duty squadrons flying the Douglas A-4 Skyhawk.==== McCalla Field ====McCalla Field was established in 1931 and remained operational until 1970.The airfield was named for Bowman H. McCalla, who was a United States Navy admiral in charge of the Battle of Guantánamo Bay.", "The current field was expanded in 1941 when the original grass runway was replaced.", "Naval Air Station Guantanamo Bay was officially established 1 February 1941.Aircraft routinely operating out of McCalla included JRF-5, N3N, J2F, C-1 Trader, and dirigibles.", "The airfield was deactivated in the 1970s and was used to house Cuban and Haitian refugees beginning in the 1990s.", "Sometime between 1996 and 2001, the refugee camps were dismantled and the area became a collection of abandoned buildings.", "McCalla Field is now listed as a closed airfield.", "The USN aviation assets are now located across the bay at Leeward Point Field, about 1.5 miles to the west.After the events of September 11, the area was reevaluated as a possible location for a detention facility.", "Camp Justice is now located on the grounds of the former airfield.The area consists of 3 runways: 1/19 at , 14/32 at , and 10/28 at .", "The airport resides at an elevation of above mean sea level.=== Detention camp ===The entrance to Camp 1 in detention camp's Camp DeltaBeginning in the last quarter of the 20th century, the base was used to house Cuban and Haitian refugees intercepted on the high seas.", "In the early 1990s, it held refugees who fled Haiti after military forces overthrew president Jean-Bertrand Aristide.", "These refugees were held in a detainment area called Camp Bulkeley until United States district court Judge Sterling Johnson, Jr. declared the camp unconstitutional on 8 June 1993.This decision was later vacated.", "The last Haitian migrants departed Guantanamo on 1 November 1995.Beginning in 2002, following the U.S. invasion of Afghanistan, started in response to the September 11 attacks, a small portion of the base was used to detain several hundred individuals with ties or suspected ties to Islamic terrorist groups such as al-Qaeda and the Taliban.", "These detainees were not afforded POW status or facing formal charges but instead designated enemy combatants; assigned to confinement in Camp Delta, Camp Echo, Camp Iguana, and the now-closed Camp X-Ray.", "In litigation regarding the availability of fundamental rights to those imprisoned at the base, the U.S. Supreme Court has recognized that the detainees \"have been imprisoned in territory over which the United States exercises exclusive jurisdiction and control.\"", "Therefore, the detainees have the fundamental right to due process of law under the Fifth Amendment.", "A district court has since held that the \"Geneva Conventions applied to the Taliban detainees, but not to members of Al-Qaeda terrorist organization.", "\"On 10 June 2006, the Department of Defense reported that three Guantanamo Bay detainees took their own lives.", "The military reported the men hanged themselves with nooses made of sheets and clothes.", "A study published by Seton Hall Law's Center for Policy and Research, while making no conclusions regarding what actually transpired, asserts that the military investigation failed to address significant issues detailed in that report.On 6 September 2006, President George W. Bush announced that alleged or non-alleged combatants held by the CIA would be transferred to the custody of Department of Defense, and held at Guantanamo Prison.", "Of approximately 500 prisoners in Guantanamo Bay, only 10 have been tried by the Guantanamo military commission, but all cases have been stayed pending the adjustments being made to comply with the U.S. Supreme Court decision in ''Hamdi v. Rumsfeld''.In January 2009, President Obama signed an executive order directing the closing of the Guantánamo detention camp within a year.", "This plan was thwarted for the time being on 20 May 2009, when the United States Senate voted to keep the prison at Guantanamo Bay open for the foreseeable future and forbid the transfer of any detainees to facilities in the United States.", "Senator Daniel Inouye, a Democrat from Hawaii and chairman of the appropriations committee, said he favored keeping Guantanamo open until Obama produced a \"coherent plan for closing the prison.", "\"Consequently, Obama decided to postpone difficult decisions on the details for at least six months.", "On 7 March 2011, Obama issued a new executive order permitting indefinite detention of Guantánamo detainees.", "This decision was codified into federal law by provision added to the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2012.In early February 2021, the administration of U.S. President Joe Biden declared his intention to shut down the facility before he leaves office.", "In July 2021, an additional detainee was released.In June 2022, an Afghan prisoner held at Guantanamo Bay for about 15 years without trial was released.In February 2023, three prisoners were released from Guantanamo Bay.", "Majid Khan, who pled guilty before a Military Commission in 2012, had completed his sentence of 10 years, and was released to Belize.", "Brothers Abdul Al-Rahim Ghulam Rabbani and Mohammed Ahmad Ghulam Rabbani, whose detentions were deemed no longer necessary in order to protect the United States from a national security threat, were released and repatriated to the government of Pakistan.In March 2023, Ghassan al-Sharbi was released to his home country of Saudi Arabia from Guantanamo Bay, after being deemed no longer necessary to detain in order to protect the United States from a national security threat.In June 2023, United Nations Special Rapporteur on Human Rights and Counter-Terrorism Fionnuala Ní Aoláin released her final report on the detention center.", "The report concludes that prisoners endure \"ongoing cruel, inhuman, and degrading treatment\" and that the detention center should be closed." ], [ "Represented businesses", "McDonald's at GuantanamoDespite the prohibition on the establishment of \"commercial or other enterprises\" as stated in Article 3 of the second part of the lease, several recognized American food outlets have been opened at the military base.", "Most of the restaurants on the installation are franchises which are owned and operated by the Department of the Navy.", "Proceeds from these restaurants are used to support Morale, Welfare and Recreation (MWR) activities for service personnel and their families.", "These restaurants are located inside the base; as such, they are not accessible to Cubans.A Baskin-Robbins ice cream stand, which opened in the 1980s, was one of the first business franchises allowed on the base.", "In early 1986, the base added the first and only McDonald's restaurant within Cuba.", "A Hooters restaurant was opened in 1987 and closed in 1994 when the Navy Department refused to renew the lease.", "A Subway restaurant was opened in 2002.In 2004, a combined KFC and A&W restaurant was opened at the bowling alley and a Pizza Hut Express was added to the Windjammer Restaurant.", "There is also a cafe that sells Starbucks coffee, and there is a combined KFC and Taco Bell restaurant." ], [ "Education and schooling", "Department of Defense Education Activity (DoDEA) provides for the education of dependent personnel with two schools.", "Both schools are named for Rear Admiral William Thomas Sampson.", "W.T.", "Sampson Elementary School serves grades K–5 and W. T. Sampson High School serves grades 6–12.The Villamar Child Development Center provides child care for dependents from six weeks to five years old.", "MWR operates a Youth Center that provides activities for dependents.Some former students of Guantánamo have shared stories of their experiences with the Guantánamo Public Memory Project.", "The 2013 documentary ''Guantanamo Circus'' directed by Christina Linhardt and Michael Rose reveals a glimpse of day-to-day life on GTMO as seen through the eyes of circus performers who visit the base.", "It is used as a reference by the Guantánamo Public Memory Project." ], [ "Climate", "The bay has an annual rainfall of about .", "The amount of rainfall has resulted in the base being classified as a semi-arid desert environment.", "The annual average high temperature on the base is , the annual average low is ." ], [ "Notable people", "Notable people born at the naval base include actor Peter Bergman and American guitarist Isaac Guillory." ], [ "See also", "* COVID-19 pandemic in the Guantanamo Bay Naval Base* Cuba–United States relations* ''A Few Good Men'' – A play by Aaron Sorkin, and later a film adaptation about an unlawful hazing incident taking place amongst marines at the naval base in 1986.", "* ''The Road to Guantanamo'' – A docudrama directed by Michael Winterbottom about the incarceration of three British detainees at the naval base.", "* Cuban–American Treaty of Relations* Panama Canal Zone*Pituffik Space Base, an American space base in Greenland with a similar lease agreement" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Alfred de Zayas (July 2004).", "\"The Status of Guantanamo Bay and the Status of the Detainees\" in ''University of British Columbia Law Review'', vol.", "37.pp. 277–34.", "** A. de Zayas (2012).", "\"Guantanamo Naval Base\" in ''Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law''.", "Oxford University Press.", "* Jonathan M. Hansen (2011).", "''Guantánamo: An American History''.", "New York: Hill and Wang.", "* Mason, Theodore K. (1984).", "''Beyond the Cactus Curtain: The Story of Guantanamo Bay''.", "New York: Dodd, Mead." ], [ "External links", "* * Virtual 3D Walkthrough of Camp Delta (from the Art project Zone*Interdite)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gladstone Gander" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Gladstone Gander''' is a cartoon character created in 1948 by The Walt Disney Company.", "He is an anthropomorphic gander (male goose) who possesses exceptionally good luck that grants him anything he desires as well as protecting him from any harm.", "This is in contrast to his cousin Donald Duck, who is often characterized for having bad luck.", "Gladstone is also a rival of Donald for the affection of Daisy Duck.", "Gladstone dresses in a very debonair way, often in a suit, and wearing a bow-tie, fedora, and spats.", "He has a wavy hairstyle which is depicted either as white or blonde.", "In the story \"Luck of the North\" (December, 1949) he is described as having a brassy voice." ], [ "Origin", "Gladstone Gander first appeared in \"Wintertime Wager\" in ''Walt Disney's Comics and Stories'' #88 (January 1948), written and drawn by Carl Barks.", "In that story he arrives at Donald Duck's house during a freezing cold Christmas Day to remind him of a wager Donald made the previous summer; that he could swim in the Frozenbear Lake during Christmas Day or forfeit his house to Gladstone.", "Donald eventually loses the wager but Gladstone later on loses a wager of his own, brought to light by Daisy Duck, and thus Donald's house is returned to him.Barks gradually developed Gladstone's personality and demeanor after his first appearance and used him quite frequently—in 24 stories between 1948 and 1953, the first five years of his existence.", "In his first three appearances in 1948 (\"Wintertime Wager\", \"Gladstone Returns\", \"Links Hijinks\"), he was portrayed as the mirror image of Donald: an obstinate braggart, perhaps just a little bit more arrogant, but did not yet have his characteristic luck.", "In his next two appearances, \"Rival Beachcombers\" and \"The Goldilocks Gambit\", Gladstone is portrayed as merely lazy and irritable, and also gullible.", "The breakthrough of his lucky streak occurs in 1949, within the adventure story \"Race to the South Seas!\"", "(''March of Comics'' #41).", "In that story, Donald and his three nephews set sail on a rescue mission from Duckburg to a remote Pacific island on which Scrooge McDuck is believed to have stranded, in an attempt to gain their uncle's favor.", "For the same reason Gladstone is in hot pursuit as well, but because he was \"born lucky\" as Donald explains to his nephews, without lifting a finger, is having a much easier time than them.His and Donald's rivalry over Daisy is established in \"Donald's Love Letters\" (1949), \"Wild About Flowers\" (1950), and \"Knightly Rivals\" (1951), and as potential heirs to Scrooge's fortune in \"Some Heir Over the Rainbow\" (1953).", "After that, Barks felt unable to develop the character further, finding him basically unsympathetic, and began using him less frequently.", "But by then, Gladstone had found a steady place in the Duck universe as one of the main established characters; frequently used by other writers and artists both in the Americas and Europe.", "He was first used by an artist other than Barks in 1951: \"Presents For All\" by Del Connell and Bob Moore.", "He appears as a main character in the Big Little Book series book \"Luck of the Ducks\" (1969)." ], [ "Character", "Example of Gladstone Gander's luck and laziness.", "From \"A Financial Fable\" (September 14, 1950) by Carl Barks.Gladstone's good luck defies probability and provides him with anything that would be to his benefit or enjoyment; as well as things he specifically wishes for, which are at times related to the plot of some stories.", "This could range from finding wallets and other valuables on the sidewalk to pieces of a ripped apart treasure map floating together in river to form it whole again; revealing the treasure’s location.", "His good luck also protects him from any harm.", "At times he might not even know that a situation will work out in his favor in a later stage and by then often feeling confused or at times even thinking his luck has abandoned him; just to learn that it has been with him all along.There have been various explanations for Gladstone's good luck over the years by various writers and artists.", "In Barks' story \"Luck of the North\" Gladstone proclaims: \"I was born under a lucky star, and everything I do will bring me good fortune ....\" This is read from a horoscope book he owns which also has a map showing his lucky star conniving with the planet Neptunus.", "In many of the Italian comic books stories, Gladstone is bestowed with his luck because Fortuna, the goddess of fortune, is in love with him.", "In Don Rosa's story \"The Sign of the Triple Distelfink\" (1997), he added the fact that Gladstone was born on the day of his mother Daphne's birthday in 1920, under the protection sign of the Triple Distelfink, thus inheriting his mother's luck.", "In some stories he also uses good luck charms like lucky horseshoes or rabbits foots.However, for all his luck, Gladstone has no achievements to be proud of and no true ambitions, as he is incapable of long-term planning.", "This is all because of that he does not have to make the slightest of efforts to get what he wants, as his good luck will just give it to him in the end.", "He also often does not learn any life lessons from any misfortunes he could experience.", "This leads him to be extremely lazy; at times even thinking that willfully wishing for something is hard work, and disconnected from the realities of ordinary life.", "All of this is in stark contrast to his relative Scrooge McDuck, who is also capable of taking advantage of opportunities but works hard to create situations favorable for him; is strongly motivated by his ambitions and takes pride in forming his fortune by his own efforts and experiences.", "Instead, Gladstone often shows pride in his effortlessness and expresses great anxiety if he would betray those ideals.", "This is something first explored in more detail in Carl Barks's story \"Gladstone's Terrible Secret\" (May, 1952).", "Comic artist and writer Don Rosa has commented about this on the character: \"Gladstone is unwilling to make the slightest effort to gain something that his luck cannot give him, and, when things go wrong, he resigns immediately, certain that around the next corner a wallet, dropped by a passer-by, will be waiting for him\".", "Gladstone feels open contempt towards work of any kind, claiming it is beneath him, to the point of hesitating to help others even if it is to his own advantage, claiming that it seems alarmingly like work.Also because of his good fortune, Gladstone is most often characterized to be very snobbish and a gloat; especially (and in some stories exclusively) toward his cousin Donald to whom he also can be very aggravating.", "For all of these reasons, he and Donald have formed an intense rivalry with each other.", "Gladstone's outrageous luck and boastfulness toward his cousin, combined with Donald's own ego and belief he can still best him despite all odds — or as Don Rosa's version of Donald comments, \"Donald's eternal tendency towards self-destruction\" — have set the stage for many stories featuring the two cousins' confrontations.", "They have, however, worked together or at least tolerated each other at times, but this is very rare and not without some tension that easily can turn into their ordinary rivalry.Occasionally, he is a rival to Scrooge McDuck himself who resents his complete reliance on his uncanny good luck.", "In such stories, often the only way Gladstone can be believably defeated is to have him win by the letter of the original story preset while the heroes later on take the bigger prize.", "In Carl Barks' story \"The Golden Nugget Boat\" (''Uncle Scrooge'' #35, September 1961), Gladstone and Scrooge are competing in a gold prospecting contest in which Gladstone finds a gold nugget the nephews fashioned from a gold item Scrooge already owns to stop him from killing himself from overexertion in the contest.", "Gladstone finds the nugget and returns to win, but Scrooge and his nephews then find a much bigger nugget they are able to fashion into a boat to return to civilization afterward with a monetary worth that is easily more than Gladstone's find.", "Another instance of this with his rivalry with Donald was in the \"Salmon Derby\" (''Walt Disney's Comics and Stories'' #167, August 1954), where Gladstone catches the biggest fish and wins a new car but Donald manages to save a wealthy tycoon's daughter and is able to purchase a much bigger car.", "Another instance was when both Donald and Gladstone were competing for a job as a cameraman for a nature film director because Daisy was the director's assistant, Gladstone got the job but wished he had not because he wound up trudging through a swamp to film giant spiders while Daisy stayed behind in America, with Donald.In more modern stories where he takes a more protagonistic role, writers most often downplay his unlikability to make him more relatable.", "For example, showing that he can learn from potential bad experiences, even if they never would become reality, and put more emphasis on his love for his family, even if he at times has a hard time expressing these feelings.In many stories, Gladstone is also considered among the prime candidates for Scrooge McDuck's succession.", "In \"Some Heir Over the Rainbow\" (''Walt Disney's Comics and Stories'' #155, August 1953) by Carl Barks, Scrooge gives $1,000 to Donald, Gladstone, and Huey, Dewey and Louie to determine how they use it in order to be the most suitable heir to his fortune.", "Gladstone thinks of using the money to buy a television set until he finds a raffle ticket, in which he decides to save the money by placing it in a tree.", "Scrooge is unimpressed that Gladstone did not increase the money at all, but acknowledges that at least he still \"had\" it.", "Huey, Dewey, and Louie infuriate Scrooge by investing their money in what Scrooge assumes was a scam.", "Finally, Scrooge thinks to himself, \"I guess my heir will have to be Gladstone Gander!", ".... What an awful injustice to the world!\"", "Soon afterwards, however, the children's decision proves to be the wisest, and they become Scrooge's heirs instead of Gladstone.He is a rival of Donald for the love of his girlfriend Daisy Duck.", "This is often portrayed either by showing Daisy uncertain of which one she likes the most or; the more common version, that she is angry with Donald and goes out with Gladstone instead to make Donald jealous.", "In modern comics this love-triangle is at times often more downplayed.", "However, despite having an eternal crush on Daisy Duck, Gladstone has appeared in love with other duck girls in Italian and Danish comic stories.", "One of those is Linda Paper, who really conquered Gladstone, making him want to give up all his luck, since she is unlucky and absolutely hates lucky people.", "She appeared in two subsequent comic stories.", "Another is Feather Mallard, who is as lucky as Gladstone but whenever they are together they are instead experiencing bad luck.", "A number of recent Italian stories feature Gladstone's protector goddess Fortuna appearing in person.", "She appears in one noteworthy tale, \"Gastone e il debole dalla Fortuna\" (\"Gladstone and the Struck of Luck\"), by Enrico Faccini and Augusto Macchetto, first published on March 24, 1998.In this story, the Goddess takes mortal guise in order to be able to date her favorite gander, and appears to be love-struck with him.", "Although Gladstone competes for Daisy's attention and affection with Donald and often loses, he reassures himself that at least he still has his extraordinary luck, because in the end he is a hedonist and the only person he really adores is himself.His exact relation to the Duck Family Tree at its early stages was somewhat uncertain.", "In Carl Barks' original version of the family tree from the 1950s, Gladstone was the son of Luke the Goose and Daphne Duck who died by overeating at a free-lunch picnic.", "He was later adopted by Matilda McDuck and Goosetave Gander.", "Later, Barks is reported to have done away with the adoption, which was never featured in any story.", "(Of course, no stories denying the event were published.)", "In a more recent version of the family tree created by Don Rosa, with input from Barks, it was established that Daphne Duck (Donald's paternal aunt) married Goostave Gander and the two were Gladstone's parents.", "This is consistent with what Gladstone says in \"Race to the South Seas\": \"Scrooge McDuck is my mother's brother's brother-in-law\".Gladstone has a nephew named '''Shamrock Gladstone''' who shares his propensity for luck.", "He also has a con artist cousin (not on Donald's side of the family) named '''Disraeli'''." ], [ "Animation", "Gladstone Gander in the ''DuckTales'' 1987 episode, \"Dime Enough for Luck\".Gladstone Gander as he appears in ''DuckTales'' 2017.Gladstone makes two speaking appearances in the animated series ''DuckTales'', where he was voiced by Rob Paulsen.", "In these episodes he is not characterized as much of a braggart he is in the comics but rather focusing much more on his care-free nature, and additionally acting a bit more foolishly.", "In the episode \"Dime Enough for Luck\", Gladstone is an unwitting stooge for Magica De Spell in one of her attempts to steal Scrooge's Number One Dime.", "He returns in the episode \"Dr. Jekyll & Mr. McDuck\", where he accidentally bids on an item that turns out to be valuable.", "This inspires Scrooge to bid on the next item—a trunk containing Dr. Jekyll's formula—which sets the plot in motion.", "He also makes non-speaking cameo appearances in the episodes \"Sweet Duck of Youth\" and \"Till Nephews Do Us Part\", as well in episode of ''House of Mouse'' titled \"Goofy For A Day\".", "Gladstone appears in the 2000 video game ''Donald Duck: Goin' Quackers'' in his traditional role of Donald's rival for Daisy's affection, and every time a Boss Battle is about to start, Gladstone greets Donald, but always gets hurt, becoming squished by a giant bird, getting knocked off a building by a wrecking ball, being sent crashing to the bottom of a haunted mansion, and even gets sent back to Duckburg inside a pipe, and every time he gets hurt, he says that he has found a nickel.", "He also appears in the ''DuckTales'' reboot, first appearing in the episode \"The House of the Lucky Gander!\".", "In this series, he is voiced by Paul F. Tompkins.", "This series brings his personality far closer to how he acts in the comics, although it is implied that he is genuinely unaware of how arrogant he is." ], [ "See also", "* Duck family (Disney)* Gladstone Publishing" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * Gladstone Gander at Don Markstein's Toonopedia.", "Archived from the original on August 28, 2016." ] ]
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[ [ "Gordon Michael Woolvett" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Gordon Michael Woolvett''' (born 1970) is a Canadian actor from Hamilton, Ontario." ], [ "Career", "Woolvett's most enduring role was as Seamus Zelazny Harper on the television series ''Andromeda'' (2000–2005).", "Prior to ''Andromeda'' he starred in another science fiction television series, ''Deepwater Black''.", "He was also credited as playing Mitch in the \"Pariah\" episode of the short-lived 1980s science-fiction/action series ''Captain Power and the Soldiers of the Future''.", "He was in two episodes of ''Psi Factor: Chronicles of the Paranormal''.Woolvett was also one of the first program jockeys for YTV's ''The Zone'' (then called ''The After-School Zone'') and the original main host for a program called ''Video & Arcade Top 10'' which also aired on YTV.", "He acted in the 1999 made-for-TV film ''Ultimate Deception'' with Yasmine Bleeth.", "He also appeared on the Canadian television series ''The Guard'', which aired from 2008 to 2009 on Global Television Network.In 1992, Woolvett was nominated for the Gemini Award for Best Performance by a Supporting Actor for his role in ''Princes in Exile'' (1990).", "He directed the documentary ''Around the World in 80 Anthems'', which won Best Documentary at the seventh International Film Festival Manhattan in 2017.In 2020, Woolvett began teaching acting, improv, scene study, movie making, screenwriting and performance to young actors aged 9–18 on the Outschool homeschooling platform.", "His first year brought more than 70 five-star reviews from parents and students." ], [ "Personal life", "Woolvett was born in 1970 in Hamilton, Ontario, Canada.", "He married Michele Morand on January 15, 2000.His brother is actor Jaimz Woolvett.", "He has three children." ], [ "Filmography", "===Film=== Year Title Role Notes1985''Joshua Now and Then''Teddy Shapiro1990''Princes in Exile''Louis1992''Bordertown Café''Jimmy1995''Rude''Ricky1996''''Chip1998''Shadow Builder''Larry Eggers1998''Clutch''Spit1998''Bride of Chucky''David Collins2000''''Walter2006''Everything's Gone Green''Spike2014''Down Here''Coach Randall===Television=== Year Title Role Notes1984''''Dave\"Diamonds\"1986''Act of Vengeance''BobbyTV film1986''9B''KevinTV film1987''Air Waves''Greg\"Happy 16th\", \"A Second Look\"1987''Captain Power and the Soldiers of the Future''Mitch\"Pariah\"1988''Learning the Ropes''BradRecurring role1988''My Secret Identity''Tim\"It Only Hurts for a Little While\"1989''T.", "and T.''Steve\"Thicker Than Water\"1990''''Henry Clay\"A Proposal of Marriage\"1990''''RodneyTV film1992''E.N.G.", "''Nick\"To Kill with Kindness\"1992''Road to Avonlea''Rat\"When She Was Bad, She Was Horrid: Part 2\"1992''Maniac Mansion''John Cody\"Ike's New Buddy\"1993''Family Pictures''SoletskiTV film1993''X-Rated''Tony FosterTV film (series pilot)1993''Wild Side Show''HostSeason 2 \"13 episodes\"1994''''Peter\"Allison's Restaurant\"1994''Side Effects''Chris Stokes\"House of Caduceus\"1994''Forever Knight''Kyle\"Can't Run, Can't Hide\"1995''Mysterious Island''Herbert PencroftMain role1995''Heritage Minutes''Young\"The Paris Crew\"1996''Sliders''Judge\"The Young and the Relentless\"1996''Gone in a Heartbeat''Paul HackettTV film1997''F/X: The Series''Jules\"Bad Influence\"1997''Mission Genesis''Reb AndersenMain role1997''Promise the Moon''Little JayTV film1997''Peacekeepers''Pte.", "Daryl HuddyTV film1998''Psi Factor''Gary\"The Labyrinth\"1998''My Date with the President's Daughter''ClydeTV film1999''Ultimate Deception''Andy McThomasTV film2000''''Thunderer / Peter Littlecloud (voice)TV series2000–2005''Andromeda''Seamus HarperMain role2003''Shattered City: The Halifax Explosion''Sergeant Sam BarlowTV miniseries2003''''Gordon\"Cold Fusion\"2007''Secrets of an Undercover Wife''ClaytonTV film2007''Blood Ties''Steve Jeffries\"Gifted\"2008–09''''Barry WinterMain role2014''Supernatural''Ezra\"King of the Damned\"2015''Girlfriends' Guide to Divorce''Ferret Guy\"Rule #32\"2017''iZombie''James Weckler\"Spanking the Zombie\", \"Dirt Nap Time\", \"Conspiracy Weary\"2018''The Arrangement''Director (Frankie)\"Truth\"" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * Woolvett's Facebook site* Gordon Woolvett's Teacher Page on Outschool" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gypsum" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Gypsum''' is a soft sulfate mineral composed of calcium sulfate dihydrate, with the chemical formula .", "It is widely mined and is used as a fertilizer and as the main constituent in many forms of plaster, drywall and blackboard or sidewalk chalk.", "Gypsum also crystallizes as translucent crystals of selenite.", "It forms as an evaporite mineral and as a hydration product of anhydrite.", "The Mohs scale of mineral hardness defines gypsum as hardness value 2 based on scratch hardness comparison.Fine-grained white or lightly tinted forms of gypsum known as alabaster have been used for sculpture by many cultures including Ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, Ancient Rome, the Byzantine Empire, and the Nottingham alabasters of Medieval England." ], [ "Etymology and history", "The word ''gypsum'' is derived from the Greek word (), \"plaster\".", "Because the quarries of the Montmartre district of Paris have long furnished burnt gypsum (calcined gypsum) used for various purposes, this dehydrated gypsum became known as plaster of Paris.", "Upon adding water, after a few dozen minutes, plaster of Paris becomes regular gypsum (dihydrate) again, causing the material to harden or \"set\" in ways that are useful for casting and construction.Gypsum was known in Old English as , \"spear stone\", referring to its crystalline projections.", "Thus, the word spar in mineralogy, by comparison to gypsum, refers to any non-ore mineral or crystal that forms in spearlike projections.", "In the mid-18th century, the German clergyman and agriculturalist Johann Friderich Mayer investigated and publicized gypsum's use as a fertilizer.", "Gypsum may act as a source of sulfur for plant growth, and in the early 19th century, it was regarded as an almost miraculous fertilizer.", "American farmers were so anxious to acquire it that a lively smuggling trade with Nova Scotia evolved, resulting in the so-called \"Plaster War\" of 1820." ], [ "Physical properties", "Gypsum crystals are soft enough to bend under pressure of the hand.", "Sample on display at Musée cantonal de géologie de Lausanne.Gypsum is moderately water-soluble (~2.0–2.5 g/L at 25 °C) and, in contrast to most other salts, it exhibits retrograde solubility, becoming less soluble at higher temperatures.", "When gypsum is heated in air it loses water and converts first to calcium sulfate hemihydrate (bassanite, often simply called \"plaster\") and, if heated further, to anhydrous calcium sulfate (anhydrite).", "As with anhydrite, the solubility of gypsum in saline solutions and in brines is also strongly dependent on NaCl (common table salt) concentration.The structure of gypsum consists of layers of calcium (Ca2+) and sulfate () ions tightly bound together.", "These layers are bonded by sheets of anion water molecules via weaker hydrogen bonding, which gives the crystal perfect cleavage along the sheets (in the {010} plane)." ], [ "Crystal varieties", "Gypsum occurs in nature as flattened and often twinned crystals, and transparent, cleavable masses called selenite.", "Selenite contains no significant selenium; rather, both substances were named for the ancient Greek word for the Moon.Selenite may also occur in a silky, fibrous form, in which case it is commonly called \"satin spar\".", "Finally, it may also be granular or quite compact.", "In hand-sized samples, it can be anywhere from transparent to opaque.", "A very fine-grained white or lightly tinted variety of gypsum, called alabaster, is prized for ornamental work of various sorts.", "In arid areas, gypsum can occur in a flower-like form, typically opaque, with embedded sand grains called desert rose.", "It also forms some of the largest crystals found in nature, up to long, in the form of selenite." ], [ "Occurrence", "Gypsum is a common mineral, with thick and extensive evaporite beds in association with sedimentary rocks.", "Deposits are known to occur in strata from as far back as the Archaean eon.", "Gypsum is deposited from lake and sea water, as well as in hot springs, from volcanic vapors, and sulfate solutions in veins.", "Hydrothermal anhydrite in veins is commonly hydrated to gypsum by groundwater in near-surface exposures.", "It is often associated with the minerals halite and sulfur.", "Gypsum is the most common sulfate mineral.", "Pure gypsum is white, but other substances found as impurities may give a wide range of colors to local deposits.Because gypsum dissolves over time in water, gypsum is rarely found in the form of sand.", "However, the unique conditions of the White Sands National Park in the US state of New Mexico have created a expanse of white gypsum sand, enough to supply the US construction industry with drywall for 1,000 years.Commercial exploitation of the area, strongly opposed by area residents, was permanently prevented in 1933 when President Herbert Hoover declared the gypsum dunes a protected national monument.Gypsum is also formed as a by-product of sulfide oxidation, amongst others by pyrite oxidation, when the sulfuric acid generated reacts with calcium carbonate.", "Its presence indicates oxidizing conditions.", "Under reducing conditions, the sulfates it contains can be reduced back to sulfide by sulfate-reducing bacteria.", "This can lead to accumulation of elemental sulfur in oil-bearing formations, such as salt domes, where it can be mined using the Frasch process Electric power stations burning coal with flue gas desulfurization produce large quantities of gypsum as a byproduct from the scrubbers.Orbital pictures from the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) have indicated the existence of gypsum dunes in the northern polar region of Mars, which were later confirmed at ground level by the Mars Exploration Rover (MER) ''Opportunity''.File:Lechuguilla Chandelier Ballroom.jpg|Large gypsum crystals in Lechuguilla Cave's \"chandelier ballroom\" File:Cristales cueva de Naica.JPG|Gypsum crystals in the Cave of the Crystals in Mexico (person at lower right for scale)File:GypsumCrystalsLakeLucerno.jpg|Gypsum crystals formed as the water evaporated in Lake Lucero, White Sands National ParkFile:White Gypsum - geograph.org.uk - 2503198.jpg|Gypsum veins in the silts/marls of the Tea Green and Grey Marls, Blue Anchor, Somerset, United KingdomFile:Gypsum layers Caprock Canyons 1.JPG|Gypsum veins in Caprock Canyons State Park and Trailway, TexasFile:Yardangs in dunes, White Sands National Park, New Mexico, United States.jpg|Dunes made of small crystals of gypsum, White Sands National Park" ], [ "Mining", "+ Estimated production of Gypsum in 2015(thousand metric tons) Country Production Reserves China132,000 Iran22,0001,600 Thailand12,500 United States11,500700,000 Turkey10,000 Spain6,400 Mexico5,300 Japan5,000 Russia4,500 Italy4,100 India3,50039,000 Australia3,500 Oman3,500 Brazil3,300290,000 France3,300 Canada2,700450,000 Saudi Arabia2,400 Algeria2,200 Germany1,800450,000 Argentina1,400 Pakistan1,300 United Kingdom1,20055,000 Other countries15,000 World total258,000Commercial quantities of gypsum are found in the cities of Araripina and Grajaú in Brazil; in Pakistan, Jamaica, Iran (world's second largest producer), Thailand, Spain (the main producer in Europe), Germany, Italy, England, Ireland, Canada and the United States.", "Large open pit quarries are located in many places including Fort Dodge, Iowa, which sits on one of the largest deposits of gypsum in the world, and Plaster City, California, United States, and East Kutai, Kalimantan, Indonesia.", "Several small mines also exist in places such as Kalannie in Western Australia, where gypsum is sold to private buyers for additions of calcium and sulfur as well as reduction of aluminum toxicities on soil for agricultural purposes.Crystals of gypsum up to long have been found in the caves of the Naica Mine of Chihuahua, Mexico.", "The crystals thrived in the cave's extremely rare and stable natural environment.", "Temperatures stayed at , and the cave was filled with mineral-rich water that drove the crystals' growth.", "The largest of those crystals weighs and is around 500,000 years old.File:Gypsum-24382.jpg|Golden gypsum crystals from WinnipegFile:WhiteSandsGypsum.jpg|Gypsum sand from White Sands National Park, New Mexico" ], [ "Synthesis", "Synthetic gypsum is produced as a waste product or by-product in a range of industrial processes.=== Desulfurization ===Flue gas desulfurization gypsum (FGDG) is recovered at some coal-fired power plants.", "The main contaminants are Mg, K, Cl, F, B, Al, Fe, Si, and Se.", "They come both from the limestone used in desulfurization and from the coal burned.", "This product is pure enough to replace natural gypsum in a wide variety of fields including drywalls, water treatment, and cement set retarder.", "Improvements in flue gas desulfurization have greatly reduced the amount of toxic elements present.=== Desalination ===Gypsum precipitates onto brackish water membranes, a phenomenon known as mineral salt scaling, such as during brackish water desalination of water with high concentrations of calcium and sulfate.", "Scaling decreases membrane life and productivity.", "This is one of the main obstacles in brackish water membrane desalination processes, such as reverse osmosis or nanofiltration.", "Other forms of scaling, such as calcite scaling, depending on the water source, can also be important considerations in distillation, as well as in heat exchangers, where either the salt solubility or concentration can change rapidly.A new study has suggested that the formation of gypsum starts as tiny crystals of a mineral called bassanite ().", "This process occurs via a three-stage pathway: # homogeneous nucleation of nanocrystalline bassanite; # self-assembly of bassanite into aggregates, and # transformation of bassanite into gypsum.=== Refinery waste ===The production of phosphate fertilizers requires breaking down calcium-containing phosphate rock with acid, producing calcium sulfate waste known as phosphogypsum (PG).", "This form of gypsum is contaminated by impurities found in the rock, namely fluoride, silica, radioactive elements such as radium, and heavy metal elements such as cadmium.", "Similarly, production of titanium dioxide produces titanium gypsum (TG) due to neutralization of excess acid with lime.", "The product is contaminated with silica, fluorides, organic matters, and alkalis.Impurities in refinery gypsum waste have, in many cases, prevented them from being used as normal gypsum in fields such as construction.", "As a result, waste gypsum is stored in stacks indefinitely, with significant risk of leaching their contaminants into water and soil.", "To reduce the accumulation and ultimately clear out these stacks, research is underway to find more applications for such waste products." ], [ "Occupational safety", "People can be exposed to gypsum in the workplace by breathing it in, skin contact, and eye contact.", "Calcium sulfate ''per se'' is nontoxic and is even approved as a food additive, but as powdered gypsum, it can irritate skin and mucous membranes.===United States===The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set the legal limit (permissible exposure limit) for gypsum exposure in the workplace as TWA 15 mg/m3 for total exposure and TWA 5 mg/m3 for respiratory exposure over an eight-hour workday.", "The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set a recommended exposure limit (REL) of TWA 10 mg/m3 for total exposure and TWA 5 mg/m3 for respiratory exposure over an eight-hour workday." ], [ "Uses", "Gypsum works, Valencian Museum of EthnologyOld Alfarb kiln for making plaster as a construction materialMap of gypsum deposits in northern Ohio, black squares indicate the location of deposits, from ''\"Geography of Ohio\"'', 1923Gypsum is used in a wide variety of applications:===Construction industry===*Gypsum board is primarily used as a finish for walls and ceilings, and is known in construction as plasterboard, \"sheetrock\", or drywall.", "Gypsum provides a degree of fire-resistance to these materials and glass fibers are added to their composition to accentuate this effect.", "Gypsum has little heat conductivity, giving its plaster some insulative properties.", "*Gypsum blocks are used like concrete blocks in building construction.", "*Gypsum mortar is an ancient mortar used in building construction.", "*A component of Portland cement used to prevent flash setting (too rapid hardening) of concrete.", "*A wood substitute in the ancient world: For example, when wood became scarce due to deforestation on Bronze Age Crete, gypsum was employed in building construction at locations where wood was previously used.===Agriculture===*Fertilizer: In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, Nova Scotia gypsum, often referred to as plaster, was a highly sought fertilizer for wheat fields in the United States.", "Gypsum provides two of the secondary plant macronutrients, calcium and sulfur.", "Unlike limestone, it generally does not affect soil pH.", "*Reclamation of saline soils, regardless of pH.", "When gypsum is added to sodic (saline) and acidic soil, the highly soluble form of boron (sodium metaborate) is converted to the less soluble calcium metaborate.", "Exchangeable sodium percentage is also reduced by gypsum application.", "The Zuiderzee Works uses gypsum for the recovered land.", "*Other soil conditioner uses: Gypsum reduces aluminium and boron toxicity in acidic soils.", "It also improves soil structure, improving water absorption and aeration.", "*Soil water potential monitoring: a gypsum block can be inserted into soil, its electrical resistance measured to derive soil moisture.===Modeling, sculpture and art===*Plaster for casting moulds and modeling.", "*As alabaster, a material for sculpture, it was used especially in the ancient world before steel was developed, when its relative softness made it much easier to carve.", "During the Middle Ages and Renaissance, it was preferred even to marble.", "*In the medieval period, scribes and illuminators used it as an ingredient in gesso, which was applied to illuminated letters and gilded with gold in illuminated manuscripts.===Food and drink===*A tofu (soy bean curd) coagulant, making it ultimately a significant source of dietary calcium.", "*Adding hardness to water used for brewing.", "*Used in baking as a dough conditioner, reducing stickiness, and as a baked-goods source of dietary calcium.", "The primary component of mineral yeast food.", "*Used in mushroom cultivation to stop grains from clumping together.===Medicine and cosmetics===*Plaster for surgical splints.", "*Impression plasters in dentistry.===Other===*An alternative to iron oxide in some thermite mixes.", "*Tests have shown that gypsum can be used to remove pollutants such as lead or arsenic from contaminated waters." ], [ "Gallery", "File:Gypsum-71006.jpg|Green gypsum crystals from Pernatty Lagoon, Mt Gunson, South Australia - its green color is due to presence of copper ions.File:Gypsum-162462.jpg|Unusual selenite gypsum from the Red River, Winnipeg, Manitoba, CanadaFile:Gypsum-47190.jpg|Classic \"ram's horn\" gypsum from Santa Eulalia, Chihuahua, Mexico, 7.5×4.3×3.8 cmFile:Roses des Sables Tunisie.jpg|Desert rose, 47 cm longFile:Gypsum-53691.jpg|Gypsum from Pernatty Lagoon, Mt Gunson, Stuart Shelf area, Andamooka Ranges - Lake Torrens area, South Australia, AustraliaFile:Copper-Gypsum-203925.jpg|Gypsum with crystalline native copper insideFile:Gypsum J1.jpg|Gypsum from Swan Hill, Victoria, Australia.", "The coloring is due to the copper oxideFile:Gypsum-21996.jpg|Waterclear twined crystal of the form known as \"Roman sword\".", "Fuentes de Ebro, Zaragoza (Spain)File:Botryogen-Gypsum-199664.jpg|Bright, cherry-red gypsum crystals 2.5 cm in height colored by rich inclusions of the rare mineral botryogenFile:Gypse Naica.jpg|Gypsum from Naica, Mun.", "de Saucillo, Chihuahua, MexicoFile:Gypsum-251118.jpg|Golden color gem, \"fishtail\"-twinned crystals of gypsum sitting atop a \"ball\" of gypsum which is composed of several single bladed crystals" ], [ "See also", "*Gypcrust*Gypsum flora of Nova Scotia*Gypsum recycling*Phosphogypsum" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* WebMineral data* Mineral galleries – gypsum* CDC – NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards**" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Growth factor" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''growth factor''' is a naturally occurring substance capable of stimulating cell proliferation, wound healing, and occasionally cellular differentiation.", "Usually it is a secreted protein or a steroid hormone.", "Growth factors are important for regulating a variety of cellular processes.Growth factors typically act as signaling molecules between cells.", "Examples are cytokines and hormones that bind to specific receptors on the surface of their target cells.They often promote cell differentiation and maturation, which varies between growth factors.", "For example, epidermal growth factor (EGF) enhances osteogenic differentiation (osteogenesis or bone formation), while fibroblast growth factors and vascular endothelial growth factors stimulate blood vessel differentiation (angiogenesis)." ], [ "Comparison to cytokines", "''Growth factor'' is sometimes used interchangeably among scientists with the term ''cytokine.''", "Historically, cytokines were associated with hematopoietic (blood and lymph forming) cells and immune system cells (e.g., lymphocytes and tissue cells from spleen, thymus, and lymph nodes).", "For the circulatory system and bone marrow in which cells can occur in a liquid suspension and not bound up in solid tissue, it makes sense for them to communicate by soluble, circulating protein molecules.", "However, as different lines of research converged, it became clear that some of the same signaling proteins which the hematopoietic and immune systems use were also being used by all sorts of other cells and tissues, during development and in the mature organism.While ''growth factor'' implies a positive effect on cell proliferation, ''cytokine'' is a neutral term with respect to whether a molecule affects proliferation.", "While some cytokines can be growth factors, such as G-CSF and GM-CSF, others have an inhibitory effect on cell growth or cell proliferation.", "Some cytokines, such as Fas ligand, are used as \"death\" signals; they cause target cells to undergo programmed cell death or ''apoptosis''.The nerve growth factor (NGF) was first discovered by Rita Levi-Montalcini, which won her a Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine." ], [ "List of classes", "Individual growth factor proteins tend to occur as members of larger families of structurally and evolutionarily related proteins.", "There are many families, some of which are listed below:* Adrenomedullin (AM)* Angiopoietin (Ang)* Autocrine motility factor* Bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs)* Ciliary neurotrophic factor family** Ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF)** Leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF)** Interleukin-6 (IL-6)* Colony-stimulating factors** Macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF)** Granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF)** Granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF)* Epidermal growth factor (EGF)* Ephrins** Ephrin A1** Ephrin A2** Ephrin A3** Ephrin A4** Ephrin A5** Ephrin B1** Ephrin B2** Ephrin B3* Erythropoietin (EPO)* Fibroblast growth factor (FGF)** Fibroblast growth factor 1(FGF1)** Fibroblast growth factor 2(FGF2)** Fibroblast growth factor 3(FGF3)** Fibroblast growth factor 4(FGF4)** Fibroblast growth factor 5(FGF5)** Fibroblast growth factor 6(FGF6)** Fibroblast growth factor 7(FGF7)** Fibroblast growth factor 8(FGF8)** Fibroblast growth factor 9(FGF9)** Fibroblast growth factor 10(FGF10)** Fibroblast growth factor 11(FGF11)** Fibroblast growth factor 12(FGF12)** Fibroblast growth factor 13(FGF13)** Fibroblast growth factor 14(FGF14)** Fibroblast growth factor 15(FGF15)** Fibroblast growth factor 16(FGF16)** Fibroblast growth factor 17(FGF17)** Fibroblast growth factor 18(FGF18)** Fibroblast growth factor 19(FGF19)** Fibroblast growth factor 20(FGF20)** Fibroblast growth factor 21(FGF21)** Fibroblast growth factor 22(FGF22)** Fibroblast growth factor 23(FGF23)* Foetal Bovine Somatotrophin (FBS)* GDNF family of ligands** Glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF)** Neurturin** Persephin** Artemin* Growth differentiation factor-9 (GDF9)* Hepatocyte growth factor (HGF)* Hepatoma-derived growth factor (HDGF)* Insulin* Insulin-like growth factors** Insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1)** Insulin-like growth factor-2 (IGF-2)*Interleukins** IL-1- Cofactor for IL-3 and IL-6.Activates T cells.", "** IL-2 – T-cell growth factor.", "Stimulates IL-1 synthesis.", "Activates B-cells and NK cells.", "** IL-3 – Stimulates production of all non-lymphoid cells.", "** IL-4 – Growth factor for activated B cells, resting T cells, and mast cells.", "** IL-5 – Induces differentiation of activated B cells and eosinophils.", "** IL-6 – Stimulates Ig synthesis.", "Growth factor for plasma cells.", "** IL-7 – Growth factor for pre-B cells.", "* Keratinocyte growth factor (KGF)* Migration-stimulating factor (MSF)* Macrophage-stimulating protein (MSP), also known as hepatocyte growth factor-like protein (HGFLP)* Myostatin (GDF-8)* Neuregulins** Neuregulin 1 (NRG1)** Neuregulin 2 (NRG2)** Neuregulin 3 (NRG3)** Neuregulin 4 (NRG4)* Neurotrophins** Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF)** Nerve growth factor (NGF)** Neurotrophin-3 (NT-3)** Neurotrophin-4 (NT-4)* Placental growth factor (PGF)* Platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)* Renalase (RNLS) – Anti-apoptotic survival factor* T-cell growth factor (TCGF)* Thrombopoietin (TPO)* Transforming growth factors** Transforming growth factor alpha (TGF-α)** Transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β)* Tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α)* Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)* Wnt Signaling Pathway" ], [ "In platelets", "The alpha granules in blood platelets contain growth factors PDGF, IGF-1, EGF, and TGF-β which begin healing of wounds by attracting and activating macrophages, fibroblasts, and endothelial cells." ], [ "Uses in medicine", "For the last two decades, growth factors have been increasingly used in the treatment of hematologic and oncologic diseases and cardiovascular diseases such as:* neutropenia* myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS)* leukemias* aplastic anaemia* bone marrow transplantation* angiogenesis for cardiovascular diseases" ], [ "See also", "* Angiogenesis* Bone growth factor* Cytokine* Growth factor receptor* Human Genome Organisation* Mitogen* Neurotrophic factor* Receptor (biochemistry)* Signal transduction* Wound healing#Overview of involved growth factors" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * FGF5 in Hair Tonic Products* FGF1 in Cosmetic Products" ] ]
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[ [ "Giuseppe Peano" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Giuseppe Peano''' (; ; 27 August 1858 – 20 April 1932) was an Italian mathematician and glottologist.", "The author of over 200 books and papers, he was a founder of mathematical logic and set theory, to which he contributed much notation.", "The standard axiomatization of the natural numbers is named the Peano axioms in his honor.", "As part of this effort, he made key contributions to the modern rigorous and systematic treatment of the method of mathematical induction.", "He spent most of his career teaching mathematics at the University of Turin.", "He also wrote an international auxiliary language, Latino sine flexione (\"Latin without inflections\"), which is a simplified version of Classical Latin.", "Most of his books and papers are in Latino sine flexione, while others are in Italian." ], [ "Biography", "''Aritmetica generale e algebra elementare'', 1902Peano was born and raised on a farm at Spinetta, a hamlet now belonging to Cuneo, Piedmont, Italy.", "He attended the Liceo classico Cavour in Turin, and enrolled at the University of Turin in 1876, graduating in 1880 with high honours, after which the University employed him to assist first Enrico D'Ovidio, and then Angelo Genocchi, the Chair of calculus.", "Due to Genocchi's poor health, Peano took over the teaching of calculus course within two years.", "His first major work, a textbook on calculus entitled ''Calcolo differenziale, e principii di calcolo integrale'', was published in 1884 and was credited to Genocchi.", "A few years later, Peano published his first book dealing with mathematical logic.", "Here the modern symbols for the union and intersection of sets appeared for the first time.Giuseppe Peano and his wife Carola Crosio in 1887In 1887, Peano married Carola Crosio, the daughter of the Turin-based painter Luigi Crosio, known for painting the ''Refugium Peccatorum Madonna''.", "In 1886, he began teaching concurrently at the Royal Military Academy, and was promoted to Professor First Class in 1889.In that year he published the Peano axioms, a formal foundation for the collection of natural numbers.", "The next year, the University of Turin also granted him his full professorship.", "The Peano curve was published in 1890 as the first example of a space-filling curve which demonstrated that the unit interval and the unit square have the same cardinality.", "Today it is understood to be an early example of what is known as a fractal.In 1890 Peano founded the journal ''Rivista di Matematica'', which published its first issue in January 1891.In 1891 Peano started the Formulario Project.", "It was to be an \"Encyclopedia of Mathematics\", containing all known formulae and theorems of mathematical science using a standard notation invented by Peano.", "In 1897, the first International Congress of Mathematicians was held in Zürich.", "Peano was a key participant, presenting a paper on mathematical logic.", "He also started to become increasingly occupied with ''Formulario'' to the detriment of his other work.In 1898 he presented a note to the Academy about binary numeration and its ability to be used to represent the sounds of languages.", "He also became so frustrated with publishing delays (due to his demand that formulae be printed on one line) that he purchased a printing press.Paris was the venue for the Second International Congress of Mathematicians in 1900.The conference was preceded by the First International Conference of Philosophy where Peano was a member of the patronage committee.", "He presented a paper which posed the question of correctly formed definitions in mathematics, ''i.e.''", "\"how do you define a definition?\".", "This became one of Peano's main philosophical interests for the rest of his life.", "At the conference, Peano met Bertrand Russell and gave him a copy of ''Formulario''.", "Russell was struck by Peano's innovative logical symbols and after the conference, he retired to the country \"to study quietly every word written by him or his disciples\".Peano's students Mario Pieri and Alessandro Padoa also had papers presented at the philosophy congress.", "For the mathematical congress, Peano did not speak, but Padoa's memorable presentation has been frequently recalled.", "A resolution calling for the formation of an \"international auxiliary language\" to facilitate the spread of mathematical (and commercial) ideas, was proposed; Peano fully supported it.By 1901, Peano was at the peak of his mathematical career.", "He had made advances in the areas of analysis, foundations and logic, made many contributions to the teaching of calculus and also contributed to the fields of differential equations and vector analysis.", "Peano played a key role in the axiomatization of mathematics and was a leading pioneer in the development of mathematical logic.", "Peano had by this stage become heavily involved with the ''Formulario'' project and his teaching began to suffer.", "In fact, he became so determined to teach his new mathematical symbols that the calculus in his course was neglected.", "As a result, he was dismissed from the Royal Military Academy but retained his post at Turin University.In 1903 Peano announced his work on an international auxiliary language called ''Latino sine flexione'' (\"Latin without inflexion,\" later called Interlingua, and the precursor of the Interlingua of the IALA).", "This was an important project for him (along with finding contributors for 'Formulario').", "The idea was to use Latin vocabulary, since this was widely known, but simplify the grammar as much as possible and remove all irregular and anomalous forms to make it easier to learn.", "On 3 January 1908, he read a paper to the ''Academia delle Scienze di Torino'' in which he started speaking in Latin and, as he described each simplification, introduced it into his speech so that by the end he was talking in his new language.The year 1908 was important for Peano.", "The fifth and final edition of the ''Formulario'' project, titled ''Formulario mathematico'', was published.", "It contained 4200 formulae and theorems, all completely stated and most of them proved.", "The book received little attention since much of the content was dated by this time.", "However, it remains a significant contribution to mathematical literature.", "The comments and examples were written in ''Latino sine flexione''.Also in 1908, Peano took over the chair of higher analysis at Turin (this appointment was to last for only two years).", "He was elected the director of ''Academia pro Interlingua''.", "Having previously created Idiom Neutral, the Academy effectively chose to abandon it in favour of Peano's Latino sine flexione.After his mother died in 1910, Peano divided his time between teaching, working on texts aimed for secondary schooling including a dictionary of mathematics, and developing and promoting his and other auxiliary languages, becoming a revered member of the international auxiliary language movement.", "He used his membership of the ''Accademia dei Lincei'' to present papers written by friends and colleagues who were not members (the Accademia recorded and published all presented papers given in sessions).During the years 1913–1918, Peano published several papers that dealt with the remainder term for various numerical quadrature formulas, and introduced the Peano kernel.In 1925 Peano switched Chairs unofficially from Infinitesimal Calculus to Complementary Mathematics, a field which better suited his current style of mathematics.", "This move became official in 1931.Giuseppe Peano continued teaching at Turin University until the day before he died when he suffered a fatal heart attack." ], [ "Milestones and honours received", "Memorial bust of Peano in Vinadio.", "* 1881: Published first paper.", "* 1884: ''Calcolo Differenziale e Principii di Calcolo Integrale''.", "* 1887: ''Applicazioni Geometriche del Calcolo Infinitesimale''.", "* 1889: Appointed Professor First Class at the Royal Military Academy.", "* 1889: ''Arithmetices principia: nova methodo exposita.", "''* 1890: Appointed Extraordinary Professor of infinitesimal calculus at the University of Turin.", "* 1891: Made a member of the Academy of Science, Torino.", "* 1893: ''Lezioni di Analisi Infinitesimale'', 2 vols.", "* 1895: Promoted to Ordinary Professor.", "* 1901: Made Knight of the Order of Saints Maurizio and Lazzaro.", "* 1903: Announces ''Latino sine flexione''.", "* 1905: Made Knight of the Order of the Crown of Italy.", "Elected a corresponding member of the Accademia dei Lincei in Rome, the highest Italian honour for scientists.", "* 1908: Fifth and final edition of the ''Formulario mathematico''.", "* 1917: Made an Officer of the Crown of Italy.", "* 1921: Promoted to Commendatore of the Crown of Italy." ], [ "Bibliography", ";Peano's writings in English translation*1889.", "\"The principles of arithmetic, presented by a new method\" in Jean van Heijenoort, 1967.", "''A Source Book in Mathematical Logic, 1879–1931''.", "Harvard Univ.", "Press: 83–97.*1973.", "''Selected works of Giuseppe Peano''.", "Kennedy, Hubert C., ed.", "and transl.", "With a biographical sketch and bibliography.", "London: Allen & Unwin." ], [ "See also", "* ''Arithmetices principia, nova methodo exposita''* Foundations of geometry" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Gillies, Douglas A., 1982.", "''Frege, Dedekind, and Peano on the foundations of arithmetic''.", "Assen, Netherlands: Van Gorcum.", "* Ivor Grattan-Guinness, 2000.", "''The Search for Mathematical Roots 1870–1940''.", "Princeton University Press.", "* Segre, Michael, 1994.", "\"Peano's Axioms in their Historical Context,\" ''Archive for History of Exact Sciences'' 48, pp. 201–342.", "* Ferreirós, José, 2005.\"R.", "Dedekind, Was Sind und Was Sollen die Zahlen?", "(1888), G. Peano, Arithmetics Principia, Nova Methodo Exposita (1889)\".", "Pag.", "613–626 of ''Landmark Writings in Western Mathematics 1640–1940'', ed.", "I. Grattan-Guinness.", "Amsterdam, Elsevier, 2005." ], [ "External links", "* * * * * Collection of articles on life and mathematics of Peano (1960s to 1980s).", "* Instituto Pro Latino Sine Flexione" ] ]
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[ [ "Gin and tonic" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''gin and tonic''' is a highball cocktail made with gin and tonic water poured over a large amount of ice.", "The ratio of gin to tonic varies according to taste, strength of the gin, other drink mixers being added, etc., with most recipes calling for a ratio between 1:1 and 1:3.It is usually garnished with a slice or wedge of lime.", "To preserve effervescence, the tonic can be poured down a bar spoon.", "The ice cools the gin, dulling the effect of the alcohol in the mouth and making the drink more pleasant and refreshing to taste.It is commonly referred to as a '''G and T''' in the UK, US, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and Ireland.", "In some parts of the world (e.g., in Germany, Italy, France, Japan, the Netherlands, Spain, Turkey), it is called a .", "It is also referred to as ''ginto'' in Belgium and the Netherlands, and as ''GT'' in the Nordics." ], [ "Garnish and serving", "Gin and tonic is traditionally garnished with a slice or wedge of lime, often slightly squeezed into the drink before being placed in the glass.", "In most parts of the world, lime remains the only usual garnish; however, lemon is often used as an alternative fruit.", "In the United Kingdom, the use of both lemon and lime together is known as an \"Evans\".", "Although the origins of the use of lemons are unknown, their use dates back at least as far as the late 1930s.", "The use of lemon or lime is a debated issue – some leading brands, such as Gordon's, Tanqueray, and Bombay Sapphire, recommend the use of lime in their gin.The use of a balloon glass for serving gin has become popular, possibly through promotion by the Bombay Sapphire gin brand.", "The use of such a glass, with plenty of ice and a garnish tailored to the flavours of the gin, is sometimes said to allow the aromas of the drink to gather at its opening for the drinker to more easily appreciate.The use of assorted fruits, herbs, and vegetables, as garnish (reflecting the botanicals of the individual gin), is increasingly popular.", "Besides the classic lime wheel or wedge, alternative garnishes can include orange peel, star anise, thyme-elderflower, a slice of ginger, pink grapefruit, rosemary, cucumber, mint, black peppercorns, strawberry and basil, strawberry syrup, or chillies.", "Fruits such as kumquats or other citrus or cucumber can be included." ], [ "History", "The cocktail was created by officers of the Presidency armies, the military force of the East India Company which operated on the Indian subcontinent.", "In the India subcontinent and other tropical regions, malaria was a persistent problem for Europeans, and in the 18th century, Scottish doctor George Cleghorn studied how quinine, a traditional cure for malaria, could be used to prevent the disease.", "The quinine was drunk in tonic water but the bitter taste was unpleasant.", "Presidency armies officers in India in the early 19th century took to adding a mixture of water, sugar, lime and gin to the quinine in order to make the drink more palatable, and thus the gin and tonic cocktail was born.", "The officers were already given a gin ration as part of their rations, and the sweet concoction made sense.", "Since it is no longer used as an antimalarial, tonic water today contains much less quinine, is usually sweetened, and is consequently much less bitter.A 2004 study found that after 12 hours, \"considerable quantities (500 to 1,000 ml) of tonic water may, for a short period of time, lead to quinine plasma levels at the lower limit of therapeutic efficacy and may, in fact, cause transitory suppression of parasites\".", "This method of consumption of quinine was impractical for malaria prophylaxis, as the amount of drug needed \"cannot be maintained with even large amounts of tonic\".", "The authors concluded that it is not an effective form of treatment for malaria." ], [ "Variations", "Mixers can include lime juice, lemon juice, orange juice and spiced simple syrup, grenadine, tea, etc.A gin and tonic can also be mixed with a sorbet.Some gin-and-tonic inspired drinks also have champagne (e.g.", "the Parisian), vermouth and Campari (e.g.", "the Negroni Sbagliato), vermouth and bitters (e.g.", "the Posh G&T), super smokey whiskey (e.g.", "the Ol' Smokey), peach liqueur and grapefruit bitters (e.g.", "the Tonic Delight), mint bitters, and chocolate liqueur (e.g.", "the Guilty Pleasure), etc." ], [ "In popular culture", "The trans-galactic nature of the gin and tonic is imagined in Douglas Adams' novel ''The Restaurant at the End of the Universe'', which describes how \"85% of all known worlds in the Galaxy, be they primitive or highly advanced, have invented a drink called jynnan tonnyx, or gee-N'N-T'N-ix, or jinond-o-nicks, or any one of a thousand or more variations on the same phonetic theme.", "The drinks themselves are not the same, and vary between the Sivolvian 'chinanto/mnigs' which is ordinary water served at slightly above room temperature, and the Gagrakackan 'tzjin-anthony-ks' which kills cows at a hundred paces; and in fact the one common factor between all of them, beyond the fact that the names sound the same, is that they were all invented and named before the worlds concerned made contact with any other worlds.", "\"James Bond specifies a recipe for a gin and tonic while in Kingston, Jamaica, in the book ''Dr.", "No''.", "Unusually, it involves the juice of a whole lime.In the BBC1 and Amazon Prime television series ''Fleabag'', Fleabag and the Priest enjoy canned G&Ts from Marks and Spencer.", "The store reported a 24% increase in sales after the episodes aired.", "Founded in 2010, International Gin & Tonic Day is celebrated worldwide on 19 October." ], [ "Images", "File:Self-made gin and tonic cropped.jpg|Gin and tonic made with Bombay Sapphire London Dry Gin and Schweppes Indian Tonic, garnished with slices of limeFile:Gin and tonic with lemon.jpg|A gin and tonic with ice and lemon wedgeFile:Crafter's Gin and Tonic on a balcony.jpg|Gin and tonic made from Estonian Crafter's Gin.", "The botanicals in the gin have turned the drink pink in colourFile:A Gin Tonica with Fruit Garnish at Cappuccino Gin Bar in Salou, Spain, June-2013.jpg|A Spanish gin tonic served in a balloon glass" ], [ "See also", "* Dubonnet, another drink invented to encourage European colonial soldiers in tropical climates to take quinine* Lillet, an aperitif wine* Pink Gin, Plymouth gin mixed with Angostura bitters* Quinquina, a quinine-containing beverage sometimes used as a mixer with gin* Beton, a cocktail made by mixing tonic water with Becherovka, a Czech liqueur" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Gin and tonic: An easy cocktail to make, but also easy to screw up." ] ]
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[ [ "Gimlet (tool)" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''gimlet''' is a hand tool for drilling small holes, mainly in wood, without splitting.", "It was defined in Joseph Gwilt's ''Architecture'' (1859) as \"a piece of steel of a semi-cylindrical form, hollow on one side, having a cross handle at one end and a worm or screw at the other\".A gimlet is always a small tool.", "A similar tool of larger size is called an auger.", "The cutting action of the gimlet is slightly different from an auger and the initial hole it makes is smaller; the cutting edges pare away the wood, which is moved out by the spiral sides, falling out through the entry hole.", "This also pulls the gimlet farther into the hole as it is turned; unlike a bradawl, pressure is not required once the tip has been drawn in.The name ''gimlet'' comes from the Old French , , later , probably a diminutive of the Anglo-French , a variation of \"guimble\", from the Middle Low German (cf.", "the Scandinavian , 'to bore or twist').", "Modern French uses the term , also the French for \"tendril\"." ], [ "Use as a metaphor", "The term is also used figuratively to describe something as sharp or piercing, and also to describe the twisting, boring motion of using a gimlet.", "For example, the gimlet cocktail may be named after the tool.", "The term ''gimlet-eyed'' can mean sharp-eyed or squint-eyed; one example of this use is Major General Smedley Darlington Butler, who was known as \"Old Gimlet Eye\"." ], [ "Further reading", "* Adamson, John, \"Gimlets galore!", "\", ''Furniture & Cabinetmaking'', no.", "265, Winter 2017, pp.", "50–3* Hawley, Ken, & Watts, Dennis (2017), ''Gimlet Patterns and Manufacture'' Sheffield: The Hawley Collection Trust Ltd in association with the Tools and Trades History Society" ], [ "References" ] ]
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[ [ "Geometric mean" ], [ "Introduction", " Example of the geometric mean: (red) is the geometric mean of and , in an example in which the line segment is given as a perpendicular to (note 10 s pause between each animation run).In mathematics, the '''geometric mean''' is a mean or average which indicates a central tendency of a finite set of real numbers by using the product of their values (as opposed to the arithmetic mean which uses their sum).", "The geometric mean is defined as the th root of the product of numbers, i.e., for a set of numbers , the geometric mean is defined as:or, equivalently, as the arithmetic mean in logscale::Most commonly the numbers are restricted to being non-negative, to avoid complications related to negative numbers not having real roots, and frequently they are restricted to being positive, to enable the use of logarithms.", "In any case, the geometric mean is equal to zero for any data set where one or more values is equal to zero.", "The geometric mean can be an unreliable measure of central tendency for a dataset where one or more values are extremely close to zero in comparison to the other members of the dataset.The geometric mean of two numbers, say 2 and 8, is just the square root of their product, that is, .", "The geometric mean of the three numbers 4, 1, and 1/32 is the cube root of their product (1/8), which is 1/2, that is, .The geometric mean is often used for a set of numbers whose values are meant to be multiplied together or are exponential in nature, such as a set of growth figures: values of the human population or interest rates of a financial investment over time.", "It also applies to benchmarking, where it is particularly useful for computing means of speedup ratios: since the mean of 0.5x (half as fast) and 2x (twice as fast) will be 1 (i.e., no speedup overall).Suppose for example a person invests 1000 dollars in shares and achieves annual returns of +10%, -12%, +90%, -30% and +25% over 5 consecutive years to give a final investment value of 1,609 dollars.", "The arithmetic mean of the annual percent changes is 16.6%.", "However, this value is unrepresentative.", "If the initial investment, grew by 16.6% per annum, it would be worth 2155 dollars after 5 years.", "In fact, to find the average percentage growth it is necessary compute the geometric mean of the successive annual growth ratios (1.1, 0.88, 1.9, 0.7, 1.25).", "This gives a value of 1.0998 which corresponds to an annual average growth of 9.98%.", "It can be readily verified that an investment of 1000 dollars which grows by 9.98% over five years would achieve a final investment value of 1,609 dollars.", "In this case, the geometric mean is appropriate because investment growth is multiplicative rather than additive.", "The geometric mean can be understood in terms of geometry.", "The geometric mean of two numbers, and , is the length of one side of a square whose area is equal to the area of a rectangle with sides of lengths and .", "Similarly, the geometric mean of three numbers, , , and , is the length of one edge of a cube whose volume is the same as that of a cuboid with sides whose lengths are equal to the three given numbers.The geometric mean is one of the three classical Pythagorean means, together with the arithmetic mean and the harmonic mean.", "For all positive data sets containing at least one pair of unequal values, the harmonic mean is always the least of the three means, while the arithmetic mean is always the greatest of the three and the geometric mean is always in between (see Inequality of arithmetic and geometric means.)" ], [ "Calculation", "The geometric mean of a data set is given by::The above figure uses capital pi notation to show a series of multiplications.", "Each side of the equal sign shows that a set of values is multiplied in succession (the number of values is represented by \"n\") to give a total product of the set, and then the ''n''th root of the total product is taken to give the geometric mean of the original set.", "For example, in a set of four numbers , the product of is , and the geometric mean is the fourth root of 24, or ~ 2.213.The exponent on the left side is equivalent to the taking ''n''th root.", "For example, .===Iterative means===The geometric mean of a data set is less than the data set's arithmetic mean unless all members of the data set are equal, in which case the geometric and arithmetic means are equal.", "This allows the definition of the arithmetic-geometric mean, an intersection of the two which always lies in between.The geometric mean is also the '''arithmetic-harmonic mean''' in the sense that if two sequences () and () are defined::and:where is the harmonic mean of the previous values of the two sequences, then and will converge to the geometric mean of and .", "The sequences converge to a common limit, and the geometric mean is preserved::Replacing the arithmetic and harmonic mean by a pair of generalized means of opposite, finite exponents yields the same result.===Relationship with logarithms ===The geometric mean can also be expressed as the exponential of the arithmetic mean of logarithms.", "By using logarithmic identities to transform the formula, the multiplications can be expressed as a sum and the power as a multiplication:When : :As: : :alternatively, use any positive real number base, for both the logarithms and the number you are raising to the power of the arithmetic mean of the individual logarithms at that same base.", "additionally, if negative values of the are allowed, : where is the number of negative numbers.This is sometimes called the '''log-average''' (not to be confused with the logarithmic average).", "It is simply computing the arithmetic mean of the logarithm-transformed values of (i.e., the arithmetic mean on the log scale) and then using the exponentiation to return the computation to the original scale, i.e., it is the generalised f-mean with .", "For example, the geometric mean of 2 and 8 can be calculated as the following, where is any base of a logarithm (commonly 2, or 10)::Related to the above, it can be seen that for a given sample of points , the geometric mean is the minimizer of :, whereas the arithmetic mean is the minimizer of :.", "Thus, the geometric mean provides a summary of the samples whose exponent best matches the exponents of the samples (in the least squares sense).The log form of the geometric mean is generally the preferred alternative for implementation in computer languages because calculating the product of many numbers can lead to an arithmetic overflow or arithmetic underflow.", "This is less likely to occur with the sum of the logarithms for each number.===Comparison to arithmetic mean===The geometric mean of a non-empty data set of (positive) numbers is always at most their arithmetic mean.", "Equality is only obtained when all numbers in the data set are equal; otherwise, the geometric mean is smaller.", "For example, the geometric mean of 2 and 3 is 2.45, while their arithmetic mean is 2.5.In particular, this means that when a set of non-identical numbers is subjected to a mean-preserving spread — that is, the elements of the set are \"spread apart\" more from each other while leaving the arithmetic mean unchanged — their geometric mean decreases.===Average growth rate===In many cases the geometric mean is the best measure to determine the average growth rate of some quantity.", "(For example, if in one year sales increases by 80% and the next year by 25%, the end result is the same as that of a constant growth rate of 50%, since the geometric mean of 1.80 and 1.25 is 1.50.)", "In order to determine the average growth rate, it is not necessary to take the product of the measured growth rates at every step.", "Let the quantity be given as the sequence , where is the number of steps from the initial to final state.", "The growth rate between successive measurements and is .", "The geometric mean of these growth rates is then just::" ], [ "Application to normalized values", "The fundamental property of the geometric mean, which does not hold for any other mean, is that for two sequences and of equal length,: This makes the geometric mean the only correct mean when averaging ''normalized'' results; that is, results that are presented as ratios to reference values.", "This is the case when presenting computer performance with respect to a reference computer, or when computing a single average index from several heterogeneous sources (for example, life expectancy, education years, and infant mortality).", "In this scenario, using the arithmetic or harmonic mean would change the ranking of the results depending on what is used as a reference.", "For example, take the following comparison of execution time of computer programs:'''Table 1'''   Computer A Computer B Computer C '''Program 1''' 1 10 20 '''Program 2''' 1000 100 20 '''Arithmetic mean''' 500.5 55 '''20''' '''Geometric mean''' 31.622 .", ".", ".", "31.622 .", ".", ".", "'''20''' '''Harmonic mean''' '''1.998 .", ".", ".'''", "18.182 .", ".", ".", "20The arithmetic and geometric means \"agree\" that computer C is the fastest.", "However, by presenting appropriately normalized values ''and'' using the arithmetic mean, we can show either of the other two computers to be the fastest.", "Normalizing by A's result gives A as the fastest computer according to the arithmetic mean:'''Table 2'''   Computer A Computer B Computer C '''Program 1''' 1 10 20 '''Program 2''' 1 0.1 0.02 '''Arithmetic mean''' '''1''' 5.05 10.01 '''Geometric mean''' 1 1 '''0.632 .", ".", ".'''", "'''Harmonic mean''' 1 0.198 .", ".", ".", "'''0.039 .", ".", ".", "'''while normalizing by B's result gives B as the fastest computer according to the arithmetic mean but A as the fastest according to the harmonic mean:'''Table 3'''   Computer A Computer B Computer C '''Program 1''' 0.1 1 2 '''Program 2''' 10 1 0.2 '''Arithmetic mean''' 5.05 '''1''' 1.1 '''Geometric mean''' 1 1 '''0.632''' '''Harmonic mean''' '''0.198 .", ".", ".'''", "1 0.363 .", ".", ".and normalizing by C's result gives C as the fastest computer according to the arithmetic mean but A as the fastest according to the harmonic mean:'''Table 4'''   Computer A Computer B Computer C '''Program 1''' 0.05 0.5 1 '''Program 2''' 50 5 1 '''Arithmetic mean''' 25.025 2.75 '''1''' '''Geometric mean''' 1.581 .", ".", ".", "1.581 .", ".", ".", "'''1''' '''Harmonic mean''' '''0.099 .", ".", ".'''", "0.909 .", ".", ".", "1In all cases, the ranking given by the geometric mean stays the same as the one obtained with unnormalized values.However, this reasoning has been questioned.Giving consistent results is not always equal to giving the correct results.", "In general, it is more rigorous to assign weights to each of the programs, calculate the average weighted execution time (using the arithmetic mean), and then normalize that result to one of the computers.", "The three tables above just give a different weight to each of the programs, explaining the inconsistent results of the arithmetic and harmonic means (Table 4 gives equal weight to both programs, the Table 2 gives a weight of 1/1000 to the second program, and the Table 3 gives a weight of 1/100 to the second program and 1/10 to the first one).", "The use of the geometric mean for aggregating performance numbers should be avoided if possible, because multiplying execution times has no physical meaning, in contrast to adding times as in the arithmetic mean.", "Metrics that are inversely proportional to time (speedup, IPC) should be averaged using the harmonic mean.The geometric mean can be derived from the generalized mean as its limit as goes to zero.", "Similarly, this is possible for the weighted geometric mean." ], [ "Geometric mean of a continuous function", "If is a positive continuous real-valued function, its geometric mean over this interval is:For instance, taking the identity function over the unit interval shows that the geometric mean of the positive numbers between 0 and 1 is equal to ." ], [ "Applications", "===Proportional growth===The geometric mean is more appropriate than the arithmetic mean for describing proportional growth, both exponential growth (constant proportional growth) and varying growth; in business the geometric mean of growth rates is known as the compound annual growth rate (CAGR).", "The geometric mean of growth over periods yields the equivalent constant growth rate that would yield the same final amount.Suppose an orange tree yields 100 oranges one year and then 180, 210 and 300 the following years, so the growth is 80%, 16.6666% and 42.8571% for each year respectively.", "Using the arithmetic mean calculates a (linear) average growth of 46.5079% (80% + 16.6666% + 42.8571%, that sum then divided by 3).", "However, if we start with 100 oranges and let it grow 46.5079% each year, the result is 314 oranges, not 300, so the linear average ''over''-states the year-on-year growth.Instead, we can use the geometric mean.", "Growing with 80% corresponds to multiplying with 1.80, so we take the geometric mean of 1.80, 1.166666 and 1.428571, i.e.", "; thus the \"average\" growth per year is 44.2249%.", "If we start with 100 oranges and let the number grow with 44.2249% each year, the result is 300 oranges.===Financial===The geometric mean has from time to time been used to calculate financial indices (the averaging is over the components of the index).", "For example, in the past the FT 30 index used a geometric mean.", "It is also used in the CPI calculation and recently introduced \"RPIJ\" measure of inflation in the United Kingdom and in the European Union.This has the effect of understating movements in the index compared to using the arithmetic mean.===Applications in the social sciences===Although the geometric mean has been relatively rare in computing social statistics, starting from 2010 the United Nations Human Development Index did switch to this mode of calculation, on the grounds that it better reflected the non-substitutable nature of the statistics being compiled and compared:: The geometric mean decreases the level of substitutability between dimensions being compared and at the same time ensures that a 1 percent decline in say life expectancy at birth has the same impact on the HDI as a 1 percent decline in education or income.", "Thus, as a basis for comparisons of achievements, this method is also more respectful of the intrinsic differences across the dimensions than a simple average.Not all values used to compute the HDI (Human Development Index) are normalized; some of them instead have the form .", "This makes the choice of the geometric mean less obvious than one would expect from the \"Properties\" section above.The equally distributed welfare equivalent income associated with an Atkinson Index with an inequality aversion parameter of 1.0 is simply the geometric mean of incomes.", "For values other than one, the equivalent value is an Lp norm divided by the number of elements, with p equal to one minus the inequality aversion parameter.===Geometry===In the case of a right triangle, its altitude is the length of a line extending perpendicularly from the hypotenuse to its 90° vertex.", "Imagining that this line splits the hypotenuse into two segments, the geometric mean of these segment lengths is the length of the altitude.", "This property is known as the geometric mean theorem.In an ellipse, the semi-minor axis is the geometric mean of the maximum and minimum distances of the ellipse from a focus; it is also the geometric mean of the semi-major axis and the semi-latus rectum.", "The semi-major axis of an ellipse is the geometric mean of the distance from the center to either focus and the distance from the center to either directrix.", "Another way to think about it is as follows:Consider a circle with radius .", "Now take two diametrically opposite points on the circle and apply pressure from both ends to deform it into an ellipse with semi-major and semi-minor axes of lengths and .", "Since the area of the circle and the ellipse stays the same, we have:The radius of the circle is the geometric mean of the semi-major and the semi-minor axes of the ellipse formed by deforming the circle.Distance to the horizon of a sphere (ignoring the effect of atmospheric refraction when atmosphere is present) is equal to the geometric mean of the distance to the closest point of the sphere and the distance to the farthest point of the sphere.The geometric mean is used in both in the approximation of squaring the circle by S.A. Ramanujan and in the construction of the heptadecagon with \"mean proportionals\".===Aspect ratios===Equal area comparison of the aspect ratios used by Kerns Powers to derive the SMPTE 16:9 standard.", "TV 4:3/1.33 in red, 1.66 in orange, '''16:9/1.7 in blue''', 1.85 in yellow, Panavision/2.2 in mauve and CinemaScope/2.35 in purple.The geometric mean has been used in choosing a compromise aspect ratio in film and video: given two aspect ratios, the geometric mean of them provides a compromise between them, distorting or cropping both in some sense equally.", "Concretely, two equal area rectangles (with the same center and parallel sides) of different aspect ratios intersect in a rectangle whose aspect ratio is the geometric mean, and their hull (smallest rectangle which contains both of them) likewise has the aspect ratio of their geometric mean.In the choice of 16:9 aspect ratio by the SMPTE, balancing 2.35 and 4:3, the geometric mean is , and thus ... was chosen.", "This was discovered empirically by Kerns Powers, who cut out rectangles with equal areas and shaped them to match each of the popular aspect ratios.", "When overlapped with their center points aligned, he found that all of those aspect ratio rectangles fit within an outer rectangle with an aspect ratio of 1.77:1 and all of them also covered a smaller common inner rectangle with the same aspect ratio 1.77:1.The value found by Powers is exactly the geometric mean of the extreme aspect ratios, 4:3(1.33:1) and CinemaScope(2.35:1), which is coincidentally close to ().", "The intermediate ratios have no effect on the result, only the two extreme ratios.Applying the same geometric mean technique to 16:9 and 4:3 approximately yields the 14:9 (...) aspect ratio, which is likewise used as a compromise between these ratios.", "In this case 14:9 is exactly the ''arithmetic mean'' of and , since 14 is the average of 16 and 12, while the precise ''geometric mean'' is but the two different ''means'', arithmetic and geometric, are approximately equal because both numbers are sufficiently close to each other (a difference of less than 2%).=== Paper formats ===The geometric mean is also used to calculate B and C series paper formats.", "The format has an area which is the geometric mean of the areas of and .", "For example, the area of a B1 paper is , because it is the geometric mean of the areas of an A0 () and an A1 () paper ().The same principle applies with the C series, whose area is the geometric mean of the A and B series.", "For example, the C4 format has an area which is the geometric mean of the areas of A4 and B4.An advantage that comes from this relationship is that an A4 paper fits inside a C4 envelope, and both fit inside a B4 envelope.===Other applications===*''Spectral flatness'': in signal processing, spectral flatness, a measure of how flat or spiky a spectrum is, is defined as the ratio of the geometric mean of the power spectrum to its arithmetic mean.", "*''Anti-reflective coatings'': In optical coatings, where reflection needs to be minimised between two media of refractive indices ''n''0 and ''n''2, the optimum refractive index ''n''1 of the anti-reflective coating is given by the geometric mean: .", "*''Subtractive color mixing'': The spectral reflectance curve for paint mixtures (of equal tinting strength, opacity and dilution) is approximately the geometric mean of the paints' individual reflectance curves computed at each wavelength of their spectra.", "*''Image processing'': The geometric mean filter is used as a noise filter in image processing.", "*''Labor compensation'': The geometric mean of a subsistence wage and market value of the labor using capital of employer was suggested as the natural wage by Johann von Thünen in 1875." ], [ "See also", "*Arithmetic-geometric mean*Generalized mean*Geometric mean theorem*Geometric standard deviation*Harmonic mean*Heronian mean*Heteroscedasticity*Log-normal distribution*Muirhead's inequality*Product*Pythagorean means*Quadratic mean*Quadrature (mathematics)*Quasi-arithmetic mean (generalized f-mean)*Rate of return*Weighted geometric mean" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Calculation of the geometric mean of two numbers in comparison to the arithmetic solution* Arithmetic and geometric means* When to use the geometric mean* Practical solutions for calculating geometric mean with different kinds of data * Geometric Mean on MathWorld* Geometric Meaning of the Geometric Mean* Geometric Mean Calculator for larger data sets* Computing Congressional apportionment using Geometric Mean * Non-Newtonian calculus website* Geometric Mean Definition and Formula* The Distribution of the Geometric Mean* The geometric mean?" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gent" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Gent''' is a shortened form of the word gentleman.", "It may also refer to:* Ghent (Dutch: Gent), a Belgian city** K.A.A.", "Gent, a football club from Ghent** K.R.C.", "Gent, a football club from Ghent** Gent RFC, a rugby club in Ghent** .gent, a GeoTLD (top-level domain) for the city of Ghent* Gent (hyperelastic model), rubber elasticity model* Gent Cakaj (born 1990), Albanian politician* Gent Strazimiri (born 1972), Albanian politician and former Deputy Minister of Interior Affairs* Gent (surname)* ''Gent'' (magazine), a defunct pornographic magazine* Honeywell Gent, a brand of fire alarm systems previously known as Gents' of Leicester" ], [ "See also", "*Gents (disambiguation)*Van Gent (disambiguation)*Gente (disambiguation)*Ghent (disambiguation)*Gentleman (disambiguation)*Gentlewoman (disambiguation)* *Lady (disambiguation)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "George Eliot" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Mary Ann Evans''' (22 November 1819 – 22 December 1880; alternatively '''Mary Anne''' or '''Marian'''), known by her pen name '''George Eliot''', was an English novelist, poet, journalist, translator, and one of the leading writers of the Victorian era.", "She wrote seven novels: ''Adam Bede'' (1859), ''The Mill on the Floss'' (1860), ''Silas Marner'' (1861), ''Romola'' (1862–1863), ''Felix Holt, the Radical'' (1866), ''Middlemarch'' (1871–1872) and ''Daniel Deronda'' (1876).", "Like Charles Dickens and Thomas Hardy, she emerged from provincial England; most of her works are set there.", "Her works are known for their realism, psychological insight, sense of place and detailed depiction of the countryside.", "''Middlemarch'' was described by the novelist Virginia Woolf as \"one of the few English novels written for grown-up people\" and by Martin Amis and Julian Barnes as the greatest novel in the English language." ], [ "Life", "=== Early life and education ===Mary Ann Evans was born in Nuneaton, Warwickshire, England, at South Farm on the Arbury Hall estate.", "She was the third child of Welshman Robert Evans (1773–1849), manager of the Arbury Hall estate, and Christiana Evans (''née'' Pearson, 1788–1836), daughter of a local mill-owner.", "Her full siblings were: Christiana, known as Chrissey (1814–59), Isaac (1816–1890), and twin brothers who died a few days after birth in March 1821.She also had a half-brother, Robert Evans (1802–64), and half-sister, Frances \"Fanny\" Evans Houghton (1805–82), from her father's previous marriage to Harriet Poynton (1780–1809).", "In early 1820, the family moved to a house named Griff House, between Nuneaton and Bedworth.The young Evans was a voracious reader and obviously intelligent.", "Because she was not considered physically beautiful, Evans was not thought to have much chance of marriage, and this, coupled with her intelligence, led her father to invest in an education not often afforded to women.", "From ages five to nine, she boarded with her sister Chrissey at Miss Latham's school in Attleborough, from ages nine to thirteen at Mrs. Wallington's school in Nuneaton, and from ages thirteen to sixteen at Miss Franklin's school in Coventry.", "At Mrs. Wallington's school, she was taught by the evangelical Maria Lewis—to whom her earliest surviving letters are addressed.", "In the religious atmosphere of the Misses Franklin's school, Evans was exposed to a quiet, disciplined belief opposed to evangelicalism.After age sixteen, Evans had little formal education.", "Thanks to her father's important role on the estate, she was allowed access to the library of Arbury Hall, which greatly aided her self-education and breadth of learning.", "Her classical education left its mark; Christopher Stray has observed that \"George Eliot's novels draw heavily on Greek literature (only one of her books can be printed correctly without the use of a Greek typeface), and her themes are often influenced by Greek tragedy\".", "Her frequent visits to the estate also allowed her to contrast the wealth in which the local landowner lived with the lives of the often much poorer people on the estate, and different lives lived in parallel would reappear in many of her works.", "The other important early influence in her life was religion.", "She was brought up within a low church Anglican family, but at that time the Midlands was an area with a growing number of religious dissenters.=== Move to Coventry ===In 1836, her mother died and Evans (then 16) returned home to act as housekeeper, though she continued to correspond with her tutor Maria Lewis.", "When she was 21, her brother Isaac married and took over the family home, so Evans and her father moved to Foleshill near Coventry.", "The closeness to Coventry society brought new influences, most notably those of Charles and Cara Bray.", "Charles Bray had become rich as a ribbon manufacturer and had used his wealth in the building of schools and in other philanthropic causes.", "Evans, who had been struggling with religious doubts for some time, became intimate friends with the radical, free-thinking Brays, who had a casual view of marital obligations and the Brays' \"Rosehill\" home was a haven for people who held and debated radical views.", "The people whom the young woman met at the Brays' house included Robert Owen, Herbert Spencer, Harriet Martineau, and Ralph Waldo Emerson.", "Through this society Evans was introduced to more liberal and agnostic theologies and to writers such as David Strauss and Ludwig Feuerbach, who cast doubt on the literal truth of Biblical texts.", "In fact, her first major literary work was an English translation of Strauss's ''Das Leben Jesu kritisch bearbeitet'' as ''The Life of Jesus, Critically Examined'' (1846), which she completed after it had been left incomplete by Elizabeth \"Rufa\" Brabant, another member of the \"Rosehill Circle\".The Strauss book had caused a sensation in Germany by arguing that the miracles in the New Testament were mythical additions with little basis in fact.", "Evans's translation had a similar effect in England, with the Earl of Shaftesbury calling her translation \"the most pestilential book ever vomited out of the jaws of hell.\"", "Later she translated Feuerbach's ''The Essence of Christianity'' (1854).", "The ideas in these books would have an effect on her own fiction.As a product of their friendship, Bray published some of Evans's own earliest writing, such as reviews, in his newspaper the ''Coventry Herald and Observer''.", "As Evans began to question her own religious faith, her father threatened to throw her out of the house, but his threat was not carried out.", "Instead, she respectfully attended church and continued to keep house for him until his death in 1849, when she was 30.Five days after her father's funeral, she travelled to Switzerland with the Brays.", "She decided to stay on in Geneva alone, living first on the lake at Plongeon (near the present-day United Nations buildings) and then on the second floor of a house owned by her friends François and Juliet d'Albert Durade on the rue de Chanoines (now the rue de la Pelisserie).", "She commented happily that \"one feels in a downy nest high up in a good old tree\".", "Her stay is commemorated by a plaque on the building.", "While residing there, she read avidly and took long walks in the beautiful Swiss countryside, which was a great inspiration to her.", "François Durade painted her portrait there as well.=== Move to London and editorship of the ''Westminster Review'' ===On her return to England the following year (1850), she moved to London with the intent of becoming a writer, and she began referring to herself as Marian Evans.", "She stayed at the house of John Chapman, the radical publisher whom she had met earlier at Rosehill and who had published her Strauss translation.", "She then joined Chapman's ''ménage-à-trois'' along with his wife and mistress.", "Chapman had recently purchased the campaigning, left-wing journal ''The Westminster Review''.", "Evans became its assistant editor in 1851 after joining just a year earlier.", "Evans's writings for the paper were comments on her views of society and the Victorian way of thinking.", "She was sympathetic to the lower classes and criticised organised religion throughout her articles and reviews and commented on contemporary ideas of the time.", "Much of this was drawn from her own experiences and knowledge and she used this to critique other ideas and organisations.", "This led to her writing being viewed as authentic and wise but not too obviously opinionated.", "Evans also focused on the business side of the Review with attempts to change its layout and design.", "Although Chapman was officially the editor, it was Evans who did most of the work of producing the journal, contributing many essays and reviews beginning with the January 1852 issue and continuing until the end of her employment at the ''Review'' in the first half of 1854.Eliot sympathized with the 1848 Revolutions throughout continental Europe, and even hoped that the Italians would chase the \"odious Austrians\" out of Lombardy and that \"decayed monarchs\" would be pensioned off, although she believed a gradual reformist approach to social problems was best for England.In 1850–51, Evans attended classes in mathematics at the Ladies College in Bedford Square, later known as Bedford College, London.=== Relationship with George Lewes ===Portrait of George Eliot by Samuel Laurence, c. 1860The philosopher and critic George Henry Lewes (1817–78) met Evans in 1851, and by 1854 they had decided to live together.", "Lewes was already married to Agnes Jervis, although in an open marriage.", "In addition to the three children they had together, Agnes also had four children by Thornton Leigh Hunt.", "In July 1854, Lewes and Evans travelled to Weimar and Berlin together for the purpose of research.", "Before going to Germany, Evans continued her theological work with a translation of Feuerbach's ''The Essence of Christianity'', and while abroad she wrote essays and worked on her translation of Baruch Spinoza's ''Ethics'', which she completed in 1856, but which was not published in her lifetime because the prospective publisher refused to pay the requested £75.In 1981, Eliot's translation of Spinoza's ''Ethics'' was finally published by Thomas Deegan, and was determined to be in the public domain in 2018 and published by the ''George Eliot Archive''.", "It has been re-published in 2020 by Princeton University Press.", "The trip to Germany also served as a honeymoon for Evans and Lewes, who subsequently considered themselves married.", "Evans began to refer to Lewes as her husband and to sign her name as Mary Ann Evans Lewes, legally changing her name to Mary Ann Evans Lewes after his death.", "The refusal to conceal the relationship was contrary to the social conventions of the time, and attracted considerable disapproval.=== Career in fiction ===albumen print) of George Eliot, c. 1865While continuing to contribute pieces to the ''Westminster Review'', Evans resolved to become a novelist, and set out a pertinent manifesto in one of her last essays for the ''Review'', \"Silly Novels by Lady Novelists\" (1856).", "The essay criticised the trivial and ridiculous plots of contemporary fiction written by women.", "In other essays, she praised the realism of novels that were being written in Europe at the time, an emphasis on realistic storytelling confirmed in her own subsequent fiction.", "She also adopted a nom-de-plume, George Eliot; as she explained to her biographer J. W. Cross, George was Lewes's forename, and Eliot was \"a good mouth-filling, easily pronounced word\".", "Although female authors were published under their own names during her lifetime, she wanted to escape the stereotype of women's writing being limited to lighthearted romances or other lighter fare not to be taken very seriously.", "She also wanted to have her fiction judged separately from her already extensive and widely known work as a translator, editor, and critic.", "Another factor in her use of a pen name may have been a desire to shield her private life from public scrutiny, thus avoiding the scandal that would have arisen because of her relationship with Lewes, who was married.In 1857, when she was 37 years of age, \"The Sad Fortunes of the Reverend Amos Barton\", the first of the three stories included in ''Scenes of Clerical Life'', and the first work of \"George Eliot\", was published in ''Blackwood's Magazine''.", "''The Scenes'' (published as a 2-volume book in 1858), was well received, and was widely believed to have been written by a country parson, or perhaps the wife of a parson.Eliot was profoundly influenced by the works of Thomas Carlyle.", "As early as 1841, she referred to him as \"a grand favourite of mine\", and references to him abound in her letters from the 1840s and 1850s.", "According to University of Victoria professor Lisa Surridge, Carlyle \"stimulated Eliot's interest in German thought, encouraged her turn from Christian orthodoxy, and shaped her ideas on work, duty, sympathy, and the evolution of the self.\"", "These themes made their way into Evans's first complete novel, ''Adam Bede'' (1859).", "It was an instant success, and prompted yet more intense curiosity as to the author's identity: there was even a pretender to the authorship, one Joseph Liggins.", "This public interest subsequently led to Marian Evans Lewes's acknowledgment that it was she who stood behind the pseudonym George Eliot.", "''Adam Bede'' is known for embracing a realist aesthetic inspired by Dutch visual art.The revelations about Eliot's private life surprised and shocked many of her admiring readers, but this did not affect her popularity as a novelist.", "Her relationship with Lewes afforded her the encouragement and stability she needed to write fiction, but it would be some time before the couple were accepted into polite society.", "Acceptance was finally confirmed in 1877 when they were introduced to Princess Louise, the daughter of Queen Victoria.", "The queen herself was an avid reader of all of Eliot's novels and was so impressed with ''Adam Bede'' that she commissioned the artist Edward Henry Corbould to paint scenes from the book.Blue plaque, Holly Lodge, 31 Wimbledon Park Road, LondonWhen the American Civil War broke out in 1861, Eliot expressed sympathy for the Union cause, something which historians have attributed to her abolitionist sympathies.", "In 1868, she supported philosopher Richard Congreve's protests against governmental policies in Ireland and had a positive view of the growing movement in support of Irish home rule.She was influenced by the writings of John Stuart Mill and read all of his major works as they were published.", "In Mill's ''The Subjection of Women'' (1869) she judged the second chapter excoriating the laws which oppress married women \"excellent.\"", "She was supportive of Mill's parliamentary run, but believed that the electorate was unlikely to vote for a philosopher and was surprised when he won.", "While Mill served in parliament, she expressed her agreement with his efforts on behalf of female suffrage, being \"inclined to hope for much good from the serious presentation of women's claims before Parliament.\"", "In a letter to John Morley, she declared her support for plans \"which held out reasonable promise of tending to establish as far as possible an equivalence of advantage for the two sexes, as to education and the possibilities of free development\", and dismissed appeals to nature in explaining women's lower status.", "In 1870, she responded enthusiastically to Lady Amberley's feminist lecture on the claims of women for education, occupations, equality in marriage, and child custody.However, it would not be correct to assume that the female protagonists of her works can be considered \"feminist\", with the sole exception perhaps of Romola de' Bardi, who resolutely rejects the State and Church obligations of her time.After the success of ''Adam Bede'', Eliot continued to write popular novels for the next fifteen years.", "Within a year of completing ''Adam Bede'', she finished ''The Mill on the Floss'', dedicating the manuscript: \"To my beloved husband, George Henry Lewes, I give this MS. of my third book, written in the sixth year of our life together, at Holly Lodge, South Field, Wandsworth, and finished 21 March 1860.\"", "''Silas Marner'' (1861) and ''Romola'' (1863) soon followed, and later ''Felix Holt, the Radical'' (1866) and her most acclaimed novel, ''Middlemarch'' (1871–1872).Her last novel was ''Daniel Deronda'', published in 1876, after which she and Lewes moved to Witley, Surrey.", "By this time Lewes's health was failing, and he died two years later, on 30 November 1878.Eliot spent the next six months editing Lewes's final work, ''Life and Mind'', for publication, and found solace and companionship with longtime friend and financial adviser John Walter Cross, a Scottish commission agent 20 years her junior, whose mother had recently died.=== Marriage to John Cross and death ===Eliot's grave in Highgate CemeteryOn 16 May 1880, eighteen months after Lewes' death, Eliot married John Walter Cross (1840–1924) and again changed her name, this time to Mary Ann Cross.", "While the marriage courted some controversy due to the difference in ages, it pleased her brother Isaac, who had broken off relations with her when she had begun to live with Lewes, and now sent congratulations.", "While the couple were honeymooning in Venice, Cross, in a suicide attempt, jumped from the hotel balcony into the Grand Canal.", "He survived, and the newlyweds returned to England.", "They moved to a new house in Chelsea, but Eliot fell ill with a throat infection.", "This, coupled with the kidney disease with which she had been afflicted for several years, led to her death on 22 December 1880 at the age of 61.Due to her denial of the Christian faith and her relationship with Lewes, Eliot was not buried in Westminster Abbey.", "She was instead interred in Highgate Cemetery (East), Highgate, London, in the area reserved for political and religious dissenters and agnostics, beside the love of her life, George Henry Lewes.", "The graves of Karl Marx and her friend Herbert Spencer are nearby.", "In 1980, on the centenary of her death, a memorial stone was established for her in the Poets' Corner between W. H. Auden and Dylan Thomas, with a quote from ''Scenes of Clerical Life'': \"The first condition of human goodness is something to love; the second something to reverence\".=== Spelling of her name ===She spelled her name differently at different times.", "Mary Anne was the spelling used by her father for the baptismal record and she uses this spelling in her earliest letters.", "Within her family, however, it was spelled Mary Ann.", "By 1852, she had changed to Marian, but she reverted to Mary Ann in 1880 after she married John Cross.", "Her memorial stone reads === Memorials and tributes === Several landmarks in her birthplace of Nuneaton are named in her honour.", "These include the George Eliot Academy, Middlemarch Junior School, George Eliot Hospital (formerly Nuneaton Emergency Hospital), and George Eliot Road, in Foleshill, Coventry.Also, The Mary Anne Evans Hospice in Nuneaton.Nuneaton Museum and Art Gallery, in Riversley Park, home of collection on writer George EliotA statue of Eliot is in Newdegate Street, Nuneaton, and Nuneaton Museum & Art Gallery has a display of artifacts related to her.A tunnel boring machine constructing the Bromford Tunnel on High Speed 2 was named in honour of her." ], [ "Literary assessment", "Portrait by Frederick William Burton, 1864Throughout her career, Eliot wrote with a politically astute pen.", "From ''Adam Bede'' to ''The Mill on the Floss'' and ''Silas Marner'', Eliot presented the cases of social outsiders and small-town persecution.", "''Felix Holt, the Radical'' and ''The Legend of Jubal'' were overtly political, and political crisis is at the heart of ''Middlemarch'', in which she presents the stories of a number of inhabitants of a small English town on the eve of the Reform Bill of 1832; the novel is notable for its deep psychological insight and sophisticated character portraits.", "The roots of her realist philosophy can be found in her review of John Ruskin's ''Modern Painters'' in ''Westminster Review'' in 1856.Eliot also express proto-Zionist ideas in Daniel Deronda.Readers in the Victorian era praised her novels for their depictions of rural society.", "Much of the material for her prose was drawn from her own experience.", "She shared with Wordsworth the belief that there was much value and beauty to be found in the mundane details of ordinary country life.", "Eliot did not, however, confine herself to stories of the English countryside.", "''Romola'', an historical novel set in late fifteenth century Florence, was based on the life of the Italian priest Girolamo Savonarola.", "In ''The Spanish Gypsy'', Eliot made a foray into verse, but her poetry's initial popularity has not endured.Working as a translator, Eliot was exposed to German texts of religious, social, and moral philosophy such as David Friedrich Strauss's ''Life of Jesus'' and Feuerbach's ''The Essence of Christianity''; also important was her translation from Latin of Jewish-Dutch philosopher Spinoza's ''Ethics''.", "Elements from these works show up in her fiction, much of which is written with her trademark sense of agnostic humanism.", "According to Clare Carlisle, who published a new biography on George Eliot in 2023, the overdue publication of Spinoza's ''Ethics'' was a real shame, because it could have provided some illuminating cues for understanding the more mature works of the writer.", "She had taken particular notice of Feuerbach's conception of Christianity, positing that our understanding of the nature of the divine was to be found ultimately in the nature of humanity projected onto a divine figure.", "An example of this philosophy appeared in her novel ''Romola'', in which Eliot’s protagonist displayed a \"surprisingly modern readiness to interpret religious language in humanist or secular ethical terms.\"", "Though Eliot herself was not religious, she had respect for religious tradition and its ability to maintain a sense of social order and morality.", "The religious elements in her fiction also owe much to her upbringing, with the experiences of Maggie Tulliver from ''The Mill on the Floss'' sharing many similarities with the young Mary Ann Evans.", "Eliot also faced a quandary similar to that of Silas Marner, whose alienation from the church simultaneously meant his alienation from society.", "Because Eliot retained a vestigial respect for religion, German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche excoriated her system of morality for figuring sin as a debt that can be expiated through suffering, which he demeaned as characteristic of \"little moralistic females à la Eliot.", "\"She was at her most autobiographical in ''Looking Backwards'', part of her final published work ''Impressions of Theophrastus Such''.", "By the time of ''Daniel Deronda'', Eliot's sales were falling off, and she had faded from public view to some degree.", "This was not helped by the posthumous biography written by her husband, which portrayed a wonderful, almost saintly, woman totally at odds with the scandalous life people knew she had led.", "In the 20th century she was championed by a new breed of critics, most notably by Virginia Woolf, who called ''Middlemarch'' \"one of the few English novels written for grown-up people\".", "In 1994, literary critic Harold Bloom placed Eliot among the most important Western writers of all time.", "In a 2007 authors' poll by ''Time'', ''Middlemarch'' was voted the tenth greatest literary work ever written.", "In 2015, writers from outside the UK voted it first among all British novels \"by a landslide\".", "The various film and television adaptations of Eliot's books have re-introduced her to the wider reading public." ], [ "Works", "===Novels===* ''Adam Bede'' (1859)* ''The Mill on the Floss'' (1860)* ''Silas Marner'' (1861)* ''Romola'' (1863)* ''Felix Holt, the Radical'' (1866)* ''Middlemarch'' (1871–1872)** \"Quarry for Middlemarch\", MS Lowell 13, Houghton Library, Harvard University (A digital facsimile of the manuscript of research notes)* ''Daniel Deronda'' (1876)===Short story collection and novellas===* ''Scenes of Clerical Life'' (1857)** ''The Sad Fortunes of the Rev.", "Amos Barton''** ''Mr Gilfil's Love Story''** ''Janet's Repentance''* ''The Lifted Veil'' (1859)* ''Brother Jacob'' (1864)* ''Impressions of Theophrastus Such'' (1879)===Translations===* ''Das Leben Jesu, kritisch bearbeitet (The Life of Jesus, Critically Examined)'' Volume 2 by David Strauss (1846)* ''Das Wesen des Christentums (The Essence of Christianity)'' by Ludwig Feuerbach (1854) * ''The Ethics of Benedict de Spinoza'' by Benedict de Spinoza (1856) ===Poetry===* ''Knowing That I Must Shortly Put Off This Tabernacle'' (1840)* ''In a London Drawingroom'' (1865)* ''A Minor Prophet'' (1865)* ''Two Lovers'' (1866)* ''The Choir Invisible'' (1867)* ''The Spanish Gypsy'' (1868)* ''Agatha'' (1868)* ''Brother and Sister'' (1869)* ''How Lisa Loved the King'' (1869)* ''Armgart'' (1870)* ''Stradivarius'' (1873)* ''Arion'' (1873)* ''The Legend of Jubal'' (1874)* ''I Grant You Ample Leave'' (1874)* ''Evenings Come and Go, Love'' (1878)* ''Self and Life'' (1879)* ''A College Breakfast Party'' (1879)* ''The Death of Moses'' (1879)===Non-fiction===* \"Three Months in Weimar\" (1855)* \"Silly Novels by Lady Novelists\" (1856)* \"The Natural History of German Life\" (1856)* Review of John Ruskin's ''Modern Painters'' in ''Westminster Review'', April 1856* \"The Influence of Rationalism\" (1865)" ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== General sources ===* Ashton, Rosemary (1997).", "''George Eliot: A Life''.", "London: Penguin, 1997.", "* Bloom, Harold.", "(1994).", "''The Western Canon: The Books and School of the Ages.''", "New York: Harcourt Brace.", "* Cross, J. W.", "(ed.", "), (1885).", "''George Eliot's life as related in her letters and journals'', 3 vols.", "London: William Blackwood and Sons.", "* * Haight, Gordon S. (1968).", "''George Eliot: A Biography.''", "New York: Oxford University Press.", "* * Karl, Frederick R. (1995).", "''George Eliot: Voice of a Century: A Biography'', New York, W.W. Norton and Company, Inc., 1995, .", "*" ], [ "Further reading", "* Stephen, Leslie.", "''George Eliot'', Cambridge University Press, 2010, (1st ed.", "1902).", "* Haight, Gordon S., ed., ''George Eliot: Letters'', New Haven, Connecticut, Yale University Press, 1954, .", "* Henry, Nancy, ''The Life of George Eliot: A Critical Biography'', Wiley-Blackwell, 2012===Context and background===* Beer, Gillian, ''Darwin's Plots: Evolutionary Narrative in Darwin, George Eliot and Nineteenth-Century Fiction'', London, Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1983, .", "* Gilbert, Sandra M., and Gubar, Susan, ''The Madwoman in the Attic: The Woman Writer and the Nineteenth-Century Literary Imagination'', New Haven, Connecticut, Yale University Press, 1979, .", "* Hughes, Kathryn, ''George Eliot: The Last Victorian'', New York, Farrar Straus Giroux, 1998, .", "* Maddox, Brenda, ''George Eliot in Love'', New York, St. Martin's Press, 2010, .", "* Pinney, Thomas, ed., ''Essays of George Eliot'', London, Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1963, .", "* Rignall, John, ed., ''Oxford Reader's Companion to George Eliot'', Oxford University Press, 2000, * Shuttleworth, Sally, ''George Eliot and Nineteenth-Century Science: The Make-Believe of a Beginning'', Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1984, .", "* Uglow, Jenny, ''George Eliot'', London, Virago Press, 1987, .===Critical studies===* Alley, Henry, ''The Quest for Anonymity: The Novels of George Eliot'', University of Delaware Press, 1997.", "* Beaty, Jerome, ''Middlemarch from Notebook to Novel: A Study of George Eliot's Creative Method'', Champaign, Illinois, University of Illinois, 1960.", "* Carlisle, Clare, ''The Marriage Question: George Eliot's Double Life''.", "Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2023.", "* Carroll, Alicia, ''Dark Smiles: Race and Desire in George Eliot,'' Ohio University Press, 2003.", "* Carroll, David, ed., ''George Eliot: The Critical Heritage'', London, Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1971.", "* Daiches, David, ''George Eliot: Middlemarch'', London, Edward Arnold, 1963.", "* Arnold, Jean, ed., Marz Harper, Lila, ed., ''George Eliot: Interdisciplinary Essays'', Springer International Publishing, 2019.", "* Graver, Suzanne, ''George Eliot and Community: A Study in Social Theory and Fictional Form'', Berkeley, California, University of California Press, 1984.", "* Hardy, Barbara Nathan, ''The Novels of George Eliot: A Study in Form''.", "Oxford UP, 1967.", "* Harvey, W J, ''The Art of George Eliot'', London, Chatto & Windus, 1961.", "* Leavis, F R, ''The Great Tradition'', London, Chatto & Windus, 1948." ], [ "External links", "* George Eliot Archive* George Eliot Review Online* George Eliot Scholars* The George Eliot Fellowship* The Victorian Web: George Eliot* George Eliot at the British Library===Online editions===* Works by George Eliot at the George Eliot Archive, * Works about George Eliot at the George Eliot Archive, George Eliot Review Online, and George Eliot Scholars* * * * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Guru Meditation" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Guru Meditation''' started as an error notice displayed by the Amiga computer when it crashes.", "It is now also used by Varnish, a software component used by many content-heavy websites.", "This has led to many internet users seeing a \"Guru Meditation\" message (or the variant \"Guru Mediation\") when these websites suffer crashes or other issues.", "It is analogous to the \"Blue Screen of Death\" in Microsoft Windows operating systems, or a kernel panic in Unix.", "It has also been used as a message for unrecoverable errors in software packages such as VirtualBox and other operating systems (see Legacy section below)." ], [ "Origins", "The term \"Guru Meditation Error\" originated as an in-house joke in Amiga's early days.", "The company had a product called the ''Joyboard'' for the Atari 2600 home video game console, a game controller much like a joystick but operated by the feet, similar to the Wii Balance Board.", "Early in the development of the Amiga computer operating system, the company's developers became so frustrated with the system's frequent crashes that, as a relaxation technique, a game was developed where a person would sit cross-legged on the Joyboard, resembling an Indian guru.", "The player tried to remain extremely still; the winner of the game stayed still the longest.", "If the player moved too much, a \"guru meditation\" error occurred." ], [ "Description of \"Guru Meditation\" errors on the Amiga", "The alert occurred when there was a fatal problem with the system.", "If the system had no means of recovery, it could display the alert, even in systems with numerous critical flaws.", "In extreme cases, the alert could even be displayed if the system's memory was completely exhausted.The text of the alert messages was completely baffling to most users.", "Only highly technically adept Amiga users would know, for example, that exception 3 was an address error, and meant the program was accessing a word on an unaligned boundary.", "Users without this specialized knowledge would have no recourse but to look for a \"Guru\" or to simply reboot the machine and hope for the best.==Technical description (Amiga)== When a Guru Meditation is displayed, the options are to reboot by pressing the left mouse button, or to invoke ROMWack by pressing the right mouse button or to manually reboot.", "ROMWack is a minimalist debugger built into the operating system which is accessible by connecting a 9600 bit/s terminal to the serial port.The alert itself appears as a black rectangular box located in the upper portion of the screen.", "Its border and text are red for a normal Guru Meditation, or green/yellow for a Recoverable Alert, another kind of Guru Meditation.", "The screen may go black, but the power LEDs always alternates between full and half-brightness for a few seconds before the alert appears.", "In AmigaOS 1.x, programmed in ROMs known as Kickstart 1.1, 1.2 and 1.3, the errors are always red.", "In AmigaOS 2.x and 3.x, recoverable alerts are yellow, except for some very early versions of 2.x where they were green.Dead-end alerts are always red and terminal in all OS versions except in a rare series of events, as in when a deprecated Kickstart (example: 1.1) program conditionally boots from disk on a more advanced Kickstart 3.x ROM Amiga running in compatibility mode (therefore eschewing the on-disk OS) and crashes with a red Guru Meditation but subsequently restores itself by pressing the left mouse button, the newer Kickstart recognizing an inadvised low level chipset call for the older ROM directly poking the hardware, and addressing it.The error is displayed as two fields, separated by a period.", "The format is #0000000x.yyyyyyyy in case of a CPU error, or #aabbcccc.dddddddd in case of a system software error.", "The first field is either the Motorola 68000 exception number that occurred (if a CPU error occurs) or an internal error identifier (such as an \"Out of Memory\" code), in case of a system software error.", "The second can be the address of a ''Task'' structure, or the address of a memory block whose allocation or deallocation failed.", "It is never the address of the code that caused the error.", "If the cause of the crash is uncertain, this number is rendered as 48454C50, which stands for \"HELP\" in hexadecimal ASCII characters (48=H, 45=E, 4C=L, 50=P).===Guru Meditation handler===There was a commercially available error handler for AmigaOS, before version 2.04, called GOMF (Get Outta My Face) made by Hypertek/Silicon Springs Development corp.", "It was able to deal with many kinds of errors and gave the user a choice to either remove the offending process and associated screen, or allow the machine to show the Guru Meditation.", "In many cases, removal of the offending process gave one the choice to save one's data and exit running programs before rebooting the system.", "When the damage was not extensive, one was able to continue using the machine.", "However, it did not save the user from all errors, as one may have still seen this error occasionally.===Recoverable Alerts===Recoverable Alerts are non-critical crashes in the computer system.", "In most cases, it is possible to resume work and save files after a Recoverable Alert, while a normal, red Guru Meditation always results in an immediate reboot.It is, however, still recommended to reboot as soon as possible after encountering a Recoverable Alert, because the system may be in an unpredictable state that can cause data corruption.===System software error codes===The first byte specifies the area of the system affected.", "The top bit will be set if the error is a dead end alert.", "Area of system Value Specific part of system Libraries 01 Exec library 02 Graphics library 03 Layers library 04 Intuition library 05 Math library 06 CList library 07 AmigaDOS library 08 RAM Handler library 09 Icons library Devices 10 Audio device 11 Console device 12 Gameport device 13 Keyboard device 14 Trackdisk device 15 Timer device Resources 20 CIA resource 21 Disk resource 22 Misc resource Other areas 30 Bootstrap 31 Workbench 32 Diskcopy" ], [ "Legacy", "Guru Meditation on a 3DS playing a Homebrew DS game.", "* AmigaOS versions 4.0 and onwards replaced \"Guru Meditation\" with \"Grim Reaper\", but briefly mentions the Guru Meditation number in the prompt box.", "* MorphOS displays an \"Application Is ''Meditating''\" error message.", "Attempting to close the application may revive the operating system, but restarting is still recommended.", "* Varnish references Guru Meditation for severe errors.", "* The ESP8266 and ESP32 microcontrollers will display \"Guru Meditation Error: Core X panic'ed\" (where X is 0 or 1 depending on which core crashed) along with a core dump and stack trace.", "* VirtualBox uses the term \"Guru Meditation\" for severe errors in the virtual machine monitor, for example caused by a triple fault in the virtual machine.", "* E23 displays a \"Guru Meditation\" and restarts when severe errors occur.", "* Some Nintendo DS homebrew titles display a \"Guru Meditation\" error when an issue occurs, likely when the title crashes." ], [ "See also", "*Screen of death" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gnumeric" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Gnumeric''' is a spreadsheet program that is part of the GNOME Free Software Desktop Project.", "Gnumeric version 1.0 was released on 31 December 2001.Gnumeric is distributed as free software under the GNU General Public License; it is intended to replace proprietary spreadsheet programs like Microsoft Excel.", "Gnumeric was created and developed by Miguel de Icaza, but he has since moved on to other projects.", "The maintainer was Jody Goldberg." ], [ "Features", "Gnumeric has the ability to import and export data in several file formats, including CSV, Microsoft Excel (write support for the more recent .xlsx format is incomplete), Microsoft Works spreadsheets (.wks), HTML, LaTeX, Lotus 1-2-3, OpenDocument and Quattro Pro; its native format is the ''Gnumeric file format'' (.gnm or .gnumeric), an XML file compressed with gzip.", "It includes all of the spreadsheet functions of the North American edition of Microsoft Excel and many functions unique to Gnumeric.", "Pivot tables and Visual Basic for Applications macros are not yet supported.Gnumeric's accuracy has helped it to establish a niche for statistical analysis and other scientific tasks.", "For improving the accuracy of Gnumeric, the developers are cooperating with the R Project.Gnumeric has an interface for the creation and editing of graphs different from other spreadsheet software.", "For editing a graph, Gnumeric displays a window where all the elements of the graph are listed.", "Other spreadsheet programs typically require the user to select the individual elements of the graph in the graph itself in order to edit them." ], [ "See also", "* EditGrid – was an on-line spreadsheet which used Gnumeric as its back-end* List of spreadsheet software* Comparison of spreadsheet software" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * ''Gnumeric'' XML File Format* Open Mag interviews Jody Goldberg on Gnumeric.", "Nancy Cohen, 17 February 2004; archived 2012* Linux Productivity Magazine Volume 2 Issue 6, June 2003: full issue on Introduction to Gnumeric" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "GNU Debugger" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''GNU Debugger''' ('''GDB''') is a portable debugger that runs on many Unix-like systems and works for many programming languages, including Ada, Assembly, C, C++, D, Fortran, Haskell, Go, Objective-C, OpenCL C, Modula-2, Pascal, Rust, and partially others." ], [ "History", "GDB was first written by Richard Stallman in 1986 as part of his GNU system, after his GNU Emacs was \"reasonably stable\".", "GDB is free software released under the GNU General Public License (GPL).", "It was modeled after the DBX debugger, which came with Berkeley Unix distributions.From 1990 to 1993 it was maintained by John Gilmore.", "Now it is maintained by the GDB Steering Committee which is appointed by the Free Software Foundation." ], [ "Technical details", "===Features===GDB offers extensive facilities for tracing and altering the execution of computer programs.", "The user can monitor and modify the values of programs' internal variables, and even call functions independently of the program's normal behavior.GDB target processors (as of 2003) include: Alpha, ARM, AVR, H8/300, Altera Nios/Nios II, System/370, System 390, X86 and its 64-bit extension X86-64, IA-64 \"Itanium\", Motorola 68000, MIPS, PA-RISC, PowerPC, SuperH, SPARC, and VAX.", "Lesser-known target processors supported in the standard release have included A29K, ARC, ETRAX CRIS, D10V, D30V, FR-30, FR-V, Intel i960, 68HC11, Motorola 88000, MCORE, MN10200, MN10300, NS32K, Stormy16, and Z8000.", "(Newer releases will likely not support some of these.)", "GDB has compiled-in simulators for even lesser-known target processors such like M32R or V850.GDB is still actively being developed.", "As of version 7.0 new features include support for Python scripting and as of version 7.8 GNU Guile scripting as well.", "Since version 7.0, support for \"reversible debugging\" — allowing a debugging session to step backward, much like rewinding a crashed program to see what happened — is available.===Remote debugging===GDB offers a \"remote\" mode often used when debugging embedded systems.", "Remote operation is when GDB runs on one machine and the program being debugged runs on another.", "GDB can communicate to the remote \"stub\" that understands GDB protocol through a serial device or TCP/IP.", "A stub program can be created by linking to the appropriate stub files provided with GDB, which implement the target side of the communication protocol.", "Alternatively, gdbserver can be used to remotely debug the program without needing to change it in any way.The same mode is also used by KGDB for debugging a running Linux kernel on the source level with gdb.", "With KGDB, kernel developers can debug a kernel in much the same way as they debug application programs.", "It makes it possible to place breakpoints in kernel code, step through the code, and observe variables.", "On architectures where hardware debugging registers are available, watchpoints can be set which trigger breakpoints when specified memory addresses are executed or accessed.", "KGDB requires an additional machine which is connected to the machine to be debugged using a serial cable or Ethernet.", "On FreeBSD, it is also possible to debug using FireWire direct memory access (DMA).===Graphical user interface===The debugger does not contain its own graphical user interface, and defaults to a command-line interface, although it does contain a text user interface.", "Several front-ends have been built for it, such as UltraGDB, Xxgdb, Data Display Debugger (DDD), Nemiver, KDbg, the Xcode debugger, GDBtk/Insight, Seer, and HP Wildebeest Debugger GUI (WDB GUI).", "IDEs such as Codelite, Code::Blocks, Dev-C++, Geany, GNAT Programming Studio (GPS), KDevelop, Qt Creator, Lazarus, MonoDevelop, Eclipse, NetBeans, and Visual Studio can interface with GDB.", "GNU Emacs has a \"GUD mode\" and tools for Vim exist (e.g.", "clewn).", "These offer facilities similar to debuggers found in IDEs.Some other debugging tools have been designed to work with GDB, such as memory leak detectors.===Internals ===GDB uses a system call named ptrace (the name is an abbreviation of \"process trace\") to observe and control the execution of another process, and examine and change the process' memory and registers.A breakpoint is implemented by replacing an instruction at a given memory address with another special instruction.", "Executing breakpoint instruction causes SIGTRAP." ], [ "Examples of commands", " $ gdb program Debug \"program\" (from the shell) (gdb) run -v Run the loaded program with the parameters (gdb) bt Backtrace (in case the program crashed) (gdb) info registers Dump all registers (gdb) disas $pc-32, $pc+32 Disassemble" ], [ "An example session", "Consider the following source-code written in C:#include #include #include size_t foo_len( const char *s ){ return strlen( s );}int main( int argc, char *argv ){ const char *a = NULL; printf( \"size of a = %lu\\n\", foo_len(a) ); exit( 0 );}Using the GCC compiler on Linux, the code above must be compiled using the -g flag in order to include appropriate debug information on the binary generated, thus making it possible to inspect it using GDB.", "Assuming that the file containing the code above is named example.c, the command for the compilation could be:$ gcc example.c -Og -g -o exampleAnd the binary can now be run:$ ./exampleSegmentation faultSince the example code, when executed, generates a segmentation fault, GDB can be used to inspect the problem.$ gdb ./exampleGNU gdb (GDB) Fedora (7.3.50.20110722-13.fc16)Copyright (C) 2011 Free Software Foundation, Inc.License GPLv3+: GNU GPL version 3 or later This is free software: you are free to change and redistribute it.There is NO WARRANTY, to the extent permitted by law.", "Type \"show copying\"and \"show warranty\" for details.This GDB was configured as \"x86_64-redhat-linux-gnu\".For bug reporting instructions, please see:...Reading symbols from /path/example...done.", "(gdb) runStarting program: /path/exampleProgram received signal SIGSEGV, Segmentation fault.0x0000000000400527 in foo_len (s=0x0) at example.c:77\t return strlen (s);(gdb) print s$1 = 0x0The problem is present in line 7, and occurs when calling the function strlen (because its argument, s, is NULL).Depending on the implementation of strlen (inline or not), the output can be different, e.g.", ":GNU gdb (GDB) 7.3.1Copyright (C) 2011 Free Software Foundation, Inc.License GPLv3+: GNU GPL version 3 or later This is free software: you are free to change and redistribute it.There is NO WARRANTY, to the extent permitted by law.", "Type \"show copying\"and \"show warranty\" for details.This GDB was configured as \"i686-pc-linux-gnu\".For bug reporting instructions, please see:...Reading symbols from /tmp/gdb/example...done.", "(gdb) runStarting program: /tmp/gdb/exampleProgram received signal SIGSEGV, Segmentation fault.0xb7ee94f3 in strlen () from /lib/i686/cmov/libc.so.6(gdb) bt#0 0xb7ee94f3 in strlen () from /lib/i686/cmov/libc.so.6#1 0x08048435 in foo_len (s=0x0) at example.c:7#2 0x0804845a in main (argc=, argv=) at example.c:14To fix the problem, the variable a (in the function main) must contain a valid string.", "Here is a fixed version of the code:#include #include #include size_t foo_len( const char *s ){ return strlen(s);}int main( int argc, char *argv ){ const char *a = \"This is a test string\"; printf( \"size of a = %lu\\n\", foo_len(a) ); exit( 0 );}Recompiling and running the executable again inside GDB now gives a correct result:$ gdb ./exampleGNU gdb (GDB) Fedora (7.3.50.20110722-13.fc16)Copyright (C) 2011 Free Software Foundation, Inc.License GPLv3+: GNU GPL version 3 or later This is free software: you are free to change and redistribute it.There is NO WARRANTY, to the extent permitted by law.", "Type \"show copying\"and \"show warranty\" for details.This GDB was configured as \"x86_64-redhat-linux-gnu\".For bug reporting instructions, please see:...Reading symbols from /path/example...done.", "(gdb) runStarting program: /path/examplesize of a = 21Inferior 1 (process 14290) exited normallyGDB prints the output of printf in the screen, and then informs the user that the program exited normally." ], [ "See also", "*Binary File Descriptor library (libbfd)*dbx*DDD, a GUI for GDB and other debuggers*gdbserver*LLDB" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "** UltraGDB: Visual C/C++ Debugging with GDB on Windows and Linux * KGDB: Linux Kernel Source Level Debugger* The website for \"MyGDB: GDB Frontend\" in the Korean language* A Visual Studio plugin for debugging with GDB* Comparison of GDB front-ends, 2013* Using Eclipse as a Front-End to the GDB Debugger===Documentation===*Richard M. Stallman, Roland Pesch, Stan Shebs, et al., ''Debugging with GDB'' (Free Software Foundation, 2011) * GDB Internals===Tutorials===* ''RMS's gdb Tutorial'' (Ryan Michael Schmidt, not Richard Matthew Stallman)* ''GDB Tutorial''" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Galeon" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Galeon''' is a discontinued Gecko-based web browser that was created by Marco Pesenti Gritti with the goal of delivering a consistent browsing experience to GNOME desktop environment.", "It gained some popularity in the early 2000s due to its speed, flexibility in configuration and features.The disagreement over the future of Galeon split the development team in 2002, which resulted in the departure of the browser's initial author and several other developers.", "This event marked the beginning of the browser's popularity decline, which led to its discontinuation in September 2008.Some of Galeon's features were subsequently ported to Epiphany (now called Web) – the descendant of Galeon." ], [ "Features", "Galeon made use of Gecko's features including configuration options and standards support.", "Apart from that, Galeon had several features that were uncommon in browsers at that time:*mouse gestures*configurable user agent string*configurable display of favicons*customizable toolbars*configurable position of tab bar*smart bookmarks with search history*ability to specify own fonts and colors for web content*configurable MIME types handler*configurable history expiry*page zooming" ], [ "Development history", "The project was started by Marco Pesenti Gritti with the goal of creating a web browser that would be fast and consistent with the GNOME desktop environment.", "The first public version (Galeon 0.6) was released in June 2000.=== On the rise ===The first releases of Galeon were criticised for lack of such basic features as cookie and proxy support, though the browser added some features with every release.", "Version 1.2 of Galeon introduced many new features that drew attention of the general public.At the time of Galeon's creation, the most popular Linux browsers, including Netscape and Mozilla, were large multi-functional programs.", "This made them slow to start and often impractical due to their high memory usage and processor requirements.", "Opera was somewhat faster, but it was proprietary software distributed in trialware and adware versions, both of which lacked some of the functionality of the Microsoft Windows version.Galeon was widely seen as one of the best Linux browsers available.", "The polls revealed the substantial usage share of Galeon, though its popularity was regarded as owing to lack of stability evident in Mozilla's browsers.=== Split of the development team ===With the release of new version of the GTK+ widget toolkit, which was used to construct the user interface of Galeon, the team decided to write a new version of Galeon from scratch.", "At the same time the GNOME project has adopted its new human interface guidelines, which promoted simplicity and uniform design.", "The Galeon team had differing opinions on the new guidelines.", "The author and lead developer, Marco Pesenti Gritti, endorsed them and saw the rewrite as an opportunity to make Galeon simpler.", "Many other developers believed that reducing the number of preferences and simplifying the user interface would harm the project.In November 2002, as the result of several discussions on the topic Gritti made the decision to cease his work in Galeon and fork the project and started development of a HIG-compliant web browser he called ''Epiphany'' (now known as Web).=== After the split ===As Gritti no longer controlled the development of Galeon, the previous functionality was restored in subsequent releases and some new features were added, though development got slow after the split.", "At the same time the rising popularity of Firefox, its status of the default browser in major distribution and the overwhelming number of its extensions led to decline of Galeon's user base.Eventually the Galeon developers announced plans to halt development of Galeon, saying \"the current approach is unsustainable\" regarding the resources required to maintain it.", "Instead, they planned to develop a set of extensions for Epiphany to provide similar functionality.===Persistence===Even after development ceased in September 2008, the browser remained popular and in December 2011 was still available in some Linux distribution's repositories, such as Debian 6 Squeeze, although it was not part of Debian 7 Wheezy." ], [ "Reception", "Galeon was praised for its customizability and speed, as compared to Netscape Navigator and Firefox, though Konqueror and Opera were still faster on older hardware.", "Galeon was noted for its session handling and crash recovery.In November 2002, OSNews conducted a poll to determine the most popular Gecko-based browser, which included several browsers for Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X and Linux, but didn't include Netscape Navigator and Mozilla Suite.", "The Linux-only Galeon was the second most popular, after cross-platform Firefox, at that time known as Phoenix.Critics noted Galeon's tricky plugin installation." ], [ "See also" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gatling gun" ], [ "Introduction", "Mitrailleuse Gatling modèle APX 1895The '''Gatling gun''' is a rapid-firing multiple-barrel firearm invented in 1861 by Richard Jordan Gatling.", "It is an early machine gun and a forerunner of the modern electric motor-driven rotary cannon.The Gatling gun's operation centered on a cyclic multi-barrel design which facilitated cooling and synchronized the firing-reloading sequence.", "As the handwheel is cranked, the barrels rotate, and each barrel sequentially loads a single cartridge from a top-mounted magazine, fires off the shot when it reaches a set position (usually at 4 o'clock), then ejects the spent casing out of the left side at the bottom, after which the barrel is empty and allowed to cool until rotated back to the top position and gravity-fed another new round.", "This configuration eliminated the need for a single reciprocating bolt design and allowed higher rates of fire to be achieved without the barrels overheating quickly.One of the best-known early rapid-fire firearms, the Gatling gun saw occasional use by the U.S. forces during the American Civil War, which was the first time it was employed in combat.", "It was later used in numerous military conflicts, including the Boshin War, the Anglo-Zulu War, and the assault on San Juan Hill during the Spanish–American War.", "It was also used by the Pennsylvania militia in episodes of the Great Railroad Strike of 1877, specifically in Pittsburgh.", "Gatling guns were also mounted aboard ships." ], [ "Design", "A British 1865 Gatling gun at Firepower – The Royal Artillery MuseumThe Gatling gun is operated by a hand-crank mechanism, with six barrels revolving around a central shaft (although some models had as many as ten).", "Each barrel fires once per revolution at about the same position.", "The barrels, a carrier, and a lock cylinder were separate and all mounted on a solid plate revolving around a central shaft, mounted on an oblong fixed frame.", "Turning the crank rotated the shaft.", "The carrier was grooved and the lock cylinder was drilled with holes corresponding to the barrels.The casing was partitioned, and through this opening, the barrel shaft was journaled.", "In front of the casing was a cam with spiral surfaces.", "The cam imparted a reciprocating motion to the locks when the gun rotated.", "Also in the casing was a cocking ring with projections to cock and fire the gun.", "Each barrel had a single lock, working in the lock cylinder on a line with the barrel.", "The lock cylinder was encased and joined to the frame.", "Early models had a fibrous matting stuffed in among the barrels, which could be soaked with water to cool the barrels down.", "Later models eliminated the matting jacketing as being unnecessary.Cartridges, held in a hopper, dropped individually into the grooves of the carrier.", "The lock was simultaneously forced by the cam to move forward and load the cartridge, and when the cam was at its highest point, the cocking ring freed the lock and fired the cartridge.", "After the cartridge was fired the continuing action of the cam drew back the lock bringing with it the spent casing which then dropped to the ground.The grouped barrel concept had been explored by inventors since the 18th century, but poor engineering and the lack of a unitary cartridge made previous designs unsuccessful.", "The initial Gatling gun design used self-contained, reloadable steel cylinders with a chamber holding a ball and black-powder charge, and a percussion cap on one end.", "As the barrels rotated, these steel cylinders dropped into place, were fired, and were then ejected from the gun.", "The innovative features of the Gatling gun were its independent firing mechanism for each barrel and the simultaneous action of the locks, barrels, carrier, and breech.The ammunition that Gatling eventually implemented was a paper cartridge charged with black powder and primed with a percussion cap because self-contained brass cartridges were not yet fully developed and available.", "The shells were gravity-fed into the breech through a hopper or simple box \"magazine\" with an unsprung gravity follower on top of the gun.", "Each barrel had its own firing mechanism.Despite self-contained brass cartridges replacing the paper cartridge in the 1860s, it wasn't until the Model 1881 that Gatling switched to the 'Bruce'-style feed system (U.S.", "Patents 247,158 and 343,532) that accepted two rows of .45-70 cartridges.", "While one row was being fed into the gun, the other could be reloaded, thus allowing sustained fire.", "The final gun required four operators.", "By 1886, the gun was capable of firing more than 400 rounds per minute.The smallest-caliber gun also had a Broadwell drum feed in place of the curved box of the other guns.", "The drum, named after L. W. Broadwell, an agent for Gatling's company, comprised twenty stacks of rounds arranged around a central axis, like the spokes of a wheel, each holding twenty cartridges with the bullet noses oriented toward the central axis.", "This invention was patented in U. S. 110,338.As each stack emptied, the drum was manually rotated to bring a new stack into use until all 400 rounds had been fired.", "A more common variant had 240 rounds in twenty stands of fifteen.By 1893, the Gatling was adapted to take the new .30 Army smokeless cartridge.", "The new M1893 guns featured six barrels, later increased to ten barrels, and were capable of a maximum (initial) rate of fire of 800–900 rounds per minute, though 600 rpm was recommended for continuous fire.", "Dr. Gatling later used examples of the M1893 powered by electric motor and belt to drive the crank.", "Tests demonstrated the electric Gatling could fire bursts of up to 1,500 rpm.The M1893, with minor revisions, became the M1895, and 94 guns were produced for the U.S. Army by Colt.", "Four M1895 Gatlings under Lt. John H. Parker saw considerable combat during the Santiago campaign in Cuba in 1898.The M1895 was designed to accept only the Bruce feeder.", "All previous models were unpainted, but the M1895 was painted olive drab (O.D.)", "green, with some parts left blued.The Model 1900 was very similar to the model 1895, but with only a few components finished in O.D.", "green.", "The U.S. Army purchased several M1900s.", "All Gatling Models 1895–1903 could be mounted on an armored field carriage.", "In 1903, the Army converted its M1900 guns into .30 Army to fit the new .30-03 cartridge (standardized for the M1903 Springfield rifle) as the M1903.The later M1903-'06 was an M1903 converted to .30-06.This conversion was principally carried out at the Army's Springfield Armory arsenal repair shops.", "All models of Gatling guns were declared obsolete by the U.S. military in 1911, after 45 years of service.The original Gatling gun was a field weapon that used multiple rotating barrels turned by a hand crank, and firing loose (no links or belt) metal cartridge ammunition using a gravity feed system from a hopper.", "The Gatling gun's innovation lay in the use of multiple barrels to limit overheating, a rotating mechanism, and a gravity-feed reloading system, which allowed unskilled operators to achieve a relatively high rate of fire of 200 rounds per minute.Although the first Gatling gun was capable of firing continuously, it required a person to crank it; therefore it was not a true automatic weapon.", "The Maxim gun, invented and patented in 1883, was the first true fully automatic weapon, making use of the fired projectile's recoil force to reload the weapon.", "Nonetheless, the Gatling gun represented a huge leap in firearm technology.Before the Gatling gun, the only weapons available to military forces capable of firing many projectiles in a short space of time were mass-firing volley weapons, like the Belgian and French mitrailleuse of the 1860s and 1870s, and field cannons firing canister shot, much like an upsized shotgun.", "The latter was widely used during and after the Napoleonic Wars.", "Although the maximum rate of fire was increased by firing multiple projectiles simultaneously, these weapons still needed to be reloaded after each discharge, which for multi-barrel systems like the ''mitrailleuse'' was cumbersome and time-consuming.", "This negated much of the advantage of their high rate of fire per discharge, making them much less powerful on the battlefield.", "In comparison, the Gatling gun offered a rapid and continuous rate of fire without having to be manually reloaded by opening the breech.Early multi-barrel guns were approximately the size and weight of artillery pieces and were often perceived as a replacement for cannons firing grapeshot or canister shot.", "Compared with earlier weapons such as the ''mitrailleuse,'' which required manual reloading, the Gatling gun was more reliable and easier to operate and had a lower, but continuous rate of fire.", "The large wheels required to move these guns around required a high firing position, which increased the vulnerability of their crews.Sustained firing of black powder cartridges generated a cloud of smoke, making concealment impossible until smokeless powder became available in the late 19th century.", "When operators were firing Gatling guns against troops of industrialized nations, they were at risk, being vulnerable to artillery they could not reach and snipers they could not see." ], [ "History", "Patent drawing for R. J. Gatling's \"battery gun\", 9 May 1865The Gatling gun was designed by the American inventor Richard J. Gatling in 1861 and patented on November 4, 1862.Gatling wrote that he created it to reduce the size of armies and so reduce the number of deaths by combat and disease, and to show how futile war is.The US Army adopted Gatling guns in several calibers, including .42 caliber, .45-70, .50 caliber, 1 inch, and (M1893 and later) .30 Army, with conversions of M1900 weapons to .30-03 and .30-06.The .45-70 weapon was also mounted on some US Navy ships of the 1880s and 1890s.British manufacturer James George Accles, previously employed by Colt 1867–1886, developed a modified Gatling gun circa 1888 known as the Accles Machine Gun.", "Circa 1895 the American Ordnance Company acquired the rights to manufacture and distribute this weapon in the Americas.", "It was trialed by the US Navy in December 1895, and was said to be the only weapon to complete the trial out of five competing weapons, but was apparently not adopted by US forces.=== American Civil War and the Americas ===The Gatling gun was first used in warfare during the American Civil War.", "Twelve of the guns were purchased personally by Union commanders and used in the trenches during the Siege of Petersburg, Virginia (June 1864—April 1865).", "Eight other Gatling guns were fitted on gunboats.", "The gun was not accepted by the American Army until 1866 when a sales representative of the manufacturing company demonstrated it in combat.On July 17, 1863, Gatling guns were purportedly used to overawe New York anti-draft rioters.", "Two were brought by a Pennsylvania National Guard unit from Philadelphia to use against strikers in Pittsburgh.Gatling guns were famously ''not'' used at the Battle of the Little Bighorn, also known as \"Custer's Last Stand\", when Gen. George Armstrong Custer chose not to bring Gatling guns with his main force.In April 1867, a Gatling gun was purchased for the Argentine Army by minister Domingo F. Sarmiento under instructions from president Bartolomé Mitre.Captain Luis Germán Astete of the Peruvian Navy took with him dozens of Gatling guns from the United States to Peru in December 1879 during the Peru-Chile War of the Pacific.", "Gatling guns were used by the Peruvian Navy and Army, especially in the Battle of Tacna (May 1880) and the Battle of San Juan (January 1881) against the invading Chilean Army.Lieutenant Arthur L. Howard of the Connecticut National Guard had an interest in the company manufacturing Gatling guns and took a personally owned Gatling gun to the District of Saskatchewan, Canada, in 1885 for use with the Canadian military against Métis and First Nations rebels during Louis Riel's North-West Rebellion.In 1888 the SS Ozama smuggled a number of Gatling guns into HaitiIn 1907 Gatling guns were used by Nicaragua in the battle of Namasique, largely manned by American mercenariesGatling guns were kept in store by coal companies and used during the Battle of Blair Mountain; In September 1 a group of miners looted one of these guns and assaulted a spot called Craddock Fork.", "Opposing forces fought back with a machine gun, but after three hours of heavy fire, their weapon jammed.", "The miners surged forward and briefly broke the defensive line, but were repulsed by another machine gun nest located further up the ridge.=== Africa and Asia ===Two British Army Gatling guns from the Second Anglo-Afghan WarThe Gatling gun was used most successfully to expand European colonial empires by defeating indigenous warriors mounting massed attacks, including the Zulu, the Bedouin, and the Mahdists.", "Imperial Russia purchased 400 Gatling guns and used them against Turkmen cavalry and other nomads of central Asia.", "The British Army first deployed the Gatling gun in 1873-74 during the Anglo-Ashanti wars, and extensively during the last actions of the 1879 Anglo-Zulu war.", "The Royal Navy used Gatling guns during the 1882 Anglo-Egyptian War.Gatling guns were used by Egyptian forces both on sea and land, and saw combat in Sudan and Abyssinia.", "Isma'il Pasha ordered 120 Colt 1865 six-barrel Gatling guns; after being convinced by Shahine Pasha who witnessed Gatling gun trials at Shoeburyness in 1866.In 1872 a few camel guns were purchased, these were smaller and used a tripod instead of the carriage.", "During the Siege of Khartoum an Egyptian Gatling gun aided by a telescope was able to target Sudanese artillery crews from a distance of 2,000 yards.Gatling guns were imported by some states in Nigeria.", "They were used during the Kalabari Civil war of 1879-83, the Abbi House bought one from King Jaja of Opobo and it may have been used in canoe warfare.", "The Ijesha used a Gatling gun against the Ibadan during the early 1880s.", "In 1882 the Bonny used a Gatling gun during an attack on New Calabar.By 1880 Siam had imported an unknown number of Gatlings.", "By 1885 the kingdom had a Gatling Gun regiment of 600 men; those weapons were possibly used in the Haw Wars.", "They were also seen among Prince Bigit's escort in 1886.The Korean Empire possessed a number of Gatlings.", "Six had been imported in 1884, by 1891 it had a battery of fourteen guns and in 1894 the army's two American drilled regiments had as many as 40 Gatlings and practiced regularly (Supposedly because the noise pleased Emperor Gojong).", "Some of them were deployed to defend the approaches of the capital during the Donghak Rebellion, but there is no evidence they saw combat.=== Spanish–American War ===Because of infighting within army ordnance, Gatling guns were used by the U.S. Army during the Spanish–American War.", "A four-gun battery of Model 1895 ten-barrel Gatling guns in .30 Army, made by Colt's Arms Company, was formed into a separate detachment led by Lt. John \"Gatling Gun\" Parker.", "The detachment proved very effective, supporting the advance of American forces at the Battle of San Juan Hill.", "Three of the Gatlings with swivel mountings were used with great success against the Spanish defenders.", "During the American charge up San Juan and Kettle hills, the three guns fired a total of 18,000 .30 Army rounds in minutes (an average of over 700 rounds per minute per gun of continuous fire) against Spanish troop positions along the crest of both hills, wreaking terrible carnage.Despite this remarkable achievement, the Gatling's weight and cumbersome artillery carriage hindered its ability to keep up with infantry forces over difficult ground, particularly in Cuba, where roads were often little more than jungle footpaths.", "By this time, the U.S. Marines had been issued the modern tripod-mounted M1895 Colt–Browning machine gun using the 6mm Lee Navy round, which they employed to defeat the Spanish infantry at the battle of Cuzco Wells.=== Philippine–American War ===Gatling guns were used by the U.S. Army during the Philippine–American War.One such instance was during the Battle of San Jacinto (1899) () which was fought on November 11, 1899, in San Jacinto in the Philippines, between Philippine Republican Army soldiers and American troops.The Gatling's weight and artillery carriage hindered its ability to keep up with American troops over uneven terrain, particularly in the Philippines, where outside the cities there were heavily foliaged forests and steep mountain paths." ], [ "Further development", "After the Gatling gun was replaced in service by newer recoil or gas-operated weapons, the approach of using multiple externally powered rotating barrels fell into disuse for many decades.", "However, some examples were developed during the interwar years, but only existed as prototypes or were rarely used.", "The concept resurfaced after World War II with the development of the Minigun and the M61 Vulcan.", "Other versions of the Gatling gun were built from the late 20th century to the present, the largest of these being the 30mm GAU-8 Avenger autocannon as used on the Fairchild Republic A-10 Thunderbolt II." ], [ "Users", "*Argentina*Austria-Hungary*Brazil*British Empire*Bolivia *Kingdom of Bonny *Chile *Colombia *Khedivate of Egypt *France *Haiti *Ijesha Kingdom *Kingdom of Italy *Empire of Japan *Kalabari Kingdom *Korean Empire *Liberation Army of the South*Kingdom of Montenegro *Morocco *Nicaragua*Ottoman Empire *Peru*Qing Empire *Radical Civic Union *Kingdom of Romania*Russian Empire *Siam Empire *Tokugawa Shogunate *Beylik of Tunis *United States" ], [ "Gallery", "File: Gatling Gun.jpg|A Korean Gatling gun from the Donghak Peasant RevolutionFile:Troop D of Colorado state militia in Meeker, 1904.png|Colorado National Guard with Gatling guns during Colorado Labor Wars, 1904File: Gatling Gun 2.jpg|A modern reproduction of the Gatling gun" ], [ "See also", "* * * * *" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "* Randolph, Captain W. S., 5th US Artillery ''Service and Description of Gatling Guns, 1878''* 19th Century Machine Guns* List of Military Gatling & Revolver cannons* Austro-Hungarian Gatling Guns* -- ''Gatling gun''* -- ''improved Gatling gun''* -- ''revolving battery gun''* -- ''improvement in revolving battery guns''* -- ''feeder for repeating firearms''* * Description of operating principle (with animation) from HowStuffWorks* CGI animated GAU-17/A* Animations and technical descriptions of 1862, 1865 and 1874 models (Requires QuickTime and not suitable for slow-speed links)* Presentation by Keller about ''Mr.", "Gatling's Terrible Marvel: The Gun That Changed Everything and the Misunderstood Genius Who Invented It'' at the Printers Row Book Fair, June 8, 2008* The Gatling Gun" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "East Germany" ], [ "Introduction", "'''East Germany''' (, ), officially the '''German Democratic Republic''' ('''GDR'''; , , '''DDR'''), was a country in Central Europe from its formation on 7 October 1949 until its reunification with West Germany on 3 October 1990.Until 1989, it was generally viewed as a communist state, and it described itself as a socialist \"workers' and peasants' state\".", "The economy of this country was centrally planned and state-owned.", "Although the GDR had to pay substantial war reparations to the Soviets, it became the most successful economy in the Eastern Bloc.Before its establishment, the country's territory was administered and occupied by Soviet forces with the autonomy of the native communists following the Berlin Declaration abolishing German sovereignty in World War II; when the Potsdam Agreement established the Soviet-occupied zone, bounded on the east by the Oder–Neisse line.", "It was a satellite state of the Soviet Union.", "The GDR was dominated by the Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED), a communist party, from 1949 to 1989, before being democratized and liberalized under the impact of the Revolutions of 1989 against the communist states, helping East Germany be united with the West.", "Unlike West Germany, the SED did not see its state as the successor of the German Reich (1871–1945) and abolished the goal of unification in the constitution (1974).", "The SED-ruled GDR was often described as a Soviet satellite state; historians described it as an authoritarian regime.Geographically, the GDR bordered the Baltic Sea to the north, Poland to the east, Czechoslovakia to the southeast and West Germany to the southwest and west.", "Internally, the GDR also bordered the Soviet sector of Allied-occupied Berlin, known as East Berlin, which was also administered as the country's ''de facto'' capital.", "It also bordered the three sectors occupied by the United States, United Kingdom, and France known collectively as West Berlin (de facto part of the FRG).", "Emigration to the West was a significant problem as many of the emigrants were well-educated young people; such emigration weakened the state economically.", "In response, the GDR government fortified its inner German border and later built the Berlin Wall in 1961.Many people attempting to flee were killed by border guards or booby traps such as landmines.", "In 1989, numerous social, economic and political forces in the GDR and abroad, one of the most notable being peaceful protests starting in the city of Leipzig, led to the fall of the Berlin Wall and the establishment of a government committed to liberalization.", "The following year, a free and fair election was held in the country and international negotiations between four occupation Allied countries and two German countries led to the signing of the Final Settlement treaty to replace the Potsdam Agreement on the status and border of future-reunited Germany.", "The GDR ceased to exist when its five states (\"Länder\") joined the Federal Republic of Germany under Article 23 of the Basic Law and its East Berlin was also united with West Berlin into a single city of the FRG, on 3 October 1990.Several of the GDR's leaders, notably its last communist leader Egon Krenz, were later prosecuted for offenses committed during the GDR's times." ], [ "Naming conventions", "The official name was (German Democratic Republic), usually abbreviated to ''DDR'' (GDR).", "Both terms were used in East Germany, with increasing usage of the abbreviated form, especially since East Germany considered West Germans and West Berliners to be foreigners following the promulgation of its second constitution in 1968.West Germans, the western media and statesmen initially avoided the official name and its abbreviation, instead using terms like ''Ostzone'' (Eastern Zone), (Soviet Occupation Zone; often abbreviated to ''SBZ'') and or \"so-called GDR\".The centre of political power in East Berlin was – in the West – referred to as ''Pankow'' (the seat of command of the Soviet forces in Germany was in Karlshorst, a district in the East of Berlin.).", "Over time, however, the abbreviation \"DDR\" was also increasingly used colloquially by West Germans and West German media.When used by West Germans, (West Germany) was a term almost always in reference to the geographic region of Western Germany and not to the area within the boundaries of the Federal Republic of Germany.", "However, this use was not always consistent and West Berliners frequently used the term to denote the Federal Republic.", "Before World War II, (eastern Germany) was used to describe all the territories east of the Elbe (East Elbia), as reflected in the works of sociologist Max Weber and political theorist Carl Schmitt." ], [ "History", "On the basis of the Potsdam Conference, the Allies jointly occupied Germany west of the Oder–Neisse line, later forming these occupied territories into two independent countries.", "Light grey: territories annexed by Poland and the Soviet Union; dark grey: West Germany (formed from the US, UK and French occupation zones, including West Berlin); red: East Germany (formed from the Soviet occupation zone, including East Berlin).Explaining the internal impact of the GDR government from the perspective of German history in the long term, historian Gerhard A. Ritter (2002) has argued that the East German state was defined by two dominant forcesSoviet communism on the one hand, and German traditions filtered through the interwar experiences of German communists on the other.", "Throughout its existence GDR consistently grappled with the influence of the more prosperous West, against which East Germans continually measured their own nation.", "The notable transformations instituted by the communist regime were particularly evident in the abolition of capitalism, the overhaul of industrial and agricultural sectors, the militarization of society, and the political orientation of both the educational system and the media.On the other hand, the new regime made relatively few changes in the historically independent domains of the sciences, the engineering professions, the Protestant churches, and in many bourgeois lifestyles.", "Social policy, says Ritter, became a critical legitimization tool in the last decades and mixed socialist and traditional elements about equally.=== Origins ===At the Yalta Conference during World War II, the Allies, i.e., the United States (US), the United Kingdom (UK), and the Soviet Union (USSR), agreed on dividing a defeated Nazi Germany into occupation zones, and on dividing Berlin, the German capital, among the Allied powers as well.", "Initially, this meant the formation of three zones of occupation, i.e., American, British, and Soviet.", "Later, a French zone was carved out of the US and British zones.=== 1949 establishment ===The ruling communist party, known as the Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED), formed on 21 April 1946 from the merger between the Communist Party of Germany (KPD) and the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD).", "The two former parties were notorious rivals when they were active before the Nazis consolidated all power and criminalized them, and official East German and Soviet histories portrayed this merger as a voluntary pooling of efforts by the socialist parties and symbolic of the new friendship of German socialists after defeating their common enemy; however, there is much evidence that the merger was more troubled than commonly portrayed, and that the Soviet occupation authorities applied great pressure on the SPD's eastern branch to merge with the KPD, and the communists, who held a majority, had virtually total control over policy.", "The SED remained the ruling party for the entire duration of the East German state.", "It had close ties with the Soviets, which maintained military forces in East Germany until the dissolution of the Soviet regime in 1991 (Russia continued to maintain forces in the territory of the former East Germany until 1994), with the purpose of countering NATO bases in West Germany.As West Germany was reorganized and gained independence from its occupiers (1945–1949), the GDR was established in East Germany in October 1949.The emergence of the two sovereign states solidified the 1945 division of Germany.", "On 10 March 1952, (in what would become known as the \"Stalin Note\") the General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, Joseph Stalin, issued a proposal to reunify Germany with a policy of neutrality, with no conditions on economic policies and with guarantees for \"the rights of man and basic freedoms, including freedom of speech, press, religious persuasion, political conviction, and assembly\" and free activity of democratic parties and organizations.", "The West demurred; reunification was not then a priority for the leadership of West Germany, and the NATO powers declined the proposal, asserting that Germany should be able to join NATO and that such a negotiation with the Soviet Union would be seen as a capitulation.In 1949 the Soviets turned control of East Germany over to the SED, headed by Wilhelm Pieck (1876–1960), who became President of the GDR and held the office until his death, while the SED general secretary Walter Ulbricht assumed most executive authority.", "Socialist leader Otto Grotewohl (1894–1964) became prime minister until his death.The government of East Germany denounced West German failures in accomplishing denazification and renounced ties to the Nazi past, imprisoning many former Nazis and preventing them from holding government positions.", "The SED set a primary goal of ridding East Germany of all traces of Nazism.", "It is estimated that between 180,000 and 250,000 people were sentenced to imprisonment on political grounds.=== Zones of occupation ===In the Yalta and Potsdam conferences of 1945, the Allies established their joint military occupation and administration of Germany via the Allied Control Council (ACC), a four-power (US, UK, USSR, France) military government effective until the restoration of German sovereignty.", "In eastern Germany, the Soviet Occupation Zone (SBZ''Sowjetische Besatzungszone'') comprised the five states (''Länder'') of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Brandenburg, Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt, and Thuringia.", "Disagreements over the policies to be followed in the occupied zones quickly led to a breakdown in cooperation between the four powers, and the Soviets administered their zone without regard to the policies implemented in the other zones.", "The Soviets withdrew from the ACC in 1948; subsequently, as the other three zones were increasingly unified and granted self-government, the Soviet administration instituted a separate socialist government in its zone.Saarland (purple); the Soviet zone, East Germany (red) surrounded West Berlin (yellow).Seven years after the Allies' 1945 Potsdam Agreement on common German policies, the USSR via the Stalin Note (10 March 1952) proposed German reunification and superpower disengagement from Central Europe, which the three Western Allies (the United States, France, the United Kingdom) rejected.", "Soviet leader Joseph Stalin, a Communist proponent of reunification, died in early March 1953.Similarly, Lavrenty Beria, the First Deputy Prime Minister of the USSR, pursued German reunification, but he was removed from power that same year before he could act on the matter.", "His successor, Nikita Khrushchev, rejected reunification as equivalent to returning East Germany for annexation to the West; hence reunification was off the table until the fall of the Berlin wall in 1989.East Germany regarded East Berlin as its capital, and the Soviet Union and the rest of the Eastern Bloc diplomatically recognized East Berlin as the capital.", "However, the Western Allies disputed this recognition, considering the entire city of Berlin to be occupied territory governed by the Allied Control Council.", "According to Margarete Feinstein, East Berlin's status as the capital was largely unrecognized by the West and by most Third World countries.", "In practice, the ACC's authority was rendered moot by the Cold War, and East Berlin's status as occupied territory largely became a legal fiction, the Soviet sector of Berlin became fully integrated into the GDR.The deepening Cold War conflict between the Western Powers and the Soviet Union over the unresolved status of West Berlin led to the Berlin Blockade (24 June 194812 May 1949).", "The Soviet army initiated the blockade by halting all Allied rail, road, and water traffic to and from West Berlin.", "The Allies countered the Soviets with the Berlin Airlift (1948–49) of food, fuel, and supplies to West Berlin.=== Partition ===On 21 April 1946 the Communist Party of Germany (KPD) and the part of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) in the Soviet zone merged to form the Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED), which then won the elections of October 1946.The SED government nationalised infrastructure and industrial plants.GDR leaders: President Wilhelm Pieck and Prime Minister Otto Grotewohl, 1949In March 1948 the German Economic Commission (—DWK) under its chairman Heinrich Rau assumed administrative authority in the Soviet occupation zone, thus becoming the predecessor of an East German government.On 7 October 1949 the SED established the (German Democratic RepublicGDR), based on a socialist political constitution establishing its control of the Anti-Fascist National Front of the German Democratic Republic (NF, ), an omnibus alliance of every party and mass organisation in East Germany.", "The NF was established to stand for election to the (People's Chamber), the East German parliament.", "The first and only president of the German Democratic Republic was Wilhelm Pieck.", "However, after 1950, political power in East Germany was held by the First Secretary of the SED, Walter Ulbricht.", "SED First Secretary, Walter Ulbricht, 1960On 16 June 1953, workers constructing the new boulevard in East Berlin according to the GDR's officially promulgated Sixteen Principles of Urban Design, rioted against a 10% production-quota increase.", "Initially a labour protest, the action soon included the general populace, and on 17 June similar protests occurred throughout the GDR, with more than a million people striking in some 700 cities and towns.", "Fearing anti-communist counter-revolution, on 18 June 1953 the government of the GDR enlisted the Soviet Occupation Forces to aid the police in ending the riot; some fifty people were killed and 10,000 were jailed (see Uprising of 1953 in East Germany).The German war reparations owed to the Soviets impoverished the Soviet Zone of Occupation and severely weakened the East German economy.", "In the 1945–46 period the Soviets confiscated and transported to the USSR approximately 33% of the industrial plant and by the early 1950s had extracted some US$10 billion in reparations in agricultural and industrial products.", "The poverty of East Germany, induced or deepened by reparations, provoked the (\"desertion from the republic\") to West Germany, further weakening the GDR's economy.", "Western economic opportunities induced a brain drain.", "In response, the GDR closed the inner German border, and on the night of 12 August 1961, East German soldiers began erecting the Berlin Wall.", "Erich Honecker, head of state (1971–1989)In 1971, Ulbricht was removed from leadership after Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev supported his ouster; Erich Honecker replaced him.", "While the Ulbricht government had experimented with liberal reforms, the Honecker government reversed them.", "The new government introduced a new East German Constitution which defined the German Democratic Republic as a \"republic of workers and peasants\".Initially, East Germany claimed an exclusive mandate for all of Germany, a claim supported by most of the Communist bloc.", "It claimed that West Germany was an illegally-constituted puppet state of NATO.", "However, from the 1960s onward, East Germany began recognizing itself as a separate country from West Germany and shared the legacy of the united German state of 1871–1945.This was formalized in 1974 when the reunification clause was removed from the revised East German constitution.", "West Germany, in contrast, maintained that it was the only legitimate government of Germany.", "From 1949 to the early 1970s, West Germany maintained that East Germany was an illegally constituted state.", "It argued that the GDR was a Soviet puppet-state, and frequently referred to it as the \"Soviet occupation zone\".", "West Germany's allies shared this position until 1973.East Germany was recognized primarily by socialist countries and by the Arab bloc, along with some \"scattered sympathizers\".", "According to the Hallstein Doctrine (1955), West Germany did not establish (formal) diplomatic ties with any country—except the Soviets—that recognized East German sovereignty.", "Chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) Helmut Schmidt, Chairman of the State Council of the German Democratic Republic (East Germany) Erich Honecker, U.S. president Gerald Ford and Austrian chancellor Bruno Kreisky signing the Helsinki ActIn the early 1970s, the (\"Eastern Policy\") of \"Change Through Rapprochement\" of the pragmatic government of FRG Chancellor Willy Brandt, established normal diplomatic relations with the East Bloc states.", "This policy saw the Treaty of Moscow (August 1970), the Treaty of Warsaw (December 1970), the Four Power Agreement on Berlin (September 1971), the Transit Agreement (May 1972), and the Basic Treaty (December 1972), which relinquished any separate claims to an exclusive mandate over Germany as a whole and established normal relations between the two Germanies.", "Both countries were admitted into the United Nations on 18 September 1973.This also increased the number of countries recognizing East Germany to 55, including the US, UK and France, though these three still refused to recognize East Berlin as the capital, and insisted on a specific provision in the UN resolution accepting the two Germanies into the UN to that effect.", "Following the Ostpolitik, the West German view was that East Germany was a ''de facto'' government within a single German nation and a ''de jure'' state organisation of parts of Germany outside the Federal Republic.", "The Federal Republic continued to maintain that it could not within its own structures recognize the GDR ''de jure'' as a sovereign state under international law; but it fully acknowledged that, within the structures of international law, the GDR was an independent sovereign state.", "By distinction, West Germany then viewed itself as being within its own boundaries, not only the ''de facto'' and ''de jure'' government, but also the sole ''de jure'' legitimate representative of a dormant \"Germany as whole\".", "The two Germanies each relinquished any claim to represent the other internationally; which they acknowledged as necessarily implying a mutual recognition of each other as both capable of representing their own populations ''de jure'' in participating in international bodies and agreements, such as the United Nations and the Helsinki Final Act.This assessment of the Basic Treaty was confirmed in a decision of the Federal Constitutional Court in 1973;Travel between the GDR and Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Hungary became visa-free from 1972.=== GDR identity === Karl Marx monument in Chemnitz (renamed ''Karl-Marx-Stadt'' from 1953 to 1990)From the beginning, the newly formed GDR tried to establish its own separate identity.", "Because of the imperial and military legacy of Prussia, the SED repudiated continuity between Prussia and the GDR.", "The SED destroyed a number of symbolic relics of the former Prussian aristocracy: Junker manor-houses were torn down, the Berliner Stadtschloß was razed, and the equestrian statue of Frederick the Great was removed from East Berlin.", "Instead, the SED focused on the progressive heritage of German history, including Thomas Müntzer's role in the German Peasants' War of 1524–1525 and the role played by the heroes of the class struggle during Prussia's industrialization.Especially after the Ninth Party Congress in 1976, East Germany upheld historical reformers such as Karl Freiherr vom Stein (1757–1831), Karl August von Hardenberg (1750–1822), Wilhelm von Humboldt (1767–1835), and Gerhard von Scharnhorst (1755–1813) as examples and role models.East Germany was elected as a member of the UN Security Council 1980–81.In the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow, partly thanks to the U.S.-led boycott, East Germany won over a total of 126 Olympic medals, finishing second place behind the Soviet Union.Palace of the Republic was constructed in Berlin.==== Remembrance of the Third Reich ====The communist regime of the GDR based its legitimacy on the struggle of anti-fascist militants.", "A form of resistance \"cult\" was established in the Buchenwald camp memorial site, with the creation of a museum in 1958, and the annual celebration of the Buchenwald oath taken on 19 April 1945 by the prisoners who pledged to fight for peace and freedom.", "In the 1990s, the 'state anti-fascism' of the GDR gave way to the 'state anti-communism' of the FRG.", "From then on, the dominant interpretation of GDR history, based on the concept of totalitarianism, led to the equivalence of communism and Nazism.", "The historian Anne-Kathleen Tillack-Graf shows, with the help of the newspaper , how the national memorials of Buchenwald, Sachsenhausen and Ravensbrück were politically instrumentalised in the GDR, particularly during the celebrations of the liberation of the concentration camps.Although officially built in opposition to the 'fascist world' in West Germany, in 1954, 32.2% of public administration employees were former members of the Nazi Party.", "However, in 1961, the share of former NSDAP members among the senior administration staff was less than 10% in the GDR, compared to 67% in the FRG.", "While in West Germany, a work of memory on the resurgence of Nazism was carried out, this was not the case in the East.", "Indeed, as Axel Dossmann, professor of history at the University of Jena, notes, 'this phenomenon was completely hidden.", "For the state-SED (the East German communist party), it was impossible to admit the existence of neo-Nazis, since the foundation of the GDR was to be an anti-fascist state.", "The Stasi kept an eye on them, but they were considered to be outsiders or thick-skinned bullies.", "These young people grew up hearing double talk.", "At school, it was forbidden to talk about the Third Reich and, at home, their grandparents told them how, thanks to Hitler, we had the first motorways.", "On 17 October 1987, thirty or so skinheads violently threw themselves into a crowd of 2,000 people at a rock concert in the Zionskirche without the police intervening.", "In 1990, the writer Freya Klier received a death threat for writing an essay on antisemitism and xenophobia in the GDR.", "SPDA Vice President Wolfgang Thierse, for his part, complained in Die Welt about the rise of the extreme right in the everyday life of the inhabitants of the former GDR, in particular the terrorist group NSU, with the German journalist Odile Benyahia-Kouider explaining that \"it is no coincidence that the neo-Nazi party NPD has experienced a renaissance via the East\".The historian Sonia Combe observes that until the 1990s, the majority of West German historians described the Normandy landings in June 1944 as an \"invasion\", exonerated the Wehrmacht of its responsibility for the genocide of the Jews and fabricated the myth of a diplomatic corps that \"did not know\".", "On the contrary, Auschwitz was never a taboo in the GDR.", "The Nazis' crimes were the subject of extensive film, theatre and literary productions.", "In 1991, 16% of the population in West Germany and 6% in East Germany had antisemitic prejudices.", "In 1994, 40 per cent of West Germans and 22 per cent of East Germans felt that too much emphasis was placed on the genocide of the Jews.The historian Ulrich Pfeil nevertheless recalls the fact that anti-fascist commemoration in the GDR had \"a hagiographic and indoctrination character\".", "As in the case of the memory of the protagonists of the German labour movement and the victims of the camps, it was \"staged, censored, ordered\" and, during the 40 years of the regime, was an instrument of legitimisation, repression and maintenance of power.=== ''Die Wende'' (German reunification) === Demonstration on Alexanderplatz in East Berlin on 4 November 1989In May 1989, following widespread public anger over the faking of results of local government elections, many GDR citizens applied for exit visas or left the country contrary to GDR laws.", "The impetus for this exodus of East Germans was the removal of the electrified fence along Hungary's border with Austria on 2 May 1989.Although formally the Hungarian frontier was still closed, many East Germans took the opportunity to enter Hungary via Czechoslovakia, and then make the illegal crossing from Hungary to Austria and to West Germany beyond.", "By July, 25,000 East Germans had crossed into Hungary; most of them did not attempt the risky crossing into Austria but remained instead in Hungary or claimed asylum in West German embassies in Prague or Budapest.The opening of a border gate between Austria and Hungary at the Pan-European Picnic on 19 August 1989 then set in motion a chain reaction leading to the end of the GDR and disintegration of the Eastern Bloc.", "It was the largest mass escape from East Germany since the building of the Berlin Wall in 1961.The idea of opening the border at a ceremony came from Otto von Habsburg, who proposed it to Miklós Németh, then Hungarian Prime Minister, who promoted the idea.", "The patrons of the picnic, Habsburg and Hungarian Minister of State Imre Pozsgay, who did not attend the event, saw the planned event as an opportunity to test Mikhail Gorbachev's reaction to an opening of the border on the Iron Curtain.", "In particular, it tested whether Moscow would give the Soviet troops stationed in Hungary the command to intervene.", "Extensive advertising for the planned picnic was made by the Paneuropean Union through posters and flyers among the GDR holidaymakers in Hungary.", "The Austrian branch of the Paneuropean Union, which was then headed by Karl von Habsburg, distributed thousands of brochures inviting GDR citizens to a picnic near the border at Sopron (near Hungary's border with Austria).", "The local Sopron organizers knew nothing of possible GDR refugees, but envisaged a local party with Austrian and Hungarian participation.", "But with the mass exodus at the Pan-European Picnic, the subsequent hesitant behavior of the Socialist Unity Party of East Germany and the non-intervention of the Soviet Union broke the dams.", "Thus the barrier of the Eastern Bloc was broken.", "The reaction to this from Erich Honecker in the \"Daily Mirror\" of 19 August 1989 was too late and showed the present loss of power: \"Habsburg distributed leaflets far into Poland, on which the East German holidaymakers were invited to a picnic.", "When they came to the picnic, they were given gifts, food and Deutsche Mark, and then they were persuaded to come to the West.\"", "Tens of thousands of East Germans, alerted by the media, made their way to Hungary, which was no longer ready to keep its borders completely closed or force its border troops to open fire on escapees.", "The GDR leadership in East Berlin did not dare to completely lock down their own country's borders.The next major turning point in the exodus came on 10 September 1989, when Hungarian Foreign Minister Gyula Horn announced that his country would no longer restrict movement from Hungary into Austria.", "Within two days, 22,000 East Germans crossed into Austria; tens of thousands more did so in the following weeks.Many other GDR citizens demonstrated against the ruling party, especially in the city of Leipzig.", "The Leipzig demonstrations became a weekly occurrence, with a turnout of 10,000 people at the first demonstration on 2 October, peaking at an estimated 300,000 by the end of the month.", "The protests were surpassed in East Berlin, where half a million demonstrators turned out against the regime on 4 November.", "Kurt Masur, conductor of the Leipzig Gewandhaus Orchestra, led local negotiations with the government and held town meetings in the concert hall.", "The demonstrations eventually led Erich Honecker to resign in October; he was replaced by a slightly more moderate communist, Egon Krenz.The massive demonstration in East Berlin on 4 November coincided with Czechoslovakia formally opening its border to West Germany.", "With the West more accessible than ever before, 30,000 East Germans made the crossing via Czechoslovakia in the first two days alone.", "To try to stem the outward flow of the population, the SED proposed a law loosening travel restrictions.", "When the rejected it on 5 November, the Cabinet and Politburo of the GDR resigned.", "This left only one avenue open for Krenz and the SED: completely abolishing travel restrictions between East and West.On 9 November 1989, a few sections of the Berlin Wall were opened, resulting in thousands of East Germans crossing freely into West Berlin and West Germany for the first time in nearly 30 years.", "Krenz resigned a month later, and the SED opened negotiations with the leaders of the incipient Democratic movement, Neues Forum, to schedule free elections and begin the process of democratization.", "As part of this process, the SED eliminated the clause in the East German constitution guaranteeing the Communists leadership of the state.", "The change was approved in the on 1 December 1989 by a vote of 420 to 0.Logo of the Alliance for Germany coalition, which was led by the Christian Democratic Union (East Germany) East Germany held its last election in March 1990.The winner was Alliance for Germany, a coalition headed by the East German branch of West Germany's Christian Democratic Union, which advocated speedy reunification.", "Negotiations (2+4 Talks) were held involving the two German states and the former Allies, which led to agreement on the conditions for German unification.", "By a two-thirds vote in the on 23 August 1990, the German Democratic Republic declared its accession to the Federal Republic of Germany.", "The five original East German states that had been abolished in the 1952 redistricting were restored.", "On 3 October 1990, the five states officially joined the Federal Republic of Germany, while East and West Berlin united as a third city-state (in the same manner as Bremen and Hamburg).", "On 1 July, a currency union preceded the political union: the \"Ostmark\" was abolished, and the Western German \"Deutsche Mark\" became the common currency.Although the 's declaration of accession to the Federal Republic had initiated the process of reunification, the act of reunification itself (with its many specific terms, conditions and qualifications, some of which involved amendments to the West German Basic Law) was achieved constitutionally by the subsequent Unification Treaty of 31 August 1990 – that is, through a binding agreement between the former Democratic Republic and the Federal Republic, now recognising each other as separate sovereign states in international law.", "The treaty was then voted into effect prior to the agreed date for Unification by both the Volkskammer and the Bundestag by the constitutionally required two-thirds majorities, effecting on the one hand the extinction of the GDR, and on the other the agreed amendments to the Basic Law of the Federal Republic.The great economic and socio-political inequalities between the former Germanies required government subsidies for the full integration of the German Democratic Republic into the Federal Republic of Germany.", "Because of the resulting deindustrialization in the former East Germany, the causes of the failure of this integration continue to be debated.", "Some western commentators claim that the depressed eastern economy is a natural aftereffect of a demonstrably inefficient command economy.", "But many East German critics contend that the shock-therapy style of privatization, the artificially high rate of exchange offered for the Ostmark, and the speed with which the entire process was implemented did not leave room for East German enterprises to adapt." ], [ "Politics", "SED logotype: the Communist–Social Democrat handshake of Wilhelm Pieck and Otto Grotewohl, establishing the SED in 1946GDR flag at the United Nations headquarters, New York City, 1973There were four periods in East German political history.", "These included: 1949–61, which saw the building of socialism; 1961–1970 after the Berlin Wall closed off escape was a period of stability and consolidation; 1971–85 was termed the Honecker Era, and saw closer ties with West Germany; and 1985–90 saw the decline and extinction of East Germany.=== Organization ===The ruling political party in East Germany was the (Socialist Unity Party of Germany, SED).", "It was created in 1946 through the Soviet-directed merger of the Communist Party of Germany (KPD) and the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) in the Soviet-controlled zone.", "However, the SED quickly transformed into a full-fledged Communist party as the more independent-minded Social Democrats were pushed out.The Potsdam Agreement committed the Soviets to support a democratic form of government in Germany, though the Soviets' understanding of democracy was radically different from that of the West.", "As in other Soviet-bloc countries, non-communist political parties were allowed.", "Nevertheless, every political party in the GDR was forced to join the National Front of Democratic Germany, a broad coalition of parties and mass political organisations, including:* (Christian Democratic Union of Germany, CDU), which merged with the West German CDU after reunification.", "* (Democratic Farmers' Party of Germany, DBD).", "The party merged with the West German CDU after reunification.", "* (Liberal Democratic Party of Germany, LDPD), merged with the West German FDP after reunification.", "* (National Democratic Party of Germany, NDPD), merged with the West German FDP after reunification.Palast der Republik, seat of the VolkskammerPoster with the inscription \"\", 1967The member parties were almost completely subservient to the SED and had to accept its \"leading role\" as a condition of their existence.", "However, the parties did have representation in the Volkskammer and received some posts in the government.The Volkskammer also included representatives from the ''mass organisations'' like the Free German Youth ( or ''FDJ''), or the Free German Trade Union Federation.", "There was also a Democratic Women's Federation of Germany, with seats in the .Important non-parliamentary mass organisations in East German society included the German Gymnastics and Sports Association ( or ''DTSB''), and People's Solidarity (), an organisation for the elderly.", "Another society of note was the Society for German-Soviet Friendship.After the fall of Socialism, the SED was renamed the \"Party of Democratic Socialism\" (PDS) which continued for a decade after reunification before merging with the West German WASG to form the Left Party ().", "The Left Party continues to be a political force in many parts of Germany, albeit drastically less powerful than the SED.=== State symbols ===The flag of the German Democratic Republic consisted of three horizontal stripes in the traditional German-democratic colors black-red-gold with the national coat of arms of the GDR in the middle, consisting of hammer and compass, surrounded by a wreath of corn as a symbol of the alliance of workers, peasants and intelligentsia.", "First drafts of Fritz Behrendt's coat of arms contained only a hammer and wreath of corn, as an expression of the workers' and peasants' state.", "The final version was mainly based on the work of Heinz Behling.By law of 26 September 1955, the state coat of arms with hammer, compass and wreath of corn was determined, as the state flag continues black-red-gold.", "By law of 1 October 1959, the coat of arms was inserted into the state flag.", "Until the end of the 1960s, the public display of this flag in the Federal Republic of Germany and West Berlin was regarded as a violation of the constitution and public order and prevented by police measures (cf.", "the Declaration of the Interior Ministers of the Federation and the Länder, October 1959).", "It was not until 1969 that the Federal Government decreed \"that the police should no longer intervene anywhere against the use of the flag and coat of arms of the GDR.", "\"At the request of the DSU, the first freely elected People's Chamber of the GDR decided on 31 May 1990 that the GDR state coat of arms should be removed within a week in and on public buildings.", "Nevertheless, until the official end of the republic, it continued to be used in a variety of ways, for example on documents.The text Resurrected from Ruins of the National Anthem of the GDR is by Johannes R. Becher, the melody by Hanns Eisler.", "From the beginning of the 1970s to the end of 1989, however, the text of the anthem was no longer sung due to the passage \"Deutschland einig Vaterland\".==== Presidential standard ====The first standard of the president had the shape of a rectangular flag in the colors black-red-gold with the inscription \"President\" in yellow in the red stripe, as well as \"D.D.R.\"", "(contrary to the official abbreviation with dots) in the stripe below in black letters.", "The flag was surrounded by a stripe of yellow color.", "An original of the standard is in the German Historical Museum in Berlin.==== War and Service Flags and Symbols ====The flags of the military units of the GDR bore the national coat of arms with a wreath of two olive branches on a red background in the black-red-gold flag.The flags of the People's Navy for combat ships and boats bore the coat of arms with olive branch wreath on red, for auxiliary ships and boats on blue flag cloth with a narrow and centrally arranged black-red-gold band.", "As Gösch, the state flag was used in a reduced form.The ships and boats of the Border Brigade Coast on the Baltic Sea and the boats of the border troops of the GDR on the Elbe and Oder carried a green bar on the Liekjust like the service flag of the border troops.==== Political and social emblems ====After being a member of the Thälmann Pioneers, which was for schoolchildren ages 6 to 14, East German youths would usually join the FDJ.=== Young Pioneer programs ===Pionierorganisation Ernst Thälmann, founded on 13 December 1948==== Ernst Thälmann Pioneer Organisation ====''Young Pioneers'' and the ''Thälmann Pioneers'', was a youth organisation of schoolchildren aged 6 to 14 in East Germany.", "They were named after Ernst Thälmann, the former leader of the Communist Party of Germany, who was executed at the Buchenwald concentration camp.The group was a subdivision of the ''Freie Deutsche Jugend'' (FDJ, Free German Youth), East Germany's youth movement.", "It was founded on 13 December 1948 and broke apart in 1989 on German reunification.", "In the 1960s and 1970s, nearly all schoolchildren between ages 6 and 14 were organised into Young Pioneer or Thälmann Pioneer groups, with the organisations having \"nearly two million children\" collectively by 1975.The pioneer group was loosely based on Scouting, but organised in such a way as to teach schoolchildren aged 6 – 14 socialist ideology and prepare them for the , the FDJ.The program was designed to follow the Soviet Pioneer program Vladimir Lenin All-Union Pioneer Organization.", "The pioneers' slogan was \" (\"For peace and socialism be ready – always ready\").", "This was usually shortened to \"Be ready – always ready\".", "This was recited at the raising of the flag.", "One person said the first part, \"Be ready!", "\": this was usually the pioneer leader, the teacher or the head of the local pioneer group.", "The pioneers all answered \"Always ready\", stiffening their right hand and placing it against their forehead with the thumb closest and their little finger facing skywards.Ernst Thälmann Pioneer Organisation ParadeBoth Pioneer groups would often have massive parades, honoring and celebrating the Socialist success of their nations.===== Membership =====Membership in the Young Pioneers and the Thälmann Pioneers was formally voluntary.", "On the other hand, it was taken for granted by the state and thus by the school as well as by many parents.", "In practice, the initiative for the admission of all students in a class came from the school.", "As the membership quota of up to 98 percent of the students (in the later years of the GDR) shows, the six- or ten-year-olds (or their parents) had to become active on their own in order not to become members.", "Nevertheless, there were also children who did not become members.", "Rarely, students were not admitted because of poor academic performance or bad behavior \"as a punishment\" or excluded from further membership.===== Uniform =====Ernst Thälmann Pioneer Organisation uniformThe pioneers' uniform consisted of white shirts and blouses bought by their parents, along with blue trousers or skirts until the 1970s and on special occasions.", "But often the only thing worn was the most important sign of the future socialist – the triangular necktie.", "At first this was blue, but from 1973, the Thälmann pioneers wore a red necktie like the pioneers in the Soviet Union, while the Young Pioneers kept the blue one.", "Pioneers wore their uniforms at political events and state holidays such as the workers' demonstrations on May Day, as well as at school festivals and pioneer events.The pioneer clothing consisted of white blouses and shirts that could be purchased in sporting goods stores.", "On the left sleeve there was a patch with the embroidered emblem of the pioneer organization and, if necessary, a rank badge with stripes in the color of the scarf.", "These rank badges were three stripes for Friendship Council Chairmen, two stripes for Group Council Chairmen and Friendship Council members, one stripe for all other Group Council members.", "In some cases, symbols for special functions were also sewn on at this point, for example a red cross for a boy paramedic.", "Dark blue trousers or skirts were worn and a dark blue cap with the pioneer emblem served as a cockadeas a headgear.", "At the beginning of the 1970s, a windbreaker/blouson and a dark red leisure blouse were added.However, the pioneer clothing was only worn completely on special occasions, such as flag appeals, commemoration days or festive school events, but it was usually not prescribed.From the 1960s, the requirement of trousers/skirt was dispensed with in many places, and the dress code was also relaxed with regard to the cap.", "For pioneer afternoons or other activities, often only the triangular scarf was worn.", "In contrast to the Soviet Union and other Eastern Bloc countries, a blue scarf was common in the GDR.", "It was not until 1973, on the occasion of the 25th anniversary of the organization, that the red scarf was introduced for the Thälmann pioneers, while the young pioneers remained with the blue scarf.", "The change of color of the scarf was solemnly designed in the pioneer organization.From 1988 there was an extended clothing range, consisting of a Nicki in the colors white, light yellow, turquoise or pink (with an imprint of the symbol of the pioneer organization), long and short trousers with a snap belt and, for the colder months, a lined windbreaker in red for girls and gray for boys.Suitable pioneers were trained as paramedics; after their training, they wore the badge \"Young Paramedic\".===== Music =====The Pioneer songs were sung at any opportunity, including the following titles:* \"Wir tragen die Blaue Fahne\" – \"We Carry the Blue Flag\"* \"Unser kleiner Trompeter\" – \"Our Little Trumpeter\"* \"Thälmann-Lied\" – \"Thälmann Song\"* \"Pioniermarsch\" – \"Pioneers' March\"* \"Der Volkspolizist\" – \" The People's Policeman\"* \"Jetzt bin ich Junger Pionier\" – \"Now I Am a Young Pioneer\"* \"Unsere Heimat\" – \"Our Heimat\"* \"Die Heimat hat sich schön gemacht\" – \"Our Homeland Has Smartened Itself Up\"* \"Auf zum Sozialismus\" – \"Onwards to Socialism\"* \"Kleine weiße Friedenstaube\" – \"Little White Dove of Peace\"* \"Lied der jungen Naturforscher\" – \"Song of the Young Nature Researchers\"* \"Wenn Mutti früh zur Arbeit geht\" – \"When Mother Goes to Work in the Morning\"* \"Gute Freunde\" – \"Good Friends\"* \"Hab'n Se nicht noch Altpapier\" – \"Got Any Waste Paper?", "\"* \"Pioniere voran!\"", "– \"Onwards, Pioneers!", "\"* \"Laßt Euch grüßen, Pioniere\" – \"Greetings, Pioneers\"* \"Immer lebe die Sonne\" – \"May There Always Be Sunshine\"* \"Friede auf unserer Erde\" – \"Peace on Our Earth\"==== Free German Youth ====Freie Deutsche Jugend (FDJ) was founded on 7 March 1946 under the leadership of Erich Honecker.Freie Deutsche Jugend, organization was meant for young people, both male and female, between the ages of 14 and 25 and comprised about 75% of the young population of former East Germany.", "In 1981–1982, this meant 2.3 million members.", "After being a member of the Thälmann Pioneers, which was for schoolchildren ages 6 to 14, East German youths would usually join the FDJ.FDJ Organisation ParadeThe FDJ increasingly developed into an instrument of communist rule and became a member of the 'democratic bloc' in 1950.However, the FDJ's focus of 'happy youth life', which had characterised the 1940s, was increasingly marginalised following Walter Ulbricht's emphasis of the 'accelerated construction of socialism' at the 4th Parliament and a radicalisation of SED policy in July 1952.In turn, a more severe anti-religious agenda, whose aim was to obstruct the Church youths' work, grew within the FDJ, ultimately reaching a high point in mid-April 1953 when the FDJ newspaper reported on details of the 'criminal' activities of the 'illegal' FDJ gangs were sent to church meetings to heckle those inside and school tribunals interrogated or expelled students who refused to join the FDJ for religious reasons.Palace of the Republic.===== Membership =====Upon request, the young people were admitted to the FDJ from the age of 14.Membership was voluntary according to the statutes, but non-members had to fear considerable disadvantages in admission to secondary schools as well as in the choice of studies and careers and were also exposed to strong pressure from line-loyal teachers to join the organization.", "By the end of 1949, around one million young people had joined it, which corresponded to almost a third of the young people.", "Only in Berlin, where other youth organizations were also admitted due to the four-power status, the proportion of FDJ members in youth was limited to just under 5 percent in 1949.6 In 1985, the organization had about 2.3 million members, corresponding to about 80 percent of all GDR youths between the ages of 14 and 25.Most young people tacitly ended their FDJ membership after completing their apprenticeship or studies when they entered the workforce.", "However, during the period of military service in the NVA, those responsible (political officer, FDJ secretary) attached great importance to reviving FDJ membership.", "The degree of organisation was much higher in urban areas than in rural areas.Pioneer choir \"August Bebel\" Zwickau of the pioneer house \"Wilhelm Pieck\" in Zwickau (Schwanenschloß)The FDJ clothing was the blue FDJ shirt (\"blue shirt\")– for girls the blue FDJ blouse – with the FDJ emblem of the rising sun on the left sleeve.", "The greeting of the FDJers was \"friendship\".", "Until the end of the GDR, the income-dependent membership fee was between 0.30 and 5.00 marks per month.===== Music =====The Festival of Political Songs () was one of the largest music events in East Germany, held between 1970 and 1990.It was hosted by the Free German Youth and featured international artists.===== Uniform =====Uniform of the FDJMembers with the uniform of the FDJThe blue shirt (also: FDJ shirt or FDJ blouse) was since 1948 the official organizational clothing of the GDR youth organization Freie Deutsche Jugend (FDJ).", "On official occasions, FDJ members had to wear their blue shirts.", "The FDJ shirt – an FDJ blouse for girls – was a long-sleeved shirt of blue color with a folding collar, epaulettes and chest pockets.", "On the left sleeve was the FDJ symbol of the rising sun sewn up.", "Until the 1970s, the blue shirts were only made of cotton, later there was a cheaper variant made of polyester mixture.The epaulettes of the blue shirt, in contrast to epaulettes on military uniforms, did not serve to make visible rank or unit membership, but were used at most to put a beret through.", "Official functions in the FDJ, for example FDJ secretary of a school or apprentice class, had no rank badges and could not be read on the FDJ shirt.", "However, the members of the FDJ order groups officially wore the FDJ shirt together with a red armband during their missions.From the 1970s onwards, official patches and pins were issued for certain events, which could be worn on the FDJ shirt.", "There was no fixed wearing style.", "The orders and decorations that ordinary FDJ members received until the end of their membership at the age of 19 to 24 – usually the badge of good knowledge – were usually not worn.", "As a rule, only full-time FDJ members on the way to the nomenklatura at an older age achieved awards, which were also worn." ], [ "Education and social care", "East German schoolsystemAbout 600,000 children and youth were subordinate to East German residential child care system." ], [ "Population", "A woman and her husband, both medical students, and their triplets in East Germany in 1984.The GDR had state policies to encourage births among educated women.The East German population declined by three million people throughout its forty-one year history, from 19 million in 1948 to 16 million in 1990; of the 1948 population, some four million were deported from the lands east of the Oder-Neisse line, which made the home of millions of Germans part of Poland and the Soviet Union.", "This was a stark contrast from Poland, which increased during that time; from 24 million in 1950 (a little more than East Germany) to 38 million (more than twice of East Germany's population).", "This was primarily a result of emigration—about one quarter of East Germans left the country before the Berlin Wall was completed in 1961, and after that time, East Germany had very low birth rates, except for a recovery in the 1980s when the birth rate in East Germany was considerably higher than in West Germany.=== Vital statistics ===Average population (thousand)Live birthsDeathsNatural changeCrude birth rate (per 1,000)Crude death rate (per 1,000)Natural change (per 1,000)Total fertility rate 1946188,679413,240−224,56110.222.4−12.11.30 1947247,275358,035−110,76013.119.0−5.91.75 1948243,311289,747−46,43612.715.2−2.41.76 1949274,022253,65820,36414.513.41.12.03 195018,388303,866219,58284,28416.511.94.62.35 195118,350310,772208,800101,97216.911.45.62.46 195218,300306,004221,67684,32816.612.14.62.42 195318,112298,933212,62786,30616.411.74.72.40 195418,002293,715219,83273,88316.312.24.12.38 195517,832293,280214,06679,21516.311.94.42.38 195617,604281,282212,69868,58415.812.03.92.30 195717,411273,327225,17948,14815.612.92.72.24 195817,312271,405221,11350,29215.612.72.92.22 195917,286291,980229,89862,08216.913.33.62.37 196017,188292,985233,75959,22616.913.53.42.35 196117,079300,818222,73978,07917.613.04.62.42 196217,136297,982233,99563,98717.413.73.72.42 196317,181301,472222,00179,47117.612.94.62.47 196417,004291,867226,19165,67617.113.33.92.48 196517,040281,058230,25450,80416.513.53.02.48 196617,071267,958225,66342,29515.713.22.52.43 196717,090252,817227,06825,74914.813.31.52.34 196817,087245,143242,4732,67014.314.20.12.30 196917,075238,910243,732−4,82214.014.3−0.32.24 197017,068236,929240,821−3,89213.914.1−0.22.19 197117,054234,870234,953−8313.813.8−0.02.13 197217,011200,443234,425−33,98211.713.7−2.01.79 197316,951180,336231,960−51,62410.613.7−3.01.58 197416,891179,127229,062−49,93510.613.5−3.01.54 197516,820181,798240,389−58,59110.814.3−3.51.54 197616,767195,483233,733−38,25011.613.9−2.31.64 197716,758223,152226,233−3,08113.313.5−0.21.85 197816,751232,151232,332−18113.913.9−0.01.90 197916,740235,233232,7422,49114.013.90.11.90 198016,740245,132238,2546,87814.614.20.41.94 198116,706237,543232,2445,29914.213.90.31.85 198216,702240,102227,97512,12714.413.70.71.86 198316,701233,756222,69511,06114.013.30.71.79 198416,660228,135221,1816,95413.613.20.41.74 198516,640227,648225,3532,29513.713.50.21.73 198616,640222,269223,536−1,26713.413.5−0.11.70 198716,661225,959213,87212,08713.612.80.81.74 198816,675215,734213,1112,62312.912.80.11.67 198916,434198,992205,711−6,78912.012.4−0.41.56 199016,028178,476208,110−29,63411.112.9−1.81.51 '''Source:'''===Major cities===panel blocks in Rostock's city center in September 1986, at the time East Germany's largest coastal and port city, and the sixth largest city in the country(1988 populations)* East Berlin (1,200,000)* Leipzig (556,000)* Dresden (520,000)* Karl-Marx-Stadt (314,437) (Chemnitz until 1953, reverted to original name in 1990)* Magdeburg (290,579)* Rostock (253,990)* Halle (Saale) (236,044)* Erfurt (220,016)* Potsdam (142,862)* Gera (134,834)* Schwerin (130,685)* Cottbus (128,639)* Zwickau (121,749)* Jena (108,010)* Dessau (103,867)" ], [ "Administrative districts", "Districts of the German Democratic Republic in 1952Until 1952, East Germany comprised the capital, East Berlin (though legally it was not fully part of the GDR's territory), and the five German states of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern (in 1947 renamed Mecklenburg), Brandenburg, Saxony-Anhalt (named Province of Saxony until 1946), Thuringia, and Saxony, their post-war territorial demarcations approximating the pre-war German demarcations of the Middle German ''Länder'' (states) and ''Provinzen'' (provinces of Prussia).", "The western parts of two provinces, Pomerania and Lower Silesia, the remainder of which were annexed by Poland, remained in the GDR and were attached to Mecklenburg and Saxony, respectively.The East German Administrative Reform of 1952 established 14 (districts) and ''de facto'' disestablished the five ''Länder''.", "The new , named after their district centres, were as follows: (i) Rostock, (ii) Neubrandenburg, and (iii) Schwerin created from the ''Land'' (state) of Mecklenburg; (iv) Potsdam, (v) Frankfurt (Oder), and (vii) Cottbus from Brandenburg; (vi) Magdeburg and (viii) Halle from Saxony-Anhalt; (ix) Leipzig, (xi) Dresden, and (xii) Karl-Marx-Stadt (Chemnitz until 1953 and again from 1990) from Saxony; and (x) Erfurt, (xiii) Gera, and (xiv) Suhl from Thuringia.East Berlin was made the country's 15th ''Bezirk'' in 1961 but retained special legal status until 1968, when the residents approved the new (draft) constitution.", "Despite the city as a whole being legally under the control of the Allied Control Council, and diplomatic objections of the Allied governments, the GDR administered the ''Bezirk'' of Berlin as part of its territory.Uni-Riese (''University Giant'') in 1982.Built in 1972, it was once part of the Karl-Marx-University and is Leipzig's tallest building." ], [ "Military", "East German National People's Army changing-of-the-guard ceremony in East BerlinThe government of East Germany had control over a large number of military and paramilitary organisations through various ministries.", "Chief among these was the Ministry of National Defence.", "Because of East Germany's proximity to the West during the Cold War (1945–92), its military forces were among the most advanced of the Warsaw Pact.", "Defining what was a military force and what was not is a matter of some dispute.=== National People's Army ===The (NVA) was the largest military organisation in East Germany.", "It was formed in 1956 from the (Barracked People's Police), the military units of the regular police (Volkspolizei), when East Germany joined the Warsaw Pact.", "From its creation, it was controlled by the Ministry of National Defence (East Germany).", "It was an all-volunteer force until an eighteen-month conscription period was introduced in 1962.It was regarded by NATO officers as the best military in the Warsaw Pact.The NVA consisted of the following branches:* Land Forces of the National People's Army* People's Navy* Air Forces of the National People's Army=== Border troops ===The border troops of the Eastern sector were originally organised as a police force, the , similar to the in West Germany.", "It was controlled by the Ministry of the Interior.", "Following the remilitarisation of East Germany in 1956, the was transformed into a military force in 1961, modeled after the Soviet Border Troops, and transferred to the Ministry of National Defense, as part of the National People's Army.", "In 1973, it was separated from the NVA, but it remained under the same ministry.", "At its peak, it numbered approximately 47,000 men.=== Volkspolizei-Bereitschaft ===After the NVA was separated from the in 1956, the Ministry of the Interior maintained its own public order barracked reserve, known as the .", "These units were, like the , equipped as motorised infantry, and they numbered between 12,000 and 15,000 men.=== Stasi ===The Ministry of State Security (Stasi) included the Felix Dzerzhinsky Guards Regiment, which was mainly involved with facilities security and plain clothes events security.", "They were the only public-facing wing of the Stasi.", "The Stasi numbered around 90,000 men, the Guards Regiment around 11,000–12,000 men.=== Combat groups of the working class ===The (combat groups of the working class) numbered around 400,000 for much of their existence, and were organised around factories.", "The KdA was the political-military instrument of the SED; it was essentially a \"party Army\".", "All KdA directives and decisions were made by the ZK's .", "They received their training from the Volkspolizei and the Ministry of the Interior.", "Membership was voluntary, but SED members were required to join as part of their membership obligation.=== Conscientious objection ===Every man was required to serve eighteen months of compulsory military service; for the medically unqualified and conscientious objector, there were the (construction units) or the (people's sanitation service) both established in 1964, two years after the introduction of conscription, in response to political pressure by the national Lutheran Protestant Church upon the GDR's government.", "In the 1970s, East German leaders acknowledged that former construction soldiers and sanitation service soldiers were at a disadvantage when they rejoined the civilian sphere." ], [ "Foreign policy", "=== Support of Third World socialist countries ===Angola's José Eduardo dos Santos during his visit to East BerlinAfter receiving wider international diplomatic recognition in 1972–73, the GDR began active cooperation with Third World socialist governments and national liberation movements.", "While the USSR was in control of the overall strategy and Cuban armed forces were involved in the actual combat (mostly in the People's Republic of Angola and socialist Ethiopia), the GDR provided experts for military hardware maintenance and personnel training, and oversaw creation of secret security agencies based on its own Stasi model.Already in the 1960s, contacts were established with Angola's MPLA, Mozambique's FRELIMO and the PAIGC in Guinea Bissau and Cape Verde.", "In the 1970s official cooperation was established with other socialist states, such as the People's Republic of the Congo, People's Democratic Republic of Yemen, Somali Democratic Republic, Libya, and the People's Republic of Benin.The first military agreement was signed in 1973 with the People's Republic of the Congo.", "In 1979 friendship treaties were signed with Angola, Mozambique and Ethiopia.It was estimated that altogether, 2,000–4,000 DDR military and security experts were dispatched to Africa.", "In addition, representatives from African and Arab countries and liberation movements underwent military training in the GDR.=== East Germany and the Middle East conflict ===East Germany pursued an anti-Zionist policy; Jeffrey Herf argues that East Germany was waging an undeclared war on Israel.", "According to Herf, \"the Middle East was one of the crucial battlefields of the global Cold War between the Soviet Union and the West; it was also a region in which East Germany played a salient role in the Soviet bloc's antagonism toward Israel.\"", "While East Germany saw itself as an \"anti-fascist state\", it regarded Israel as a \"fascist state\" and East Germany strongly supported the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) in its armed struggle against Israel.", "In 1974, the GDR government recognized the PLO as the \"sole legitimate representative of the Palestinian people\".", "The PLO declared the Palestinian state on 15 November 1988 during the First Intifada, and the GDR recognized the state prior to reunification.", "After becoming a member of the UN, East Germany \"made excellent use of the UN to wage political warfare against Israel and was an enthusiastic, high-profile, and vigorous member\" of the anti-Israeli majority of the General Assembly.Ba'athist Iraq, due to its wealth of unexploited natural resources, was sought out as an ally of East Germany, with Iraq being the first Arab country to recognise East Germany on 10 May 1969, paving the way for other Arab League states to later do the same.", "East Germany attempted to play a decisive role in mediating the conflict between the Iraqi Communist Party and the Ba'ath Party and supported the creation of the National Progressive Front.", "The East German government also attempted to foster close relations with the Ba'athist regime of Hafez al-Assad during the early years of Assad's regime and, as it did in Iraq, used its influence to minimise tensions between the Syrian Communist Party and the Ba'athist regime.=== Western Europe ===During the Cold War, especially during its early years, the East German government attempted to build closer diplomatic relations and trade links between Iceland and East Germany.", "By the 1950s, East Germany had become Iceland's fifth largest trading partner.", "East German influence in Iceland significantly declined in the 1970s and 1980s following a schism between the Socialist Unity Party of Germany and the Icelandic Socialist Party over the Prague Spring, along with free market economic reforms implemented by Iceland during the 1960s.=== Soviet military occupation ===" ], [ "Economy", "Map of the East German economy, 8/1990The Trabant automobile was a profitable product made in the German Democratic Republic.The East German economy began poorly because of the devastation caused by the Second World War; the loss of so many young soldiers, the disruption of business and transportation, the allied bombing campaigns that decimated cities, and reparations owed to the USSR.", "The Red Army dismantled and transported to Russia the infrastructure and industrial plants of the Soviet Zone of Occupation.", "By the early 1950s, the reparations were paid in agricultural and industrial products; and Lower Silesia, with its coal mines and Szczecin, an important natural port, were given to Poland by the decision of Stalin and in accordance with the Potsdam Agreement.The socialist centrally planned economy of the German Democratic Republic was like that of the USSR.", "In 1950, the GDR joined the COMECON trade bloc.", "In 1985, collective (state) enterprises earned 96.7% of the net national income.", "To ensure stable prices for goods and services, the state paid 80% of basic supply costs.", "The estimated 1984 per capita income was $9,800 ($22,600 in 2015 dollars) (this is based on an unreal official exchange rate).", "In 1976, the average annual growth of the GDP was approximately five percent.", "This made the East German economy the richest in all of the Soviet Bloc until reunification in 1990.Notable East German exports were photographic cameras, under the Praktica brand; automobiles under the Trabant, Wartburg, and the IFA brands; hunting rifles, sextants, typewriters and wristwatches.Until the 1960s, East Germans endured shortages of basic foodstuffs such as sugar and coffee.", "East Germans with friends or relatives in the West (or with any access to a hard currency) and the necessary foreign currency account could afford Western products and export-quality East German products via Intershop.", "Consumer goods also were available, by post, from the Danish Jauerfood, and Genex companies.The government used money and prices as political devices, providing highly subsidised prices for a wide range of basic goods and services, in what was known as \"the second pay packet\".", "At the production level, artificial prices made for a system of semi-barter and resource hoarding.", "For the consumer, it led to the substitution of GDR money with time, barter, and hard currencies.", "The socialist economy became steadily more dependent on financial infusions from hard-currency loans from West Germany.", "East Germans, meanwhile, came to see their soft currency as worthless relative to the Deutsche Mark (DM).Economic issues would also persist in the east of Germany after the reunification of the west and the east.", "According to the federal office of political education (23 June 2009) 'In 1991 alone, 153 billion Deutschmarks had to be transferred to eastern Germany to secure incomes, support businesses and improve infrastructure... by 1999 the total had amounted to 1.634 trillion Marks net...", "The sums were so large that public debt in Germany more than doubled.", "'=== Consumption and jobs ==='''Growth in GDP per capita in East and West Germany''' '''East Germany''' '''West Germany''' 1945–1960 6.2 10.9 1950–1960 6.7 8.0 1960–1970 2.7 4.4 1970–1980 2.6 2.8 1980–1989 0.3 1.9 '''Total 1950–1989''' 3.1 4.3Loyalty to the SED was a primary criterion for getting a good job, professionalism was secondary to political criteria in personnel recruitment and development.Beginning in 1963 with a series of secret international agreements, East Germany recruited workers from Poland, Hungary, Cuba, Albania, Mozambique, Angola and North Vietnam.", "They numbered more than 100,000 by 1989.Many, such as future politician Zeca Schall (who emigrated from Angola in 1988 as a contract worker) stayed in Germany after the Wende." ], [ "Religion", "Religion became contested ground in the GDR, with the governing communists promoting state atheism, although some people remained loyal to Christian communities.", "In 1957, the state authorities established a State Secretariat for Church Affairs to handle the government's contact with churches and with religious groups; the SED remained officially atheist.In 1950, 85% of the GDR citizens were Protestants, while 10% were Catholics.", "In 1961, the renowned philosophical theologian Paul Tillich claimed that the Protestant population in East Germany had the most admirable Church in Protestantism, because the communists there had not been able to win a spiritual victory over them.", "By 1989, membership in the Christian churches had dropped significantly.", "Protestants constituted 25% of the population, Catholics 5%.", "The share of people who considered themselves non-religious rose from 5% in 1950 to 70% in 1989.=== State atheism ===When it first came to power, the Communist party asserted the compatibility of Christianity and Marxism-Leninism and sought Christian participation in the building of socialism.", "At first, the promotion of Marxist-Leninist atheism received little official attention.", "In the mid-1950s, as the Cold War heated up, atheism became a topic of major interest for the state, in both domestic and foreign contexts.", "University chairs and departments devoted to the study of scientific atheism were founded and much literature (scholarly and popular) on the subject was produced.", "This activity subsided in the late 1960s amid perceptions that it had started to become counterproductive.", "Official and scholarly attention to atheism renewed beginning in 1973, though this time with more emphasis on scholarship and on the training of cadres than on propaganda.", "Throughout, the attention paid to atheism in East Germany was never intended to jeopardise the cooperation that was desired from those East Germans who were religious.=== Protestantism ===A 1980 meeting between representatives of the BEK and Erich HoneckerEast Germany, historically, was majority Protestant (primarily Lutheran) from the early stages of the Protestant Reformation onwards.", "In 1948, freed from the influence of the Nazi-oriented German Christians, Lutheran, Reformed and United churches from most parts of Germany came together as the Protestant Church in Germany (Evangelische Kirche in Deutschland, EKD) at the Conference of Eisenach (''Kirchenversammlung von Eisenach'').In 1969, the regional Protestant churches in East Germany and East Berlin broke away from the EKD and formed the '''' (, BEK), in 1970 also joined by the Moravian ''Herrnhuter Brüdergemeinde''.", "In June 1991, following the German reunification, the BEK churches again merged with the EKD ones.Between 1956 and 1971, the leadership of the East German Lutheran churches gradually changed its relations with the state from hostility to cooperation.", "From the founding of the GDR in 1949, the Socialist Unity Party sought to weaken the influence of the church on the rising generation.", "The church adopted an attitude of confrontation and distance toward the state.", "Around 1956 this began to develop into a more neutral stance accommodating conditional loyalty.", "The government was no longer regarded as illegitimate; instead, the church leaders started viewing the authorities as installed by God and, therefore, deserving of obedience by Christians.", "But on matters where the state demanded something which the churches felt was not in accordance with the will of God, the churches reserved their right to say no.", "There were both structural and intentional causes behind this development.", "Structural causes included the hardening of Cold War tensions in Europe in the mid-1950s, which made it clear that the East German state was not temporary.", "The loss of church members also made it clear to the leaders of the church that they had to come into some kind of dialogue with the state.", "The intentions behind the change of attitude varied from a traditional liberal Lutheran acceptance of secular power to a positive attitude toward socialist ideas.Manfred Stolpe became a lawyer for the Brandenburg Protestant Church in 1959 before taking up a position at church headquarters in Berlin.", "In 1969 he helped found the (BEK), where he negotiated with the government while at the same time working within the institutions of this Protestant body.", "He won the regional elections for the Brandenburg state assembly at the head of the SPD list in 1990.Stolpe remained in the Brandenburg government until he joined the federal government in 2002.Apart from the Protestant state churches () united in the EKD/BEK and the Catholic Church there was a number of smaller Protestant bodies, including Protestant Free Churches () united in the and the , as well as the Free Lutheran Church, the Old Lutheran Church and Federation of the Reformed Churches in the German Democratic Republic.", "The Moravian Church also had its presence as the .", "There were also other Protestants such as Methodists, Adventists, Mennonites and Quakers.=== Catholicism ===Katholikentag, Dresden, 1987(left to right) Bishop Karl Lehmann and Cardinals Gerhard Schaffran, Joseph Ratzinger (the future Pope Benedict XVI) and Joachim MeisnerThe smaller Catholic Church in eastern Germany had a fully functioning episcopal hierarchy in full accord with the Vatican.", "During the early postwar years, tensions were high.", "The Catholic Church as a whole (and particularly the bishops) resisted both the East German state and Marxist-Leninist ideology.", "The state allowed the bishops to lodge protests, which they did on issues such as abortion.After 1945, the Church did fairly well in integrating Catholic exiles from lands to the east (which mostly became part of Poland) and in adjusting its institutional structures to meet the needs of a church within an officially atheist society.", "This meant an increasingly hierarchical church structure, whereas in the area of religious education, press, and youth organisations, a system of temporary staff was developed, one that took into account the special situation of Caritas, a Catholic charity organisation.", "By 1950, therefore, there existed a Catholic subsociety that was well adjusted to prevailing specific conditions and capable of maintaining Catholic identity.With a generational change in the episcopacy taking place in the early 1980s, the state hoped for better relations with the new bishops, but the new bishops instead began holding unauthorised mass meetings, promoting international ties in discussions with theologians abroad, and hosting ecumenical conferences.", "The new bishops became less politically oriented and more involved in pastoral care and attention to spiritual concerns.", "The government responded by limiting international contacts for bishops.List of apostolic administrators:* Erfurt-Meiningen* Görlitz* Magdeburg* Schwerin" ], [ "Culture", "East Germany's culture was strongly influenced by communist thought and was marked by an attempt to define itself in opposition to the west, particularly West Germany and the United States.", "Critics of the East German state have claimed that the state's commitment to Communism was a hollow and cynical tool, Machiavellian in nature, but this assertion has been challenged by studies that have found that the East German leadership was genuinely committed to the advance of scientific knowledge, economic development, and social progress.", "However, Pence and Betts argue, the majority of East Germans over time increasingly regarded the state's ideals to be hollow, though there was also a substantial number of East Germans who regarded their culture as having a healthier, more authentic mentality than that of West Germany.GDR culture and politics were limited by the harsh censorship.", "Compared to the music of the FRG, the freedom of art was less restricted by private-sector guidelines, but by guidelines from the state and the SED.", "Nevertheless, many musicians strove to explore the existing boundaries.", "Despite the state's support for music education, there were politically motivated conflicts with the state, especially among rock, blues and folk musicians and songwriters, as well as composers of so-called serious music.=== Music ===The ''Oktoberklub'' in 1967Pop singer Frank Schöbel (center) giving autographs in 1980.A special feature of GDR culture is the broad spectrum of German rock bands.", "The Puhdys and Karat were some of the most popular mainstream bands in East Germany.", "Like most mainstream acts, they were members of the SED, appeared in state-run popular youth magazines such as ''Neues Leben'' and ''Magazin''.", "Other popular rock bands were , City, Silly and Pankow.", "Most of these artists recorded on the state-owned AMIGA label.", "All were required to open live performances and albums with the East German national anthem.Schlager, which was very popular in the west, also gained a foothold early on in East Germany, and numerous musicians, such as , , and gained national fame.", "From 1962 to 1976, an international schlager festival was held in Rostock, garnering participants from between 18 and 22 countries each year.", "The city of Dresden held a similar international festival for schlager musicians from 1971 until shortly before reunification.", "There was a national schlager contest hosted yearly in Magdeburg from 1966 to 1971 as well.Bands and singers from other socialist countries were popular, e.g.", "Czerwone Gitary from Poland known as the .", "Czech Karel Gott, the Golden Voice from Prague, was beloved in both German states.", "Hungarian band Omega performed in both German states, and Yugoslavian band Korni Grupa toured East Germany in the 1970s.West German television and radio could be received in many parts of the East.", "The Western influence led to the formation of more \"underground\" groups with a decisively western-oriented sound.", "A few of these bands – the so-called Die anderen Bands (\"the other bands\") – were , and Feeling B. Additionally, hip hop culture reached the ears of the East German youth.", "With videos such as ''Beat Street'' and ''Wild Style'', young East Germans were able to develop a hip hop culture of their own.", "East Germans accepted hip hop as more than just a music form.", "The entire street culture surrounding rap entered the region and became an outlet for oppressed youth.The government of the GDR was invested in both promoting the tradition of German classical music, and in supporting composers to write new works in that tradition.", "Notable East German composers include Hanns Eisler, Paul Dessau, Ernst Hermann Meyer, Rudolf Wagner-Régeny, and Kurt Schwaen.The birthplace of Johann Sebastian Bach (1685–1750), Eisenach, was rendered as a museum about him, featuring more than three hundred instruments, which, in 1980, received some 70,000 visitors.", "In Leipzig, the Bach archive contains his compositions and correspondence and recordings of his music.Governmental support of classical music maintained some 168 publicly funded concert, opera, chamber, and radio orchestras, such as Gewandhausorchester and Thomanerchor in Leipzig; Sächsische Staatskapelle in Dresden; and Berliner Sinfonie Orchester and Staatsoper Unter den Linden in Berlin.", "Kurt Masur was their prominent conductor.==== Censorship in the music sector ====All productions were subject to censorship.", "Texts had to be submitted and shows approved in advance; performances were watched.", "No one was exempt from this, not even famous artists with connections to the highest circles of the SED government.", "Under this pressure, strategies were developed to bring critical texts to the audience despite censorship.", "For example, Heinz Quermann always deliberately built an extreme gag into his entertainment programme so that the censors would have something to cut and the other gags would be less critically scrutinised.", "Tamara Danz of Silly founded the term \"green elephant\" (''grüner Elefant'') for such passages.At the beginning of the 1960s, the youth of the GDR were also under the influence of the Beatles and their music.", "In the beginning, this music was still tolerated and supported by the GDR leadership, especially with the help of the FDJ.", "The high point of this era was 1965, when GDR bands not only got radio and television appearances, but were even allowed to make recordings.", "However, the SED realised that it could not control this movement, which was basically rebellious and oriented towards the West, and steer it in a direction it liked.", "The Leipzig Beat Revolt was a response, that most of the bands were therefore simply banned, the others were strictly controlled.", "For example, Thomas Natschinski's band had to change its English name \"Team 4\" to the German name \"Thomas Natschinski and his group\".", "Other bands were not so conformist.", "Renft in particular was repeatedly banned from performing and later also the blues rock band Freygang, whose members went into hiding and then played under pseudonyms.Even convinced socialists like the singer-songwriter Wolf Biermann were banned from performing because they had different ideas of socialism than the SED realised.", "In 1976, Wolf Biermann was allowed to tour in the West and this was immediately taken as an opportunity to denaturalise him and refuse him permission to return.", "Numerous artists protested against this and were forced to leave the country – some after serving prison sentences – including members of Renft, as well as Manfred Krug and Nina Hagen.", "Other artists left voluntarily.", "Veronika Fischer, for example, did not return from a performance in West Berlin in 1981, whereupon her songs were no longer allowed to be played by GDR radio stations.But West German productions were also subject to censorship.", "For example, the song by Udo Jürgens Es war einmal ein Luftballon (Once Upon a Time There Was a Balloon) was put on the Index because of the line, \"They know no borders, the balloons of the world\".", "It was not until 1987 that Udo Jürgens was allowed to perform again in the GDR.", "Udo Lindenberg, for example, had similar problems.", "Despite all his efforts (such as his song Sonderzug nach Pankow (Special Train to Pankow)), he was only allowed to perform once before the fall of the Wall, at the Palast der Republik on the occasion of the event \"Rock für den Frieden\" (Rock for Peace) on 25 October 1983.In the 1980s, censorship seemed to loosen up.", "Lyrics about the longing for freedom (including Albatros by Karat) became possible.", "But it was only in the course of the peaceful revolution that songs by Veronika Fischer were heard on the radio again in October 1989.=== Theatre ===Playwright Bertolt Brecht (1898–1956)East German theatre was originally dominated by Bertolt Brecht, who brought back many artists out of exile and reopened the ''Theater am Schiffbauerdamm'' with his Berliner Ensemble.", "Alternatively, other influences tried to establish a \"Working Class Theatre\", played for the working class by the working class.After Brecht's death, conflicts began to arise between his family (around Helene Weigel) and other artists about Brecht's legacy, including Slatan Dudow, Erwin Geschonneck, Erwin Strittmatter, Peter Hacks, Benno Besson, Peter Palitzsch and Ekkehard Schall.In the 1950s, the Swiss director Benno Besson with the Deutsches Theater successfully toured Europe and Asia including Japan with ''The Dragon'' by Evgeny Schwartz.", "In the 1960s, he became the Intendant of the Volksbühne often working with Heiner Müller.In the 1970s, a parallel theatre scene sprung up, creating theatre \"outside of Berlin\" in which artists played at provincial theatres.", "For example, Peter Sodann founded the Neues Theater in Halle/Saale and Frank Castorf at the theater Anklam.Theatre and cabaret had high status in the GDR, which allowed it to be very proactive.", "This often brought it into confrontation with the state.", "Benno Besson once said, \"In contrast to artists in the west, they took us seriously, we had a bearing.", "\"The Friedrichstadt-Palast in Berlin is the last major building erected by the GDR, making it an exceptional architectural testimony to how Germany overcame its former division.", "Here, Berlin's great revue tradition lives on, today bringing viewers state-of-the-art shows.VolksbühneImportant theatres include the Berliner Ensemble, the Deutsches Theater, the Maxim Gorki Theater, and the Volksbühne.=== Cinema ===The prolific cinema of East Germany was headed by the DEFA, ''Deutsche Film AG'', which was subdivided in different local groups, for example ''Gruppe Berlin'', ''Gruppe Babelsberg'' or ''Gruppe Johannisthal'', where the local teams shot and produced films.", "The East German industry became known worldwide for its productions, especially children's movies (''Das kalte Herz'', film versions of the Brothers Grimm fairy tales and modern productions such as ''Das Schulgespenst'').Frank Beyer's ''Jakob der Lügner'' (Jacob the Liar), about the Holocaust, and ''Fünf Patronenhülsen'' (Five Cartridges), about resistance against fascism, became internationally famous.Films about daily life, such as ''Die Legende von Paul und Paula'', by Heiner Carow, and ''Solo Sunny'', directed by Konrad Wolf and Wolfgang Kohlhaase, were very popular.", "The film industry was remarkable for its production of ''Ostern'', or Western-like movies.", "Amerindians in these films often took the role of displaced people who fight for their rights, in contrast to the North American westerns of the time, where they were often either not mentioned at all or are portrayed as the villains.", "Yugoslavs were often cast as Native Americans because of the small number of Native Americans in Europe.", "Gojko Mitić was well known in these roles, often playing the righteous, kindhearted and charming chief (''Die Söhne der großen Bärin'' directed by Josef Mach).", "He became an honorary Sioux chief when he visited the United States in the 1990s, and the television crew accompanying him showed the tribe one of his movies.", "American actor and singer Dean Reed, an expatriate who lived in East Germany, also starred in several films.", "These films were part of the phenomenon of Europe producing alternative films about the colonization of the Americas.Cinemas in the GDR also showed foreign films.", "Czechoslovak and Polish productions were more common, but certain western movies were shown, though the numbers of these were limited because it cost foreign exchange to buy the licences.", "Further, films representing or glorifying what the state viewed as capitalist ideology were not bought.", "Comedies enjoyed great popularity, such as the Danish ''Olsen Gang'' or movies with the French comedian Louis de Funès.Since the fall of the Berlin Wall, several films depicting life in the GDR have been critically acclaimed.", "Some of the most notable were ''Good Bye Lenin!''", "by Wolfgang Becker, ''Das Leben der Anderen'' (The Lives of Others) by Florian Henckel von Donnersmarck (won the Academy Award for bestberg Film in a Foreign Language) in 2006, and ''Alles auf Zucker!''", "(Go for Zucker) by Dani Levi.", "Each film is heavily infused with cultural nuances unique to life in the GDR.=== Sport ===East Germany was very successful in the sports of cycling, weight-lifting, swimming, gymnastics, track and field, boxing, ice skating, and winter sports.", "The success is largely attributed to doping under the direction of Manfred Höppner, a sports doctor, described as the architect of East Germany's state-sponsored drug program.East German football team lining up before a match against Australia on 15 June 1974Anabolic steroids were the most detected doping substances in IOC-accredited laboratories for many years.", "The development and implementation of a state-supported sports doping program helped East Germany, with its small population, to become a world leader in sport during the 1970s and 1980s, winning a large number of Olympic and world gold medals and records.", "Another factor for success was the furtherance system for young people in the GDR.", "Sports teachers at school were encouraged to look for certain talents in children of ages 6 to 10.For older pupils it was possible to attend grammar schools with a focus on sports (for example sailing, football and swimming).Sports clubs were highly subsidized, especially sports in which it was possible to get international fame.", "For example, the major leagues for ice hockey and basketball just included 2 teams each.", "Football was the most popular sport.", "Club football teams such as Dynamo Dresden, 1.FC Magdeburg, FC Carl Zeiss Jena, 1.FC Lokomotive Leipzig and BFC Dynamo had successes in European competition.", "Many East German players such as Matthias Sammer and Ulf Kirsten became integral parts of the reunified national football team.The East and the West also competed via sport.", "GDR athletes dominated several Olympic sports; the SV Dynamo club of the security agencies won more than 200 Olympic medals.", "Of special interest was the only football match between the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, a first-round match during the 1974 FIFA World Cup, which the East won 1–0; but West Germany, the host, went on to win the World Cup.East Germany had a revolutionary technology for two-stroke engines called expansion chamber, allowing them to win motorcycle races with little competition.", "Racer Ernst Degner defected to Japan, taking the technology secret with him over to Suzuki.", "After the defection, East German motorcycle racing effectively ended.=== Television and radio ===Gerhard Behrendt with character from the stop-animation series ''Sandmännchen''Television and radio in East Germany were state-run industries; the ''Rundfunk der DDR'' was the official radio broadcasting organisation from 1952 until unification.", "The organization was based in the ''Funkhaus Nalepastraße'' in East Berlin.", "''Deutscher Fernsehfunk'' (DFF), from 1972 to 1990 known as ''Fernsehen der DDR'' or DDR-FS, was the state television broadcaster from 1952.Reception of Western broadcasts was widespread." ], [ "Industry", "=== Transportation ===* Deutsche Reichsbahn (East Germany)* Interflug=== Telecommunications ===By the mid-1980s, East Germany possessed a well-developed communications system.", "There were approximately 3.6 million telephones in usage (21.8 for every 100 inhabitants), and 16,476 Telex stations.", "Both of these networks were run by the Deutsche Post der DDR (East German Post Office).", "East Germany was assigned telephone country code +37; in 1991, several months after reunification, East German telephone exchanges were incorporated into country code +49.An unusual feature of the telephone network was that, in most cases, direct distance dialing for long-distance calls was not possible.", "Although area codes were assigned to all major towns and cities, they were only used for switching international calls.", "Instead, each location had its own list of dialing codes with shorter codes for local calls and longer codes for long-distance calls.", "After unification, the existing network was largely replaced, and area codes and dialing became standardised.In 1976 East Germany inaugurated the operation of a ground-based radio station at Fürstenwalde for the purpose of relaying and receiving communications from Soviet satellites and to serve as a participant in the international telecommunications organization established by the Soviet government, Intersputnik." ], [ "Totalitarianism and repression", "There is general consensus among academics that the GDR fulfilled most of the criteria to be considered a totalitarian state.", "There is, however, ongoing debate as to whether the more positive aspects of the regime can sufficiently dilute the harsher aspects so as to make the totalitarian tag seem excessive.", "According to the historian Mary Fulbrook:The state security service (SSD) was commonly known as the Stasi, and it was fundamental to the socialist leadership's attempts to reach their historical goal.", "It was an open secret in the GDR that the Stasi read people's mail and tapped phone calls.", "They also employed a vast network of unofficial informers who would spy on people more directly and report to their Stasi handlers.", "These collaborators were hired in all walks of life and had access to nearly every organisation in the country.", "At the end of the GDR in 1990 there were approximately 109,000 still active informants at every grade.", "Repressive measures carried out by the Stasi can be roughly divided into two main chronological groupings: pre and post 1971, when Honecker came to power.", "According to the historian Nessim Ghouas, \"There was a change in how the Stasi operated under Honecker in 1971.The more brutal aspects of repression seen in the Stalinist era (torture, executions, and physical repression descending from the GDR's earlier days) was changed with a more selective use of power.", "\"The more direct forms of repression such as arrest and torture could mean significant international condemnation for the GDR.", "However, the Stasi still needed to paralyse and disrupt what it considered to be 'hostile-negative' forces (internal domestic enemies) if the socialist goal was to be properly realised.", "A person could be targeted by the Stasi for expressing politically, culturally, or religiously incorrect views; for performing hostile acts; or for being a member of a group which was considered sufficiently counter-productive to the socialist state to warrant intervention.", "As such, writers, artists, youth sub-cultures, and members of the church were often targeted.", "If after preliminary research the Stasi found an individual warranted action against them then they would open an 'operational case' in regard to them.", "There were two desirable outcomes for each case: that the person was either arrested, tried, and imprisoned for an ostensibly justified reason, or if this could not be achieved that they were debilitated through the application of Zersetzung (in German, \"decomposition\") methods.In the Honecker era, Zersetzung became the primary method of Stasi repression, due in large part to an ambition to avoid political fallout from wrongful arrest.", "The historian Mike Dennis states that \"Between 1985–1988, the Stasi conducted about 4,500 to 5,000 OVs (operational cases) per year.", "\"Zersetzung methods varied and were tailored depending on the individual being targeted.", "They are known to have included sending offensive mail to a person's house, the spreading of malicious rumours, banning them from traveling, sabotaging their career, breaking into their house and moving objects around etc.", "These acts frequently led to unemployment, social isolation, and poor mental health.", "Many people had various forms of mental or nervous breakdown.", "Similarly to physical imprisonment, Zersetzung methods had the effect of paralysing a person's ability to operate but with the advantage of the source being unknown or at least unprovable.", "There is ongoing debate as to whether weaponised directed energy devices, such as X-ray transmitters, were used in combination with the psychological warfare methods of Zersetzung.", "About 135,000 children were educated in special residential homes; the worst of them was Torgau penal institution (till 1975).", "The International Rehabilitation Council for Torture Victims considers that there are between 300,000 and 500,000 victims of direct physical torture, Zersetzung, and gross human rights violations due to the Stasi.", "Victims of historical Zersetzung can now draw a special pension from the German state." ], [ "Official and public holidays", " Date English name German name Remarks 1 January New Year's Day ''''   March–April Good Friday ''''   March–April Easter Sunday ''''   March–April Easter Monday '''' Was not an official holiday after 1967.1 May International Workers' Day/May Day '''' (name in FRG) The official name was '''' (approx.", "'International Day of the Struggle and Celebration of the Workers') 8 May Victory in Europe Day '''' The translation means \"Day of Liberation\" April–June Father's Day/Ascension Day '''' Thursday after the 5th Sunday after Easter.", "Was not an official holiday after 1967.May–June Whit Monday '''' 50 days after Easter Sunday 7 October Republic Day '''' National holiday November Day of Repentance and Prayer '''' Wednesday before Totensonntag.", "Originally a Protestant feast day, it was demoted as an official holiday in 1967.25 December First Day of Christmas ''''   26 December Second Day of Christmas ''''" ], [ "Legacy", "=== Decrepit infrastructure ===Almost all East German highways, railroads, sewage systems and public buildings were in a state of disrepair at the time of reunification, as little was done to maintain infrastructure in the GDR's last decades.", "Unified German public spending has had to pour more than $2 trillion into the former East Germany, to make up for the region's neglect and malaise and bring it up to a minimal standard.The Greifswald Nuclear Power Plant narrowly avoided a Chernobyl-scale meltdown in 1976.All East German nuclear power plants had to be shut down after reunification, because they did not meet Western safety standards.=== Authoritarianism ===German historian Jürgen Kocka in 2010 summarized the consensus of most recent scholarship:=== Ostalgie ===2017 federal electionMany East Germans initially regarded the dissolution of the GDR positively, but this reaction partly turned sour.", "West Germans often acted as if they had \"won\" and East Germans had \"lost\" in unification, leading many East Germans (''Ossis'') to resent West Germans (''Wessis'').", "In 2004, Deborah Ascher Barnstone wrote, \"East Germans resent the wealth possessed by West Germans; West Germans see the East Germans as lazy opportunists who want something for nothing.", "East Germans find 'Wessis' arrogant and pushy, West Germans think the 'Ossis' are lazy good-for-nothings.", "\"In addition, many East German women found the West more appealing, and left the region never to return, leaving behind an underclass of poorly educated and jobless men.For the people who stayed in East Germany, a majority of them (57%) defend the GDR, with 49% of those polled saying that \"The GDR had more good sides than bad sides.", "There were some problems, but life was good there\", while 8% oppose all criticism of East Germany and say that \"Life there was happier and better than in reunified Germany today\".As of 2014, the vast majority of residents in the former GDR prefer to live in a unified Germany.", "However, a feeling of nostalgia persists among some, termed \"Ostalgie\" (a blend of \"east\" and \"nostalgia\").", "This was depicted in the Wolfgang Becker film ''Goodbye Lenin!''.", "According to Klaus Schroeder, a historian and political scientist at the Free University of Berlin, some of the original residents of the GDR \"still feel they don't belong or that they're strangers in unified Germany\" as life in the GDR was \"just more manageable\".", "He warns German society should watch out in case Ostalgie results in a distortion and romanticization of the past.=== Electoral consequences ===The divide between the East and the West can be seen in contemporary German elections.", "The left-wing populist Die Linke party (which has roots in the SED) continues to have a stronghold and occasionally wins a plurality in the East, such as in the German State of Thuringia where it remains one of the major party.", "The region also sees disproportionate support for the Alternative for Germany, a right-wing populist party, particularly in the state of Saxony.", "This is in stark distinction from the West where the more centrist parties such as the CDU/CSU, SPD, The Greens, and the FDP dominate.=== Religion ===As of 2009, more Germans are non-believers in Eastern Germany than Western Germany.", "Eastern Germany is perhaps the least religious region in the world.", "An explanation for this, popular in other regions, is the aggressive state atheist policies of the German Democratic Republic's Socialist Unity Party of Germany.", "However, the enforcement of atheism existed only for the first few years.", "After that, the state allowed churches to have a relatively high level of autonomy.", "Atheism is embraced by Germans of all ages, though irreligion is particularly common among younger Germans." ], [ "See also", "*History of Germany (1945–1990)*Leadership of East Germany*Inner German relations" ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Sources ===* * *" ], [ "Further reading", "=== General ===* * * * * * online review* * * * * * * * * * ** * * * * * * online review* * * * excerpt and text search* * * * * * * * * online review* * online review=== Historiography and memory ===* * excerpt* * * * * * * Argues the history of East Germany is taught in 21st-century German schools, but not its literature." ], [ "External links", "* Border Museum at Schifflersgrund* DDR Museum BerlinCulture of GDR* AHFNationale Volksarmee : NVA* * East German Propaganda, Calvin University* \" Scenes from Behind the Wall: Images of East Germany 1989/90\" Exhibit Collection C0235, Special Collections Research Center, George Mason University Libraries.", "* Geschichte des ostdeutschen Designshistory of east German design * * Pictures of the GDR 1949–1973* RFE/RL East German Subject Files, Blinken Open Society Archives, Budapest* * East German anthem with English and German lyrics* Map – Europe 1949: NATO and the Two Germanys (omniatlas.com)* Mauerkarte – Detailed interactive map of the border between East and West Germany" ] ]
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[ [ "Granville, New South Wales" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Granville''' is a suburb in Western Sydney, in the state of New South Wales, Australia.", "Granville is located west of the Sydney central business district, split between the local government areas of Cumberland City Council and the City of Parramatta.South Granville is a separate suburb.", "Lisgar, Redfern, Heath and Mona Streets form the approximate border between Granville and South Granville.", "The Duck River provides a boundary with Auburn, to the east." ], [ "History", "In 1855, the Granville area was known as Parramatta Junction, named after the final stop of the first railway line of New South Wales.", "The Sydney-Parramatta Line ran from Sydney terminus, just south from today's Central railway station to the Granville area which was originally known as 'Parramatta Junction'.", "This led to the development of this area, which attracted speculators and some local industries.In the early days of European settlement, timber was harvested to fuel the steam engines in Sydney and Parramatta.", "By the 1860s, the supply of timber was exhausted.", "The remainder was used by scavengers who made a living by collecting firewood.", "Wattle bark found use with tanners and the bark from stringybark trees was used for roofing of huts.", "In 1862, a major estate, ''Drainville'', became subject to a mortgagee sale and subdivided for villa homes, and small agricultures.", "At the end of the decade a Tweed Mill was established, which was steam powered using water from the Duck River.", "In 1878, the locality received its own post office, which was then part of the stationmasters house.The name 'Parramatta Junction' remained until 1880, when two public meeting voted that the name be changed.", "Some very strange names were suggested including ''Drainwell'', ''Vauxhall'', ''Nobbsville'', and ''Swagsville'', but finally the name of Granville in honour of the British Foreign Secretary, the Granville Leveson-Gower, 2nd Earl Granville.", "Even then the voice of protest was raised declaring the name was \"too French\", but the dissenter was ignored.At this time, the place had a population of 372, of which 176 were male and 196 female.", "In this era some German settlers, Joseph Klein and P W Merkell, tried to establish vineyards in the area, but eventually found the land was not suited for this type of agriculture.", "More farmers discovered the limitations of the local soils and fruit growers complained about the damage from flying foxes.", "Thus, the only practical use for the grasslands, which replaced the original bushland, was for dairy cattle.The Granville Municipality was formed in 1885 and the council carried on the local government of the area until 1948, when it became part of an enlarged City of Parramatta.On Anzac Day of 1974, Granville was partially severed by flooding of the Duck Creek stormwater channel due to torrential rain that fell over the area.", "135 millimetres of rain fell between 11.30 pm and 12.30 pm at Guildford, with the ensuing flood doing major damage through Granville.", "The nearby RSL was damaged and many of the club's old photographs and honour boards were destroyed.Granville is also the location of the Granville railway disaster, which occurred on 18 January 1977 when a commuter train derailed just before the Bold Street overpass and hit the stanchion, causing the bridge to collapse.", "83 people perished, making it the worst rail disaster in Australian history." ], [ "Heritage listings", "Granville has a number of heritage-listed sites, including:* 10 Carlton Street: Granville Town Hall* 157 Blaxcell Street: Crest Theatre" ], [ "Buildings and places of interest", "St. Aphanasius Ukrainian Autocephalic Orthodox churchGranville has a mixture of residential, commercial and industrial developments.", "The commercial and residential developments are mostly around Granville railway station and Parramatta Road.", "Granville is primarily dominated by freestanding weatherboard, fibro and unrendered brick buildings.", "The area is no longer exactly \"typical\" quarter acre block territory, but blocks are reasonably common.", "Terraced houses are rare, but increasing in number.", "Apartment blocks, generally three to four storeys in height, are also becoming more common in the vicinity of the railway station.Buildings that deserve some attention are:* ''Granville Town Hall'', which was built in 1888* ''The Royal Hotel'' corresponds with the architecture of the Town Hall about 200 m away* The ''Brianna's function centre'' building just north of the railway station on Good Street* ''St.", "Marks Anglican Church'' dates back to 1882* ''St.", "Aphanasius Church'', a Ukrainian Autocephalic Orthodox with onion domes, adds some interest to William Street.", "It dates back to 1956.", "* The ''White Palace'' in South Street has an exterior with Art Deco features.", "The building was gutted and redeveloped in 2007.", "* The intersecting circles of ''Granville RSL'' Sub-Branch Building serves as an interesting example of modern architecture.", "It was designed by Frank Fox & Associates.=== Crest Theatre ===The \"Crest\" Theatre, originally a movie theatre.The ''Crest'' building on the corner of Blaxcell and Redfern Streets, was built by Hoyts in 1948 as a movie theatre and was used for screening films up until 1963.The structure of the building is of a Quonset hut design, while the facade and interior is of a post-Art Deco and post-Moderne eclectic style, influenced by the \"Picture Palace\" architecture popularly used for movie theatres.", "It is now used as a function hall.The Crest Theatre is now listed in the NSW State Heritage Register as being of \"State significance\", being one of the few cinemas built in Australia in the 1940s.", "Externally and internally the building remains largely intact, though the signage on the external decorative pier now reads \"B-L-O-U-Z-A\", rather than the original \"H-O-Y-T-S\" (later it was \"B-I-N-G-O\")." ], [ "Transport", "===Trains===Granville railway station is a major station on the T1 Northern and Western Lines and T2 Inner West & Leppington Line of the Sydney Trains network, served by services on those lines.", "The station is wheelchair accessible.", "Granville railway station is located on the Main Suburban line.", "Granville's bus interchange, as well as a car park, are located adjacent to its train station.", "Bike racks and lockers are located nearby.", "Taxi ranks can be found just south of the train station.===Bus===Granville is serviced by Transdev NSW and features a newly built bus interchange.", "Transdev NSW operates three bus routes via Granville railway station:*906: Parramatta station to Fairfield station*M91: Parramatta station to Hurstville*S2: to SeftonGranville station is served by one NightRide (Night Bus) route:*N60: Fairfield station to Town Hall station===Road===Parramatta Road has always been an important thoroughfare for Sydney from its earliest days.", "From Parramatta the major western road for the state is the Great Western Highway.The M4 Western Motorway, running parallel to the Great Western Highway has taken much of the traffic away from these roads, with entrance and exit ramps close to Parramatta." ], [ "Education", "Granville has a major college of Technical and Further Education, which is part of the South Western Sydney Institute of TAFE.", "Schools include Granville Boys High School which was founded in 1926, Delany College, Granville Public School, Granville East Public School, Blaxcell Street Public School and Holy Family Catholic School.", "The suburb is also home to a Cumberland Council branch library." ], [ "Culture", "=== Entertainment ===The Granville RSL Club at sunsetThe suburb boasts four pubs.", "The Royal Hotel and the Granville Hotel are located south and north of the railway line respectively.", "The Rosehill Hotel is located on the northern side of Parramatta Road and the Vauxhall Inn is on the same street on the western edge of Granville on the corner of Woodville Road.", "Granville is also home to a sub-branch club of the RSL, known as Granville Diggers.", "Attractions include live music, bingo, karaoke etc.=== Sport ===Granville has an Olympic size pool and a football facility.", "Historic Garside Park is home to State Super League and Super Youth League club, Granville Rage.Sydney Speedway is a dirt track speedway which opened in 1977 at the old Granville Showground as the Parramatta Speedway.", "The clay surface caters mainly to Sprintcars and has been home to some of Australia's greatest drivers including ten times Australian Sprintcar Champion Garry Rush, and multiple title holders George Tatnell, his son Brooke Tatnell, and Max Dumesny.", "The speedway is also the only venue not in North or Central America to host a round of the famous World of Outlaws sprintcar series.Granville Magpies Soccer Club entered the Sydney competition in the early 1880s and has continued to compete with distinction until the early 2000s.", "The club originally played matches at a paddock behind Hudson Brothers' Works in Clyde before relocating to Macarthur Park, known nowadays as F.S.", "Garside Park." ], [ "Demographics", "=== 2011 Census ===At the 2011 census, there were 13,989 residents in Granville.", "More than half of people were born outside of Australia, with the top countries of birth being India, China and Lebanon.", "Three-quarters of people spoke a language other than English at home.", "The most common other languages spoken at home were Arabic 18.1%, Cantonese 5.5%, Mandarin 4.8%, Turkish 2.3% and Tongan 2.0%.", "The housing in Granville was evenly spread between detached houses and higher density units or apartments.", "46.3% of residents were renting their home and this was higher than the national average of 29.6%.=== 2016 Census ===Data from the 2016 census shows that the population of Granville was 15,332.Of this population:* 52.6% are male, with 47.4% being female.", "* 66.3% of people were born outside Australia, with the top countries of birth being India (10.4%), China (7.6%), Nepal (5.9%), Lebanon (5.1%) and the Philippines (3.4%).", "* 21.9% of people spoke only English at home.", "Other languages spoken at home included Arabic 14.9%, Nepali 6.6%, Mandarin 6.1%, Cantonese 5.1% and Hindi 3.9%.", "* For religious affiliation, the top responses were Catholic (21.1%), Islam (19.7%), Hinduism (15.6) and No Religion (14.1%)." ], [ "Notable residents", "* John Devitt (1937-2023), Olympic gold medallist and manager of the Australian Commonwealth Games team grew up in Granville* Jack Ferguson (1924–2002), Former deputy premier of New South Wales* Mark Geyer (born 1967), rugby league player, born in Granville* Paul Hogan (born 1940), actor, grew up in Granville* Hillal Kara-Ali (born 1990), winner of the sixth season of the Australian version of ''The Mole''* Bernie McGann (1937–2013), Saxophonist who was born in Granville* Judy Stone (born 1942), Australian pop singer, was born and raised in Granville* Robert Taylor (born 1957), General manager of Melbourne's National Theatre, was raised in Granville attending both Granville Primary School and Granville Boys' High School* Roland Stuart Andrews (1897–1961), Industrial Chemist and Administrator" ], [ "See also", "* Electoral district of Granville* South Granville, New South Wales* Granville railway station* Granville railway disaster" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Council of the City of Parramatta* Granville Historical Society* CC-By-SA" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Georg Philipp Telemann" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Georg Philipp Telemann''' (; – 25 June 1767) was a German Baroque composer and multi-instrumentalist.", "He is one of the most prolific composers in history, at least in terms of surviving oeuvre.", "Telemann was considered by his contemporaries to be one of the leading German composers of the time, and he was compared favourably both to his friend Johann Sebastian Bach, who made Telemann the godfather and namesake of his son Carl Philipp Emanuel, and to George Frideric Handel, whom Telemann also knew personally.", "Almost completely self-taught in music, he became a composer against his family's wishes.", "After studying in Magdeburg, Zellerfeld, and Hildesheim, Telemann entered the University of Leipzig to study law, but eventually settled on a career in music.", "He held important positions in Leipzig, Sorau, Eisenach, and Frankfurt before settling in Hamburg in 1721, where he became musical director of that city's five main churches.", "While Telemann's career prospered, his personal life was always troubled: his first wife died less than two years after their marriage, and his second wife had extramarital affairs and accumulated a large gambling debt before leaving him.", "As part of his duties, he wrote a considerable amount of music for educating organists under his direction.", "This includes 48 chorale preludes and 20 small fugues (modal fugues) to accompany his chorale harmonisations for 500 hymns.", "His music incorporates French, Italian, and German national styles, and he was at times even influenced by Polish popular music.", "He remained at the forefront of all new musical tendencies, and his music stands as an important link between the late Baroque and early Classical styles.", "The Telemann Museum in Hamburg is dedicated to him." ], [ "Life", "===Early life (1681–1712)===sacked and had to be rebuilt.Telemann was born in Magdeburg, then the capital of the semi-autonomous Duchy of Magdeburg within the Electorate of Brandenburg, in the Holy Roman Empire.", "His father Heinrich, deacon at the , died when Telemann was four.", "The future composer received his first music lessons at 10, from a local organist, and became immensely interested in music in general, and composition in particular.", "Despite opposition from his mother and relatives, who forbade any musical activities, Telemann found it possible to study and composed in secret, even creating an opera at the age of 12.In 1697, after studies at the Domschule in Magdeburg and at a school in Zellerfeld, Telemann was sent to the famous Gymnasium Andreanum at Hildesheim, where his musical talent flourished, supported by school authorities, including the rector himself.", "Telemann was becoming equally adept both at composing and performing, teaching himself flute, oboe, violin, viola da gamba, recorder, double bass, and other instruments.", "In 1701 he graduated from the Gymnasium and went to Leipzig to become a student at the Leipzig University, where he intended to study law.", "He ended up becoming a professional musician, regularly composing works for Nikolaikirche and even St. Thomas (Thomaskirche).", "In 1702 he became director of the municipal opera house ''Opernhaus auf dem Brühl'', and later music director at the Neukirche.", "Prodigiously productive, Telemann supplied a wealth of new music for Leipzig, including several operas, one of which was his first major opera, ''Germanicus''.", "However, he became engaged in a conflict with the cantor of the Thomaskirche, Johann Kuhnau.", "The conflict intensified when Telemann started employing numerous students for his projects, including those who were Kuhnau's, from the Thomasschule.Telemann left Leipzig in 1705 at the age of 24, after receiving an invitation to become ''Kapellmeister'' for the court of Count Erdmann II of Promnitz at Sorau (now Żary, Poland).", "His career there was cut short in early 1706 by the hostilities of the Great Northern War, and after a short period of travels he entered the service of Duke Johann Wilhelm, in Eisenach where Johann Sebastian Bach was born.", "He became ''Konzertmeister'' on 24 December 1708 and Secretary and ''Kapellmeister'' in August 1709.During his tenure at Eisenach, Telemann wrote a great deal of music: at least four annual cycles of church cantatas, dozens of sonatas and concertos, and other works.", "In 1709, he married Amalie Louise Juliane Eberlin, lady-in-waiting to the Countess of Promnitz and daughter of the musician Daniel Eberlin.", "Their daughter was born in January 1711.The mother died soon afterwards, leaving Telemann depressed and distraught.===Frankfurt (1712–1721)===After less than a year he sought another position, and moved to Frankfurt on 18 March 1712 at the age of 31 to become city music director and ''Kapellmeister'' at the Barfüßerkirche and St. Catherine's Church.", "In Frankfurt, he fully gained his mature personal style.", "Here, as in Leipzig, he was a powerful force in the city's musical life, creating music for two major churches, civic ceremonies, and various ensembles and musicians.", "By 1720 he had adopted the use of the da capo aria, which had been adopted by composers such as Alessandro Scarlatti.", "Operas such as ''Narciso'', which was brought to Frankfurt in 1719, written in the Italian idiom of composition, made a mark on Telemann's output.On 28 August 1714, three years after his first wife had died, Telemann married again, Maria Catharina Textor, daughter of a Frankfurt council clerk.", "They eventually had nine children.", "This was a source of much personal happiness, and helped him produce compositions.", "Telemann continued to be extraordinarily productive and successful, even augmenting his income by working for Eisenach employers as a ''Kapellmeister'' ''von Haus aus'', that is, regularly sending new music while not actually living in Eisenach.", "Telemann's first published works also appeared during the Frankfurt period.", "His output increased rapidly, for he fervently composed overture-suites and chamber music, most of which is unappreciated.", "These works included his 6 Sonatas for solo violin, known as the ''Frankfurt Sonatas'', published in 1715.In the latter half of the Frankfurt period, he composed an innovative work, his Viola Concerto in G major, which is twice the length of his violin concertos.", "Also, here he composed his first choral masterpiece, his ''Brockes Passion'', in 1716.===Hamburg (1721–1767)===Telemann accepted the invitation to work in Hamburg as ''Kantor'' of the Johanneum Lateinschule, and music director of the five largest churches in 1721.Soon after arrival, Telemann encountered some opposition from church officials who found his secular music and activities to be too much of a distraction for both Telemann himself and the townsfolk.", "The next year, when Johann Kuhnau died and the city of Leipzig was looking for a new ''Thomaskantor'', Telemann applied for the job and was approved, yet declined after Hamburg authorities agreed to give him a suitable raise.", "After another candidate, Christoph Graupner, declined, the post went to Johann Sebastian Bach.Telemann , engraving by Georg LichtenstegerTelemann took a few small trips outside of Germany at this time.", "However, later in the Hamburg period he travelled to Paris and stayed for eight months, 1737 into 1738.He heard and was impressed by ''Castor et Pollux'', an opera by French composer Jean-Philippe Rameau.", "From then on, he incorporated the French operatic style into his vocal works.", "Before then, his influence was primarily Italian and German.", "Apart from that, Telemann remained in Hamburg for the rest of his life.", "A vocal masterpiece of this period is his ''St Luke Passion'' from 1728, which is a prime example of his fully matured vocal style.His first years there were plagued by marital troubles: his wife's infidelity, and her gambling debts, which amounted to a sum larger than Telemann's annual income.", "The composer was saved from bankruptcy by the efforts of his friends, and by the numerous successful music and poetry publications Telemann made during the years 1725 to 1740.By 1736 husband and wife were no longer living together because of their financial disagreements.", "Although still active and fulfilling the many duties of his job, Telemann became less productive in the 1740s, when he was in his 60s.", "He took up theoretical studies, as well as hobbies such as gardening and cultivating exotic plants, something of a fad in Hamburg at that time, and a hobby shared by Handel.Most of the music of the 1750s appears to have been parodied from earlier works.", "Telemann's eldest son Andreas died in 1755, and Andreas' son Georg Michael Telemann was raised by the aging composer.", "Troubled by health problems and failing eyesight in his last years, Telemann was still composing into the 1760s.", "He died on the evening of 25 June 1767 from what was recorded at the time as a \"chest ailment.\"", "He was succeeded at his Hamburg post by his godson, Johann Sebastian Bach's second son Carl Philipp Emmanuel Bach." ], [ "Legacy and influence", "Telemann was one of the most prolific major composers of all time: his all-encompassing oeuvre comprises more than 3,000 compositions, half of which have been lost, and most of which have not been performed since the 18th century.", "From 1708 to 1750, Telemann composed 1,043 sacred cantatas and 600 overture-suites, and types of concertos for combinations of instruments that no other composer of the time employed.", "The first accurate estimate of the number of his works was provided by musicologists only during the 1980s and 1990s, when extensive thematic catalogues were published.", "During his lifetime and the latter half of the 18th century, Telemann was very highly regarded by colleagues and critics alike.", "Numerous theorists (Marpurg, Mattheson, Quantz, and Scheibe, among others) cited his works as models, and major composers such as J.S.", "Bach and Handel bought and studied his published works.", "He was immensely popular not only in Germany but also in the rest of Europe: orders for editions of Telemann's music came from France, Italy, the Netherlands, Belgium, Scandinavian countries, Switzerland, and Spain.", "It was only in the early 19th century that his popularity came to a sudden halt.", "Most lexicographers started dismissing him as a \"polygraph\" who composed too many works, a ''Vielschreiber'' for whom quantity came before quality.", "Such views were influenced by an account of Telemann's music by Christoph Daniel Ebeling, a late-18th-century critic who in fact praised Telemann's music and made only passing critical remarks of his productivity.", "After the Bach revival, Telemann's works were judged as inferior to Bach's and lacking in deep religious feeling.", "For example, by 1911, the ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' lacked an article about Telemann, and in one of its few mentions of him referred to \"the vastly inferior work of lesser composers such as Telemann\" in comparison to Handel and Bach.Particularly striking examples of such judgements were produced by noted Bach biographers Philipp Spitta and Albert Schweitzer, who criticized Telemann's cantatas and then praised works they thought were composed by Bach, but which were composed by Telemann.", "The last performance of a substantial work by Telemann (''Der Tod Jesu'') occurred in 1832, and it was not until the 20th century that his music started being performed again.", "The revival of interest in Telemann began in the first decades of the 20th century and culminated in the Bärenreiter critical edition of the 1950s.", "Today each of Telemann's works is usually given a TWV number, which stands for ''Telemann-Werke-Verzeichnis'' (Telemann Works Catalogue).Telemann's music was one of the driving forces behind the late Baroque and the early Classical styles.", "Starting in the 1710s he became one of the creators and foremost exponents of the so-called German mixed style, an amalgam of German, French, Italian and Polish styles.", "Over the years, his music gradually changed and started incorporating more and more elements of the galant style, but he never completely adopted the ideals of the nascent Classical era: Telemann's style remained contrapuntally and harmonically complex, and already in 1751 he dismissed much contemporary music as too simplistic.", "Composers he influenced musically included pupils of J.S.", "Bach in Leipzig, such as Wilhelm Friedemann Bach, Carl Philipp Emmanuel Bach and Johann Friedrich Agricola, as well as those composers who performed under his direction in Leipzig (Christoph Graupner, Johann David Heinichen and Johann Georg Pisendel), composers of the Berlin ''lieder'' school, and finally, his numerous pupils, none of whom, however, became major composers.Equally significant for the history of music were Telemann's publishing activities.", "By pursuing exclusive publication rights for his works, he set one of the most important early precedents for regarding music as the intellectual property of the composer.", "The same attitude informed his public concerts, where Telemann frequently performed music originally composed for ceremonies attended only by a select few members of the upper class." ], [ "Partial list of works", "===Operas======Passions===* ''Georg Philipp Telemann's Passions''===Cantatas===* ''Cantata Cycle 1716–1717''* ''Harmonischer Gottes-Dienst''* ''Die Donner-Ode'' (\"The Ode of Thunder\") TWV 6:3a-b* ''Du bleibest dennoch unser Gott'' (Erstausgabe 1730)* ''Ihr Völker, hört''* ''Ino'' (1765)* ''Sei tausendmal willkommen'' (Erstausgabe 1730)* ''Die Tageszeiten'' (\"The Times of the Day\") (1757)* ''Gott, man lobet dich in der Stille'', Cantata for the Peace of Paris, 1763, for 5-part chorus, flute, 2 oboes, bassoon, 3 trumpets, 2 horns, strings & continuo, TWV 14:12** not by Telemann: ''Der Schulmeister'' (\"The Schoolmaster\" 1751), by Christoph Ludwig Fehre.===Oratorios===* ''Hamburger Admiralitätsmusik'' several years including TWV 24:1* ''Der Tag des Gerichts'' (''The Day of Judgement'') (1761–62)* ''Hamburgische Kapitänsmusik'' (various years)* ''Der Tod Jesu'' (''The Death of Jesus'') TWV 5:6 (1755)* ''Die Auferstehung und Himmelfahrt Jesu\"'' (''The Resurrection and Ascension of Jesus'') TWV 6:6, (1760)* Trauermusik for Emperor Karl VII (1745) ''Ich hoffete aufs Licht'', TWV 4:13* Trauermusik for Hamburg mayor Schwanengesang TWV 4:6* ''Der aus der Löwengrube errettete Daniel'' (\"Daniel Delivered from the Lion's Den\") (1731) This has been incorrectly attributed to Handel* Reformations-Oratorium 1755 ''Holder Friede, Heilger Glaube'' TWV 13:18===Orchestral suites===* ''Grillen-symphonie'' TWV 50:1* Ouverture (''Wassermusik: Hamburger Ebb und Fluth'') TWV 55:C3* ''Ouverture des nations anciens et modernes'' in G TWV 55:G4* Ouverture in G minor TWV 55:g4* Suite in A minor for recorder, strings, and continuo TWV 55:a2* ''Overture: Alster Echo in F, for 4 horns, 2 oboes, bassoon, strings and continuo,'' TWV55:F11===Chamber music===* ''Sinfonia Spirituosa'' in D major (2 violins, viola & continuo, trumpet ad libitum) TWV 44:1* ''Tafelmusik'' (1733) ('Tafelmusik' refers to music meant to accompany a meal)* ''Der getreue Musikmeister'' (1728), a musical journal containing 70 small vocal and instrumental compositions* Twelve Paris quartets in two sets of six (''Quadri a violino, flauto traversiere, viola da gamba o violoncello, e fondamento'', 1730, reprinted as ''Six quatuors'', 1736; ''Nouveaux quatuors en six suites'', 1738) for flute, violin, viola da gamba or cello, continuo, TWV 43:G1, D1, A1, g1, e1, h1 (first set), TWV 43:D3, a2, G4, h2, A3, e4 (second set)* Twelve Fantasias for Transverse Flute without Bass TWV 40:2–13* Twelve Fantasias for Violin without Bass TWV 40:14–25* Twelve Fantasias for Viola da Gamba solo TWV 40:26–37* Sonates sans basse (Telemann) TWV 40:101–106* ''Six Canonical Sonatas'' TWV 40: 118–123* Six Concertos for Flute and Harpsichord TWV 42.=== Keyboard ===* 36 Fantasias for Keyboard TWV 33:1–36* 6 Overtures for Keyboard TWV 32:5–10* 6 Light Fugues with Small Fresh Additions TWV 30:21–26=== Organ and theoretical ===* 48 Chorale Preludes for Organ TWV 31:1–48* 20 Easy Fugues in 4 parts TWV 30:1–20* 500 chorale harmonizations===Concertos=======Violin====* Violin Concerto in A major \"Die Relinge\" TWV 51:A4* Concerto for Three Violins in F major, TWV 53:F1 (from ''Tafelmusik'', part II)* Four Concertos for Four Violins TWV 40:201–204====Viola====* Concerto in G major for Viola and String Orchestra, TWV 51:G9; the first known concerto for viola, still regularly performed today* Concerto in G major for Two Violas and String Orchestra, TWV 52:G3====Horn====* Concerto for Two Horns in D major TWV 52:D1* Concerto for Two Horns in D major TWV 52:D2* Concerto for Horn and Orchestra in D major TWV 51:D8* Concerto for Two Horns in F Major TWV 52:F3* Concerto for Two Horns in F Major TWV 52:F4* Concerto for Two Horns in Eb Major TWV 52:Es1* Concerto for Two Horns in E-flat and 2 Violins, TWV 54:Es1* Concerto for Three Horns in D and Violin, TWV 54:D2====Trumpet====* Trumpet Concerto in D major, TWV 51:D7* Concerto in D for Trumpet and 2 Oboes, TWV 53:D2* Concerto in D for Trumpet, Violin and Violoncello, TWV 53:D5* Concerto in D for 3 Trumpets, Timpani, 2 Oboes, TWV 54:D3* Concerto in D for 3 Trumpets, Timpani, TWV 54:D4====Chalumeau====* Concerto in C major for 2 Chalumeaux, 2 Bassoons and Orchestra, TWV 52:C1* Concerto in D minor for Two Chalumeaux and Orchestra, TWV 52:d1====Oboe====* Concerto in A major* Concerto in C minor, TWV 51:c1* Concerto in D minor* Concerto in E minor* Concerto in F minor* Concerto in G major====Bassoon====* Concerto for Recorder and Bassoon in F major, TWV 52:F1====Recorder====* Concerto in C major, TWV 51:C1* Concerto in F major, TWV 51:F1* Concerto for Recorder and Viola da gamba in A minor, TWV 52:a1* Concerto for 2 Recorders in A minor, TWV 52:a2* Concerto for 2 Recorders in B-flat major, TWV 52:B1====Flute====* Concerto in D major, TWV 51:D2* Concerto in E minor for Recorder and Flute, TWV 52:e1* Concerto in B minor, TWV 41:h3* Concerto in C minor, TWV 41:c3=== Sonatas ===Sonata da chiesa, TWV 41:g5 (for Melodic instrument – Violin, Flute or Oboe, from ''Der getreue Musikmeister'')==== Oboe ====* Sonata in A minor TWV 41:a3 (from ''Der getreue Musikmeister'')* Sonata in B-flat TWV 41:B6* Sonata in E minor TWV 44:e6* Sonata in G minor TWV 41:g6* Sonata in G minor TWV 41:g10==== Bassoon ====* Sonata in F minor TWV 41:f1 (part of the collection ''Der getreue Musikmeister'', 1728)* Sonata in E-flat major TWV 41:EsA1" ], [ "Media" ], [ "References", "'''Notes'''" ], [ "External links", "'''Further information on Telemann and his works'''* Georg Philipp Telemann (Composer) Bach Cantatas Website* Georg Philipp Telemann at * Partial list of Telemann publications and TWV numbers, Robert Poliquin, Université du Québec (archive from 13 August 2013.Retrieved 25 May 2015).", "(French)* Telemann as opera composer from 1708–61, OperaGlass, Stanford University.", "'''Modern editions'''* ''Prima la musica!''", "Commercially available performing editions of Telemann's music, as well as other baroque composers.", "* Habsburger Verlag Modern performing editions of Telemann's cantatas edited by Eric Fiedler.", "* Edition Musiklandschaften Modern performing editions of Telemann's yearly Passions from 1757 to 1767 edited by Johannes Pausch'''Free sheet music'''* * * Free scores, Cantatas, Archiv der kreuznacher-diakonie-kantorei.", "* at *" ] ]
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[ [ "Granville rail disaster" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Granville rail disaster''' occurred on Tuesday 18 January 1977 at Granville, a western suburb of Sydney, New South Wales, Australia, when a crowded commuter train derailed, running into the supports of a road bridge that collapsed onto two of the train's passenger carriages.", "The official inquiry found the primary cause of the crash to be poor fastening of the track.It remains the worst rail disaster in Australian history; 83 people died and 213 were injured.", "An 84th victim, an unborn child, was added to the fatality list in 2017." ], [ "Disaster", "The train involved in the disaster consisted of eight passenger carriages hauled by 46 class electric locomotive 4620, and had commenced its journey towards Sydney from Mount Victoria in the Blue Mountains at 6:09 a.m. At approximately 8:10 a.m. it was approaching Granville railway station when the locomotive derailed and struck one of the steel-and-concrete pillars supporting the bridge carrying Bold Street over the railway cutting.The derailed engine and first two carriages passed the bridge.", "The first carriage, which broke free from the other carriages, was torn open when it collided with a severed mast beside the track, killing eight passengers.", "The remaining carriages came to a halt with the second carriage clear of the bridge.", "The rear half of the third carriage, and forward half of the fourth carriage, came to rest under the weakened bridge, whose weight was estimated at .", "Within seconds, with all its supports demolished, the bridge and several motor cars on top of it collapsed on top of the carriages, crushing them and the passengers inside.", "Memorial plaque commemorating the disaster at Granville stationOf the total number of passengers travelling in the third and fourth carriages, half were killed instantly when the bridge fell on them, crushing them in their seats.", "Several injured passengers were trapped in the train for hours after the accident, with part of the bridge crushing a limb or torso.", "Some had been conscious and lucid, talking to rescuers, but died of crush syndrome soon after the weight was removed from their bodies.", "This resulted in changes to rescue procedures for these kinds of accidents.", "Rescuers also faced greater difficulties as the weight of the bridge was still crushing the affected carriages, reducing the space in which they had to work to get survivors out, until it was declared that no one was allowed to attempt further entry until the bridge had been lifted.", "Soon after, the bridge settled a further onto the train, trapping two rescuers and crushing a portable generator \"like butter\".Another danger came from gas; LPG cylinders were kept year-round on board the train to be used in winter for heating.", "Several people were overcome by gas leaking from ruptured cylinders.", "The leaking gas also prevented the immediate use of powered rescue tools.", "The NSW Fire Brigade provided ventilation equipment to dispel the gas and a constant film of water was sprayed over the accident site to prevent the possibility of the gas igniting.The train driver, the assistant crewman, the \"second man\", and the motorists including one motorcyclist driving on the fallen bridge all survived.", "The operation lasted from 8:12 a.m. Tuesday until 6:00 a.m. Thursday.", "Ultimately, 84 people were killed in the accident, including an unborn child." ], [ "Aftermath", "The bridge was rebuilt as a single span without any intermediate support piers.", "Other bridges similar to the destroyed bridge had their piers reinforced.The replacement bridgeThe original inquiry into the accident found that the primary cause of the crash was \"the very unsatisfactory condition of the permanent way\", being the poor fastening of the track, causing the track to spread and allowing the left front wheel of the locomotive to come off the rail.", "Other contributing factors included the structure of the bridge itself.", "When built, the base of its deck was found to be one metre lower than the road.", "Concrete was added on top to build the surface up level with the road.", "This additional weight significantly added to the destruction of the wooden train carriages.", "The disaster prompted substantial increases in rail-maintenance expenditure.", "The train driver, Edward Olencewicz, was exonerated by the inquiry.On 4 May 2017, New South Wales Premier Gladys Berejiklian apologised to the victims of the disaster, in Parliament House.===Memorial===The Granville Train Disaster Memorial WallFamilies and friends of the victims and survivors gather with surviving members of the rescue crews annually.", "The ceremony ends with the throwing of 84 roses on to the tracks to mark the number of passengers killed.", "In 2007, a plaque was placed on the bridge to mark the efforts of railway workers who assisted in rescuing survivors from the train.The original group, known as 'the trust', made submissions on rail safety issues, including recommending that fines for safety breaches be dedicated to rail safety improvements, and campaigning for the establishment of an independent railway safety ombudsman." ], [ "Media", "* A television docudrama, ''The Day of the Roses'', was produced in 1998 about the accident.", "* ''The Granville Train Disaster: 35 Years of Memories'' – a 2011 book by B. J. Gobbe, an emergency worker who attended the incident.", "* A television documentary, ''The Train'', produced by Graham McNeice from Shadow Productions was aired in 2012 on The History Channel Australia about the accident, and narrated by Brian Henderson.", "* ''Revisiting the Granville Train Disaster of 1977'' – a 2017 book by B. J.", "Gobbe.", "* ABC's ''You Can't Ask That'', series 4 episode 8 (\"Disaster Survivors\"), featured a victim from the accident who spoke about what happened and the long-term impacts on her life." ], [ "See also", "* Lewisham rail crash (United Kingdom)* Eschede train disaster (Germany)* Railway accidents in New South Wales* Lists of rail accidents" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Danger Ahead!", "Granville, Sydney, Australia* Documentary on the Granville Train Disaster featuring Rescuer Gary Raymond & Survivor Paul Touzell(9 minute video)* * Granville Train Disaster Historians Web page" ] ]
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[ [ "George Gershwin" ], [ "Introduction", "'''George Gershwin''' (; born '''Jacob Gershwine'''; September 26, 1898 – July 11, 1937) was an American composer and pianist whose compositions spanned popular, jazz and classical genres.", "Among his best-known works are the orchestral compositions ''Rhapsody in Blue'' (1924) and ''An American in Paris'' (1928), the songs \"Swanee\" (1919) and \"Fascinating Rhythm\" (1924), the jazz standards \"Embraceable You\" (1928) and \"I Got Rhythm\" (1930), and the opera ''Porgy and Bess'' (1935), which included the hit \"Summertime\".Gershwin studied piano under Charles Hambitzer and composition with Rubin Goldmark, Henry Cowell, and Joseph Brody.", "He began his career as a song plugger but soon started composing Broadway theater works with his brother Ira Gershwin and with Buddy DeSylva.", "He moved to Paris, intending to study with Nadia Boulanger, but she refused him, afraid that rigorous classical study would ruin his jazz-influenced style; Maurice Ravel voiced similar objections when Gershwin inquired about studying with him.", "He subsequently composed ''An American in Paris'', returned to New York City and wrote ''Porgy and Bess'' with Ira and DuBose Heyward.", "Initially a commercial failure, it came to be considered one of the most important American operas of the twentieth century and an American cultural classic.Gershwin moved to Hollywood and composed numerous film scores.", "He died in 1937, only 38 years old, of a brain tumor.His compositions have been adapted for use in film and television, with many becoming jazz standards." ], [ "Biography", "===Ancestors===Gershwin was of Jewish ancestry.", "His grandfather, Jakov Gershowitz, was born in Odessa, Russian Empire (now Ukraine), and had served for 25 years as a mechanic for the Imperial Russian Army to earn the right of free travel and residence as a Jew, finally retiring near Saint Petersburg.", "His teenage son Moishe, George's father, worked as a leather cutter for women's shoes.", "His mother, Roza Bruskina, was born in St. Petersburg, Russia.Moishe met Roza in Vilnius, Lithuania, where her father worked as a furrier.", "She and her family moved to New York because of increasing anti-Jewish sentiment in Russia, changing her first name to Rose.", "Moishe, faced with compulsory military service if he remained in Russia, moved to America as soon as he could afford to.", "Once in New York, he changed his first name to Morris.", "Gershowitz lived with a maternal uncle in Brooklyn, working as a foreman in a women's shoe factory.", "He married Rose on July 21, 1895, and Gershowitz soon Anglicized his name to Gershwine.", "Their first child, Ira Gershwin, was born on December 6, 1896, after which the family moved into a second-floor apartment at 242 Snediker Avenue in the East New York neighborhood of Brooklyn.===Early life===George was born on September 26, 1898, in the Snediker Avenue apartment.", "His birth certificate identifies him as Jacob Gershwine, with the surname pronounced 'Gersh-vin' in the Russian and Yiddish immigrant community.", "He was named after his grandfather, and, contrary to the American practice, had no middle name.", "He soon became known as George, and changed the spelling of his surname to 'Gershwin' around the time he became a professional musician; other family members followed suit after Ira and George, another boy, Arthur Gershwin (1900–1981), and a girl, Frances Gershwin (1906–1999), were born into the family.The family lived in many different residences, as their father changed dwellings with each new enterprise in which he became involved.", "They grew up mostly in the Yiddish Theater District.", "George and Ira frequented the local Yiddish theaters, with George occasionally appearing onstage as an extra.George lived a boyhood not unusual in New York tenements, which included running around with his friends, roller-skating and misbehaving in the streets.", "Until 1908, he cared nothing about music.", "Then, as a ten-year-old, he was intrigued upon hearing his friend Maxie Rosenzweig's violin recital.", "The sound, and the way his friend played, captivated him.", "At about the same time, George's parents had bought a piano for his older brother Ira.", "To his parents' surprise, though, and to Ira's relief, it was George who spent more time playing it as he continued to enjoy it.Although his younger sister Frances Gershwin was the first in the family to make a living through her musical talents, she married young and devoted herself to being a mother and housewife, thus precluding spending any serious time on musical endeavors.", "Having given up her performing career, she settled upon painting as a creative outlet, which had also been a hobby George briefly pursued.", "Arthur Gershwin followed in the paths of George and Ira, also becoming a composer of songs, musicals, and short piano pieces.", "George studied with various piano teachers for about two years (circa 1911) before finally being introduced to Charles Hambitzer by Jack Miller (circa 1913), the pianist in the Beethoven Symphony Orchestra.", "Until his death in 1918, Hambitzer remained Gershwin's musical mentor, taught him conventional piano technique, introduced him to music of the European classical tradition, and encouraged him to attend orchestral concerts.===Tin Pan Alley and Broadway: 1913–1923===In 1913, Gershwin left school at the age of 15 to work as a \"song plugger\" on New York City's Tin Pan Alley.", "He earned $15 a week from Jerome H. Remick and Company, a Detroit-based publishing firm with a branch office in New York.His first published song was \"When You Want 'Em, You Can't Get 'Em, When You've Got 'Em, You Don't Want 'Em\" in 1916.It earned the 17-year-old 50 cents.In 1916, Gershwin started working for Aeolian Company and Standard Music Rolls in New York, recording and arranging.", "He produced dozens, if not hundreds, of rolls under his own and assumed names (pseudonyms attributed to Gershwin include Fred Murtha and Bert Wynn).", "He also recorded rolls of his own compositions for the Duo-Art and Welte-Mignon reproducing pianos.", "As well as recording piano rolls, Gershwin made a brief foray into vaudeville, accompanying both Nora Bayes and Louise Dresser on the piano.", "His 1917 novelty ragtime, \"Rialto Ripples\", was a commercial success.", "In addition to his musical activities, he took over the management of the popular and famous gay bathhouse Lafayette Baths together with his brother Ira.In 1919 he scored his first big national hit with his song \"Swanee\", with words by Irving Caesar.", "Al Jolson, a Broadway star and former minstrel singer, heard Gershwin perform \"Swanee\" at a party and decided to sing it in one of his shows.In the late 1910s, Gershwin met songwriter and music director William Daly.", "The two collaborated on the Broadway musicals ''Piccadilly to Broadway'' (1920) and ''For Goodness' Sake'' (1922), and jointly composed the score for ''Our Nell'' (1923).", "This was the beginning of a long friendship.", "Daly was a frequent arranger, orchestrator and conductor of Gershwin's music, and Gershwin periodically turned to him for musical advice.===Musical, Europe and classical music: 1924–1928===George Gershwin, c. 1935In 1924, Gershwin composed his first major work, ''Rhapsody in Blue'', for orchestra and piano.", "It was orchestrated by Ferde Grofé and premiered by Paul Whiteman's Concert Band, in New York.", "It subsequently went on to be his most popular work, and established Gershwin's signature style and genius in blending vastly different musical styles, including jazz and classical, in revolutionary ways.Since the early 1920s Gershwin had frequently worked with the lyricist Buddy DeSylva.", "Together they created the experimental one-act jazz opera ''Blue Monday,'' set in Harlem.", "It is widely regarded as a forerunner to the groundbreaking ''Porgy and Bess'' introduced in 1935.In 1924, George and Ira Gershwin collaborated on a stage musical comedy ''Lady Be Good'', which included such future standards as \"Fascinating Rhythm\" and \"Oh, Lady Be Good!\".", "They followed this with ''Oh, Kay!''", "(1926), ''Funny Face'' (1927) and ''Strike Up the Band'' (1927 and 1930).", "Gershwin allowed the latter song, with a modified title, to be used as a football fight song, \"Strike Up The Band for UCLA\".In the mid-1920s, Gershwin stayed in Paris for a short period, during which he applied to study composition with the noted Nadia Boulanger, who, along with several other prospective tutors such as Maurice Ravel, turned him down, afraid that rigorous classical study would ruin his jazz-influenced style.", "Maurice Ravel's rejection letter to Gershwin told him, \"Why become a second-rate Ravel when you're already a first-rate Gershwin?\"", "While there, Gershwin wrote ''An American in Paris''.", "This work received mixed reviews upon its first performance at Carnegie Hall on December 13, 1928, but it quickly became part of the standard repertoire in Europe and the United States.===New York: 1929–1935===In 1929, the Gershwin brothers created ''Show Girl''; the following year brought ''Girl Crazy'', which introduced the standards \"Embraceable You\", sung by Ginger Rogers, and \"I Got Rhythm\".", "1931's ''Of Thee I Sing'' became the first musical comedy to win the Pulitzer Prize for Drama; the winners were George S. Kaufman, Morrie Ryskind, and Ira Gershwin.Gershwin spent the summer of 1934 on Folly Island in South Carolina after he was invited to visit by the author of the novel ''Porgy'', DuBose Heyward.", "He was inspired to write the music to his opera ''Porgy and Bess'' while on this working vacation''.''", "''Porgy and Bess'' was considered another American classic by the composer of ''Rhapsody in Blue'' — even if critics could not quite figure out how to evaluate it, or decide whether it was opera or simply an ambitious Broadway musical.", "\"It crossed the barriers,\" per theater historian Robert Kimball.", "\"It wasn't a musical work per se, and it wasn't a drama per se – it elicited response from both music and drama critics.", "But the work has sort of always been outside category.", "\"===Last years: 1936–1937===After the commercial failure of ''Porgy and Bess'', Gershwin moved to Hollywood, California.", "In 1936, he was commissioned by RKO Pictures to write the music for the film ''Shall We Dance'', starring Fred Astaire and Ginger Rogers.", "Gershwin's extended score, which would marry ballet with jazz in a new way, runs over an hour.", "It took Gershwin several months to compose and orchestrate.Gershwin had a ten-year affair with composer Kay Swift, whom he frequently consulted about his music.", "The two never married, although she eventually divorced her husband James Warburg in order to commit to the relationship.", "Swift's granddaughter, Katharine Weber, has suggested that the pair were not married because George's mother Rose was \"unhappy that Kay Swift wasn't Jewish\".", "The Gershwins' 1926 musical ''Oh, Kay'' was named for her.", "After Gershwin's death, Swift arranged some of his music, transcribed several of his recordings, and collaborated with his brother Ira on several projects.===Illness and death===Early in 1937, Gershwin began to complain of blinding headaches and a recurring impression that he smelled burning rubber.", "(As early as February 1934, he had said he smelled burning garbage at the Detroit railway station, though those with him did not.)", "On February 11, 1937, he performed his Piano Concerto in F in a special concert of his music with the San Francisco Symphony Orchestra under the direction of French maestro Pierre Monteux.", "Gershwin, normally a superb pianist in his own compositions, suffered coordination problems and blackouts during the performance.", "He was at the time working on other Hollywood film projects while living with Ira and his wife Leonore in their rented house in Beverly Hills.", "Leonore Gershwin began to be disturbed by George's mood swings and his seeming inability to eat without spilling food at the dinner table.", "She suspected mental illness and insisted he be moved out of their house to lyricist Yip Harburg's empty quarters nearby, where he was placed in the care of his valet, Paul Mueller.", "The headaches and olfactory hallucinations continued.On the night of July 9, 1937, Gershwin collapsed in Harburg's house, where he had been working on the score of ''The Goldwyn Follies''.", "He was rushed to Cedars of Lebanon Hospital in Los Angeles, and fell into a coma.", "Only then did his doctors come to believe that he was suffering from a brain tumor.", "Leonore called George's close friend Emil Mosbacher and explained the dire need to find a neurosurgeon.", "Mosbacher immediately called pioneering neurosurgeon Harvey Cushing in Boston, who, retired for several years by then, recommended Walter Dandy, who was on a boat fishing in the Chesapeake Bay with Harry Nice, the governor of Maryland.", "Mosbacher called the White House and had a Coast Guard cutter sent to find the governor's yacht and bring Dandy quickly to shore.Mosbacher then chartered a plane and flew Dandy to Newark Airport, where he was to catch a plane to Los Angeles; by that time, Gershwin's condition was critical and the need for surgery was immediate.", "So, before Dandy could arrive, in the early hours of Sunday, July 11, 1937, doctors at Cedars removed a large brain tumor, believed to have been a glioblastoma, but Gershwin died that morning at the age of 38.The fact that he had suddenly collapsed and become comatose after he stood up on July 9 has been interpreted as brain herniation with Duret hemorrhages.Gershwin's mausoleum in Westchester Hills CemeteryGershwin's friends and admirers were shocked and devastated.", "John O'Hara remarked: \"George Gershwin died on July 11, 1937, but I don't have to believe that if I don't want to.\"", "He was interred at Westchester Hills Cemetery in Hastings-on-Hudson, New York.", "A memorial concert was held at the Hollywood Bowl on September 8, 1937, at which Otto Klemperer conducted his own orchestration of the second of Gershwin's ''Three Preludes''." ], [ "Musical style and influence", "Birthday party honoring Maurice Ravel in New York City, March 8, 1928.From left: Oskar Fried; Éva Gauthier; Ravel at piano; Manoah Leide-Tedesco; and George Gershwin.Gershwin was influenced by French composers of the early twentieth century.", "In turn Maurice Ravel was impressed with Gershwin's abilities, commenting, \"Personally I find jazz most interesting: the rhythms, the way the melodies are handled, the melodies themselves.", "I have heard of George Gershwin's works and I find them intriguing.\"", "The orchestrations in Gershwin's symphonic works often seem similar to those of Ravel; likewise, Ravel's two piano concertos evince an influence of Gershwin.George Gershwin asked to study with Ravel.", "When Ravel heard how much Gershwin earned, Ravel replied with words to the effect of, \"You should give ''me'' lessons.\"", "(Some versions of this story feature Igor Stravinsky rather than Ravel as the composer; however Stravinsky confirmed that he originally heard the story from Ravel.", ")Gershwin's own ''Concerto in F'' was criticized for being related to the work of Claude Debussy, more so than to the expected jazz style.", "The comparison did not deter him from continuing to explore French styles.", "The title of ''An American in Paris'' reflects the very journey that he had consciously taken as a composer: \"The opening part will be developed in typical French style, in the manner of Debussy and ''Les Six'', though the tunes are original.", "\"Gershwin was intrigued by the works of Alban Berg, Dmitri Shostakovich, Igor Stravinsky, Darius Milhaud, and Arnold Schoenberg.", "He also asked Schoenberg for composition lessons.", "Schoenberg refused, saying \"I would only make you a bad Schoenberg, and you're such a good Gershwin already.\"", "(This quote is similar to one credited to Maurice Ravel during Gershwin's 1928 visit to France – \"Why be a second-rate Ravel, when you are a first-rate Gershwin?\")", "Gershwin was particularly impressed by the music of Berg, who gave him a score of the ''Lyric Suite''.", "He attended the American premiere of ''Wozzeck'', conducted by Leopold Stokowski in 1931, and was \"thrilled and deeply impressed\".Russian Joseph Schillinger's influence as Gershwin's teacher of composition (1932–1936) was substantial in providing him with a method of composition.", "There has been some disagreement about the nature of Schillinger's influence on Gershwin.", "After the posthumous success of ''Porgy and Bess'', Schillinger claimed he had a large and direct influence in overseeing the creation of the opera; Ira completely denied that his brother had any such assistance for this work.", "A third account of Gershwin's musical relationship with his teacher was written by Gershwin's close friend Vernon Duke, also a Schillinger student, in an article for ''the Musical Quarterly'' in 1947.What set Gershwin apart was his ability to manipulate forms of music into his own unique voice.", "He took the jazz he discovered on Tin Pan Alley into the mainstream by splicing its rhythms and tonality with that of the popular songs of his era.", "Although George Gershwin would seldom make grand statements about his music, he believed that \"true music must reflect the thought and aspirations of the people and time.", "My people are Americans.", "My time is today.", "\"In 2007, the Library of Congress named its Gershwin Prize for Popular Song after George and Ira Gershwin.", "Recognizing the profound and positive effect of popular music on culture, the prize is given annually to a composer or performer whose lifetime contributions exemplify the standard of excellence associated with the Gershwins.", "On March 1, 2007, the first Gershwin Prize was awarded to Paul Simon." ], [ "Recordings and film", "Early in his career, under both his own name and pseudonyms, Gershwin recorded more than one hundred forty player piano rolls which were a main source of his income.", "The majority were popular music of the period and a smaller proportion were of his own works.", "Once his musical theater-writing income became substantial, his regular roll-recording career became superfluous.", "He did record additional rolls throughout the 1920s of his main hits for the Aeolian Company's reproducing piano, including a complete version of his ''Rhapsody in Blue''.Compared to the piano rolls, there are few accessible audio recordings of Gershwin's playing.", "His first recording was his own \"Swanee\" with the Fred Van Eps Trio in 1919.The recorded balance highlights the banjo playing of Van Eps, and the piano is overshadowed.", "The recording took place before \"Swanee\" became famous as an Al Jolson specialty in early 1920.Gershwin recorded an abridged version of ''Rhapsody in Blue'' with Paul Whiteman and his orchestra for the Victor Talking Machine Company in 1924, soon after the world premiere.", "Gershwin and the same orchestra made an electrical recording of the abridged version for Victor in 1927.However, a dispute in the studio over interpretation angered Whiteman and he walked out on the session.", "Victor's staff conductor and arranger Nathaniel Shilkret led the orchestra, though Whiteman is still credited as conductor on the original record labels.Gershwin made a number of solo piano recordings of tunes from his musicals, some including the vocals of Fred and Adele Astaire, as well as his ''Three Preludes'' for piano.", "In 1929, Gershwin \"supervised\" the world premiere recording of ''An American in Paris'' with Nathaniel Shilkret and the Victor Symphony Orchestra.", "Gershwin's role in the recording was rather limited, particularly because Shilkret was conducting and had his own ideas about the music.", "When it was realized that no one had been hired to play the brief celeste solo, Gershwin was asked if he could and would play the instrument, and he agreed.", "Gershwin can be heard, rather briefly, on the recording during the slow section.Gershwin appeared on several radio programs, including Rudy Vallee's, and played some of his compositions.", "This included the third movement of the ''Concerto in F'' with Vallee conducting the studio orchestra.", "Some of these performances were preserved on transcription discs and have been released on LP and CD.In 1934, in an effort to earn money to finance his planned folk opera, Gershwin hosted his own radio program titled ''Music by Gershwin''.", "The show was broadcast on the NBC Blue Network from February to May and again in September through the final show on December 23, 1934.He presented his own work as well as the work of other composers.", "Recordings from this and other radio broadcasts include his ''Variations on I Got Rhythm'', portions of the ''Concerto in F'', and numerous songs from his musical comedies.", "He also recorded a run-through of his ''Second Rhapsody'', conducting the orchestra and playing the piano solos.", "Gershwin recorded excerpts from ''Porgy and Bess'' with members of the original cast, conducting the orchestra from the keyboard; he even announced the selections and the names of the performers.", "In 1935, RCA Victor asked him to supervise recordings of highlights from ''Porgy and Bess''; these were his last recordings.RCA Victor issued a 5 record 12 inch 78 rpm Memorial Album (C-29) recorded from the RCA Magic Key program broadcast on July 10, 1938, over the NBC Radio Network.", "It featured the Victor Salon Group conducted by Nathaniel Shilkret and singer Jane Froman.A 74-second newsreel film clip of Gershwin playing ''I Got Rhythm'' has survived, filmed at the opening of the Manhattan Theater (now The Ed Sullivan Theater) in August 1931.There are also silent home movies of Gershwin, some of them shot on Kodachrome color film stock, which have been featured in tributes to the composer.", "In addition, there is newsreel footage of Gershwin playing \"Mademoiselle from New Rochelle\" and \"Strike Up the Band\" on the piano during a Broadway rehearsal of the 1930 production of ''Strike Up the Band''.", "In the mid-30s, \"Strike Up The Band\" was given to UCLA to be used as a football fight song, \"Strike Up The Band for UCLA\".", "The comedy team of Clark and McCullough are seen conversing with Gershwin, then singing as he plays.1973 U.S. commemorative stamp honoring GershwinIn 1945, the film biography ''Rhapsody in Blue'' was made, starring Robert Alda as George Gershwin.", "The film contains many factual errors about Gershwin's life, but also features many examples of his music, including an almost complete performance of ''Rhapsody in Blue''.In 1965, Movietone Records released an album MTM 1009 featuring Gershwin's piano rolls of the titled ''George Gershwin plays RHAPSODY IN BLUE and his other favorite compositions''.", "The B-side of the LP featured nine other recordings.In 1975, Columbia Records released an album featuring Gershwin's piano rolls of ''Rhapsody In Blue'', accompanied by the Columbia Jazz Band playing the original jazz band accompaniment, conducted by Michael Tilson Thomas.", "The B-side of the Columbia Masterworks release features Tilson Thomas leading the New York Philharmonic in ''An American In Paris.", "''In 1976, RCA Records reissued a collection of Gershwin's original recordings on the album ''Gershwin plays Gershwin, Historic First Recordings'' (RCA Victrola AVM1-1740).", "Included was the first LP release of the 1924 recording of ''Rhapsody in Blue'' with the Paul Whiteman Orchestra and Gershwin on piano; ''An American in Paris'', from 1929 conducted by Nathaniel Shilkret with Gershwin on celesta.", "Also included were ''Three Preludes'', \"Clap Yo' Hands\" and Someone to Watch Over Me\", among others.The soundtrack to Woody Allen's 1979 film ''Manhattan'' is composed entirely of Gershwin's compositions, including ''Rhapsody in Blue'', \"Love is Sweeping the Country\", and \"But Not for Me\", performed by both the New York Philharmonic under Zubin Mehta and the Buffalo Philharmonic under Michael Tilson Thomas.", "The film begins with a monolog by Allen, in the role of a writer, describing a character in his book: \"He adored New York City ... To him, no matter what the season was, this was still a town that existed in black and white and pulsated to the great tunes of George Gershwin.", "\"In 1993, two audio CDs featuring piano rolls recorded by Gershwin were issued by Nonesuch Records through the efforts of Artis Wodehouse, entitled ''Gershwin Plays Gershwin: The Piano Rolls''.In 2010, Brian Wilson released ''Brian Wilson Reimagines Gershwin'', consisting of ten George and Ira Gershwin songs, bookended by passages from ''Rhapsody in Blue'', with two new songs completed from unfinished Gershwin fragments by Wilson and band member Scott Bennett." ], [ "Compositions", "''' Orchestral '''* ''Rhapsody in Blue'' for piano and orchestra (1924)* ''Concerto in F'' for piano and orchestra (1925)* ''An American in Paris'' for orchestra (1928)* ''Dream Sequence/The Melting Pot'' for chorus and orchestra (1931)* ''Second Rhapsody'' for piano and orchestra (1931), originally titled ''Rhapsody in Rivets''* ''Cuban Overture'' for orchestra (1932), originally entitled ''Rumba''* ''March from \"Strike Up the Band\"'' for orchestra (1934)* ''Variations on \"I Got Rhythm\"'' for piano and orchestra (1934)* ''Catfish Row'' for orchestra (1936), a suite based on music from ''Porgy and Bess''* ''Shall We Dance'' (1937), a movie score feature-length ballet'''Solo piano'''* ''Three Preludes'' (1926)* ''George Gershwin's Song-book'' (1932), solo piano arrangements of 18 songs'''Operas'''*''Blue Monday'' (1922), one-act opera*''Porgy and Bess'' (1935) at the Colonial Theatre in Boston'''London musicals'''* ''Primrose'' (1924)'''Broadway musicals'''* ''George White's Scandals'' (1920–1924), featuring, at one point, the 1922 one-act opera ''Blue Monday''* ''Lady, Be Good'' (1924)* ''Tip-Toes'' (1925)* ''Tell Me More!''", "(1925)* ''Oh, Kay!''", "(1926)* ''Strike Up the Band'' (1927)* ''Funny Face'' (1927)* ''Rosalie'' (1928)* ''Treasure Girl'' (1928)* ''Show Girl'' (1929)* ''Girl Crazy'' (1930)* ''Of Thee I Sing'' (1931)* ''Pardon My English'' (1933)* ''Let 'Em Eat Cake'' (1933)* ''My One and Only'' (1983), an original 1983 musical using previously written Gershwin songs* ''Crazy for You'' (1992), a revised version of ''Girl Crazy''* ''Nice Work If You Can Get It'' (2012), a musical with a score by George and Ira Gershwin*''An American in Paris'', a musical that ran on Broadway from April 2015 to October 2016'''Films for which Gershwin wrote original scores'''* ''Delicious'' (1931), an early version of the ''Second Rhapsody'' and one other musical sequence was used in this film, the rest were rejected by the studio* ''Shall We Dance'' (1937), original orchestral score by Gershwin, no recordings available in modern stereo, some sections have never been recorded (Nominated- Academy Award for Best Original Song: They Can't Take That Away from Me)* ''A Damsel in Distress'' (1937)* ''The Goldwyn Follies'' (1938), posthumously released* ''The Shocking Miss Pilgrim'' (1947), uses previously unpublished songs" ], [ "Legacy", "George Gershwin with one of his oil paintings, 1931===Estate===Gershwin died intestate, and his estate passed to his mother.", "The estate continues to collect royalties in the United States from licensing the copyrights on his post-''Rhapsody in Blue'' work.", "The estate supported the Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act (that extended the U.S. 75-year copyright protection an additional 20 years) because its 1923 cutoff date was shortly before Gershwin had begun to create his most popular works.", "The copyrights on all Gershwin's solo works expired at the end of 2007 in the European Union, based on its life-plus-70-years rule, and in the U.S. on January 1, 2020, on Gershwin's pre-1925 work.In 2005, ''The Guardian'' determined using \"estimates of earnings accrued in a composer's lifetime\" that George Gershwin was the wealthiest composer of all time.The George and Ira Gershwin Collection, much of which was donated by Ira and the Gershwin family estates, resides at the Library of Congress.In September 2013, a partnership between the estates of Ira and George Gershwin and the University of Michigan was created and will provide the university's School of Music, Theatre, and Dance access to Gershwin's entire body of work, which includes all of Gershwin's papers, compositional drafts, and scores.", "This direct access to all of his works provides opportunities to musicians, composers, and scholars to analyze and reinterpret his work with the goal of accurately reflecting the composers' vision in order to preserve his legacy.", "The first fascicles of ''The Gershwin Critical Edition'', edited by Mark Clague, are expected in 2017; they will cover the 1924 jazz band version of ''Rhapsody in Blue'', ''An American in Paris'' and ''Porgy and Bess''.===Awards and honors===*In 1937, Gershwin received his sole Academy Award nomination for Best Original Song at the 1937 Oscars for \"They Can't Take That Away from Me\", written with his brother Ira for the 1937 film ''Shall We Dance''.", "The nomination was posthumous; Gershwin died two months after the film's release.", "* In 1985, the Congressional Gold Medal was awarded to George and Ira Gershwin.", "Only three other songwriters, George M. Cohan, Harry Chapin, and Irving Berlin, have received this award.", "*In 1998 a special Pulitzer Prize was posthumously awarded to Gershwin \"commemorating the centennial year of his birth, for his distinguished and enduring contributions to American music.", "\"*The George and Ira Gershwin Lifetime Musical Achievement Award was established by UCLA to honor the brothers for their contribution to music and for their gift to UCLA of the fight song \"Strike Up the Band for UCLA\".", "* In 2006, Gershwin was inducted into the Long Island Music Hall of Fame.===Namesakes===*The Gershwin Theatre on Broadway is named after George and Ira.", "*The Gershwin Hotel in the Flatiron District of Manhattan in New York City was named after George and Ira.", "*In Brooklyn, George Gershwin Junior High School 166 is named after him.", "*One of Holland America Line's ships, MS ''Koningsdam'', has a Gershwin Deck (Deck 5)*The Library of Congress Gershwin Prize for Popular Song===Biopic===*The 1945 biographical film ''Rhapsody in Blue'' starred Robert Alda as George Gershwin.===Portrayals in other media===*In George Lucas's ''The Adventures of Young Indiana Jones'' a fictional George Gershwin appears as a friend of Indiana Jones in the made for TV movie from 1999, ''Scandal of 1920.''", "He also briefly appears in ''Hollywood Follies''.", "He is portrayed by Tom Beckett.", "*Since 1999, Hershey Felder has produced a one-man show with him portraying ''George Gershwin Alone'', which has played over 3,000 performances and won two 2007 Ovation Awards.", "In response to the COVID-19 pandemic, Felder launched a global live-streaming ''Hershey Felder Presents: Live from Florence'' featuring a performance of \"Hershey Felder as ''George Gershwin Alone''\" in September 2020.", "*Paul Rudd portrays an imaginary friend based on George Gershwin, said to be his creator's favorite composer, in the 2015 series finale of the Irish sitcom ''Moone Boy'', \"Gershwin's Bucket List\"." ], [ "See also", "* List of covers of ''Time'' magazine (1920s)" ], [ "References", "===Citations======Sources===* * * * Kimball, Robert & Alfred Simon.", "''The Gershwins'' (1973), Athenium, New York, * * * * Rimler, Walter.", "''A Gershwin Companion'' (1991), Popular Culture * Rimler, Walter ''George Gershwin : An Intimate Portrait'' (2009), University of Illinois Press, * Sloop, Gregory.", "\"What Caused George Gershwin's Untimely Death?\"", "Journal of Medical Biography 9 (February 2001): 28–30===Further reading===* Alpert, Hollis.", "''The Life and Times of Porgy and Bess: The Story of an American Classic'' (1991).", "Nick Hern Books.", "* Carnovale, Norbert.", "''George Gershwin: a Bio-Bibliography'' (2000.)", "Greenwood Press.", "* Feinstein, Michael.", "''Nice Work If You Can Get It: My Life in Rhythm and Rhyme'' (1995), Hyperion Books.", "* Jablonski, Edward.", "''Gershwin Remembered'' (2003).", "Amadeus Press.", "* Muccigrosso, Robert, ed., ''Research Guide to American Historical Biography'' (1988) 5:2523-30* Rosenberg, Deena Ruth.", "''Fascinating Rhythm: The Collaboration of George and Ira Gershwin'' (1991).", "University of Michigan Press * Sheed, Wilfred.", "''The House That George Built: With a Little Help from Irving, Cole, and a Crew of About Fifty'' (2007).", "Random House.", "* Suriano, Gregory R. (Editor).", "''Gershwin in His Time: A Biographical Scrapbook, 1919–1937'' (1998).", "Diane Pub Co. * Weber, Katharine.", "\"The Memory Of All That: George Gershwin, Kay Swift, and My Family's Legacy of Infidelities\" (2011).", "Crown Publishers, Inc./Broadway Books * Wyatt, Robert and John Andrew Johnson (Editors).", "''The George Gershwin Reader'' (2004).", "Oxford University Press." ], [ "External links", "******* George and Ira Gershwin Collection at the Library of Congress*George Gershwin Bio at Jewish-American Hall of Fame* George Gershwin Collection at the Harry Ransom Center at the University of Texas at Austin* The Gershwin Initiative at The University of Michigan* George Gershwin oral histories at Oral History of American Music* Gershwin's An American in Paris Performance / lecture with Bruce Adolphe" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Grammatical gender" ], [ "Introduction", "In linguistics, a '''grammatical gender''' system is a specific form of a noun class system, where nouns are assigned to gender categories that are often not related to the real-world qualities of the entities denoted by those nouns.", "In languages with grammatical gender, most or all nouns inherently carry one value of the grammatical category called ''gender''; the values present in a given language (of which there are usually two or three) are called the ''genders'' of that language.Whereas some authors use the term \"grammatical gender\" as a synonym of \"noun class\", others use different definitions for each; many authors prefer \"noun classes\" when none of the inflections in a language relate to sex or gender.", "According to one estimate, gender is used in approximately half of the world's languages.", "According to one definition: \"Genders are classes of nouns reflected in the behaviour of associated words.\"" ], [ "Overview", "Languages with grammatical gender usually have two to four different genders, but some are attested with up to 20.Common gender divisions include masculine and feminine; masculine, feminine, and neuter; or animate and inanimate.Spanish, determiners, adjectives, and pronouns change their form depending on the noun to which they refer.", "Spanish nouns have two genders: masculine and feminine, represented here by the nouns and , respectively.Depending on the language and the word, this assignment might bear some relationship with the meaning of the noun (e.g.", "\"woman\" is usually feminine), or may be arbitrary.In a few languages, the assignment of any particular noun (i.e., nominal lexeme, that set of noun forms inflectable from a common lemma) to one grammatical gender is solely determined by that noun's meaning (or attributes, like biological sex, humanness, or animacy).", "However, the existence of words that denote male and female, such as the difference between \"aunt\" and \"uncle\" is not enough to constitute a gender system.In other languages, the division into genders usually correlates to some degree, at least for a certain set of nouns (such as those denoting humans), with some property or properties of the things that particular nouns denote.", "Such properties include animacy or inanimacy, \"humanness\" or non-humanness, and biological sex.However, in most languages, this semantic division is only partially valid, and many nouns may belong to a gender category that contrasts with their meaning (e.g.", "the word for \"manliness\" could be of feminine gender, as it is in French with \"la masculinité\" and \"la virilité\").", "In such a case, the gender assignment can also be influenced by the morphology or phonology of the noun, or in some cases can be apparently arbitrary.Usually each noun is assigned to one of the genders, and few or no nouns can occur in more than one gender.Gender is considered an inherent quality of nouns, and it affects the forms of other related words, a process called \"agreement\".", "Nouns may be considered the \"triggers\" of the process, whereas other words will be the \"target\" of these changes.These related words can be, depending on the language: determiners, pronouns, numerals, quantifiers, possessives, adjectives, past and passive participles, articles, verbs, adverbs, complementizers, and adpositions.", "Gender class may be marked on the noun itself, but will also always be marked on other constituents in a noun phrase or sentence.", "If the noun is explicitly marked, both trigger and target may feature similar alternations.=== Functions of grammatical gender ===Three possible functions of grammatical gender include:# In a language with explicit inflections for gender, it is easy to express gender distinctions in animate beings.# Grammatical gender \"can be a valuable tool of disambiguation\", rendering clarity about antecedents or homophones.# In literature, gender can be used to \"animate and personify inanimate nouns\".", "Languages with gender distinction generally have fewer cases of ambiguity concerning, for example, pronominal reference.", "In the English phrase \"''a flowerbed in the garden which I maintain''\", only context tells us whether the relative clause (''which I maintain'') refers to the whole garden or just the flowerbed.", "In German, in cases where the objects in question have different grammatical gender, gender distinction prevents such ambiguity.", "The word for \"flowerbed\" () is neuter, whereas that for \"garden\" () is masculine.", "Hence, if a neuter relative pronoun is used, the relative clause refers to \"flowerbed\", and if a masculine pronoun is used, the relative clause refers to \"garden\".", "Because of this, languages with gender distinction can often use pronouns where in English a noun would have to be repeated in order to avoid confusion.", "It does not, however, help in cases where the words are of the same grammatical gender.Moreover, grammatical gender may serve to distinguish homophones.", "It is a quite common phenomenon in language development for two phonemes to merge, thereby making etymologically distinct words sound alike.", "In languages with gender distinction, however, these word pairs may still be distinguishable by their gender.", "For example, French (\"pot\") and (\"skin\") are homophones , but disagree in gender: vs. .=== Gender contrasts ===Common systems of gender contrast include:* masculine–feminine gender contrast* masculine–feminine–neuter gender contrast* animate–inanimate gender contrast* common–neuter gender contrast==== Masculine–feminine contrast ====Nouns that denote specifically male persons (or animals) are normally of masculine gender; those that denote specifically female persons (or animals) are normally of feminine gender; and nouns that denote something that does not have any sex, or do not specify the sex of their referent, have come to belong to one or other of the genders, in a way that may appear arbitrary.", "Examples of languages with such a system include most of the modern Romance languages, the Baltic languages, the Celtic languages, some Indo-Aryan languages (e.g., Hindi), and the Afroasiatic languages.==== Masculine–feminine–neuter contrast ====This is similar to systems with a masculine–feminine contrast, except that there is a third available gender, so nouns with sexless or unspecified-sex referents may be either masculine, feminine, or neuter.", "There are also certain exceptional nouns whose gender does not follow the denoted sex, such as the German , meaning \"girl\", which is neuter.", "This is because it is actually a diminutive of \"Magd\" and all diminutive forms with the suffix are neuter.", "Examples of languages with such a system include later forms of Proto-Indo-European (see below), Sanskrit, some Germanic languages, most Slavic languages, a few Romance languages (Romanian, Asturian and Neapolitan), Marathi, Latin, and Greek.==== Animate–inanimate contrast ====Here nouns that denote animate things (humans and animals) generally belong to one gender, and those that denote inanimate things to another (although there may be some deviation from that principle).", "Examples include earlier forms of Proto-Indo-European and the earliest family known to have split off from it, the extinct Anatolian languages (see below).", "Modern examples include Algonquian languages such as Ojibwe.", "* In Northern Kurdish language (Kurmanji), the same word can have two genders according to the context.", "For example, if the word (meaning 'wood' or 'tree') is feminine, it means that it is a living tree (e.g., means 'apple tree'), but if it is masculine, it means that it is dead, no longer living (e.g., means 'apple wood').", "So if one wants to refer to a certain table that is made of wood from an apple tree, one cannot use the word with a feminine gender, and if one wants to refer to an apple tree in a garden, one cannot use with a masculine gender.==== Common–neuter contrast ====Here a masculine–feminine–neuter system previously existed, but the distinction between masculine and feminine genders has been lost in nouns (they have merged into what is called ''common gender''), though not in pronouns that can operate under natural gender.", "Thus nouns denoting people are usually of common gender, whereas other nouns may be of either gender.", "Examples include Danish and Swedish (see Gender in Danish and Swedish), and to some extent Dutch (see Gender in Dutch grammar).", "The dialect of the old Norwegian capital Bergen also uses common gender and neuter exclusively.", "The common gender in Bergen and in Danish is inflected with the same articles and suffixes as the masculine gender in Norwegian Bokmål.", "This makes some obviously feminine noun phrases like \"a cute girl\", \"the well milking cow\" or \"the pregnant mares\" sound strange to most Norwegian ears when spoken by Danes and people from Bergen since they are inflected in a way that sounds like the masculine declensions in South-Eastern Norwegian dialects.", "The same does not apply to Swedish common gender, as the declensions follow a different pattern from both the Norwegian written languages.", "Norwegian Nynorsk, Norwegian Bokmål and most spoken dialects retain masculine, feminine and neuter even if their Scandinavian neighbours have lost one of the genders.", "As shown, the merger of masculine and feminine in these languages and dialects can be considered a reversal of the original split in Proto-Indo-European (see below).==== Other types of division or subdivision of gender ====Some gender contrasts are referred to as ''classes''; for some examples, see Noun class.", "In some of the Slavic languages, for example, within the masculine and sometimes feminine and neuter genders, there is a further division between animate and inanimate nouns—and in Polish, also sometimes between nouns denoting humans and non-humans.", "(For details, see below.)", "A human–non-human (or \"rational–non-rational\") distinction is also found in Dravidian languages.", "(See below.", ")=== How gender contrasts can influence cognition ===It has been shown that grammatical gender causes a number of cognitive effects.", "For example, when native speakers of gendered languages are asked to imagine an inanimate object speaking, whether its voice is male or female tends to correspond to the grammatical gender of the object in their language.", "This has been observed for speakers of Spanish, French, and German, among others.Caveats of this research include the possibility of subjects' \"using grammatical gender as a strategy for performing the task\", and the fact that even for inanimate objects the gender of nouns is not always random.", "For example, in Spanish, female gender is often attributed to objects that are \"used by women, natural, round, or light\" and male gender to objects \"used by men, artificial, angular, or heavy.\"", "Apparent failures to reproduce the effect for German speakers has also led to a proposal that the effect is restricted to languages with a two-gender system, possibly because such languages are inclined towards a greater correspondence between grammatical and natural gender.Another kind of test asks people to describe a noun, and attempts to measure whether it takes on gender-specific connotations depending on the speaker's native language.", "For example, one study found that German speakers describing a bridge (, ) more often used the words 'beautiful', 'elegant', 'pretty', and 'slender', while Spanish speakers, whose word for bridge is masculine (, ), used 'big', 'dangerous', 'strong', and 'sturdy' more often.", "However, studies of this kind have been criticised on various grounds and yield an unclear pattern of results overall.=== Related linguistic concepts ======= Noun classes ====A noun may belong to a given class because of characteristic features of its referent, such as sex, animacy, shape, although in some instances a noun can be placed in a particular class based purely on its grammatical behavior.", "Some authors use the term \"grammatical gender\" as a synonym of \"noun class\", but others use different definitions for each.Many authors prefer \"noun classes\" when none of the inflections in a language relate to sex, such as when an animate–inanimate distinction is made.", "Note, however, that the word \"gender\" derives from Latin (also the root of ''genre'') which originally meant \"kind\", so it does not necessarily have a sexual meaning.==== Noun classifiers ====A classifier, or measure word, is a word or morpheme used in some languages together with a noun, principally to enable numbers and certain other determiners to be applied to the noun.", "They are not regularly used in English or other European languages, although they parallel the use of words such as ''piece(s)'' and ''head'' in phrases like \"three pieces of paper\" or \"thirty head of cattle\".", "They are a prominent feature of East Asian languages, where it is common for all nouns to require a classifier when being quantified—for example, the equivalent of \"three people\" is often \"three ''classifier'' people\".", "A more general type of classifier (classifier handshapes) can be found in sign languages.Classifiers can be considered similar to genders or noun classes, in that a language which uses classifiers normally has a number of different ones, used with different sets of nouns.", "These sets depend largely on properties of the things that the nouns denote (for example, a particular classifier may be used for long thin objects, another for flat objects, another for people, another for abstracts, etc.", "), although sometimes a noun is associated with a particular classifier more by convention than for any obvious reason.", "However it is also possible for a given noun to be usable with any of several classifiers; for example, the Mandarin Chinese classifier () is frequently used as an alternative to various more specific classifiers." ], [ "The manifestation of grammatical gender", "Grammatical gender can be realized as inflection and can be conditioned by other types of inflection, especially number inflection, where the singular-plural contrast can interact with gender inflection.=== Grammatical gender can be realized as inflection ===The grammatical gender of a noun manifests itself in two principal ways: in the modifications that the noun itself undergoes, and in modifications of other related words (agreement).==== Grammatical gender as noun inflection ====Grammatical gender manifests itself when words related to a noun like determiners, pronouns or adjectives change their form (''inflect'') according to the gender of noun they refer to (''agreement'').", "The parts of speech affected by gender agreement, the circumstances in which it occurs, and the way words are marked for gender vary between languages.", "Gender inflection may interact with other grammatical categories like number or case.", "In some languages the declension pattern followed by the noun itself will be different for different genders.The gender of a noun may affect the modifications that the noun itself undergoes, particularly the way in which the noun inflects for number and case.", "For example, a language like Latin, German or Russian has a number of different declension patterns, and which pattern a particular noun follows may be highly correlated with its gender.", "For some instances of this, see Latin declension.", "A concrete example is provided by the German word , which has two possible genders: when it is masculine (meaning \"lake\") its genitive singular form is , but when it is feminine (meaning \"sea\"), the genitive is , because feminine nouns do not take the genitive ''-s''.Gender is sometimes reflected in other ways.", "In Welsh, gender marking is mostly lost on nouns; however, Welsh has initial mutation, where the first consonant of a word changes into another in certain conditions.", "Gender is one of the factors that can cause one form of mutation (soft mutation).", "For instance, the word \"girl\" changes into ''ferch'' after the definite article.", "This only occurs with feminine singular nouns: \"son\" remains unchanged.", "Adjectives are affected by gender in a similar way.+ Soft initial mutation caused by gender in Welsh Default After definite article With adjective Masculine singular \"son\" ''y'' \"the son\" \"the big son\" Feminine singular \"girl\" \"the girl\" \"the big girl\"Additionally, in many languages, gender is often closely correlated with the basic unmodified form (lemma) of the noun, and sometimes a noun can be modified to produce (for example) masculine and feminine words of similar meaning.", "See , below.==== Grammatical gender as agreement or concord ====Agreement, or concord, is a grammatical process in which certain words change their form so that values of certain grammatical categories match those of related words.", "Gender is one of the categories which frequently require agreement.", "In this case, nouns may be considered the \"triggers\" of the process, because they have an inherent gender, whereas related words that change their form to match the gender of the noun can be considered the \"target\" of these changes.These related words can be, depending on the language: determiners, pronouns, numerals, quantifiers, possessives, adjectives, past and passive participles, verbs, adverbs, complementizers, and adpositions.", "Gender class may be marked on the noun itself, but can also be marked on other constituents in a noun phrase or sentence.", "If the noun is explicitly marked, both trigger and target may feature similar alternations.As an example, we consider Spanish, a language with two gender categories: \"natural\" vs \"grammatical\".", "\"Natural\" gender can be masculine or feminine, while \"grammatical\" gender can be masculine, feminine, or neuter.", "This third, or \"neuter\" gender is reserved for abstract concepts derived from adjectives: such as , (\"that which is good/bad\").", "Natural gender refers to the biological sex of most animals and people, while grammatical gender refers to certain phonetic characteristics (the sounds at the end, or beginning) of a noun.", "Among other lexical items, the definite article changes its form according to this categorization.", "In the singular, the article is: (masculine), and (feminine).", "Thus, in \"natural gender\", nouns referring to sexed beings who are male beings carry the masculine article, and female beings the feminine article (agreement).+Example of Natural Gender in Spanish \"Natural\" Gender Phrase Masculine Feminine In \"grammatical\" gender, most words that end in , and are marked with \"feminine\" articles, while all others use the \"generic\" or \"masculine\" articles.", "+Example of Grammatical Gender in Spanish \"Grammatical\" Gender Number Phrase Masculine Singular Plural Feminine Singular Plural ==== Gender inflection and number inflection ====In some languages the gender is distinguished only in singular number but not in plural.", "In terms of linguistic markedness, these languages neutralize the gender opposition in the plural, itself a marked category.", "So adjectives and pronouns have three forms in singular ( Bulgarian , , or German , , ) but only one in plural (Bulgarian , German ) all examples mean \"red\".", "As a consequence ''pluralia tantum'' nouns (lacking a singular form) cannot be assigned a gender.", "Example with Bulgarian: (, \"pincers\"), (, \"pants\"), (, \"spectacles\"), (, \"gills\").", "Other languages, Serbo-Croatian, allow doubly marked forms both for number and gender.", "In these languages, each noun has a definite gender no matter the number.", "For example, \"children\" is feminine ''singularia tantum'' and \"door\" is neuter ''pluralia tantum''.=== Grammatical gender can be realized on pronouns ===Pronouns may agree in gender with the noun or noun phrase to which they refer (their antecedent).", "Sometimes, however, there is no antecedent—the referent of the pronoun is deduced indirectly from the context: this is found with personal pronouns, as well as with indefinite and dummy pronouns.==== Personal pronouns ====With personal pronouns, the gender of the pronoun is likely to agree with the ''natural gender'' of the referent.", "Indeed, in most European languages, personal pronouns are gendered; for example English (the personal pronouns ''he'', ''she'' and ''it'' are used depending on whether the referent is male, female, or inanimate or non-human; this is in spite of the fact that English does not generally have grammatical gender).", "A parallel example is provided by the object suffixes of verbs in Arabic, which correspond to object pronouns, and which also inflect for gender in the second person (though not in the first):* \"I love you\", said to a male: '''' ()* \"I love you\", said to a female: '''' ()Not all languages have gendered pronouns.", "In languages that never had grammatical gender, there is normally just one word for \"he\" and \"she\", like in Malay and Indonesian, in Hungarian and in Turkish.", "These languages might only have different pronouns and inflections in the third person to differentiate between people and inanimate objects, but even this distinction is often absent.", "(In written Finnish, for example, is used for \"he\" and \"she\" and for \"it\", but in the colloquial language is usually used for \"he\" and \"she\" as well.", ")For more on these different types of pronoun, see Third-person pronoun.", "Issues may arise in languages with gender-specific pronouns in cases when the gender of the referent is unknown or not specified; this is discussed under Gender-neutral language, and in relation to English at Singular ''they''.In some cases the gender of a pronoun is not marked in the form of the pronoun itself, but is marked on other words by way of agreement.", "Thus the French word for \"I\" is , regardless of who is speaking; but this word becomes feminine or masculine depending on the sex of the speaker, as may be reflected through adjective agreement: (\"I am strong\", spoken by a female); (the same spoken by a male).In null-subject languages (and in some elliptical expressions in other languages), such agreement may take place even though the pronoun does not in fact appear.", "For example, in Portuguese:* \"I am very grateful\", said by a male: * the same, said by a female: The two sentences above mean literally \"much obliged\"; the adjective agrees with the natural gender of the speaker, that is, with the gender of the first person pronoun which does not appear explicitly here.==== Indefinite and dummy pronouns ====A dummy pronoun is a type of pronoun used when a particular verb argument (such as the subject) is nonexistent, but when a reference to the argument is nevertheless syntactically required.", "They occur mostly in non-pro-drop languages, such as English (because in pro-drop languages the position of the argument can be left empty).", "Examples in English are the uses of ''it'' in \"It's raining\" and \"It's nice to relax.", "\"When a language has gendered pronouns, the use of a particular word as a dummy pronoun may involve the selection of a particular gender, even though there is no noun to agree with.", "In languages with a neuter gender, a neuter pronoun is usually used, as in German (\"it rains, it's raining\"), where is the neuter third person singular pronoun.", "(English behaves similarly, because the word ''it'' comes from the Old English neuter gender.)", "In languages with only masculine and feminine genders, the dummy pronoun may be the masculine third person singular, as in the French for \"it's raining\": (where means \"he\", or \"it\" when referring to masculine nouns); although some languages use the feminine, as in the equivalent Welsh sentence: (where the dummy pronoun is , which means \"she\", or \"it\" when referring to feminine nouns).A similar, apparently arbitrary gender assignment may need to be made in the case of indefinite pronouns, where the referent is generally unknown.", "In this case the question is usually not which pronoun to use, but which gender to assign a given pronoun to (for such purposes as adjective agreement).", "For example, the French pronouns (\"someone\"), (\"no-one\") and (\"something\") are all treated as masculine—this is in spite of the fact that the last two correspond to feminine nouns ( meaning \"person\", and meaning \"thing\").For other situations in which such a \"default\" gender assignment may be required, see below.=== Grammatical vs. natural gender ===The ''natural gender'' of a noun, pronoun or noun phrase is a gender to which it would be expected to belong based on relevant attributes of its referent.", "Although grammatical gender can coincide with natural gender, it does not need to.==== Grammatical gender can match natural gender ====This usually means masculine or feminine, depending on the referent's sex.", "For example, in Spanish, (\"woman\") is feminine whereas (\"man\") is masculine; these attributions occur solely due to the semantically inherent gender character of each noun.==== Grammatical gender need not match natural gender ====The ''grammatical gender'' of a noun does not always coincide with its natural gender.", "An example of this is the German word (\"girl\"); this is derived from (\"maiden\"), umlauted to with the diminutive suffix , and this suffix always makes the noun grammatically neuter.", "Hence the grammatical gender of is neuter, although its natural gender is feminine (because it refers to a female person).Other examples include:* Old English (neuter) and (masculine), meaning \"woman\"* German (neuter), meaning \"woman\" (the word is now pejorative and generally replaced with , originally 'lady', feminine of obsolete , meaning 'lord')* Irish (masculine) meaning \"girl\", and (feminine) meaning \"stallion\"* Portuguese (masculine), meaning \"voluptuous woman\"* Scottish Gaelic (masculine), meaning \"woman\"* Slovenian (neuter), meaning \"girl\"* Polish (masculine), meaning \"unpleasant (usually old and ugly) woman\"*Czech (neuter), meaning \"a young girl\"Normally, such exceptions are a small minority.When a noun with conflicting natural and grammatical gender is the antecedent of a pronoun, it may not be clear which gender of pronoun to choose.", "There is a certain tendency to keep the grammatical gender when a close back-reference is made, but to switch to natural gender when the reference is further away.", "For example, in German, the sentences \"The girl has come home from school.", "She is now doing her homework\" can be translated in two ways:* * Though the second sentence may appear grammatically incorrect (constructio ad sensum), it is common in speech.", "With one or more intervening sentences, the second form becomes even more likely.", "However, a switch to the natural gender is never possible with articles and ''attributive'' pronouns or adjectives.", "Thus it can never be correct to say (\"a girl\" – with female indefinite article) or (\"this little girl\" – with female demonstrative pronoun and adjective).This phenomenon is quite popular in Slavic languages: for example Polish (deprecative \"creature\") is feminine but can be used to refer to both man (masculine gender), woman (feminine gender), child (neuter gender) or even animate nouns (e.g.", "a dog being masculine).", "Similarly with other deprecatory nouns as , , , , (\"wuss, klutz\"); (\"mute\") can be used deprecatively as described previously, and then can be used for verbs marked for the male and female genders.==== Gender contrasts on human versus sentient referents ====In the case of languages which have masculine and feminine genders, the relation between biological sex and grammatical gender tends to be less exact in the case of animals than in the case of people.", "In Spanish, for instance, a cheetah is always (masculine) and a zebra is always (feminine), regardless of their biological sex.", "In Russian a rat and a butterfly are always () and () (feminine).", "In French, a giraffe is always , whereas an elephant is always .", "To specify the sex of an animal, an adjective may be added, as in (\"a female cheetah\"), or (\"a male zebra\").", "Different names for the male and the female of a species are more frequent for common pets or farm animals, English ''cow'' and ''bull'', Spanish \"cow\" and \"bull\", Russian '''' () \"ram\" and '''' () \"ewe\".As regards the pronouns used to refer to animals, these generally agree in gender with the nouns denoting those animals, rather than the animals' sex (natural gender).", "In a language like English, which does not assign grammatical gender to nouns, the pronoun used for referring to objects (''it'') is often used for animals also.", "However, if the sex of the animal is known, and particularly in the case of companion animals, the gendered pronouns (''he'' and ''she'') may be used as they would be for a human.In Polish, a few general words such as (\"animal\") or (\"animal, one head of cattle\") are neuter, but most species names are masculine or feminine.", "When the sex of an animal is known, it will normally be referred to using gendered pronouns consistent with its sex; otherwise the pronouns will correspond to the gender of the noun denoting its species.=== Syntactic structure of grammatical gender ===There are multiple theoretical approaches to the position and structure of gender in syntactic structures." ], [ "Categorization of nouns into genders", "In the French language, countries can have masculine (green) or feminine (purple) names.", "Except for certain islands and ''Mexique'', ''Mozambique'', ''Cambodge'' and ''Zimbabwe'', the gender depends on whether the country name ends in ''-e''.In the Polish language, countries can have masculine (blue), feminine (red) or neuter (yellow) names.", "Countries with plural non-masculine names are green (there are no country names in Polish with plural masculine personal gender).Gender in European languages:'''Light blue''': no gender system.", "'''Yellow''': common/neuter.", "'''Red''': masculine/feminine.", "'''Green''': animate/inanimate.", "'''Dark blue''': masculine/feminine/neuter.", "Standard Dutch has a three-gender structure, which fell in disuse in the North of the Netherlands but remains very much alive in Flanders and the South of the Netherlands.There are three main ways by which natural languages categorize nouns into genders:* according to their form (morphological)* according to logical or symbolic similarities in their meaning (semantic)* according to arbitrary convention (lexical, possibly rooted in the language's history).In most languages that have grammatical gender, a combination of these three types of criteria is found, although one type may be more prevalent.=== Form-based morphological criteria ===In many languages, nouns are assigned to gender largely without any semantic basis—that is, not based on any feature (such as animacy or sex) of the person or thing that a noun represents.", "In such languages there may be a correlation, to a greater or lesser degree, between gender and the form of a noun (such as the vowel or consonant or syllable with which it ends).For example, in Portuguese and Spanish, nouns that end in or a consonant are mostly masculine, whereas those that end in are mostly feminine, regardless of their meaning.", "(Nouns that end in some other vowel are assigned a gender either according to etymology, by analogy, or by some other convention.)", "These rules may override semantics in some cases: for example, the noun / (\"member\") is always masculine, even when it refers to a girl or a woman, and / (\"person\") is always feminine, even when it refers to a boy or a man, a kind of form-meaning mismatch.", "(In other cases, though, meaning takes precedence: the noun \"communist\" is masculine when it refers or could refer to a man, even though it ends with .)", "In fact, nouns in Spanish and Portuguese (as in the other Romance languages such as Italian and French) generally follow the gender of the Latin words from which they are derived.", "When nouns deviate from the rules for gender, there is usually an etymological explanation: (\"problem\") is masculine in Spanish because it was derived from a Greek noun of the neuter gender, whereas (\"photo\") and (\"broadcast signal\") are feminine because they are clippings of and respectively, both grammatically feminine nouns.", "(Most Spanish nouns in are feminine; they derive from Latin feminines in , accusative .)", "But the opposite is correct with Northern Kurdish language or Kurmanci.", "For example, the words (member) and (friend) can be masculine or feminine according to the person they refer to.", "* (His daughter is my friend)* (His son is my friend)Suffixes often carry a specific gender.", "For example, in German, diminutives with the suffixes and (meaning \"little, young\") are always neuter, even if they refer to people, as with (\"girl\") and (\"young woman\") (see below).", "Similarly, the suffix , which makes countable nouns from uncountable nouns ( \"dough\" → \"piece of dough\"), or personal nouns from abstract nouns ( \"teaching\", \"punishment\" → \"apprentice\", \"convict\") or adjectives ( \"cowardly\" → \"coward\"), always produces masculine nouns.", "And the German suffixes and (comparable with ''-hood'' and ''-ness'' in English) produce feminine nouns.In Irish, nouns ending in / and are always masculine, whereas those ending or are always feminine.In Arabic, nouns whose singular form ends in a ''tāʾ marbūṭah'' (traditionally a , becoming in pausa) are of feminine gender, the only significant exceptions being the word (\"caliph\") and certain masculine personal names ( ʾUsāmah).", "However, many masculine nouns have a \"broken\" plural form ending in a ''tāʾ marbūṭa''; for example '''' (\"male professor\") has the plural , which might be confused for a feminine singular noun.", "Gender may also be predictable from the type of derivation: for instance, the verbal nouns of Stem II (e.g.", ", from ) are always masculine.In French, nouns ending in tend to be feminine, whereas others tend to be masculine, but there are many exceptions to this ( , , , , are masculine as , , , , are feminine), note the many masculine nouns ending in preceded by double consonants.", "Certain suffixes are quite reliable indicators, such as , which when added to a verb ( \"to park\" → ; nettoyer \"to clean\" → \"cleaning\") indicates a masculine noun; however, when is part of the root of the word, it can be feminine, as in (\"beach\") or .", "On the other hand, nouns ending in , and are almost all feminine, with a few exceptions, such as , .Nouns can sometimes vary their form to enable the derivation of differently gendered cognate nouns; for example, to produce nouns with a similar meaning but referring to someone of a different sex.", "Thus, in Spanish, means \"boy\", and means \"girl\".", "This paradigm can be exploited for making new words: from the masculine nouns \"lawyer\", \"member of parliament\" and \"doctor\", it was straightforward to make the feminine equivalents , , and .In the same way, personal names are frequently constructed with affixes that identify the sex of the bearer.", "Common feminine suffixes used in English names are ''-a'', of Latin or Romance origin ( ''Robert'' and ''Roberta''); and ''-e'', of French origin (cf.", "''Justin'' and ''Justine'').Although gender inflection may be used to construct nouns and names for people of different sexes in languages that have grammatical gender, this alone does not constitute grammatical gender.", "Distinct words and names for men and women are also common in languages which do not have a grammatical gender system for nouns in general.", "English, for example, has feminine suffixes such as ''-ess'' (as in ''waitress''), and also distinguishes male and female personal names, as in the above examples.==== Differentiation of personal names ====Statistical data on the Spanish nouns and names ending in ''a''Given names are proper nouns and they follow the same gender grammatical rules as common nouns.", "In most Indo-European languages female grammatical gender is created using an \"a\" or an \"e\" ending.Classical Latin typically made a grammatical feminine gender with ( \"forest\", \"water\") and this was reflected in feminine names originating in that period, like Emilia.", "Romance languages preserved this characteristic.", "For example, in Spanish, approximately 89% of nouns that end in ''-a'' or -''á'' are classified as feminine; the same is true for 98% of given names with the ''-a'' ending.In the Germanic languages the female names have been Latinized by adding ''-e'' and ''-a'': Brunhild, Kriemhild and Hroswith became Brunhilde, Kriemhilde and Hroswitha.Slavic feminine given names: Olga (Russian), Małgorzata (Polish), Tetiana (Ukrainian), Oksana (Belarusian), Eliška (Czech), Bronislava (Slovak), Milica (Serbian), Darina (Bulgarian), Lucja (Croatian), Lamija (Bosnian) and Zala (Slovenian).==== Differentiation of nouns with human referents ====In some languages, nouns with human references have two forms, a male and a female one.", "This includes not only proper names, but also names for occupations and nationalities.", "Examples include:* English proper names:# male: ''Andrew''# female: ''Andrea''# common: ''Chris'' for both male and female* English occupation names# male: ''waiter''# female: ''waitress''# common: ''doctor'' for both male and female* Greek proper names () and ()* Greek occupation names () \"actor\" for both male and female in Greek and () \"doctor\" for both, but with informal female variants () and ()* Greek nationality names have five possibilities for 'English'.# male: ()# female: ()# masculine: ()# feminine: ()# neuter: ()To complicate matters, Greek often offers additional informal versions of these.", "The corresponding for English are the following: (), (), (), (), ().", "The formal forms come from the name () \"England\", while the less formal are derived from Italian .===Meaning-based semantic criteria===In some languages, gender is determined by strictly semantic criteria, but in other languages, semantic criteria only partially determine gender.====Strict semantic criteria====In some languages, the gender of a noun is directly determined by its physical attributes (sex, animacy, etc.", "), and there are few or no exceptions to this rule.", "There are relatively few such languages.", "The Dravidian languages use this system as described below.Another example is the Dizi language, which has two asymmetrical genders.", "The feminine includes all living beings of female sex (e.g.", "woman, girl, cow...) and diminutives; the masculine encompasses all other nouns (e.g.", "man, boy, pot, broom...).", "In this language, feminine nouns are always marked with ''-e'' or ''-in''.Another African language, Defaka, has three genders: one for all male humans, one for all female humans, and a third for all the remaining nouns.", "Gender is only marked in personal pronouns.", "Standard English pronouns (see below) are very similar in this respect, although the English gendered pronouns (''he'', ''she'') are used for domestic animals if the sex of the animal is known, and sometimes for certain objects such as ships, e.g.", "\"What happened to the Titanic?", "She (or it) sank.", "\"==== Mostly semantic criteria ====In some languages, the gender of nouns can mostly be determined by physical (semantic) attributes, although there remain some nouns whose gender is not assigned in this way (Corbett calls this \"semantic residue\").", "The world view (e.g.", "mythology) of the speakers may influence the division of categories.", "* Zande has four genders: male human, female human, animal, and inanimate.", "However, there are about 80 nouns representing inanimate entities which are nonetheless animate in gender: heavenly objects (moon, rainbow), metal objects (hammer, ring), edible plants (sweet potato, pea), and non-metallic objects (whistle, ball).", "Many have a round shape or can be explained by the role they play in mythology.", "* Ket has three genders (masculine, feminine, and neuter), and most gender assignment is based on semantics, but there are many inanimate nouns outside the neuter class.", "Masculine nouns include male animates, most fish, trees, the moon, large wooden objects, most living beings and some religious items.", "Feminine nouns include female animates, three types of fish, some plants, the sun and other heavenly objects, some body parts and skin diseases, the soul, and some religious items.", "Words for part of a whole, as well as most other nouns that do not fall into any of the aforementioned classes, are neuter.", "The gender assignment of non-sex-differentiable things is complex.", "In general, those of no importance to the Kets are feminine, whereas objects of importance (e.g.", "fish, wood) are masculine.", "Mythology is again a significant factor.", "* Alamblak has two genders, masculine and feminine.", "However, the masculine also includes things which are tall or long and slender, or narrow (e.g.", "fish, snakes, arrows and slender trees), whereas the feminine gender has things which are short, squat or wide (e.g.", "turtles, houses, shields and squat trees).", "* In French, the distinction between the gender of a noun and the gender of the object it refers to is clear when nouns of different genders can be used for the same object, for example vélo (m.) = bicyclette (f.).==== Contextual determination of gender ====There are certain situations where the assignment of gender to a noun, pronoun or noun phrase may not be straightforward.", "This includes in particular:* groups of mixed gender;* references to people or things of unknown or unspecified gender.In languages with masculine and feminine gender, the masculine is usually employed by default to refer to persons of unknown gender and to groups of people of mixed gender.", "Thus, in French the feminine plural pronoun always designates an all-female group of people (or stands for a group of nouns all of feminine gender), but the masculine equivalent may refer to a group of males or masculine nouns, to a mixed group, or to a group of people of unknown genders.", "In such cases, one says that the feminine gender is semantically marked, whereas the masculine gender is unmarked.In English, the problem of gender determination does not arise in the plural, because gender in that language is reflected only in pronouns, and the plural pronoun ''they'' does not have gendered forms.", "In the singular, however, the issue frequently arises when a person of unspecified or unknown gender is being referred to.", "In this case it has been traditional to use the masculine (''he''), but other solutions are now often preferred—see Gender-neutral language and Singular ''they''.In languages with a neuter gender, such as Slavic and Germanic languages, the neuter is often used for indeterminate gender reference, particularly when the things referred to are not people.", "In some cases this may even apply when referring to people, particularly children.", "For example, in English, one may use ''it'' to refer to a child, particularly when speaking generically rather than about a particular child of known sex.In Icelandic (which preserves a masculine–feminine–neuter distinction in both singular and plural), the neuter plural can be used for groups of people of mixed gender, when specific people are meant.", "For example:* 'They (n.pl) had met in the forest when the old woman (f.sg) was a young girl and the emperor (m.sg) was only a prince.", "'However, when referring to previously unmentioned groups of people or when referring to people in a generic way, especially when using an indefinite pronoun like 'some' or 'all', the masculine plural is used.", "For example:* 'Some people have the habit of talking to themselves.", "'An example contrasting the two ways to refer to groups is the following, taken from advertisements of Christian congregations announcing their meetings:* 'All welcome' is understood to be more general whereas is more specific and emphasises the individuality of the group members.That the masculine is seen in Icelandic as the most generic or 'unmarked' of the three genders can also be seen in the fact that the nouns for most professions are masculine.", "Even feminine job descriptions historically filled by women, like 'nurse' and 'nursery school teacher' (both f.sg), have been replaced with masculine ones as men have started becoming more represented in these professions: 'nurse' and 'nursery school teacher' (both m.sg).In Swedish (which has an overall common–neuter gender system), masculinity may be argued to be a marked feature, because in the weak adjectival declension there is a distinct ending () for naturally masculine nouns (as in , \"my little brother\").", "In spite of this, the third-person singular masculine pronoun would normally be the default for a person of unknown gender, although in practice the indefinite pronoun and the reflexive or its possessive forms usually make this unnecessary.In Polish, where a gender-like distinction is made in the plural between \"masculine personal\" and all other cases (see below), a group is treated as masculine personal if it contains at least one male person.In languages which preserve a three-way gender division in the plural, the rules for determining the gender (and sometimes number) of a coordinated noun phrase (\"... and ...\") may be quite complex.", "Czech is an example of such a language, with a division (in the plural) between masculine animate, masculine inanimate, feminine, and neuter.", "The rules for gender and number of coordinated phrases in that language are summarized at .=== Arbitrary conventional criteria ===In some languages, any gender markers have been so eroded over time (possibly through deflexion) that they are no longer recognizable.", "Many German nouns, for example, do not indicate their gender through either meaning or form.", "In such cases a noun's gender must simply be memorized, and gender can be regarded as an integral part of each noun when considered as an entry in the speaker's lexicon.", "(This is reflected in dictionaries, which typically indicate the gender of noun headwords where applicable.", ")Second-language learners are often encouraged to memorize a modifier, usually a definite article, in conjunction with each noun—for example, a learner of French may learn the word for \"chair\" as (meaning \"the chair\"); this carries the information that the noun is , and that it is feminine (because is the feminine singular form of the definite article)." ], [ "Gender shifts", "It is possible for a noun to have more than one gender.", "Such gender shifts are sometimes correlated with meaning shifts, and sometimes yield doublets with no difference in meaning.", "Moreover, gender shifts sometimes crosscuts number contrasts, such that the singular form of a noun has one gender, and plural form of the noun has a different gender.=== Some gender shifts are meaningful ===Gender shift may be associated with a difference in the sex of the referent, as with nouns such as in Spanish, which may be either masculine or feminine, depending on whether it refers to a male or a female.", "It may also correspond to some other difference in the meaning of the word.", "For example, the German word meaning \"lake\" is masculine, whereas the identical word meaning \"sea\" is feminine.", "The meanings of the Norwegian noun have diverged further: masculine is \"a thing\", whereas neuter is \"an assembly\".", "(The parliament is the , \"the Great \"; the other s like are the regional courts.", ")It is a matter of analysis how to draw the line between a single polysemous word with multiple genders and a set of homonyms with one gender each.", "For example, Bulgarian has a pair of homonyms () which are etymologically unrelated.", "One is masculine and means \"finger\"; the other is feminine and means \"soil\".=== Some gender shifts are meaningless ===In other cases, a word may be usable in multiple genders indifferently.", "For example, in Bulgarian the word , (, \"wilderness\") may be either masculine (definite form , ) or feminine (definite form , ) without any change in meaning and no preference in usage.In Norwegian, many nouns can be either feminine or masculine according to the dialect, level of formality or whim of the speaker/writer.", "Even the two written forms of the language have many nouns whose gender is optional.", "Choosing the masculine gender will often seem more formal than using the feminine.", "This might be because before the creation of Norwegian Nynorsk and Norwegian Bokmål in the late 19th century, Norwegians wrote in Danish, which has lost the feminine gender, thus usage of the masculine gender (corresponding exactly to Danish common gender in conjugation in Norwegian Bokmål) is more formal sounding to modern Norwegians.The word for \"sun\" can be another example.", "One might decline it masculine: , or feminine: , in Norwegian Bokmål.", "The same goes for a lot of common words like (book), (doll), (bucket) and so forth.", "Many of the words where it is possible to choose gender are inanimate objects that one might suspect would be conjugated with the neuter gender.", "Nouns conjugated with the neuter gender cannot normally be conjugated as feminine or masculine in Norwegian.", "There is also a slight tendency towards using the masculine indefinite article even when choosing the feminine conjugation of a noun in many eastern Norwegian dialects.", "For instance, the word for \"girl\" is declined: .===Some gender shifts are associated with number contrasts===Sometimes a noun's gender can change between its plural and singular forms, as with the French words (\"love\"), (\"delight\") and (\"organ\" as musical instrument), all of which are masculine in the singular but feminine in the plural.", "These anomalies may have a historical explanation ( used to be feminine in the singular too) or result from slightly different notions ( in the singular is usually a barrel organ, whereas the plural usually refers to the collection of columns in a church organ).", "Further examples are the Italian words (\"egg\") and (\"arm\").", "These are masculine in the singular, but form the irregular plurals and , which have the endings of the feminine singular, but have feminine plural agreement.", "(This is related to the forms of the second declension Latin neuter nouns from which they derive: and , with nominative plurals and .)", "In other cases, the anomaly can be explained by the form of the noun, as is the case in Scottish Gaelic.", "Masculine nouns which form their plural by palatalization of their final consonant can change gender in their plural form, as a palatalized final consonant is often a marker of a feminine noun, e.g.", "(\"small boy\"), but (\"small boys\"), with the adjective showing agreement for both feminine gender (lenition of initial consonant) and plural number (suffixed )." ], [ "Gender across languages", "Related languages need not assign the same gender to a noun: this shows that gender can vary across related languages.", "Conversely, unrelated languages that are in contact can impact how a borrowed noun is assigned gender, with either the borrowing or the donor language determining the gender of the borrowed word.=== Gender can vary across related languages ===Nouns which have the same meanings in different languages need not have the same gender.", "This is particularly so in the case of things with no natural gender, such as sexless objects.", "For example, there is, by all appearances, nothing about a table that should cause it to be associated with any particular gender, and different languages' words for \"table\" are found to have various genders: feminine, as with the French ; masculine, as with German ; or neuter, as with Norwegian .", "(Even within a given language, nouns that denote the same concept may differ in gender—for example, of three German words for \"car\", is masculine whereas is neuter, and is feminine.", ")Cognate nouns in closely related languages are likely to have the same gender, because they tend to inherit the gender of the original word in the parent language.", "For instance, in the Romance languages, the words for \"sun\" are masculine, being derived from the Latin masculine noun , whereas the words for \"moon\" are feminine, being derived from the Latin feminine .", "(This contrasts with the genders found in German, where \"sun\" is feminine, and \"moon\" is masculine, as well as in other Germanic languages.)", "However, there are exceptions to this principle.", "For instance, (\"milk\") is masculine in Italian (as are French and Portuguese ), whereas Spanish is feminine and Romanian is neuter.", "Likewise, the word for \"boat\" is neuter in German (), but common gender in Swedish ().Some more examples of the above phenomena are given below.", "(These come mostly from the Slavic languages, where gender largely correlates with the noun ending.", ")* The Russian word (\"moon\") is feminine, whereas (\"crescent moon\", also meaning \"month\") is masculine.", "In Polish, another Slavic language, the word for moon is , which is masculine.", "* Russian also has two words for \"potato\": which is masculine, and which is feminine.", "* In Polish the loanword (\"tram\") is masculine, whereas the cognate loanword in Czech, , is feminine.", "* The Polish word (\"thousand\") is masculine, whereas the cognate in Russian, тысяча, is feminine, while the Icelandic cognate is neuter.", "* The Spanish word (\"origin\") is masculine, but its close relatives (from Portuguese), (from Asturian) and from Galician are feminine.", "* The French word (\"team\") is feminine, while the Spanish word is masculine.", "The Spanish form contrasts with the Portuguese /, both of which are feminine.", "* The Italian word (\"ape\") is feminine, whereas the Spanish word is masculine.", "* The French word is feminine, but the Spanish cognate is generally masculine (except in some poetic contexts and among sea workers), whereas the Catalan cognate can be masculine or feminine, depending on the dialect.", "All these words mean \"sea\" and are descended from the Latin , which was neuter.=== How languages assign gender to borrowed words ===Borrowed words are assigned gender in one of two ways:* via criteria determined by the borrowing language;* via criteria determined by the donor language.==== Borrowing language can determine gender ====Ibrahim identifies several processes by which a language assigns a gender to a newly borrowed word; these processes follow patterns by which even children, through their subconscious recognition of patterns, can often correctly predict a noun's gender.# If the noun is animate, natural gender tends to dictate grammatical gender.# The borrowed word tends to take the gender of the native word it replaces.", "According to Ghil'ad Zuckermann, morphemic adaptations of English words into American Italian or British Italian are abundant with such cases.", "For example, the feminine gender of the British Italian word \"bag\" was induced by the feminine gender of the Italian word \"bag\".# If the borrowed word happens to have a suffix that the borrowing language uses as a gender marker, the suffix tends to dictate gender.# If the borrowed word rhymes with one or more native words, the latter tend to dictate gender.# The default assignment is the borrowing language's unmarked gender.# Rarely, the word retains the gender it had in the donor language.", "This tends to happen more frequently in more formal language such as scientific terms, where some knowledge of the donor language can be expected.Sometimes the gender of a word switches with time.", "For example, the Russian modern loanword () \"whisky\" was originally feminine, then masculine, and today it has become neuter.==== Donor language can determine gender ====Ghil'ad Zuckermann argues that the cross-lingual retention of grammatical gender can change not only the lexis of the target language but also its morphology.", "For example, gender can indirectly influence the productivity of noun-patterns in what he calls the \"Israeli\" language: the Israeli neologism (, ) is fitted into the ''feminine'' noun-pattern ''mi⌂⌂é⌂et'' (each ⌂ represents a slot where a radical is inserted) because of the feminine gender of the matched words for \"brush\" such as Arabic , Yiddish , Russian , Polish () and , German and French , all feminine.Similarly, argues Zuckermann, the Israeli neologism for \"library\", (), matches the feminine gender of the parallel pre-existent European words: Yiddish , Russian , Polish , German and French , as well as of the pre-existent Arabic word for \"library\": (, also feminine.", "The result of this neologism might have been, more generally, the strengthening of Israeli () as a productive feminine locative suffix (combined with the influence of Polish and Russian ())." ], [ "Distribution of gender in the world's languages", "Grammatical gender is a common phenomenon in the world's languages.", "A typological survey of 174 languages revealed that over one fourth of them had grammatical gender.", "Gender systems rarely overlap with numerical classifier systems.", "Gender and noun class systems are usually found in fusional or agglutinating languages, whereas classifiers are more typical of isolating languages.", "Thus, according to Johanna Nichols, these characteristics correlate positively with the presence of grammatical gender in the world's languages:* location in an area with languages featuring noun classes;* preference for head-marking morphology;* moderate to high morphological complexity;* non-accusative alignment.Grammatical gender is found in many Indo-European languages (including Spanish, French, Russian, and German—but not English, Bengali, Armenian or Persian, for example), Afroasiatic languages (which includes the Semitic and Berber languages, etc.", "), and in other language families such as Dravidian and Northeast Caucasian, as well as several Australian Aboriginal languages such as Dyirbal, and Kalaw Lagaw Ya.", "Most Niger–Congo languages also have extensive systems of noun classes, which can be grouped into several grammatical genders.Conversely, grammatical gender is usually absent from the Koreanic, Japonic, Tungusic, Turkic, Mongolic, Austronesian, Sino-Tibetan, Uralic and most Native American language families.Modern English makes use of gender in pronouns, which are generally marked for natural gender, but lacks a system of gender concord within the noun phrase which is one of the central elements of grammatical gender in most other Indo-European languages.=== Indo-European ===Many Indo-European languages, but not English, provide examples of grammatical gender.Research indicates that the earliest stages of Proto-Indo-European had two genders (animate and inanimate), as did Hittite, the earliest attested Indo-European language.", "The classification of nouns based on animacy and inanimacy and the lack of gender are today characteristic of Armenian.", "According to the theory, the animate gender, which (unlike the inanimate) had independent vocative and accusative forms, later split into masculine and feminine, thus originating the three-way classification into masculine, feminine and neuter.Many Indo-European languages retained the three genders, including most Slavic languages, Latin, Sanskrit, Ancient and Modern Greek, German, Icelandic, Romanian and Asturian (two Romance language exceptions).", "In them, there is a high but not absolute correlation between grammatical gender and declensional class.", "Many linguists believe that to be true of the middle and late stages of Proto-Indo-European.However, many languages reduced the number of genders to two.", "Some lost the neuter, leaving masculine and feminine like most Romance languages (see .", "A few traces of the neuter remain, such as the distinct Spanish pronoun and Italian nouns with so-called \"mobile gender\"), as well as Hindustani and the Celtic languages.", "Others merged feminine and masculine into a common gender but retained the neuter, as in Swedish and Danish (and, to some extent, Dutch; see Gender in Danish and Swedish and Gender in Dutch grammar).", "Finally, some languages, such as English and Afrikaans, have nearly completely lost grammatical gender (retaining only some traces, such as the English pronouns ''he'', ''she'', ''they'', and ''it''—Afrikaans , , , and ); Armenian, Bengali, Persian, Sorani, Ossetic, Odia, Khowar, and Kalasha have lost it entirely.On the other hand, some Slavic languages can be argued to have added new genders to the classical three (see below).==== Germanic: English ====Although grammatical gender was a fully productive inflectional category in Old English, Modern English has a much less pervasive gender system, primarily based on natural gender and reflected essentially in pronouns only.There are a few traces of gender marking in Modern English:* Some words take different derived forms depending on the natural gender of the referent, such as ''waiter/waitress'' and ''widow/widower''.", "* The third-person singular personal pronouns (and their possessive forms) are gender specific: ''he/him/his'' (masculine gender, used for men, boys, and male animals), ''she/her(s)'' (feminine gender, for women, girls, and female animals), the singular ''they/them/their(s)'' (common gender, used for people or animals of unknown, irrelevant, or non-binary gender), and ''it/its'' (neuter gender, mainly for objects, abstractions and animals).", "(There are also distinct personal and non-personal forms but no differentiation by natural gender in the case of certain interrogative and relative pronouns: ''who/whom'' for persons, corresponding to ''he'', ''she'', and the singular ''they''; and ''which'' corresponding to ''it''.", ")However, these are relatively insignificant features compared with a typical language with full grammatical gender.", "English nouns are not generally considered to belong to gender classes in the way that French, German or Russian nouns are.", "There is no gender agreement in English between nouns and their modifiers (articles, other determiners, or adjectives, with the occasional exception such as ''blond/blonde'', a spelling convention borrowed from French).", "Gender agreement applies in effect only to pronouns, and the choice of pronoun is determined based on semantics (perceived qualities of the thing being referred to) rather than on any conventional assignment of particular nouns to particular genders.Only a relatively small number of English nouns have distinct male and female forms; many of them are loanwords from non-Germanic languages (the suffixes ''-rix'' and ''-ress'' in words such as ''aviatrix'' and ''waitress'', for instance, derive directly or indirectly from Latin).", "English has no live productive gender markers.", "An example of such a marker might be the suffix ''-ette'' (of French provenance), but this is seldom used today, surviving mostly in either historical contexts or with disparaging or humorous intent.The gender of an English pronoun typically coincides with the natural gender of its referent, rather than with the grammatical gender of its antecedent.", "The choice between ''she'', ''he'', ''they'', and ''it'' comes down to whether the pronoun is intended to designate a woman, a man, or someone or something else.", "There are certain exceptions, however:* With animals, ''it'' is usually used, but when the sex of the animal is known, it may be referred to as ''he'' or ''she'' (particularly when expressing an emotional connection with the animal, as with a pet).", "See also above.", "* Certain nonhuman things can be referred to with the pronoun ''she'' (''her'', ''hers''), particularly countries and ships, and sometimes other vehicles or machines.", "See .", "This usage is considered a metaphorical figure of speech; it is also in decline, and advised against by most journalistic style guides.Problems arise when selecting a personal pronoun to refer to someone of unspecified or unknown gender (see also above).", "In the past and to some degree still in the present, the masculine has been used as the \"default\" gender in English.", "The use of the plural pronoun ''they'' with singular reference is common in practice.", "The neuter ''it'' may be used for a baby but not normally for an older child or adult.", "(Other genderless pronouns exist, such as the impersonal pronoun ''one'', but they are not generally substitutable for a personal pronoun.)", "For more information see Gender-neutral language and Singular ''they''.==== Slavic languages ====The Slavic languages mostly continue the Proto-Indo-European system of three genders, masculine, feminine and neuter.", "Gender correlates largely with noun endings (masculine nouns typically end in a consonant, feminines in and neuters in or ) but there are many exceptions, particularly in the case of nouns whose stems end in a soft consonant.", "However, some of the languages, including Russian, Czech, Slovak and Polish, also make certain additional grammatical distinctions between animate and inanimate nouns: Polish in the plural, and Russian in the accusative case, differentiate between human and non-human nouns.In Russian, the different treatment of animate nouns involves their accusative case (and that of adjectives qualifying them) being formed identically to the genitive rather than to the nominative.", "In the singular that applies to masculine nouns only, but in the plural it applies in all genders.", "See Russian declension.A similar system applies in Czech, but the situation is somewhat different in the plural: Only masculine nouns are affected, and the distinctive feature is a distinct inflective ending for masculine animate nouns in the nominative plural and for adjectives and verbs agreeing with those nouns.", "See Czech declension.Polish might be said to distinguish five genders: personal masculine (referring to male humans), animate non-personal masculine, inanimate masculine, feminine, and neuter.", "The animate–inanimate opposition for the masculine gender applies in the singular, and the personal–impersonal opposition, which classes animals along with inanimate objects, applies in the plural.", "(A few nouns denoting inanimate things are treated grammatically as animate and vice versa.)", "The manifestations of the differences are as follows:* In the singular, masculine animates (in the standard declension) have an accusative form identical to the genitive, and masculine inanimates have accusative identical to the nominative.", "The same applies to adjectives qualifying these nouns, the same as in Russian and Czech.", "Also, Polish masculine animates always form their genitive in , whereas in the case of inanimates some use and some :::animate: (\"good customer\"; nominative); (accusative and genitive)::animate: (\"good dog\"; nominative); (accusative and genitive)::inanimate: (\"good cheese\"; nominative and accusative); (genitive only)* In the plural, masculine personal nouns (but not other animate nouns) take accusatives that are identical to the genitives; they also typically take different endings in the nominative (e.g.", "rather than ).", "Such endings also appear on adjectives and past tense verbs.", "The two features are analogous to features of Russian and Czech respectively, except that those languages make an animate/inanimate distinction rather than personal/impersonal) .", "Examples of the Polish system:::personal: (\"good customers\"; nominative); (accusative and genitive)::impersonal: (\"good dogs\"; nominative and accusative); (genitive only)::impersonal: (\"good cheeses\"; nominative and accusative); (genitive only)A few nouns have both personal and impersonal forms, depending on meaning (for example, may behave as an impersonal noun when it refers to a client in the computing sense).", "For more information on the above inflection patterns, see Polish morphology.", "For certain rules concerning the treatment of mixed-gender groups, see above.=== Dravidian ===In the Dravidian languages, nouns are classified primarily on the basis of their semantic properties.", "The highest-level classification of nouns is often described as being between \"rational\" and \"nonrational\".", "Nouns representing humans and deities are considered rational, and other nouns (those representing animals and objects) are treated as nonrational.", "Within the rational class there are further subdivisions into masculine, feminine and collective nouns.", "For further information, see Tamil grammar.=== Austronesian ===In the Austronesian Wuvulu-Aua language, vocative words used when addressing a relative often specify the speaker's gender.", "For example, means 'sister of female', means opposite-gender sibling, and means female's father's sister or female's brother's daughter." ], [ "See also", "* Gender agreement in binomial nomenclature* Gender-neutral language* Gender neutrality in genderless languages* Gender neutrality in languages with grammatical gender* Gender-neutral language in English* Gender-specific job title* Generic antecedents* Grammatical conjugation* Polarity of gender" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * Craig, Colette G. (1986).", "''Noun classes and categorization: Proceedings of a symposium on categorization and noun classification, Eugene, Oregon, October 1983''.", "Amsterdam: J.", "Benjamins.", "* * * * * Greenberg, J. H. (1978) \"How does a language acquire gender markers?\"", "In J. H. Greenberg et al.", "(eds.)", "''Universals of Human Language'', Vol.", "4, pp. 47–82.", "* Hockett, Charles F. (1958) ''A Course in Modern Linguistics'', Macmillan.", "* * Iturrioz, J. L. (1986) \"Structure, meaning and function: a functional analysis of gender and other classificatory techniques\".", "''Función'' 1.1–3.", "* Mercier, Adele (2002) \"L'homme et la factrice: sur la logique du genre en français\".", "\"Dialogue\", Volume 41, Issue 3, 2002* Pinker, Steven (1994) ''The Language Instinct'', William Morrow and Company.", "* Di Garbo F, Olsson B, Wälchli B (eds.).", "2019.Grammatical gender and linguistic complexity I: General issues and specific studies.", "Berlin: Language Science Press.", ".", ".", "Open Access.", "http://langsci-press.org/catalog/book/223* Di Garbo F, Olsson B, Wälchli B (eds.).", "2019.Grammatical gender and linguistic complexity II: World-wide comparative studies.", "Berlin: Language Science Press.", ".", "Open Access.", "http://langsci-press.org/catalog/book/237" ], [ "External links", "* An overview of the grammar of Old English at ucalgary.ca* * * doi: Grammatical Features Inventory at Surrey Morphology Group* The Exceptions: European Male Names Ending in A at NamepediA Blog" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "LGBT movements" ], [ "Introduction", "The Stonewall Inn in the gay village of Greenwich Village, Manhattan, site of the June 1969 Stonewall riots, a landmark event in the struggle for LGBT rights in the United States, which opened the door for the advancement of LGBT rights worldwide.", "'''Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender''' ('''LGBT''') '''movements''' are social movements that advocate for LGBT people in society.", "Although there is not a primary or an overarching central organization that represents all LGBT people and their interests, numerous LGBT rights organizations are active worldwide.", "The first organization to promote LGBT rights was the Scientific-Humanitarian Committee, founded in 1897 in Berlin.A commonly stated goal among these movements is equal rights for LGBT people, often focusing on specific goals such as ending the criminalization of homosexuality or enacting same-sex marriage.", "Others have focused on building LGBT communities or worked towards liberation for the broader society from biphobia, homophobia, and transphobia.", "LGBT movements organized today are made up of a wide range of political activism and cultural activity, including lobbying, street marches, social groups, media, art, and research." ], [ "Overview", "An LGBT protest in 2014Sociologist Mary Bernstein writes: \"For the lesbian and gay movement, then, cultural goals include (but are not limited to) challenging dominant constructions of masculinity and femininity, homophobia, and the primacy of the gendered heterosexual nuclear family (heteronormativity).", "Political goals include changing laws and policies to gain new rights, benefits, and protections from harm\".", "Bernstein emphasizes that activists seek both types of goals in both the civil and political spheres.As with other social movements, there is also conflict within and between LGBT movements, especially about strategies for change and debates over exactly who represents the constituency of these movements, and this also applies to changing education.", "There is debate over the extent that lesbians, gays, bisexuals, transgender people, intersex people, and others share common interests and a need to work together.", "Leaders of the lesbian and gay movement of the 1970s, '80s and '90s often attempted to hide masculine lesbians, feminine gay men, transgender people, and bisexuals from the public eye, creating internal divisions within LGBT communities.", "Roffee and Waling (2016) documented that LGBT people experience microaggressions, bullying and anti-social behaviors from other people within the LGBT community.", "This is due to misconceptions and conflicting views as to what entails \"LGBT\".", "For example, transgender people found that other members of the community were not understanding toward their own, individual, specific needs and would instead make ignorant assumptions, and this could cause health risks.", "Additionally, bisexual people found that lesbian or gay people were not understanding or appreciative of bisexual sexuality.", "Evidently, even though most of these people would say that they stand for the same values as the majority of the community, there are still remaining inconsistencies even within the LGBT community.LGBT movements have often adopted a kind of identity politics that sees gay, bisexual, and transgender people as a fixed class of people; a minority group or groups, and this is very common among LGBT communities.", "Those using this approach aspire to liberal political goals of freedom and equal opportunity, and aim to join the political mainstream on the same level as other groups in society.", "In arguing that sexual orientation and gender identity are innate and cannot be consciously changed, attempts to change gay, lesbian, and bisexual people into heterosexuals (\"conversion therapy\") are generally opposed by the LGBT community.", "Such attempts are often based on religious beliefs that perceive gay, lesbian, and bisexual activity as immoral.", "Religion has, however, never been univocal opposed to either homosexuality, bisexuality or transgenderism, usually treating sex between men and sex between women differently.", "As of today, numerous religious communities and many believers in other religions are generally accepting of LGBT rights.However, others within LGBT movements have criticized identity politics as limited and flawed, elements of the queer movement have argued that the categories of gay and lesbian are restrictive, and attempted to deconstruct those categories, which are seen to \"reinforce rather than challenge a cultural system that will always mark the non heterosexual as inferior.", "\"After the French Revolution the anticlerical feeling in Catholic countries coupled with the liberalizing effect of the Napoleonic Code made it possible to sweep away sodomy laws.", "However, in Protestant countries, where the church was less severe, there was no general reaction against statutes that were religious in origin.", "As a result, many of those countries retained their statutes on sodomy until late in the 20th century.", "However, some countries have still retained their statutes on sodomy.", "For example, in 2008 a case in India's High Court was judged using a 150-year-old reading that was punishing sodomy." ], [ "History", "=== Enlightenment era ===In eighteenth- and nineteenth-century Europe, same-sex sexual behavior and cross-dressing were widely considered to be socially unacceptable, and were serious crimes under sodomy and sumptuary laws.", "There were, however, some exceptions.", "For example, in the 17th-century cross-dressing was common in plays, as evident in the content of many of William Shakespeare's plays and by the actors in actual performance (since female roles in Elizabethan theater were always performed by males, usually prepubescent boys).Thomas Cannon wrote what may be the earliest published defense of homosexuality in English, ''Ancient and Modern Pederasty Investigated and Exemplify'd'' (1749).", "Although only fragments of his work have survived, it was a humorous anthology of homosexual advocacy, written with an obvious enthusiasm for its subject.", "It contains the argument: \"Unnatural Desire is a Contradiction in Terms; downright Nonsense.", "Desire is an amatory Impulse of the inmost human Parts: Are not they, however, constructed, and consequently impelling Nature?", "\"Jeremy Bentham, an early advocate for the decriminalization of homosexualitySocial reformer Jeremy Bentham wrote the first known argument for homosexual law reform in England around 1785, at a time when the legal penalty for buggery was death by hanging.", "His advocacy stemmed from his utilitarian philosophy, in which the morality of an action is determined by the net consequence of that action on human well-being.", "He argued that homosexuality was a victimless crime, and therefore not deserving of social approbation or criminal charges.", "He regarded popular negative attitudes against homosexuality as an irrational prejudice, fanned and perpetuated by religious teachings.", "However, he did not publicize his views as he feared reprisal; his powerful essay was not published until 1978.The emerging currents of secular humanist thought that had inspired Bentham also informed the French Revolution, and when the newly formed National Constituent Assembly began drafting the policies and laws of the new republic in 1792, groups of militant \"sodomite-citizens\" in Paris petitioned the Assemblée nationale, the governing body of the French Revolution, for freedom and recognition.", "In 1791, France became the first nation to decriminalize homosexuality, probably thanks in part to Jean Jacques Régis de Cambacérès, who was one of the authors of the Napoleonic Code.", "With the introduction of the Napoleonic Code in 1808, the Duchy of Warsaw also decriminalized homosexuality.In 1830, the new Penal Code of the Brazilian Empire did not repeat the title XIII of the fifth book of the \"Ordenações Philipinas\", which made sodomy a crime.", "In 1833, an anonymous English-language writer wrote a poetic defense of Captain Nicholas Nicholls, who had been sentenced to death in London for sodomy:Whence spring these inclinations, rank and strong?And harming no one, wherefore call them wrong?Three years later in Switzerland, Heinrich Hoessli published the first volume of ''Eros: Die Männerliebe der Griechen'' (English: \"Eros: The Male Love of the Greeks\"), another defense of same-sex love.=== Emergence of LGBT movement ===Karl Heinrich Ulrichs, German gay rights activist of the 1860sIn many ways, social attitudes to homosexuality became more hostile during the late Victorian era.", "In 1885, the Labouchere Amendment was included in the Criminal Law Amendment Act, which criminalized 'any act of gross indecency with another male person'; a charge that was successfully invoked to convict playwright Oscar Wilde in 1895 with the most severe sentence possible under the Act.The first person known to describe himself as a drag queen was William Dorsey Swann, born enslaved in Hancock, Maryland.", "Swann was the first American on record who pursued legal and political action to defend the LGBTQ community's right to assemble.", "During the 1880s and 1890s, Swann organized a series of drag balls in Washington, D.C. Swann was arrested in police raids numerous times, including in the first documented case of arrests for female impersonation in the United States, on April 12, 1888.From the 1870s, social reformers began to defend homosexuality, but due to the controversial nature of their advocacy, kept their identities secret.", "The Uranian poets and prose writers, who sought to rehabilitate the love between men and boys and in doing so often appealed to Ancient Greece, formed a rather cohesive group with a well-expressed philosophy.", "A secret British society called the Order of Chaeronea campaigned for the legalization of homosexuality.", "The society was founded in 1897 by George Cecil Ives, one of the earliest gay rights campaigners, who had been working for the end of oppression of homosexuals, what he called the \"Cause\".", "Members included Oscar Wilde, Charles Kains Jackson, Samuel Elsworth Cottam, Montague Summers, and John Gambril Nicholson.", "Ives met Wilde at the Authors' Club in London in 1892.Wilde was taken by his boyish looks and persuaded him to shave off his mustache, and once kissed him passionately in the Travellers' Club.", "In 1893, Lord Alfred Douglas, with whom he had a brief affair, introduced Ives to several Oxford poets whom Ives also tried to recruit.John Addington Symonds was a poet and an early advocate of male love.", "In 1873, he wrote ''A Problem in Greek Ethics'', a work of what would later be called \"gay history.\"", "Although the ''Oxford English Dictionary'' credits the medical writer C.G.", "Chaddock for introducing \"homosexual\" into the English language in 1892, Symonds had already used the word in ''A Problem in Greek Ethics''.Symonds also translated classical poetry on homoerotic themes, and wrote poems drawing on ancient Greek imagery and language such as ''Eudiades'', which has been called \"the most famous of his homoerotic poems\".", "While the taboos of Victorian England prevented Symonds from speaking openly about homosexuality, his works published for a general audience contained strong implications and some of the first direct references to male-male sexual love in English literature.", "By the end of his life, Symonds' homosexuality had become an open secret in Victorian literary and cultural circles.", "In particular, Symonds' memoirs, written over a four-year period, from 1889 to 1893, form one of the earliest known works of self-conscious homosexual autobiography in English.", "The recently decoded autobiographies of Anne Lister are an earlier example in English.Another friend of Ives was the English socialist poet Edward Carpenter.", "Carpenter thought that homosexuality was an innate and natural human characteristic and that it should not be regarded as a sin or a criminal offense.", "In the 1890s, Carpenter began a concerted effort to campaign against discrimination on the grounds of sexual orientation, possibly in response to the recent death of Symonds, whom he viewed as his campaigning inspiration.", "His 1908 book on the subject, ''The Intermediate Sex'', would become a foundational text of the LGBT movements of the 20th century.", "Scottish anarchist John Henry Mackay also wrote in defense of same-sex love and androgyny.English sexologist Havelock Ellis wrote the first objective scientific study of homosexuality in 1897, in which he treated it as a neutral sexual condition.", "Called ''Sexual Inversion'' it was first printed in German and then translated into English a year later.", "In the book, Ellis argued that same-sex relationships could not be characterized as a pathology or a crime and that its importance rose above the arbitrary restrictions imposed by society.", "He also studied what he called 'inter-generational relationships' and that these also broke societal taboos on age difference in sexual relationships.", "The book was so controversial at the time that one bookseller was charged in court for holding copies of the work.", "It is claimed that Ellis coined the term 'homosexual', but in fact he disliked the word due to its conflation of Greek and Latin.These early proponents of LGBT rights, such as Carpenter, were often aligned with a broader socio-political movement known as 'free love'; a critique of Victorian sexual morality and the traditional institutions of family and marriage that were seen to enslave women.", "Some advocates of free love in the early 20th century, including Russian anarchist and feminist Emma Goldman, also spoke in defense of same-sex love and challenged repressive legislation.An early LGBT movement also began in Germany at the turn of the 20th century, centering on the doctor and writer Magnus Hirschfeld.", "In 1897 he formed the Scientific-Humanitarian Committee campaign publicly against the notorious law \"Paragraph 175\", which made sex between men illegal.", "Adolf Brand later broke away from the group, disagreeing with Hirschfeld's medical view of the \"intermediate sex\", seeing male-male sex as merely an aspect of manly virility and male social bonding.", "Brand was the first to use \"outing\" as a political strategy, claiming that German Chancellor Bernhard von Bülow engaged in homosexual activity.May 14, 1928, issue of German lesbian periodical ''Die Freundin'' (''The Girlfriend'')The 1901 book ''Sind es Frauen?", "Roman über das Dritte Geschlecht'' (English: ''Are These Women?", "Novel about the Third Sex'') by Aimée Duc was as much a political treatise as a novel, criticizing pathological theories of homosexuality and gender inversion in women.", "Anna Rüling, delivering a public speech in 1904 at the request of Hirschfeld, became the first female Uranian activist.", "Rüling, who also saw \"men, women, and homosexuals\" as three distinct genders, called for an alliance between the women's and sexual reform movements, but this speech is her only known contribution to the cause.", "Women only began to join the previously male-dominated sexual reform movement around 1910 when the German government tried to expand Paragraph 175 to outlaw sex between women.", "Heterosexual feminist leader Helene Stöcker became a prominent figure in the movement.", "Friedrich Radszuweit published LGBT literature and magazines in Berlin (e.g., ''Die Freundin'').Hirschfeld, whose life was dedicated to social progress for people who were transsexual, transvestite and homosexual, formed the Institut für Sexualwissenschaft (Institute for Sexology) in 1919.The institute conducted an enormous amount of research, saw thousands of transgender and homosexual clients at consultations, and championed a broad range of sexual reforms including sex education, contraception and women's rights.", "However, the gains made in Germany would soon be drastically reversed with the rise of Nazism, and the institute and its library were destroyed in 1933.The Swiss journal Der Kreis was the only part of the movement to continue through the Nazi era.USSR's Criminal Code of 1922 decriminalized homosexuality.", "This was a remarkable step in the USSR at the time – which was very backward economically and socially, and where many conservative attitudes towards sexuality prevailed.", "This step was part of a larger project of freeing sexual relationships and expanding women's rights – including legalizing abortion, granting divorce on demand, equal rights for women, and attempts to socialize housework.", "During Stalin's era, however, USSR reverted all these progressive measures – re-criminalizing homosexuality and imprisoning gay men and banning abortion.In 1928, English writer Radclyffe Hall published a novel titled ''The Well of Loneliness''.", "Its plot centers on Stephen Gordon, a woman who identifies herself as an invert after reading Krafft-Ebing's ''Psychopathia Sexualis'', and lives within the homosexual subculture of Paris.", "The novel included a foreword by Havelock Ellis and was intended to be a call for tolerance for inverts by publicizing their disadvantages and accidents of being born inverted.", "Hall subscribed to Ellis and Krafft-Ebing's theories and rejected (conservatively understood version of) Freud's theory that same-sex attraction was caused by childhood trauma and was curable.In the United States, several secret or semi-secret groups were formed explicitly to advance the rights of homosexuals as early as the turn of the 20th century, but little is known about them.", "A better documented group is Henry Gerber's Society for Human Rights formed in Chicago in 1924, which was quickly suppressed.=== Homophile movement (1945–1969) ===The Ladder'' from October 1957.The motif of masks and unmasking was prevalent in the homophile era, prefiguring the political strategy of coming out and giving the Mattachine Society its name.Immediately following World War II, a number of homosexual rights groups came into being or were revived across the Western world, in Britain, France, Germany, the Netherlands, the Scandinavian countries and the United States.", "These groups usually preferred the term ''homophile'' to ''homosexual'', emphasizing love over sex.", "The homophile movement began in the late 1940s with groups in the Netherlands and Denmark, and continued throughout the 1950s and 1960s with groups in Sweden, Norway, the United States, France, Britain and elsewhere.", "ONE, Inc., the first public homosexual organization in the U.S., was bankrolled by the wealthy transsexual man Reed Erickson.", "A U.S. transgender rights journal, ''Transvestia: The Journal of the American Society for Equality in Dress'', also published two issues in 1952.The homophile movement lobbied to establish a prominent influence in political systems of social acceptability.", "Radicals of the 1970s would later disparage the homophile groups for being assimilationist.", "Any demonstrations were orderly and polite.", "By 1969, there were dozens of homophile organizations and publications in the U.S., and a national organization had been formed, but they were largely ignored by the media.", "A 1965 gay march held in front of Independence Hall in Philadelphia, according to some historians, marked the beginning of the modern gay rights movement.", "Meanwhile, in San Francisco, the LGBT youth organization Vanguard was formed by Adrian Ravarour to demonstrate for equality, and Vanguard members protested for equal rights during the months of April–July 1966, followed by the August 1966 Compton's riot, where transgender street prostitutes in the poor neighborhood of Tenderloin rioted against police harassment at a popular all-night restaurant, Gene Compton's Cafeteria.The Wolfenden Report was published in Britain on September 4, 1957, after publicized convictions for homosexuality of well-known men, including Edward Montagu-Scott, 3rd Baron Montagu of Beaulieu.", "Disregarding the conventional ideas of the day, the committee recommended that \"homosexual behaviour between consenting adults in private should no longer be a criminal offence\".", "All but James Adair were in favor of this and, contrary to some medical and psychiatric witnesses' evidence at that time, found that \"homosexuality cannot legitimately be regarded as a disease, because in many cases it is the only symptom and is compatible with full mental health in other respects.\"", "The report added, \"The law's function is to preserve public order and decency, to protect the citizen from what is offensive or injurious, and to provide sufficient safeguards against exploitation and corruption of others ...", "It is not, in our view, the function of the law to intervene in the private life of citizens, or to seek to enforce any particular pattern of behavior.", "\"The report eventually led to the introduction of the Sexual Offences Bill 1967 supported by Labour MP Roy Jenkins, then the Labour Home Secretary.", "When passed, the Sexual Offenses Act decriminalized homosexual acts between two men over 21 years of age ''in private'' in England and Wales.", "The seemingly innocuous phrase 'in private' led to the prosecution of participants in sex acts involving three or more men, e.g.", "the Bolton 7 who were so convicted as recently as 1998.Bisexual activism became more visible toward the end of the 1960s in the United States.", "In 1966 bisexual activist Robert A. Martin (also known as Donny the Punk) founded the Student Homophile League at Columbia University and New York University.", "In 1967 Columbia University officially recognized this group, thus making them the first college in the United States to officially recognize a gay student group.", "Activism on behalf of bisexuals in particular also began to grow, especially in San Francisco.", "One of the earliest organizations for bisexuals, the Sexual Freedom League in San Francisco, was facilitated by Margo Rila and Frank Esposito beginning in 1967.Two years later, during a staff meeting at a San Francisco mental health facility serving LGBT people, nurse Maggi Rubenstein came out as bisexual.", "Due to this, bisexuals began to be included in the facility's programs for the first time.=== Gay Liberation movement (1969–1974) ===Gay liberation demonstration in Washington, D.C., in the early 1970sThe new social movements of the sixties, such as the Black Power and anti-Vietnam war movements in the US, the May 1968 insurrection in France, and Women's Liberation throughout the Western world, inspired many LGBT activists to become more radical, and the Gay Liberation movement emerged towards the end of the decade.", "This new radicalism is often attributed to the Stonewall riots of 1969, when a group of gay men, lesbians, drag queens and transgender women at a bar in New York City resisted a police raid.Immediately after Stonewall, such groups as the Gay Liberation Front (GLF) and the Gay Activists' Alliance (GAA) were formed.", "Their use of the word ''gay'' represented a new unapologetic defiance—as an antonym for ''straight'' (\"respectable sexual behavior\"), it encompassed a range of non-normative sexuality and sought ultimately to free the bisexual potential in everyone, rendering obsolete the categories of homosexual and heterosexual.", "According to Gay Lib writer Toby Marotta, \"their Gay political outlooks were not homophile but liberationist\".", "\"Out, loud and proud,\" they engaged in colorful street theater.", "The GLF's \"A Gay Manifesto\" set out the aims for the fledgling gay liberation movement, and influential intellectual Paul Goodman published \"The Politics of Being Queer\" (1969).", "Chapters of the GLF were established across the U.S. and in other parts of the Western world.", "The Front homosexuel d'action révolutionnaire was formed in 1971 by lesbians who split from the Mouvement Homophile de France.The Gay liberation movement overall, like the gay community generally and historically, has had varying degrees of gender nonconformity and assimilationist platforms among its members.", "Early marches by the Mattachine society and Daughters of Bilitis stressed looking \"respectable\" and mainstream, and after the Stonewall Uprising the Mattachine Society posted a sign in the window of the club calling for peace.", "Gender nonconformity has always been a primary way of signaling homosexuality and bisexuality, and by the late 1960s and mainstream fashion was increasingly incorporating what by the 1970s would be considered \"unisex\" fashions.", "In 1970, the drag queen caucus of the GLF, including Marsha P. Johnson and Sylvia Rivera, formed the group Street Transvestite Action Revolutionaries (STAR), which focused on providing support for gay prisoners, housing for homeless gay youth and street people, especially other young \"street queens\".", "In 1969, Lee Brewster and Bunny Eisenhower formed the Queens Liberation Front (QLF), partially in protest to the treatment of the drag queens at the first Christopher Street Liberation Day March.One of the values of the movement was gay pride.", "Within weeks of the Stonewall Riots, Craig Rodwell, proprietor of the Oscar Wilde Memorial Bookshop in lower Manhattan, persuaded the Eastern Regional Conference of Homophile Organizations (ERCHO) to replace the Fourth of July Annual Reminder at Independence Hall in Philadelphia with a first commemoration of the Stonewall Riots.", "Liberation groups, including the Gay Liberation Front, Queens, the Gay Activists Alliance, Radicalesbians, and Street Transvestites Action Revolutionaries (STAR) all took part in the first Gay Pride Week.", "Los Angeles held a big parade on the first Gay Pride Day.", "Smaller demonstrations were held in San Francisco, Chicago, and Boston.GLF cover version of ''Ink'' magazine, printed in LondonIn the United Kingdom the GLF had its first meeting in the basement of the London School of Economics on October 13, 1970.Bob Mellors and Aubrey Walter had seen the effect of the GLF in the United States and created a parallel movement based on revolutionary politics and alternative lifestyle.By 1971, the UK GLF was recognized as a political movement in the national press, holding weekly meetings of 200 to 300 people.", "The GLF Manifesto was published, and a series of high-profile direct actions, were carried out.The disruption of the opening of the 1971 Festival of Light was the best organized of GLF action.", "The Festival of Light, whose leading figures included Mary Whitehouse, met at Methodist Central Hall.", "Groups of GLF members in drag invaded and spontaneously kissed each other; others released mice, sounded horns, and unveiled banners, and a contingent dressed as workmen obtained access to the basement and shut off the lights.In 1971, the gay liberation movement in Germany and Switzerland started with Rosa von Praunheims movie It Is Not the Homosexual Who Is Perverse, But the Society in Which He Lives.Easter 1972 saw the Gay Lib annual conference held in the Guild of Undergraduates Union (students union) building at the University of Birmingham.In May 1974 the American Psychiatric Association, after years of pressure from activists, changed the wording concerning homosexuality in the Sixth printing of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders from a \"mental disorder\" to that of a \"sexual orientation disturbance\".", "While still not a flattering description, it took gay people out of the category of being automatically considered mentally ill simply for their sexual orientation.", "By 1974, internal disagreements had led to the movement's splintering.", "Organizations that spun off from the movement included the London Lesbian and Gay Switchboard, ''Gay News'', and Icebreakers.", "The GLF Information Service continued for a few further years providing gay related resources.", "GLF branches had been set up in some provincial British towns (e.g., Bradford, Bristol, Leeds, and Leicester) and some survived for a few years longer.", "The Leicester group founded by Jeff Martin was noted for its involvement in the setting up of the local \"Gayline\", which is still active today and has received funding from the National Lottery.", "They also carried out a high-profile campaign against the local paper, the ''Leicester Mercury'', which refused to advertise Gayline's services at the time.In 1972, Sweden became the first country in the world to allow people who were transsexual by legislation to surgically change their sex and provide free hormone replacement therapy.", "Sweden also permitted the age of consent for same-sex partners to be at age 15, making it equal to heterosexual couples.In Japan, LGBT groups were established in the 1970s.", "In 1971, Ken Togo ran for the Upper House election.=== LGBT rights movement (1972–present) ===Legalization of LGBT sex, civil unions and marriages in Europe from 1900 to 2021==== 1972–1986 ====Bisexuals became more visible in the LGBT rights movement in the 1970s.", "In 1972 a Quaker group, the Committee of Friends on Bisexuality, issued the \"Ithaca Statement on Bisexuality\" supporting bisexuals.", "In that same year the National Bisexual Liberation Group formed in New York.", "In 1976 the San Francisco Bisexual Center opened.From the radical Gay Liberation movement of the early 1970s arose a more reformist and single-issue Gay Rights movement, which portrayed gays and lesbians as a minority group and used the language of civil rights—in many respects continuing the work of the homophile period.", "In Berlin, for example, the radical was eclipsed by the .Gay and lesbian rights advocates argued that one's sexual orientation does not reflect on one's gender; that is, \"you can be a man and desire a man... without any implications for your gender identity as a man,\" and the same is true if you are a woman.", "Gays and lesbians were presented as identical to heterosexuals in all ways but private sexual practices, and butch \"bar dykes\" and flamboyant \"street queens\" were seen as negative stereotypes of lesbians and gays.", "Veteran activists such as Sylvia Rivera and Beth Elliot were sidelined or expelled because they were transgender.In 1974, Maureen Colquhoun came out as the first Lesbian Member of Parliament (MP) for the Labour Party in the UK.", "When elected she was married in a heterosexual marriage.In 1975, the groundbreaking film portraying homosexual gay icon Quentin Crisp's life, ''The Naked Civil Servant'', was transmitted by Thames Television for the British Television channel ITV.", "The British journal ''Gay Left'' also began publication.", "After British Home Stores sacked an openly gay trainee Tony Whitehead, a national campaign subsequently picketed their stores in protest.In 1977, Harvey Milk was elected to the San Francisco Board of Supervisors becoming the first openly gay man in the State of California to be elected to public office.", "Milk was assassinated by a former city supervisor Dan White in 1978.In 1977, a former Miss America contestant and orange juice spokesperson, Anita Bryant, began a campaign \"Save Our Children\", in Dade County, Florida (greater Miami), which proved to be a major setback in the Gay Liberation movement.", "Essentially, she established an organization which put forth an amendment to the laws of the county which resulted in the firing of many public school teachers on the suspicion that they were homosexual.In 1979, a number of people in Sweden called in sick with a case of ''being homosexual,'' in protest of homosexuality being classified as an illness.", "This was followed by an activist occupation of the main office of the National Board of Health and Welfare.", "Within a few months, Sweden became the first country in the world to remove homosexuality as an illness.Between 1980 and 1988, the international gay community rallied behind Eliane Morissens, a Belgian lesbian who had been fired from her teaching post for coming out on television and bringing attention to employment discrimination.", "The case prompted protests, articles, and fundraising events throughout Europe and the Americas.", "Articles were carried in Toronto's ''The Body Politic'', the ''Gay Community News'' of Boston; and the ''San Francisco Sentinel''.", "The French magazine ''Gai pied'' created a support network to organize demonstrations and launched a petition drive for subscribers and members of the International Gay Association (IGA) to call on the Council of Europe to renounce discrimination against homosexuals.", "The International Lesbian Information Service (ILIS) published information in their newsletter about letter-writing campaigns, and organized fund-raisers and solidarity protests to help pay for Morissens' legal and personal expenses and bring attention to the case.", "Both ILIS and IGA lobbied European teachers' unions in support of Morissens.", "Though Morissens appealed the school board decision to the local council; the highest court in Belgium, Council of State; and the European Court of Human Rights, her termination was upheld at every level.", "The LGBT community was disappointed in the outcome because each court of appeal refused to recognize or examine whether employment discrimination had occurred, accepting the employer's version of events, and narrowly examining freedom of expression.Lesbian feminism, which was most influential from the mid-1970s to the mid-1980s, encouraged women to direct their energies toward other women rather than men, and advocated lesbianism as the logical result of feminism.", "As with Gay Liberation, this understanding of the lesbian potential in all women was at odds with the minority-rights framework of the Gay Rights movement.", "Many women of the Gay Liberation movement felt frustrated at the domination of the movement by men and formed separate organisations; some who felt gender differences between men and women could not be resolved developed \"lesbian separatism,\" influenced by writings such as Jill Johnston's 1973 book ''Lesbian Nation''.", "Organizers at the time focused on this issue.", "Diane Felix, also known as DJ Chili D in the Bay Area club scene, is a Latino American lesbian once joined the Latino American queer organization GALA.", "She was known for creating entertainment spaces specifically for queer women, especially in Latino American community.", "These places included gay bars in San Francisco such as A Little More and Colors.", "Disagreements between different political philosophies were, at times, extremely heated, and became known as the lesbian sex wars, clashing in particular over views on sadomasochism, prostitution and transsexuality.", "The term \"gay\" came to be more strongly associated with homosexual males.In Canada, the coming into effect of Section 15 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms in 1985 saw a shift in the gay rights movement in Canada, as Canadian gays and lesbians moved from liberation to litigious strategies.", "Premised on Charter protections and on the notion of the immutability of homosexuality, judicial rulings rapidly advanced rights, including those that compelled the Canadian government to legalize same-sex marriage.", "It has been argued that while this strategy was extremely effective in advancing the safety, dignity and equality of Canadian homosexuals, its emphasis of sameness came at the expense of difference and may have undermined opportunities for more meaningful change.Mark Segal, often referred to as the dean of American gay journalism, disrupted the CBS evening news with Walter Cronkite in 1973, an event covered in newspapers across the country and viewed by 60% of American households, many seeing or hearing about homosexuality for the first time.Another setback in the United States occurred in 1986, when the US Supreme Court upheld a Georgia anti-sodomy law in the case ''Bowers v. Hardwick''.", "(This ruling would be overturned two decades later in \"Lawrence v. Texas\").==== 1987–2000 ====rainbow flag===== AIDS pandemic =====Some historians posit that a new era of the gay rights movement began in the 1980s with the emergence of AIDS.", "As gay men became seriously ill and died in ever-increasing numbers, and many lesbian activists became their caregivers, the leadership of many organizations was decimated.", "Other organizations shifted their energies to focus their efforts on AIDS.", "This era saw a resurgence of militancy with direct action groups like AIDS Coalition to Unleash Power (ACT UP), formed in 1987, as well as its offshoots Queer Nation (1990) and the Lesbian Avengers (1992).", "Some younger activists, seeing ''gay and lesbian'' as increasingly normative and politically conservative, began using ''queer'' as a defiant statement of all sexual minorities and gender variant people—just as the earlier liberationists had done with ''gay''.", "Less confrontational terms that attempt to reunite the interests of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender people also became prominent, including various acronyms like ''LGBT'', ''LGBTQ'', and ''LGBTI'', where the ''Q'' and ''I'' stand for ''queer'' or ''questioning'' and ''intersex'', respectively.===== Warrenton \"War Conference\" =====A \"War Conference\" of 200 gay leaders was held in Warrenton, Virginia, in 1988.The closing statement of the conference set out a plan for a media campaign: The statement also called for an annual planning conference \"to help set and modify our national agenda.\"", "The Human Rights Campaign lists this event as a milestone in gay history and identifies it as where National Coming Out Day originated.On June 24, 1994, the first Gay Pride march was celebrated in Asia in the Philippines.", "In the Middle East, LGBT organizations remain illegal, and LGBT rights activists face extreme opposition from the state.", "The 1990s also saw the emergence of many LGBT youth movements and organizations such as LGBT youth centers, gay–straight alliances in high schools, and youth-specific activism, such as the National Day of Silence.", "Colleges also became places of LGBT activism and support for activists and LGBT people in general, with many colleges opening LGBT centers.The 1990s also saw a rapid push of the transgender movement, while at the same time a \"sidelining of the identity of those who are transsexual.\"", "In the English-speaking world, Leslie Feinberg published ''Transgender Liberation: A Movement Whose Time Has Come'' in 1992.Gender-variant peoples across the globe also formed minority rights movements.", "Hijra activists campaigned for recognition as a third sex in India and Travesti groups began to organize against police brutality across Latin America while activists in the United States formed direct-confrontation groups such as the Transexual Menace.==== 21st century ===='''Laws concerning gender identity-expression by country or territory,''' ===== Same-sex marriage =====, same-sex marriages are recognized in the Netherlands, Belgium, Spain, Canada, South Africa, Norway, Sweden, Portugal, Iceland, Argentina, Mexico, Denmark, Brazil, France, Uruguay, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, Luxembourg, Ireland, the United States, Colombia, Finland, Germany, Malta, Australia, Austria, Taiwan, Ecuador, Costa Rica, Switzerland, Chile, Slovenia, Cuba, Andorra, Estonia, and Greece.The Netherlands was the first country to allow same-sex marriage in 2001.Following with Belgium in 2003 and Spain and Canada in 2005.South Africa became the first African nation to legalize same-sex marriage in 2006, and is currently the only African nation where same-sex marriage is legal.", "Despite this uptick in tolerance of the LGBT community in South Africa, so-called corrective rapes have become prevalent in response, primarily targeting the poorer women who live in townships and those who have no recourse in responding to the crimes because of the notable lack of police presence and prejudice they may face for reporting assaults.On 22 October 2009, the assembly of the Church of Sweden, voted strongly in favour of giving its blessing to homosexual couples, including the use of the term marriage, (\"matrimony\").Iceland became the first country in the world to legalize same-sex marriage through a unanimous vote: 49–0, on 11 June 2010.A month later, Argentina became the first country in Latin America to legalize same-sex marriage.On 26 June 2015, in ''Obergefell v. Hodges'', the U.S. Supreme Court ruled 5-to-4 that the Constitution requires that same-sex couples be allowed to marry no matter where they live in the United States.", "With this ruling, the United States became the 17th country to legalize same-sex marriages entirely.Between 12 September and 7 November 2017, Australia held a national survey on the subject of same sex marriage; 61.6% of respondents supported legally recognizing same-sex marriage nationwide.", "This cleared the way for a private member's bill to be debated in the federal parliament.In 2019, Taiwan became the first country in Asia to allow same-sex marriage.", "There has been a legal movement attempting to recognise marriage equality in Japan.===== Other rights =====In 2003, in the case ''Lawrence v. Texas'', the Supreme Court of the United States struck down sodomy laws in fourteen states, making consensual homosexual sex legal in all 50 states, a significant step forward in LGBT activism and one that had been fought for by activists since the inception of modern LGBT social movements.From November 6 to 9, 2006, The Yogyakarta Principles on application of international human rights law in relation to sexual orientation and gender identity was adopted by an international meeting of 29 specialists in Yogyakarta, the International Commission of Jurists and the International Service for Human Rights.During this same period, some municipalities have been enacting laws against homosexuality.", "For example, Rhea County, Tennessee, unsuccessfully tried to \"ban homosexuals\" in 2006.The 1993 \"Don't ask, don't tell\" law, forbidding homosexual people from serving openly in the United States military, was repealed in 2010.This meant that gays and lesbians could now serve openly in the military without any fear of being discharged because of their sexual orientation.", "In 2012, the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development's Office of Fair Housing and Equal Opportunity issued a regulation to prohibit discrimination in federally-assisted housing programs.", "The new regulations ensure that the department's core housing programs are open to all eligible persons, regardless of sexual orientation or gender identity.The UN declaration on sexual orientation and gender identity gathered 66 signatures in the United Nations General Assembly on December 13, 2008.In early 2014 a series of protests organized by Add The Words, Idaho, and former state senator Nicole LeFavour, some including civil disobedience and concomitant arrests, took place in Boise, Idaho, which advocated adding the words \"sexual orientation\" and \"gender identity\" to the state's Human Rights act.On September 6, 2018, consensual gay sex was legalized in India by their Supreme Court.In June 2020, the United States Supreme Court ruled that the 1964 Civil Rights Act could protect gay and transgender people from workplace discrimination.", "The Bostock v. Clayton County decision found that protections guaranteed on the basis of sex could extend to sexual orientation and identity in areas like housing and employment.", "Democrats such as then-presidential candidate Joe Biden praised the decision.", "Due to a lack of federal protections, discrimination against LGBT people in public accommodation or the sale of goods and services by private businesses remains legal, leaving vulnerable those in more than half the states in the U.S.In October 2020, the Council of Europe's Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity (SOGI) Unit, along with the European Court of Human Rights, held a conference to mark the 70th anniversary of the European Convention on Human Rights on October 8, 2020.The entity announced launching an event called \"A 'Living Instrument' for Everyone: The Role of the European Convention on Human Rights in Advancing Equality for LGBTI persons\", focused on the progress achieved in equality for LGBTI persons in Europe through the European Convention mechanism.President Biden signed an executive order barring LGBTQ discrimination on his first day in office.", "Later the same year, Biden reversed a Trump-era policy of banning transgender people from the military, authorized embassies to fly the pride flag, and officially recognized June as Pride Month." ], [ "LGBT and human rights", "Some people worry that gay rights conflict with individuals' freedom of speech, religious freedoms in the workplace, and the ability to run churches, charitable organizations and other religious organizations that hold opposing social and cultural views to LGBT rights.", "There is also concern that religious organizations might be forced to accept and perform same-sex marriages or risk losing their tax-exempt status.Freedom of religion may, however, also protect LGBT people.", "As pointed out at the United Nations Human Rights Council in the 2023 formal report of the United Nations Independent Expert on sexual orientation and gender identity on the basis of the explanation in a 2020 article by human rights expert Dag Øistein Endsjø, adherents of denominations and belief systems who embrace LGBT-equality \"can claim that anti-LGBT manifestations of religion (such as criminalization and discrimination) not only impinge upon the right of LGBT people to be free from violence and discrimination based on SOGI sexual orientation and gender identity, but also violate the pro-LGBT denominations' own rights of freedom of religion\".", "As pointed out in this article, freedom of religion also generally protects LGBT people against religious oppression, as freedom of religion also protects the “freedom ... not to hold religious beliefs and ... not to practise a religion”.", "As the United Nations Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Religion or Belief noted in 2017, “in certain States where religion has been given ‘official’ or privileged status, other fundamental rights of individuals – especially women, religious minorities and members of the LGBTI community – are disproportionately restricted or vitiated under threat of sanctions as a result of obligatory observation of State-imposed religious orthodoxy.”" ], [ "Public opinion", "37th Annual \"Straights For Gay Rights\" in Berkeley, California, in 2013LGBT movements are opposed by a variety of individuals and organizations.", "They may have a personal, political or religious prejudice to gay rights, homosexual relations or gay people.", "Opponents say same-sex relationships are not marriages, that legalization of same-sex marriage will open the door for the legalization of polygamy, that it is unnatural and that it encourages unhealthy behavior.", "Some social conservatives believe that all sexual relationships with people other than an opposite-sex spouse undermines the traditional family and that children should be reared in homes with both a father and a mother.", "As society in some countries (mostly in Western Europe, North America, Australia, New Zealand, Japan and Taiwan) has become more accepting of homosexuality, there therefore has also been the emergence of many groups that desire to end homosexuality; during the 1990s, one of the best known groups that was established with this goal is the ex-gay movement.Anti-gay protestors in San Francisco in 2008Eric Rofes author of the book, ''A Radical Rethinking of Sexuality and Schooling: Status Quo or Status Queer?", "'', argues that the inclusion of teachings on homosexuality in public schools will play an important role in transforming public ideas about lesbian and gay individuals.", "As a former teacher in the public school system, Rofes recounts how he was fired from his teaching position after making the decision to come out as gay.", "As a result of the stigma that he faced as a gay teacher he emphasizes the necessity of the public to take radical approaches to making significant changes in public attitudes about homosexuality.", "According to Rofes, radical approaches are grounded in the belief that \"something fundamental needs to be transformed for authentic and sweeping changes to occur.", "\"The radical approaches proposed by Rofes have been met with strong opposition from anti-gay rights activists such as John Briggs.", "Former California senator, John Briggs proposed Proposition 6, a ballot initiative that would require that all California state public schools fire any gay or lesbian teachers or counselors, along with any faculty that displayed support for gay rights in an effort to prevent what he believe to be \"the corruption of the children's minds\".", "The exclusion of homosexuality from the sexual education curriculum, in addition to the absence of sexual counseling programs in public schools, has resulted in increased feelings of isolation and alienation for gay and lesbian students who desire to have gay counseling programs that will help them come to terms with their sexual orientation.", "Eric Rofes founder of youth homosexual programs, such as Out There and Committee for Gay Youth, stresses the importance of having support programs that help youth learn to identify with their sexual orientation.David Campos, author of the book, ''Sex, Youth, and Sex Education: A Reference Handbook'', illuminates the argument proposed by proponents of sexual education programs in public schools.", "Many gay rights supporters argue that teachings about the diverse sexual orientations that exist outside of heterosexuality are pertinent to creating students that are well informed about the world around them.", "However, Campos also acknowledges that the sex education curriculum alone cannot teach youth about factors associated with sexual orientation but instead he suggests that schools implement policies that create safe school learning environments and foster support for LGBT youth.", "It is his belief that schools that provide unbiased, factual information about sexual orientation, along with supportive counseling programs for these homosexual youth will transform the way society treats homosexuality.Many opponents of LGBT social movements have attributed their indifference toward homosexuality as being a result of the immoral values that it may instill in children who are exposed to homosexual individuals.", "In opposition to this claim, many proponents of increased education about homosexuality suggest that educators should refrain from teaching about sexuality in schools entirely.", "In her book entitled \"Gay and Lesbian Movement,\" Margaret Cruikshank provides statistical data from the Harris and Yankelovich polls which confirmed that over 80% of American adults believe that students should be educated about sexuality within their public school.", "In addition, the poll also found that 75% of parents believe that homosexuality and abortion should be included in the curriculum as well.", "An assessment conducted on California public school systems discovered that only 2% of all parents actually disapproved of their child being taught about sexuality in school.Anti-gay demonstrators in Poland in 2006It had been suggested that education has a positive impact on support for same sex marriage.", "African Americans statistically have lower rates of educational achievement; however, the education level of African Americans does not have as much significance on their attitude towards same-sex marriage as it does on white attitudes.", "Educational attainment among whites has a significant positive effect on support for same-sex marriage, whereas the direct effect of education among African Americans is less significant.", "The income levels of whites have a direct and positive correlation with support for same-sex marriage, but African American income level is not significantly associated with attitudes toward same-sex marriage.Parada Równości 2018, Warsaw, PolandLocation also affects ideas towards same-sex marriage; residents of rural and southern areas are significantly more opposed to same-sex marriage in comparison to residents elsewhere.", "Gays and lesbians that live in rural areas face many challenges, including: sparse populations and the traditional culture held closely by the small population of most rural areas, generally hostile social climates towards gays relative to urban areas, and less social and institution support and access compared to urban areas.", "In order to combat this problem that the LGBT community faces, social networks and apps such as Moovs have been created for \"LGBT individuals with like-minds\" that are \"enabled to connect, share, and feel the heartbeat of the community as one.", "\"In a study conducted by Darren E. Sherkat, Kylan M. de Vries, and Stacia Creek at the Southern Illinois University Carbondale, researchers found that women tend to be more consistently supportive of LGBT rights than men and that individuals that are divorced or have never married are also more likely to grant marital rights to same-sex couples than married or widowed individuals.", "They also claimed that white women are significantly more supportive than white men, but there are no gender discrepancies among African Americans.", "The year in which one was born was also found to be a strong indicator of attitude towards same-sex marriage—generations born after 1946 are considerably more supportive of same-sex marriage than older generations.", "Finally, the study reported that statistically African Americans are more opposed to same-sex marriage than any other ethnicity.Studies show that Non-Protestant Christians are much more likely to support same-sex unions than Protestants; 63% of African Americans claim that they are Baptist or Protestant, whereas only 30% of white Americans are.", "Religion, as measured by individuals' religious affiliations, behaviors, and beliefs, has a lot of influence in structuring same-sex union attitudes and consistently influences opinions about homosexuality.", "The most liberal attitudes are generally reflected by Jews, liberal Protestants, and people who are not affiliated with religion.", "This is because many of their religious traditions have not \"systematically condemned homosexual behaviors\" in recent years.", "Moderate and tolerant attitudes are generally reflected by Catholics and moderate Protestants.", "And lastly, the most conservative views are held by Evangelical Protestants.", "Moreover, it is a tendency for one to be less tolerant of homosexuality if their social network is strongly tied to a religious congregation.", "Organized religion, especially Protestant and Baptist affiliations, espouse conservative views which traditionally denounce same-sex unions.", "Therefore, these congregations are more likely to hear messages of this nature.", "Polls have also indicated that the amount and level of personal contact that individuals have with homosexual individuals and traditional morality affects attitudes of same-sex marriage and homosexuality." ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*Robert Aldrich, (ed.)", "''Gay Life and Culture: A World History''.", "London: Thames & Hudson, 2006.", "**Neil Miller.", "''Out of the Past: Gay and Lesbian history from 1869 to the present''.", "New York: Alyson Books; 2006." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Great Victoria Desert" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Great Victoria Desert''' is a sparsely populated desert ecoregion and interim Australian bioregion in Western Australia and South Australia." ], [ "History", "In 1875, British-born Australian explorer Ernest Giles became the first European to cross the desert.", "He named the desert after the then-reigning monarch, Queen Victoria.", "In 1891, David Lindsey's expedition travelled across this area from north to south.", "Frank Hann was looking for gold in this area between 1903 and 1908.Len Beadell explored the area in the 1960s." ], [ "Location and description", "NASA - Visible Earth, the Great Victoria Desert is in the center of the image, north of the Nullarbor Plain.The Great Victoria is the largest desert in Australia, and consists of many small sandhills, grassland plains, areas with a closely packed surface of pebbles (called desert pavement or gibber plains), and salt lakes.", "It is over wide (from west to east) and covers an area of from the Eastern Goldfields region of Western Australia to the Gawler Ranges in South Australia.", "The Western Australian mulga shrublands ecoregion lies to the west, the Little Sandy Desert to the northwest, the Gibson Desert and the Central Ranges xeric shrublands to the north, the Tirari-Sturt stony desert to the east, and the Nullarbor Plain to the south separates it from the Southern Ocean.", "Average annual rainfall is low and irregular, ranging from per year.", "Thunderstorms are relatively common in the Great Victoria Desert, with an average of 15–20 thunderstorms yearly.", "Summer daytime temperatures range from , while in winter, this falls to .The Great Victoria desert is a World Wildlife Fund ecoregion and an Interim Biogeographic Regionalisation for Australia region of the same name." ], [ "Habitation", "The majority of people living in the region are Indigenous Australians from different groups, including the Kogara, the Mirning and the Pitjantjatjara.", "Aboriginal populations have been increasing in this region.", "Young Indigenous adults from the Great Victoria Desert region work in the Wilurarra Creative programs to maintain and develop their culture.Despite its isolated location, the Great Victoria is bisected by very rough tracks, including the Connie Sue Highway and the Anne Beadell Highway.", "Human activity has included some mining and nuclear weapons testing." ], [ "Flora", "Only the hardiest of plants can survive in much of this environment.", "Between the sand ridges, the areas of wooded steppe consist of ''Eucalyptus gongylocarpa'', ''Eucalyptus youngiana'', and ''Acacia aneura'' (mulga) shrubs scattered over areas of resilient spinifex grasses, particularly ''Triodia basedowii''." ], [ "Fauna", "The wildlife that adapted to these harsh conditions included few large birds or mammals.", "However, the desert does sustain many types of lizards, including the vulnerable great desert skink (''Egernia kintorei''), the Central Ranges taipan (discovered in 2007), and a number of small marsupials, including the endangered sandhill dunnart ''(Sminthopsis psammophila)'' and the crest-tailed mulgara ''(Dasycercus cristicauda)''.", "One way to survive here is to burrow into the sands, as a number of the desert's animals, including the southern marsupial mole ''(Notoryctes typhlops)'', and the water-holding frog do.", "Birds include the chestnut-breasted whiteface (''Aphelocephala pectoralis'') found on the eastern edge of the desert and the malleefowl of Mamungari Conservation Park.", "Predators of the desert include the dingo (as the desert is north of the Dingo Fence) and two large monitor lizards, the perentie ''(Varanus giganteus)'' and the sand goanna ''(Varanus gouldii)''." ], [ "Conservation and threats", "As this area has had very limited use for agriculture, many habitats remain largely undisturbed.", "31% of the desert is in protected areas, including Mamungari Conservation Park (formerly known as Unnamed Conservation Park) in South Australia, a large area of pristine arid zone wilderness, which possesses cultural significance and is one of the 14 World Biosphere Reserves in Australia.", "Habitat is also preserved in the large Aboriginal local government area of Anangu Pitjantjatjara Yankunytjatjara in South Australia and in the Great Victoria Desert Nature Reserve of Western Australia.", "Protected areas include:* Antara-Sandy Bore Indigenous Protected Area* Apara-Makiri-Punti Indigenous Protected Area* De La Poer Range Nature Reserve* Gawler Ranges National Park* Gawler Ranges Conservation Park* Great Victoria Desert Nature Reserve* Kalka-Pipalyatjara Indigenous Protected Area* Lake Gairdner National Park* Mamungari Conservation Park* Mount Willoughby Indigenous Protected Area* Neale Junction Nature Reserve* Ngaanyatjarra Indigenous Protected Area* Nullarbor Regional Reserve* Plumridge Lakes Nature Reserve* Pureba Conservation Park* Queen Victoria Spring Nature Reserve* Tallaringa Conservation Park\t* Walalkara Indigenous Protected Area* Watarru Indigenous Protected Area* Yellabinna Regional Reserve* Yellabinna Wilderness Protection Area* Yeo Lake Nature Reserve* Yumbarra Conservation ParkThe nuclear weapons trials carried out by the United Kingdom at Maralinga and Emu Field in the 1950s and early 1960s have left areas contaminated with plutonium-239 and other radioactive material." ], [ "See also", "* Deserts of Australia* List of deserts by area*Tallaringa Conservation Park" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "GNU Lesser General Public License" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''GNU Lesser General Public License''' ('''LGPL''') is a free-software license published by the Free Software Foundation (FSF).", "The license allows developers and companies to use and integrate a software component released under the LGPL into their own (even proprietary) software without being required by the terms of a strong copyleft license to release the source code of their own components.", "However, any developer who modifies an LGPL-covered component is required to make their modified version available under the same LGPL license.", "For proprietary software, code under the LGPL is usually used in the form of a shared library, so that there is a clear separation between the proprietary and LGPL components.", "The LGPL is primarily used for software libraries, although it is also used by some stand-alone applications.The LGPL was developed as a compromise between the strong copyleft of the GNU General Public License (GPL) and more permissive licenses such as the BSD licenses and the MIT License.", "The word \"Lesser\" in the title shows that the LGPL does not guarantee the end user's complete freedom in the use of software; it only guarantees the freedom of modification for components licensed under the LGPL, but not for any proprietary components." ], [ "History", "The license was originally called the '''GNU Library General Public License''' and was first published in 1991, and adopted the version number 2 for parity with GPL version 2.The LGPL was revised in minor ways in the 2.1 point release, published in 1999, when it was renamed the GNU Lesser General Public License to reflect the FSF's position that not all libraries should use it.", "Version 3 of the LGPL was published in 2007 as a list of additional permissions applied to GPL version 3.In addition to the term \"work based on the Program\" of GPL, LGPL version 2 introduced two additional clarification terms \"work based on the library\" and a \"work that uses the library\".", "LGPL version 3 partially dropped these terms." ], [ "Differences from the GPL", "The main difference between the GPL and the LGPL is that the latter allows the work to be linked with (in the case of a library, \"used by\") a non-(L)GPLed program, regardless of whether it is licensed under a license of GPL family or other licenses.", "In LGPL 2.1, the non-(L)GPLed program can then be distributed under any terms if it is not a derivative work.", "If it is a derivative work, then the program's terms must allow for \"modification of the work for the customer's own use and reverse engineering for debugging such modifications\".", "Whether a work that uses an LGPL program is a derivative work or not is a legal issue.", "A standalone executable that dynamically links to a library through a .so, .dll, or similar medium is generally accepted as not being a derivative work as defined by the LGPL.", "It would fall under the definition of a \"work that uses the Library\".", "Paragraph 5 of the LGPL version 2.1 states::A program that contains no derivative of any portion of the Library, but is designed to work with the Library by being compiled or linked with it, is called a \"work that uses the Library\".", "Such a work, in isolation, is not a derivative work of the Library, and therefore falls outside the scope of this License.Essentially, if it is a \"work that uses the library\", then it must be possible for the software to be linked with a newer version of the LGPL-covered program.", "The most commonly used method for doing so is to use \"a suitable shared library mechanism for linking\".", "Alternatively, a statically linked library is allowed if either source code or linkable object files are provided." ], [ "Compatibility", "One feature of the LGPL is the permission to sublicense under the GPL any piece of software which is received under the LGPL (see section 3 of the LGPL version 2.1, and section 2 option b of the LGPL version 3).", "This feature allows for direct reuse of LGPLed code in GPLed libraries and applications.Version 3 of the LGPL is not inherently compatible with version 2 of the GPL.", "However, works using the latter that have given permission to use a later version of the GPL are compatible: a work released under the GPLv2 \"or any later version\" may be combined with code from a LGPL version 3 library, with the combined work as a whole falling under the terms of the GPLv3." ], [ "FSF recommendations on library licensing", "The former name ''GNU Library General Public License'' gave some the impression that the FSF recommended that all software libraries should use the LGPL and programs should use the GPL.", "In 1999 essay ''Why you shouldn't use the Lesser GPL for your next library'' Richard Stallman explained that while the LGPL had not been deprecated, one should not necessarily use the LGPL for all libraries, as using GPL can give advantage to free-software developers.On the other hand, the FSF sometimes advocate for even less restrictive licenses.", "For example, Stallman endorsed the use of BSD-style license by the Vorbis project in its libraries in 2001." ], [ "Programming language specifications", "The license uses terminology which is mainly intended for applications written in the C programming language or its family.", "Franz Inc., the developers of Allegro Common Lisp, published their own preamble to the license to clarify terminology in the Lisp context.", "The LGPL with this preamble is sometimes referred to as the LLGPL.In addition, Ada has a special feature, generics, which may prompt the use of the GNAT Modified General Public License (GMGPL): it allows code to link against or instantiate GMGPL-covered units without the code itself becoming covered by the GPL.C++ templates and header-only libraries have the same problem as Ada generics.", "Version 3 of the LGPL addresses such cases in section 3.===Class inheritance===Some concern has risen about the suitability of object-oriented classes in LGPL-licensed code being inherited by non-(L)GPL code.", "Clarification is given on the official GNU website::The LGPL does not contain special provisions for inheritance, because none are needed.", "Inheritance creates derivative works in the same way as traditional linking, and the LGPL permits this type of derivative work in the same way as it permits ordinary function calls." ], [ "See also", "*Affero General Public License*GNU Free Documentation License*GNAT Modified General Public License*GPL linking exception*Software using the LGPL (category)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* LGPL Official Page* Derivative Works* Lisping Copyleft: A Close Reading of the Lisp LGPL, 5 International Free and Open Source Software Law Review 15 (2013)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gosford" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Gosford''' is a waterfront city at the northern end of Brisbane Water on the Central Coast in the state of New South Wales, Australia.", "The Gosford waterfront is known for its boating and scenic views on the shores of Brisbane Water.", "Gosford is the main commercial hub and gateway of the Central Coast.", "It is situated approximately north of Sydney and south of Newcastle.", "Gosford is located in the local government area of the Central Coast Council.Gosford, locally nicknamed 'Gossie', is located in the north-eastern part of the Sydney Basin in the traditional Darkinjung Country.The regional city is one of the two shared administrative hubs of the Central Coast Council, along with Wyong.", "Gosford is the central business district of the Central Coast region and is the third largest urban area in the state of New South Wales after Sydney and Newcastle.", "Gosford has been deemed a vital CBD spine under the NSW Metropolitan Strategy following the merging of Gosford City council and Wyong Shire council in 2016, forming the current Central Coast Council administration.", "The population of the Gosford area was 169,053 in 2016." ], [ "History", "leftUntil white settlement, the area around Gosford was inhabited by the Guringai peoples, who were principally coastal-dwellers, and the Darkinjung people that inhabited the hinterland.Along with the other land around the Hawkesbury River estuary, the Brisbane Water district was explored during the early stages of the settlement of New South Wales.Henry Kendall Cottage and Historical Museum at West Gosford|leftGosford itself was explored by State Governor Arthur Phillip between 1788 and 1789.The area was difficult to access and settlement began around 1823.By the late 19th century the agriculture in the region was diversifying, with market gardens and citrus orchards occupying the rich soil left after the timber harvest.", "As late as 1850, the road between Hawkesbury (near Pittwater) and Brisbane Water was a cart wheel track.Typical of early Colonial settlement, convicts lived and worked in the Gosford area.", "In 1825, Gosford's population reached 100, of whom 50% were convicts.East Gosford was the first centre of settlement.", "Gosford was named in 1839 after Archibald Acheson, 2nd Earl of Gosford – a friend of the then Governor of New South Wales George Gipps.", "Acheson's title derives its name from Gosford, a townland (sub-division) of Markethill in County Armagh in Northern Ireland.In 1887, the Main Northern railway line to Sydney was completed, requiring a bridge over the Hawkesbury River and a tunnel through the sandstone ridge west of Woy Woy.", "The introduction of this transport link and then the Pacific Highway in 1930 accelerated the development of the region.Gosford became a town in 1885 and was declared a municipality in 1886.Rumbalara Reserve GosfordMann Street, the spine of the Gosford CBD has been the subject of much debate, with urban planners having ambitions to make Gosford a small smart regional city with various plans for a performing arts centre, greater choice in cafes and restaurants, new library, high speed rail linkage to Sydney and Newcastle, better pedestrian access from the Gosford Hospital, education and research precinct over the railway lines to Mann Street and a new Central Coast University promised at State and Federal elections.", "Availability of affordable car parking around Gosford railway station is an ongoing concern for rail commuters and visitors to Gosford CBD." ], [ "Demographics", "As of the , there were 4,873 people in Gosford CBD.", "58.1% of people were born in Australia.", "The next most common countries of birth were India 5.0%, and Nepal 4.1%.", "64.0% of people spoke only English at home.", "Other languages spoken at home included Nepali at 3.8% and Mandarin at 3.3%.", "The most common responses for religion were No Religion 40.1% and Catholic 15.8%.The Gosford Statistical Area, which incorporates the whole of Gosford's city and suburbs, includes Avoca Beach, Erina, Ettalong Beach, Kariong, Kincumber, Narara, Terrigal, Woy Woy, and Wyoming, and at the 2021 census had a population of 178,427." ], [ "Geography", "===Climate===Gosford has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification: Cfa) with warm summers and mild winters.", "In summer, temperatures average about 27–28 °C in the day with high humidity and about 17–18 °C at night.", "Winters are mild with cool overnight temperatures and mild to occasionally warm daytime temperatures with lower humidity.", "Records range from a maximum of on 18 January 2013, to a low of on 16 July 1970.Average rainfall is 1333 mm, much of which falls in the late summer and autumn.", "Rainfall is less common in late winter and early spring because of the foehn effect, as the city is located on the leeward side of the Great Dividing Range.===Central business district===Residential and commercial redevelopment along Mann Street, Gosford 2018Gosford proper is located in a valley with President's Hill on the city's western border, Rumbalara Reserve on its eastern border, and Brisbane Water to the city's south.", "Mann Street, Gosford's main street and part of the Pacific Highway, runs north-south and contains the frontage for much of the commercial district.In the centre of Gosford is a shopping and community precinct, including Kibble Park, William Street Mall, Gosford City Library, the Imperial Shopping Centre and a full range of shops, cafes, banks and services.A renewed period of optimism has followed demolition of several derelict buildings and several infrastructure investment projects including the full fibre optic telecommunications rollout of the National Broadband Network in 2012 in the city's CBD as well as the so-called Kibbleplex project, announced in 2013 that plans to house the new regional library, tertiary teaching rooms and associated organisations." ], [ "Economy and infrastructure", "Gosford District CourtGosford is situated along an identified business growth corridor between Erina, the West Gosford light industrial zone and Somersby.", "Connectivity of main roads and rail travel times between Sydney, the Central Coast and the Hunter region are key issues for corporate business relocation to the region.", "Aged and personal care and retail are major employers in Gosford.As an entertainment hub, Mann Street enjoys relatively good public transport links and is one of the Central Coast's most popular spots for pubs and clubs and in close proximity to cultural and sporting events.Yacht and other boat building has been undertaken by East Coast Yachts since 1964 in West Gosford.===Facilities===Gosford looking over Brisbane WaterCentral Coast StadiumGosford is home to:* Gosford Hospital – the largest public hospital on the NSW Central Coast* Laycock Street Community Theatre – the only professional, proscenium arch theatre venue on the Central Coast.", "Home of Gosford Musical Society who in fact provided financial support in the construction of the theatre.", "* The Central Coast Conservatorium (in the original Gosford Courthouse)* Central Coast Stadium - originally built for the North Sydney Bears of the NRL, the ground was instead the home of the unsuccessful Northern Eagles franchise from their inception in 2000 until their dissolving in 2002.Since 2005 it has been the home of the Central Coast Mariners football club.", "The ground was briefly home to the Central Coast Rays rugby union team.", "* Central Coast Leagues Club – is the largest community sporting and social club in the region* The Entertainment Grounds, formerly known as Gosford Racecourse* Gosford Showground, home to greyhound racing organised by Gosford Greyhounds and motorcycle speedway.", "* The headquarters of the Government of New South Wales workplace health and safety regulator, SafeWork NSW* Gavenlock Oval – Home ground of the Gosford City Dragons, a football club associated with Central Coast Football.", "* Gosford Regional Gallery and Gosford/Edogawa Commemorative Garden – The Commemorative Garden is a Japanese garden that was built as a gift to residents of Gosford City Council by the Ward of Edogawa, Tokyo, Japan.", "They were opened in September 1994." ], [ "Media", "===Newspapers===Express Advocate: A News Corp Australia publication suburban style newspaper in the ''News Local Group.", "''Coast Community News releases both physical newspapers and digital news for the Central Coast.===Commercial radio networks===Radio stations available in Gosford include:* Triple M Central Coast* Hit101.3 Central Coast* ABC Central Coast (part of the ABC Local Radio network)* CoastFM 96.3* Star 104.5* EVT FM – Chinese radio network" ], [ "Transport", "Gosford railway stationBus services in Gosford are operated by Busways and Red Bus Services.", "The Central Coast Highway cuts through Gosford's waterfront area, while its predecessor the, Pacific Highway, takes on several names through the CBD itself.Mann Street contains the main public transport links for Gosford, including Gosford railway station, with NSW TrainLink services twice an hour to Sydney Central and Newcastle Interchange." ], [ "Education", "*Gosford Public School and Henry Kendall High School in Faunce Street*Gosford High School – the only academically selective high school on the Central Coast* St Philip's Christian College Gosford* St Joseph's Catholic College, East Gosford is an all girls Catholic school*St Edward's College, East Gosford – is an all boys Catholic school*TAFE NSW* University of Newcastle Central Coast Clinical School" ], [ "Sport", "Gosford formerly had a professional team in the National Rugby League from 2000 until 2002, the Northern Eagles.", "The club, formed as a merger between the previously Gosford-bound North Sydney Bears and the Manly Warringah Sea Eagles, played its allocation of Gosford home matches at the purpose-built Central Coast Stadium.", "The club licence however reverted back to Manly in 2003 and the club was dissolved.The Central Coast Mariners professional football club was formed in 2005 to participate in the A-League.", "The club has won two titles to date, most recently defeating Melbourne City in the 2023 A-League Men Grand Final.Locally, Gosford is the headquarters of the Central Coast Division Rugby League, which owns the Central Coast League Club in downtown Gosford.", "The suburb of Gosford has one current club, the St. Edwards Bears, and one junior club, the Gosford Kariong Storm.", "The Storm were initially a senior club as well, formed from the merger of the Gosford Townies/Giants and the nearby Kariong Kookaburras.The Central Coast Rugby Union features eight first grade clubs and is one of the strongest local rugby union competitions in the state.The city also has local aussie rules and cricket clubs as well as basketball and Netball teams." ], [ "Notable people", "* Craig Anderson – pitcher for Sydney Blue Sox of the Australian Baseball League* Estelle Asmodelle – model, dancer, and activist.", "She is known as Australia's first legal transsexual* Cindy-Lu Bailey – deaf former Olympic athlete* Bradman Best – rugby League player for Newcastle Knights* Charlotte Best – actress, known for her role as Annie Campbell on ''Home and Away''* Anthony Biddle – Paralympian tandem cyclist and athlete* Matt Burke – former rugby union player* Alan Davidson – former Australian cricketer* Grant Denyer – Australian television and radio presenter* Bill Dunk – Professional golfer* Mark Edmondson – former tennis professional and winner of the 1976 Australian Tennis Open* David Fairleigh – former Rugby League forward, current coach of the Central Coast Bears* James Gleeson – one of Australia's earliest and most recognised surrealist painters, also a poet and art critic.", "His family lived in Narara* Des Hasler – former professional rugby league footballer, former coach of Manly Warringah Sea Eagles* Nicho Hynes – rugby league player for Cronulla Sharks* Matt Ikuvalu – rugby league player for Cronulla-Sutherland Sharks* Allyson McConnell – convicted killer who drowned her two children in Alberta, Canada* Julia Morris – actress and television host * Matt Orford – former NRL halfback* Chris Payne – footballer playing for the North Queensland Fury in the A-League* Jonah Pezet – rugby league player for the Melbourne Storm* Troy Pezet – former rugby league player * Ron Peno – Australian Punk & 1980s Rock musician; Lead Singer of Died Pretty* Brad Porter – retired Football Midfielder* Andrew Redmayne – goalkeeper for Sydney FC* Sam Retford – actor, known for his role as Cory Wilson on ''Ackley Bridge''* Mark Skaife – 5-time Supercars champion and 6-time Bathurst 1000 winner* Matthew Zions – European PGA professional golfer (2003–present), 2011 Saint-Omer Open winner" ], [ "Sister cities and twin towns", "* Edogawa, Tokyo* Nitra" ], [ "See also", "* List of cities in Australia* Electoral district of Gosford, a seat in the New South Wales Legislative Assembly" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * Love Central Coast - Official Tourism and Destination Website* Central Coast Council" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gordon Brown" ], [ "Introduction", "'''James Gordon Brown''' (born 20 February 1951) is a British politician who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom and Leader of the Labour Party from 2007 to 2010.He previously served as Chancellor of the Exchequer under Tony Blair from 1997 to 2007.He was Member of Parliament (MP) for Dunfermline East from 1983 to 2005 and, following boundary changes, Kirkcaldy and Cowdenbeath from 2005 to 2015.Brown is both the most recent Labour Party prime minister and the most recent not to be from England.A doctoral graduate, Brown studied history at the University of Edinburgh, where he was elected Rector in 1972.He spent his early career working as both a lecturer at a further education college and a television journalist.", "Brown was elected to the House of Commons at the 1983 general election as the MP for Dunfermline East, later becoming the MP for Kirkcaldy and Cowdenbeath in 2005.He joined the Shadow Cabinet in 1989 as Shadow Secretary of State for Trade, and was later promoted to become Shadow Chancellor of the Exchequer in 1992.Following Labour's victory in the 1997 general election, its largest landslide general election victory in history, Brown was appointed as Chancellor of the Exchequer, becoming the longest-serving holder of that office in modern history.Brown's time as chancellor was marked by major reform of Britain's monetary and fiscal policy architecture, transferring interest rate setting powers to the Bank of England, by a wide extension of the powers of the Treasury to cover much domestic policy and by transferring responsibility for banking supervision to the Financial Services Authority.", "Brown presided over the longest period of sustained economic growth in British history.", "He outlined five economic tests, which resisted the UK adopting the euro currency.", "Controversial moves included the abolition of advance corporation tax (ACT) relief in his first budget, the sale of UK gold reserves from 1999 to 2002, and the removal in his final budget of the 10% starting rate of personal income tax which he had introduced in 1999.Following Blair's resignation in 2007, Brown was elected unopposed to replace him, becoming Leader of the Labour Party on 24 June and being appointed prime minister three days later on 27 June.", "Under Brown, the party continued to use the campaign label New Labour, though Brown's style of government differed from that of Blair.", "Brown's government introduced rescue packages in 2008 and 2009 to help keep the banks afloat during the global financial crisis, and as a result the national debt increased dramatically.", "The government took majority shareholdings in Northern Rock and Royal Bank of Scotland, both of which experienced severe financial difficulties, and injected large amounts of public money into several other banks, including Lloyds Banking Group, which formed through the acquisition of HBOS by Lloyds TSB in 2009.In 2008, Brown's government passed the world's first Climate Change Act, and introduced the Equality Act 2010.Despite initial rises in opinion polls after Brown became prime minister, Labour's popularity declined with the onset of the Great Recession, leading to poor results in the local and European elections in 2009.In the 2010 general election, Labour lost 91 seats, the party's biggest loss of seats in a single general election since 1931, resulting in a hung parliament in which the Conservative Party won the most seats.", "Brown remained prime minister while the Liberal Democrats entered separate negotiations with Labour and the Conservatives with a view to forming a coalition government.", "After the Conservatives formed a coalition government with the Liberal Democrats, Brown was succeeded as prime minister by Conservative leader David Cameron, and as Labour Party leader by Ed Miliband.After leaving office, Brown returned to the backbenches, continuing to serve as the MP for Kirkcaldy and Cowdenbeath until he gave up his seat in 2015.He has since made occasional political interventions, and has also published several political themed books.", "Brown played a prominent role in the campaign to maintain the union between Scotland and the United Kingdom during the 2014 Scottish independence referendum, and in 2022 he wrote a report on devolution for Labour leader Keir Starmer.", "Since stepping down as an MP, Brown has served as the United Nations Special Envoy for Global Education and as Ambassador for Global Health Financing for the World Health Organization.As chancellor, Brown had high approval ratings and a poll of political scientists has rated him as the most successful chancellor in terms of providing economic stability, working independently from the prime minister and leaving a lasting legacy on the British economy.", "During the first four months of his premiership, Brown enjoyed substantial leads in the polls, but after he failed to call a snap election in 2007, his popularity fell throughout the remainder of his tenure.", "His premiership has generally been viewed as average in historical rankings and public opinion of British prime ministers." ], [ "Early life", "James Gordon Brown was born at the Orchard Maternity Nursing Home in Giffnock, Renfrewshire, Scotland.", "His father was John Ebenezer Brown (1914–1998), a minister of the Church of Scotland and a strong influence on Brown.", "His mother was Jessie Elizabeth \"Bunty\" Brown (''née'' Souter; 1918–2004); she was the daughter of John Souter, a timber merchant.", "The family moved to Kirkcaldy – then the largest town in Fife, across the Firth of Forth from Edinburgh – when Gordon was three.", "Brown was brought up there with his elder brother John and younger brother Andrew in a manse; he is therefore often referred to as a \"son of the manse\", an idiomatic Scottish phrase, similar to the American phrase \"preacher's kid\".===Education===Brown was educated first at Kirkcaldy West Primary School where he was selected for an experimental fast stream education programme, which took him two years early to Kirkcaldy High School for an academic hothouse education taught in separate classes.", "Aged 16, he wrote that he loathed and resented this \"ludicrous\" experiment on young lives.He was accepted by the University of Edinburgh to study history at the same early age of 16.During an end-of-term rugby union match at his old school, he received a kick to the head and experienced a retinal detachment.", "This left him blind in his left eye, despite treatment including several operations and weeks spent lying in a darkened room.", "Later at Edinburgh, while playing tennis, he noticed the same symptoms in his right eye.", "Brown underwent experimental surgery at the Edinburgh Royal Infirmary and his right eye was saved by a young eye surgeon, Hector Chawla.", "Brown graduated from Edinburgh with an undergraduate MA degree with First-Class Honours in history in 1972.He stayed on to obtain his PhD degree in history, which he gained ten years later in 1982, defending a thesis titled ''The Labour Party and Political Change in Scotland 1918–1929''.In his youth at the University of Edinburgh, Brown was involved in a romantic relationship with Margarita, Crown Princess of Romania.", "Margarita said about it: \"It was a very solid and romantic story.", "I never stopped loving him but one day it didn't seem right anymore, it was politics, politics, politics, and I needed nurturing.\"", "An unnamed friend of those years is quoted by Paul Routledge in his biography of Brown as recalling: \"She was sweet and gentle and obviously cut out to make somebody a very good wife.", "She was bright, too, though not like him, but they seemed made for each other.", "\"In 1972, while still a student, Brown was elected Rector of the University of Edinburgh, the convener of the University Court.", "He served as Rector until 1975, and also edited the document ''The Red Paper on Scotland''.===Career before Parliament===From 1976 to 1980 Brown was employed as a lecturer in politics at Glasgow College of Technology.", "He also worked as a tutor for the Open University.", "In the 1979 general election, Brown stood for the Edinburgh South constituency, losing to the Conservative candidate, Michael Ancram.From 1980, he worked as a journalist at Scottish Television, later serving as current affairs editor until his election to Parliament in 1983." ], [ "Election to Parliament and opposition", "Brown was elected to Parliament as a Labour MP at his second attempt, for Dunfermline East in the 1983 general election.", "His first Westminster office mate was a newly elected MP from the Sedgefield constituency, Tony Blair.", "Brown became an opposition spokesman on Trade and Industry in 1985.In 1986, he published a biography of the Independent Labour Party politician James Maxton, the subject of his doctoral thesis.", "Brown was Shadow Chief Secretary to the Treasury from 1987 to 1989 and then Shadow Secretary of State for Trade and Industry, before becoming Shadow Chancellor in 1992 following Labour's fourth consecutive defeat in the general election that year.", "Having led the ''Labour Movement Yes'' campaign, refusing to join the cross-party ''Yes for Scotland'' campaign, during the 1979 Scottish devolution referendum, while other senior Labour politicians – including Robin Cook, Tam Dalyell and Brian Wilson – campaigned for a ''No'' vote, Brown was subsequently a key participant in the Scottish Constitutional Convention, signing the Claim of Right for Scotland in 1989.Labour leader John Smith died suddenly in May 1994.Brown did not contest the leadership after Tony Blair became the favourite to win the 1994 leadership election, deciding to make way for Blair to avoid splitting the pro-modernising vote in the leadership ballot.", "It has long been rumoured a deal was struck between Blair and Brown at the former Granita restaurant in Islington, in which Blair promised to give Brown control of economic policy in return for Brown not standing against him in the leadership election.", "Whether this is true or not, the relationship between Blair and Brown was central to the fortunes of New Labour, and they mostly remained united in public, despite reported serious private rifts.As Shadow Chancellor, Brown as Chancellor-in-waiting was seen as a good choice by business and the middle class.", "During his tenure as Chancellor, the rate of inflation sometimes exceeded the 2% target; the Governor of the Bank of England, under the rules governing the Bank's role, wrote an explanatory letter to the Chancellor on each occasion inflation exceeded three per cent.", "Following a reorganisation of Westminster constituencies in Scotland in 2005, Brown became MP for Kirkcaldy and Cowdenbeath at the general election." ], [ "Chancellor of the Exchequer (1997–2007)", "his chancellorshipIn the 1997 general election, Labour defeated the Conservatives by a landslide to end their 18-year exile from government, and when Tony Blair, the new Prime Minister, announced his ministerial team on 2 May 1997, he appointed Brown as Chancellor of the Exchequer.", "Brown would remain in this role for 10 years and two months, making him the longest-serving Chancellor in modern history.", "Some achievements from Brown's decade as chancellor included making the Bank of England independent and delivering an agreement on poverty and climate change at the G8 summit in 2005.===Early economic reforms===On taking office as chancellor, Brown gave the Bank of England operational independence in monetary policy, and thus responsibility for setting interest rates through the Bank's Monetary Policy Committee.", "At the same time, he also changed the inflation measure from the Retail Price Index to the Consumer Price Index and transferred responsibility for banking supervision to the Financial Services Authority.", "Some commentators have argued that this division of responsibilities exacerbated the severity in Britain of the 2007-2008 financial crisis.===Taxation and spending===During the 1997 election campaign and subsequently, Brown pledged not to increase the basic or higher rates of income tax.", "Over his Chancellorship he reduced the basic rate from 23% to 20%; however, in all budgets but his final one, he increased the tax thresholds in line with inflation rather than with earnings, resulting in fiscal drag.", "Under Brown, corporation tax fell from a main rate of 33% to 28%, and from 24% to 19% for small businesses.", "In 1999, he introduced a lower tax band of 10%.", "He abolished this 10% tax band in his last budget in 2007 to reduce the basic rate from 22% to 20%, increasing tax for 5 million people and, according to the calculations of the Institute for Fiscal Studies, leaving those earning between £5,000 and £18,000 as the biggest losers.", "To backbench cheers, Brown had described the measure in his last Budget thus: \"Having put in place more focused ways of incentivising work and directly supporting children and pensioners at a cost of £3bn a year, I can now return income tax to just two rates by removing the 10p band on non-savings income\".", "Brown also implemented the Windfall Tax in 1997 on the privatised utilities.", "The tax produced an estimated one off income to the government of £5 billion which was used to fund the New Deal, a welfare-to-work program that sought to tackle long-term unemployment.According to the OECD UK taxation increased from a 39.3% share of gross domestic product in 1997 to 42.4% in 2006, going to a higher level than that of Germany.", "This increase has mainly been attributed to active government policy, and not simply to the growing economy.", "Conservatives have accused Brown of imposing \"stealth taxes\".", "A commonly reported example resulted in 1997 from a technical change in the way corporation tax is collected, the indirect effect of which was for the dividends on stock investments held within pensions to be taxed, thus lowering pension returns and contributing to the demise of most of the final salary pension funds in the UK.", "The Treasury contends that this tax change was crucial to long-term economic growth.Brown's 2000 Spending Review outlined a major expansion of government spending, particularly on health and education.", "In his April 2002 budget, Brown increased National Insurance to pay for health spending.", "He also introduced working tax credits, and in his last budget as Chancellor, Brown gave an extra £3 billion in pension allowances, an increase in the child tax credit, and an increase in the working tax credit.", "These increases were followed by another £1 billion of support for increases in the child tax credit.Under Brown, the tax code, the standard guide to tax, doubled in length to 17,000 pages.===European single currency===In October 1997, Brown announced that the Treasury would set five economic tests to determine whether the economic case had been made for the United Kingdom to adopt the European single currency.", "The Treasury indicated that the tests had not been passed in June 2003.===Other issues===In 2000, Brown was accused of starting a political row about higher education (referred to as the Laura Spence affair) when he accused the University of Oxford of elitism in its admissions procedures, describing its decision not to offer a place to state school pupil Laura Spence as \"absolutely outrageous\".", "Lord Jenkins, then Oxford Chancellor and himself a former Labour Chancellor of the Exchequer, said \"nearly every fact he used was false.", "\"Between 1999 and 2002 Brown sold 60% of the UK's gold reserves shortly before gold entered a protracted bull market, since nicknamed by dealers as the Brown Bottom or Brown's Bottom.", "The official reason for selling the gold reserves was to reduce the portfolio risk of the UK's reserves by diversifying away from gold.", "The UK eventually sold about 395 tons of gold over 17 auctions from July 1999 to March 2002, at an average price of about US$275 per ounce, raising approximately US$3.5 billion.", "By 2011, that quantity of gold would be worth over $19 billion, leading to Brown's decision to sell the gold being widely criticised.As Chancellor, Brown argued against renationalising the railways, saying at the Labour conference in 2004 that it would cost £22 billion.During his time as Chancellor, Brown reportedly believed that it was appropriate to remove most, but not all, of the unpayable Third World debt.", "On 20 April 2006, in a speech to the United Nations Ambassadors, Brown outlined a \"Green\" view of global development." ], [ "Prelude to premiership", "In October 2004, Blair announced he would not lead the party into a fourth general election, but would serve a full third term.", "Political comment over the relationship between Brown and Blair continued up to and beyond the 2005 election, which Labour won with a reduced majority and reduced vote share.", "Blair announced on 7 September 2006 that he would step down within a year.Brown was the clear favourite to succeed Blair; he was the only candidate spoken of seriously in Westminster.", "Appearances and news coverage leading up to the handover were interpreted as preparing the ground for Brown to become Prime Minister, in part by creating the impression of a statesman with a vision for leadership and global change.", "This enabled Brown to signal the most significant priorities for his agenda as Prime Minister; speaking at a Fabian Society conference on 'The Next Decade' in January 2007, he stressed education, international development, narrowing inequalities (to pursue 'equality of opportunity and fairness of outcome'), renewing Britishness, restoring trust in politics, and winning hearts and minds in the war on terror as key priorities.=== Labour leadership bid ===On 11 May 2007, after months of speculation, Brown formally announced his bid for the Labour leadership and replaced Blair as Leader of the Labour Party on 24 June 2007 and as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom on 27 June 2007.Brown launched his campaign website the same day as formally announcing his bid for leadership, titled \"Gordon Brown for Britain\".", "On 16 May, Channel 4 News announced that Andrew MacKinlay had nominated Brown, giving him 308 nominationsenough to avoid a leadership contest.", "A BBC report states that the decisive nomination was made by Tony Wright with MacKinlay yet to nominate at that point." ], [ "Prime Minister (2007–2010)", "Brown and George W. Bush, President of the United States, meet at Downing Street, June 2008After Blair tendered his resignation to Queen Elizabeth II, Brown was invited by the queen to form a government and become Prime Minister.", "In his first speech as prime minister, Brown said \"This will be a new government with new priorities and I have been privileged to have been granted the great opportunity to serve my country.", "And at all times I will be strong in purpose, steadfast in will, resolute in action, in the service of what matters to the British people, meeting the concerns and aspirations of our whole country.", "\"Brown rescinded some of the policies which had been introduced or were planned by Blair's administration.", "He remained committed to close ties with the United States and to the war in Iraq, although he established an inquiry into the reasons for Britain's participation in the conflict.", "He proposed a \"government of all the talents\" which would involve co-opting leading personalities from industry and professional occupations into government positions.", "Brown also appointed Jacqui Smith as the UK's first female Home Secretary, while Brown's former position as chancellor of the exchequer was taken over by Alistair Darling.", "He proposed moving some traditional prime ministerial powers conferred by royal prerogative to the realm of Parliament, such as the power to declare war and approve appointments to senior positions.", "Brown wanted Parliament to gain the right to ratify treaties and have more oversight into the intelligence services.", "He also proposed moving some powers from Parliament to citizens, including the right to form \"citizens' juries\", easily petition Parliament for new laws, and rally outside Westminster.", "He asserted that the attorney general should not have the right to decide whether to prosecute in individual cases, such as in the loans for peerages scandal.There was speculation during September and early October 2007 about whether Brown would call a snap general election.", "Indeed, the party launched the Not flash, just Gordon advertising campaign, which was seen largely as pre-election promotion of Brown as Prime Minister; however, Brown announced on 6 October that there would be no election any time soon – despite opinion polls showing that he was capable of winning an election should he call one.", "This proved to be a costly mistake, as during 2008 his party slid behind the Conservatives (led by David Cameron) in the polls.", "Disputes over political donations, a string of losses in local elections, and by-election losses in Crewe and Glasgow did himself and the government no favours either.", "Brown has since claimed that Labour would have won the 2007 election but he did not believe an early election was in the national interest.His political opponents accused him of being indecisive, which Brown denied.", "In July 2008, he supported a new bill extending the pre-charge detention period to 42 days.", "The bill was met with opposition on both sides of the House and backbench rebellion.", "In the end, the bill passed by just nine votes.", "The House of Lords defeated the bill, with Lords characterising it as \"fatally flawed, ill thought through and unnecessary\", stating that \"it seeks to further erode fundamental legal and civil rights\".Brown was mentioned by the press in the expenses crisis for claiming for the payment of his cleaner; however, no wrongdoing was found and the Commons Authority did not pursue Brown over the claim.", "Meanwhile, the Commons Fees Office stated that a double payment for a £153 plumbing repair bill was a mistake on their part and that Brown had repaid it in full.===Domestic policy===Brown at the World Economic Forum meeting in Davos in 2008During his Labour leadership campaign Brown proposed some policy initiatives, which he called the ''manifesto for change''.The manifesto included a clampdown on corruption and a new Ministerial Code, which set out clear standards of behaviour for ministers.", "He also stated in a speech when announcing his bid that he wants a \"better constitution\" that is \"clear about the rights and responsibilities of being a citizen in Britain today\".", "He planned to set up an all-party convention to look at new powers for Parliament and to look at rebalancing powers between Whitehall and local government.", "Brown said he would give Parliament the final say on whether British troops were sent into action in future.He said he wanted to release more land and ease access to ownership with shared equity schemes.", "He backed a proposal to build new eco-towns, each housing between 10,000 and 20,000 homeowners – up to 100,000 new homes in total.Brown also said he wanted to have doctors' surgeries open at the weekends, and GPs on call in the evenings.", "Doctors were given the right of opting out of out-of-hours care in 2007, under a controversial pay deal, signed by then-Health Secretary John Reid, which awarded them a 22 per cent pay rise in 2006.Brown also stated in the manifesto that the National Health Service (NHS) was his top priority.On 5 June 2007, just three weeks before he was due to take the post of Prime Minister, Brown made a speech promising \"British Jobs for British workers\".", "Brown reiterated that promise at the Labour Party's annual conference in September, which caused controversy as he coupled this with a commitment to crack down on migrant workers.", "The Conservative Party, led by David Cameron, promptly pointed out that such a commitment was illegal under EU law.", "Other controversial statements made by Brown about migration included him stating that English lessons and taking mandatory community service should be prerequisites for being granted UK citizenship.During the Queen's Speech to Parliament on 3 December 2008, the Brown government unveiled plans to introduce lie detector tests, based on voice recognition technology, in order to determine whether to accept benefit claims.", "Despite having spent £2.4 million on these tests, trials performed by the Department for Work and Pensions showed that they were inaccurate approximately four of every seven times they were used.===Foreign policy===Brown meets British troops during a visit to Basra, 2007US President Barack Obama, Prince Charles, Brown, Canadian Prime Minister Stephen Harper and French President Nicolas Sarkozy arrive at the Colleville-sur-Mer cemetery to attend a ceremony marking the 65th anniversary of the D-Day landings in Normandy, 6 June 2009.Brown had been committed to the Iraq War, but said in a speech in June 2007 that he would \"learn the lessons\" from the mistakes made in Iraq.", "Brown said in a letter published on 17 March 2008 that the United Kingdom would hold an inquiry into the war.Brown went to great lengths to empathise with those who lost family members in the Iraq and Afghanistan conflicts.", "He has often said \"War is tragic\", echoing Blair's quote, \"War is horrible\".", "Nonetheless, in November 2007 Brown was accused by some senior military figures of not adhering to the Military Covenant, a convention within British politics ensuring adequate safeguards, rewards and compensation for military personnel who risk their lives in obedience to orders derived from the policy of the elected government.Brown did not attend the opening ceremony of the 2008 Summer Olympics on 8 August 2008 in Beijing; instead, he attended the closing ceremony on 24 August 2008.Brown had been under intense pressure from human rights campaigners to send a message to China, concerning the 2008 Tibetan unrest.", "His decision not to attend the opening ceremony was not an act of protest, but rather was made several weeks in advance and not intended as a stand on principle.In a speech in July 2007, Brown clarified his position regarding Britain's relationship with the United States: \"We will not allow people to separate us from the United States of America in dealing with the common challenges that we face around the world.", "I think people have got to remember that the special relationship between a British prime minister and an American president is built on the things that we share, the same enduring values about the importance of liberty, opportunity, the dignity of the individual.", "I will continue to work, as Tony Blair did, very closely with the American administration.", "\"Brown and the Labour party had pledged to allow a referendum on the EU Reform Treaty.", "On 13 December 2007, Foreign Secretary David Miliband attended for the Prime Minister at the official signing ceremony in Lisbon.", "Brown's opponents on both sides of the House, and in the press, suggested that ratification by Parliament was not enough and that a referendum should also be held.", "Labour's 2005 manifesto had pledged to give the British public a referendum on the original EU Constitution.", "Brown argued that the Treaty significantly differed from the Constitution, and as such did not require a referendum.", "He also responded with plans for a lengthy debate on the topic, and stated that he believed the document to be too complex to be decided by referendum.===Drug policy===During Brown's premiership, in October 2008, the Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs (ACMD) recommended to the then Home Secretary Jacqui Smith that cannabis remain classified as a Class C drug.", "Acting against the advice of the council, she chose to reclassify it as Class B.", "After Professor David Nutt, the chair of the ACMD, criticised this move in a lecture in 2009, he was asked to step down by then Home Secretary Alan Johnson.", "Following his resignation, Professor Nutt said Brown had \"made up his mind\" to reclassify cannabis despite evidence to the contrary.", "Brown had argued, \"I don't think that the previous studies took into account that so much of the cannabis on the streets is now of a lethal quality and we really have got to send out a message to young people—this is not acceptable\".", "Professor Nutt's predecessor at the ACMD, Sir Michael Rawlins, later said, \"Governments may well have good reasons for taking an alternative view ...", "When that happens, then the government should explain why it's ignoring the particular advice\".===Global recession===Brown's premiership coincided with the global recession, during which Brown called for fiscal action in an attempt to stimulate aggregate demand.", "Domestically, Brown's administration introduced measures including a bank rescue package worth around £500 billion (approximately $850 billion), a temporary 2.5 percentage point cut in value-added tax and a \"car scrappage\" scheme.===Challenges to leadership===In mid-2008, Brown's leadership was presented with a challenge as some MPs openly called for him to resign.", "This event was dubbed the 'Lancashire Plot', as two backbenchers from (pre-1974) Lancashire urged him to step down and a third questioned his chances of holding on to the Labour Party leadership.", "Several MPs argued that if Brown did not recover in the polls by early 2009, he should call for a leadership contest; however, certain prominent MPs, such as Jacqui Smith and Bill Rammell, suggested that Brown was the right person to lead Britain through its economic crisis.", "In the autumn, Siobhain McDonagh, an MP and junior government whip, who during her time in office had never voted against the government, spoke of the need for discussion over Brown's position.", "While she did not state that she wanted Brown deposed, she implored the Labour Party to hold a leadership election.", "McDonagh was sacked from her role shortly afterward, on 12 September.", "She was supported in making clear her desire for a contest by Joan Ryan (who applied, as McDonagh had, for leadership nomination papers, and became the second rebel to be fired from her job), Jim Dowd, Greg Pope, and a string of others who had previously held positions in government.", "In the face of this speculation over Brown's future, his ministers backed him to lead the party, and Harriet Harman and David Miliband denied that they were preparing leadership bids.", "After Labour lost the Glasgow East by-election in July, Harman, the deputy leader of the party, said that Brown was the \"solution\", not the \"problem\"; Home Secretary Smith, Justice Secretary Jack Straw, Schools Secretary Ed Balls and Cabinet Office Minister Ed Miliband all re-affirmed their support for Brown.", "The Deputy Prime Minister under Blair, John Prescott, also pledged his support.", "Foreign Secretary David Miliband then denied that he was plotting a leadership bid, when on 30 July, an article written by him in ''The Guardian'' was interpreted by a large number in the media as an attempt to undermine Brown.", "In the article, Miliband outlined the party's future, but neglected to mention the Prime Minister.", "Miliband, responded to this by saying that he was confident Brown could lead Labour to victory in the next general election, and that his article was an attack against the fatalism in the party since the loss of Glasgow East.", "Miliband continued to show his support for Brown in the face of the challenge that emerged in September, as did Business Secretary John Hutton, Environment Secretary Hilary Benn, and Chief Whip Geoff Hoon.On 4 June 2009 James Purnell resigned from the Cabinet, and called for Brown's resignation as Prime Minister.On 6 January 2010, Patricia Hewitt and Geoff Hoon jointly called for a secret ballot on the future of Brown's leadership.", "The call received little support, and the following day Hoon said that it appeared to have failed and was \"over\".", "Brown later referred to the call for a secret ballot as a \"form of silliness\".===By-elections and 2009 local and EU elections===Brown greeting then-U.S. vice president Joe Biden in Chile, April 2009In the local elections on 1 May 2008, Labour suffered its worst results in 40 years, finishing in third place with a projected 24% share of the national vote.", "Subsequently, the party saw the loss of by-elections in Crewe and Nantwich and Henley as well as slumps in the polls.", "A by-election in Glasgow East triggered by the resignation of David Marshall saw Labour struggle to appoint a candidate, eventually settling for Margaret Curran, a sitting MSP in the Scottish Parliament.", "The SNP, Conservatives and Liberal Democrats all derided Labour for their disorganised nature, with Alex Salmond commenting \"This is their 'lost weekend'—they don't have a leader in Scotland, they don't have a candidate in Glasgow East, and they have a prime minister who refuses to come to the constituency\".", "Labour lost the constituency to the Scottish National Party's John Mason who took 11,277 votes, with Labour just 365 behind.", "The seat experienced a swing of 22.54%.In the European elections, Labour polled 16% of the vote, finishing in third place behind the Conservatives and UK Independence Party (UKIP).", "Voter apathy was reflected in the historically low turnout of around thirty-three per cent.", "In Scotland, voter turnout was only twenty-eight per cent.", "In the local elections, Labour polled 23% of the vote, finishing in third place behind Conservatives and Liberal Democrats, with Labour losing control of the four councils it had held prior to the election.", "In a vote widely considered to be a reaction to the expenses scandal, the share of the votes was down for all the major parties; Labour was down one per cent, the Conservative share was down five per cent.", "The beneficiary of the public backlash was generally seen to be the minor parties, including the Green Party and UKIP.", "These results were Labour's worst since World War II.", "Brown was quoted in the press as having said that the results were \"a painful defeat for Labour\", and that \"too many good people doing so much good for their communities and their constituencies have lost through no fault of their own.", "\"===2010 general election===In April 2010, Brown asked the Queen to dissolve Parliament.", "The general election campaign included the first televised leadership debates in Britain.", "The result of the election on 6 May was a hung parliament.", "Brown was re-elected as MP for Kirkcaldy and Cowdenbeath with 29,559 votes.===2010 government formation and resignation===Brown tendering his resignation to Queen Elizabeth II at Buckingham PalaceBrown announced on 10 May 2010 that he would stand down as Labour Leader, with a view to a successor being chosen before the next Labour Party Conference in September 2010.The following day, negotiations between the Labour Party and the Liberal Democrats to form a coalition government failed.", "During the evening, Brown visited Buckingham Palace to tender his resignation as Prime Minister to Queen Elizabeth II and to recommend that she invite the Leader of the Opposition, David Cameron, to form a government.", "He resigned as leader of the Labour Party with immediate effect." ], [ "Post-premiership", "===Return to the backbenches (2010–2015)===Brown with former Prime Ministers Tony Blair and Sir John Major, Deputy Prime Minister Nick Clegg and Prime Minister David Cameron during U.S. President Barack Obama's address to ParliamentOn 13 May 2010, in his first public appearance since leaving 10 Downing Street, two days after resigning as Prime Minister and Leader of the Labour Party, Brown confirmed he intended to stay on in Parliament, serving as a Labour backbencher, to serve the people of his Kirkcaldy and Cowdenbeath constituency.", "He continued to serve as the MP of Kirkcaldy and Cowdenbeath until 2015.Towards the end of May 2010, Brown began writing ''Beyond the Crash'', completing it after 14 weeks.", "The book discusses the 2007–08 financial crisis and Brown's recommendations for future co-ordinated global action.He played a prominent role in the lead-up to, and the aftermath of, the 2014 Scottish independence referendum, campaigning for Scotland to stay in the United Kingdom.", "\"Our vision for the future of Scotland – yes a Scottish parliament for fairness, battling for equality across the UK\", he told voters in an impassioned speech on the eve of polling.", "\"But our vision is bigger than that – at every point, particularly through our membership of the UK, to fight for what is our dream, what is our demand.", "A world not of a separate state, but a world of social justice people can believe in.", "What kind of message does Scotland send to the world if, tomorrow, we said we are going to give up on sharing, we are going to smash our partnership, we are going to abandon co-operation and we are going to throw the idea of solidarity into the dust.", "This is not the Scotland I know and recognise.", "\"Brown, as UN Special Envoy for Global Education, addresses the 225x225pxOn 1 December 2014, Brown announced that he would not be seeking re-election to parliament.", "He stood down at the general election in May 2015.===IMF speculation===In April 2011, media reports linked Brown with the role of managing director of the International Monetary Fund following the scheduled retirement of Dominique Strauss-Kahn.", "Brown's successor and Leader of the Opposition, Ed Miliband, supported Brown for the role, while the Prime Minister, David Cameron, voiced opposition to this.", "Following the arrest of Strauss-Kahn for alleged sexual assault in May 2011, and his subsequent resignation, these reports re-surfaced.", "Support for Brown among economists was mixed but British Government backing for his candidature was not forthcoming and instead supported Christine Lagarde – the eventual successful candidate – for the post.===Other appointments===Brown with Foreign Secretary Boris Johnson, May 2018Sir Tim Berners-Lee, who had worked with the government during Brown's premiership to publish government data on the internet in the data.gov.uk project, subsequently invited Brown to become a board director of the World Wide Web Foundation to \"advise the Web Foundation on ways to involve disadvantaged communities and global leaders in the development of sustainable programs that connect humanity and affect positive change\".", "On 22 April 2011 it was announced that Brown would be taking on an unpaid advisory role at the World Economic Forum.", "Brown was also appointed as the inaugural 'Distinguished Leader in Residence' by New York University and took part in discussions and lectures relating to the global financial crisis and globalisation.In July 2012 Brown was named by Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon as a United Nations Special Envoy on Global Education.", "He chaired the International Commission on Financing Global Education Opportunity.", "The position is unpaid.In December 2015, Brown took his first large-scale role in the private sector since standing down as prime minister in 2010, becoming an advisor to PIMCO.", "Any money earned from the role is to go to the Gordon and Sarah Brown Foundation to support charitable work.On 7 November 2017, Brown released his memoir ''My Life, Our Times''.In September 2020, Brown was a co-author of a letter to the journal ''Nature'' highlighting the importance of EU funding in the fight against COVID-19.The letter was organised by Scientists for Labour, an organisation of which he is a patron.On 10 June 2021 Brown released the book ''Seven Ways to Change the World: How To Fix The Most Pressing Problems We Face.''", "The book features Brown's forensic examination of seven areas where global reform and action are essential.On 5 December 2022, having led development of a Labour party blueprint on constitutional reform, Brown announced the publication of these proposals alongside Labour leader Keir Starmer.", "These proposals included plans for the replacement of the House of Lords with a \"Assembly of the Nations and Regions\", electing around 200 members on a different electoral cycle to that of the House of Commons.", "Other measures include the \"strengthening of the Sewel Convention\" such that the ability of devolved administrations to veto UK Parliament legislation affecting devolved issues is \"constitutionally protected\", plans to grant the Scottish Parliament greater powers over foreign affairs \"so that Scotland could sign up to international groups or agreements within devolved areas\" such as Erasmus, and plans to transfer powers to English regions and local mayors.", "The proposals were criticised by the SNP who described them as \"underwhelming\", and the Speaker of the House of Commons Lindsay Hoyle who described plans to replace the Lords with an elected chamber as weakening the supremacy of the Commons." ], [ "Personal life", "Sarah Brown attending one of her husband's speeches, September 2009Brown's early girlfriends included journalist Sheena McDonald and Princess Margarita, the eldest daughter of exiled King Michael of Romania.", "At the age of 49, Brown married Sarah Macaulay in a private ceremony at his home in North Queensferry, Fife, on 3 August 2000.A daughter, Jennifer Jane, was born prematurely on 28 December 2001; she died on 7 January 2002, one day after experiencing a brain haemorrhage.", "The couple have two sons, John Macaulay (born 17 October 2003) and (James) Fraser (born on 18 July 2006).", "In November 2006, Fraser was diagnosed with cystic fibrosis.", "''The Sun'' had learned of the situation in 2006 and published the story.", "In 2011, Brown stated he had wanted the details of his son's condition kept private and that the publication had left him \"in tears\".", "The ''Sun'' said they approached Brown and that discussion occurred with his colleagues who provided quotes to use in the article.Sarah Brown rarely made official appearances, whether with or without her husband.", "She is patron of several charities and has written articles for national newspapers related to this.", "At the 2008 Labour Party Conference, Sarah caused surprise by taking to the stage to introduce her husband for his keynote address.", "After that, her public profile increased.Brown has two brothers, John Brown and Andrew Brown.", "Andrew has been Head of Media Relations in the UK for the French-owned utility company EDF Energy since 2004.Brown is also the brother-in-law of environmental journalist Clare Rewcastle Brown; he wrote a piece for ''The Independent'' supporting Clare's current environmental efforts on behalf of Sarawak.While Prime Minister, Brown spent some of his spare time at Chequers, the house often being filled with friends.", "The Browns have entertained local dignitaries like Sir Leonard Figg.", "Brown is also a friend of Harry Potter author J. K. Rowling, who says of Brown: \"I know him as affable, funny and gregarious, a great listener, a kind and loyal friend.", "\"Brown is a strong supporter of the NHS, owing partly to both the experimental surgery that saved the sight in his right eye after his retina became detached, and the care he and Sarah Brown received when their premature firstborn baby died.", "It has been suggested that visual difficulties have contributed to Brown's supposed antisocial nature and awkward public manner.", "For example, both on a podium and before a camera, while reading \"he needs to look slightly to one side of the paper to focus; when speaking to an audience or into a camera lens, he must remember to correct what would normally be an automatic tendency to look slightly askew to see clearly with his good eye\".", "Brown's papers were prepared in capital letters and in extremely large type, resulting in his stack of papers at the dispatch box being noticeably bulky.", "Former staffers often attributed Brown's outbursts of temper in Downing Street to his frustration with his visual limitations.", "Nevertheless, it is noted that he has never allowed these limitations to hold him back and in fact attributed the shaping of his political character to them.Brown is a supporter of Kirkcaldy-based football club Raith Rovers and has written articles about his relationship with the club.===Religion===A son of a Church of Scotland minister, Brown has talked about what he calls his \"moral compass\" and of his parents being his \"inspiration\".", "He has, at least ostensibly, been keen to keep his religion a private matter.", "According to ''The Guardian'', he is a member of the Church of Scotland." ], [ "Depictions", "''The Deal'', a 2003 television film, followed Tony Blair's rise to power, and his friendship and rivalry with Brown, played by David Morrissey.", "In ''The Trial of Tony Blair'' (2007), Brown was played by Peter Mullan, and in the Channel 4 television film ''Coalition'' (2015), he was portrayed by Ian Grieve." ], [ "Honours", "* Brown delivers the Harold Wilson memorial lecture at the University of Huddersfield in 2018.Doctor of the University (D.Univ.)", "from Brunel University (1996)* Doctor Honoris Causa (Hon.Dr.)", "from University of Edinburgh (2003)* Honorary Doctor of Laws (LL.D.)", "from Robert Gordon University (2003)* Honorary Doctor of Humane Letters (D.H.L.)", "from New York University (2005)* Honorary Doctor of Civil Law (D.C.L.)", "from Newcastle University (2007)* Honorary Doctor of Letters (D.Litt.)", "from University of Delhi (2008)* Doctor of the University (D.Univ.)", "from University of Glasgow (2015)* Elected an Honorary Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh (HonFRSE; 2018)In March 2009, Brown was named World Statesman of the Year by the Appeal of Conscience Foundation, an American organisation 'dedicated to promoting peace, human rights and understanding between religious faiths'.", "The award was presented by Rabbi Arthur Schneier who praised Brown's \"compassionate leadership in dealing with the challenging issues facing humanity, his commitment to freedom, human dignity and the environment, and for the major role he has played in helping to stabilise the world's financial system\".Brown has, on six occasions, been honoured in the Scottish Politician of the Year awards organised by ''The Herald'' newspaper.", "In 1999, 2000, 2007 and 2014, he won the award in the Best Scot at Westminster category.", "He won the Lifetime Achievement Award/Outstanding Political Achievement category in 2011.And in 2020, he was designated \"best of the best\" in the Best Scot at Westminster category." ], [ "Publications", "****************''Keir Hardie: Labour's first leader''.", "BBC Radio Scotland programme.", "September 2015.", "****" ], [ "See also", "* Brownism* List of TED speakers" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * * * ===Biographies===* * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Gordon Brown ''Official government profile''* Official website of the Office of Gordon and Sarah Brown* * Gordon Brown at ''Encyclopædia Britannica''* Tour diary: Gordon Brown in Africa BBC News, January 2005 trip about his 'Marshall plan for Africa'* * * * * * * '''Speeches'''* Transcript of Gordon Brown's acceptance speech ePolitix, 17 May 2007* Transcript of first speech as Labour Party Leader ePolitix, 24 June 2007* Address to the 63rd session of the United Nations General Assembly September 2008* Manifesto speech transcript ePolitix, 12 April 2010" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Galileo project" ], [ "Introduction", "+ ''Galileo'' Project managers Manager Date John R. Casani October 1977 – February 1988+ Dick Spehalski February 1988 – March 1990+ Bill O'Neil March 1990 – December 1997+ Bob Mitchell December 1997 – June 1998+ Jim Erickson June 1998 – January 2001+ Eilene Theilig January 2001 – August 2003+ Claudia Alexander August 2003 – September 2003'''''Galileo''''' was an American robotic space program that studied the planet Jupiter and its moons, as well as several other Solar System bodies.", "Named after the Italian astronomer Galileo Galilei, the ''Galileo'' spacecraft consisted of an orbiter and an entry probe.", "It was delivered into Earth orbit on October 18, 1989 by on the STS-34 mission, and arrived at Jupiter on December 7, 1995, after gravitational assist flybys of Venus and Earth, and became the first spacecraft to orbit Jupiter.", "It launched the first probe into Jupiter, directly measuring its atmosphere.", "Despite suffering major antenna problems, ''Galileo'' achieved the first asteroid flyby, of 951 Gaspra, and discovered the first asteroid moon, Dactyl, around 243 Ida.", "In 1994, ''Galileo'' observed Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9's collision with Jupiter.Jupiter's atmospheric composition and ammonia clouds were recorded.", "Io's volcanism and plasma interactions with Jupiter's atmosphere were also recorded.", "The data ''Galileo'' collected supported the theory of a liquid ocean under the icy surface of Europa, and there were indications of similar liquid-saltwater layers under the surfaces of Ganymede and Callisto.", "Ganymede was shown to possess a magnetic field and the spacecraft found new evidence for exospheres around Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto.", "''Galileo'' also discovered that Jupiter's faint ring system consists of dust from impacts on the four small inner moons.", "The extent and structure of Jupiter's magnetosphere was also mapped.On September 20, 2003, after 14 years in space and 8 years in the Jovian system, ''Galileo'' mission was terminated by sending it into Jupiter's atmosphere at a speed of over , completely eliminating the possibility of contaminating local moons with terrestrial bacteria." ], [ "Background", "Jupiter is the largest planet in the Solar System, with more than twice the mass of all the other planets combined.", "Consideration of sending a probe to Jupiter began as early as 1959, when the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) developed four mission concepts:* Deep space flights would fly through interplanetary space;* Flyby missions would fly past planets, and could visit multiple planets on a single mission;* Orbiter missions would place a probe in orbit around a planet for detailed study;* Planetary entry and lander missions, which would explore the atmosphere and surface.Two missions to Jupiter, ''Pioneer 10'' and ''Pioneer 11'', were approved in 1969, with NASA's Ames Research Center given responsibility for planning the missions.", "''Pioneer 10'' was launched in March 1972 and passed within of Jupiter in December 1973.It was followed by ''Pioneer 11'', which was launched in April 1973, and passed within of Jupiter in December 1974, before heading on to an encounter with Saturn.", "They were followed by the more advanced ''Voyager 1'' and ''Voyager 2'' spacecraft, which were launched on 5 September and 20 August 1977 respectively, and reached Jupiter in March and July 1979." ], [ "Planning", "===Initiation===Following the approval of the ''Voyager'' missions, NASA's Scientific Advisory Group (SAG) for Outer Solar System Missions considered the requirements for Jupiter orbiters and atmospheric probes.", "It noted that the technology to build a heat shield for an atmospheric probe did not yet exist, and indeed facilities to test one under the conditions found on Jupiter would not be available until 1980.There was also concern about the effects of radiation on spacecraft components, which would be better understood after ''Pioneer 10'' and ''Pioneer 11'' had conducted their flybys.", "These indicated that the effects were less severe than feared.", "NASA management designated the JPL as the lead center for the Jupiter Orbiter Probe (JOP) Project.", "John R. Casani, who had headed the Mariner and Voyager projects, became the first project manager.", "The JOP would be the fifth spacecraft to visit Jupiter, but the first to orbit it, and the probe would be the first to enter its atmosphere.In the Vertical Processing Facility (VPF), ''Galileo'' is prepared for mating with the Inertial Upper Stage booster.An important decision made at this time by Ames and the JPL was to use a Mariner program spacecraft like that used for Voyager for the Jupiter orbiter, rather than a Pioneer.", "Pioneer was stabilized by spinning the spacecraft at 60 rpm, which gave a 360-degree view of the surroundings, and did not require an attitude control system.", "By contrast, Mariner had an attitude control system with three gyroscopes and two sets of six nitrogen jet thrusters.", "Attitude was determined with reference to the Sun and Canopus, which were monitored with two primary and four secondary sensors.", "There was also an inertial reference unit and an accelerometer.", "This allowed it to take high resolution images, but the functionality came at a cost of increased weight.", "A Mariner weighed compared to just for a Pioneer.The Voyager spacecraft had been launched by Titan IIIE rockets with a Centaur upper stage, but Titan was retired afterwards.", "In the late 1970s, NASA was focused on the development of the reusable Space Shuttle, which was expected to make expendable rockets obsolete.", "In late 1975, NASA decreed that all future planetary missions would be launched by the Space Shuttle.", "The JOP would be the first to do so.", "The Space Shuttle was supposed to have the services of a space tug to launch payloads requiring something more than a low Earth orbit, but this was never approved.", "The United States Air Force then developed the solid-fueled Interim Upper Stage (IUS), later renamed the Inertial Upper Stage (with the same acronym), for the purpose.The IUS was not powerful enough to launch a payload to Jupiter without resorting to using a series of gravitational slingshot maneuvers around planets to garner additional speed, something most engineers regarded as inelegant, and which planetary scientists at JPL disliked because it meant that the mission would take months or years longer to reach Jupiter.", "Longer travel times meant that components would age and the onboard power supply and propellant would be depleted.", "Some of the gravity assist options also meant flying closer to the Sun, which would induce thermal stresses.", "However, the IUS was constructed in a modular fashion, with two stages, a large one with of propellant, and a smaller one with .", "This was sufficient for most satellites.", "It could also be configured with two large stages to launch multiple satellites.", "A configuration with three stages, two large and one small, would be enough for a planetary mission, so NASA contracted with Boeing for the development of a three-stage IUS.It was estimated that the JOP would cost $634 million (equivalent to $ million in ), and it had to compete for fiscal year 1978 funding with the Space Shuttle and the Hubble Space Telescope.", "A successful lobbying campaign secured funding for both JOP and Hubble over the objections of Senator William Proxmire, the chairman of the Independent Agencies Appropriations Subcommittee.", "The United States Congress approved funding for the Jupiter Orbiter Probe on July 12, 1977, and JOP officially commenced on October 1, 1977, the start of the fiscal year.", "Casani solicited suggestions for a more inspirational name for the project, and the most votes went to \"Galileo\" after Galileo Galilei, the first person to view Jupiter through a telescope, and the discoverer of what is now known as the Galilean moons in 1610.It was noted that the name was also that of a spacecraft in the ''Star Trek'' television show.", "The new name was adopted in February 1978.===Preparation===Early plans called for a launch on on STS-23 sometime between 2 and 12 January 1982, this being the launch window when Earth, Jupiter and Mars were aligned in such a way as to permit Mars to be used for a gravitational slingshot maneuver.", "To enhance reliability and reduce costs, the ''Galileo'' project's engineers decided to switch from a pressurized atmospheric entry probe to a vented one.", "This added to its weight.", "Another was added in structural changes to improve reliability.", "This would require additional fuel in the IUS.", "But the three-stage IUS was itself overweight, by about .Model of ''Galileo'' atop the Centaur G Prime upper stage in the San Diego Air and Space Museum Lifting ''Galileo'' and the IUS would require the use of the special lightweight version of the Space Shuttle external tank, the Space Shuttle orbiter stripped of all non-essential equipment, and the Space Shuttle main engines (SSME) running at full power—109 percent of their rated power level.", "Running at this power level necessitated the development of a more elaborate engine cooling system.", "By 1980, delays in the Space Shuttle program pushed the launch date for ''Galileo'' back to 1984.While a Mars slingshot was still possible in 1984, it would no longer be sufficient.NASA decided to split ''Galileo'' into two separate spacecraft, an atmospheric probe and a Jupiter orbiter, with the orbiter launched in February 1984 and the probe following a month later.", "The orbiter would be in orbit around Jupiter when the probe arrived, allowing it to perform its role as a relay.", "Separating the two spacecraft required a second mission and a second carrier to be built for the probe, and was estimated to cost an additional $50 million (equivalent to $ million in ), but NASA hoped to be able to recoup some of this through separate completive bidding on the two.", "The problem was that while the atmospheric probe was light enough to launch with the two-stage IUS, the Jupiter orbiter was too heavy to do so, even with a gravity assist from Mars, so the three-stage IUS was still required.By late 1980, the price tag for the IUS had risen to $506 million (equivalent to $ million in ).", "The USAF could absorb this cost overrun (and indeed had anticipated that it might cost far more), but NASA was faced with a quote of $179 million (equivalent to $ million in ) for the development of the three-stage version, which was $100 million (equivalent to $ million in ) more than it had budgeted for.", "At a press conference on January 15, 1981, NASA Administrator Robert A. Frosch announced that NASA was withdrawing support for the three-stage IUS, and going with a Centaur G Prime upper stage because \"no other alternative upper stage is available on a reasonable schedule or with comparable costs.", "\"Centaur provided many advantages over the IUS.", "The main one was that it was far more powerful.", "The probe and orbiter could be recombined, and the probe could be delivered directly to Jupiter in two years' flight time.", "The second was that despite this, it was also more gentle than the IUS, as it had lower thrust, thereby minimizing the chance of damage to the payload.", "Thirdly, unlike solid-fuel rockets which burned to completion once ignited, Centaur could be switched off and on again.", "This gave it flexibility, which increased the chances of a successful mission, and permitted options like asteroid flybys.", "Centaur was proven and reliable, whereas the IUS had not yet flown.", "The only concern was about safety; solid-fuel rockets were considered safer than liquid-fuel ones, especially ones containing liquid hydrogen.", "NASA engineers estimated that additional safety features might take up to five years to develop and cost up to $100 million (equivalent to $ million in .In February 1981, the JPL learned that the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) was planning major cuts to NASA's budget, and was considering cancelling ''Galileo''.", "What saved it from cancellation was the intervention of the USAF.", "The JPL had considerable experience with autonomous spacecraft.", "This was a necessity for deep space probes, since a signal from Earth takes anything from 35 to 52 minutes to reach Jupiter.", "The USAF was interested in providing this capability for its satellites so that they would be able to determine their attitude using onboard systems rather than relying on ground stations, which were not \"hardened\" against nuclear attacks, and could take evasive action in the face of anti-satellite weapons.", "It was also interested in the manner in which the JPL was designing ''Galileo'' to withstand the intense radiation of the magnetosphere of Jupiter.", "On February 6, 1981 Strom Thurmond, the President pro tempore of the Senate, wrote directly to David Stockman, the Director of the OMB, arguing that ''Galileo'' was vital to the nation's defense.Astronauts John M. Fabian and David M. Walker pose in front of a model of the Shuttle-Centaur with ''Galileo'' in mid-1985In December 1984 Casani proposed adding a flyby of asteroid 29 Amphitrite to the ''Galileo'' mission.", "In plotting a course to Jupiter, the engineers were concerned to avoid asteroids.", "Little was known about them at the time, and it was suspected that they could be surrounded by dust particles.", "Flying through a dust cloud could damage the spacecraft's optics and possibly the spacecraft itself.", "To be safe, the JPL wanted to avoid asteroids by at least .", "Most of the asteroids in the vicinity of the flight path like 1219 Britta and 1972 Yi Xing were only a few kilometers in diameter and posed little value when observed from a safe distance, but 29 Amphitrite was one of the largest of the asteroids, and a flyby at even could have great scientific value.", "The flyby would delay the spacecraft's arrival in Jupiter orbit from August 29 to December 10, 1988, and the expenditure of propellant would reduce the number of orbits of Jupiter from eleven to ten.", "This was expected to add $20 to $25 million (equivalent to $ to $ million in ) to the cost of the ''Galileo'' project.", "The 29 Amphitrite flyby was approved by NASA Administrator James M. Beggs on December 6, 1984.During testing, contamination was discovered in the system of metal slip rings and brushes used to transmit electrical signals around the spacecraft, and they were returned to be refabricated.", "The problem was traced back to a chlorofluorocarbon used to clean parts after soldering.", "It had been absorbed, and was then released in a vacuum environment.", "It mixed with debris generated as the brushes wore down, and caused intermittent problems with electrical signal transmission.", "Problems were also detected in the performance of memory devices in an electromagnetic radiation environment.", "The components were replaced, but then a read disturb problem arose, in which reads from one memory location disturbed those in adjacent locations.", "This was found to have been caused by the changes made to make the components less sensitive to electromagnetic radiation.", "Each component had to be removed, retested, and replaced.", "All of the spacecraft components and spare parts received a minimum of 2,000 hours of testing.", "The spacecraft was expected to last for at least five years—long enough to reach Jupiter and perform its mission.", "On December 19, 1985, it departed the JPL in Pasadena, California, on the first leg of its journey, a road trip to the Kennedy Space Center in Florida.", "The ''Galileo'' mission was scheduled for STS-61-G on May 20, 1986, using .===Reconsideration===On January 28, 1986, lifted off on the STS-51-L mission.", "A failure of the solid rocket booster 73 seconds into flight tore the spacecraft apart, resulting in the deaths of all seven crew members.", "The Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' disaster was America's worst space disaster up to that time.", "The immediate impact on the ''Galileo'' project was that the May launch date could not be met because the Space Shuttles were grounded while the cause of the disaster was investigated.", "When they did fly again, ''Galileo'' would have to compete with high priority Department of Defense launches, the tracking and data relay satellite system, and the Hubble Space Telescope.", "By April 1986, it was expected that the Space Shuttles would not fly again before July 1987 at the earliest, and ''Galileo'' could not be launched before December 1987.Animation of ''Galileo'' trajectory from October 19, 1989, to September 30, 2003 The Rogers Commission handed down its report on June 6, 1986.It was critical of NASA's safety protocols and risk management.", "In particular, it noted the hazards of Centaur-G stage.", "On June 19, 1986, NASA Administrator James C. Fletcher canceled the Shuttle-Centaur project.", "This was only partly due to the NASA management's increased aversion to risk in the wake of the ''Challenger'' disaster; NASA management also considered the money and manpower required to get the Space Shuttle flying again, and decided that there was insufficient resources to resolve lingering issues with Shuttle-Centaur as well.", "The changes to the Space Shuttle proved more extensive than anticipated, and in April 1987 the JPL was informed that ''Galileo'' could not be launched before October 1989.The ''Galileo'' spacecraft was shipped back to the JPL.Without Centaur, it looked like there would not be any means of getting the spacecraft to Jupiter, and it looked for a time like its next trip would be to the Smithsonian Institution.", "The cost of keeping it ready to fly in space was reckoned at $40 to $50 million per year (equivalent to $ to $ million in ), and the estimated cost of the whole project had blown out to $1.4 billion (equivalent to $ billion in ).At the JPL, the ''Galileo'' Mission Design Manager and Navigation Team Chief, Robert Mitchell, assembled a team that consisted of Dennis Byrnes, Louis D'Amario, Roger Diehl and himself, to see if they could find a trajectory that would get ''Galileo'' to Jupiter using only a two-stage IUS.", "Roger Diehl came up with the idea of using a series of gravitational slingshots to provide the additional velocity required to reach Jupiter.", "This would require ''Galileo'' to fly past Venus, and then past Earth twice.", "This was referred to as the Venus-Earth-Earth Gravity Assist (VEEGA) trajectory.The reason no one had thought of it before was that the second encounter with Earth would not give the spacecraft any extra energy.", "Diehl realised that this was not necessary; the second encounter with Earth would merely change its direction to put it on a course for Jupiter.", "In addition to increasing the flight time to six years, the VEEGA trajectory had an additional drawback from the point of view of NASA Deep Space Network (DSN): ''Galileo'' would arrive at Jupiter when it was at the maximum range from Earth, and maximum range meant minimum signal strength.", "Furthermore, it would have a southerly declination of −23 degrees instead of a northerly one of +18 degrees, so the main tracking station would be the Canberra Deep Space Communication Complex in Australia, with its two 34-meter and one 70-meter antennae.", "This was supplemented the 64-meter antenna at the Parkes Observatory.", "''Galileo'' is prepared for release from .", "The Inertial Upper Stage (white) is attached.Initially it was thought that the VEEGA trajectory demanded a November launch, but D'Amario and Byrnes calculated that a mid-course correction between Venus and Earth would permit an October launch as well.", "Taking such a roundabout route meant that ''Galileo'' would require sixty months to reach Jupiter instead of just thirty, but it would get there.", "Consideration was given to using the USAF's Titan IV launch system with its Centaur G Prime upper stage.", "This was retained as a backup for a time, but in November 1988 the USAF informed NASA that it could not provide a Titan IV in time for the May 1991 launch opportunity, owing to the backlog of high priority Department of Defense missions.", "However, the USAF supplied IUS-19, which had originally been earmarked for a Department of Defense mission, for use by the ''Galileo'' mission.As the launch date of ''Galileo'' neared, anti-nuclear groups, concerned over what they perceived as an unacceptable risk to the public's safety from the plutonium in the ''Galileo'' radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs) and General Purpose Heat Source (GPHS) modules, sought a court injunction prohibiting ''Galileo'' launch.", "RTGs were necessary for deep space probes because they had to fly distances from the Sun that made the use of solar energy impractical.", "They had been used for years in planetary exploration without mishap: the Department of Defense's Lincoln Experimental Satellites 8/9 had 7 percent more plutonium on board than ''Galileo'', and the two ''Voyager'' spacecraft each carried 80 percent of plutonium.", "By 1989, plutonium had been used in 22 spacecraft.Activists remembered the crash of the Soviet Union's nuclear-powered Kosmos 954 satellite in Canada in 1978, and the ''Challenger'' disaster, while it did not involve nuclear fuel raised public awareness about spacecraft failures.", "No RTGs had ever done a non-orbital swing past the Earth at close range and high speed, as ''Galileo'' VEEGA trajectory required it to do.", "This created a novel mission failure modality that might plausibly have entailed dispersal of ''Galileo'' plutonium in the Earth's atmosphere.", "Scientist Carl Sagan, a strong supporter of the ''Galileo'' mission, wrote that \"there is nothing absurd about either side of this argument.", "\"Before the ''Challenger'' disaster, the JPL had conducted shock tests on the RTGs that indicated that they could withstand a pressure of without a failure, which would have been sufficient to withstand an explosion on the launch pad.", "The possibility of adding additional shielding was considered but rejected, mainly because it would add an unacceptable amount of extra weight.", "After the ''Challenger'' disaster, NASA commissioned a study on the possible effects if such an event occurred with ''Galileo'' on board.", "Angus McRonald, a JPL engineer, concluded that what would happen would depend on the altitude at which the Space Shuttle broke up.", "If the ''Galileo''/IUS combination fell free of the orbiter at , the RTGs would fall to Earth without melting, and drop into the Atlantic Ocean about from the Florida coast.", "On the other hand, if the orbiter broke up at an altitude of it would be traveling at and the RTG cases and GPHS modules would melt before falling into the Atlantic off the Florida coast.", "NASA concluded that the chance of such a disaster was 1 in 2,500, although anti-nuclear groups thought it might be as high as 1 in 430.The risk to an individual would be 1 in 100 million, about two orders of magnitude less than the danger of being killed by lightning.", "The prospect of an inadvertent re-entry into the atmosphere during the VEEGA maneuvers was reckoned at less than one in two million, but an accident might have released up to ." ], [ "Launch", "Launch of STS-34 with ''Galileo'' on boardSTS-34 was the mission designated to launch ''Galileo'', scheduled for October 12, 1989, in the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''.", "The spacecraft was delivered to the Kennedy Space Center by a high-speed truck convoy that departed the JPL in the middle of the night.", "There were fears that the spacecraft might be hijacked by anti-nuclear activists or terrorists, so the route was kept secret from the drivers, who drove through the night and the following day and only stopped for food and fuel.Last minute efforts by three environmental groups to halt the launch were rejected by the District of Columbia Circuit.", "In a concurring opinion, Chief Justice Patricia Wald wrote that while the legal challenge was not frivolous, there was no evidence that NASA had acted improperly in compiling the mission's environmental assessment, and the appeal was therefore denied on technical grounds.", "On October 16, eight protesters were arrested for trespassing at the Kennedy Space Center; three were jailed and the remaining five released.The launch was twice delayed; first by a faulty main engine controller that forced a postponement to October 17, and then by inclement weather, which necessitated a postponement to the following day, but this was not a concern since the launch window extended until November 21.", "''Atlantis'' finally lifted off at 16:53:40 UTC on October 18, and went into a orbit.", "''Galileo'' was successfully deployed at 00:15 UTC on October 19.Following the IUS burn, the ''Galileo'' spacecraft adopted its configuration for solo flight, and separated from the IUS at 01:06:53 UTC on October 19.The launch was perfect, and ''Galileo'' was soon headed towards Venus at over .", "''Atlantis'' returned to Earth safely on October 23." ], [ "Venus encounter", "The encounter with Venus on February 9 was in view of the DSN's Canberra and Madrid Deep Space Communications Complexes.", "''Galileo'' flew by at 05:58:48 UTC on February 10, 1990, at a range of .", "Doppler data collected by the DSN allowed the JPL to verify that the gravitational assist maneuver had been successful, and the spacecraft had obtained the expected increase in speed.", "Unfortunately, three hours into the flyby, the tracking station at Goldstone had to be shut down due to high winds, and Doppler data was lost.Violet light image of Venus taken in February 1990 by ''Galileo'' solid state imaging (SSI) systemBecause Venus was much closer to the Sun than the spacecraft had been designed to operate, great care was taken to avoid thermal damage.", "In particular, the X-band high gain antenna (HGA) was not deployed, but was kept folded up like an umbrella and pointed away from the Sun to keep it shaded and cool.", "This meant that the two small S-band low gain antennae (LGA) had to be used instead.", "They had a maximum bandwidth of 1,200 bits per second compared to the 134,000 bit/s expected from the HGA.", "As the spacecraft moved further from Earth, it also necessitated the use of the DSN's dishes, to the detriment of other users, who had lower priority than ''Galileo''.", "Even so, the downlink telemetry rate fell to 40 bit/s within a few days of the Venus flyby, and by March it was down to just 10 bit/s.Venus had been the focus of many automated flybys, probes, balloons and landers, most recently the ''Magellan'' spacecraft, and ''Galileo'' had not been designed with Venus in mind.", "Nonetheless, there were useful observations that it could make, as it carried some instruments that had never flown on spacecraft to Venus, such as the near-infrared mapping spectrometer (NIMS).", "Telescopic observations of Venus had revealed that there were certain parts of the infrared spectrum that the greenhouse gases in the Venusian atmosphere did not block, making them transparent on these wavelengths.", "This permitted the NIMS to both view the clouds and obtain maps of the equatorial and mid-latitudes of the night side of Venus with three to six times the resolution of Earth-based telescopes.", "The ultraviolet spectrometer (UVS) was also deployed to observe the Venusian clouds and their motions.Another set of observations was conducted using Galileo's energetic particles detector (EPD) when ''Galileo'' moved through the bow shock caused by Venus's interaction with the solar wind.", "Earth's strong magnetic field causes this to occur at around from its center, but Venus's weak magnetic field causes the bow wave to occur nearly on the surface, so the solar wind interacts with the atmosphere.", "A search for lightning on Venus was conducted using the plasma wave detector, which noted nine bursts which were likely caused by lightning, but efforts to capture an image of lightning with the solid-state imaging system (SSI) were unsuccessful." ], [ "Earth encounters", "===Flybys===''Galileo'' made two small course corrections on 9 to 12 April and 11 to 12 May 1990.The spacecraft flew by Earth twice; the first time at a range of at 20:34:34 UTC on December 8, 1990.This was only higher than predicted, and the time of the closest approach was only a second off.", "It was the first time that a deep space probe had returned to Earth from interplanetary space.", "A second flyby of Earth was at at 15:09:25 UTC on December 8, 1992.This time the spacecraft passed within a kilometer of its aiming point over the South Atlantic.", "This was so accurate that a scheduled course correction was cancelled, thereby saving of propellant.===Earth's bow shock and the solar wind===''Galileo'' image of Earth, taken in December 1990The opportunity was taken to conduct a series of experiments.", "A study of Earth's bow shock was conducted as ''Galileo'' passed by Earth's day side.", "The solar wind travels at and is deflected by Earth's magnetic field, creating a magnetic tail on Earth's dark side over a thousand times the radius of the planet.", "Observations were made by ''Galileo'' when it passed through the magnetic tail on Earth's dark side at a distance of from the planet.", "The magnetosphere was quite active at the time, and ''Galileo'' detected magnetic storms and whistlers caused by lightning strikes.", "The NIMS was employed to look for mesospheric clouds, which are believed to be caused by methane released by industrial processes.", "Normally they are only seen in September or October, but ''Galileo'' was able to detect them in December, an indication of damage to Earth's ozone layer.===Remote detection of life on Earth===The astronomer Carl Sagan, pondering the question of whether life on Earth could be easily detected from space, devised a set of experiments in the late 1980s using ''Galileo'' remote sensing instruments during the mission's first Earth flyby in December 1990.After data acquisition and processing, Sagan published a paper in ''Nature'' in 1993 detailing the results of the experiment.", "''Galileo'' had indeed found what are now referred to as the \"Sagan criteria for life\".", "These included strong absorption of light at the red end of the visible spectrum (especially over continents) which was caused by absorption by chlorophyll in photosynthesizing plants, absorption bands of molecular oxygen which is also a result of plant activity, infrared absorption bands caused by the ~1 micromole per mole (μmol/mol) of methane in Earth's atmosphere (a gas which must be replenished by either volcanic or biological activity), and modulated narrowband radio wave transmissions uncharacteristic of any known natural source.", "''Galileo'' experiments were thus the first ever controls in the newborn science of astrobiological remote sensing.===''Galileo'' Optical Experiment===In December 1992, during ''Galileo'' second gravity-assist planetary flyby of Earth, another groundbreaking experiment was performed.", "Optical communications in space were assessed by detecting light pulses from powerful lasers with ''Galileo'' CCD.", "The experiment, dubbed ''Galileo'' Optical Experiment or GOPEX, used two separate sites to beam laser pulses to the spacecraft, one at Table Mountain Observatory in California and the other at the Starfire Optical Range in New Mexico.", "The Table Mountain site used a frequency doubled Nd:YAG laser operating at a wavelength of 532 nm, with a repetition rate of ~15 to 30 Hz and a pulse power full width at half maximum (FWHM) in the tens of megawatts range, which was coupled to a Cassegrain telescope for transmission to ''Galileo''.", "The Starfire range site used a similar setup with a larger, , transmitting telescope.", "Long exposure (~0.1 to 0.8 s) images using ''Galileo'' 560 nm centered green filter produced images of Earth clearly showing the laser pulses even at distances of up to .Adverse weather conditions, restrictions placed on laser transmissions by the U.S. Space Defense Operations Center (SPADOC) and a pointing error caused by the scan platform acceleration on the spacecraft being slower than expected (which prevented laser detection on all frames with less than 400 ms exposure times) all contributed to the reduction of the number of successful detections of the laser transmission to 48 of the total 159 frames taken.", "Nonetheless, the experiment was considered a resounding success and the data acquired will likely be used in the future to design laser downlinks that will send large volumes of data very quickly from spacecraft to Earth.", "The scheme was studied in 2004 for a data link to a future Mars orbiting spacecraft." ], [ "Lunar observations", "File:Moon-galileo-color.jpg|Showing Mare OrientaleFile:The Moon from Galileo - GPN-2000-000473.jpg|''Galileo'' shot of the north pole of Earth's MoonFile:Moon Crescent - False Color Mosaic.jpg|False color mosaic by ''Galileo'' showing compositional variations of the Moon's surface" ], [ "High gain antenna problem", "Illustration of ''Galileo'' with antenna not fully deployedOnce ''Galileo'' headed beyond Earth, it was no longer risky to employ the HGA, so on April 11, 1991, ''Galileo'' was ordered to unfurl it.", "This was done using two small dual drive actuator (DDA) motors, and was expected to take 165 seconds, or 330 seconds if one failed.", "They would drive a worm gear.", "The antenna had 18 graphite-epoxy ribs, and when the driver motor started and put pressure on the ribs, they were supposed to pop out of the cup their tips were held in, and the antenna would unfold like an umbrella.", "When it reached the fully deployed configuration, redundant microswitches would shut down the motors.", "Otherwise they would run for eight minutes before being automatically shut down to prevent them from overheating.Through telemetry from ''Galileo'', investigators determined that the electric motors had stalled at 56 seconds, the spacecraft's spin rate had decreased and its wobble had increased.", "Only 15 ribs had popped out, leaving the antenna looking like a lop-sided, half-open umbrella.", "The first suggestion was to re-fold the antenna and try the opening sequence again.", "This was not possible; although the motors were capable of running in reverse, the antenna was not designed for this, and human assistance was required when it was done on Earth to ensure that the wire mesh did not snag.", "It was later discovered that less torque was available from the DDA each time, so after five deploy and stow operations, the DDA torque was half its original value.The first thing the ''Galileo'' team tried was to rotate the spacecraft away from the Sun and back again on the assumption that the problem was with friction holding the pins in their sockets.", "If so, then heating and cooling the ribs might cause them to pop out of their sockets.", "This was done seven times, but with no result.", "They then tried swinging LGA-2 (which faced in the opposite direction to the HGA and LGA-1) 145 degrees to a hard stop, thereby shaking the spacecraft.", "This was done six times with no effect.", "Finally, they tried shaking the antenna by pulsing the DDA motors at 1.25 and 1.875 Hertz.", "This increased the torque by up to 40 percent.", "The motors were pulsed 13,000 times over a three-week period in December 1992 and January 1993, but only managed to move the ballscrew by one and a half revolutions beyond the stall point.", "''Galileo'' with its high gain antenna openInvestigators concluded that during the 4.5 years that ''Galileo'' spent in storage after the ''Challenger'' disaster, the lubricants between the tips of the ribs and the cup were eroded and worn by vibration during the three cross-country journeys by truck between California and Florida for the spacecraft.", "The failed ribs were those closest to the flat-bed trailers carrying ''Galileo'' on these trips.", "The use of land transport was partly to save costs—air transport would have cost an additional $65,000 () or so per trip—but also to reduce the amount of handling required in loading and unloading the aircraft, which was considered a major risk of damage.", "The spacecraft was also subjected to severe vibration in a vacuum environment by the IUS.", "Experiments on Earth with the test HGA showed that having a set of stuck ribs all on one side reduced the DDA torque produced by up to 40 percent.The antenna lubricants were applied only once, nearly a decade before launch.", "Furthermore, the HGA was not subjected to the usual rigorous testing, because there was no backup unit that could be installed in ''Galileo'' in case of damage.", "The flight-ready HGA was never given a thermal evaluation test, and was unfurled only a half dozen or so times before the mission.", "But testing might not have revealed the problem; the Lewis Research Center was never able to replicate the problem on Earth, and it was assumed to be the combination of loss of lubricant during transportation, vibration during launch by the IUS, and a prolonged period of time in the vacuum of space where bare metal touching could undergo cold welding.Fortunately, LGA-1 was capable of transmitting information back to Earth, although since it transmitted a signal isotropically, its bandwidth was significantly less than what the high-gain antenna's would have been; the high-gain antenna was to have transmitted at 134 kilobits per second, whereas LGA-1 was only intended to transmit at about 8 to 16 bits per second.", "LGA-1 transmitted with a power of about 15 to 20 watts, which by the time it reached Earth and had been collected by one of the large aperture 70-meter DSN antennas, had a total power of about 10 zeptowatts.", "Through the implementation of sophisticated technologies, the arraying of several Deep Space Network antennas and sensitivity upgrades to the receivers used to listen to ''Galileo'' signal, data throughput was increased to a maximum of 160 bits per second.", "By further using data compression, the effective bandwidth could be raised to 1,000 bits per second.The data collected on Jupiter and its moons was stored in the spacecraft's onboard tape recorder, and transmitted back to Earth during the long apoapsis portion of the probe's orbit using the low-gain antenna.", "At the same time, measurements were made of Jupiter's magnetosphere and transmitted back to Earth.", "The reduction in available bandwidth reduced the total amount of data transmitted throughout the mission, but William J. O'Neil, ''Galileo'' project manager from 1992 to 1997, expressed confidence that 70 percent of ''Galileo'' science goals could still be met.", "The decision to use magnetic tape for storage was a conservative one, taken in the late 1970s when the use of tape was common.", "But conservatism was not restricted to engineers; a 1980 suggestion that the results of ''Galileo'' could be distributed electronically instead of on paper was regarded as ridiculous by geologists, on the grounds that storage would be prohibitively expensive; some of them thought that taking measurements on a computer involved putting a wooden ruler up to the screen." ], [ "Asteroid encounters", "===951 Gaspra===rightTwo months after entering the asteroid belt, ''Galileo'' performed the first asteroid encounter by a spacecraft, passing the S-type asteroid 951 Gaspra to a distance of at 22:37 UTC on October 29, 1991 at a relative speed of about .", "In all, 57 images of Gaspra were taken with the SSI, covering about 80% of the asteroid.", "Without the HGA, the bit rate was only about 40 bit/s, so an image took up to 60 hours to transmit back to Earth.", "The ''Galileo'' project was able to secure 80 hours of the Canberra's 70-meter dish time between 7 and 14 November 1991, but most of images taken, including low-resolution images of more of the surface, were not transmitted to Earth until November 1992.The imagery revealed a cratered and irregular body, measuring about .", "Its shape was not remarkable for an asteroid of its size.", "Measurements were taken using the NIMS to indicate the asteroid's composition and physical properties.", "While Gaspra has plenty of small craters—over 600 of them ranging in size from —it lacks large ones, hinting at a relatively recent origin.", "However, it is possible that some of the depressions were eroded craters.", "Perhaps the most surprising feature was several relatively flat planar areas.", "Measurements of the solar wind in the vicinity of the asteroid showed it changing direction a few hundred kilometers from Gaspra, which hinted that it might have a magnetic field, but this was not certain.===243 Ida and Dactyl===leftFollowing the second Earth encounter, ''Galileo'' performed close observations of another asteroid, 243 Ida, at 16:52:04 UTC on August 28, 1993, at a range of .", "Measurements were taken from ''Galileo'' using SSI and NIMS.", "The images revealed that Ida had a small moon measuring around in diameter, which appeared in 46 images.A competition was held to select a name for the moon, which was ultimately dubbed Dactyl after the legendary Dactyloi; craters on Dactyl were named after individual dactyloi.", "Regions on 243 Ida were named after cities where Johann Palisa, the discover of 243 Ida, made his observations, while ridges on 243 Ida were named in honor of deceased ''Galileo'' team members.", "Dactyl was the first asteroid moon discovered.", "Previously moons of asteroids had been assumed to be rare.", "The discovery of Dactyl hinted that they might in fact be quite common.", "From subsequent analysis of this data, Dactyl appeared to be an S-type asteroid, and spectrally different from 243 Ida.", "It was hypothesized that both may have been produced by the breakup of a Koronis parent body.The requirement to use the LGA resulted in a bit rate of 40 bit/s, and that only from August 28 to September 29, 1993 and from February to June 1994.", "''Galileo'' tape recorder was used to store images, but tape space was also required for the primary Jupiter mission.", "A technique was developed whereby only image fragments of two or three lines out of every 330 were initially sent.", "A determination could then be made as to whether the image was of 243 Ida or empty space.", "Ultimately, only about 16 percent of the SSI data recorded could be sent back to Earth." ], [ "Voyage to Jupiter", "=== Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 ===Four images of Jupiter and Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 in visible light taken by ''Galileo'' at -second intervals from a distance of ''Galileo'' prime mission was a two-year study of the Jovian system, but while it was en route, an unusual opportunity arose.", "On 26 March 1993, comet-seeking astronomers Carolyn S. Shoemaker, Eugene M. Shoemaker and David H. Levy discovered fragments of a comet orbiting Jupiter.", "They were the remains of a comet that had passed within the Roche limit of Jupiter, and had been torn apart by tidal forces.", "It was named Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9.Calculations indicated that it would crash into the planet sometime between 16 and 24 July 1994.While ''Galileo'' was still a long way from Jupiter, it was perfectly positioned to observe this event, whereas terrestrial telescopes had to wait to see the impact sites as they rotated into view because it would occur on Jupiter's night side.Instead of burning up in Jupiter's atmosphere as expected, the first of the 21 comet fragments struck the planet at around and exploded with a fireball high, easily discernible to Earth-based telescopes even though it was on the night side of the planet.", "The impact left a series of dark scars on the planet, some two or three times as large as the Earth, that persisted for weeks.", "When ''Galileo'' observed an impact in ultraviolet light, it lasted for about ten seconds, but in the infrared it persisted for 90 seconds or more.", "When a fragment hit the planet, it increased Jupiter's overall brightness by about 20 percent.", "The NIMS observed one fragment create a fireball in diameter that burned with a temperature of , which was hotter than the surface of the Sun.===Probe deployment===The ''Galileo'' probe separated from the orbiter at 03:07 UTC on July 13, 1995, five months before its rendezvous with the planet on December 7.At this point, the spacecraft was still from Jupiter, but from Earth, and telemetry from the spacecraft, travelling at the speed of light, took 37 minutes to reach the JPL.", "A tiny Doppler shift in the signal of the order of a few centimeters per second indicated that the separation had been accomplished.", "The ''Galileo'' orbiter was still on a collision course with Jupiter.", "Previously, course corrections had been made using the twelve thrusters, but with the probe on its way, the ''Galileo'' orbiter could now fire its Messerschmitt-Bölkow-Blohm main engine which had been covered by the probe until then.", "At 07:38 UTC on July 27, it was fired for the first time to place the ''Galileo'' orbiter on course to enter orbit around Jupiter, whence it would perform as a communications relay for the ''Galileo'' probe.", "The ''Galileo'' probe's project manager, Marcie Smith at the Ames Research Center, was confident that this role could be performed by LGA-1.The burn lasted for five minutes and eight seconds, and changed the velocity of the ''Galileo'' orbiter by .===Dust storms===In August 1995, the ''Galileo'' orbiter encountered a severe dust storm from Jupiter that took several months to traverse.", "Normally the spacecraft's dust detector picked up a dust particle every three days; now it detected up to 20,000 particles a day.", "Interplanetary dust storms had previously been encountered by the ''Ulysses'' space probe, which had passed by Jupiter three years before on its mission to study the Sun's polar regions, but those encountered by ''Galileo'' were more intense.", "The dust particles were about the same size as those in cigarette smoke, and had speeds ranging from depending on their size.", "The existence of the dust storms had come as a complete surprise to scientists.", "While data from both ''Ulysses'' and ''Galileo'' hinted that they originated somewhere in the Jovian system, it was a mystery how they had been created, and how they had escaped from Jupiter's strong gravitational and electromagnetic fields.===Tape recorder anomaly===The failure of ''Galileo'' high-gain antenna meant that data storage to the tape recorder for later compression and playback was absolutely crucial in order to obtain any substantial information from the flybys of Jupiter and its moons.", "This was a four-track, 114-megabyte digital tape recorder, manufactured by Odetics Corporation.", "On October 11, it was stuck in rewind mode for 15 hours before engineers learned what had happened and were able to send commands to shut it off.", "Although the recorder itself was still in working order, the malfunction had possibly damaged a length of tape at the end of the reel.", "This section of tape was declared \"off limits\" to any future data recording, and was covered with 25 more turns of tape to secure the section and reduce any further stresses, which could tear it.", "Because it happened only weeks before ''Galileo'' entered orbit around Jupiter, the anomaly prompted engineers to sacrifice data acquisition of almost all of the Io and Europa observations during the orbit insertion phase, in order to focus on recording data sent from the Jupiter probe descent." ], [ "Jupiter", "===Arrival===The ''Galileo'' orbiter's magnetometers reported that the spacecraft had encountered the bow wave of Jupiter's magnetosphere on November 16, 1995, when it was still from Jupiter.", "The bow wave was not stationary, but moved to and fro in responses to solar wind gusts, and was therefore crossed multiple times between 16 and 26 November, by which time it was from Jupiter.On December 7, 1995, the orbiter arrived in the Jovian system.", "That day it made a flyby of Europa at 11:09 UTC, and then an flyby of Io at 15:46 UTC, using Io's gravity to reduce its speed, and thereby conserve propellant for use later in the mission.", "At 19:54 it made its closest approach to Jupiter.", "The orbiter's electronics had been heavily shielded against radiation, but the radiation exceeded expectations, and nearly the spacecraft's design limits.", "One of the navigational systems failed, but the backup took over.", "Most robotic spacecraft respond to failures by entering safe mode and awaiting further instructions from Earth, but with a minimum of a two-hour signalling delay, this was not possible for ''Galileo''.===Atmospheric probe===Inner descent module of the ''Galileo'' entry probeThe descent probe awoke in response to an alarm at 16:00 UTC and began powering up its instruments.", "It passed through the rings of Jupiter and encountered a previously undiscovered belt of radiation ten times as strong as Earth's Van Allen radiation belt.", "Before the atmospheric entry, the probe detected a previously unknown radiation belt above Jupiter's cloud tops.", "It had been predicted that the probe would pass through three layers of clouds; an upper one consisting of ammonia ice-particles at a pressure of ; a middle one of ammonium hydrosulphide ice particles at a pressure of ; and one of water vapor at .", "The atmosphere through which the probe descended was much denser and hotter than expected.", "Jupiter was also found to have only half the amount of helium expected and the data did not support the three-layered cloud structure theory: only one significant cloud layer was measured by the probe, at a pressure of around but with many indications of smaller areas of increased particle densities along the whole length of its trajectory.The descent probe entered Jupiter's atmosphere, defined for the purpose as being above the pressure level, without any braking at 22:04 UTC on December 7, 1995.At this point it was moving at relative to Jupiter.The probe slowed to subsonic speed within two minutes of entry.", "The rapid flight through the atmosphere produced a plasma with a temperature of about , and the probe's carbon phenolic heat shield lost more than half of its mass, , during the descent.", "At the time, this was by far the most difficult atmospheric entry yet attempted; the probe entered at Mach 50 and had to withstand a peak deceleration of .", "As it passed through Jupiter's cloud tops, it started transmitting data to the orbiter, above.", "The data was not immediately relayed to Earth, but a single bit was transmitted from the orbiter as a notification that the signal from the probe was being received and recorded, which would then take days to arrive using the LGA.", "The atmospheric probe deployed its parachute fifty-three seconds later than anticipated, resulting in a small loss of upper atmospheric readings.", "This was attributed to wiring problems with an accelerometer that determined when to begin the parachute deployment sequence.", "It then dropped its heat shield, which fell into Jupiter's interior.", "The parachute reduced the probe's speed to .", "The signal from the probe was no longer detected by the orbiter after 61.4 minutes, at an elevation of below the cloud tops and a pressure of .", "It was believed that the probe continued to fall at terminal velocity, as the temperature increased to and the pressure to , completely destroying it.The probe's seven scientific instruments yielded a wealth of information.", "The probe detected very strong winds.", "Scientists had expected to find wind speeds of up to , but winds of up to were detected.", "The implication was that the winds are not produced by heat generated by sunlight or the condensation of water vapor (the main causes on Earth), but are due to an internal heat source.", "It was already well known that the atmosphere of Jupiter was mainly composed of hydrogen, but the clouds of ammonia and ammonium sulfide were much thinner than expected, and clouds of water vapor were not detected.", "This was the first observation of ammonia clouds in another planet's atmosphere.", "The atmosphere creates ammonia ice particles from material coming up from lower depths.The probe detected less lightning, less water, but more winds than expected.", "The atmosphere was more turbulent and the winds a lot stronger than expected.", "Wind speeds in the outermost layers were , in agreement with previous measurements from afar, but that winds increased dramatically at pressure levels of 1–4 bars, then remaining consistently high at around .", "No solid surface was detected (or expected) during the downward journey.The abundance of nitrogen, carbon and sulfur was three times that of the Sun, raising the possibility that they had been acquired from other bodies in the Solar system, but the low abundance of water cast doubt on theories that Earth's water had been acquired from comets.", "There was far less lightning activity than expected, only about a tenth of the level of activity on Earth, but this was consistent with the lack of water vapor.", "More surprising was the high abundance of noble gases, argon, krypton and xenon, with abundances up to three times that found in the Sun.", "For Jupiter to trap these gases, it would have had to be much colder than today, around , which suggested that either Jupiter had once been much further from the Sun, or that the interstellar debris that the Solar system had formed from was much colder than had been thought.File:Galileo Probe - AC81-0174.jpg|Artist's impression of the probe's entry into Jupiter's atmosphereImage:Galileo atmospheric probe.jpg|Timeline of the probe's atmospheric entry.File:Jupiter's clouds.jpg|Jupiter's clouds - expected and actual results of ''Galileo''s atmospheric probe mission===Orbiter===Animation of ''Galileo'' trajectory around Jupiter from August 1, 1995, to September 30, 2003 With the probe data collected, the ''Galileo'' orbiter's next task was to slow down in order to avoid heading off into the outer solar system.", "A burn sequence commencing at 00:27 UTC on December 8 and lasting 49 minutes reduced the spacecraft's speed by and enter a 198-day parking orbit.", "The ''Galileo'' orbiter then became the first artificial satellite of Jupiter.", "Most of its initial 7-month long orbit was occupied transmitting the data from the probe back to Earth.", "When the orbiter reached its apojove on March 26, 1996, the main engine was fired again to increase the orbit from four times the radius of Jupiter to ten times.", "By this time the orbiter had received half the radiation allowed for in the mission plan, and the higher orbit was to conserve the instruments for as long as possible by limiting the radiation exposure.The spacecraft traveled around Jupiter in elongated ellipses, each orbit lasting about two months.", "The differing distances from Jupiter afforded by these orbits allowed ''Galileo'' to sample different parts of the planet's extensive magnetosphere.", "The orbits were designed for close-up flybys of Jupiter's largest moons.", "A naming scheme was devised for the orbits: a code with the first letter of the moon being encountered on that orbit (or \"J\" if none was encountered) plus the orbit number.The four Galilean moons: Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto|thumb|center|upright=2.5===Io===The innermost of the four Galilean moons, Io is roughly the same size as Earth's moon, with a radius of .", "It is in orbital resonance with Ganymede and Europa, and tidally locked with Jupiter, so just as the Earth's Moon always has the same side facing Earth, Io always has the same side facing Jupiter.", "It orbits faster though, with a rotation period of 1.769 days.", "As a result, rotational and tidal forces are 220 times as great as those on Earth's moon.", "These frictional forces are sufficient to melt rock and create volcanoes and lava flows.", "Although only a third of the size of Earth, Io generates twice as much heat.", "While geological events occur on Earth over periods of thousands or even millions of years, cataclysmic events are common on Io.", "Visible changes occurred between orbits of ''Galileo''.", "The colorful surface is a mixture of red, white and yellow sulphur compounds.Tvashtar Catena on Io, showing changes in hot spots between 1999 and 2000''Galileo'' flew past Io on arrival day, but in the interest of protecting the tape recorder, O'Neil decided to forego collecting images.", "Only the fields and particles instruments were allowed to collect data, as these required the tape recorder to run at slow speeds, and it was believed that it could handle this, whereas the SSI camera required it to operate a high speed, with abrupt stops and starts.", "It was a crushing blow to scientists, some of whom had waited years for the opportunity.", "No other Io encounters were scheduled during the prime mission because it was feared that the high radiation levels close to Jupiter would damage the spacecraft.", "However, valuable information was still obtained; Doppler data used to measure Io's gravitational field revealed that Io had a core of molten iron and iron sulfide.Another opportunity to observe Io arose during the GEM, when ''Galileo'' flew past Io on orbits I24 and I25, and it would revisit Io during the GMM, on orbits I27, I31, I32 and I33.As ''Galileo'' approached Io on I24 at 11:09 UTC on October 11, 1999, it entered safe mode.", "Apparently, high energy electrons had altered a bit on a memory chip.", "When it entered safe mode, the spacecraft turned off all non-essential functions.", "Normally it took seven to ten days to diagnose and recover from a safe mode incident; this time the ''Galileo'' Project team at the JPL had nineteen hours before the encounter with Io.", "After a frantic effort, they managed to diagnose a problem that had never been seen before, and restore the spacecraft systems with just two hours to spare.", "Not all of the planned activities could be carried out, but ''Galileo'' obtained a series of high-resolution color images of the Pillan Patera, and Zamama, Prometheus, and Pele volcanic eruption centers.When ''Galileo'' next approached Io on I25 at 20:40 Pacific Time on November 25, 1999, the JPL were eating their Thanksgiving dinner at the ''Galileo'' Mission Control Center when, with the encounter with Io just four hours away, the spacecraft again entered safe mode.", "This time the problem was traced to a software patch implemented to bring ''Galileo'' out of safe mode during I24.Fortunately, the spacecraft had not shut down as much as it had on I24, and the team at JPL were able to bring it back online.", "During I24 they had done so with two hours to spare; this time, they had just three minutes.", "Nonetheless, the flyby was very successful, with ''Galileo'' NIMS and SSI camera capturing an erupting volcano that generated a long plume of lava that was sufficiently large and hot to have also been detected by the NASA Infrared Telescope Facility atop Mauna Kea in Hawaii.", "While such events were more common and spectacular on Io than on Earth, it was extremely fortuitous to have captured it.Io in sped-up motion; a rotation actually takes 1.769 daysThe safe mode incidents on I24 and I25 left some gaps in the data, which I27 targeted.", "This time ''Galileo'' passed just over the surface of Io.", "At this time, the spacecraft was nearly at the maximum distance from Earth, and there was a solar conjunction, a period when the Sun blocked the line of sight between Earth and Jupiter.", "As a consequence, three quarters of the observations were taken over a period of just three hours.", "NIMS images revealed fourteen active volcanoes in a region thought to contain just four.", "Images of Loki Patera showed that in the four and half months between I24 and I27, some had been covered in fresh lava.", "Unfortunately, a series of observations of extreme ultraviolet (EUV) had to be cancelled due to yet another safe mode event.", "Radiation exposure caused a transient bus reset, a computer hardware error resulting in a safe mode event.", "A software patch implemented after the Europa encounter on orbit E19 guarded against this when the spacecraft was within 15 Jupiter radii of the planet, but this time it occurred at 29 Jupiter radii.", "The safe mode event also caused a loss of tape playback time, but the project managers decide to carry over some Io data into orbit G28, and play it back then.", "This limited the amount of tape space available for that Ganymede encounter, but the Io data was considered to be more valuable.The discovery of Io's iron core raised the possibility that it had a magnetic field.", "The I24, I25 and I27 encounters had been on equatorial orbits, which made it difficult to determine whether Io had its own magnetic field, or one induced by Jupiter.", "Accordingly, on orbit I31, ''Galileo'' passed within of the surface of the north pole of Io, and on orbit I32 it flew over the south pole.", "After examining the magnetometer results, planetary scientist Margaret G. Kivelson, announced that Io had no intrinsic magnetic field, which meant that its molten iron core did not have the same convective properties as that of Earth.", "On I31 ''Galileo'' sped through an area that had been in the plume of the Tvashtar Paterae volcano, and it was hoped that the plume could be sampled.", "This time, Tvashtar was quiet, but the spacecraft flew through the plume of another, previously unknown, volcano away.", "What had been assumed to be hot ash from the volcanic eruption turned out to be sulphur dioxide snowflakes, each consisting of 15 to 20 molecules clustered together.", "''Galileo'' final return to Io on orbit I33 was marred by another safe mode incident.", "Although the project team worked hard to restore the spacecraft to working order, much of the hoped-for data was lost.===Europa===This false color image on the left shows a region of Europa's crust made up of blocks which are thought to have broken apart and \"rafted\" into new positions.Although the smallest of the four Galilean moons, with a radius of , Europa is still the sixth largest moon in the solar system.", "Observations from Earth indicated that it was covered in ice.", "Like Io, Europa is tidally locked with Jupiter.", "It is in orbital resonance with Io and Ganymede, with its 85-hour orbit being twice that of Io, but half that of Ganymede.", "Conjunctions with Io always occur on the opposite side of Jupiter to those with Ganymede.", "Europa is therefore subject to tidal effects.", "There is no evidence of volcanism like on Io, but ''Galileo'' revealed that the surface ice was covered in cracks.Some observations of Europa were made during orbits G1 and G2.On C3, ''Galileo'' conducted a \"nontargeted\" encounter of Europa on 6 November 1996.A \"nontargeted\" encounter is defined as a secondary flyby up to a distance of .", "During E4 from 15 to 22 December 1996, ''Galileo'' flew within of Europa, but data transmission was hindered by a Solar occultation that blocked transmission for ten days.", "''Galileo'' returned to Europa on E6 in January 1997, this time at a height of to analyze oval-shaped features in the infrared and ultraviolet spectra.", "Occultations by Europa, Io and Jupiter provided data on the atmospheric profiles of Europa, Io and Jupiter, and measurements were made of Europa's gravitational field.", "On E11 from 2 to 9 November 1997, data was collected on the magnetosphere.", "Due to the problems with the HGA, only about two percent of the anticipated number of images of Europa were obtained by the primary mission.", "On the GEM, the first eight orbits, E12 through E19, were all dedicated to Europa, and ''Galileo'' paid it a final visit on E26 during the GMM.Images of Europa also showed few impact craters.", "It seemed unlikely that it had escaped the meteor and comet impacts that scarred Ganymede and Callisto, so this indicated Europa has an active geology that renews the surface and obliterates craters.", "Clark Chapman argued that if we assume that a crater occurs in Europa once every million years, and given that only about twenty have been spotted on Europa, the implication is that the surface must only be about 10 million years old.", "With more data on hand, in 2003 a team led Kevin Zahle at NASA's Ames Research Center arrived at a figure of 30 to 70 million years.", "Tidal flexing of up to per day was the most likely the culprit.", "But not all scientists were convinced; Michael Carr, a planetologist from the US Geological Survey, argued that, on the contrary, the surface of Europa was subjected to less impacts than Callisto or Ganymede.Plate tectonics on EuropaEvidence of surface renewal hinted at the possibility of a viscous layer below the surface of warm ice or liquid water.", "NIMS observations by ''Galileo'' indicated that the surface of Europa appeared to contain magnesium and sodium salts.", "A likely source was brine below the ice crust.", "Further evidence was provided by the magnetometer, which reported that the magnetic field was induced by Jupiter.", "This could be explained by the existence of a spherical shell of conductive material like salt water.", "Since the surface temperature on Europa was a chilly , any water breaching the surface ice would instantly freeze over.", "Heat required to keep water in a liquid state could not come from the Sun, which had only 4 percent of the intensity of Earth, but ice is a good insulator, and the heat could be provided by the tidal flexing.", "''Galileo'' also yielded evidence that the crust of Europa had slipped over time, moving south on the hemisphere facing Jupiter, and north on the far side.There was acrimonious debate among scientists over the thickness of the ice crust, and those who presented results indicating that it might be thinner than the proposed by the accredited scientists on the ''Galileo'' Imaging Team faced intimidation, scorn, and reduced career opportunities.", "The ''Galileo'' Imaging Team was led by Michael J. Belton from the Kitt Peak National Observatory.", "Scientists who planned imaging sequences had the exclusive right to the initial interpretation of the ''Galileo'' data, most which was performed by their research students.", "The scientific community did not want a repetition of the 1979 Morabito incident, when Linda A. Morabito, an engineer at the JPL working on ''Voyager 1'', discovered the first active extraterrestrial volcano on Io.", "The Imaging Team controlled the manner in which discoveries were presented to the scientific community and the public through press conferences, conference papers and publications.Observations by the Hubble Space Telescope in 1995 reported that Europa had a thin oxygen atmosphere.", "This was confirmed by ''Galileo'' in six experiments on orbits E4 and E6 during occultations when Europa was between ''Galileo'' and the Earth.", "This allowed Canberra and Goldstone to investigate the ionosphere of Europa by measuring the degree to which the radio beam was diffracted by charged particles.", "This indicated the presence of water ions, which were most likely water molecules that had been dislodged from the surface ice and then ionized by the Sun or the Jovian magnetosphere.", "The presence of an ionosphere was sufficient to deduce the existence of a thin atmosphere on Europa.", "On December 11, 2013, NASA reported, based on results from the ''Galileo'' mission, the detection of \"clay-like minerals\" (specifically, phyllosilicates), often associated with organic materials, on the icy crust of Europa.", "The presence of the minerals may have been the result of a collision with an asteroid or comet.===Ganymede===The internal structure of GanymedeThe largest of the Galilean moons with a diameter of , Ganymede is larger than Earth's moon, the dwarf planet Pluto or the planet Mercury.", "It is the largest of the moons in the Solar system that are characterized by large amounts of water ice, which also includes Saturn's moon Titan, and Neptune's moon Triton.", "Ganymede has three times as much water for its mass as Earth has.When ''Galileo'' entered Jovian orbit, it did so at an inclination to the Jovian equator, and therefore the orbital plane of the four Galilean moons.", "To transfer orbit while conserving propellant, two slingshot maneuvers were performed.", "On G1, the gravity of Ganymede was used to slow the spacecraft's orbital period from 21 to 72 days to allow for more encounters and to take ''Galileo'' out of the more intense regions of radiation.", "On G2, the gravity assist was employed to put it into a coplanar orbit to permit subsequent encounters with Io, Europa and Callisto.", "Although the primary purpose of G1 and G2 was navigational, the opportunity to make some observations was not missed.", "The plasma wave experiment and the magnetometer detected a magnetic field with a strength of about , more than strong enough to create a separate magnetosphere within that of Jupiter.", "This was the first time that a magnetic field had ever been detected on a moon contained within the magnetosphere of its host planet.This discovery led naturally to questions about its origin.", "The evidence pointed to an iron or iron sulphide core and mantle below the surface, encased in ice.", "Margaret Kivelson, the scientist in charge of the magnetometer experiment felt that the induced magnetic field required an iron core, and speculated that an electrically conductive layer was required, possibly a brine ocean below the surface.", "''Galileo'' returned to Ganymede on orbits G7 and G9 in April and May 1997, and on G28 and G29 in May and December 2000 on the GMM.", "Images of the surface revealed two types of terrain: highly cratered dark regions, and grooved terrain sulcus.", "Images of the Arbela Sulcus taken on G28 made Ganymede look more like Europa, but tidal flexing could not provide sufficient heat to keep water in liquid form on Ganymede, although it may have made a contribution.", "One possibility was radioactivity, which might provide sufficient heat for liquid water to exist below the surface.", "Another possibility was volcanism.", "Slushy water or ice reaching the surface would quickly freeze over, creating areas of a relatively smooth surface.===Callisto===The internal structure of CallistoCallisto is the outermost of the Galilean moons, and the most pockmarked, indeed the most of any body in the Solar system.", "So many craters must have taken billions of years to accumulate, which gave scientists the idea that its surface was as much as four billion years old, and provided a record of meteor activity in the Solar system.", "''Galileo'' visited Callisto on orbits C3, C9 and C100 during the prime mission, and then on C20, C21, C22 and C23 during the GEM.", "When the cameras observed Callisto close up, there was a puzzling absence of small craters.", "The surface features appeared to have been eroded, indicating that they had been subject to active geological processes.", "''Galileo'' flyby of Callisto on C3 marked the first time that the Deep Space Network operated a link between its antennae in Canberra and Goldstone that allowed them to operate as a gigantic array, thereby enabling a higher bit rate despite the spacecraft's long distance from Earth.", "With the assistance of the antenna at Parkes, this raised the effective bandwidth to as much as 1,000 bits per second.Data accumulated on C3 indicated that Callisto had a homogeneous composition, with heavy and light elements intermixed.", "This was estimated to be composed of 60 percent rock and 40 percent ice.", "This was overturned by further radio Doppler observations on C9 and C10, which indicated that rock had settled towards the core, and therefore that Callisto indeed has a differentiated internal structure, although not as much so as the other Galilean moons.Observations made with ''Galileo'' magnetometer indicated that Callisto had no magnetic field of its own, and therefore lacked an iron core like Ganymede's, but that it did have an induced field from Jupiter's magnetosphere.", "Because ice is too poor a conductor to generate this effect, it pointed to the possibility that Callisto, like Europa and Ganymede, might have a subsurface ocean of brine.", "''Galileo'' made its closest encounter with Callisto on C30, when it made a pass over the surface, during which it photographed the Asgard, Valhalla and Bran craters.", "This was used for slingshot maneuvers to set up the final encounters with Io on I31 and I32.===Amalthea===Artist's concept of Galileo passing near Jupiter's small inner moon AmaltheaAlthough ''Galileo'' main mission was to explore the Galilean moons, it also captured images of four of the inner moons, Thebe, Adrastea, Amalthea, and Metis.", "Such images were only possible from a spacecraft; to Earth-based telescopes they were merely specks of light.", "Two years of Jupiter's intense radiation took its toll on the spacecraft's systems, and its fuel supply was running low in the early 2000s.", "''Galileo'' cameras were deactivated on January 17, 2002, after they had sustained irreparable radiation damage.NASA engineers were able to recover the damaged tape recorder electronics, and ''Galileo'' continued to return scientific data until it was deorbited in 2003, performing one last scientific experiment: a measurement of Amalthea's mass as the spacecraft swung by it.", "This was tricky to arrange; to be useful, ''Galileo'' had to fly within of Amalthea, but not so close as to crash into it.", "This was complicated by its irregular potato-like shape.", "It was tidally locked, pointing its long axis towards Jupiter at all times.", "A successful flyby meant knowing which direction the asteroid was pointed in relative to ''Galileo'' at all times.", "''Galileo'' flew by Amalthea on November 5, 2002, during its 34th orbit, allowing a measurement of the moon's mass as it passed within of its surface.", "The results startled the scientific team; they revealed that Amalthea weighed , and with a volume of , it therefore had a density of 857 ± 99 kilograms per cubic meter, less than that of water.A final discovery occurred during the last two orbits of the mission.", "When the spacecraft passed the orbit of Amalthea, the star scanner detected unexpected flashes of light that were reflections from seven to nine moonlets.", "None of the individual moonlets were reliably sighted twice, so no orbits were determined.", "It is believed that they were most likely debris ejected from Amalthea and form a tenuous, and perhaps temporary, ring.===Star scanner===''Galileo'' star scanner was a small optical telescope that provided an absolute attitude reference.", "It also made several scientific discoveries serendipitously.", "In the prime mission, it was found that the star scanner was able to detect high-energy particles as a noise signal.", "This data was eventually calibrated to show the particles were predominantly > electrons that were trapped in the Jovian magnetic belts, and released to the Planetary Data System.A second discovery occurred in 2000.The star scanner was observing a set of stars which included the second magnitude star Delta Velorum.", "At one point, this star dimmed for 8 hours below the star scanner's detection threshold.", "Subsequent analysis of ''Galileo'' data and work by amateur and professional astronomers showed that Delta Velorum is the brightest known eclipsing binary, brighter at maximum than even Algol.", "It has a primary period of 45 days and the dimming is just visible with the naked eye.===Mission extension===After the primary mission concluded on December 7, 1997, most of the mission staff departed, including O'Neil, but about a fifth of them remained.", "The ''Galileo'' orbiter commenced an extended mission known as the ''Galileo'' Europa Mission (GEM), which ran until December 31, 1999.This was a low-cost mission, with a budget of $30 million (equivalent to $ million in ).", "The reason for calling it as the \"Europa\" mission rather than the \"Extended\" mission was political; although it might seem wasteful to scrap a spacecraft that was still functional and capable of performing a continuing mission, Congress took a dim view of requests for more money for projects it thought had already been fully funded.", "This was avoided through rebranding.The smaller GEM team did not have the resources to deal with problems, but when they arose it was able to temporarily recall former team members for intensive efforts to solve them.", "The spacecraft performed several flybys of Europa, Callisto and Io.", "On each one the spacecraft collected only two days' worth of data instead of the seven it had collected during the prime mission.", "The radiation environment near Io, which ''Galileo'' approached to within on November 26, 1999, on orbit I25, was very unhealthy for ''Galileo'' systems, and so these flybys were saved for the extended mission when loss of the spacecraft would be more acceptable.By the time GEM ended, most of the spacecraft was operating well beyond its original design specifications, having absorbed three times the radiation exposure that it had been built to withstand.", "Many of the instruments were no longer operating at peak performance, but were still functional, so a second extension, the ''Galileo'' Millennium Mission (GMM) was authorized.", "This was intended to run until March 2001, but it was subsequently extended until January 2003.GMM included return visits to Europa, Io, Ganymede and Callisto, and for the first time to Amalthea.", "The total cost of the original ''Galileo'' mission was about (equivalent to $ billion in ).", "Of this, (equivalent to $ million in ) was spent on spacecraft development.", "Another $110 million (equivalent to $ million in ) was contributed by international agencies.===Radiation-related anomalies===Jupiter's inner magnetosphere and radiation beltsJupiter's uniquely harsh radiation environment caused over 20 anomalies over the course of ''Galileo'' mission, in addition to the incidents expanded upon below.", "Despite having exceeded its radiation design limit by at least a factor of three, the spacecraft survived all these anomalies.", "Work-arounds were found eventually for all of these problems, and ''Galileo'' was never rendered entirely non-functional by Jupiter's radiation.", "The radiation limits for ''Galileo'' computers were based on data returned from ''Pioneers 10'' and ''11'', since much of the design work was underway before the two ''Voyagers'' arrived at Jupiter in 1979.A typical effect of the radiation was that several of the science instruments suffered increased noise while within about of Jupiter.", "The SSI camera began producing totally white images when the spacecraft was hit by the exceptional 'Bastille Day' coronal mass ejection in 2000, and did so again on subsequent close approaches to Jupiter.", "The quartz crystal used as the frequency reference for the radio suffered permanent frequency shifts with each Jupiter approach.", "A spin detector failed, and the spacecraft gyro output was biased by the radiation environment.The most severe effects of the radiation were current leakages somewhere in the spacecraft's power bus, most likely across brushes at a spin bearing connecting rotor and stator sections of the orbiter.", "These current leakages triggered a reset of the onboard computer and caused it to go into safe mode.", "The resets occurred when the spacecraft was either close to Jupiter or in the region of space magnetically downstream of Jupiter.", "A change to the software was made in April 1999 that allowed the onboard computer to detect these resets and autonomously recover, so as to avoid safe mode.===Tape recorder problems===Routine maintenance of the tape recorder involved winding the tape halfway down its length and back again to prevent it sticking.", "In November 2002, after the completion of the mission's only encounter with Jupiter's moon Amalthea, problems with playback of the tape recorder again plagued ''Galileo''.", "About 10 minutes after the closest approach of the Amalthea flyby, ''Galileo'' stopped collecting data, shut down all of its instruments, and went into safe mode, apparently as a result of exposure to Jupiter's intense radiation environment.", "Though most of the Amalthea data was already written to tape, it was found that the recorder refused to respond to commands telling it to play back data.After weeks of troubleshooting of an identical flight spare of the recorder on the ground, it was determined that the cause of the malfunction was a reduction of light output in three infrared Optek OP133 light-emitting diodes (LEDs) located in the drive electronics of the recorder's motor encoder wheel.", "The gallium arsenide LEDs had been particularly sensitive to proton-irradiation-induced atomic lattice displacement defects, which greatly decreased their effective light output and caused the drive motor's electronics to falsely believe the motor encoder wheel was incorrectly positioned.", "''Galileo'' flight team then began a series of \"annealing\" sessions, where current was passed through the LEDs for hours at a time to heat them to a point where some of the crystalline lattice defects would be shifted back into place, thus increasing the LED's light output.", "After about 100 hours of annealing and playback cycles, the recorder was able to operate for up to an hour at a time.", "After many subsequent playback and cooling cycles, the complete transmission back to Earth of all recorded Amalthea flyby data was successful.===End of mission and deorbit===Illustration of ''Galileo'' entering Jupiter's atmosphereWhen the exploration of Mars was being considered in the early 1960s, Carl Sagan and Sidney Coleman produced a paper concerning contamination of the red planet.", "In order that scientists could determine whether or not native life forms existed before the planet became contaminated by micro-organisms from Earth, they proposed that space missions should aim at a 99.9 percent chance that contamination should not occur.", "This figure was adopted by the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR) of the International Council of Scientific Unions in 1964, and was subsequently applied to all planetary probes.", "The danger was highlighted in 1969 when the Apollo 12 astronauts returned components of the Surveyor 3 spacecraft that had landed on the Moon three years before, and it was found that microbes were still viable even after three years in that harsh climate.", "An alternative was the Prime Directive, a philosophy of non-interference with alien life forms enunciated by the original ''Star Trek'' television series that prioritized the interests of the life forms over those of scientists.", "Given the (admittedly slim) prospect of life on Europa, scientists Richard Greenberg and Randall Tufts proposed that a new standard be set of no greater chance of contamination than that which might occur naturally by meteorites.", "''Galileo'' had not been sterilized prior to launch and could have carried bacteria from Earth.", "Therefore, a plan was formulated to send the probe directly into Jupiter, in an intentional crash to eliminate the possibility of an impact with Jupiter's moons, particularly Europa, and prevent a forward contamination.", "On April 14, 2003, ''Galileo'' reached its greatest orbital distance from Jupiter for the entire mission since orbital insertion, , before plunging back towards the gas giant for its final impact.", "At the completion of J35, its final orbit around the Jovian system, ''Galileo'' impacted Jupiter in darkness just south of the equator on September 21, 2003, at 18:57 UTC.", "Its impact speed was approximately .===Major findings===# The composition of Jupiter differs from that of the Sun, indicating that Jupiter has evolved since the formation of the Solar System.# ''Galileo'' made the first observation of ammonia clouds in another planet's atmosphere.", "The atmosphere creates ammonia ice particles from material coming up from lower depths.# Io was confirmed to have extensive volcanic activity that is 100 times greater than that found on Earth.", "The heat and frequency of eruptions are reminiscent of early Earth.# Complex plasma interactions in Io's atmosphere create immense electrical currents which couple to Jupiter's atmosphere.# Several lines of evidence from ''Galileo'' support the theory that liquid oceans exist under Europa's icy surface.# Ganymede possesses its own, substantial magnetic field – the first satellite known to have one.# ''Galileo'' magnetic data provided evidence that Europa, Ganymede and Callisto have a liquid salt water layer under the visible surface.# Evidence exists that Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto all have a thin atmospheric layer known as a \"surface-bound exosphere\".# Jupiter's ring system is formed by dust kicked up as interplanetary meteoroids smash into the planet's four small inner moons.", "The outermost ring is actually two rings, one embedded with the other.", "There is probably a separate ring along Amalthea's orbit as well.# The ''Galileo'' spacecraft identified the global structure and dynamics of a giant planet's magnetosphere." ], [ "Follow-on missions", "There was a spare ''Galileo'' spacecraft that was considered by the NASA-ESA Outer Planets Study Team in 1983 for a mission to Saturn, but it was passed over in favor of a newer design, which became ''Cassini–Huygens''.", "While ''Galileo'' was operating, ''Ulysses'' passed by Jupiter in 1992 on its mission to study the Sun's polar regions, and ''Cassini–Huygens'' coasted by the planet in 2000 and 2001 en route to Saturn.", "''New Horizons'' passed close by Jupiter in 2007 for a gravity assist en route to Pluto, and it too collected data on the planet.", "The next mission to orbit Jupiter was the ''Juno'' spacecraft, which entered Jovian orbit in July 2016.===''Juno''===NASA's ''Juno'' spacecraft, launched in 2011 and planned for a two-year tour of the Jovian system, successfully completed Jupiter orbital insertion on July 4, 2016.===Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer===The European Space Agency is planning to return to the Jovian system with the Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer (JUICE), which is designed to orbit Ganymede in the 2030s.===''Europa Clipper''===Even before ''Galileo'' concluded, NASA considered the Europa Orbiter, which was a mission to Jupiter's moon Europa, but it was canceled in 2002.After its cancellation, a lower-cost version was studied.", "This led to the ''Europa Clipper'' being approved in 2015; it is currently planned for launch in the mid-2020s.===Europa Lander===A lander concept, simply called Europa Lander is being assessed by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory.", ", this lander mission to Europa remains a concept, although some funds have been released for instrument development and maturation." ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* ''Galileo'' mission site by NASA's Solar System Exploration* ''Galileo'' legacy site by NASA's Solar System Exploration* ''Galileo'' Satellite Image Mosaics by Arizona State University* Galileo image album by Kevin M. Gill" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Garden of Eden" ], [ "Introduction", "''The Garden of Eden with the Fall of Man'' by Jan Brueghel the Elder and Pieter Paul Rubens, , depicting both domestic and exotic wild animals such as tigers, parrots, and ostriches co-existing in the gardenIn Abrahamic religions, the '''Garden of Eden''' (; ; ) or '''Garden of God''' ( and ), also called the '''Terrestrial Paradise''', is the biblical paradise described in Genesis 2–3 and Ezekiel 28 and 31.The location of Eden is described in the Book of Genesis as the source of four tributaries.", "Various suggestions have been made for its location: at the head of the Persian Gulf, in southern Mesopotamia where the Tigris and Euphrates rivers run into the sea; and in Armenia.", "Others theorize that Eden was the entire Fertile Crescent or a region of \"considerable size\" in Mesopotamia, where its native inhabitants still exist in cities such as Telassar.Like the Genesis flood narrative, the Genesis creation narrative and the account of the Tower of Babel, the story of Eden echoes the Mesopotamian myth of a king, as a primordial man, who is placed in a divine garden to guard the tree of life.", "Scholars note that the Eden narrative shows parallels with aspects of Solomon’s Temple and Jerusalem, attesting to its nature as a sacred place.", "Mentions of Eden are also made in the Bible elsewhere in Genesis, in Isaiah 51:3, Ezekiel 36:35, and Joel 2:3; Zechariah 14 and Ezekiel 47 use paradisical imagery without naming Eden.The name derives from the Akkadian , from a Sumerian word meaning or , closely related to an Aramaic root word meaning .", "Another interpretation associates the name with a Hebrew word for 'pleasure'; thus the Vulgate reads in Genesis 2:8, and the Douay–Rheims Bible, following, has the wording \"And the Lord God had planted a paradise of pleasure\"." ], [ "Biblical narratives", "===Genesis===''Expulsion from Paradise'', painting by James Tissot ()The Expulsion illustrated in the English Junius manuscript, The second part of the Genesis creation narrative, Genesis 2:4–3:24, opens with YHWH-Elohim (translated here \"the God\") creating the first man (Adam), whom he placed in a garden that he planted \"eastward in Eden\":The man was free to eat from any tree in the garden except the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, which was taboo.", "Last of all, God made a woman (Eve) from a rib of the man to be a companion for the man.", "In Genesis 3, the man and the woman were seduced by the serpent into eating the forbidden fruit, and they were expelled from the garden to prevent them from eating of the tree of life, and thus living forever.", "Cherubim were placed east of the garden, \"and a flaming sword which turned every way, to guard the way of the tree of life\".Genesis 2:10–14 lists four rivers in association with the garden of Eden: Pishon, Gihon, Hiddekel (the Tigris), and Phirat (the Euphrates).", "It also refers to the land of Cush—translated/interpreted as Ethiopia, but thought by some to equate to ''Cossaea'', a Greek name for the land of the Kassites.", "These lands lie north of Elam, immediately to the east of ancient Babylon, which, unlike Ethiopia, does lie within the region being described.", "In ''Antiquities of the Jews'', the first-century Jewish historian Josephus identifies the Pishon as what \"the Greeks called Ganges\" and the Geon (Gehon) as the Nile.===Ezekiel===In Ezekiel 28:12–19, the prophet Ezekiel the \"son of man\" sets down God's word against the king of Tyre: the king was the \"seal of perfection\", adorned with precious stones from the day of his creation, placed by God in the garden of Eden on the holy mountain as a guardian cherub.", "However, the king sinned through wickedness and violence, and so he was driven out of the garden and thrown to the earth, where now he is consumed by God's fire: \"All those who knew you in the nations are appalled at you, you have come to a horrible end and will be no more.\"", "(Ezekiel 28:19)." ], [ "Proposed locations", "The Tigris and Euphrates riversMap by Pierre Mortier captioned ''Map of the location of the terrestrial paradise, and of the country inhabited by the patriarchs, laid out for the good understanding of sacred history, by Pierre Daniel Huet'' (1700)The location of Eden is described in Genesis 2:10–14:Suggestions for the location of Eden include the head of the Persian Gulf, as argued by Juris Zarins, in southern Mesopotamia where the Tigris and Euphrates rivers run into the sea; and in the Armenian Highlands or Armenian National Plateau.", "British archaeologist David Rohl locates it in Iran, and in the vicinity of Tabriz, but this suggestion has not been adopted by mainstream academia.Others theorize that Eden was merely a region of \"considerable size\" in Mesopotamia, where its native inhabitants still exist in cities such as Telassar, based on verses such as Isaiah 38:17.Or that it encompassed the entire Fertile Crescent.According to Terje Stordalen, the Book of Ezekiel places Eden in Lebanon.", "\"It appears that the Lebanon is an alternative placement in Phoenician myth (as in Ez 28,13, III.48) of the Garden of Eden\", and there are connections between paradise, the Garden of Eden and the forests of Lebanon (possibly used symbolically) within prophetic writings.", "Edward Lipinski and Peter Kyle McCarter have suggested that the garden of the gods, the oldest Sumerian analog of the Garden of Eden, relates to a mountain sanctuary in the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon ranges.Some religious groups have believed the location of the garden to be local to them, outside of the Middle East.", "Some early leaders of Mormonism held that it was located in Jackson County, Missouri.", "The 20th-century Panacea Society believed it was located at the site of their home town of Bedford, England, while preacher Elvy E. Callaway believed it was on the Apalachicola River in Florida, near the town of Bristol.", "Some suggested that the location is in Jerusalem.On his third voyage to the Americas in 1498, Christopher Columbus thought he may have reached the Earthly Paradise upon first seeing the South American mainland.In his book ''The Creation, the Garden of Eden and the Origin of the Chinese'', Tse Tsan-tai argued that the Garden of Eden was located in modern-day Xinjiang." ], [ "Blissful garden concept", "Scholars have identified and proposed connections to similar concepts from ancient religions and mythologies, and have studied the post-scriptural evolution of the concept in religion and arts.===Sumeria and ancient Greece; Renaissance===A number of parallel concepts to the biblical Garden of Eden exist in various other religions and mythologies.", "Dilmun in the Sumerian story of ''Enki and Ninhursag'' is a paradisaical abode of the immortals, where sickness and death were unknown.", "The garden of the Hesperides in Greek mythology was also somewhat similar to the Jewish concept of the Garden of Eden, and by the 16th century a larger intellectual association was made in the Cranach painting.===Canaanite origin theory===By studying late-13th-century BCE clay tablets from Ugarit, Hebrew Bible scholars M.J.A.", "Korpel and J.C. de Moor discovered close Canaanite parallels, which they posit as being the origin of the biblical creation myth from the first chapters of Genesis including the garden Eden and Adam narrative.", "The tablets talk about the creator deity El, who lived in a vineyard or garden together with his wife Asherah on Mount Ararat.", "Another god, Horon, tries to depose El and when thrown down from the mountain, he transforms the Tree of Life from the garden into a Tree of Death.", "Horon also spreads around a poisonous fog, Adam is sent from the mountain to restore life on earth, Horon takes the shape of a large serpent and bites him, which leads to Adam and his wife losing their immortality.===Evolution of Old Iranian \"paradise\" concept===The word \"paradise\" entered English from the French , inherited from the Latin , from the Greek ().", "The Greek, in turn, was derived from an Old Iranian form, itself from the Proto-Iranian ''*parādaiĵah-'', 'walled enclosure', which was derived from the Old Persian (p-r-d-y-d-a-m, , whence from the Avestan , .", "The literal meaning of this word is 'walled (enclosure)', from ''pairi-'' 'around' (cognate with the Greek and the English ''peri-'', of identical meaning), and ''-diz'', \"to make, form (a wall), build\" (cognate with the Greek , 'wall').", "The word's etymology is ultimately derived from a Proto-Indo-European root, '''', 'to stick and set up (a wall)', and '''', 'around'.By the 6th/5th century BCE, the Old Iranian word had been borrowed into the Akkadian language as , 'domain'.", "It subsequently came to indicate the expansive walled gardens of the First Persian Empire, and was subsequently borrowed into a number of languages; into Greek as (), 'park for animals', in ''Anabasis'', the most famous work of the early 4th century BCE Athenian Xenophon; into Aramaic as , 'royal park'; and into Hebrew (see below).The idea of a walled enclosure was not preserved in most Iranian usage, and generally came to refer to a plantation or other cultivated area, not necessarily walled.", "For example, the Old Iranian word survives as in New Persian, as well as its derivative (or ), which denotes a vegetable patch.====Hebrew Bible and Jewish literature====The word entered the Hebrew language with the meaning of pardes (), 'orchard', appearing thrice in the Tanakh: in the Song of Solomon (), Ecclesiastes (), and Nehemiah ().The word occurs three times in the Hebrew Bible, but always in contexts other than a connection with Eden: in the Song of Solomon : \"Thy plants are an orchard () of pomegranates, with pleasant fruits; camphire, with spikenard\"; Ecclesiastes : \"I made me gardens and orchards (), and I planted trees in them of all kind of fruits\"; and in Nehemiah : \"And a letter unto Asaph the keeper of the king's orchard (), that he may give me timber to make beams for the gates of the palace which appertained to the house, and for the wall of the city\".", "In these examples, clearly means 'orchard' or 'park', but in the Jewish apocalyptic literature and in the Talmud ''paradise'' gains its associations with the Garden of Eden and its heavenly prototype, a meaning also present in the New Testament.Italian historian Mario Liverani argues that the garden of Eden was modeled on Persian royal gardens, and US archaeologist Lawrence Stager posits that the biblical Eden narrative drew from aspects of Solomon's palace and temple compound and Jerusalem.====Septuagint and New Testament====In the Septuagint (3rd–1st centuries BCE), the Greek () was used to translate both the Hebrew () and (), meaning 'garden' (e.g.", ", ): it is from this usage that the use of ''paradise'' to refer to the Garden of Eden derives.In the New Testament ''paradise'' becomes the realm of the blessed (as opposed to the realm of the cursed) among those who have already died, with literary Hellenistic influences.====Koran====The same usage as in the Septuagint also appears in Arabic and in the Quran as ." ], [ "Other views", "===Jewish eschatology===Bosch's ''The Garden of Earthly Delights''In the Talmud and the Jewish Kabbalah, the scholars agree that there are two types of spiritual places called \"Garden in Eden\".", "The first is rather terrestrial, of abundant fertility and luxuriant vegetation, known as the \"lower Eden\" ( meaning garden).", "The second is envisioned as being celestial, the habitation of righteous, Jewish and non-Jewish, immortal souls, known as the \"higher Eden\".", "The rabbis differentiate between and Eden.", "Adam is said to have dwelt only in the , whereas Eden is said never to be witnessed by any mortal eye.According to Jewish eschatology, the higher Eden is called the \"Garden of Righteousness\".", "It has been created since the beginning of the world, and will appear gloriously at the end of time.", "The righteous dwelling there will enjoy the sight of the heavenly carrying the throne of God.", "Each of the righteous will walk with God, who will lead them in a dance.", "Its Jewish and non-Jewish inhabitants are \"clothed with garments of light and eternal life, and eat of the tree of life\" (Enoch 58,3) near to God and his anointed ones.", "This Jewish rabbinical concept of a higher Eden is opposed by the Hebrew terms and , figurative names for the place of spiritual purification for the wicked dead in Judaism, a place envisioned as being at the greatest possible distance from heaven.Some modern Orthodox Jews believe that history will complete itself and the ultimate destination will be when all mankind returns to the Garden of Eden.====Legends of the Jews====In the 1909 book ''Legends of the Jews'', Louis Ginzberg compiled Jewish legends found in rabbinic literature.", "Among the legends are ones about the two Gardens of Eden.", "Beyond Paradise is the higher Eden, where God is enthroned and explains the Torah to its inhabitants.", "The higher Eden contains three hundred and ten worlds and is divided into seven compartments.", "The compartments are not described, though it is implied that each compartment is greater than the previous one and is joined based on one's merit.", "The first compartment is for Jewish martyrs, the second for those who drowned, the third for \"Rabbi Johanan ben Zakkai and his disciples,\" the fourth for those whom the cloud of glory carried off, the fifth for penitents, the sixth for youths who have never sinned; and the seventh for the poor who lived decently and studied the Torah.In chapter two, ''Legends of the Jews'' gives a brief description of the lower Eden.", "The tree of knowledge is a hedge around the tree of life, which is so vast that \"it would take a man five hundred years to traverse a distance equal to the diameter of the trunk\".", "From beneath the trees flow all the world's waters in the form of four rivers: Tigris, Nile, Euphrates, and Ganges.", "After the fall of man, the world was no longer irrigated by this water.", "While in the garden, though, Adam and Eve were served meat dishes by angels and the animals of the world understood human language, respected mankind as God's image, and feared Adam and Eve.", "When one dies, one's soul must pass through the lower Eden in order to reach the higher Eden.", "The way to the garden is the Cave of Machpelah that Adam guards.", "The cave leads to the gate of the garden, guarded by a cherub with a flaming sword.", "If a soul is unworthy of entering, the sword annihilates it.", "Within the garden is a pillar of fire and smoke that extends to the higher Eden, which the soul must climb in order to reach the higher Eden.===Christian views=======Atemporal fall view====For some Christians, especially in the Eastern Orthodox tradition, Eden is considered a reality outside of empirical history that effects the entire history of the universe as seen in the idea of an atemporal fall that separates humanity's current reduced form of time from the divine life enjoyed in Eden.", "This idea of an atemporal separation from Eden has been most recently defended by theologians David Bentley Hart, John Behr, and Sergei Bulgakov as well as having roots in the writings of several early church fathers, especially Origen and Maximus the Confessor.===Islamic view===Mozarabic world map from 1109 with Eden in the East (at top)The term (\"Gardens of Eden\" or \"Gardens of Perpetual Residence\") is used in the Quran for the destination of the righteous.", "There are several mentions of \"the Garden\" in the Quran, while the Garden of Eden, without the word , is commonly the fourth layer of the Islamic heaven and not necessarily thought as the dwelling place of Adam.", "The Quran refers frequently over various Surah about the first abode of Adam and Hawwa (Eve), including surat Sad, which features 18 verses on the subject (38:71–88), surat al-Baqara, surat al-A'raf, and surat al-Hijr although sometimes without mentioning the location.", "The narrative mainly surrounds the resulting expulsion of Hawwa and Adam after they were tempted by Iblis (Satan).Despite the biblical account, the Quran mentions only one tree in Eden, the tree of immortality, from which God specifically forbade Adam and Eve.", "Some exegesis added an account, about Satan, disguised as a serpent to enter the Garden, repeatedly told Adam to eat from the tree, and eventually both Adam and Eve did so, resulting in disobeying God.", "These stories are also featured in the hadith collections, including al-Tabari.", ";Quranic scripture of storyQuranic verses Q.", "2:35–38, are believed to tell the story of Adam disobeying God's command and eating the Forbidden Fruit, and of God ordered him out of the Garden.", "One translation (the Clear Quran) that indicates that the Garden of Eden was in Heaven goes: * We cautioned, \"O Adam!", "Live with your wife in Paradise (lit.", "\"the Garden\") and eat as freely as you please, but do not approach this tree, or else you will be wrongdoers.\"", "(2:35) * But Satan deceived them—leading to their fall from the blissful state they were in,1 and We said, \"Descend from the heavens to the earth as enemies to each other.2 You will find in the earth a residence and provision for your appointed stay.\"", "(2:36)* Then Adam was inspired with words ˹of prayer˺ by his Lord, so He accepted his repentance.", "Surely He is the Accepter of Repentance, Most Merciful.", "(2:37) * We said, \"Descend all of you!", "Then when guidance comes to you from Me, whoever follows it, there will be no fear for them, nor will they grieve.", "(2:38);LocationQuranic verses describe Adam was being expelled from ''al-Jannah'', \"the garden\", which is the commonly used word for paradise in Islam.", "However, according to Ibn Kathir (d. 1372) and Ar-Razi (d. 1209), (exegetes of the Quran), four interpretations of the location of the garden prevailed among early Muslims: *that the garden was Paradise itself, *that it was a separate garden created especially for Adam and Eve, *that it was located on Earth, *that it was best for the Muslims not to be concerned with the location of the garden.According to T. O. Shanavas however, contextual analysis of Quranic verses suggests the Garden of Eden could not have been in Paradise and must have been on earth.", "(For example, a sahih hadith reports Muhammad said: \"Allah says: I have prepared for my righteous servants that which has neither been seen by eyes, nor heard by ears, nor ever conceived by any man.\"", "i.e.", "no man has ever seen Paradise.", "Since Adam was a man, he could not have seen paradise, therefore he could not have lived there.", ");Doctrine of \"The Fall of Man\"Islamic exegesis does not regard Adam and Eve's expulsion from paradise as punishment for disobedience or a result from abused free will on their part.", "Instead, ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya (1292–1350) writes, God's wisdom (''ḥikma'') destined humanity to leave the garden and settle on earth.", "This is because God wants to unfold the full range of his attributes.", "If humans were not to live on earth, God could not express his love, forgiveness, and power to his creation.", "Further, if humans were not to experience suffering, they could neither long for paradise nor appreciate its delights.", "Khwaja Abdullah Ansari (1006–1088) describes Adam and Eve's expulsion as ultimately caused by God.", "Nonetheless, despite the paradoxical notion that man has no choice but to comply to God's will, this does not mean that humans should not blame themselves for their \"sin\" of complying.", "This is exemplified by Adam and Eve in the Quran (Q.", "7:23 \"Our Lord!", "We have wronged ourselves.", "If You do not forgive us and have mercy on us, we will certainly be losers\"), in contrast to Iblis (Satan) who blames God for leading him astray (Q.", "15:37).===Latter Day Saints===Followers of the Latter Day Saint movement believe that after Adam and Eve were expelled from the Garden of Eden they resided in a place known as Adam-ondi-Ahman, located in present-day Daviess County, Missouri.", "It is recorded in the Doctrine and Covenants that Adam blessed his posterity there and that he will return to that place at the time of the final judgment in fulfillment of a prophecy set forth in the Bible.Numerous early leaders of the Church, including Brigham Young, Heber C. Kimball, and George Q. Cannon, taught that the Garden of Eden itself was located in nearby Jackson County, but there are no surviving first-hand accounts of that doctrine being taught by Joseph Smith himself.", "LDS doctrine is unclear as to the exact location of the Garden of Eden, but tradition among Latter-Day Saints places it somewhere in the vicinity of Adam-ondi-Ahman, or in Jackson County.===Gnosticism===The 2nd-century Gnostic teacher Justin held that there were three original divinities, a transcendental being called the Good, an intermediate male figure known as Elohim and Eden who is an Earth-mother.", "The world is created from the love of Elohim and Eden, but evil later is brought into the universe when Elohim learns of the existence of the Good above him and ascends trying to reach it." ], [ "Art and literature", "=== Art ===One of oldest depictions of Garden of Eden is made in Byzantine style in Ravenna, while the city was still under Byzantine control.", "A preserved blue mosaic is part of the mausoleum of Galla Placidia.", "Circular motifs represent flowers of the garden of Eden.", "The Garden of Eden motifs most frequently portrayed in illuminated manuscripts and paintings are the \"Sleep of Adam\" (\"Creation of Eve\"), the \"Temptation of Eve\" by the Serpent, the \"Fall of Man\" where Adam takes the fruit, and the \"Expulsion\".", "The idyll of \"Naming Day in Eden\" was less often depicted.", "Michelangelo depicted a scene at the Garden of Eden on the Sistine Chapel ceiling.File:Lucas Cranach the Elder - The Garden of Eden - Google Art Project.jpg|''The Garden of Eden'' by Lucas Cranach der Ältere, a 16th-century German depiction of EdenFile:Mausoleum of Galla Placidia ceiling mosaics.jpg|Fifth-century \"Garden of Eden\" mosaic in mausoleum of Galla Placidia in Ravenna, Italy.", "UNESCO World Heritage Site.File:Thomas Cole - The Garden of Eden (1828).jpg|''The Garden of Eden'' by Thomas Cole (c. 1828)File:Lilith (Carl Poellath).jpg|After wandering through the Garden of Eden, Eve takes the forbidden fruit while Lilith speaks to Adam (by Carl Poellath, c. 1886) File:Garten Eden (von Adi Holzer 2012).jpg|''The Garden of Eden'' by Adi Holzer (2012)===Literature===For many medieval writers, the image of the Garden of Eden also creates a location for human love and sexuality, often associated with the classic and medieval trope of the locus amoenus.In the ''Divine Comedy'', Dante Alighieri places the Garden at the top of Mt.", "Purgatory.", "Dante, the pilgrim, emerges into the Garden of Eden in Canto 28 of ''Purgatorio''.", "Here he is told that God gave the Garden of Eden to man \"in earnest, or as a pledge of eternal life,\" but man was only able to dwell there for a short time because he soon fell from grace.", "In the poem, the Garden of Eden is both human and divine: while it is located on earth at the top of Mt.", "Purgatory, it also serves as the gateway to the heavens.Much of Milton's ''Paradise Lost'' occurs in the Garden of Eden.The first act of Arthur Miller's 1972 play ''Creation of the World and Other Business'' is set in the Garden of Eden." ], [ "See also", "* ''Epic of Gilgamesh''* Golden Age* Heaven in Judaism* Hesperides* Jannah* Mazandaran (Shahnameh)* Persian gardens* ''Purgatorio''* Sacred garden* The Summerland* Tamoanchan* Utopia* Atemporal fall" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * Translated by Willard R.", "Trask.", "* * * * * * * * * * Willcocks, Sir William; Hormuzd Rassam.", "''Mesopotamian Trade.", "Noah's Flood: The Garden of Eden'', in: The Geographical Journal 35 , No.", "4 (April 1910).", "DOI: 10.2307/1777041." ], [ "External links", "* Many translations of II Kings 19:12*" ] ]
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[ [ "Glottis" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''glottis''' (: '''glottises''' or '''glottides''') is the opening between the vocal folds (the rima glottidis).", "The glottis is crucial in producing sound from the vocal folds." ], [ "Etymology", "From Ancient Greek ''γλωττίς'' (glōttís), derived from ''γλῶττα'' (glôtta), variant of ''γλῶσσα'' (glôssa, \"tongue\")." ], [ "Function", "===Phonation===As the vocal folds vibrate, the resulting vibration produces a \"buzzing\" quality to the speech, called '''voice''' or '''voicing''' or '''pronunciation'''.Sound production that involves moving the vocal folds close together is called ''glottal''.", "English has a voiceless glottal transition spelled \"h\".", "This sound is produced by keeping the vocal folds spread somewhat, resulting in non-turbulent airflow through the glottis.", "In many accents of English the glottal stop (made by pressing the folds together) is used as a variant allophone of the phoneme (and in some dialects, occasionally of and ); in some languages, this sound is a phoneme of its own.", "This is the case with the Klingon language developed for the science fiction series Star Trek, which treats the glottal stop as its own letter, represented by the apostrophe.", "Skilled players of the Australian didgeridoo restrict their glottal opening in order to produce the full range of timbres available on the instrument.The vibration produced is an essential component of ''voiced'' consonants as well as vowels.", "If the vocal folds are drawn apart, air flows between them causing no vibration, as in the production of voiceless consonants.The glottis is also important in the Valsalva maneuver.", "* Voiced consonants include * Voiceless consonants include" ], [ "Additional images" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* States of the Glottis (Esling & Harris, University of Victoria)* Universität Stuttgart Speech production*" ] ]
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[ [ "Gurmukhi" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Gurmukhī''' (, , Shahmukhi: ) or '''Gurumukhī''' is an Indic script predominantly used in present-day Punjab, India.", "It is an abugida developed from the Laṇḍā scripts, standardized and used by the second Sikh guru Guru Angad (1504–1552).It is commonly regarded as a Sikh script,used by Punjabi Sikhs to write the Punjabi language,and is one of the official scripts of the Indian Republic,while the Arabic-based Shahmukhi script is used in Punjab, Pakistan.The primary scripture of Sikhism, the Guru Granth Sahib, is written in Gurmukhī, in various dialects and languages often subsumed under the generic title ''Sant Bhasha''The making of Sikh scripture by Gurinder Singh Mann.", "Published by Oxford University Press US, 2001., Page 5.", "\"The language of the hymns recorded in the Adi Granth has been called ''Sant Bhasha,'' a kind of lingua franca used by the medieval saint-poets of northern India.", "But the broad range of contributors to the text produced a complex mix of regional dialects.", "\"Surindar Singh Kohli, ''History of Punjabi Literature''.", "Page 48.National Book, 1993., .", "\"When we go through the hymns and compositions of the Guru written in ''Sant Bhasha'' (saint-language), it appears that some Indian saint of 16th century...\"Nirmal Dass, ''Songs of the Saints from the Adi Granth''.", "SUNY Press, 2000., .", "Page 13.", "\"Any attempt at translating songs from the Adi Granth certainly involves working not with one language, but several, along with dialectical differences.", "The languages used by the saints range from Sanskrit; regional Prakrits; western, eastern and southern Apabhramsa; and Sahiskriti.", "More particularly, we find sant bhasha, Marathi, Old Hindi, central and Lehndi Panjabi, Sgettland Persian.", "There are also many dialects deployed, such as Purbi Marwari, Bangru, Dakhni, Malwai, and Awadhi.\"", "or ''saint language'', in addition to other languages like Persian and various phases of Indo-Aryan languages.Modern Gurmukhī has thirty-five original letters, hence its common alternative term ''paintī'' or \"the thirty-five\", plus six additional consonants, nine vowel diacritics, two diacritics for nasal sounds, one diacritic that geminates consonants and three subscript characters." ], [ "History and development", "The Gurmukhī script is generally believed to have roots in the Proto-Sinaitic alphabet by way of the Brahmi script, which developed further into the Northwestern group (Sharada, or Śāradā, and its descendants, including Landa and Takri), the Central group (Nagari and its descendants, including Devanagari, Gujarati and Modi) and the Eastern group (evolved from Siddhaṃ, including Bangla, Tibetan, and some Nepali scripts), as well as several prominent writing systems of Southeast Asia and Sinhala in Sri Lanka, in addition to scripts used historically in Central Asia for extinct languages like Saka and Tocharian.", "Gurmukhi is derived from Sharada in the Northwestern group, of which it is the only major surviving member, with full modern currency.Notable features:* It is an abugida in which all consonants have an inherent vowel, .", "Diacritics, which can appear above, below, before or after the consonant they are applied to, are used to change the inherent vowel.", "* When they appear at the beginning of a syllable, vowels are written as independent letters.", "* To form consonant clusters, Gurmukhi uniquely affixes subscript letters at the bottom of standard characters, rather than using the true conjunct symbols used by other scripts, which merge parts of each letter into a distinct character of its own.", "* Punjabi is a tonal language with three tones.", "These are indicated in writing using the formerly voiced aspirated consonants (gh, dh, bh, etc.)", "and the intervocalic h. Phoenician 𐤀 𐤁 𐤂 𐤃 𐤄 𐤅 𐤆 𐤇 𐤈 𐤉 𐤊 𐤋 𐤌 𐤍 𐤎 𐤏 𐤐 𐤑 𐤒 𐤓 𐤔 𐤕 Aramaic 𐡀 𐡁 𐡂 𐡃 𐡄 𐡅 𐡆 𐡇 𐡈 𐡉 𐡊 𐡋 𐡌 𐡍 𐡎 𐡏 𐡐 𐡑 𐡒 𐡓 𐡔 𐡕 Brahmi 𑀅 𑀩 𑀪 𑀕 𑀥 𑀠 𑀏 𑀯 𑀤 𑀟 𑀳 𑀖 𑀣 𑀞 𑀬 𑀓 𑀘 𑀮 𑀫 𑀦 𑀡 𑀰 𑀑 𑀧 𑀨 𑀲 𑀔 𑀙 𑀭 𑀱 𑀢 𑀝 Gurmukhi ਅ ਬ ਭ ਗ ਧ ਢ ੲ ਵ ਦ ਡ ਹ ਘ ਥ ਠ ਯ ਕ ਚ ਲ ਮ ਨ ਣ (ਸ਼) ੳ ਪ ਫ ਸ ਖ ਛ ਰ ਖ ਤ ਟ IAST a ba bha ga dha ḍha e va da ḍa ha gha tha ṭha ya ka ca la ma na ṇa śa* o pa pha sa kha cha ra ṣa* ta ṭa Greek Α Β Γ Δ Ε Ϝ Ζ Η Θ Ι Κ Λ Μ Ν Ξ Ο Π Ϻ Ϙ Ρ Σ Τ Possible derivation of Gurmukhi from earlier writing systems.", "The Greek alphabet, also descended from Phoenician, is included for comparison.", "Gurmukhi evolved in cultural and historical circumstances notably different from other regional scripts, for the purpose of recording scriptures of Sikhism, a far less Sanskritized cultural tradition than others of the subcontinent.", "This independence from the Sanskritic model allowed it the freedom to evolve unique orthographical features.", "These include: *Three basic carrier vowels, integrated into the traditional Gurmukhi character set, using the vowel markers to write independent vowels, instead of distinctly separate characters for each of these vowels as in other scripts; *a drastic reduction in the number and importance of conjunct characters (similar to Brahmi, the letters of which Gurmukhi letters have remained more similar to than other scripts have, and characteristic of Northwestern abugidas);*a unique standard ordering of characters that somewhat diverges from the traditional ''vargiya'', or Sanskritic, ordering of characters, including vowels and fricatives being placed in front; *the recognition of Indo-Aryan phonological history through the omission of characters representing the sibilants and , retaining only the letters representing sounds of the spoken language of the time; these sibilants were naturally lost in most modern Indo-Aryan languages, though such characters were often retained in their respective consonant inventories as placeholders and archaisms while being mispronounced.", "These sibilants were often variously reintroduced through later circumstances, as was to Gurmukhi, necessitating a new glyph;*the development of distinct new letters for sounds better reflecting the vernacular language spoken during the time of its development (e.g.", "for , and the sound shift that merged Sanskrit and /kʰ/ to Punjabi /kʰ/); *a gemination diacritic, a unique feature among native subcontinental scripts, which help to illustrate the preserved Middle Indo-Aryan geminates distinctive of Punjabi; and other features.Historical geographical distribution of Sharada scriptFrom the 10th century onwards, regional differences started to appear between the Sharada script used in Punjab, the Hill States (partly Himachal Pradesh) and Kashmir.", "Sharada proper was eventually restricted to very limited ceremonial use in Kashmir, as it grew increasingly unsuitable for writing the Kashmiri language.", "With the last known inscription dating to 1204 C.E., the early 13th century marks a milestone in the development of Sharada.", "The regional variety in Punjab continued to evolve from this stage through the 14th century; during this period it starts to appear in forms closely resembling Gurmukhī and other Landa scripts.", "By the 15th century, Sharada had evolved so considerably that epigraphists denote the script at this point by a special name, ''Devāśeṣa''.", "Tarlochan Singh Bedi (1999) prefers the name ''Pritham Gurmukhī'', or Proto-Gurmukhī.The Sikh gurus adopted Proto-Gurmukhī to write the Guru Granth Sahib, the religious scriptures of the Sikhs.", "The Takri alphabet developed through the ''Devāśeṣa'' stage of the Sharada script from the 14th-18th centuries and is found mainly in the Hill States such as Chamba, Himachal Pradesh and surrounding areas, where it is called Chambeali.", "In Jammu Division, it developed into Dogri, which was a \"highly imperfect\" script later consciously influenced in part by Gurmukhi during the late 19th century, possibly to provide it an air of authority by having it resemble scripts already established in official and literary capacities, though not displacing Takri.", "The local Takri variants got the status of official scripts in some of the Punjab Hill States, and were used for both administrative and literary purposes until the 19th century.", "After 1948, when Himachal Pradesh was established as an administrative unit, the local Takri variants were replaced by Devanagari.Multani variant of Landa script, a mercantile shorthand script of Punjab, from 1880Meanwhile, the mercantile scripts of Punjab known as the Laṇḍā scripts were normally not used for literary purposes.", "''Laṇḍā'' means alphabet \"without tail\", implying that the script did not have vowel symbols.", "In Punjab, there were at least ten different scripts classified as Laṇḍā, Mahajani being the most popular.", "The Laṇḍā scripts were used for household and trade purposes.", "In contrast to Laṇḍā, the use of vowel diacritics was made obligatory in Gurmukhī for increased accuracy and precision, due to the difficulties involved in deciphering words without vowel signs.In the following epochs, Gurmukhī became the primary script for the literary writings of the Sikhs.", "Playing a significant role in Sikh faith and tradition, it expanded from its original use for Sikh scriptures and developed its own orthographical rules, spreading widely under the Sikh Empire and used by Sikh kings and chiefs of Punjab for administrative purposes.", "Also playing a major role in consolidating and standardizing the Punjabi language, it served as the main medium of literacy in Punjab and adjoining areas for centuries when the earliest schools were attached to ''gurdwaras''.", "The first natively produced grammars of the Punjabi language were written in the 1860s in Gurmukhi.", "The Singh Sabha Movement of the late 19th century, a movement to revitalize Sikh institutions which had declined during colonial rule after the fall of the Sikh Empire, also advocated for the usage of the Gurmukhi script for mass media, with print media publications and Punjabi-language newspapers established in the 1880s.", "Later in the 20th century, after the struggle of the Punjabi Suba movement, from the founding of modern India in the 1940s to the 1960s, the script was given the authority as the official state script of the Punjab, India, where it is used in all spheres of culture, arts, education, and administration, with a firmly established common and secular character.===Etymology===Guru Harsahai, Punjab.The prevalent view among Punjabi linguists is that as in the early stages the Gurmukhī letters were primarily used by the Guru's followers, Gurmukhs (literally, those who face, or follow, the Guru, as opposed to a Manmukh); the script thus came to be known as ''Gurmukhī'', \"the script of those guided by the Guru.\"", "Guru Angad is credited in the Sikh tradition with the creation and standardization of Gurmukhi script from earlier Śāradā-descended scripts native to the region.", "It is now the standard writing script for the Punjabi language in India.", "The original Sikh scriptures and most of the historic Sikh literature have been written in the Gurmukhi script.Although the word Gurmukhī has been commonly translated as \"from the Mouth of the Guru\", the term used for the Punjabi script has somewhat different connotations.", "This usage of the term may have gained currency from the use of the script to record the utterances of the Sikh Gurus as scripture, which were often referred to as Gurmukhī, or from the ''mukh'' (face, or mouth) of the Gurus.", "Consequently, the script that was used to write the resulting scripture may have also been designated with the same name.The name for the Perso–Arabic alphabet for the Punjabi language, ''Shahmukhi'', was modeled on the term ''Gurmukhi''." ], [ "Characters", "===Letters===Adi Granth'' folio scribed by Guru Arjan Dev showcasing the original 35 letters (paintī) of the Gurmukhi script at the top and right-side of the page|leftThe Gurmukhī alphabet contains thirty-five base letters (''akkhara'', plural ''akkharā̃''), traditionally arranged in seven rows of five letters each.", "The first three letters, or ''mātarā vāhak'' (\"vowel carrier\"), are distinct because they form the basis for vowels and are not consonants, or ''vianjan'', like the remaining letters are, and except for the second letter ''aiṛā'' are never used on their own; see for further details.", "The pair of fricatives, or ''mūl varag'' (\"base class\"), share the row, which is followed by the next five sets of consonants, with the consonants in each row being homorganic, the rows arranged from the back (velars) to the front (labials) of the mouth, and the letters in the grid arranged by place and manner of articulation.", "The arrangement, or ''varaṇamālā'', is completed with the ''antim ṭolī'', literally \"ending group.\"", "The names of most of the consonants are based on their reduplicative phonetic values, and the ''varaṇamālā'' is as follows: Group Name(Articulation) ↓ Name Sound IPA Name Sound IPA Name Sound IPA Name Sound IPA Name Sound IPA '''Mātarā Vāhak'''(Vowels) '''Mūl Varag'''(Fricatives) ੳ ''ūṛā''uːɽaː  – ਅ ''aiṛā''ɛːɽaː ''a'' ੲ ''īṛī''iːɽiː  – ਸ ''sassā''səsːaː ''sa'' ਹ ''hāhā''ɦaːɦaː ''ha'' Occlusives → Tenuis Aspirates Voiced Stops Tonal Nasals '''Kavarg Ṭolī'''(Velars) ਕ ''kakkā''kəkːaː ''ka'' ਖ ''khakkhā''kʰəkʰːaː ''kha'' ਗ ''gaggā''gəgːaː ''ga'' ਘ ''kàggā''kə̀gːaː ''kà'' kə̀ ਙ ''ṅaṅṅā''ŋəŋːaː ''ṅa'' '''Chavarg Ṭolī'''(Affricates/Palatals) ਚ ''caccā''t͡ʃət͡ʃːaː ''ca'' ਛ ''chacchā''t͡ʃʰət͡ʃʰːaː ''cha'' ਜ ''jajjā''d͡ʒəd͡ʒːaː ''ja'' ਝ ''càjjā''t͡ʃə̀d͡ʒːaː ''cà'' t͡ʃə̀ ਞ ''ñaññā''ɲəɲːaː ''ña'' '''Ṭavarg Ṭolī'''(Retroflexes) ਟ ''ṭaiṅkā''ʈɛŋkaː ''ṭa'' ਠ ''ṭhaṭṭhā''ʈʰəʈʰːaː ''ṭha'' ਡ ''ḍaḍḍā''ɖəɖːaː ''ḍa'' ਢ ''ṭàḍḍā''ʈə̀ɖːaː ''ṭà'' ʈə̀ ਣ ''nāṇā''naːɳaː ''ṇa'' '''Tavarg Ṭolī'''(Dentals) ਤ ''tattā''t̪ət̪ːaː ''ta'' ਥ ''thatthā''t̪ʰət̪ʰːaː ''tha'' ਦ ''daddā''d̪əd̪ːaː ''da'' ਧ ''tàddā''t̪ə̀d̪ːaː ''tà'' t̪ə̀ ਨ ''nannā''nənːaː ''na'' '''Pavarg Ṭolī'''(Labials) ਪ ''pappā''pəpːaː ''pa'' ਫ ''phapphā''pʰəpʰːaː ''pha'' ਬ ''babbā''bəbːaː ''ba'' ਭ ''pàbbā''pə̀bːaː ''pà'' pə̀ ਮ ''mammā''məmːaː ''ma'' Approximants and liquids '''Antim Ṭolī'''(Sonorants) ਯ ''yayyā''jəjːaː ''ya'' ਰ ''rārā''ɾaːɾaː ''ra''~ ਲ ''lallā''ləlːaː ''la'' ਵ ''vāvā''ʋaːʋaː ''va''~ ੜ ''ṛāṛā''ɽaːɽaː ''ṛa''The nasal letters ਙ /ŋəŋːaː/ and ਞ /ɲəɲːaː/ have become marginal as independent consonants in modern Gurmukhi.", "The sounds they represent occur most often as allophones of in clusters with velars and palatals respectively.The pronunciation of ਵ can vary allophonically between // preceding front vowels, and // elsewhere.The most characteristic feature of the Punjabi language is its tone system.", "The script has no separate symbol for tones, but they correspond to the tonal consonants that once represented voiced aspirates as well as older *''h''.", "To differentiate between consonants, the Punjabi tonal consonants of the fourth column, ਘ ''kà'', ਝ ''cà'', ਢ ''ṭà'', ਧ ''tà'', and ਭ ''pà'', are often transliterated in the way of the voiced aspirate consonants ''gha'', ''jha'', ''ḍha'', ''dha'', and ''bha'' respectively, although Punjabi lacks these sounds.", "Tones in Punjabi can be either rising, neutral, or falling; in the pronunciation of the names of the Gurmukhī letters, they are at the beginning of the word and as such produce the falling tone, hence the grave accent (à) as opposed to the acute.", "The tone on the stem vowel changes to a rising one (á) and precedes the letter when it is in syllabic coda positions, and is falling when the letter in stem-medial positions after a short vowel and before a long vowel, and when the tonal letter follows the stem vowel.", "The letters now always represent unaspirated consonants, and are unvoiced in initial positions and voiced elsewhere.====Supplementary letters====In addition to the 35 original letters, there are six supplementary consonants in official usage, referred to as the ''navīn ṭolī'' or ''navīn varag'', meaning \"new group\", created by placing a dot (''bindī'') at the foot (''pair'') of the consonant to create ''pair bindī'' consonants.", "These are not present in the Guru Granth Sahib or old texts.", "These are used most often for loanwords, though not exclusively, and their usage is not always obligatory: Name SoundIPA Name SoundIPA Name SoundIPA ਸ਼ ''sasse pair bindī''səsːeː pɛ:ɾᵊ bɪnd̪iː śa ਖ਼ ''khakkhe pair bindī''kʰəkʰːeː pɛ:ɾᵊ bɪnd̪iː xa ਗ਼ ''gagge pair bindī''gəgːeː pɛ:ɾᵊ bɪnd̪iː ġa ਜ਼ ''jajje pair bindī''d͡ʒəd͡ʒːeː pɛ:ɾᵊ bɪnd̪iː za ਫ਼ ''phapphe pair bindī''pʰəpʰːeː pɛ:ɾᵊ bɪnd̪iː fa ਲ਼ ''lalle pair bindī''ləlːeː pɛ:ɾᵊ bɪnd̪iː ḷa The character ਲ਼ /ɭ/, the only character not representing a fricative consonant, was only recently officially added to the Gurmukhī alphabet.", "It was not a part of the traditional orthography, as the distinctive phonological difference between /l/ and /ɭ/, while both native sounds, was not reflected in the script; however, its usage, while still currently not universal, has been noted along with the other letters of the group among the earliest Punjabi grammars produced.", "Previous usage of another glyph to represent this sound, ਲ੍ਰ, has also been attested.", "The Shahmukhi alphabet equivalent for representing the sound is ࣇ, \"lam with tah above.", "\"Other characters, like the more recent ਕ਼ //, are also on rare occasions used unofficially, chiefly for transliterating old writings in Persian and Urdu, the knowledge of which is less relevant in modern times.====Subscript letters====Three \"subscript\" letters, called ''dutt akkhara'' (\"joint letters\") or ''pairī̃ akkhara'' (\"letters at the foot\") are utilised in modern Gurmukhī: forms of ਹ (''ha''), ਰ (''ra''), and ਵ (''va'').The subscript ਰ (r) and ਵ (v) are used to make consonant clusters and behave similarly; subjoined ਹ (h) introduces tone.", "Subscript letter Name, original form Usage ੍ਰ ''pairī̃ rārā''ਰ→ ੍ਰ For example, the letter ਪ(p) with a regular ਰ(r) following it would yield the word '''ਪਰ''' /pəɾᵊ/ (\"but\"), but with a subjoined ਰ would appear as '''ਪ੍ਰ-''' (/prə-/), resulting in a consonant cluster, as in the word ਪ੍ਰਬੰਧਕ (/'''pɾə'''bə́n̪d̪əkᵊ/, \"managerial, administrative\"), as opposed to ਪਰਬੰਧਕ /'''pəɾ'''ᵊbə́n̪d̪əkᵊ/, the Punjabi form of the word used in natural speech in less formal settings (the Punjabi reflex for Sanskrit /pɾə-/ is /pəɾ-/) .", "This subscript letter is commonly used in Punjabi for personal names, some native dialectal words, loanwords from other languages like English and Sanskrit, etc.", "੍ਵ ''pairī̃ vāvā''ਵ→ ੍ਵ Used occasionally in Gurbani (Sikh religious scriptures) but rare in modern usage, it is largely confined to creating the cluster /sʋə-/ in words borrowed from Sanskrit, the reflex of which in Punjabi is /sʊ-/, e.g.", "Sanskrit ਸ੍ਵਪ੍ਨ /s̪ʋɐ́p.n̪ɐ/→Punjabi ਸੁਪਨਾ /'sʊpᵊna:/, \"dream\", cf.", "Hindi-Urdu /səpna:/.For example, ਸ with a subscript ਵ would produce '''ਸ੍ਵ''' (''sʋə-'') as in the Sanskrit word ਸ੍ਵਰਗ (/'''sʋə'''ɾəgə/, \"heaven\"), but followed by a regular ਵ would yield '''ਸਵ'''- (''səʋ-'') as in the common word ਸਵਰਗ (/'''səʋ'''əɾəgᵊ/, \"heaven\"), borrowed earlier from Sanskrit but subsequently changed.", "The natural Punjabi reflex, ਸੁਰਗ /sʊɾəgᵊ/, is also used in everyday speech.", "੍ਹ ''pairī̃ hāhā''ਹ→ ੍ਹ The most common subscript, this character does not create consonant clusters, but serves as part of Punjabi's characteristic tone system, indicating a tone.", "It behaves the same way in its use as the regular ਹ(h) does in non-word-initial positions.", "The regular ਹ(h) is pronounced in stressed positions (as in ਆਹੋ ''āho'' \"yes\" and a few other common words), word-initially in monosyllabic words, and usually in other word-initial positions, but not in other positions, where it instead changes the tone of the applicable adjacent vowel.", "The difference in usage is that the regular ਹ is used after vowels, and the subscript version is used when there is no vowel, and is attached to consonants.For example, the regular ਹ is used after vowels as in ਮੀਂਹ (transcribed as ''mĩh'' (), \"rain\").", "The subjoined ਹ(h) acts the same way but instead is used under consonants: ਚ(ch) followed by ੜ(ṛ) yields ਚੜ (''caṛa''), but not until the rising tone is introduced via a subscript ਹ(h) does it properly spell the word ਚੜ੍ਹ (''cáṛa'', \"climb\").This character's function is similar to that of the ''udāt'' character (ੑ U+0A51), which occurs in older texts and indicates a rising tone.In addition to the three standard subscript letters, another subscript character representing the subjoined /j/, the ''yakash'' or ''pairī̃ yayyā'' ( ੵ U+0A75), is utilized specifically in archaized ''sahaskritī''-style writings in Sikh scripture, where it is found 268 times for word forms and inflections from older phases of Indo-Aryan, as in the examples ਰਖੵਾ /ɾəkʰːjaː/ \"(to be) protected\", ਮਿਥੵੰਤ /mɪt̪ʰjən̪t̪ə/ \"deceiving\", ਸੰਸਾਰਸੵ /sənsaːɾəsjə/ \"of the world\", ਭਿਖੵਾ /pɪ̀kʰːjaː/ \"(act of) begging\", etc.", "There is also a conjunct form of the letter ''yayyā'', '''ਯ→੍ਯ''', which functions similarly to the ''yakash'', and is used exclusively for Sanskrit borrowings, and even then rarely.", "In addition, miniaturized versions of the letters ਚ, ਟ, ਤ, and ਨ are also found in limited use as subscript letters in Sikh scripture.Only the subjoined /ɾ/ and /h/ are commonly used; usage of the subjoined /ʋ/ and conjoined forms of /j/, already rare, is increasingly scarce in modern contexts.===Vowel diacritics===To express vowels (singular, ''sur''), Gurmukhī, as an abugida, makes use of obligatory diacritics called ''lagā̃''.", "Gurmukhī is similar to Brahmi scripts in that all consonants are followed by an inherent schwa sound.", "This inherent vowel sound can be changed by using dependent vowel signs which attach to a bearing consonant.", "In some cases, dependent vowel signs cannot be used – at the beginning of a word or syllable for instance – and so an independent vowel character is used instead.Independent vowels are constructed using three bearer characters: ''ūṛā'' (ੳ), ''aiṛā'' (ਅ) and ''īṛī'' (ੲ).", "With the exception of ''aiṛā'' (which represents the vowel ), the bearer consonants are never used without additional vowel signs.", "Vowel Transcription IPA Closest English equivalent Ind.", "Dep.", "with /k/ Name Usage ਅ (none) ਕ ''mukḁtā''ਮੁਕਤਾ a like '''''a''''' in '''''a'''bout'' ਆ ਾ ਕਾ ''kannā''ਕੰਨਾ ā ~ like '''''a''''' in ''c'''a'''r'' ਇ ਿ ਕਿ ''siā̀rī''ਸਿਹਾਰੀ i like '''''i''''' in '''''i'''t'' ਈ ੀ ਕੀ ''biā̀rī''ਬਿਹਾਰੀ ī like '''''i''''' in ''l'''i'''tre'' ਉ ੁ ਕੁ ''auṅkaṛ''ਔਂਕੜ u like '''''u''''' in ''p'''u'''t'' ਊ ੂ ਕੂ ''dulaiṅkaṛ''ਦੁਲੈਂਕੜ ū like '''''u''''' in ''spr'''u'''ce'' ਏ ੇ ਕੇ ''lā̃/lāvā̃''ਲਾਂ/ਲਾਵਾਂ e like '''''e''''' in ''Chil'''e''''' ਐ ੈ ਕੈ ''dulāvā̃''ਦੁਲਾਵਾਂ ai ~ like '''''a''''' in ''r'''a'''p'' ਓ ੋ ਕੋ ''hoṛā''ਹੋੜਾ o like '''''o''''' in ''m'''o'''re'' ਔ ੌ ਕੌ ''kanauṛā''ਕਨੌੜਾ au ~ like '''''o''''' in '''''o'''ff''Dotted circles represent the bearer consonant.", "Vowels are always pronounced after the consonant they are attached to.", "Thus, ''sihārī'' is always written to the left, but pronounced after the character on the right.", "When constructing the independent vowel for , ''ūṛā'' takes an irregular form instead of using the usual ''hoṛā''.====Orthography====Gurmukhi orthography prefers vowel sequences over the use of semivowels (\"y\" or \"w\") intervocally and in syllable nuclei, as in the words ਦਿਸਾਇਆ ''disāiā'' \"caused to be visible\" rather than ''disāyā'', ਦਿਆਰ ''diāra'' \"cedar\" rather than ''dyāra'', and ਸੁਆਦ ''suāda'' \"taste\" rather than ''swāda'', permitting vowels in hiatus.In terms of tone orthography, the short vowels ɪ and ʊ, when paired with h to yield /ɪh/ and /ʊh/, represent é and ó with high tones respectively, e.g.", "ਕਿਹੜਾ ''kihṛā'' () 'which,' ਦੁਹਰਾ ''duhrā'' () \"repeat, reiterate, double.\"", "The compounding of əɦ with ɪ or ʊ yield ɛ́ and ɔ́ respectively, e.g.", "ਮਹਿੰਗਾ ''mahingā'' () \"expensive\", ਵਹੁਟੀ ''vahuṭī'' () \"bride.", "\"===Other signs===The diacritics for gemination and nasalization are together referred to as ''lagākkhara'' (\"applied letters\").====Gemination====The use of ''adhak'' ( ੱ ) () indicates that the following consonant is geminated, and is placed above the consonant preceding the geminated one.", "Consonant length is distinctive in the Punjabi language and the use of this diacritic can change the meaning of a word, for example: Without ''adhak'' Transliteration Meaning With ''adhak'' Transliteration Meaning '''ਦਸ''' ''das'' ten '''ਦੱਸ''' ''dass'' tell (verb) '''ਪਤਾ''' ''patā'' aware of/known '''ਪੱਤਾ''' ''pattā'' leaf '''ਸਤ''' ''sat'' essence '''ਸੱਤ''' ''satt'' seven '''ਕਲਾ''' ''kalā'' art '''ਕੱਲਾ''' ''kallā'' alone (colloquialism)There is a tendency, especially in rural dialects, to geminate consonants following a long vowel (/a:/, /e:/, /i:/, /o:/, /u:/, /ɛ:/, /ɔː/) in the penult of a word, e.g.", "ਔਖਾ ''aukkhā'' \"difficult\", ਕੀਤੀ ''kīttī'' \"did\", ਪੋਤਾ ''pottā'' \"grandson\", ਪੰਜਾਬੀ ''panjābbī'' \"Punjabi\", ਹਾਕ ''hāka'' \"call, shout\", but plural ਹਾਕਾਂ ''hākkā̃''.Except in this case, where this unmarked gemination is often etymologically rooted in archaic forms, and has become phonotactically regular, the usage of the ''adhak'' is obligatory.====Nasalisation====''Ṭippī'' ( ੰ ) and ''bindī'' ( ਂ ) are used for producing a nasal phoneme depending on the following obstruent or a nasal vowel at the end of a word.", "All short vowels are nasalized using ''ṭippī'' and all long vowels are nasalized using ''bindī'' except for ''dulaiṅkaṛ'' ( ੂ ), which uses ''ṭippi'' instead.", "Diacritic usage Result Examples (IPA) ''Ṭippī'' on short vowel (/ə/, /ɪ/, /ʊ/), or long vowel /u:/, before a non-nasal consonant Adds nasal consonant at same place of articulation as following consonant (/ns/, /n̪t̪/, /ɳɖ/, /mb/, /ŋg/, /nt͡ʃ/ etc.)", "'''ਹੰਸ''' /ɦə'''n'''sᵊ/ \"goose\"'''ਅੰਤ''' /ə'''n̪'''t̪ᵊ/ \"end\"'''ਗੰਢ''' /gə́'''ɳ'''ɖᵊ/ \"knot\"'''ਅੰਬ''' /ə'''m'''bᵊ/ \"mango\"'''ਸਿੰਗ''' /sɪ'''ŋ'''gᵊ/ \"horn, antler\"'''ਕੁੰਜੀ''' / kʊ'''ɲ'''d͡ʒiː/ \"key\"'''ਗੂੰਜ''' /g'''uːɲ'''d͡ʒᵊ/ \"rumble, echo\"'''ਲੂੰਬੜੀ''' /l'''uːm'''bᵊɽiː/ \"fox\" ''Bindī'' over long vowel (/a:/, /e:/, /i:/, /o:/, /u:/, /ɛ:/, /ɔː/)before a non-nasal consonant not including /h/ Adds nasal consonant at same place of articulation as following consonant (/ns/, /n̪t̪/, /ɳɖ/, /mb/, /ŋg/, /ɲt͡ʃ/ etc.", ").May also secondarily nasalize the vowel '''ਕਾਂਸੀ''' /kaː'''n'''siː/ \"bronze\"'''ਕੇਂਦਰ''' /keː'''n̯'''d̯əɾᵊ/ \"center, core, headquarters\"'''ਗੁਆਂਢੀ''' /gʊáː'''ɳ'''ɖiː/ \"neighbor\"'''ਚੌਂਕ''' /t͡ʃɔː'''ŋ'''kᵊ/ \"crossroads, plaza\"'''ਸਾਂਝ''' /sáː'''ɲ'''d͡ʒᵊ/ \"association\" (act) ''Ṭippī'' over ''consonants'' followed by long vowel /u:/ (not stand-alone vowel '''ਊ'''),at open syllable at end of word, or ending in /ɦ/ Vowel nasalization '''ਤੂੰ''' /t̪ũː/ \"you\"'''ਸਾਨੂੰ''' /saːnːũː/ \"to us\"'''ਮੂੰਹ''' /mũːɦ/ \"mouth\" ''Ṭippī'' on short vowel before nasal consonant (/n̪/ or /m/) Gemination of nasal consonant''Ṭippī'' is used to geminate nasal consonants instead of ''adhak'' '''ਇੰਨਾ''' /ɪn̪:a:/ \"this much\"'''ਕੰਮ''' /kəm:ᵊ/ \"work\" ''Bindī'' over long vowel (/a:/, /e:/, /i:/, /o:/, /u:/, /ɛ:/, /ɔː/),at open syllable at end of word, or ending in /ɦ/ Vowel nasalization '''ਬਾਂਹ''' /bã́h/ \"arm\"'''ਮੈਂ''' /mɛ̃ː/ \"I, me\"'''ਅਸੀਂ''' /əsĩː/ \"we\"'''ਤੋਂ''' /t̪õː/ \"from\"'''ਸਿਊਂ''' /sɪ.ũː/ \"sew\" Older texts may follow other conventions.====Vowel suppression====Latin and Gurmukhī scripts in , UKThe ''halanta'' ( ੍ U+0A4D) character is not used when writing Punjabi in Gurmukhī.", "However, it may occasionally be used in Sanskritised text or in dictionaries for extra phonetic information.", "When it is used, it represents the suppression of the inherent vowel.The effect of this is shown below::ਕ – kə:ਕ੍ – k====Punctuation====The ''ḍaṇḍī'' (।) is used in Gurmukhi to mark the end of a sentence.", "A doubled ''ḍaṇḍī'', or ''doḍaṇḍī'' (॥) marks the end of a verse.The ''visarga'' symbol (ਃ U+0A03) is used very occasionally in Gurmukhī.", "It can represent an abbreviation, as the period is used in English, though the period for abbreviation, like commas, exclamation points, and other Western punctuation, is freely used in modern Gurmukhī.===Numerals===Gurmukhī has its own set of digits, which function exactly as in other versions of the Hindu–Arabic numeral system.", "These are used extensively in older texts.", "In modern contexts, they are sometimes replaced by standard Western Arabic numerals.", "Numeral ੦ ੧ ੨ ੩ ੪ ੫ ੬ ੭ ੮ ੯ Number 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Name ਸਿਫ਼ਰ ਇੱਕ ਦੋ ਤਿੰਨ ਚਾਰ ਪੰਜ ਛੇ ਸੱਤ ਅੱਠ ਨੌਂ Transliteration ''sifara'' ''ikka'' ''do'' ''tinna''* ''cāra'' ''panja'' ''che'' ''satta'' ''aṭṭha'' ''na͠u'' IPA In some Punjabi dialects, the word for three is ਤ੍ਰੈ ''trai'' ().===Other===, a Sikh symbol (encoded as a single character in alt=A combined character., formed from (\"1\") and (\"on\") represents the Sikh phrase ()." ], [ "Spacing", "Photograph of folios (likely from a Sikh scripture) written in ''Larivar'' (scriptio continua) Gurmukhi scriptBefore the 1970's, Gurbani and other Sikh scriptures were written in the traditional ''scriptio continua'' method of writing the Gurmukhi script known as ''larivār'' where there were no spacing between words in the texts (interpuncts in the form of a dot were used by some to differentiate between words, such as by Guru Arjan).", "This is opposed to the comparatively more recent method of writing in Gurmukhi known as ''pad ched'', which breaks the words by inserting spacing between them.First line of the Guru Granth Sahib, the ''Mul Mantar,'' in ''larivār'' (continuous form) and ''pad ched'' (spacing form):''Laṛivār:'' ੴਸਤਿਨਾਮੁਕਰਤਾਪੁਰਖੁਨਿਰਭਉਨਿਰਵੈਰੁਅਕਾਲਮੂਰਤਿਅਜੂਨੀਸੈਭੰਗੁਰਪ੍ਰਸਾਦਿ॥''Pad ched:'' ੴ ਸਤਿ ਨਾਮੁ ਕਰਤਾ ਪੁਰਖੁ ਨਿਰਭਉ ਨਿਰਵੈਰੁ ਅਕਾਲ ਮੂਰਤਿ ਅਜੂਨੀ ਸੈਭੰ ਗੁਰ ਪ੍ਰਸਾਦਿ ॥''Transliteration:'' Ik-ōaṅkār sati nāmu karatā purakhu nirbhau nirvairu akāl mūrati ajūnī saibhañ gur prasādi." ], [ "Styles and fonts", "Various historical styles and fonts of Gurmukhi script have evolved and been identified.", "A list of some of them is as follows:# Old style# ''Ardh Sihasta'' style# ''Shikasta'' style (including ''Anandpur Lipi'')# Kashmiri style# ''Damdami'' style" ], [ "Unicode", "Gurmukhī script was added to the Unicode Standard in October 1991 with the release of version 1.0.Many sites still use proprietary fonts that convert Latin ASCII codes to Gurmukhī glyphs.The Unicode block for Gurmukhī is U+0A00–U+0A7F:" ], [ "Digitization of Gurmukhī manuscripts", "Gurmukhi can be digitally rendered in a variety of fonts.", "The Dukandar font, left, is meant to resemble informal Punjabi handwriting.Panjab Digital Library has taken up digitization of all available manuscripts of Gurmukhī Script.", "The script has been in formal use since the 1500s, and a lot of literature written within this time period is still traceable.", "Panjab Digital Library has digitized over 45 million pages from different manuscripts and most of them are available online." ], [ "Internet Domain names in Gurmukhi", "Punjabi University Patiala has developed label generation rules for validating international domain names for internet in Gurmukhi." ], [ "See also", "* Punjabi Braille* Shahmukhi alphabet" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "*:*:*.", "****The following Punjabi-language publications have been written on the origins of the Gurmukhī script:* Alternative link*Ishar Singh Tãgh ''Gurmukhi Lipi da Vigyamulak Adhiyan.''", "Patiala: Jodh Singh Karamjit Singh.", "*Kala Singh Bedi ''Lipi da Vikas.''", "Patiala: Punjabi University, 1995.", "** Alternative link*Prem Parkash Singh \"Gurmukhi di Utpati.\"", "''Khoj Patrika'', Patiala: Punjabi University.", "*Pritam Singh \"Gurmukhi Lipi.\"", "''Khoj Patrika''.", "p. 110, vol.36, 1992.Patiala: Punjabi University.", "*Sohan Singh Galautra.", "''Punjab dian Lipiã.", "''*Tarlochan Singh Bedi ''Gurmukhi Lipi da Janam te Vikas.''", "Patiala: Punjabi University, 1999." ], [ "External links", "* Unicode script chart for Gurmukhi (PDF file)* Gurmukhi Typewriter Online" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Geneva College" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Geneva College''' is a private Christian college in Beaver Falls, Pennsylvania.", "Founded in 1848, in Northwood, Ohio, the college moved to its present location in 1880, where it continues to educate a student body of about 1400 traditional undergraduates in over 30 majors, as well as graduate students in a handful of master's programs.", "The only undergraduate institution affiliated with the Reformed Presbyterian Church of North America (RPCNA), the college's undergraduate core curriculum emphasizes the humanities and the formation of a Reformed Christian worldview." ], [ "History", "Northwood, OhioGeneva College was founded in 1848 in Northwood, Ohio, by John Black Johnston, a minister of the RPCNA.", "The college was founded as \"Geneva Hall\", and was named after the Swiss center of the Reformed faith movement.", "After briefly closing during the American Civil War, the college continued operating in Northwood until 1880.By that time, the college leadership had begun a search for alternate locations that were closer to urban areas.", "After considering several locations in the Midwest, the denomination chose the College Hill neighborhood of Beaver Falls, Pennsylvania.", "The college constructed its current campus on land donated by the Harmony Society.", "Old Main, the oldest building on campus, was completed in 1881.The Rapp Technical Design Center was completed in 2002.A major project to reroute Pennsylvania Route 18, which runs through the campus, was completed in November 2007.Improvements to Reeves Stadium and the construction of a campus entrance and pedestrian mall were completed in 2009.===Presidents===" ], [ "Administration", "Geneva College is located in the College Hill neighborhood of Beaver Falls, to the north of downtown.Two bodies oversee the administration of the college, the Board of Corporators and the Board of Trustees; while the Corporators are the legal owners of the college, in practice most authority is delegated to the Trustees, who are elected by the Corporators.", "Both Boards drafted the philosophical basis on which the college rests, known as the Foundational Concepts of Higher Education.", "The RPCNA still takes an active sponsorship and oversight role in the college: the college president, chaplain, and chairman of the Department of Biblical Studies must be members of the RPCNA, and all members of the Board of Corporators and the majority of the Board of Trustees must be RPCNA members.", "All professors and lecturers in the Department of Biblical Studies must subscribe to the Westminster Confession of Faith, and all full-time faculty and staff members must submit a written statement confessing faith in Jesus Christ and the Christian religion.The university was granted an exception to Title IX in 2014 which allows it to legally discriminate against LGBT students." ], [ "Academics", "Old Main, Geneva's central buildingGeneva offers undergraduate degree programs in the arts and sciences, such as elementary education, business, engineering, student ministry, biology, and psychology.", "In 2006, the Educational Testing Service (ETS) rated the Business and Accounting undergraduates in the 95th percentile amongst American colleges.Geneva offers a Degree Completion Program (DCP) for degrees in Human Resource Management, Community Ministry or Organizational Development for adult students mainly at off-campus locations.", "Geneva also established the Center for Urban Theological Studies in Philadelphia and has sister colleges in Taiwan (Christ College) and South Korea (Chong Shin College and Theological Seminary).Geneva also offers graduates studies in several fields and degrees including a Master of Business Administration, a Masters of Science in Organizational Leadership, Masters of Education in Reading or Special Education, and Masters of Arts in Counseling or Higher Education.Geneva established the Center for Technology Development in 1986 for providing research, prototyping and technical support to local industries and entrepreneurs.", "The center was awarded first prize in the Consolidated Natural Gas Company's Annual Award of Excellence competition in 1990.=== Affiliations and accreditations ===Geneva College is a member institution of the Council for Christian Colleges and Universities, Council of Independent Colleges, and National Association of Independent Colleges and Universities.", "Accreditations include the Commission on Higher Education of the Middle States Association of Colleges and Schools, Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology, Association of Collegiate Business Schools and Programs, and the Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs.", "The chemistry degree is certified by the American Chemical Society." ], [ "Athletics", "Reeves Field in 2006, before extensive renovations.Geneva's sports teams are called the Golden Tornadoes.", "The college is a dual member of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division III and National Christian College Athletic Association (NCCAA) Division I.", "The Golden Tornadoes compete as a member of the Presidents' Athletic Conference.", "Geneva was a member of the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA) for many years and competed in the now-defunct American Mideast Conference.", "Geneva joined the NCAA as a provisional member in 2007 and during the transition process was not eligible for post season play or conference Player of the Week honors until gaining membership in July 2011.The school offers a range of men's and women's varsity sports, including football, baseball, softball, basketball, volleyball, track and field, cross country, tennis, and soccer.Geneva has also offered rugby as a club sport since 1994.===Football===:''See List of Geneva Golden Tornadoes head football coaches''Football competition began in 1890 under head coach William McCracken.", "Over the years, the football team has amassed an all-time record of 496 wins, 437 losses, and 48 ties with five appearances in the Victory Bowl.", "The current football coach is Geno DeMarco." ], [ "Culture and traditions", "Students must attend a designated number of weekly college-sponsored chapels to qualify for graduation.", "Alcohol is banned from the campus, and tobacco use is restricted from the entire campus.", "Greek letter fraternities and sororities are not permitted.One of the earliest college basketball games in the United States occurred at Geneva College on April 8, 1893, when the Geneva College Covenanters defeated the New Brighton YMCA.", "Geneva commemorates this event through the athletic slogan of \"The Birthplace of College Basketball\".", "Geneva also has one of the oldest basketball courts in collegiate sports in the Johnson Gymnasium.Geneva was founded by Scottish and Scots-Irish immigrants.", "Many names of campus buildings and areas bear Scottish names:*The main meeting area of the Student Center is called ''Skye Lounge'' after the Isle of Skye.", "*The restaurant-style eating area is called ''The Brig'', short for Brigadoon, commemorating a play about a mythical Highland village.Geneva sports teams were nicknamed the ''Covenanters'' until the 1950s.", "Members of the RPCNA are sometimes referred to as Covenanters because the denomination traces its roots to the Covenanting tradition of Reformation era Scotland.", "The modern sports nickname of ''Golden Tornadoes'' commemorates the \"Golden Tornado\" of May 11, 1914, when a major tornado struck the college, most notably taking the gold colored roof from the top of Old Main, which was the origin of the associated color.", "Although the storm caused significant damage to the campus, there were no serious injuries.", "College students and faculty rejoiced at what they believed was a sign of God's mercy.Geneva's traditional sports rivalry is with Westminster College in nearby New Wilmington, Pennsylvania.Homosexual behavior is prohibited in the student handbook; students must confess and change their behavior or be suspended." ], [ "Facilities", "===Offices and classrooms===Alexander Hall (street level entrance)McCartney LibraryOld Main (West Entrance)Johnston Gym*Alexander Hall—Admissions, financial aid, alumni relations, institutional advancement, and public relations offices (first floor) and main dining hall (second floor).", "*Alumni Hall—Primary music building, including music department offices.", "*Fern Cliffe—Faculty offices for political science, humanities, history and English departments.", "*Johnston Gym—Built in 1911, Johnston Gym is primarily used for music and band purposes.", "Originally, per its name, it was used as the college gymnasium.", "*McCartney Library—College library, built in 1930 and expanded in 1965, and named for Clarence E. Macartney.", "Its collection includes over 371,000 items including a special section of RPCNA historical documents.", "*Northwood Hall—Classrooms and faculty offices for business and psychology departments, completed in 1998.", "*Old Main—Classrooms, administration offices (including the president's office), and faculty offices.", "When Geneva moved to Beaver Falls, Old Main was the first classroom structure, completed in 1881.It has been assessed as eligible for listing on the National Register of Historic Places.", "*Rapp Technical Design Center—Technical classrooms and laboratories.", "Completed in 2002, it is the newest educational building on campus.", "*Science and Engineering (S&E)—Technical classrooms, laboratories, and faculty offices for engineering, chemistry, biology, physics and computer science departments.===Sports and student life===*Bagpiper Theatre—Theater hosting productions sponsored by the Communications Department.", "*Merriman Athletic Complex—Track and field and soccer.", "*Metheny Fieldhouse—Gyms, locker rooms, sports faculty offices, and other sports-related facilities.", "*Jannuzi Tennis Courts—A pair of dedicated tennis courts.", "*Reeves Field—Football.", "The field is also used by the Beaver Falls High School football team and was Joe Namath's home field during his high school days.", "*Student Center—Lounges, Brigadoon restaurant, Riverview Cafe coffee shop, student mail, fitness center and bookstore.", "*WGEV—college radio station.===Residence halls===Full-time undergraduate students between ages 17 and 23 are required to live in college housing, with the exception of commuters and some seniors.", "Six dormitories — Clarke, Geneva Arms, McKee, Memorial, Pearce, and Young — house resident students.", "Geneva Arms and Young are apartment-style options divided into women's and men's wings.", "The college also owns a few smaller houses nearby campus, primarily for upperclassmen, that are available depending on residential need." ], [ "Legal actions", "===CareerLink===On December 15, 2006, the college filed a federal lawsuit against the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, alleging that a decision by the state to block the college from participating in the state sponsored CareerLink job service amounted to a violation of the college's First Amendment rights.", "Although the state argued that the college's requirement that faculty and staff members subscribe to the Christian religion amounted to discrimination, the lawsuit was settled.", "Geneva's right to access to CareerLink was restored and the college retains a statement on its employment applications stating \"Compliance with Geneva's Christian views is considered a bona fide occupational qualification ... and will have a direct impact on employment consideration.", "\"===Obamacare===In 2012, the college sued the federal government over the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (\"Obamacare\") contraceptive mandate, which requires employers to provide health insurance coverage for their employees that includes contraception, which Geneva College \"considers abortion, abortifacients and embryo-harming pharmaceuticals\" and objects to on religious grounds.", "The college, represented by Alliance Defending Freedom in the litigation, prevailed in its case, obtaining a permanent injunction in 2018." ], [ "Notable alumni", "*Josie Badger, Ms Wheelchair America in 2011*Joyce Bender, CEO, President, and founder of Bender Consulting Services, Inc. International advocate for disability employment*Norman Clyde, Naturalist and mountaineer*John Steuart Curry, American painter*William Fitzsimmons, Singer-songwriter*Kathryn Gardner, Judge of the Kansas Court of Appeals*David Girardi, professional football coach*Cal Hubbard, professional football and professional baseball umpire*Josh Kail, Member of the Pennsylvania House of Representatives from the 15th district*David Shedd, Former Director of Defense Intelligence Agency*Caleb Stegall, Kansas Supreme Court judge*Dan K. Williams, Member of the Pennsylvania House of Representatives from the 74th district" ], [ "Gallery", "File:Alexander hall.JPG|Alexander Hall in 2008, with the former Route 18 in the foreground.File:Fern Cliffe house.JPG|Fern Cliffe HouseFile:Northwood Hall.JPG|Northwood Hall (main entrance)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Official website" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gorillaz" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Gorillaz''' are an English virtual band created in 1998 by musician Damon Albarn and artist Jamie Hewlett, from London.", "The band primarily consists of four fictional members: (vocals, keyboards), Murdoc Niccals (bass guitar), Noodle (guitar, keyboards, vocals) and Russel Hobbs (drums).", "Their universe is presented in media such as music videos, interviews, comic strips and short cartoons.", "Gorillaz's music has featured collaborations with a wide range of featured artists, with Albarn as the only permanent musical contributor.With Gorillaz, Albarn departed from the distinct Britpop sound of his band Blur, exploring a variety of musical styles including hip hop, electronic and world music.", "The band's 2001 debut album, ''Gorillaz'', which features dub, Latin and punk influences, went triple platinum in the UK and double platinum in Europe, with sales driven by the success of the lead single, \"Clint Eastwood\".", "Their second studio album, ''Demon Days'' (2005), went six times platinum in the UK and double platinum in the US and spawned the successful lead single \"Feel Good Inc.\" The band's third album, ''Plastic Beach'' (2010), featured environmentalist themes, synth-pop elements and an expanded roster of featured artists.", "Their fourth album, ''The Fall'', was recorded on the road during the Escape to Plastic Beach Tour and released on 25 December 2010.In 2015, after over 10 years providing the voice of Russel, Remi Kabaka Jr. became a permanent music producer for the band.", "Their fifth album, ''Humanz'' (2017) was the band's first in seven years and featured a wide array of guest artists, while its follow-up, ''The Now Now'' (2018), focused musically on Albarn.", "In 2020, Gorillaz started the ''Song Machine'' project, a music-based web series with episodes that consisted of standalone singles and accompanying music videos featuring different guests, which culminated with their seventh studio album, ''Song Machine, Season One: Strange Timez'' (2020).", "The band's eighth studio album, ''Cracker Island'' (2023), met generally positive reviews as a refinement of their usual style.Gorillaz has presented itself live in a variety of different ways throughout its history, such as hiding the touring band from the audience's view in the early years of the project, projecting animated band members on stage via computer graphics and traditional live touring featuring a fully visible live band.", "They have won a Grammy Award, two MTV Video Music Awards, an NME Award and four MTV Europe Music Awards.", "They have also been nominated for 11 Brit Awards and won Best British Group at the 2018 Brit Awards." ], [ "History", "===Creation (1998–2000)===Musician Damon Albarn and comic artist Jamie Hewlett met in 1990 when guitarist Graham Coxon, a fan of Hewlett's work, asked him to interview Blur, which Albarn and Coxon had recently formed.", "The interview was published in ''Deadline'' magazine, home of Hewlett's comic strip ''Tank Girl''.", "Hewlett initially thought Albarn was \"arsey, a wanker;\" and despite becoming acquaintances with the band, they often did not get on, especially after Hewlett began seeing Coxon's ex-girlfriend Jane Olliver.", "Despite this, Albarn and Hewlett started sharing a flat on Westbourne Grove in London in 1997.Hewlett had recently broken up with Olliver and Albarn was at the end of his highly publicised relationship with Justine Frischmann of Elastica.The idea to create Gorillaz came about when Albarn and Hewlett were watching MTV.", "Hewlett said, \"If you watch MTV for too long, it's a bit like hell – there's nothing of substance there.", "So we got this idea for a virtual band, something that would be a comment on that.\"", "Albarn recalled the idea similarly, saying \"This was the beginning of the boy band sort of explosion... and it just felt so manufactured.", "And we were like, well let's make a manufactured band but make it kind of interesting.\"", "The band originally identified themselves as \"'''Gorilla'''\" and the first song they recorded was \"Ghost Train\", which was later released as a B-side on their single \"Rock the House\".", "The band's visual style is thought to have evolved from ''The 16s'', a rejected comic strip Hewlett conceived with ''Tank Girl'' co-creator Alan Martin.Although not released under the Gorillaz name, Albarn has said that \"one of the first ever Gorillaz tunes\" was Blur's 1997 single \"On Your Own\", which was released for their fifth studio album ''Blur''.===''Gorillaz'' (2001–2002)===From 1998 to 2000, Albarn recorded for Gorillaz' self-titled debut album at his newly opened Studio 13 in London as well as at Geejam Studios in Jamaica.", "The sessions resulted in the band's first release, the EP ''Tomorrow Comes Today'', released on 27 November 2000.This EP consisted mostly of tracks which later appeared on the album, and it also included the band's first music video for \"Tomorrow Comes Today\", which introduced the virtual band members for the first time.With ''Gorillaz'', Albarn began to branch out into other genres which he had not explored with Blur, such as hip-hop, dub and Latin music, a process he described as liberating: \"One of the reasons I began Gorillaz is I had a lot of rhythms I never thought I could use with Blur.", "A lot of that stuff never really seemed to manifest itself in the music we made together as Blur.\"", "Albarn originally began work on the album by himself, however eventually invited American hip-hop producer Dan \"the Automator\" Nakamura to serve as producer on the album, explaining \"I called Dan the Automator in after I'd done more than half of it and felt it would benefit from having somebody else's focus.", "So I just rang him and asked whether he was interested in helping me finish it off.\"", "Nakamura and Albarn had recently collaborated on ''Deltron 3030'', the debut album by the hip-hop supergroup of the same name featuring rapper Del the Funky Homosapien and DJ Kid Koala, both of whom Nakamura recruited to assist in finishing Gorillaz material.", "Del featured on two tracks on the album, including the lead single \"Clint Eastwood\", while Kid Koala contributed turntables to various tracks.", "The album featured additional collaborations with Ibrahim Ferrer of Buena Vista Social Club, Miho Hatori of Cibo Matto and Tina Weymouth of Talking Heads and Tom Tom Club, representing a pattern of collaboration with a wide range of artists which later became a staple of Gorillaz as a project.Dan \"the Automator\" Nakamura produced the band's debut album.", "''Gorillaz'' was released on 26 March 2001 and was a major commercial success, debuting at No.", "3 on the UK Albums Chart and No.", "14 on the US Billboard 200, going on to sell over 7 million copies worldwide, powered by the success of the \"Clint Eastwood\" single.", "The album was promoted with the singles \"Clint Eastwood\", \"19-2000\" and \"Rock the House\", in addition to the previously released \"Tomorrow Comes Today\", with each single featuring a music video directed by Hewlett starring the virtual members.", "Hewlett also helmed the design of the band's website, which was presented as an interactive tour of the band's fictional \"Kong Studios\" home and recording studio, featuring interactive games and explorative elements.", "Following the release of the album, the band embarked on a brief tour of Europe, Japan and the United States to support the album in which a touring band featuring Albarn played completely obscured behind a giant screen on which Hewlett's accompanying visuals were projected.", "The virtual band member's voice actors were also present at some shows and spoke live to the audience to give the impression that the fictional band was present on stage.", "In later interviews, Albarn described the band's first tour as difficult due to the limitations imposed by the band playing behind a screen: \"For someone who had just spent the last ten years out front being a frontman with Blur, it was a really weird experience.", "And I have to say, some nights I just wanted to get a knife and just cut the screen and stick my head through.\"", "The album was followed by the B-sides compilation ''G-Sides'' released in December 2001.On 7 December 2001, the band released the single \"911\" a collaboration with hip hop group D12 (without Eminem) and singer Terry Hall of the Specials about the September 11 attacks.", "At the 2002 Brit Awards the virtual members of Gorillaz \"performed\" for the first time, appearing in 3D animation on four large screens along with rap accompaniment by Phi Life Cypher, a production which reportedly cost £300,000 to create.", "The band were nominated for four Brit Awards, including Best British Group, Best British Album and British Breakthrough Act, but did not win any awards.On 1 July 2002, a remix album titled ''Laika Come Home'' was released, containing most of the tracks from ''Gorillaz'' remixed in dub and reggae style by the DJ group Spacemonkeyz.", "On 18 November 2002, the band released the DVD ''Phase One: Celebrity Take Down'', which contained all of the band's released visual content up to that point along with other extras.After the success of the debut album, Albarn and Hewlett briefly explored the possibility of creating a Gorillaz theatrical film, but Hewlett claimed the duo later lost interest: \"We lost all interest in doing it as soon as we started meeting with studios and talking to these Hollywood executive types, we just weren't on the same page.", "We said, fuck it, we'll sit on the idea until we can do it ourselves, and maybe even raise the money ourselves.", "\"===''Demon Days'' (2005–2006)===Albarn spent the majority of 2003 on tour with Blur in support of their newly released album ''Think Tank''; however, upon completion of the tour, he decided to return to Gorillaz, reuniting with Hewlett to prepare for a second album.", "Hewlett explained that the duo chose to continue Gorillaz to prove that the project was not \"a gimmick\": \"If you do it again, it's no longer a gimmick, and if it works then we've proved a point.\"", "The result was ''Demon Days'', released on 11 May 2005.The album was another major commercial success, debuting at No.", "1 on the UK Albums Charts and No.", "6 on the US Billboard 200, and has since gone six times platinum in the UK, double platinum in the United States, and triple platinum in Australia, outperforming sales of the first album and becoming the band's most successful album to date.", "The album's success was partially driven by the success of the lead single \"Feel Good Inc.\" featuring hip-hop group De La Soul, which topped ''Billboard'''s Alternative Songs chart in the U.S. for eight consecutive weeks and was featured in a commercial for Apple's iPod.", "The album was also supported by the later singles \"Dare\", \"Dirty Harry\", and the double A-side \"Kids with Guns\" / \"El Mañana\".Danger Mouse to produce the band's second album ''Demon Days'' after hearing his mashup album ''The Grey Album''.", "''Demon Days'' found the band taking a darker tone, partially influenced by a train journey Albarn had taken with his family through impoverished rural China.", "Albarn described the album as a concept album: \"The whole album kind of tells the story of the night — staying up during the night — but it's also an allegory.", "It's what we're living in basically, the world in a state of night.\"", "Believing that the album needed \"a slightly different approach\" compared to the first album, Albarn enlisted American producer Brian Burton, better known by his stage name Danger Mouse, to produce the album, whom Albarn praised as \"one of the best young producers in the world\" after hearing his 2004 mashup album ''The Grey Album''.", "Burton felt he and Albarn had a high degree of affinity with each other, stating in an interview on the creation of the album: \"We never had any arguments.", "We even have that finish-each-other's-sentences thing happening.", "There are a lot of the same influences between us, like Ennio Morricone and psychedelic pop-rock, but he has 10 years on me, so I have some catching up to do.", "Where he can school me on new wave and punk of the late ’70s/early ’80s, I can school him on a lot of hip-hop.", "We’re very competitive and pushed each other.\"", "Similar to the first album, ''Demon Days'' features collaborations with several different artists, including Bootie Brown, Shaun Ryder, Ike Turner, MF Doom (who was recording with Danger Mouse as Danger Doom at the time) and Martina Topley-Bird, among others.The band performed in silhouette during the Demon Days Live performances (pictured here with De La Soul on stage).", "The band chose to forgo traditional live touring in support of ''Demon Days'', instead limiting live performance during the album cycle to a five night residency in November 2005 at the Manchester Opera House billed as Demon Days Live.", "The concerts saw the band performing the album in full each night with most featured artists from the album present.", "Unlike the debut album's tour, the touring band was visible on stage in view of the audience but obscured by lighting in such a way that only their silhouettes were visible, with a screen above the band displaying Hewlett's visuals alongside each song.", "The residency was later repeated in April 2006 at New York City's Apollo Theater and the Manchester performances were later released on DVD as ''Demon Days: Live at the Manchester Opera House''.", "As part of their promotion of the album in Latin America, the band was interviewed in September 2005 on the live-action Mexican show ''Rebelde''.", "This episode also included the Latin American premiere of the music video for \"Dare.The virtual Gorillaz members \"performed\" at the 2005 MTV Europe Music Awards in November 2005 and again at the 48th Annual Grammy Awards in February 2006, appearing to perform on stage via Musion Eyeliner technology.", "Albarn later expressed disappointment at the execution of the performance, citing the low volume level required so as to not disturb the technology: \"That was tough...", "They started and it was so quiet cause they've got this piece of film that you've got to pull over the stage so any bass frequencies would just mess up the illusion completely.\"", "At the Grammys, the band won Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals for \"Feel Good Inc.\", which was also nominated for Record of the Year.", "Albarn and Hewlett explored the idea of producing a full \"live holographic tour\" featuring the virtual Gorillaz appearing on stage with Munsion Eyeliner technology after the Grammys performance, but the tour was ultimately never realised due to the tremendous expense and logistical issues that would have resulted.In October 2006, the band released the book ''Rise of the Ogre''.", "Presented as an autobiography of the band ostensibly written by the fictional members and expanding on the band's fictional backstory and universe, the book was actually written by official Gorillaz script writer and live drummer Cass Browne and featured new artwork by Hewlett.", "Later the same month, the band released another DVD, ''Phase Two: Slowboat to Hades'', compiling much of the band's visual content from the album cycle.", "A second B-sides compilation, ''D-Sides'' was released in November 2007, featuring B-sides and remixes associated with ''Demon Days'' as well as unreleased tracks from the sessions for the album.", "In 2008, the documentary film ''Bananaz'' was released.", "Directed by Ceri Levy, the film documents the behind-the-scenes history of the band from 2000 to 2006.===''Plastic Beach'' and ''The Fall'' (2010–2012)===Albarn and Hewlett's next project together was the opera ''Monkey: Journey to the West'' based on the classical Chinese novel ''Journey to the West'', which premiered at the 2007 Manchester International Festival.", "While not officially a Gorillaz project, Albarn mentioned in an interview that the project was \"Gorillaz, really but we can't call it that for legal reasons\".After completing work on ''Monkey'' in late 2007, Albarn and Hewlett began working on a new Gorillaz project entitled ''Carousel'', described by Albarn as being about \"the mystical aspects of Britain\".", "Hewlett described ''Carousel'' in a 2008 interview as \"even bigger and more difficult than ''Monkey''...", "It's sort of like a film but not with one narrative story.", "There's many stories, told around a bigger story, set to music, and done in live action, animation, all different styles.", "Originally it was a film but now we think it's a film and it's a stage thing as well.", "Damon's written around 70 songs for it, and I’ve got great plans for the visuals.\"", "The ''Carousel'' concept was eventually dropped with Albarn and Hewlett's work evolving into the third Gorillaz studio album, ''Plastic Beach''.Drawing upon environmentalist themes, ''Plastic Beach'' was inspired by the idea of a \"secret floating island deep in the South Pacific... made up of the detritus, debris and washed up remnants of humanity\" inspired by marine pollution such as plastic that Albarn had found in a beach near one of his homes in Devon as well as the Great Pacific garbage patch.", "Unlike previous Gorillaz albums, Albarn made the decision to produce ''Plastic Beach'' by himself, with no co-producer.", "The album was recorded throughout 2008 and 2009 in London, New York City and Syria although production of the album was briefly interrupted so that Albarn could join Blur for a reunion tour in the summer of 2009, with Albarn explaining \"there's no way you can do that and that Blur and Gorillaz at the same time.\"", "''Plastic Beach'' saw Gorillaz move into a more electronic pop sound, with Albarn describing the album as \"the most pop record I've ever made\" and saying that he took special care to make the album's lyrics and melodies clear and focused compared to previous albums.", "''Plastic Beach'' also featured the largest cast of collaborators featured yet on a Gorillaz album, fulfilling Albarn's goal of \"working with an incredibly eclectic, surprising cast of people\" including artists such as Snoop Dogg, Mos Def, Bobby Womack, Little Dragon, Lou Reed and Gruff Rhys among others, and also included orchestral contributions from Sinfonia Viva and the Syrian National Orchestra for Arabic Music.", "Albarn explained the expanded roster of featured artists represented his and Hewlett's new vision of Gorillaz as a project, explaining in a July 2008 interview that \"Gorillaz now to us is not like four animated characters any more – it's more like an organisation of people doing new projects... That's my ideal model.", "\"The 2010 live shows supporting ''Plastic Beach'' saw the touring band performing in full view of the audience for the first time.Released on 3 March 2010, ''Plastic Beach'' debuted at No.", "2 on both the UK Albums Chart and the US ''Billboard'' 200 chart, the band's highest placing debut chart position.", "The album was supported by the lead single \"Stylo\" featuring Mos Def and Bobby Womack released in January 2010 and the later singles \"On Melancholy Hill\" and \"Rhinestone Eyes\".", "To promote the album, the band embarked on the Escape to Plastic Beach Tour, the band's first world tour and also their first live performances in which the touring band performed fully in view of the audience on stage with no visual obstructions.", "The tour, which featured many of the collaborative artists from ''Plastic Beach'' and saw the touring band wearing naval attire, was later described by Albarn as having been extremely costly to produce, with the band barely breaking even on the shows, saying \"I loved doing it, but economically it was a fucking disaster.\"", "The tour was preceded by headline performances at several international music festivals, including the Coachella and Glastonbury festivals.", "On 21 November 2010, while still on tour, the band released the non-album single \"Doncamatic\" featuring British singer Daley.During the North American leg of the Escape to Plastic Beach tour in the fall of 2010, Albarn continued recording Gorillaz songs entirely on his iPad.", "The recordings were later released as the album ''The Fall'', first released digitally on Christmas Day 2010 and later given a physical release on 19 April 2011.", "''The Fall'' is also co-produced by Stephen Sedgwick, the mixer engineer of the band.", "Albarn said the album served as a diary of the American leg of the tour, explaining that the tracks were presented exactly as they were on the day they were written and recorded with no additional production or overdubs: \"I literally made it on the road.", "I didn't write it before, I didn't prepare it.", "I just did it day by day as a kind of diary of my experience in America.", "If I left it until the New Year to release it then the cynics out there would say, 'Oh well, it's been tampered with', but if I put it out now they'd know that I haven't done anything because I've been on tour ever since.\"", "The band later released a \"Gorillaz edition\" of the Korg iElectribe music production app for iPad, featuring many of the same samples and sounds used by Albarn to create ''The Fall''.On 23 February 2012, Gorillaz released \"DoYaThing\", a single to promote a Gorillaz-branded collection of Converse shoes which were released shortly after.", "The song was a part of Converse's \"Three Artists, One Song\" project, with the two additional collaborators being James Murphy of LCD Soundsystem and André 3000 of Outkast.", "Two different edits of the song were released: a four-and-a-half minute radio edit released on Converse's website and the full 13-minute version of the song released on the Gorillaz website.", "Hewlett returned to direct the single's music video, featuring fictionalized animated versions of Murphy and André interacting with the Gorillaz' virtual members.", "The song received positive reviews from critics, with particular praise given to André 3000's contributions to the track.In April 2012, Albarn told ''The Guardian'' that he and Hewlett had fallen out and that future Gorillaz projects were \"unlikely\".", "Tension between the two had been building, partly due to a belief held by Hewlett that his contributions to Gorillaz were being minimised.", "Speaking to ''The Guardian'' in April 2017, Hewlett explained: \"Damon had half the Clash on stage, and Bobby Womack and Mos Def and De La Soul, and fucking Hypnotic Brass Ensemble and Bashy and everyone else.", "It was the greatest band ever.", "And the screen on stage behind them seemed to get smaller every day.", "I'd say, ‘Have we got a new screen?’ and the tour manager was like, ‘No, it's the same screen.’ Because it seemed to me like it was getting smaller.\"", "Albarn gave his side of the story in a separate interview, saying \"I think we were at a cross purposes somewhat on that last record ''Plastic Beach'', which is a shame.", "It was one of those things, the music and the videos weren't working as well together, but I felt we'd made a really good record and I was into it.\"", "On 25 April 2012, in an interview with Metro, Albarn was more optimistic about Gorillaz' future, saying that once he had worked out his differences with Hewlett, he was sure that they would make another record.", "In June 2013, Hewlett confirmed that he and Albarn planned to someday continue Gorillaz and record a follow-up album to ''Plastic Beach'', saying \"We'll come back to it when the time is right.", "\"===Hiatus and ''Humanz'' (2012–2018)===Following the release of ''DoYaThing'' and the publicization of Albarn and Hewlett's fall-out in 2012, Gorillaz entered a multiyear hiatus.", "During the hiatus, Albarn released a solo album, ''Everyday Robots'', scored stage productions and continued to record and tour with Blur, while Hewlett held art exhibitions and attempted to create a film project which was ultimately never realized.", "While on tour in support of ''Everyday Robots'' in 2014, Albarn signaled openness to returning to Gorillaz, telling ''The National Post'' that he \"wouldn't mind having another stab at a Gorillaz record\".", "Two months later he reported that he had \"been writing quite a lot of songs on the road for Gorillaz\".", "and at the end of 2014 confirmed in an interview with ''The Sydney Morning Herald'' that he was planning to record another Gorillaz album.", "Speaking about his relationship with Hewlett, Albarn said that the pair's well-publicised fall-out had helped their relationship in the long term.", "Hewlett described the moment when he and Albarn agreed to continue Gorillaz at an afterparty after one of Albarn's solo shows in 2014: \"We'd had a bit to drink, and he said, 'Do you want to do another one?'", "And I said, 'Do you?'", "and he said, 'Do you?'", "And I said, 'Yeah, sure.'", "I started work on it straight away, learning to draw the characters again.", "I played around by myself for eight months while he was performing with Blur in 2015.", "\"American hip-hop and house producer the Twilite Tone co-produced the band's fifth album ''Humanz''.Recording sessions for the band's fifth studio album, ''Humanz'', began in late 2015 and continued through 2016, taking place in London, New York City, Paris and Jamaica.", "Albarn enlisted American hip-hop and house producer Anthony Khan, known by his stage name the Twilite Tone, to co-produce the album.", "Albarn chose Khan from a list of possible producers compiled by Parlophone, the band's record label after Albarn and Khan spoke via Skype.", "''Humanz'' was also co-produced by Remi Kabaka Jr., a friend of Albarn's who had worked with him in the non-profit musical organization Africa Express and also has been the voice actor for the Gorillaz virtual band member Russel Hobbs since 2000.In conceptualizing the album, Albarn and Khan envisioned ''Humanz'' as being the soundtrack for \"a party for the end of the world\", with Albarn specifically imagining a future in which Donald Trump won the 2016 U.S. presidential election as context for the album's narrative (Trump becoming president was still considered an unlikely event at the time of recording), explaining \"Let's use that as a kind of dark fantasy for this record, let's imagine the night Donald Trump wins the election and how we're all going to feel that night.\"", "Khan stated that \"The idea of Donald Trump being president allowed us to create a narrative together.", "I suggested that the album should be about joy, pain and urgency.", "That was to be our state of mind before we even touched a keyboard or an MPC.", "Especially in American music, dare I say black music, there's a way of communicating joy that at the same time allows you to feel the struggle the person has been through.", "And the urgency is there because something needs to be done.", "So that was the mantra.", "I wanted to blend Damon, a Briton, with the joy and pain and struggle that African-American music can express.\"", "''Humanz'' again featured a large cast of featured artists, including Popcaan, Vince Staples, DRAM, Jehnny Beth, Pusha T, Peven Everett, Danny Brown, Grace Jones and Mavis Staples, among others.", "The first track from the album released publicly was \"Hallelujah Money\" featuring Benjamin Clementine, released on 20 January 2017 with an accompanying video featuring Clementine.", "While not an official single, Albarn explained that the band chose to release the track on the day of Trump's inauguration because \"It was meant to be something sung at the imaginary inauguration of Donald Trump, which turned out to be the real inauguration of Donald Trump, so we released it because we had imagined that happening and it did happen.", "\"Gorillaz (with Albarn to the left) on stage at the Brixton Academy in London, June 2017''Humanz'' was released on 28 April 2017, the band's first new studio album in 7 years.", "Featuring a \"modern-sounding urban hip-hop/R&B sensibility\", the album debuted at #2 on both the UK Album charts and the US ''Billboard'' 200.", "''Humanz'' received generally positive reviews from critics, although received some criticism from fans and critics for what was perceived as a diminished presence from Albarn in contrast to the abundance of featured artists.", "The album was released in both standard and deluxe editions, with the deluxe edition featuring an additional 6 bonus tracks and was promoted by the lead single \"Saturnz Barz\" featuring Popcaan and the later single \"Strobelite\" featuring Peven Everett.", "The Hewlett-directed music video for \"Saturnz Barz\" made use of YouTube's 360-degree video format and reportedly cost $800,000 to create.The band embarked on the Humanz Tour to support the album from the summer of 2017 to early 2018.Like the band's previous tour, the Humanz Tour featured the touring band in full view of the audience with a large screen behind them displaying Hewlett-created visuals and featured several of the different collaborative artists from the band's history.", "The tour was preceded by a handful of European warm-up shows, including the first Demon Dayz Festival held on 10 June 2017 at the Dreamland Margate theme park, a Gorillaz curated music festival which was later repeated in Los Angeles in October 2018.On 8 June 2017 the band released the non-album single \"Sleeping Powder\" with an accompanying music video and on 3 November 2017 a \"Super Deluxe\" version of ''Humanz'', featuring an additional 14 unreleased tracks from the album's sessions, including alternative versions of previously released songs as well as the single \"Garage Palace\" featuring Little Simz.===''The Now Now'' (2018–2019)===Albarn continued recording while on the road during the Humanz Tour, and mentioned in an interview with ''Q Magazine'' in September 2017 that he was planning on releasing the material as a future Gorillaz album.", "Comparing the production of the album to ''The Fall'', which was also recorded while the band was on tour, Albarn mentioned that \"It will be a more complete record than ''The Fall'', but hopefully have that spontaneity.\"", "Albarn signaled his desire to complete and release the album quickly, adding that \"I really like the idea of making new music and playing it live almost simultaneously\" and \"If we're going to do more Gorillaz we don't want to wait seven years because, y'know, we're getting on a bit now.", "During a September 2017 concert in Seattle, the band debuted a new song \"Ode to Idaho\", which was later included on the album as \"Idaho\".", "During the performance, Albarn stated it had been written in the days prior.During a break in the Humanz Tour in February 2018, Albarn returned to London where he worked with producer James Ford, known for his work with Arctic Monkeys and Florence and the Machine, and Kabaka Jr. to finish the newly written material, resulting in the band's sixth studio album, ''The Now Now'', released on 29 June 2018.Featuring \"simple, mostly upbeat songs\" and 1980s new wave influences, the album was noted for its distinctly small list of featured artists compared to previous Gorillaz work, with only two tracks featuring any outside artists (the album's lead single \"Humility\" featuring George Benson and \"Hollywood\" featuring Snoop Dogg and Jamie Principle).", "Albarn mentioned that the few numbers of featured artists was partially due to the album's quick production, which in turn was a result of Albarn wanting to finish the album before the band's touring schedule resumed: \"We've been very lucky to be offered all the festivals this year on the back of the last record ''Humanz''... but I didn't want to do that unless I had something new to work with, so the only option was to make another record really quickly and not have lots of guests on it, because that takes a long time to organize; just do it all myself, really.\"", "Albarn also explained that with ''The Now Now'' he sought to make a Gorillaz album \"where I'm just singing for once\" and that the album is \"pretty much just me singing, very sort of in the world of 2-D.\"Gorillaz performing at Barclays Center, New York City on The Now Now Tour in October 2018 In the fictional Gorillaz storyline, the band introduced Ace from Cartoon Network's animated series ''The Powerpuff Girls'' as a temporary bassist of the band during ''The Now Now'' album cycle, filling in for the imprisoned Murdoc Niccals.", "Explaining the crossover in an interview with the BBC, Albarn said \"We were massive fans of ''The Powerpuff Girls'' when they came out, the energy of that cartoon was really cool, and we kind of know the creator of it (Craig McCracken).", "It was a very organic thing.", "\"The band's remaining 2018 live dates were billed as The Now Now Tour to support the album, and included a performance in Tokyo on 22 June 2018 billed as \"The Now Now World Premiere\" in which the band played the full album live for the first and only time, a performance which was later broadcast by Boiler Room.", "On 16 December 2019, the documentary ''Gorillaz: Reject False Icons'' was screened worldwide on a one-day theatrical release.", "Filmed and directed by Hewlett's son Denholm, the documentary showcases a behind-the-scenes look at the production of ''Humanz'' and ''The Now Now'' as well as the album's associated tours.", "One week after the film's theatrical release, a \"Director's Cut\" version of the film featuring additional footage was released on the official Gorillaz YouTube channel in three parts.", "In the credits for ''Reject False Icons'', Kabaka Jr. was listed as an official member of the band (labeled as \"A&R/Producer\") alongside Albarn and Hewlett for the first time.===''Song Machine'' project and ''Meanwhile EP'' (2020–2021)===On 29 January 2020, the band announced its new project ''Song Machine''.", "Eschewing the typical album format of releasing music, Song Machine is instead a web series that sees the band releasing one new song a month as \"episodes\" to the series, with 11 episodes releasing to comprise the first \"season\".", "Elaborating on the idea behind ''Song Machine'' in a radio interview shortly after the announcement of the project, Albarn explained that \"We no longer kind of see ourselves as constrained to making albums.", "We can now make episodes and seasons.\"", "Each episode features previously unannounced guest musicians on new Gorillaz material, with the first being \"Momentary Bliss\", which was released on 31 January and features both British rapper Slowthai and the Kent-based punk rock duo Slaves.", "Upon the premiere of \"Momentary Bliss\", Albarn revealed that the group had been in the studio with Schoolboy Q and Sampa the Great among others, although he did say that these songs were likely to be saved for future episodes of ''Song Machine''.", "The group also teased a possible collaboration with Australian band Tame Impala on Instagram.On 27 February, the band released the second episode of ''Song Machine'' entitled \"Désolé\".", "The song features Malian singer Fatoumata Diawara.", "The third episode, \"Aries\", released on 9 April and featured Peter Hook and Georgia.", "The fourth track \"How Far?\"", "featuring Tony Allen and Skepta was released 2 May.", "This song was released without an accompanying music video as a tribute to Allen, who died on 30 April.", "On 26 May, Gorillaz announced the release of a new book titled ''Gorillaz Almanac''.", "The book comes in three editions: standard, deluxe and super deluxe, all of which were set to release on 23 October but has since been delayed to 22 December with a physical release of season one of ''Song Machine'' included with each copy.", "On 9 June, the band released \"Friday 13th\", the fourth episode of ''Song Machine''.", "The track features French-British rapper Octavian.", "On 20 July, the band released \"Pac-Man\", the fifth episode of ''Song Machine'', in honour of Pac-Man's 40th anniversary.", "The track features American rapper Schoolboy Q.On 9 September, the band released \"Strange Timez\", the sixth episode of ''Song Machine''.", "The track features Robert Smith, from the Cure.", "Gorillaz also announced the title and tracklist for ''Song Machine, Season One: Strange Timez'', released on 23 October 2020, featuring further guest appearances from Elton John, 6lack, JPEGMafia, Kano, Roxani Arias, Moonchild Sanelly and Chai, among others.", "On 1 October, the band released \"The Pink Phantom\", the seventh episode of ''Song Machine''.", "The track features Elton John and American R&B recording artist 6lack.", "Before the release of ''Song Machine, Season One: Strange Timez'', Gorillaz started a radio show on Apple Music called ''Song Machine Radio'' where each virtual character has a turn to invite special guests and play some of their favourite tunes.", "A few days ahead of the release of ''Song Machine, Season One: Strange Timez'', Albarn revealed that he had written a song for the project's second season.On 5 November, the band released \"The Valley of the Pagans\", the eighth episode of ''Song Machine''.", "The track features American singer Beck.", "The music video is somewhat notorious for being the first major studio production filmed in ''Grand Theft Auto V''.", "The video ends with a reference to previous album, ''Plastic Beach''.", "For unknown reasons, the music video on the official Gorillaz YouTube channel was set to private just a few days after its initial premiere.", "On 9 March 2021, Gorillaz uploaded an alternative version of the music video to their official YouTube channel, which does not feature any gameplay from ''Grand Theft Auto V''.", "On 24 December, the band released \"The Lost Chord\", the ninth and final episode of the first season of ''Song Machine''.", "The track features British musician Leee John.On 26 March 2021, the band celebrated its debut album's 20th anniversary with oncoming reissues of their catalog and teases of non-fungible tokens; due to its impact on climate change, the latter was met with criticism by various sources and fans—some noting that the act contradicts the environmental themes of ''Plastic Beach''.", "No non-fungible tokens have since released.", "The band also announced a boxset, the ''G Collection,'' containing six of their studio albums—excluding ''The Fall''—for Record Store Day.", "On 10 August 2021, Gorillaz debuted three new songs, \"Meanwhile\" (featuring British rapper Jelani Blackman), \"Jimmy Jimmy\" (featuring British rapper AJ Tracey), and \"Déjà Vu\" (featuring Jamaican-British singer Alicaì Harley), during a free concert at The O2 Arena in London, England exclusively for National Health Service employees and their families.", "They then performed them again at the subsequent concert open to the public the next day (both of which served as the first live audience concerts of the Song Machine Tour).", "These three songs were announced to be tracks from a new EP entitled ''Meanwhile'', with the cover originally published on TikTok.=== World Tour and ''Cracker Island'' (2022–present) ===On 17 September 2021, Albarn revealed that he had recorded a new Gorillaz song with Bad Bunny while in Jamaica, and, at the time, said it would be the first single for a new album, influenced by Latin America, releasing in 2022.The concept for the album would later change, with the song being announced at a later date.", "On 31 August 2022, the name of this song was revealed to be \"Tormenta\".In November 2021, Albarn announced that an animated film based on the band was in the works at Netflix, but by February 2023, it had been cancelled.Throughout 2022, Gorillaz went on a world tour in South America, Europe, Australia, and North America, where they debuted new material.", "In June 2022, the band began teasing the release of new material, with promotional displays and websites surfacing encouraging fans to sign up to be a part of \"The Last Cult\".", "The band released a new single (regularly performed on tour) called \"Cracker Island\", featuring Thundercat and produced with Greg Kurstin, on 22 June, with the music video being released on 28 July.", "Their scheduled performance at the first Splendour in the Grass festival in Queensland, Australia on 22 July was cancelled owing to torrential rain.", "In July 2022, they played at the Adelaide Entertainment Centre as part of Illuminate Adelaide, supported by Moonchild Sanelly.", "In August 2022, the band performed the new song \"New Gold\" (featuring Tame Impala and Bootie Brown) at All Points East in London, and released it as their second single for their eighth studio album, announced on the same day to be titled ''Cracker Island'' (released on 24 February 2023).", "The album, produced with Kurstin, also features appearances from Stevie Nicks, Bad Bunny, Beck, and Adeleye Omotayo.", "On 4 November, the band released the third single from ''Cracker Island'', \"Baby Queen\" (previously released on the ''FIFA 23'' soundtrack).", "On 8 December, the band released the album's fourth single, \"Skinny Ape\", alongside the announcement of two virtual shows in Times Square and Piccadilly Circus on 17 and 18 December, respectively.", "On 27 January 2023, the album's fifth single, \"Silent Running\" featuring Adeleye Omotayo, was released, with a music video following on 8 February.", "The album received mostly positive reviews, with Stephen Thomas Erlewine describing it as \"less an exploration of new sonic territory so much as it is a reaffirmation of Albarn's strengths\" with \"a clean, efficient energy\".On February 27, 2023, a deluxe version of ''Cracker Island'' was released with five bonus tracks.", "Previous collaborators Del the Funky Homosapien and De La Soul appeared on the deluxe version, as well as Brazilian artist MC Bin Laden.", "The album was nominated for Best Alternative Music Album for the 66th Annual Grammy Awards in 2024." ], [ "Band members", "'''Virtual members'''* Murdoc Niccals – bass (1998–present), drum machine (2008–present)* 2-D – vocals, keyboards, guitar (1998–present)* Noodle – guitar, keyboards, vocals (1998–2006; 2012–present)* Russel Hobbs – drums, percussion, drum machine (1998–2006; 2012–present)'''Former virtual members'''* Paula Cracker – guitar (1998)* Cyborg Noodle – guitar, vocals (2008–2010)* Ace – bass (2018)'''Murdoc Faust Niccals''' (born '''Murdoc Alphonce Niccals''') is the bassist for the band.", "He is voiced by Phil Cornwell and was created by Damon Albarn and Jamie Hewlett.", "Murdoc is based on Rolling Stones guitarist Keith Richards, Victor Frankenstein, and Creeper from Scooby-Doo.", "In particular, he was inspired by a photograph of the Rolling Stones taken in 1968 by photographer David Bailey.", "Once described by creator Jamie Hewlett as being the \"unpleasant villain of the band\".", "Murdoc is a Satanist who is often depicted wearing an inverted cross necklace, with \"Hail Satan\" being a common catchphrase of his.", "He was created by Hewlett and Damon Albarn in 1998, with his first official appearance being Gorillaz' debut EP ''Tomorrow Comes Today'' in 2000.", "'''Stuart Harold \"2-D\" Pot''' provides the lead vocals and plays the keyboard for the band.", "2-D's singing voice is provided by Blur frontman Damon Albarn on Gorillaz' recordings and performances; his speaking voice was provided by actor Nelson De Freitas in various Gorillaz direct-to-video projects such as ''Phase One: Celebrity Take Down'' and ''Phase Two: Slowboat to Hades''.", "In 2017, Kevin Bishop was cast as the new speaking voice of 2-D.", "He was created by Albarn and Jamie Hewlett in 1998.", "'''Noodle''' provides the lead guitar and keyboards, as well as some occasional vocals for the band.", "Like all other band members of Gorillaz, she was created in 1998 by Damon Albarn and Jamie Hewlett.", "Originally from Japan, Noodle has been voiced by Haruka Kuroda, Miho Hatori of Cibo Matto, and Haruka Abe.", "Noodle was originally conceptualised by co-creator Jamie Hewlett as a 17-year-old girl named Paula Cracker, but co-creator Damon Albarn noted that the character was too similar to the characters that Hewlett is typically known for drawing, and recommended that he attempt to create \"something different\".", "Taking Albarn's advice, Hewlett designed an illustration of a 10-year-old Japanese girl named Noodle who is a martial arts expert.", "In October 2016, Noodle became the global ambassador for Jaguar Racing, appearing in a short commercial advertising the company.", "'''Russel Hobbs''' was originally conceptualized by Jamie Hewlett and Damon Albarn in 1998 as a metafictional representation of the hip hop aspects of Gorillaz, embodying the spirit of the bands' collaborations with various rappers over the years.", "He is referenced in the lyrics to the ''Gorillaz'' track \"Clint Eastwood\".", "He was originally inspired by Hewlett's love for hip hop artists like Ice Cube (the cousin of rapper Del the Funky Homosapien, who raps on \"Clint Eastwood\" and \"Rock The House\" as Del the Ghost Rapper).", "Russel's speaking voice is provided by percussionist and DJ Remi Kabaka Jr., who has been an actual percussionist and producer for Gorillaz since ''Humanz'' in 2017.Russel's fictional backstory of being possessed by the spirits of dead musicians is what originally inspired the usage of collaborators and guests on Gorillaz' albums.===Virtual members timeline======Touring members=== 2001–2002''(Gorillaz Live)''* Damon Albarn – lead vocals, keyboards, rhythm guitar, piano, melodica* Mike Smith – keyboards* Cass Browne – drums, percussion, drum machine* Darren Galea – turntables* Simon Katz – lead guitar* Junior Dan – bass (2001)* Roberto Occhipinti – bass (2002) 2005–2006''(Demon Days Live)''* Damon Albarn – lead vocals, piano, melodica* Mike Smith – keyboards* Cass Browne – drums* Darren Galea – turntables* Simon Tong – guitar* Karl Vanden Bossche – percussion* Simon Jones – rhythm guitar* Morgan Nicholls – bass 2010''(Escape to Plastic Beach Tour)''* Damon Albarn – lead vocals, keyboards, piano, melodica, acoustic guitar* Mike Smith – keyboards* Cass Browne – drums, drum machine* Simon Tong – lead guitar (replaced Jeff Wootton on some dates)* Mick Jones – guitar, backing vocals* Paul Simonon – bass guitar, backing vocals* Jesse Hackett – keyboards* Jeff Wootton – lead guitar* Gabriel Wallace – drums, percussion 2017–2018''(Humanz Tour and The Now Now Tour)''* Damon Albarn – lead vocals, piano, keyboards, rhythm guitar* Mike Smith – keyboards, backing vocals* Karl Vanden Bossche – electronic drums, percussion* Jesse Hackett – keyboards* Jeff Wootton – lead guitar* Gabriel Wallace – drums, percussion* Seye Adelekan – bass guitar, acoustic guitar, backing vocals 2020–22''(Song Machine Tour and World Tour 2022)''* Damon Albarn – lead vocals, piano, keyboards, rhythm guitar* Mike Smith – keyboards, backing vocals* Karl Vanden Bossche – drums, percussion* Jesse Hackett – keyboards* Jeff Wootton – lead guitar* Seye Adelekan – bass guitar, acoustic guitar, backing vocals* Remi Kabaka Jr. – percussion* Femi Koleoso – drums===Touring members timeline===" ], [ "Discography", "'''Studio albums'''* ''Gorillaz'' (2001)* ''Demon Days'' (2005)* ''Plastic Beach'' (2010)* ''The Fall'' (2010)* ''Humanz'' (2017)* ''The Now Now'' (2018)* ''Song Machine, Season One: Strange Timez'' (2020)* ''Cracker Island'' (2023)" ], [ "Tours", "* Gorillaz Live (2001–2002)* Demon Days Live (2005–2006)* Escape to Plastic Beach Tour (2010)* Humanz Tour (2017–2018)* The Now Now Tour (2018)* Song Machine Tour (2020–2021)* Gorillaz World Tour 2022 (2022)" ], [ "Awards and nominations" ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * * Gorillaz at YouTube" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gayo" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Gayo''' may refer to:* Gayo language of Sumatra* Gayo people, an ethnic group in Aceh, Indonesia* Gayo Lues Regency, a regency in Aceh, Indonesia* Gayo, or K-pop, the Korean term for pop music* Gayo (poem), old form of the Korean traditional poetry" ], [ "See also", "* Gay (disambiguation)* Gaios, a port in Greece* Gaia (disambiguation)* Mayo (disambiguation)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "GW-BASIC" ], [ "Introduction", "'''GW-BASIC''' is a dialect of the BASIC programming language developed by Microsoft from IBM BASICA.", "Functionally identical to BASICA, its BASIC interpreter is a fully self-contained executable and does not need the Cassette BASIC ROM found in the original IBM PC.", "It was bundled with MS-DOS operating systems on IBM PC compatibles by Microsoft.The language is suitable for simple games, business programs and the like.", "Since it was included with most versions of MS-DOS, it was also a low-cost way for many aspiring programmers to learn the fundamentals of computer programming.", "Microsoft also sold a BASIC compiler, BASCOM, compatible with GW-BASIC, for programs needing more speed.According to Mark Jones Lorenzo, given the scope of the language, \"GW-BASIC is arguably the ''ne plus ultra'' of Microsoft's family of line-numbered BASICs stretching back to Altair BASIC and perhaps even of line-numbered BASIC in general.", "\"With the release of MS-DOS 5.0, GW-BASIC's place was taken by QBasic, a slightly abridged version of the interpreter part of the separately available QuickBASIC interpreter and compiler package.On May 21, 2020, Microsoft released the 8088 assembler source code for GW-BASIC 1.0 on GitHub under the MIT License." ], [ "Features", "IBM BASICA and GW-BASIC are largely ports of MBASIC version 5.x, but with added features specifically for the IBM PC hardware.", "Common features of BASIC-80 5.x and BASICA/GW-BASIC include:* WHILE...WEND loops* Variable names of up to 40 characters* OPTION BASE statement to set the starting index of array variables as either 0 or 1* Dynamic string space allocation* LINE INPUT, which allowed field-separator characters like comma to be ignored* CALL statement for executing machine-language routines* CHAIN and MERGE commands* Ability to save programs in either tokenized binary format or ASCII textThe ability to \"crunch\" program lines by omitting spaces, a common feature of earlier Microsoft BASIC implementations, was removed from BASIC-80 5.x and BASICA/GWBASIC.BASIC-80 programs not using PEEK/POKE statements run under GW-BASIC.", "BASICA adds many features for the IBM PC such as sound, graphics, and memory commands.", "Features not present in BASIC-80 include the ability to execute the RND function with no parameters and the ability to also save programs in a \"protected\" format, preventing them from being LISTed.", "BASICA also allows double-precision numbers to be used with mathematical and trigonometric functions such as COS, SIN, and ATN, which wasn't allowed in 8-bit versions of BASIC.", "This feature was normally not enabled and required the optional parameter /D at startup, i.e., GWBASIC /D.", "BASIC's memory footprint was slightly increased if it was used.Microsoft did not offer a generic version of MS-DOS until v3.20 in 1986; before then, all variants of the operating system were OEM versions.", "Depending on the OEM, BASIC was distributed as either BASICA.EXE or GWBASIC.EXE.", "The former should not be confused with IBM BASICA, which always came as a COM file.", "Some variants of BASIC has extra features to support a particular machine.", "For example, the AT&T and Tandy versions of DOS include a special GW-BASIC that supports their enhanced sound and graphics capabilities.The initial version of GW-BASIC is the one included with Compaq DOS 1.13, released with the Compaq Portable in 1983, and was analogous to IBM BASICA 1.10.It uses the CP/M-derived file control blocks for disk access and does not support subdirectories.", "Later versions support subdirectories, improved graphics, and other capabilities.GW-BASIC 3.20 (1986) adds EGA graphics support (no version of BASICA or GW-BASIC had VGA support) and is the last major new version released before it was superseded by QBasic.Buyers of Hercules Graphics Cards received a special version of GW-BASIC on the card's utility disk that is called HBASIC, which adds support for its 720×348 monochrome graphics.", "Other versions of BASICA/GW-BASIC do not support Hercules graphics and can only display graphics on that card through the use of third-party CGA emulation, such as SIMCGA.GW-BASIC has a command-line-based integrated development environment (IDE) based on Dartmouth BASIC.", "Using the cursor movement keys, any line displayed on the screen can be edited.", "It also includes function key shortcuts at the bottom of the screen.", "Like other early microcomputer versions of BASIC, GW-BASIC lacks many of the structures needed for structured programming, such as local variables.", "GW-BASIC programs executed relatively slowly because it was an interpreted language.", "All program lines must be numbered; all non-numbered lines are considered to be commands in direct mode to be executed immediately.", "Program source files are normally saved in binary compressed format with tokens replacing keywords, with an option to save in ASCII text form.The GW-BASIC command-line environment has commands to RUN, LOAD, SAVE, LIST the current program, or quit to the operating SYSTEM; these commands can also be used as program statements.", "There is little support for structured programming in GW-BASIC.", "All IF/THEN/ELSE conditional statements must be written on one line, although WHILE/WEND statements may group multiple lines.", "Functions can only be defined using the single line DEF FNf(x)= statement (e.g., DEF FNLOG(base,number)=LOG(number)/LOG(base)).", "The data type of variables can be specified with a character at the end of the variable name: A$ is a string of characters, A% is an integer, etc.", "Groups of variables can also be set to default types based on the initial letter of their name by use of the DEFINT, DEFSTR, etc., statements.", "The default type for undeclared variables not identified by such typing statements is single-precision floating-point (32-bit MBF).GW-BASIC allows use of joystick and light pen input devices.", "GW-BASIC can read from and write to files and COM ports; it can also do event trapping for ports.", "Since the cassette tape port interface of the original IBM PC was never implemented on compatibles, cassette operations are not supported.", "GW-BASIC can play simple music using the PLAY statement, needing a string of notes represented in a music macro language, e.g., PLAY \"edcdeeL2edfedL4c\".", "More low-level control is possible with the SOUND statement, which takes the arguments of a frequency in hertz and a length in clock ticks for the standard internal PC speaker in IBM machines.", "Consequently, sound is limited to single channel beeps and whistles as befits a \"business\" machine.", "GW-BASIC for the Tandy 1000 allows up to three channels of sound for the SOUND and PLAY commands." ], [ "Name", "There are several theories on what the initials \"GW\" stand for.", "Greg Whitten, an early Microsoft employee who developed the standards in the company's BASIC compiler line, says that Bill Gates picked the name GW-BASIC.", "Whitten refers to it as ''Gee-Whiz'' BASIC and is unsure whether Gates named the program after him.", "The ''Microsoft User Manual'' from Microsoft Press also refers to it by this name.", "It may have also been nicknamed ''Gee-Whiz'' because of its numerous graphics commands.", "Other common theories as to the initials' origins include \"Graphics and Windows\", \"Gates, William\" (Microsoft's president at the time), or \"Gates–Whitten\" (the two main designers of the program)." ], [ "See also", "*Microsoft Binary Format (MBF)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* GW-BASIC source code on GitHub* * GW-BASIC User's Manual* Gary Beene's Information Center regarding BASIC, with timeline dates for DOS, Windows and BASIC dialects* GW-BASIC – A resource for GW-BASIC, gathered from various sources." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Granite" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Granite''' () is a coarse-grained (phaneritic) intrusive igneous rock composed mostly of quartz, alkali feldspar, and plagioclase.", "It forms from magma with a high content of silica and alkali metal oxides that slowly cools and solidifies underground.", "It is common in the continental crust of Earth, where it is found in igneous intrusions.", "These range in size from dikes only a few centimeters across to batholiths exposed over hundreds of square kilometers.Granite is typical of a larger family of ''granitic rocks'', or ''granitoids'', that are composed mostly of coarse-grained quartz and feldspars in varying proportions.", "These rocks are classified by the relative percentages of quartz, alkali feldspar, and plagioclase (the QAPF classification), with true granite representing granitic rocks rich in quartz and alkali feldspar.", "Most granitic rocks also contain mica or amphibole minerals, though a few (known as leucogranites) contain almost no dark minerals.Thin section of graniteGranite is nearly always massive (lacking any internal structures), hard, and tough.", "These properties have made granite a widespread construction stone throughout human history." ], [ "Description", "QAPF diagram with granite field highlightedMineral assemblage of igneous rocksThe word \"granite\" comes from the Latin ''granum'', a grain, in reference to the coarse-grained structure of such a completely crystalline rock.", "Granitic rocks mainly consist of feldspar, quartz, mica, and amphibole minerals, which form an interlocking, somewhat equigranular matrix of feldspar and quartz with scattered darker biotite mica and amphibole (often hornblende) peppering the lighter color minerals.", "Occasionally some individual crystals (phenocrysts) are larger than the groundmass, in which case the texture is known as porphyritic.", "A granitic rock with a porphyritic texture is known as a granite porphyry.", "Granitoid is a general, descriptive field term for lighter-colored, coarse-grained igneous rocks.", "Petrographic examination is required for identification of specific types of granitoids.", "Granites can be predominantly white, pink, or gray in color, depending on their mineralogy.The alkali feldspar in granites is typically orthoclase or microcline and is often perthitic.", "The plagioclase is typically sodium-rich oligoclase.", "Phenocrysts are usually alkali feldspar.Granitic rocks are classified according to the QAPF diagram for coarse grained plutonic rocks and are named according to the percentage of quartz, alkali feldspar (orthoclase, sanidine, or microcline) and plagioclase feldspar on the A-Q-P half of the diagram.", "True granite (according to modern petrologic convention) contains between 20% and 60% quartz by volume, with 35% to 90% of the total feldspar consisting of alkali feldspar.", "Granitic rocks poorer in quartz are classified as syenites or monzonites, while granitic rocks dominated by plagioclase are classified as granodiorites or tonalites.", "Granitic rocks with over 90% alkali feldspar are classified as alkali feldspar granites.", "Granitic rock with more than 60% quartz, which is uncommon, is classified simply as quartz-rich granitoid or, if composed almost entirely of quartz, as quartzolite.True granites are further classified by the percentage of their total feldspar that is alkali feldspar.", "Granites whose feldspar is 65% to 90% alkali feldspar are syenogranites, while the feldspar in monzogranite is 35% to 65% alkali feldspar.", "A granite containing both muscovite and biotite micas is called a binary or ''two-mica'' granite.", "Two-mica granites are typically high in potassium and low in plagioclase, and are usually S-type granites or A-type granites, as described below.Another aspect of granite classification is the ratios of metals that potentially form feldspars.", "Most granites have a composition such that almost all their aluminum and alkali metals (sodium and potassium) are combined as feldspar.", "This is the case when K2O + Na2O + CaO > Al2O3 > K2O + Na2O.", "Such granites are described as ''normal'' or ''metaluminous''.", "Granites in which there is not enough aluminum to combine with all the alkali oxides as feldspar (Al2O3 2O + Na2O) are described as ''peralkaline'', and they contain unusual sodium amphiboles such as riebeckite.", "Granites in which there is an excess of aluminum beyond what can be taken up in feldspars (Al2O3 > CaO + K2O + Na2O) are described as ''peraluminous'', and they contain aluminum-rich minerals such as muscovite.===Physical properties===The average density of granite is between , its compressive strength usually lies above 200 MPa (29,000 psi), and its viscosity near STP is 3–6·1020 Pa·s.The melting temperature of dry granite at ambient pressure is ; it is strongly reduced in the presence of water, down to 650 °C at a few hundred megapascals of pressure.Granite has poor primary permeability overall, but strong secondary permeability through cracks and fractures if they are present.===Chemical composition===A worldwide average of the chemical composition of granite, by weight percent, based on 2485 analyses: SiO2 Al2O3 K2O Na2O CaO FeO Fe2O3 MgO TiO2 P2O5 MnO The medium-grained equivalent of granite is '''microgranite'''.", "The extrusive igneous rock equivalent of granite is rhyolite." ], [ "Occurrence", "The Cheesewring, a granite tor in EnglandA granite peak at Huangshan, ChinaPink granite at Hiltaba, South Australia (part of the Hiltaba Suite)Granite with quartz veins at Gros la Tête cliff, Aride Island, SeychellesGranitic rock is widely distributed throughout the continental crust.", "Much of it was intruded during the Precambrian age; it is the most abundant basement rock that underlies the relatively thin sedimentary veneer of the continents.", "Outcrops of granite tend to form tors, domes or bornhardts, and rounded massifs.", "Granites sometimes occur in circular depressions surrounded by a range of hills, formed by the metamorphic aureole or hornfels.", "Granite often occurs as relatively small, less than 100 km2 stock masses (stocks) and in batholiths that are often associated with orogenic mountain ranges.", "Small dikes of granitic composition called aplites are often associated with the margins of granitic intrusions.", "In some locations, very coarse-grained pegmatite masses occur with granite." ], [ "Origin", "Granite forms from silica-rich (felsic) magmas.", "Felsic magmas are thought to form by addition of heat or water vapor to rock of the lower crust, rather than by decompression of mantle rock, as is the case with basaltic magmas.", "It has also been suggested that some granites found at convergent boundaries between tectonic plates, where oceanic crust subducts below continental crust, were formed from sediments subducted with the oceanic plate.", "The melted sediments would have produced magma intermediate in its silica content, which became further enriched in silica as it rose through the overlying crust.Early fractional crystallisation serves to reduce a melt in magnesium and chromium, and enrich the melt in iron, sodium, potassium, aluminum, and silicon.", "Further fractionation reduces the content of iron, calcium, and titanium.", "This is reflected in the high content of alkali feldspar and quartz in granite.The presence of granitic rock in island arcs shows that fractional crystallization alone can convert a basaltic magma to a granitic magma, but the quantities produced are small.", "For example, granitic rock makes up just 4% of the exposures in the South Sandwich Islands.", "In continental arc settings, granitic rocks are the most common plutonic rocks, and batholiths composed of these rock types extend the entire length of the arc.", "There are no indication of magma chambers where basaltic magmas differentiate into granites, or of cumulates produced by mafic crystals settling out of the magma.", "Other processes must produce these great volumes of felsic magma.", "One such process is injection of basaltic magma into the lower crust, followed by differentiation, which leaves any cumulates in the mantle.", "Another is heating of the lower crust by underplating basaltic magma, which produces felsic magma directly from crustal rock.", "The two processes produce different kinds of granites, which may be reflected in the division between S-type (produced by underplating) and I-type (produced by injection and differentiation) granites, discussed below.===Alphabet classification system===The composition and origin of any magma that differentiates into granite leave certain petrological evidence as to what the granite's parental rock was.", "The final texture and composition of a granite are generally distinctive as to its parental rock.", "For instance, a granite that is derived from partial melting of metasedimentary rocks may have more alkali feldspar, whereas a granite derived from partial melting of metaigneous rocks may be richer in plagioclase.", "It is on this basis that the modern \"alphabet\" classification schemes are based.The letter-based Chappell & White classification system was proposed initially to divide granites into I-type (igneous source) granite and S-type (sedimentary sources).", "Both types are produced by partial melting of crustal rocks, either metaigneous rocks or metasedimentary rocks.I-type granites are characterized by a high content of sodium and calcium, and by a strontium isotope ratio, 87Sr/86Sr, of less than 0.708.87Sr is produced by radioactive decay of 87Rb, and since rubidium is concentrated in the crust relative to the mantle, a low ratio suggests origin in the mantle.", "The elevated sodium and calcium favor crystallization of hornblende rather than biotite.", "I-type granites are known for their porphyry copper deposits.", "I-type granites are orogenic (associated with mountain building) and usually metaluminous.S-type granites are sodium-poor and aluminum-rich.", "As a result, they contain micas such as biotite and muscovite instead of hornblende.", "Their strontium isotope ratio is typically greater than 0.708, suggesting a crustal origin.", "They also commonly contain xenoliths of metamorphosed sedimentary rock, and host tin ores.", "Their magmas are water-rich, and they readily solidify as the water outgasses from the magma at lower pressure, so they less commonly make it to the surface than magmas of I-type granites, which are thus more common as volcanic rock (rhyolite).", "They are also orogenic but range from metaluminous to strongly peraluminous.Although both I- and S-type granites are orogenic, I-type granites are more common close to the convergent boundary than S-type.", "This is attributed to thicker crust further from the boundary, which results in more crustal melting.A-type granites show a peculiar mineralogy and geochemistry, with particularly high silicon and potassium at the expense of calcium and magnesium and a high content of high field strength cations (cations with a small radius and high electrical charge, such as zirconium, niobium, tantalum, and rare earth elements.)", "They are not orogenic, forming instead over hot spots and continental rifting, and are metaluminous to mildly peralkaline and iron-rich.", "These granites are produced by partial melting of refractory lithology such as granulites in the lower continental crust at high thermal gradients.", "This leads to significant extraction of hydrous felsic melts from granulite-facies resitites.", "A-type granites occur in the Koettlitz Glacier Alkaline Province in the Royal Society Range, Antarctica.", "The rhyolites of the Yellowstone Caldera are examples of volcanic equivalents of A-type granite.M-type granite was later proposed to cover those granites that were clearly sourced from crystallized mafic magmas, generally sourced from the mantle.", "Although the fractional crystallisation of basaltic melts can yield small amounts of granites, which are sometimes found in island arcs, such granites must occur together with large amounts of basaltic rocks.H-type granites were suggested for hybrid granites, which were hypothesized to form by mixing between mafic and felsic from different sources, such as M-type and S-type.", "However, the big difference in rheology between mafic and felsic magmas makes this process problematic in nature.===Granitization===Granitization is an old, and largely discounted, hypothesis that granite is formed in place through extreme metasomatism.", "The idea behind granitization was that fluids would supposedly bring in elements such as potassium, and remove others, such as calcium, to transform a metamorphic rock into granite.", "This was supposed to occur across a migrating front.", "However, experimental work had established by the 1960s that granites were of igneous origin.", "The mineralogical and chemical features of granite can be explained only by crystal-liquid phase relations, showing that there must have been at least enough melting to mobilize the magma.However, at sufficiently deep crustal levels, the distinction between metamorphism and crustal melting itself becomes vague.", "Conditions for crystallization of liquid magma are close enough to those of high-grade metamorphism that the rocks often bear a close resemblance.", "Under these conditions, granitic melts can be produced in place through the partial melting of metamorphic rocks by extracting melt-mobile elements such as potassium and silicon into the melts but leaving others such as calcium and iron in granulite residues.", "This may be the origin of ''migmatites''.", "A migmatite consists of dark, refractory rock (the ''melanosome'') that is permeated by sheets and channels of light granitic rock (the ''leucosome'').", "The leucosome is interpreted as partial melt of a parent rock that has begun to separate from the remaining solid residue (the melanosome).", "If enough partial melt is produced, it will separate from the source rock, become more highly evolved through fractional crystallization during its ascent toward the surface, and become the magmatic parent of granitic rock.", "The residue of the source rock becomes a granulite.The partial melting of solid rocks requires high temperatures and the addition of water or other volatiles which lower the solidus temperature (temperature at which partial melting commences) of these rocks.", "It was long debated whether crustal thickening in orogens (mountain belts along convergent boundaries) was sufficient to produce granite melts by radiogenic heating, but recent work suggests that this is not a viable mechanism.", "In-situ granitization requires heating by the asthenospheric mantle or by underplating with mantle-derived magmas." ], [ "Ascent and emplacement", "Granite magmas have a density of 2.4 Mg/m3, much less than the 2.8 Mg/m3 of high-grade metamorphic rock.", "This gives them tremendous buoyancy, so that ascent of the magma is inevitable once enough magma has accumulated.", "However, the question of precisely how such large quantities of magma are able to shove aside country rock to make room for themselves (the ''room problem'') is still a matter of research.Two main mechanisms are thought to be important:*Stokes diapir*Fracture propagationOf these two mechanisms, Stokes diapirism has been favoured for many years in the absence of a reasonable alternative.", "The basic idea is that magma will rise through the crust as a single mass through buoyancy.", "As it rises, it heats the wall rocks, causing them to behave as a power-law fluid and thus flow around the intrusion allowing it to pass without major heat loss.", "This is entirely feasible in the warm, ductile lower crust where rocks are easily deformed, but runs into problems in the upper crust which is far colder and more brittle.", "Rocks there do not deform so easily: for magma to rise as a diapir it would expend far too much energy in heating wall rocks, thus cooling and solidifying before reaching higher levels within the crust.Fracture propagation is the mechanism preferred by many geologists as it largely eliminates the major problems of moving a huge mass of magma through cold brittle crust.", "Magma rises instead in small channels along self-propagating dykes which form along new or pre-existing fracture or fault systems and networks of active shear zones.", "As these narrow conduits open, the first magma to enter solidifies and provides a form of insulation for later magma.These mechanisms can operate in tandem.", "For example, diapirs may continue to rise through the brittle upper crust through stoping, where the granite cracks the roof rocks, removing blocks of the overlying crust which then sink to the bottom of the diapir while the magma rises to take their place.", "This can occur as piecemeal stopping (stoping of small blocks of chamber roof), as cauldron subsidence (collapse of large blocks of chamber roof), or as roof foundering (complete collapse of the roof of a shallow magma chamber accompanied by a caldera eruption.)", "There is evidence for cauldron subsidence at the Mt.", "Ascutney intrusion in eastern Vermont.", "Evidence for piecemeal stoping is found in intrusions that are rimmed with ''igneous breccia'' containing fragments of country rock.Assimilation is another mechanism of ascent, where the granite melts its way up into the crust and removes overlying material in this way.", "This is limited by the amount of thermal energy available, which must be replenished by crystallization of higher-melting minerals in the magma.", "Thus, the magma is melting crustal rock at its roof while simultaneously crystallizing at its base.", "This results in steady contamination with crustal material as the magma rises.", "This may not be evident in the major and minor element chemistry, since the minerals most likely to crystallize at the base of the chamber are the same ones that would crystallize anyway, but crustal assimilation is detectable in isotope ratios.", "Heat loss to the country rock means that ascent by assimilation is limited to distance similar to the height of the magma chamber." ], [ "Weathering", "Grus sand and granitoid from which it derivedPhysical weathering occurs on a large scale in the form of exfoliation joints, which are the result of granite's expanding and fracturing as pressure is relieved when overlying material is removed by erosion or other processes.Chemical weathering of granite occurs when dilute carbonic acid, and other acids present in rain and soil waters, alter feldspar in a process called hydrolysis.", "As demonstrated in the following reaction, this causes potassium feldspar to form kaolinite, with potassium ions, bicarbonate, and silica in solution as byproducts.", "An end product of granite weathering is grus, which is often made up of coarse-grained fragments of disintegrated granite.Climatic variations also influence the weathering rate of granites.", "For about two thousand years, the relief engravings on Cleopatra's Needle obelisk had survived the arid conditions of its origin before its transfer to London.", "Within two hundred years, the red granite has drastically deteriorated in the damp and polluted air there.Soil development on granite reflects the rock's high quartz content and dearth of available bases, with the base-poor status predisposing the soil to acidification and podzolization in cool humid climates as the weather-resistant quartz yields much sand.", "Feldspars also weather slowly in cool climes, allowing sand to dominate the fine-earth fraction.", "In warm humid regions, the weathering of feldspar as described above is accelerated so as to allow a much higher proportion of clay with the Cecil soil series a prime example of the consequent Ultisol great soil group." ], [ "Natural radiation", "Granite is a natural source of radiation, like most natural stones.", "Potassium-40 is a radioactive isotope of weak emission, and a constituent of alkali feldspar, which in turn is a common component of granitic rocks, more abundant in alkali feldspar granite and syenites.", "Some granites contain around 10 to 20 parts per million (ppm) of uranium.", "By contrast, more mafic rocks, such as tonalite, gabbro and diorite, have 1 to 5 ppm uranium, and limestones and sedimentary rocks usually have equally low amounts.Many large granite plutons are sources for palaeochannel-hosted or roll front uranium ore deposits, where the uranium washes into the sediments from the granite uplands and associated, often highly radioactive pegmatites.Cellars and basements built into soils over granite can become a trap for radon gas, which is formed by the decay of uranium.", "Radon gas poses significant health concerns and is the number two cause of lung cancer in the US behind smoking.Thorium occurs in all granites.", "Conway granite has been noted for its relatively high thorium concentration of 56±6 ppm.There is some concern that some granite sold as countertops or building material may be hazardous to health.", "Dan Steck of St. Johns University has statedthat approximately 5% of all granite is of concern, with the caveat that only a tiny percentage of the tens of thousands of granite slab types have been tested.", "Resources from national geological survey organizations are accessible online to assist in assessing the risk factors in granite country and design rules relating, in particular, to preventing accumulation of radon gas in enclosed basements and dwellings.A study of granite countertops was done (initiated and paid for by the Marble Institute of America) in November 2008 by National Health and Engineering Inc. of USA.", "In this test, all of the 39 full-size granite slabs that were measured for the study showed radiation levels well below the European Union safety standards (section 4.1.1.1 of the National Health and Engineering study) and radon emission levels well below the average outdoor radon concentrations in the US." ], [ "Industry", "Granite dimension stone quarry in Taivassalo, FinlandGranite and related marble industries are considered one of the oldest industries in the world, existing as far back as Ancient Egypt.Major modern exporters of granite include China, India, Italy, Brazil, Canada, Germany, Sweden, Spain and the United States." ], [ "Uses", "===Antiquity===Cleopatra's Needle, LondonThe Red Pyramid of Egypt (), named for the light crimson hue of its exposed limestone surfaces, is the third largest of Egyptian pyramids.", "Pyramid of Menkaure, likely dating 2510 BC, was constructed of limestone and granite blocks.", "The Great Pyramid of Giza (c. 2580 BC) contains a huge granite sarcophagus fashioned of \"Red Aswan Granite\".", "The mostly ruined Black Pyramid dating from the reign of Amenemhat III once had a polished granite pyramidion or capstone, which is now on display in the main hall of the Egyptian Museum in Cairo (see Dahshur).", "Other uses in Ancient Egypt include columns, door lintels, sills, jambs, and wall and floor veneer.", "How the Egyptians worked the solid granite is still a matter of debate.", "Patrick Hunt has postulated that the Egyptians used emery, which has greater hardness on the Mohs scale.The Seokguram Grotto in Korea is a Buddhist shrine and part of the Bulguksa temple complex.", "Completed in 774 AD, it is an artificial grotto constructed entirely of granite.", "The main Buddha of the grotto is a highly regarded piece of Buddhist art, and along with the temple complex to which it belongs, Seokguram was added to the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1995.Rajaraja Chola I of the Chola Dynasty in South India built the world's first temple entirely of granite in the 11th century AD in Tanjore, India.", "The Brihadeeswarar Temple dedicated to Lord Shiva was built in 1010.The massive Gopuram (ornate, upper section of shrine) is believed to have a mass of around 81 tonnes.", "It was the tallest temple in south India.Imperial Roman granite was quarried mainly in Egypt, and also in Turkey, and on the islands of Elba and Giglio.", "Granite became \"an integral part of the Roman language of monumental architecture\".", "The quarrying ceased around the third century AD.", "Beginning in Late Antiquity the granite was reused, which since at least the early 16th century became known as spolia.", "Through the process of case-hardening, granite becomes harder with age.", "The technology required to make tempered metal chisels was largely forgotten during the Middle Ages.", "As a result, Medieval stoneworkers were forced to use saws or emery to shorten ancient columns or hack them into discs.", "Giorgio Vasari noted in the 16th century that granite in quarries was \"far softer and easier to work than after it has lain exposed\" while ancient columns, because of their \"hardness and solidity have nothing to fear from fire or sword, and time itself, that drives everything to ruin, not only has not destroyed them but has not even altered their colour.", "\"===Modern=======Sculpture and memorials====Granites (cut and polished surfaces)In some areas, granite is used for gravestones and memorials.", "Granite is a hard stone and requires skill to carve by hand.", "Until the early 18th century, in the Western world, granite could be carved only by hand tools with generally poor results.A key breakthrough was the invention of steam-powered cutting and dressing tools by Alexander MacDonald of Aberdeen, inspired by seeing ancient Egyptian granite carvings.", "In 1832, the first polished tombstone of Aberdeen granite to be erected in an English cemetery was installed at Kensal Green Cemetery.", "It caused a sensation in the London monumental trade and for some years all polished granite ordered came from MacDonald's.", "As a result of the work of sculptor William Leslie, and later Sidney Field, granite memorials became a major status symbol in Victorian Britain.", "The royal sarcophagus at Frogmore was probably the pinnacle of its work, and at 30 tons one of the largest.", "It was not until the 1880s that rival machinery and works could compete with the MacDonald works.Modern methods of carving include using computer-controlled rotary bits and sandblasting over a rubber stencil.", "Leaving the letters, numbers, and emblems exposed and the remainder of the stone covered with rubber, the blaster can create virtually any kind of artwork or epitaph.The stone known as \"black granite\" is usually gabbro, which has a completely different chemical composition.====Buildings====granite castle of Aulanko in Hämeenlinna, FinlandGranite has been extensively used as a dimension stone and as flooring tiles in public and commercial buildings and monuments.", "Aberdeen in Scotland, which is constructed principally from local granite, is known as \"The Granite City\".", "Because of its abundance in New England, granite was commonly used to build foundations for homes there.", "The Granite Railway, America's first railroad, was built to haul granite from the quarries in Quincy, Massachusetts, to the Neponset River in the 1820s.====Engineering====Engineers have traditionally used polished granite surface plates to establish a plane of reference, since they are relatively impervious, inflexible, and maintain good dimensional stability.", "Sandblasted concrete with a heavy aggregate content has an appearance similar to rough granite, and is often used as a substitute when use of real granite is impractical.", "Granite tables are used extensively as bases or even as the entire structural body of optical instruments, CMMs, and very high precision CNC machines because of granite's rigidity, high dimensional stability, and excellent vibration characteristics.", "A most unusual use of granite was as the material of the tracks of the Haytor Granite Tramway, Devon, England, in 1820.Granite block is usually processed into slabs, which can be cut and shaped by a cutting center.", "In military engineering, Finland planted granite boulders along its Mannerheim Line to block invasion by Russian tanks in the Winter War of 1939–40.====Paving====Granite is used as a pavement material.", "This is because it is extremely durable, permeable and requires little maintenance.", "For example, in Sydney, Australia black granite stone is used for the paving and kerbs throughout the Central Business District.====Curling stones====Curling stonesCurling stones are traditionally fashioned of Ailsa Craig granite.", "The first stones were made in the 1750s, the original source being Ailsa Craig in Scotland.", "Because of the rarity of this granite, the best stones can cost as much as US$1,500.Between 60 and 70 percent of the stones used today are made from Ailsa Craig granite.", "Although the island is now a wildlife reserve, it is still quarried under license for Ailsa granite by Kays of Scotland for curling stones." ], [ "Rock climbing", "Granite is one of the rocks most prized by climbers, for its steepness, soundness, crack systems, and friction.", "Well-known venues for granite climbing include the Yosemite Valley, the Bugaboos, the Mont Blanc massif (and peaks such as the Aiguille du Dru, the Mourne Mountains, the Adamello-Presanella Alps, the Aiguille du Midi and the Grandes Jorasses), the Bregaglia, Corsica, parts of the Karakoram (especially the Trango Towers), the Fitzroy Massif, Patagonia, Baffin Island, Ogawayama, the Cornish coast, the Cairngorms, Sugarloaf Mountain in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, and the Stawamus Chief, British Columbia, Canada." ], [ "Gallery", "File:St. Louis wharf cobbles 20090121 1.jpg|Granite was used for setts on the St. Louis riverfront and for the piers of the Eads Bridge (background)File:Torres del Paine, Patagonia (2004).jpg|The granite peaks of the Cordillera Paine in the Chilean PatagoniaFile:Yosemite 20 bg 090404.jpg|alt=Half Dome, Yosemeite National Park|Half Dome, Yosemite National Park, is actually a granite arête and is a popular rock climbing destinationFile:Rixö granitbrott 4.jpg|Rixö red granite quarry in Lysekil, SwedenFile:Auyuittuq National Park, Baffin Island, Nunavut -c.jpg|Granite in Auyuittuq National Park on Baffin Island, CanadaFile:Paarl Mountain04.jpg|Granite in Paarl, South AfricaFile:Olhares sobre o Museu do Ipiranga 2017 041.jpg|The graves of Emperor Pedro I of Brazil (also King of Portugal as Pedro IV) and his two wives Maria Leopoldina (not pictured, facing his grave) and Amélie (left), in the Monument to the Independence of Brazil, are made of green granite.", "The walls as well as the floor are clad with the same material." ], [ "See also", "* * * * * * * * *" ], [ "References", "; Citations" ], [ "Further reading", "* * *" ], [ "External links" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Global Climate Coalition" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Global Climate Coalition''' (GCC) (1989–2001) was an international lobbyist group of businesses that opposed action to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and engaged in climate change denial, publicly challenging the science behind global warming.", "The GCC was the largest industry group active in climate policy and the most prominent industry advocate in international climate negotiations.", "The GCC was involved in opposition to the Kyoto Protocol, and played a role in blocking ratification by the United States.", "The coalition knew it could not deny the scientific consensus, but sought to sow doubt over the scientific consensus on climate change and create manufactured controversy.", "The GCC was dissolved in 2001 after membership declined in the face of improved understanding of the role of greenhouse gases in climate change and of public criticism.", "It declared that its primary objective had been achieved: U.S. President George W. Bush withdrew the U.S., which alone accounted for nearly a quarter of the world's greenhouse gas emissions, from the Kyoto Protocol process through the Senate voting to not ratify the treaty.", "Thus, this rendered mandatory global reductions unreachable." ], [ "Founding", "The Global Climate Coalition (GCC) was formed in 1989 as a project under the auspices of the National Association of Manufacturers.", "The GCC was formed to represent the interests of the major producers and users of fossil fuels, to oppose regulation to mitigate global warming, and to challenge the science behind global warming.", "Context for the founding of the GCC from 1988 included the establishment of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and NASA climatologist James Hansen's congressional testimony that climate change was occurring.", "The government affairs' offices of five or six corporations recognized that they had been inadequately organized for the Montreal Protocol, the international treaty that phased out ozone depleting chlorofluorocarbons, and the Clean Air Act in the United States, and recognized that fossil fuels would be targeted for regulation.According to GCC's mission statement on the home page of its website, GCC was established: \"to coordinate business participation in the international policy debate on the issue of global climate change and global warming,\" and GCC's executive director in a 1993 press release said GCC was organized \"as the leading voice for industry on the global climate change issue.", "\"GCC reorganized independently in 1992, with the first chairman of the board of directors being the director of government relations for the Phillips Petroleum Company.", "Exxon, later ExxonMobil, was a founding member, and a founding member of the GCC's board of directors; the energy giant also had a leadership role in coalition.", "The American Petroleum Institute (API) was a leading member of the coalition.", "API's executive vice president was a chairman of the coalition's board of directors.", "Other GCC founding members included the National Coal Association, United States Chamber of Commerce, American Forest & Paper Association, and Edison Electric Institute.", "GCC's executive director John Shlaes was previously the director of government relations at the Edison Electric Institute.", "GCC was run by Ruder Finn, a public relations firm.", "GCC's comprehensive PR campaign was designed by E. Bruce Harrison, who had been creating campaigns for the US industry against environmental legislation from the 1970s.GCC was the largest industry group active in climate policy.", "About 40 companies and industry associations were GCC members.", "Considering member corporations, member trade associations, and business represented by member trade associations, GCC represented over 230,000 businesses.", "Industry sectors represented included: aluminium, paper, transportation, power generation, petroleum, chemical, and small businesses.", "All major oil companies were members until 1996 (Shell left in 1998).", "GCC members were from industries that would have been adversely effected by limitations on fossil fuel consumption.", "GCC was funded by membership dues." ], [ "Advocacy activities", "GCC was one of the most powerful lobbyist groups against action to mitigate global warming.", "It was the most prominent industry advocate in international climate negotiations, and led a campaign opposed to policies to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.", "The GCC was one of the most powerful non-governmental organizations representing business interests in climate policy, according to Kal Raustiala, professor at the UCLA School of Law.GCC's advocacy activities included lobbying government officials, grassroots lobbying through press releases and advertising, participation in international climate conferences, criticism of the processes of international climate organizations, critiques of climate models, and personal attacks on scientists and environmentalists.", "Policy positions advocated by the coalition included denial of anthropogenic climate change, emphasizing the uncertainty in climatology, advocating for additional research, highlighting the benefits and downplaying the risks of climate change, stressing the priority of economic development, defending national sovereignty, and opposition to the regulation of greenhouse gas emissions.GCC sent delegations to all of the major international climate conventions.", "Only nations and non-profits may send official delegates to the United Nations Climate Change conferences.", "GCC registered with the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) as a non-governmental organization, and executives from GCC members attended official UN conferences as GCC delegates.In 1990, after US president, George H. W. Bush, addressed the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) urging caution in responding to global warming, and offering no new proposals, GCC said Bush's speech was \"very strong\" and concurred with the priorities of economic development and additional research.", "GCC sent 30 attendees to the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, where it lobbied to keep targets and timetables out of the Framework Convention on Climate Change.", "In December, 1992 GCC's executive director wrote in a letter to ''The New York Times'': \"...there is considerable debate on whether or not man-made greenhouse gases (produced primarily by burning fossil fuels) are triggering a dangerous 'global warming' trend.\"", "In 1992 GCC distributed a half-hour video entitled ''The Greening of Planet Earth'', to hundreds of journalists, the White House, and several Middle Eastern oil-producing countries, which suggested that increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide could boost crop yields and solve world hunger.In 1993, after then US president Bill Clinton pledged \"to reducing our emissions of greenhouse gases to their 1990 levels by the year 2000,\" GCC's executive director said it \"could jeopardize the economic health of the nation.\"", "GCC's lobbying was key to the defeat in the United States Senate of Clinton's 1993 BTU tax proposal.", "In 1994, after United States Secretary of Energy Hazel R. O'Leary said the 1992 UNFCCC needed to be strengthened, and that voluntary carbon dioxide reductions may not be enough, GCC said it was: \"disturbed by the implication that the President's voluntary climate action plan, which is just getting under way, will be inadequate and that more stringent measures may be needed domestically.", "\"GCC did not fund original scientific research and its climate claims relied largely on the ''World Climate Review'' and its successor the ''World Climate Report'' edited by Patrick Michaels and funded by the Western Fuels Association.", "GCC promoted the views of climate deniers such as Michaels, Fred Singer, and Richard Lindzen.", "In 1996, GCC published a report entitled ''Global warming and extreme weather: fact vs. fiction'' written by Robert E. Davis.GCC members questioned the efficacy of climate change denial and shifted their message to highlighting the economic costs of proposed greenhouse gas emission regulations and the limited effectiveness of proposals exempting developing nations.", "In 1995, after the United Nations Climate Change conference in Berlin agreed to negotiate greenhouse gas emission limits, GCC's executive director said the agreement gave \"developing countries like China, India and Mexico a free ride\" and would \"change the relations between sovereign countries and the United Nations.", "This could have very significant implications.", "It could be a way of capping our economy.\"", "At a Washington, D.C. press conference on the eve of the second United Nations Climate Change conference in Geneva, GCC's executive director said, \"The time for decision is not yet now.\"", "At the conference in Geneva, GCC issued a statement that said it was too early to determine the causes of global warming.", "GCC representatives lobbied scientists at the September, 1996 IPCC conference in Mexico City.After actor Leonardo DiCaprio, chairman of Earth Day 2000, interviewed Clinton for ABC News, GCC sent out an e-mail that said that DiCaprio's first car was a Jeep Grand Cherokee and that his current car was a Chevrolet Tahoe.=== ''Predicting Future Climate Change: A Primer'' ===In 1995, GCC assembled an advisory committee of scientific and technical experts to compile an internal-only, 17-page report on climate science entitled ''Predicting Future Climate Change: A Primer'', which said: \"The scientific basis for the Greenhouse Effect and the potential impact of human emissions of greenhouse gases such as CO2 on climate is well established and cannot be denied.\"", "In early 1996, GCC's operating committee asked the advisory committee to redact the sections that rebutted contrarian arguments, and accepted the report and distributed it to members.", "The draft document was disclosed in a 2007 lawsuit filed by the auto industry against California's efforts to regulate automotive greenhouse gas emissions.According to ''The New York Times'', the primer demonstrated that \"even as the coalition worked to sway opinion, its own scientific and technical experts were advising that the science backing the role of greenhouse gases in global warming could not be refuted.\"", "According to the Union of Concerned Scientists in 2015, the primer was: \"remarkable for indisputably showing that, while some fossil fuel companies' deception about climate science has continued to the present day, at least two decades ago the companies' own scientific experts were internally alerting them about the realities and implications of climate change.", "\"=== IPCC Second Assessment Report ===GCC was an industry participant in the review process of the IPCC Second Assessment Report.", "In 1996, prior to the publication of the Second Assessment Report, GCC distributed a report entitled ''The IPCC: Institutionalized Scientific Cleansing'' to reporters, US Congressmen, and scientists.", "The coalition report said that Benjamin D. Santer, the lead author of Chapter 8 in the assessment, entitled \"Detection of Climate Change and Attribution of Causes,\" had altered the text, after acceptance by the Working Group, and without approval of the authors, to strike content characterizing the uncertainty of the science.", "Frederick Seitz repeated GCC's charges in a letter to ''The Wall Street Journal'' published June 12, 1996.The coalition ran newspaper advertisements that said: \"unless the management of the IPCC promptly undertakes to republish the printed versions ... the IPCC's credibility will have been lost.", "\"Santer and his co-authors said the edits were integrations of comments from peer review as per agreed IPCC processes.=== Opposition to Kyoto Protocol ===GCC was the main industry group in the United States opposed to the Kyoto Protocol, which committed signatories to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.", "The coalition \"was the leading industry group working in opposition to the Kyoto Protocol,\" according to Greenpeace, and led opposition to the Kyoto Protocol, according to the ''Los Angeles Times.", "''Prior to 1997, GCC spent about $1 million annually lobbying against limits on emissions; before Kyoto, GCC annual revenue peaked around $1.5 million; GCC spent $13 million on advertising in opposition to the Kyoto treaty.", "The coalition funded the Global Climate Information Project and hired the advertising firm that produced the 1993–1994 Harry and Louise advertising campaign which opposed Clinton's health care initiative.", "The advertisements said, \"the UN Climate Treaty isn't Global...and it won't work\" and \"Americans will pay the price...50 cents more for every gallon of gasoline.", "\"GCC opposed the signing of the Kyoto Protocol by Clinton.", "GCC was influential in the withdrawal from the Kyoto Protocol by the administration of President George W. Bush.", "According to briefing notes prepared by the United States Department of State for the under-secretary of state, Bush's rejection of the Kyoto Protocol was \"in part based on input from\" GCC.", "GCC lobbying was key to the July, 1997 unanimous passage in the United States Senate of the Byrd–Hagel Resolution, which reflected the coalition's position that restrictions on greenhouse gas emissions must include developing countries.", "GCC's chairman told a US congressional committee that mandatory greenhouse gas emissions limits were: \"an unjustified rush to judgement.\"", "The coalition sent 50 delegates to the third Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Climate Change Conference in Kyoto.", "On December 11, 1997, the day the Kyoto delegates reached agreement on legally binding limits on greenhouse gas emissions, GCC's chairman said the agreement would be defeated by the US Senate.", "In 2001, GCC's executive director compared the Kyoto Protocol to the ''RMS Titanic''." ], [ "Membership decline", "GCC's challenge to science prompted a backlash from environmental groups.", "Environmentalists described GCC as a \"club for polluters\" and called for members to withdraw their support.", "\"Abandonment of the Global Climate Coalition by leading companies is partly in response to the mounting evidence that the world is indeed getting warmer,\" according to environmentalist Lester R. Brown.", "In 1998, Green Party delegates to the European Parliament introduced an unsuccessful proposal that the World Meteorological Organization name hurricanes after GCC members.", "Defections weakened the coalition.", "In 1996, British Petroleum resigned and later announced support for the Kyoto Protocol and commitment to greenhouse gas emission reductions.", "In 1997, Royal Dutch Shell withdrew after criticism from European environmental groups.", "In 1999, Ford Motor Company was the first US company to withdraw; the ''New York Times'' described the departure as \"the latest sign of divisions within heavy industry over how to respond to global warming.\"", "DuPont left the coalition in 1997 and Shell USA (then known as Shell Oil Company) left in 1998.In 2000, GCC corporate members were the targets of a national student-run university divestiture campaign.", "Between December, 1999 and early March, 2000, Texaco, the Southern Company, General Motors and Daimler-Chrysler withdrew.", "Some former coalition members joined the Business Environmental Leadership Council within the Pew Center on Global Climate Change which represented diverse stakeholders, including business interests, with a commitment to peer-reviewed scientific research and accepted the need for emissions restrictions to address climate change.In 2000, GCC restructured as an association of trade associations; membership was limited to trade associations, and individual corporations were represented through their trade association.", "Brown called the restructuring \"a thinly veiled effort to conceal the real issue – the loss of so many key corporate members.\"" ], [ "Dissolution", "After US President George W. Bush withdrew the US from the Kyoto process in 2001, GCC disbanded.", "Absent the participation of the US, the effectiveness of the Kyoto process was limited.", "GCC said on its website that its mission had been successfully achieved, writing \"At this point, both Congress and the Administration agree that the U.S. should not accept the mandatory cuts in emissions required by the protocol.\"", "Networks of well-funded industry lobbyists and other climate change denial groups continue its work." ], [ "Reception", "In 2015, the Union of Concerned Scientists compared GCC's role in the public policy debate on climate change to the roles in the public policy debate on tobacco safety of the Tobacco Institute, the tobacco industry's lobbyist group, and the Council for Tobacco Research, which promoted misleading science.", "Environmentalist Bill McKibben said that, by promoting doubt about the science, \"throughout the 1990s, even as other nations took action, the fossil fuel industry's Global Climate Coalition managed to make American journalists treat the accelerating warming as a he-said-she-said story.\"", "According to the ''Los Angeles Times'', GCC members integrated projections from climate models into their operational planning while publicly criticising the models.Former Vice President Al Gore described the oil companies' blocking campaign as \"the most serious crime of the post-World War Two era\"." ], [ "Members", "=== Membership notes ===" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* GCC homepage - No longer active as of March 2006; internet archive version" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Gotham City" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Gotham City''' ( ), or simply '''Gotham''', is a fictional city appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics, best known as the home of the superhero, Batman, and his allies and foes.", "Created by writer Bill Finger and artist Bob Kane, the city was first identified as Batman's place of residence in ''Batman'' #4 (December 1940) and has since been the primary setting for stories featuring the character.Gotham City is traditionally depicted as being located in the U.S. state of New Jersey.", "Gotham's look and atmosphere was primarily influenced by New York City.", "Architect Hugh Ferriss’ designs also influenced the look and emotional feel of Gotham City, particularly in its later depictions.", "Bill Finger said that he chose the name \"Gotham\", and not New York, so that all readers in any city could identify with it.Locations used as inspiration or filming locations for Gotham City in the live-action ''Batman'' films and television series have included St. Louis, Chicago, Pittsburgh, Los Angeles, New York City, Newark, London, Glasgow, Hong Kong, Detroit, and Liverpool." ], [ "Origin of name", "In Jim Steranko's ''History of the Comics'', writer Bill Finger, on the naming of the city, said, \"Originally I was going to call Gotham City 'Civic City.'", "Then I tried 'Capital City,' then 'Coast City.'", "Then I flipped through the New York City phone book and spotted the name 'Gotham Jewelers' and said, 'That's it,' Gotham City.", "We didn't call it New York because we wanted anybody in any city to identify with it.", "\"\"Gotham\" has been a nickname for New York City that first became popular in the 19th century; Washington Irving had first attached it to New York in the November 11, 1807, edition of his ''Salmagundi'', a periodical which lampooned New York culture and politics.", "Irving took the name from the village of Gotham, Nottinghamshire, England: a place inhabited, according to folklore, by fools." ], [ "Geography", "===Location in New Jersey===A map showing Gotham City to be located in the U.S. state of New Jersey from ''Amazing World of DC Comics'' #14 (March 1977).", "Art by Dick Dillin.Gotham City, like other cities in the DC Universe, has varied in its portrayals over the decades, but the city's location is traditionally depicted as being in the state of New Jersey.", "In ''Amazing World of DC Comics'' #14 (March 1977), writer Mark Gruenwald discusses the history of the Justice League and indicates that Gotham City is located in New Jersey.In ''The World's Greatest Super Heroes'' (August 13, 1978) comic strip, a map is shown placing Gotham City in New Jersey and Metropolis in Delaware.", "''World's Finest Comics'' #259 (November 1979) also confirms that Gotham is in New Jersey.", "''The New Adventures of Superboy'' #22 (October 1981) and the 1990 ''Atlas of the DC Universe'' both show maps of Gotham City in New Jersey and Metropolis in the state of Delaware.", "''Detective Comics'' #503 (June 1983) includes several references suggesting Gotham City is in New Jersey.", "A location on the Jersey Shore is described as \"20 miles north of Gotham\".", "Within the same issue, Robin and Batgirl drive from a \"secret New Jersey airfield\" to Gotham City and then drive on the \"Hudson County Highway\", a reference to the real-life Hudson County in New Jersey.", "''Batman: Shadow of the Bat'' Annual #1 (June 1993) further establishes that Gotham City is in New Jersey.", "Sal E. Jordan's driver's license in the comic shows his address as \"72 Faxcol Dr Gotham City, NJ 12345\", although the ZIP Code is actually in Schenectady, New York.The 2016 film ''Suicide Squad'' reveals Gotham City to be in the state of New Jersey within the DC Extended Universe.===In relation to Metropolis===Batman overlooks Gotham, his home city.", "Art by Alex Ross.Gotham City is the home of Batman, just as Metropolis is home to Superman, and the two heroes often work together in both cities.", "In comic book depictions, the exact distance between Gotham and Metropolis has varied over the years, with the cities usually being within driving distance of each other.", "The two cities are sometimes portrayed as twin cities on opposite sides of the Delaware Bay, with Gotham in New Jersey and Metropolis in Delaware.", "''The Atlas of the DC Universe'' from the 1990s places Metropolis in Delaware and Gotham City in New Jersey.New York has also garnered the nickname ''Metropolis'' to describe the city in the daytime in popular culture, contrasting with ''Gotham'', sometimes used to describe New York City at night.", "During the Bronze Age of Comic Books, the Metro-Narrows Bridge was depicted as the main route connecting the twin cities of Metropolis and Gotham City.", "It has been described as being the longest suspension bridge in the world.A map appeared in ''The New Adventures of Superboy'' #22 (October 1981), that showed Smallville within driving distance of both Metropolis and Gotham City; Smallville was relocated to Kansas in post-Crisis continuity.", "A map of the United States in ''The Secret Files & Origins Guide to the DC Universe 2000'' #1 (March 2000) depicts Metropolis and Gotham City as being somewhere in the Tri-state Area alongside Blüdhaven.Within the DC Extended Universe, the 2016 film ''Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice'' depicts Gotham City as being located across a bay from Metropolis." ], [ "History", "A Norwegian mercenary, Captain Jon Logerquist, founded Gotham City in 1635 and the British later took it over—a story that parallels the founding of New York by the Dutch (as New Amsterdam) and later takeover by the British.", "During the American Revolutionary War, Gotham City was the site of a major battle (paralleling the real-life Battle of Brooklyn).", "This was detailed in Rick Veitch's ''Swamp Thing'' #85 featuring Tomahawk.", "Rumors held it to be the site of various occult rites.Gotham City in 1881 from ''Batman: Gates of Gotham'' (April 2011).", "Art by Trevor McCarthy.The 2011 comic book series ''Batman: Gates of Gotham'' details a history of Gotham City in which Alan Wayne (Bruce Wayne's ancestor), Theodore Cobblepot (Oswald Cobblepot's ancestor), and Edward Elliot (Thomas Elliot's ancestor), are considered the founding fathers of Gotham.", "In 1881, they constructed three bridges called the Gates of Gotham, each bearing one of their last names.", "Edward Elliot became increasingly jealous of the Wayne family's popularity and wealth during this period, jealousy that would spread to his great-great-grandson, Thomas Elliot or Hush.The occult origins of Gotham are further delved into by Peter Milligan's 1990 story arc \"Dark Knight, Dark City\", which reveals that some of the American Founding Fathers are involved in summoning a bat-demon which becomes trapped beneath old \"Gotham Town\", its dark influence spreading as Gotham City evolves.", "A similar trend is followed in 2005's ''Shadowpact'' #5 by Bill Willingham, which expands upon Gotham's occult heritage by revealing a being who has slept for 40,000 years beneath the land upon which Gotham City was built.", "Strega, the being's servant, says that the \"dark and often cursed character\" of the city was influenced by the being who now uses the name \"Doctor Gotham.", "\"In ''Gotham Underground'' #2 by Frank Tieri, Tobias Whale claims that 19th century Gotham was run by five rival gangs, until the first \"masks\" appeared, eventually forming a gang of their own.", "It is not clear whether these were vigilantes or costumed criminals.Many storylines have added more events to Gotham's history, at the same time greatly affecting the city and its people.", "Perhaps the greatest in effect was a long set of serial storylines, which started with Ra's al Ghul releasing a debilitating virus called the \"Clench\" during the \"Contagion\" storyline.", "As that arc concluded, the city was beginning to recover, only to suffer an earthquake measuring 7.6 on the Richter Scale in the 1998 \"Cataclysm\" storyline.", "This resulted in the federal government cutting Gotham off from the rest of the United States in the 1999 storyline \"No Man's Land\", the city's remaining residents forced to engage in gang warfare, either as active participants or paying for protection from groups ranging from the GCPD to the Penguin, just to stay alive.", "Eventually, Gotham was rebuilt and returned to the U.S. as part of a campaign mounted by Lex Luthor, who used the positive publicity of his role to make a successful bid for the position of President of the United States.Suggestions of other Gotham City histories include a founding date of 1820 seen in a city seal in ''Batman: Return of the Caped Crusaders''." ], [ "Culture", "''Batman'' writer and editor Dennis O'Neil has said that, figuratively, Batman's Gotham City is akin to \"Manhattan below 14th Street at eleven minutes past midnight on the coldest night in November\".", "Batman artist Neal Adams has long believed that Chicago has been the basis for Gotham, stating \"one of the things about Chicago is Chicago has alleys (which are virtually nonexistent in New York).", "Back alleys, that's where Batman fights all the bad guys.\"", "The statement \"Metropolis is New York by day; Gotham City is New York by night\" has been variously attributed to comics creators Frank Miller and John Byrne.Airships are commonly depicted flying over Gotham City.", "Art by Jim Lee.In designing ''Batman: The Animated Series'', creators Bruce Timm and Eric Radomski emulated the Tim Burton films' \"otherworldly timelessness,\" incorporating period features such as black-and-white title cards, police airships (although no such thing existed, Timm has stated that he found it to fit the show's style), and a \"vintage\" color scheme with film noir flourishes.", "Police airships have since been incorporated into Batman comic books and are a recurring element in Gotham City.Concerning the evolution of Gotham throughout the years, former ''Batman'' editor Paul Levitz has stated, \"Each guy adds their own vision.", "That's the fun of comics, rebuilding a city each time\".===Architecture===Art Deco and Art Nouveau buildings, such as Helsinki Central Railway Station, inspired the look of Gotham in the 1989 film ''Batman''.In ''Batman: Gothic'', Gotham Cathedral plays a central role for the story, as it is built by Mr.", "Whisper, the story's antagonist.In a 1992 storyline, a man obsessed with Pinkney's architecture blew up several Gotham buildings in order to reveal the Pinkney structures they had hidden; the editorial purpose behind this was to transform the city depicted in the comics to resemble the designs created by Anton Furst for the 1989 ''Batman'' film.", "''Batman Begins'' features a CGI-augmented version of Chicago while ''The Dark Knight'' more directly features Chicago infrastructure and architecture such as Navy Pier.", "However, ''The Dark Knight Rises'' abandoned Chicago, instead shooting in Pittsburgh, Los Angeles, New York City, Newark, New Jersey, London and Glasgow." ], [ "Notable residents", "Over the years, in various Batman-related titles in the chronological DC Comics continuity, the Caped Crusader enlists the help of numerous characters, the first being his trusty sidekick, Robin.", "Although a singular title, many have donned the mantle of the Boy Wonder over the years.", "The first being Nightwing, then came Red Hood, Red Robin, and finally Batman's son Damian Wayne.", "In addition to the Robins or former Robins, there is also Catwoman, Batgirl, and Huntress.Other DC characters have also been depicted to be living in Gotham, such as mercenary Tommy Monaghan and renowned demonologist Jason Blood.Within modern DC Universe continuity, Batman is not the first hero in Gotham.", "Stories featuring Alan Scott, the Golden Age Green Lantern, set before and during World War II depict Scott living in Gotham, and later depictions show him running his Gotham Broadcasting Corporation.", "Also, the original Golden Age Spectre and his sidekick, Percival Popp, live in Gotham City as does Black Canary, Starman, and the Grey Ghost.DC's 2011 reboot of ''All Star Western'' takes place in an Old West-styled Gotham.", "Jonah Hex and Amadeus Arkham are among this version of Gotham's inhabitants.Apart from Gotham's superhero residents, the residents of the city feature in a back-up series in ''Detective Comics'' called ''Tales of Gotham City'' and in two limited series called ''Gotham Nights''.", "Additionally, the Gotham City Police Department is the focus of the series ''Gotham Central'', as well as the mini-series ''Gordon's Law'', ''Bullock's Law'', and ''Batman: GCPD''.===Mayors===The first Gotham mayor depicted in comics was in ''Detective Comics'' #68 (October 1942).", "Theodore Cobblepot, great grandfather of the Penguin, was mayor in the late 19th century.", "An unnamed mayor ran afoul of the Court of Owls in 1914 and was killed by them.", "Archibald Brewster was mayor during the Great Depression.", "Mayor Thorndike was killed by the Made of Wood killer in 1948.Mayor Aubrey James was a contemporary of Thomas Wayne who was stabbed to death.", "Mayor Jessop was in office shortly after the Wayne murders.", "A man named Falcone was purportedly mayor during the earliest days of Batman's career.", "Shortly after, Mayor Wilson Klass directed the GCPD to turn a blind eye to Batman's activities after Batman saved his daughter.", "Mayor Hill was in office when the Joker debuted, and a man named Gill was mayor early in Batman's career, as was former police commissioner Grogan.", "An unnamed bald mayor was killed by a villain known as Midnight.", "Men named Carfax, Bradley Stokes, Sheppard, Taylor, and Hayes all served as mayor.", "Mayor Charles Chesterfield was killed by a sentient fat-eating blob of grease.Hamilton Hill became mayor through the backing of crime boss Rupert Thorne but was ultimately ousted from office and replaced by George P. Skowcroft.", "An unnamed mayor is killed by Deacon Blackfire's followers and replaced by Donald Webster.", "Mayor Julius Lieberman is killed by a Predator.", "Mayor Goode served briefly before being replaced by an African American man.", "Armand Krol became mayor and died of the Clench virus after leaving office.", "A woman, Marion Grange, became mayor with the backing of Bruce Wayne but was assassinated in Washington, D.C., while trying to secure federal aid for Gotham after an earthquake.", "In the wake of No Man's Land, Daniel Danforth Dickerson III served as mayor only to be killed by a sniper, after which he was replaced by David Hull.", "Seamus McGreevy served as mayor in the midst of a criminal conspiracy known as \"The Body\".", "An unnamed woman was mayor when Batman returned to Gotham a year after the Infinite Crisis.", "Sebastian Hady was a corrupt mayor who was eventually killed by the League of Shadows.", "Councilwoman Muir served as interim mayor when the city was in the grip of a virus that only affected men.", "Michael Akins, former commissioner of police, was appointed mayor, and later replaced by a man named Atkins.", "In the wake of Bane's takeover of the city, a man named Dunch served as mayor, and in the aftermath of the Joker War, anti-vigilante mayoral candidate Christopher Nakano wins election in a landslide." ], [ "In other media", "===Television===In multiple episodes of the 1960s live-action ''Batman'' television series, Batman is seen consulting a transparent lucite map of Gotham, which was actually an inverted map of St. Louis.The live-action TV series ''Gotham'' was filmed in New York City and was an important requirement of the show's creative team.", "According to executive producer Danny Cannon, its atmosphere was inspired by the look of the city itself in the 1970s films of Sidney Lumet and William Friedkin.", "Clues to this include and signs showing phone numbers bearing the area code 212.Donal Logue, who portrayed Harvey Bullock in the series ''Gotham'', described different aspects of that series' design of Gotham City as exhibiting different sensibilities, explaining, \"for me, you can step into things that almost feel like the roaring 20s, and then there's this other really kind of heavy ''Blade Runner'' vibe floating around.", "There are elements of it that are completely contemporary and there are pieces of it that are very old-fashioned...There were a couple of examples of modern technology, but maybe an antiquated version of it, that gave me a little bit of sense that it's certainly not the 50s and the 60s...But it's not high tech and it's not futuristic, by any means.", "\"In the TV series ''Smallville'', Gotham City is mentioned by the character Linda Lake in the episode \"Hydro\", who jokes she can see Gotham from her view.", "In \"Reunion\", one of Oliver Queen's friends mentions having to get back to Gotham.The fifth episode of ''Young Justice'', entitled \"Schooled\", indicates that Gotham is located in Connecticut, near Bridgeport.The 2019 series ''Batwoman'', which is set in Gotham City, was filmed in Chicago.====DC Animated Universe====Gotham City is featured heavily in ''Batman: The Animated Series''.", "When describing Gotham City Paul Dini, a writer and director of the show, stated \"In my mind, it was sort of like what if the 1939 World's Fair had gone on another 60 years or so\".'", "In the episode \"Joker's Favor\", a driver's license lists a Gotham area resident's hometown as \"Gotham Estates, NY\".", "In the episode \"Avatar\", when Bruce Wayne leaves for England, a map shows Gotham City, at the joining of Long Island and the Hudson River.", "The episode \"Fire from Olympus\" shows a character's address in a police file indicating that Gotham City is located in New York state.", "The episode \"The Mechanic\", however, implies that Gotham resides in a state of the same name; a prison workshop is shown stamping license plates that read \"Gotham: The Dark Deco State\" (as a reference to the artistic style of the series).", "The episode \"Harlequinade\" states that Gotham City has a population of approximately 10 million people.", "This figure was also given in the 1960s ''Batman'' TV series episode Egg Grows in Gotham, the thirteenth episode of the second season.", "''Batman Beyond'' (1999–2001) envisions a Gotham City in 2039, referred to as \"Neo-Gotham\".====Arrowverse====Gotham City was first shown in the Arrowverse as part of \"Elseworlds\", a 2018 crossover storyline among the shows, which introduced Batwoman, although it had been referred to several times previously.In ''The Flash'' episode \"Marathon\", a map shows Gotham City in place of Chicago, Illinois.====Theme parks====Themed lands meant to represent Gotham City have been physically constructed in several different theme parks around the world.", "WB Movie World in Germany featured a Gotham City section that housed Batman Adventure – The Ride, and Six Flags Magic Mountain opened a section called the \"Gotham City Backlot\" that featured Batman: The Ride.", "The section featured at Magic Mountain was designed by park designer Kevin Barbee, and alongside the opening of Batman: The Ride coincided with the largest expansion the park had ever undergone in 23 years, with the theming elements primarily having been inspired by the ''Batman'' films directed by Tim Burton.", "Both the ride and the Gotham City Backlot opened on March 26, 1994.The Magic Mountain section closed at the end of the park's 2010 season and was later rethemed and rebranded as the \"DC Universe,\" featuring characters and attractions outside of just Batman.", "It reopened in 2011.Warner Bros. World Abu Dhabi features a section themed after Gotham City, including rides based on Batman, the Riddler and the Scarecrow as well as a walk-through attraction called \"The Joker's Funhouse.\"", "The park and its Gotham City section were designed by Thinkwell Group.", "DC characters as they appear in both the attractions themselves as well as through live performers feature costumes based on The New 52 comic book relaunch from 2011.The Gotham City section neighbors another section themed after Metropolis, home of Superman.===Films=======1989 Batman series====Gotham City's skyline in the 1989 ''Batman'' film''Batman'' (1989) director Tim Burton wanted a timeless alternative to New York and described it as \"hell burst through the pavement and grew\".", "The look of Gotham was overseen by production designer Anton Furst, who won an Oscar for supervising the art department.", "Furst stated ''Batman'' was \"definitely based in many ways on the worst aspects of New York City\" and was inspired by Andreas Feininger's photographs of 1940s New York.", "Furst's draftsman Nigel Phelps created numerous charcoal drawings of the buildings and interior sets for the production.Following the death of Furst, Burton tapped Bo Welch to oversee production design for ''Batman Returns'' (1992).", "Burton wanted Welch to re-imagine Gotham, stating \"''Batman'' didn't feel big to me – it didn't have the power an old American city has\".", "Welch wanted to expand on the same basic concept for the sequel but moved away from European influences to show more American Art Deco/world's fair elements.", "When asked what inspired his interpretation of Gotham, Welch stated \"How can I create a visual expression of corruption and greed?", "That got me thinking about the fascistic architecture employed at world's fairs... That feels corrupt because it's evocative of oppressive bureaucracies and dictatorships...", "So I looked at a lot of Third Reich art and images from world's fairs\".", "To physically make the city seem darker, he designed tall \"oppressively overbuilt\" cityscape that physically blocked out light.When Joel Schumacher took over directing the ''Batman'' film series from Tim Burton, Barbara Ling handled the production design for both of Schumacher's films, ''Batman Forever'' (1995) and 1997's ''Batman & Robin.''", "Ling's vision of Gotham City was a luminous and outlandish evocation of modern Expressionism and Constructivism.", "Its futuristic design, which ''Washington Post'' critic Desson Howe felt evoked the 1982 film ''Blade Runner'', were described by Ling in her book, ''Bigger, Bolder, Brighter: The Production Design of Batman & Robin'' as a cross between 1930s Manhattan and the \"Neo-Tokyo\" of ''Akira''.", "Ling cited \"neon-ridden Tokyo and the Machine Age as her influences, describing her Gotham as \"like a World's Fair on ecstasy.\"", "When Batman is pursuing Two-Face in ''Batman Forever'', the chase ends at Lady Gotham, the fictional equivalent of the Statue of Liberty.", "During Mr.", "Freeze's attempt to freeze Gotham in the film ''Batman & Robin'', the targeting screen for his giant laser locates it somewhere on the New England shoreline, possibly as far north as Maine.", "The soundtrack for ''Batman & Robin'' features a song named after the city and sung by R. Kelly, later included on international editions of his 1998 double album ''R.", "''====The Dark Knight Trilogy====Director Christopher Nolan has stated that Chicago inspired his portrayal of Gotham, and the majority of both ''Batman Begins'' (2005) and ''The Dark Knight'' (2008) were filmed there.", "However, Christopher Nolan's Gotham City was deliberately set in New Jersey to honor Gotham's location in the comic books.In ''Batman Begins'', Nolan desired that Gotham appeared as a large, modern city that nonetheless reflected a variety of architecture styles and periods, as well as different socioeconomic strata.", "The production's approach depicted Gotham as an exaggeration of New York City, with elements taken from Chicago, the elevated freeways and monorails of Tokyo, and the \"walled city of Kalhoon\" in Hong Kong, which was the basis for the slum in the film known as The Narrows.In ''The Dark Knight'', more Chicago and New York influences were observed.", "On filming in Chicago, James McAllister, key location manager stated, \"visually it's that look like you would see in the comic books.\"", "Nolan also stated \"there's all these different boroughs, with rivers to interconnect.", "I think it's hard to get away from that, because Gotham is based on New York.", "\"For ''The Dark Knight Rises'' (2012), the production utilized Pittsburgh, Los Angeles, New York City, Newark, New Jersey, London and Glasgow for shots of Gotham City.====DC Extended Universe====Within the DC Extended Universe, Gotham City is located in Gotham County, New Jersey.", "In ''Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice'', paperwork mentions that the city is in \"Gotham County,\" and Amanda Waller's files on Deadshot and Harley Quinn in ''Suicide Squad'' reveal Gotham City to be located in the state of New Jersey.", "Zack Snyder confirmed that Metropolis and Gotham City are in close geographical proximity to each other.", "The ''Boston Globe'' compared the close proximity of Gotham City and Metropolis to Jersey City and Manhattan.", "A television ad for Turkish Airlines that premiered during the 2016 Super Bowl featured Bruce Wayne (played by Ben Affleck) promoting Gotham as a tourist destination.To create Gotham in ''Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice'', the creative team \"decided to recreate and combine large sections of existing selected city sections and adapt the architecture and layout to fit Gotham's.", "Thousands of photographs were put through MPC's photogrammetry pipeline to create geometry and textures for each city section.", "\"In ''Birds of Prey'', which takes place in Gotham, the entire shoot took place in Los Angeles.", "It was originally expected to be filmed in Atlanta and Savannah, Georgia, but the production received a tax credit from California, incentivizing the location change.====''The Batman''====The 2022 Matt Reeves film ''The Batman'' delves into the criminal underbelly of Gotham City through noir-style storytelling and highlights themes of corruption rampant within the city's government and police department.", "The movie used London, Glasgow, Liverpool, and Chicago as filming locations for Gotham City, although it was modeled on New York City.", "A towering skyscraper similar to the Empire State Building looms over Gotham City with an emblazoned sign that reads \"Gotham Empire\".", "A busy, commercial intersection called \"Gotham Square\" is seen in several shots and resembles Times Square with its bright signs and giant digital screens.", "The film's concluding sequence, while filmed at London's O2 Arena, is called \"Gotham Square Garden\", taking its naming convention from New York's Madison Square Garden.====Joker (2019)====''Joker'' director and producer Todd Phillips imagined Gotham as a \"version of Gotham was the pre-'80s boom New York, or urban northeastern center, but not the iconic New York.\"", "When asked how he re-imagined the city, production designer Mark Friedberg stated \"our version of Gotham was what groomed him.", "It was both an appreciation for how severe things got in the city, but also for the world of possibility that lived in the version of that city.", "\"====Animated films====The Gotham City skyline in ''Batman: Gotham Knight'' (2008)During the events of the direct-to-video film ''Batman & Mr.", "Freeze: SubZero'' (1998), a computer screen displaying Barbara Gordon's personal information refers to her location as \"Gotham City, NY\", and also displays her area code as being 212 – a Manhattan area code.The 2008 direct-to-DVD film ''Batman: Gotham Knight'' shows Gotham as a large city with many skyscrapers and a bustling population.===Video games===Gotham City appears in several video games, including ''Batman Begins'', ''DC Universe Online'', ''Gotham Knights'' and ''Mortal Kombat vs. DC Universe''.", "The city makes another appearance in a video game with ''Injustice: Gods Among Us'', where the player can fight outside or inside of Wayne Manor, on top of a building and in an alley.", "Other games that feature the city include ''Lego Dimensions'' and Rocksteady's ''Arkham'' franchise.Gotham City in ''Batman: Arkham Knight'' (2015)Gotham City appears as a location in the 2017 video game ''Fortnite Battle Royale'' as part of a crossover in commemoration of Batman's 80th anniversary.", "It is the fourth incarnation of the game's iconic Tilted Towers area.", "Players are able to use the Batglider after falling from a great height, as long as they remain in the confines of Gotham City.", "The location was removed on October 13, 2019, during the game's \"The End\" live event, in which it was sucked into a Black Hole along with the rest of the ''Fortnite'' Chapter 1 Island.====Batman: Arkham====''Batman: Arkham Asylum'' (2009) opens with Batman driving Joker from Gotham City to Arkham Asylum.", "Joker also threatens to detonate bombs across Gotham.", "In ''Batman: Arkham City'' (2011), the slums of Old Gotham City (the northern island) were converted into Arkham City.", "Inside the prison walls, this part of Gotham contains various landmarks throughout the story, like Penguin's Iceberg Lounge, the Ace Chemical Plant, the Sionis Steel Mill, the Old Gotham City Police Department building, and the Monarch Theatre with the Wayne murder scene in Crime Alley.", "Most of these locations have major events in the story.", "In ''Batman: Arkham Origins'' (2013), an earlier, younger version of the city can be seen than that of other games in the ''Batman: Arkham'' series.", "In addition to the northern island, this installment in the series lets players explore a new southern island, connected to the former by the Pioneer's Bridge.", "The setting of ''Batman: Arkham Knight'' (2015), Central Gotham City, is five times larger than Old Gotham.", "In the novelization for ''Batman: Arkham Knight'', it is revealed that Crime Alley was later renamed Wayne Way months after the 'death' of Batman." ], [ "References", "===General references===* Brady, Matthew and Williams, Dwight.", "''Daily Planet Guide to Gotham City''.", "Honesdale, Pennsylvania: West End Games under license from DC Comics, 2000.", "* Brown, Eliot.", "\"''Gotham City Skyline''\".", "''Secret Files & Origins Guide to the DC Universe 2000''.", "New York: DC Comics, 2000.", "* Grant, Alan.", "\"''The Last Arkham''\".", "''Batman: Shadow of the Bat'' #1.New York: DC Comics, 1992.", "* Loeb, Jeph.", "''Batman: The Long Halloween''.", "New York: DC Comics, 1997.", "* Miller, Frank.", "''Batman: Year One''.", "New York: DC Comics, 1988.", "* Morrison, Grant.", "''Arkham Asylum''.", "New York: DC Comics, 1990.", "* O'Neil, Dennis.", "\"''Destroyer''\".", "''Batman: Legends of the Dark Knight'' #27.New York: DC Comics, 1992.===Inline citations===" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Charles Goren" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Charles Henry Goren''' (March 4, 1901 – April 3, 1991) was an American bridge player and writer who significantly developed and popularized the game.", "He was the leading American bridge personality in the 1950s and 1960s and widely known as \"Mr. Bridge\"." ], [ "Early years", "Goren was born in what is now Khotyn, Ukraine, then part of the Russian Empire.", "His parents were Jacob and Rebecca Goron.", "His father emigrated in 1903 with the family possibly coming later.", "He earned a law degree at McGill University in Montreal in 1923.While he was attending McGill, a girlfriend (or \"a young hostess\") laughed at his ineptness at the game of bridge, thus motivating him to immerse himself in a study of existing bridge materials.After graduation, he practiced law for 13 years in Philadelphia.", "The growing fame of contract bridge player Ely Culbertson, however, prompted Goren to abandon his original career choice to pursue bridge competitions, where he attracted the attention of Milton Work, an American authority on many card games including contract bridge.", "Work was impressed by Goren's knowledge of the game and hired Goren to help him write his bridge articles and columns.Work was one of many strong bridge players based in Philadelphia around the 1920s.", "By 1928 he had popularized the 4–3–2–1 point count system for evaluating balanced hands (now sometimes called the Work count).", "His chief assistant Olive Peterson and young Goren established a partnership as players.As a player Goren's \"breakthrough\" was the 1937 Board-a-Match Teams championship (now called The Reisinger National Bridge Championship) which he won with three other Philadelphia players: John Crawford, Charles Solomon, and Sally Young.Goren dominated the competitive bridge circuit ultimately becoming world champion at the Bermuda Bowl in 1950 and remained a competitive player until about 1962 after which he focused on writing and teaching bridge." ], [ "Bridge contributions", "After Milton Work died in 1934, Goren began his own bridge writing career and published the first of his many books on playing bridge, ''Winning Bridge Made Easy'', in 1936.Drawing on his experience with Work's system, Goren quickly became popular as an instructor and lecturer.Goren's books have sold millions of copies (especially ''Winning Bridge Made Easy'' and ''Contract Bridge Complete''); by 1958 his daily bridge column was appearing in 194 American newspapers.", "He also had a monthly column in ''McCall's'' and a weekly column in ''Sports Illustrated''.His television program, ''Championship Bridge with Charles Goren'', was broadcast from 1959 to 1964 on the ABC network.", "It featured numerous appearances by top players and segments with celebrity guests such as Chico Marx, Alfred Drake, and Forest Evashevski, among others.Goren's longest partnership was with Helen Sobel, but he also famously partnered actor Omar Sharif.", "Sharif also wrote introductions to or co-authored several of Goren's bridge books, and was also co-author of Goren's newspaper column, eventually taking it over in collaboration with Tannah Hirsch.===Point count system===As he continued writing, Goren began to develop his point count system, based on the Milton Work point count, as an improvement over the existing system of counting \"honor tricks\".", "Goren, with assistance, formulated a method of combining the Work count, which was based entirely on high cards, and various distributional features.", "This may well have improved the bidding of intermediate players and beginners almost immediately.===Four-card suits===Goren also worked to continue the practice of opening four-card suits, with an occasional three-card club suit when the only four-card suit was a weak .", "In this, he was following the practice established by Ely Culbertson in the early 1930s.", "Later on, he continued this practice, resisting the well-known ''five-card majors'' approach that has become a major feature of modern Standard American bidding.Opening a four-card suit can improve the chances of the partnership identifying a four-four trump fit, and the four-card approach is still used by experts today, notably by most Acol players.", "It is claimed that the drawback of the four-card approach is that the Law of Total Tricks is more difficult to apply in cases where it is used.", "However, the five-card majors approach became popular before the Law of Total Tricks was propounded.===Other contributions===In addition to his pioneering work in bringing simple and effective bridge to everyday players, Goren also worked to popularize the Precision bidding method, which is one of many so-called big club or strong club systems (which use an opening bid of one club to indicate a strong hand).Tribune Content Agency distributes the daily column Goren Bridge, written by Bob Jones, using the Goren method." ], [ "Legacy", "Goren died on April 3, 1991, in Encino, California, at the age of 90.He had lived with his nephew Marvin Goren for 19 years.", "While few players \"play Goren\" exactly today, the point-count approach he popularized remains the foundation for most bidding systems.During the month of Goren's death, Truscott followed his obituary with a bridge column entitled, \"Goren leaves behind many fans and a column with an international flavor\".", "His business interests had been \"managed by others\" since his retirement \"a quarter of a century ago\", according to Truscott.", "\"The Goren syndicated column now has an international flavor: It carries the bylines of the movie star Omar Sharif, an Egyptian who lives in Paris, and an entrepreneur, Tannah Hirsch, a South African who came to the United States via Israel.", "\"Goren appeared on the Groucho Marx radio and television game show You Bet Your Life in March 1958.Goren appeared on the television game show What’s My Line in December 1961." ], [ "Bridge accomplishments", "===Honors===* ACBL Hall of Fame, 1964* ACBL Honorary Member of the Year, 1959===Awards===* McKenney Trophy 1937, 1943, 1945, 1947, 1948, 1949, 1950, 1951* Precision Award (Best Article or Series on a System or Convention) 1974===Wins===* Bermuda Bowl (1) 1950* North American Bridge Championships (32)** Vanderbilt (2) 1944, 1945** Asbury Park Trophy (now Spingold) (1) 1937** Spingold (5) 1943, 1947, 1951, 1956, 1960** Chicago (now Reisinger) (8) 1937, 1938, 1939, 1942, 1943, 1950, 1957, 1963** Men's Board-a-Match Teams (1) 1952** Master Mixed Teams (6) 1938, 1941, 1943, 1944, 1948, 1954** Life Master Pairs (2) 1942, 1958** Fall National Open Pairs (1) 1940** Men's Pairs (3) 1938, 1943, 1949** Rockwell Mixed Pairs (1) 1947** Hilliard Mixed Pairs (1) 1943** Master Individual (1) 1945===Runners-up===* Bermuda Bowl (2) 1956, 1957* North American Bridge Championships (21)** Vanderbilt (8) 1934, 1936, 1949, 1950, 1953, 1955, 1959, 1962** Spingold (2) 1939, 1950** Chicago (now Reisinger) (2) 1944, 1951** Men's Board-a-Match Teams (2) 1946, 1955** Master Mixed Teams (4) 1946, 1949, 1950, 1951** Life Master Pairs (1) 1953** Men's Pairs (1) 1935** Hilliard Mixed Pairs (1) 1934" ], [ "Publications", "* ''Winning Bridge Made Easy: a simplified self-teaching method of contract bidding combining all the principles of the new Culbertson system with the principal features of the four aces system'' (Harrisburg, PA: The Telegraph Press, 1936), 92 pp., * ''Better Bridge for Better Players: the play of the cards'', introduction by Ely Culbertson, foreword by George S. Kaufman (Doubleday, Doran, 1942), 538 pp.", "; also known as ''The Standard Book of Play: better bridge for better players'', : The earliest British edition in WorldCat records is ''Better Bridge for Better Players: the standard book of play'', intro.", "Culbertson, fwd.", "Kauffman (London: Walter Edwards, 1947), * ''The Standard Book of Bidding'' (Doubleday, 1944), 299 pp.", "; (Doubleday, 1947), 310 pp.", "* ''Contract Bridge in a Nutshell'' (Doubleday, 1946), 128 pp.", "; at least seven editions to 1986 under the titles ''Contract Bridge in a Nutshell'' CBN, ''New CBN'', ''Goren's New CBN'', or ''Charles Goren's New CBN'' * ''Contract Bridge Made Easy, a self-teacher'' (Doubleday, 1948), 95 pp.", "– \"Replaces the author's Winning bridge made easy, first pub.", "in 1936 and now out of print.\"", "* First London edition published by Eyre & Spottiswoode in 1951.Title has been revised and reprinted numerous times to 1984.", "* .", "First London edition published by Eyre & Spottiswoode in 1959.Title has been reprinted numerous times to 1972.", "* with Jack Olsen: .", "Paperback editions published by Cornerstone Library, NY in 1967 and 1970, pp. 190.", "*100 Challenging Bridge Hands*An Entirely New Bridge Summary*The A.B.C.", "'s of Contract Bridge*Championship Bridge with Charles Goren*Charles H. Goren's Bridge Quiz Book*Contract Bridge Complete*Easy Steps: Eight Steps to Winning Bridge*The Elements of Bridge*The Fundamental of contract Bridge*Goren on Play and Defense: All of Play: The Technique, the Logic, and the Challenge of Master Bridge*Goren Presents the Italian Bridge System*Goren Settles the Bridge Arguments*Goren's Bridge Complete*Goren's Bridge Quizzes*Goren's Hoyle Encyclopedia of Bridge*Goren's New Contract Bridge Complete*Goren's Point Count Bidding Made Easy*Goren's Winning Partnership Bridge*Introduction to Bridge*Introduction to Competitive Bidding* ''Modern Backgammon Complete''*Official Charles Goren Quick Reference to Winning Bridge*Play and Defense*Play As You Learn Bridge*Play Bridge With Goren*Play Winning Bridge With Any Partner: Even a Stranger*Precision Bridge for Everyone*The Precision System of Bidding*Precision System of Contract Bridge Bidding: Charles H. Goren Presents*Sports Illustrated Book of Bridge" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * * King of the Aces ''Time'' magazine (1958)* Profile on bridgehands.com* Turning Tricks: The Rise and Fall of Contract Bridge, by David Owen in ''The New Yorker''* Charles Goren, biography on bridgebum.com* Charles Goren on the television program \"What's My Line?", "\"*" ], [ "Further reading", "* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Galactus" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Galactus''' () is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics.", "Formerly a mortal man, he is a cosmic entity who consumes planets to sustain his life force, and serves a functional role in the upkeep of the primary Marvel continuity.", "He was created by Stan Lee and Jack Kirby and first appeared in ''Fantastic Four'' #48 (March 1966).Lee and Kirby wanted to introduce a character that broke away from the archetype of the standard villain.", "In the character's first appearance, Galactus was depicted as a god-like figure that fed by draining living planets of their energy, and operated without regard to the morality or judgments of mortal beings.Galactus' initial origin was that of a Taa-an space explorer named '''Galan''' who gained cosmic abilities by passing near a star, but writer Mark Gruenwald further developed the character's origins, presenting Taa and Galan as existing in the universe prior to the Big Bang that began the setting of the current primary universe.", "As Galan's universe came to an end, he merged with the \"Sentience of the Universe\" to become Galactus, an entity that wielded such cosmic power as to require devouring entire planets to sustain his existence.", "Additional material written by John Byrne, Jim Starlin, and Louise Simonson explored Galactus' role and purpose in the Marvel Universe, and examined the character's actions through themes of genocide, manifest destiny, ethics, and natural/necessary existence.", "Frequently accompanied by a herald (such as the Silver Surfer), the character has appeared as both antagonist and protagonist in central and supporting roles.", "Since debuting in the Silver Age of Comic Books, Galactus has played a role in over five decades of Marvel continuity.The character has been featured in other Marvel media, such as arcade games, video games, animated television series, and the 2007 film ''Fantastic Four: Rise of the Silver Surfer''.", "In 2009, Galactus ranked 5th on IGN's list of \"Top 100 Comic Book Villains\", which cited the character's \"larger-than-life presence\" as making him one of the more important villains ever created.", "IGN also noted \"Galactus is one of the few villains on our list to really defy the definition of an evil-doer\" as the character is compelled to destroy worlds because of his hunger, rather than out of malicious ends." ], [ "Publication history", "Created by writer-editor Stan Lee and artist-coplotter Jack Kirby, the character debuted in ''The Fantastic Four'' #48 (March 1966, the first of a three-issue story later known as \"The Galactus Trilogy\").===Origin===In 1966, nearly five years after launching Marvel Comics' flagship superhero title, ''Fantastic Four'', creators Stan Lee and Jack Kirby collaborated on an antagonist designed to break the supervillain mold of the tyrant with god-like stature and power.", "As Lee recalled in 1993,Kirby described his biblical inspirations for Galactus and an accompanying character, an angelic herald Lee called the Silver Surfer:Kirby elaborated, \"Galactus in actuality is a sort of god.", "He is beyond reproach, beyond anyone's opinion.", "In a way he is kind of a Zeus, who fathered Hercules.", "He is his own legend, and of course, he and the Silver Surfer are sort of modern legends, and they are designed that way.", "\"Writer Mike Conroy expanded on Lee and Kirby's explanation: \"In five short years from the launch of the ''Fantastic Four'', the Lee/Kirby duo ... had introduced a whole host of alien races or their representatives ... there were the Skrulls, the Watcher and the Stranger, all of whom Lee and Kirby used in the foundations of the universe they were constructing, one where all things were possible but only if they did not flout the 'natural laws' of this cosmology.", "In the nascent Marvel Universe, characters acted consistently, whatever comic they were appearing in.", "Their actions reverberated through every title.", "It was pure soap opera but on a cosmic scale, and Galactus epitomized its epic sweep.", "\"This led to the introduction of Galactus in ''Fantastic Four'' #48–50 (March–May 1966), which fans began calling \"The Galactus Trilogy\".", "Kirby did not intend Galactus to reappear, to preserve the character's awe-inspiring presence.", "Fan popularity, however, prompted Lee to ask Kirby for Galactus' reappearance, and the character became a mainstay of the Marvel Universe.===1960s===To preserve the character's mystique, his next two appearances were nonspeaking cameos in ''Thor'' #134 (November 1966), and ''Daredevil'' #37 (February 1968), respectively.", "Numerous requests from fans prompted the character to be featured heavily in ''Fantastic Four'' #72–77 (March–August 1968).", "After a flashback appearance in ''Silver Surfer'' #1 (August 1968), the character returned to Earth in ''Thor'' #160–162 (January–March 1969).", "Galactus' origin was eventually revealed in ''Thor'' #168–169 (September–October 1969).===1970s and 1980s===The character made appearances in ''Fantastic Four'' #120–123 (March–June 1972) and ''Thor'' #225–228 (July–October 1974).", "These two storylines introduced two new heralds for Galactus.", "Galactus also featured in ''Fantastic Four'' #172–175 (July–October 1976) and 208–213 (July–December 1979).Stan Lee and Jack Kirby reunited for the origin of the Silver Surfer and Galactus in the one-shot graphic novel ''The Silver Surfer: The Ultimate Cosmic Experience!''", "in 1978.This Marvel Fireside Book, published by Simon & Schuster, was an out-of-continuity retelling of the origin story without the Fantastic Four.The full Lee-and-Kirby origin story was reprinted in the one-shot ''Super-Villain Classics'' #1: ''Galactus – The Origin'' (May 1983), inked by Vince Colletta and George Klein, lettered by John Morelli and colored by Andy Yanchus.", "While nearly identical to the previous origin, this story featured supplemental material, edits, and deletions by writer Mark Gruenwald, pencillers John Byrne and Ron Wilson and inker Jack Abel.", "Rather than traveling into a dying star, the character enters the core of the collapsing universe before the Big Bang; the story was later reprinted as ''Origin of Galactus'' #1 (February 1996).The character guest-starred in ''Rom'' #26–27 (January–February 1982).", "Galactus featured in two related storylines in ''Fantastic Four'' #242–244 (May–July 1982) and later #257 (August 1983), in which writer-artist John Byrne introduced the conceit of Galactus feeling remorse for his actions, and the weight of his genocides.", "In the issue, Death assures Galactus of his role and purpose as one of shepherd and weeder in guiding the universe to its proper purpose, and Galactus remains resolute.", "Byrne further elaborated on this concept in ''Fantastic Four'' #262 (January 1984), which sparked controversy.", "At the end of the story, Eternity, an abstract entity in the Marvel Universe, appears to validate the existence of Galactus as necessary for the natural order and essential to prevent an even more catastrophic fate; Howard University professor of literature Marc Singer criticized this, accusing the writer-artist of using the character to \"justify planetary-scale genocide.\"", "Byrne and Stan Lee also collaborated on a one-shot Silver Surfer story (June 1982) in which Galactus returned to Zenn-La after the Surfer's rebellion and drained it of energy after allowing the populace to flee.Writer-penciller John Byrne and inker Terry Austin produced \"The Last Galactus Story\" as a serial in the anthology comic-magazine ''Epic Illustrated'' #26–34 (October 1984 – February 1986).", "Nine of a scheduled 10 installments appeared.", "Each was six pages with the exception of the eighth installment (12 pages).", "The magazine was cancelled with issue #34, leaving the last chapter unpublished and the story unfinished; however, Byrne later published the conclusion on his website.", "Galactus played a pivotal role in the limited series ''Secret Wars'' #1–12 (May 1984 – April 1985), and became a recurring character in ''Silver Surfer'' (vol.", "3) (beginning with issue #1 (July 1987)).Stan Lee and artist John Buscema also produced the 64-page hardcover graphic novel ''Silver Surfer: Judgment Day'' (October 1988), in which Galactus clashes with the demonic entity Mephisto.===1990s===Galactus was featured in the miniseries ''The Infinity Gauntlet'' #1–6 (July –December 1991), ''The Infinity War'' #1–6 (June –November 1992) and ''Cosmic Powers'' #1–6 (March –August 1994).", "The character starred in the six-issue miniseries ''Galactus the Devourer'' (September 1999 –March 2000), written by Louise Simonson and illustrated by John Buscema, which climaxed with Galactus' death.", "Simonson originally conceived that the story arc would occur in ''Silver Surfer'' (vol.", "3), but the title was cancelled due to dwindling sales.", "She proposed a separate limited series, and at the time was initially doubtful that Marvel would approve what she considered a \"radical\" idea concerning \"why the very existence of the universe depends on the health and well-being of Galactus.", "\"===2000s===The consequences of Galactus' death are explored in the issues ''Fantastic Four Annual 2001'' and ''Fantastic Four'' (vol.", "3) #46–49 (October 2001 – January 2002) written by Jeph Loeb and culminate in Galactus' revival, bringing resolution to Simonson's cliffhanger from the ''Devourer'' story arc.", "The character features in the first six issues of the limited series ''Thanos'' (December 2003 – May 2004), written by Jim Starlin.", "Issues #7–12 (June–November 2004), written by Keith Giffen, introduce the Fallen One, who is retroactively presented as Galactus' first herald.Galactus' origin is re-examined in ''Fantastic Four'' #520–523 (October 2004 – April 2005), in which the character is temporarily reverted to his mortal form.", "After appearing in the limited series ''Stormbreaker: The Saga of Beta Ray Bill'' #1–6 (March–August 2005) Galactus was a central character in the \"Annihilation\" storyline, appearing in the limited series ''Annihilation: Silver Surfer'' #1–4 (June–September 2006), ''Annihilation'' #1–6 (October 2006 – March 2007) and the epilogue, ''Annihilation: Heralds of Galactus'' #1–2 (February–April 2007).Galactus was an antagonist in ''Fantastic Four'' #545–546 (June–July 2007), where he tried to devour fellow cosmic function Epoch.", "In ''Nova'' (vol.", "4) #13–15 (May–July 2008), the character had no dialogue.", "Author Andy Lanning said that he and co-writer Dan Abnett were \"treating Galactus like a force of nature; an inevitable, planetary catastrophe that there is no reasoning with, no bargaining with and no escaping.\"", "Galactus also appeared in the limited series ''Beta Ray Bill: Godhunter'' #1–3 (June–August 2009), a sequel to ''Stormbreaker: The Saga of Beta Ray Bill'' #1–6.===2010s===Galactus appears as a supporting character in the one-shot ''Galacta, Daughter of Galactus'' #1 (May 2010).", "Galactus and the Silver Surfer appeared as antagonists in both ''Skaar: Son of Hulk'' #7–12 (March 1, 2009 – August 1, 2009) and ''Son of Hulk'' #13–17 (September 1, 2009 – January 2010), and as protagonists in the miniseries ''The Thanos Imperative'' #1–6 (June–November 2010).", "Galactus was a member of the God Squad in the miniseries ''Chaos War'' #2–5 (December 2010 – March 2011).", "After an appearance in ''Fantastic Four'' #583–587 (November 2010 – March 2011), the character returned to Earth in ''Silver Surfer'' (vol.", "6) #1–5 (January–May 2011) and was the antagonist in ''The Mighty Thor'' #1–6 (April–September 2011).", "Galactus played a supporting role in the storyline \"Forever\" featured in ''Fantastic Four'' #600–604 (November 2011 – March 2012) and ''FF'' #16 (March 2012) by Johnathan Hickman, where Hickman introduced the concept of a shared destiny between Galactus and Franklin Richards.", "Writer Mark Waid would subsequently develop this concept further (see below).The character played a central role as antagonist in ''Hunger'' #1–4 (2013), in which the mainstream Galactus of the primary Marvel continuity merges with his counterpart from the Ultimate Marvel publication imprint, Gah Lak Tus.", "Writer Joshua Hale Fialkov commented that his intent was to use Galactus as a means to place the characters from the Ultimate Marvel imprint into a completely unexpected crisis: \"What I hope comes across is the sense of wonder that's being brought into the Ultimate Universe...with the smart, modern tone Brian has established.", "\"Following his appearance in ''Hunger'', Galactus was a major supporting character in ''The Ultimates'' (vol.", "3) #1–6 (January–June 2016), where writer Al Ewing fundamentally changed the nature of Galactus' character.", "During the events of the story, Galactus is transformed into \"the Lifebringer\", a being who is compelled to infuse dead planets with life-sustaining energies, thus altering the character's primary motive for the first time since Galactus' debut in 1966.Elaborating on what inspired the change, Ewing explained \"What inspired it—a mixture of wanting someone big on or allied with the team—originally, we thought about Odin, but he's a bit busy—and my usual preoccupations with atonement, redemption, growth and change.", "So what can Galactus do now?", "Well, whereas before he was taking in vast amounts of energy, now he's putting out vast amounts of energy—pure life energy.", "He always said he was going to give back more than he took out of the universe—now he's making good on that, one dead world at a time.\"", "The themes of redemption and change were received well by columnist Mark Peters, who described Ewing's work on ''Ultimates'' as \"one of the best Galactus stories ever.", "\"Galactus featured prominently in a direct sequel series to ''The Ultimates'' (vol.", "3) #1–6 titled ''The Ultimates 2'' (vol.", "2) #1–10 (November 2016 – August 2017) which focused on the Lifebringer Galactus as the de facto leader of the Ultimates.", "Galactus in his Lifebringer persona made his final appearance in ''Moon Girl and Devil Dinosaur'' #26–30 (December 2017 – April 2018) before being reverted back to his \"Devourer of Worlds\" persona by writer Gerry Dugan in ''Infinity Countdown'' #4 (June 2018).Set at the end of the primary Marvel continuity, the miniseries ''History of the Marvel Universe'' #1–6 (July 2019 – December 2019) by Mark Waid depicted Galactus as the in-story narrator.", "The story features Galactus recounting all the major events that have occurred in Marvel continuity to Franklin Richards as the universe experiences its final moments.", "Confirming the series as occurring within the primary Marvel continuity, Waid elaborated that \"there is a framing device, yes.", "We wanted it to be a story, not just a long Wikipedia entry.", "As established in Jonathan Hickman's ''Fantastic Four'' run, there comes a point when Galactus and Franklin Richards stand together at the end of time, and now we get to see exactly what they were doing there.", "\"===2020s===Galactus was killed by Thor during the \"Herald of Thunder\" story arc in ''Thor'' (vol.", "6) #1–6 (March–August 2020), and reappeared after a two-year hiatus in ''Fantastic Four'' (vol.", "6) #45 (July 2022)—the final issue of the event \"Reckoning War\"—where Galactus is resurrected by his former heralds." ], [ "Fictional character biography", "Cosmic egg, which will eventually produce Galactus.", "''Super-Villain Classics'' #1: ''Galactus – The Origin'' (May 1983),art by Jack Kirby and John ByrneGalactus was originally the Taa-an explorer Galan of the planet Taa, which existed in the sixth incarnation of the prime pre-Big Bang universe.", "When an unknown cosmic cataclysm gradually kills all other life in his universe, Galan and other survivors leave Taa on a spacecraft and are engulfed in the Big Crunch.", "Galan, however, does not die: after bonding with the Sentience of the Universe, he changes and gestates for billions of years in an egg made of the debris of his ship that the current universe formed after the Big Bang.", "He emerges as Galactus, and though an unnamed Watcher observed Galactus' birth and recognizes his destructive nature, the Watcher chooses not to kill Galactus.", "Starving for sustenance, Galactus consumes the nearby planet of Archeopia—the first of many planets he would destroy to maintain his existence.", "Subsequently, in memory of his dead homeworld of Taa and the first planet (Archeopia) to fall prey to his hunger, Galactus constructs a new \"homeworld\": the Möbius strip-shaped space station called Taa II.Galactus becomes involved in a civil war among the \"Proemial Gods\", who had come into being during the universe's infancy.", "When a faction of the gods led by Diableri of Chaos attempts to remake the universe in their own image, Galactus kills Diableri and imprisons three others (Antiphon, Tenebrous, and Aegis) in the prison called the Kyln.Galactus then creates the being Tyrant out of a desire for companionship, but the two ultimately engage in a major conflict.", "Galactus decides to empower his first herald—the Fallen One—who ultimately rebels against his master.", "When approaching the planet of Zenn-La, Galactus accepts the offer of Norrin Radd to become his herald, the Silver Surfer, in exchange for sparing his world.", "Eventually locating Earth, Galactus is driven off by the Fantastic Four, Uatu the Watcher, and the rebellious Silver Surfer after the Human Torch—with the Watcher's assistance—retrieves the Ultimate Nullifier from Taa II.", "Although Galactus leaves Earth, vowing that he will never try to consume it again, he banishes the Surfer to Earth for betraying him.", "Galactus later returns for his former herald, but the Surfer is unrepentant and chooses to remain on Earth.", "Thor learns of Galactus' origin when the entity comes into conflict with Ego the Living Planet.Returning to Earth, Galactus unsuccessfully tries to re-enlist the Silver Surfer.", "After the Fantastic Four and the Surfer defeat Galactus' new herald, the Air-Walker, Mr.", "Fantastic reprograms Galactus' ship to travel to the Negative Zone, which contains many uninhabited worlds that could potentially be consumed.", "Thor and Olympian ally Hercules encounter Galactus when his next herald, Firelord, travels to Earth to be free of his master.", "Galactus frees Firelord when Thor presents Galactus with the magical Asgardian suit of armor named the Destroyer to animate and use as a herald.Galactus comes into conflict with the High Evolutionary when attempting to devour Counter-Earth, but he is temporarily transformed into harmless energy after attempting to devour the planet Poppup, the homeworld of the Impossible Man.", "After returning to normal form, Galactus is sought by the Fantastic Four to help stop a new cosmic threat, the Sphinx.", "Mr.", "Fantastic offers to release Galactus from his vow to not devour Earth if he helps defeat the Sphinx.", "Galactus agrees, if the Fantastic Four first recruit a being called Tyros as a new herald.", "The quartet succeed, and the newly empowered and renamed Terrax the Tamer leads his master to Earth.", "Galactus locates and defeats the Sphinx in Egypt, but is confronted by Mr.", "Fantastic, who, unbeknownst to Galactus, wields a fake Ultimate Nullifier.", "Unable to read Richards' mind (which is protected by the Watcher), Galactus retreats.Galactus empowers and uses the superheroine Dazzler to locate a missing Terrax, who is in fact hiding from his master inside a black hole.", "The Dazzler defeats and retrieves Terrax, and forces Galactus to return her to Earth.", "Galactus is fooled by the Galadorian Spaceknight Rom into trying to devour the Black Nebula, the homeworld of the Dire Wraiths, but he is repelled by the Wraiths' Dark Sun.", "A weakened Galactus pursues the rebellious Terrax to Earth and strips him of his power.", "Near death, Galactus is saved by the Fantastic Four and the Avengers while also acquiring another herald: Nova II, who offers herself as Galactus' herald in exchange for him sparing Earth again.", "Galactus devours the Skrulls' throneworld of Tarnax IV, and discusses his role in the universe with fellow cosmic entity Death.", "Mr.", "Fantastic is captured by the Shi'ar for saving Galactus' life, and is tried by all of the aliens who survived the annihilation of their homeworlds by Galactus.", "During the trial, the cosmic entity Eternity — the sentient embodiment of space and reality of the Marvel Universe — intervenes, allowing all beings present to momentarily become one with the universe, allowing them to understand that Galactus is a necessary part of the cosmic order.During the Secret Wars, Galactus attempts to consume Battleworld to force the Beyonder to remove his hunger, but his plan is foiled by Doctor Doom.", "Galactus grants clemency to the Silver Surfer, who aids his former master against the Elders of the Universe and the In-Betweener.", "Galactus also rescues the Surfer and Nova II from Mephisto's realm, and aids the cosmic hierarchy in a war against the mad Eternal Thanos, who wields the Infinity Gauntlet.When Nova II is conscience-stricken at causing the death of billions of aliens, Galactus takes on a new herald, the bloodthirsty Morg the Executioner.", "Tyrant eventually returns and Morg sacrifices himself to stop the former creation of Galactus by using the Ultimate Nullifier.", "Galactus then decides, with help from his new herald Red Shift, to only devour the energy of living beings, which brings him into conflict with alien races and Earth's superheroes.", "During a final confrontation near Chandilar, the throneworld of the Shi'ar, the Silver Surfer turns Galactus' siphoning machines against him.", "A starving Galactus dies and assumes the form of a star.", "The death of Galactus allows the entity Abraxas (a metaphysical embodiment of destruction and the antithesis of Eternity) to emerge from imprisonment.", "The entity wreaks havoc across thousands of alternate universes, killing various incarnations of Galactus before the children of Mr.", "Fantastic — Franklin Richards and Valeria von Doom — exhaust their powers to restore the original Galactus.", "Galactus then provides Mr.", "Fantastic with the Ultimate Nullifier, which he uses to reset reality and prevent Abraxas' initial escape and destruction.Conscience-stricken, Galactus tries to rid himself of his cosmic hunger by feeding on the power from the Infinity Gems, but is tricked into releasing the Hunger, a being which feeds on entire galaxies.", "The Hunger is destroyed when Thanos orchestrates a final battle with Galactus.", "When an alien race develops a technology to make planets invisible to Galactus, he empowers the Human Torch II (who has traded powers with his sister the Invisible Woman and becomes the Invisible Boy as a result of this) and utilizes the hero as an unwilling herald to locate the planets.", "The Fantastic Four and Quasar free the Torch by changing Galactus back into the humanoid Galan, who chooses to exile himself to an energy-rich alternate dimension before he can transform back into Galactus so that he can feed on that reality without endangering planets.Galactus consumes Beta Ray Bill's Korbinite homeworld with the help of his new herald, Stardust.", "After Annihilus declares war on the universe, the entity attacks and destroys the Kyln, freeing former Galactus foes Tenebrous and Aegis.", "Sensing their release, Galactus temporarily releases Stardust from his service and re-employs the Silver Surfer as his herald due to his familiarity with their old foes.", "Tenebrous and Aegis, however, find and defeat the Surfer and Galactus and deliver them to Annihilus.", "Annihilus intends to use Galactus as a weapon to destroy all life in the universe, but is thwarted when the entity is freed by Drax the Destroyer.", "Galactus retaliates and destroys most of Annihilus' forces.", "Seeking a final confrontation with Tenebrous and Aegis, Galactus sends the Silver Surfer to locate them.", "The Surfer eventually draws the pair into the barrier between the universe and the Negative Zone, which destroys both of them.After an encounter with Epoch, Galactus consumes the planet Orbucen.", "When a distraught Beta Ray Bill seeks vengeance for the destruction of the Korbinites' homeworld, Galactus relents and creates a female Korbinite as a companion for Bill.", "Galactus also consumes the planet Sakaar, earning the enmity of the Hulk's alien-born twin sons, Skaar and Hiro-Kala.A \"celestial parasite\" within Galactus is revealed to have spawned a daughter, \"Gali\" a.k.a.", "Galacta, who secretly lives on Earth working as a doctor and superhero while seeking to suppress her ''own'' hunger.", "After attempting to use the Ultimate Nullifier to prevent herself from being driven to consume the planet, Galactus replenishes his daughter with cosmic energy and explains her origins to her, leading Gali to realize that she is pregnant.The Silver Surfer finds the body of a future Galactus underneath New York City, and he summons the present Galactus to Earth.", "Mr.", "Fantastic explains that, in the distant future, the heroes on a dying Earth had killed Galactus and then escaped to the present via time travel.", "When Galactus discovers these heroes now live on a planet called Nu-Earth, he destroys it and its inhabitants in retribution.A tear in the fabric of space caused by the Annihilation Wave and other interstellar conflicts allows the extra-universal forces of the Cancerverse (an alternate universe without death) to invade.", "Galactus, the Celestials and the resurrected Tenebrous and Aegis combat the powerful Cancerverse weapon: the Galactus Engine (constructed from the corpse of the Cancerverse's counterpart to Galactus).", "During the events of the Chaos War, Galactus is teleported to Earth by the Olympian demigod Hercules to help fight the Chaos King, a metaphysical embodiment of Oblivion and another antithesis of Eternity.", "While the Hulk and his allies the God Squad, Alpha Flight, and several members of the Avengers fight Amatsu-Mikaboshi's forces, Amadeus Cho and Galactus develop a machine which will move Earth to a safe location in a sealed-off continuum, only to adapt the plan by trapping Amatsu-Mikaboshi in that dimension instead.After an encounter with the High Evolutionary, Galactus invades Asgard, home of the Norse Gods, seeking an Asgardian artifact to sate his hunger and spare future civilizations.", "Odin, ruler of the Norse Gods, contends that Galactus wishes to ensure that he is not replaced in the next universe.", "To avoid a protracted battle, the Silver Surfer offers to remain on Earth to guard the artifact on the condition that Galactus may have it once Asgard eventually passes.", "Galactus recruits a human preacher from Earth named Pastor Mike (full name unknown) that he names the Praeter to be his new herald.", "Later, when the Mad Celestials from Earth-4280 invade, Galactus destroys one before being struck down by the others.", "Revived by Franklin Richards, he and Franklin succeed in vanquishing the remaining Mad Celestials, and prevent the destruction of Earth.", "In the aftermath, Galactus learns that he will no longer face the eventual end of the universe alone; he and Franklin will witness it together.Galactus is then pulled through a hole in space-time to an alternate universe and meets another version of himself: a space-faring mechanical hive mind called ''Gah Lak Tus''.", "After the two merge with one another, Galactus makes his way towards this universe's Earth in an attempt to consume it.", "The heroes of the alternate Earth travel to Earth-616 to acquire information on Galactus and eventually manage to send Galactus to the Negative Zone, reasoning that he will eventually starve to death, as the region is composed of anti-matter.", "A comatose Galactus is found by the Eternals and Aarkus, who hope to use him in their war against the Kree.Galactus returns to the universe, and after an encounter with Squirrel Girl, is forced into his own incubator by the Ultimates, who are determined to end his threat.", "Galactus re-emerges as a Lifebringer instead of a Devourer of Worlds, his first act as such being to re-create Archeopia, the first planet that he ever consumed.", "Galactus later rescues the team at the behest of Eternity, and learns that the latter has been imprisoned by an unknown force.", "Galactus also comes into conflict with fellow cosmic entities Master Order and Lord Chaos, who, along with the Molecule Man, wish for Galactus to return to his former role as a Devourer of Worlds and thereby restore the cosmic order.", "Galactus locates the hero Anti-Man outside the Multiverse and, after transforming him into a Herald of Life, sends him to recruit the recently disbanded Ultimates to help discover the identity of Eternity's captor, who is later revealed to be the First Firmament, the first iteration of the cosmos.", "Master Order and Lord Chaos bring Galactus to trial before the Living Tribunal, still seeking to restore Galactus to his former state for the sake of the cosmic order.", "Although Galactus successfully argues that the balance of the new Multiverse is different and that his old role is obsolete, the Tribunal is destroyed by a Firmament-influenced Master Order and Lord Chaos.", "After a brief battle, Master Order decides to create a new cosmic order, which it and Lord Chaos would control.", "Their former servant, the In-Betweener, is forcibly merged with them into a new cosmic being called Logos.", "After destroying several Celestials, Logos forcibly transforms Galactus back into the Devourer of Worlds.", "The process is reversed when Anti-Man sacrifices his life to restore Galactus as the Lifebringer.", "Galactus then swears to free the imprisoned Eternity.During the \"Infinity Countdown\" storyline, the Silver Surfer requests Galactus' aid in defeating Ultron/Hank Pym by consuming the planet Saiph, which is overrun by Ultron drones.", "Galactus reluctantly agrees.", "After consuming Saiph, Galactus' hunger returns and the Silver Surfer becomes his herald again as he takes Galactus to find an uninhabited planet.Returning to Earth, Galactus has a confrontation with Doctor Doom and the Fantastic Four, with Doom revealing his plans to harness Galactus' power as an energy source.", "Banished to the mystical realms by an alien sorcerer, Galactus becomes entangled in the schemes of Dormammu and Mephisto.", "Galactus begins to consume mystical energy, eventually absorbing Dormammu and other mystical entities, and in doing so goes insane and destabilizes reality.", "Doctor Strange intervenes and – with the aid of Eternity and the Living Tribunal – is able to undo the damage wrought by Galactus.An injured Galactus crashlands on Asgard, apparently seeking asylum from the cause of his universe's destruction: the Black Winter (Fimbulwinter), a cosmic entity that fulfills a similar purpose to Galactus on a far larger scale — rather than simply devouring planets, it consumes entire universes.", "Galactus reveals to All-Father Thor that he had a vision of Thor being responsible for his death.", "In a bid to destroy the Black Winter, Galactus turns Thor into his Herald of Thunder.", "Thor later learns that the Black Winter considers Galactus to be ''his'' herald.", "This causes an angered Thor to drain Galactus of his energies enough to turn him into a desiccated husk.", "When the Black Winter moves in to claim Galactus' body, Thor uses it as a bomb to decimate the Black Winter." ], [ "Powers and abilities", "The first (and oldest) living entity in the universe, Galactus was created during the union of the Sentience of the (previous) Universe and Galan of Taa, and is described as \"the physical, metamorphosed embodiment of a cosmos.\"", "Although not an abstract, non-corporeal entity, his true form cannot be perceived by most beings; each species sees Galactus in a form they can comprehend, similar to their race or a deity of their religion.", "Galactus can also appear as a humanoid star when addressing fellow members of the cosmic hierarchy.", "Through his actions of consuming planets, Galactus embodies a living force of nature whose existence is necessary to correct the imbalances between the conceptual entities: Eternity and Death, as well as to serve as a cosmic test of survival for civilizations.", "Additionally, the continued existence of Galactus ensures the confinement of the cosmic entity Abraxas.", "As Galactus requires planets with the potential to support life, his existence also causes the extinction of entire extraterrestrial civilizations.The consumption of planets is what maintains Galactus' life and power.", "He usually employs the Elemental Converter, which converts matter into energy more efficiently, even though he is capable of feeding without it.", "Alternatively, Galactus can absorb energy directly from cosmic beings and even mystical entities—though with unpredictable results.", "Processing this cosmic energy allows Galactus to utilize a force known as the '''Power Cosmic''' to perform great feats, which have included universal cosmic awareness, telepathy, telekinesis, energy projection; size alteration; transmutation of matter; teleportation of objects across space, the creation of force fields and interdimensional portals; the creation of life, the resurrection of the dead, manipulating souls, memories and emotions, and mass-scale events such as recreating dead worlds in every detail (including illusions of their entire populations) and destroying multiple solar systems simultaneously.To aid in his search for suitable planets, Galactus frequently appoints an individual as his herald, granting each one in turn a small fraction of the Power Cosmic.", "This power replaces the auras (or souls) of the recipient, with each wielder's physical form adapting to store the energy and in turn allow manipulation for feats such as energy projection.", "Galactus is also capable of removing the Power Cosmic from the herald.", "Galactus has on occasion been severely weakened due to a lack of sustenance, and on one occasion was defeated while in this state by the combined efforts of both the Fantastic Four and the Avengers.", "In this weakened condition, Galactus has also shown susceptibility to Ikonn's spell, which forces him to remember all of the beings that he has killed due to his feeding.Galactus also possesses scientific knowledge that is beyond comprehension as the oldest living entity in the universe.", "He is capable of building massive starships of his own design, humanoid robots called Punishers used to battle foes beneath his attention, the Ultimate Nullifier (a superweapon capable of destroying and remaking the Multiverse), and the solar system-sized and Möbius strip-shaped space station named Taa II.", "Mr.", "Fantastic has speculated that Taa II may be the greatest source of energy in the universe." ], [ "Heralds", "The Silver Surfer is a recurring ally and herald of Galactus, and was the first herald to be introduced into the Marvel Universe.", "Other characters have also filled the role of a herald intermittently.Characters who debuted as heralds or creations of Galactus:* Tyrant (deceased)* the Fallen One (deceased)* the Air-Walker (deceased)* Firelord (released from Galactus' service)* Terrax the Tamer (released from Galactus' service)* Nova II (released from Galactus' service)* Morg the Executioner (released from Galactus' service)* Red Shift (deceased)* Stardust (banished to the far side of the universe)* the Praeter (missing, fate unknown)The following characters have fulfilled the role of a herald for only one storyline:* the Destroyer* Rom the Space Knight* the Dazzler* May Parker (as Golden Oldie)* the Human Torch II (as the Invisible Boy)* the Ultimates** the Anti-Man* Doctor Strange* Thor Odinson* Ka-Zar" ], [ "Other versions", "Numerous versions of Galactus exist in alternate universes:===''The Adventures of the X-Men''===The final issue of ''The Adventures of the X-Men'' reveals that the previous universe from which Galan originates was Earth-92131, which was being destroyed when the Dweller-in-Darkness used the M'Kraan Crystal to feed of the energies of the dying universe.", "Galan's rebirth as Galactus is depicted as being observed by the Living Tribunal and the Brothers from ''DC vs. Marvel''.===Amalgam Comics===In the Amalgam Comics universe that combines Marvel and DC characters, Galactus is combined with DC's Brainiac to create '''Galactiac''', a being that consumes planetary energy but also leaves some of the world intact for his own personal study.===''Bullet Points''===In the five-issue miniseries ''Bullet Points'' (January – May 2007), Galactus arrives on Earth with the Silver Surfer and kills most of Earth's heroes.", "Their sacrifice inspires the Surfer to turn on Galactus, who subsequently flees Earth.===Cancerverse===The limited series ''The Thanos Imperative'' features the huge Galactus Engine.===''Earth X''===In the limited series ''Earth X'', Galactus is one of the three entities in the universe responsible for keeping cosmic entities the Celestials in check.", "By destroying planets (the \"eggs\" of the Celestials), Galactus prevents the beings from overpopulating the universe.", "Franklin Richards eventually adopts Galactus' identity.===''Exiles''===The series ''Exiles'' features a version of Galactus that restores rather than destroys worlds, and empowers the being Sabretooth to defeat a renegade Silver Surfer.===''Guardians of the Galaxy''===In the alternate future of Earth-691, the original Guardians of the Galaxy witness the formation of a symbiotic relationship between Galactus and the former Silver Surfer, now known as the Keeper.", "Having been named a Protector of the Universe by Eon and further empowered with the Quantum Bands, the Keeper possesses sufficient power to constantly supply Galactus with energy, ending his need to consume worlds.===''Heroes Reborn''===''Fantastic Four'' (vol.", "2) features a pocket universe created by Franklin Richards after the events of the ''Onslaught'' saga, and includes a version of Galactus with five heralds, all of whom are worshiped by the Inhumans.===''Mangaverse''===Galactus appears as a gigantic, planet-sized life form—complete with a single massive eye and tentacles—covered with a number of life forms (Galactus spores), which aid its digestion.===''Marvel Adventures Fantastic Four''===''Marvel Adventures''—aimed at a younger audience—concluded its ''Fantastic Four'' imprint with issue #48.Set at the end of time, Galactus summons the present-day Fantastic Four to his side to battle the last surviving villains in the universe.", "The Fantastic Four eventually retreat to Galactus' ship, unable to defeat the villains, only to witness Galactus dismiss them with a gesture.", "The comic ends with the Fantastic Four returning to their present-day, realizing that Galactus had summoned them to the end of time out of loneliness, before he continued on as the only living being towards the next iteration of the universe.===''Marvel Zombies''===The limited series ''Marvel Zombies'' features the Earth-2149 universe, which is infected by a virus changing sentient beings into flesh-eating zombies.", "Galactus' power is absorbed when consumed by the infected Avengers.===MC2===The MC2 title ''Last Planet Standing'' features a future version of Galactus that eventually merges with the Silver Surfer and vows to repair rather than destroy worlds.===Ultimate Marvel===The trilogy introduced the threatening entity '''Gah Lak Tus'''.", "First mentioned by the robot Ultimate Vision and subsequently by the Kree, Gah Lak Tus is a group mind of city-sized robotic drones.", "To prepare for the arrival, the drones send telepathic broadcasts of \"fear\", then use envoys (similar to the Silver Surfer), who introduce a flesh-eating virus into planets.", "Gah Lak Tus is also involved in the \"Chitauri-Kree\" War, and temporarily merged with Galactus after a temporal rift sends the latter to the Ultimate Marvel universe.", "Mahr Vehl stated the Gah Lak Tus swarm was originally built by the ancient Kree eons ago to eliminate all foes and \"purify\" the universe, but subsequently escaped their control and evolved into its current form.===''King Thor''===In the timeline of an aged and future King Thor, Galactus comes to a deserted Earth to finally consume it.", "The entity eventually bonds with All-Black the Necrosword and becomes \"Galactus the World Butcher\", devouring multiple planets.", "Galactus is finally consumed by an All-Black-empowered Ego the Living Planet.===''Galactus: Dawn of the Heralds''===In an alternate universe, to resurrect Galactus, the Silver Surfer used the remnants of Ultron, creating a fusion of Ultron and Galactus.===''Cosmic Ghost Rider''===Galactus of Earth-TRN666 created a new herald—the Cosmic Ghost Rider—in a failed attempt to stop Thanos.===\"What If Uatu The Watcher Had Never Interfered?", "\"===During \"Reckoning War\", as punishment for his interference Uatu is forced by his father, Ikor, to watch the alternate world where he never interfered to warn the Fantastic Four about Galactus' original attack.", "Without Uatu's aid, Galactus' attack leaves the Fantastic Four with various injuries, including Sue being blinded and Johnny's body burning while Reed is damaged by the radiation in Galactus' ship, but Reed is able to analyze the energy Galactus feeds on and create a weapon that assaults Galactus with energy on a frequency opposite to the type of energy that sustains him, killing Galactus and providing that alternate Earth with a new form of energy." ], [ "In other media", "===Television===*Galactus appeared in a self-titled episode of ''Fantastic Four'' (1967), voiced by Ted Cassidy.", "This version sports green skin and armor.", "*Galactus appears in ''Fantastic Four'' (1994), voiced by Tony Jay.", "*Galactus appears in ''Silver Surfer'', voiced by James Blendick.", "Unlike the rest of the characters, he is animated with CGI.", "*Galactus appears in ''The Super Hero Squad Show'', voiced by George Takei.", "*Galactus makes non-speaking appearances in ''The Avengers: Earth's Mightiest Heroes'' episodes \"Prisoner of War\" and \"Avengers Assemble\".", "This version feeds on antimatter in addition to planetary energy, which he achieves by using life-siphoning machines to convert normal matter into antimatter.", "Additionally, he was responsible for the destruction of the Skrull's home planet of Skrullos.", "After attacking Earth, Galactus is ultimately defeated by the Avengers and their allies and sent to the Negative Zone, where he can infinitely consume its energy and no longer be a threat.", "*Imaginary versions of Galactus make non-speaking cameo appearances in ''Ultimate Spider-Man''.", "*Galactus appears in the ''Hulk and the Agents of S.M.A.S.H.''", "episode \"Galactus Goes Green\", voiced by John DiMaggio.", "*Galactus appears in the ''Avengers Assemble'' episode \"Guardians and Space Knights\", voiced again by John DiMaggio.===Film===Galactus as he appears in ''Fantastic Four: Rise of the Silver Surfer'' (2007)A version of Galactus—called \"Gah-Lak-Tus\" in the novelization—appears in ''Fantastic Four: Rise of the Silver Surfer'', as a cosmic hurricane-like cloud.", "Fox apparently wished for the character to remain \"discreet\"—hence the altered appearance.", "Visual effects studio Weta Digital convinced Fox to add hints of the character's comic-book appearance, including a shadow and a fiery mass inside the cosmic cloud resembling Galactus' signature helmet.", "Director Tim Story said he created Galactus as a cosmic cloud so a future ''Silver Surfer'' spin-off film would be unique as the character had yet to appear in comic-book form.", "Film writer J. Michael Straczynski stated \"You don't want to sort of blow out something that big and massive for one quick shot in the first movie.", "\"===Video games===*Galactus appears in ''Silver Surfer''.", "*Galactus appears in ''Fantastic 4—Flame On''.", "*Galactus appears in ''Marvel: Ultimate Alliance'', voiced by Gregg Berger.", "*Galactus appears in the Marvel-level pack for ''LittleBigPlanet''.", "*Galactus appears in ''Spider-Man: Web of Shadows''.", "*Galactus appears in ''Marvel Super Hero Squad''.", "*Galactus appears in ''Marvel Super Hero Squad: The Infinity Gauntlet'', voiced by George Takei.", "*Galactus appears in ''Marvel vs. Capcom 3: Fate of Two Worlds'' and its remake ''Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3'', voiced by Jonathan Adams.", "*Galactus appears in the Fantastic Four pinball table in ''Pinball FX 2''.", "*Galactus appears in ''Lego Marvel Super Heroes'', voiced by John DiMaggio.", "*Galactus appears in ''Marvel Puzzle Quest''.", "*Galactus appears in Season 4 of Chapter 2 of ''Fortnite Battle Royale''." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Galactus at the Unofficial Handbook of Marvel Comics Creators* Galactus at the Marvel Directory* * Galactus at Comic Vine" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Game Boy Color" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Game Boy Color''' (commonly abbreviated as '''GBC''') is an 8-bit handheld game console, manufactured by Nintendo, which was released in Japan on October 21, 1998 and to international markets that November.", "It is the successor to the Game Boy and is part of its product line.", "Critics like IGN consider it more akin to a hardware revision than a next generation product.The handheld features a color screen rather than monochrome, but it is not backlit.", "It is slightly thicker and taller and features a slightly smaller screen than the Game Boy Pocket, its immediate predecessor.", "As with the original Game Boy, it has a custom 8-bit processor made by Sharp that is considered a hybrid between the Intel 8080 and the Zilog Z80.The American English spelling of the system's name, ''Game Boy Color'', remains consistent throughout the world.The GBC is part of the fifth generation of video game consoles.", "The Game Boy and the Game Boy Color combined have sold 118.69 million units worldwide making them the fourth best-selling system of all time.", "Its best-selling games are ''Pokémon Gold'' and ''Silver'', which shipped 23 million units worldwide." ], [ "History", "Development for the Game Boy Color began in 1996, when Nintendo received requests from game developers for a more sophisticated handheld platform, who said that even the latest iteration of the original system, the Game Boy Pocket, had insufficient hardware.", "Nintendo developed the console concurrently with Project Atlantis.", "The resultant product was backward compatible with all existing Game Boy software, a first for a handheld system, allowing each new Game Boy product launch to begin with a significantly larger game library than any of its competitors.Nintendo formally announced the release of the Game Boy Color on 10 March 1998.All remaining new units were sold by March 31, 2003." ], [ "Hardware", "=== Technical specifications ===The technical specifications for the console are as follows:Size Approximately (WxHxD)Weight 138gScreen 2.3 inch reflective thin-film transistor (TFT) color liquid-crystal display (LCD)Display size Framerate 59.727500569606 HzPower Internal: 2× AA batteriesExternal: 3V DC 0.6W (2.35mm × 0.75mm)Red LED indicatorBattery life Up to 10 hours of gameplay.CPU 4.194304/8.388608 MHz (effective speed 1.0485 (speed of original Game Boy) or 2.097 MHz) Sharp Corporation LR35902 (custom hybrid between the Intel 8080 and the Zilog Z80)Memory 32 KB RAM; 16 KB VRAMResolution 160 (w) × 144 (h) pixels (10:9 aspect ratio; same aspect ratio and resolution as the original Game Boy)Color support 32,000 colors, 56 simultaneously.Sound 2 square wave channels, 1 wave channel, 1 noise channel, mono speaker, stereo 3.5mm headphone jackInput Game Paks manufactured by Nintendo have the following specifications:* '''ROM:''' 8 MB maximum* '''Cartridge RAM:''' 128 KB maximumWithout additional mapper hardware, the maximum ROM size is 32 KB (256 kbit).The Game Boy Color motherboardThe processor, which is a hybrid Intel 8080 and Zilog Z80 workalike made by Sharp with a few extra (bit manipulation) instructions, has a clock speed of approximately 8 MHz, twice as fast as that of the original Game Boy.", "The Game Boy Color has three times as much memory as the original (32 KB system RAM, 16 KB video RAM).", "The screen resolution is the same as the original Game Boy at 160×144 pixels.The Game Boy Color features an infrared communications port for wireless linking.", "The feature is only supported in a small number of games, so the infrared port was dropped from the Game Boy Advance line, to be later reintroduced with the Nintendo 3DS, though wireless linking would return in the Nintendo DS line using Wi-Fi.", "The console is capable of displaying up to 56 different colors simultaneously on screen from its palette of 32,768 (8×4 color background palettes, 8x3+transparent sprite palettes), and can add basic four-, seven- or ten-color shading to games that had been developed for the original 4-shades-of-grey Game Boy.", "In the 7-color modes, the sprites and backgrounds are given separate color schemes, and in the 10-color modes the sprites are further split into two differently-colored groups; however, as flat black (or white) was a shared fourth color in all but one (7-color) palette, the overall effect is that of 4, 6, or 8 colors.", "This method of upgrading the color count results in graphic artifacts in certain games; for example, a sprite that is supposed to meld into the background is sometimes colored separately, making it easily noticeable.", "Manipulation of palette registers during display allows for a rarely used high color mode, capable of displaying more than 2,000 colors on the screen simultaneously.=== Color palettes ===+ Alternate color palettes Directional pad Action button None (default) A B Up Brown Red Dark brown Down Pale yellow Orange Yellow Left Blue Dark blue Gray Right Green Dark green ReverseFor dozens of select Game Boy games, the Game Boy Color has an enhanced palette built-in featuring up to 16 colors—four colors for each of the Game Boy's four layers.", "If the system does not have a palette stored for a game, it defaults to the \"Dark green\" palette.", "However, at power-up, one of 12 built-in color palettes is selectable by pressing a directional button and optionally A or B while the Game Boy logo is present on the screen.These palettes each contain up to ten colors.", "In most games, the four shades displayed on the original Game Boy translate to different subsets of this 10-color palette, such as by displaying movable sprites in one subset and backgrounds in another.", "The grayscale (Left + B) palette produces an appearance similar to that experienced on the original Game Boy, Game Boy Pocket, or Game Boy Light.Illustrated color-samples of the palettes for the different key combinations.", "Any color crossed out will be present in palette RAM, but rendered as transparent.Games with special palettes include:* ''Donkey Kong''* ''Golf''* ''Kirby's Dream Land''* ''Kirby's Dream Land 2''* ''Kirby's Pinball Land''* ''Metroid II: Return of Samus''* ''Pokémon Red'' and ''Blue''* ''Pokémon Yellow'' (Japanese version)* ''Super Mario Land''* ''Super Mario Land 2: 6 Golden Coins''* ''Tetris''* ''Wario Land: Super Mario Land 3''+ Game Boy Color color palette reference 0x00 0x10 0x01 0x11 0x02 0x12 0x03 0x13 0x04 0x14 0x05 0x15 0x06 0x16 0x07 0x17 0x08 0x18 0x09 0x19 0x0A 0x1A 0x0B 0x1B 0x0C 0x1C 0x0D 0x1D 0x0E 0x1E 0x0F 0x1FA few games used a scan-line color switch technique to increase the number of colors available on-screen to more than 2,000.This \"Hi-Color mode\" was used by licensed developers including 7th Sense.", "Some examples of games using this technique are ''The Fish Files'', ''The New Addams Family Series'', and ''Alone in the Dark: The New Nightmare''.", "''Cannon Fodder'' uses this technique to render full motion video segments in the introduction sequence, ending, and main menu screen.=== Cartridges ===The clear cartridge for exclusive Game Boy Color gamesThe black cartridge is for Game Boy games that take advantage of the Game Boy Color's increased palette, but not the increased memory or processor speed.", "These games can be played on the original Game Boy in grayscale.Game Boy Color exclusive games are housed in clear-colored Game Pak cartridges.", "They are shaped differently than original Game Boy Game Paks.", "Notably, these cartridges lack a notch that prevented the original Game Paks from being removed while the original Game Boy was powered on due to a plastic piece attached to the power switch, which would slide over the notch, locking a cartridge inside the system during gameplay (although some special cartridges like ''Kirby Tilt 'n' Tumble'' do include this notch).", "The lack of this notch keeps original Game Boy systems loaded with Game Boy Color cartridges from powering on.", "Similarly, Game Boy Pocket, Super Game Boy, Super Game Boy 2, and Game Boy Light will power on when loaded with a Game Boy Color cartridge but will refuse to load the game and will display a warning message stating that a Game Boy Color system is required.", "This same warning message can be viewed on an original Game Boy as well if the piece that slides into the notch is cut out of the Game Boy.", "Some Game Boy cartridges such as ''Chee-Chai Alien'' and ''Pocket Music'' cannot be played on Game Boy Advance and Game Boy Advance SP systems.", "When inserted and powered on, these systems will exhibit a similar error message and will not load the game.", "Black cartridges are backward compatible, playable on the original Game Boy.=== Model colors ===The logo for Game Boy Color spells out the word \"COLOR\" in the five original colors in which the unit was manufactured: Berry (C), Grape (O), Kiwi (L), Dandelion (O), and Teal (R).Another color released at the same time was \"Atomic Purple\", made of a translucent purple plastic similar to the color available for the Nintendo 64 controller.", "Other colors were sold as limited editions or in specific countries." ], [ "Games", "Due to its backward compatibility with Game Boy games, the Game Boy Color's launch period had a large playable library.", "The system amassed a library of 576 Game Boy Color games over a four-year period.", "While the majority of the games are Game Boy Color exclusive, approximately 30% of the games released are compatible with the original Game Boy.", "Most Game Boy Color games released after 1999 are not compatible with the original Game Boy.", "''Tetris'' for the original Game Boy is the best-selling game compatible with Game Boy Color, and ''Pokémon Gold'' and ''Silver'' are the best-selling games developed primarily for it.", "The best-selling Game Boy Color exclusive game is ''Pokémon Crystal''.The last Game Boy Color game ever released is the Japanese exclusive ''Doraemon no Study Boy: Kanji Yomikaki Master'', on July 18, 2003.The last game released in North America is ''Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets'', released on November 15, 2002.In Europe the last game released for the system is ''Hamtaro: Ham-Hams Unite!", "'', on January 10, 2003.Beyond officially released games for the platform, there is an active online community creating new games for the Game Boy and Game Boy Color through the use of tools like GB Studio.", "One such example is Dragonhym (originally Dragonborne) which was available for release on a physical cartridge which will be playable on the Game Boy Color." ], [ "Reception", "=== Sales ===The Game Boy and Game Boy Color were both commercially successful, selling a combined 32.47 million units in Japan, 44.06 million in the Americas, and 42.16 million in other regions.", "At the time of its discontinuation in 2003, the combined sales of the Game Boy were the best-selling game console of all time.", "Surpassed in sales by the Nintendo DS, PlayStation 2 and Nintendo Switch the trio are now the fourth-best-selling console, the third-best-selling console and the second-best-selling handheld of all time.", "Sales of the console were in part driven by the success of ''Pokémon Gold and Silver'' and ''Pokémon Crystal'', with combined sales of 29.5 million units, making them one of the best selling-video games of all time.Sales of the Game Boy Color were strong at launch.", "Nintendo of America reported a sale of one million units from launch to December 1998, and two million by July 1999.Retail chains in the United States reported unexpectedly high demand for the console, with executives of FuncoLand reporting \"very pleasant and unpredicted\" sales and Electronics Boutique stating \"the entire Game Boy Color line just exploded, including accessories\" upon release.", "Faced with high worldwide demand and competitive retail pricing, retailers such as CompUSA sold out of Game Boy Color stock in the weeks before the 1998 Christmas season.=== Critical reception ===Reception of the Game Boy Color was positive, with critics praising the addition of color and improved clarity of the display.", "Affiliated publications such as ''Total Game Boy'' praised the handheld for its \"bright, colorful picture that can be viewed in direct light\", backward compatibility features preserving the \"vast catalogue of original Game Boy games\", and improved technical performance.", "''Computer and Video Games'' praised the Game Boy Color for making the Game Boy library of games \"look better than ever - everything is crystal clear, bright and in colour\".", "Writing for ''GameSpot'', Chris Johnston stated that the display was \"crystal clear\" and free of motion blur, stating that ''Tetris DX'' was the \"killer app\" of the launch titles on the platform.", "Milder reviews included those by ''Arcade'', who conceded that the colors were \"very impressive\" but \"not as eyeball-popping as you might have hoped for ... it's mostly seaweed greens, rusty browns, timid yellows and the like\".", "They concluded that \"nothing about the Game Boy Color is very radical\" but also said the device was \"Game Boy as it always should have been\".=== Legacy ===Commentary on the legacy of the Game Boy Color has been shaped by the perception that the handheld was as an incremental and transitional upgrade of the Game Boy rather than a completely new handheld release.", "In a history of Nintendo, author Jeff Ryan noted the Game Boy Color had a reputation as a \"legacy machine\" that found success mostly due to its backward compatibility, as \"few wanted to lose all the ''Dr.", "Mario'' and ''Pokémon'' cartridges they had amassed over the years.\"", "Quoted in ''Retro Gamer'', Blitz Games Studios developer Bob Pape acknowledged that although \"backwards compatibility more or less defined (the) Game Boy Color\", the handheld \"ticked all the right boxes with regards to size, battery life, reliability and most importantly backwards compatibility\".Positive assessment on the legacy of the Game Boy Color has also focused upon the merits of its game library, particularly for its third-party and import titles.", "Travis Fahs for ''IGN'' noted whilst \"the Game Boy Color's life was relatively brief\", it \"built up a small library of excellent games\", including ''Wario Land 3'' and ''Pokémon Gold and Silver'', and a \"unique\" and \"previously unheard of\" line of successful third-party games, including ''Dragon Warrior Monsters'', ''Metal Gear Solid'' and ''Yu-Gi-Oh!", "Dark Duel Stories''.", "Ashley Day of ''Retro Gamer'' noted that the handheld had an \"overlooked\" status, stating \"the Game Boy Color (has) an unfair reputation as the one Nintendo handheld with few worthwhile titles, but this simply isn't the case...returning to the Game Boy Color now reveals a wealth of great games that you never knew existed, especially those available on import.\"" ], [ "See also", "* List of Game Boy accessories" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Genosha" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Genosha''' ( or ) is a fictional country appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics.", "It is an island nation that exists in Marvel's main shared universe, known as \"Earth 616\" in the Marvel Universe and a prominent place in the X-Men chronology.", "The fictional nation served as an allegory for slavery and later for South African apartheid before becoming a mutant homeland and subsequently a disaster zone.", "The island is located off the Southeastern African coast northwest from Seychelles and northeast of Madagascar.", "Its capital city was Hammer Bay." ], [ "Publication history", "Genosha first appeared in ''The Uncanny X-Men'' #235 (October 1988), and was created by Chris Claremont and Rick Leonardi.Genosha received an entry in ''The Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe Update '89'' #3." ], [ "Fictional country history", "===Mutant apartheid===The island is located off the east coast of Africa, to the north of Madagascar, and boasted a high standard of living, an excellent economy, and freedom from the political and racial turmoil that characterized neighboring nations.", "However, Genosha's prosperity was built upon the enslavement of its mutant population.", "Mutants in Genosha were the property of the state and children who were positively identified with the mutant gene were put through a process developed by David Moreau, commonly known as the Genegineer, stripped of free will and made into \"mutates\" (a Marvel term for genetically modified individuals, as opposed to those who developed mutant powers naturally).", "The Genegineer was also capable of modifying certain mutant abilities in order to fulfill specific labor shortages.", "Citizenship in Genosha is permanent and the government does not recognize any emigration.", "Citizens who attempt to leave the country are tracked down and forcibly brought back to the island by the special force known as Press Gang.", "The Press Gang consisted of Hawkshaw, Pipeline, and Punchout, and were aided in their task by Wipeout.", "Mutant problems are handled by a special group known as the Magistrates.", "The foundations of Genoshan society has been upset in recent years due to the efforts of outside mutant interests.", "In the first storyline to feature the nation, some members of the X-Men (Wolverine, Rogue, and their ally Madelyne Pryor) were kidnapped by Genoshan Magistrates, under the order of the Genegineer.", "Later, in the multi-issue, multi-title ''X-Tinction Agenda'' storyline, the X-Men and their allies rescued their teammates, Storm, Meltdown, Rictor and Wolfsbane, from Genoshan brainwashing, toppling the government after discovering their alliance with former X-Factor ally turned mutant hater, Cameron Hodge, and that Havok was one of the Magistrates since having his memory wiped by the Siege Perilous.", "Havok himself, woken from his conditioning by his brother Cyclops, dealt the killing blow to Cameron Hodge in the process.===Conflict and Magneto's reign===A new Genoshan regime that promised better treatment of mutants was put in place after Hodge's destruction.", "A period of general turmoil and a number of attacks by superhumans, including Magneto's Acolytes who were unwilling to forgive the former Genoshan government for its crimes against mutants, followed.A different version of X-Factor, including Wolfsbane, later returned to the island to help restore peace between its government and a rogue group of super-powered beings that had fled the island.", "The Genoshan government was shown with peaceful intentions, even trying to undo the ill effects visited upon Wolfsbane.", "Genosha was also shown to have typical suburban tract housing, like many small towns in America, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa.After the \"Age of Apocalypse\" story arc, it was revealed and retconned that the mutate process formula was given to the Genegineer by Sugar Man, a refugee of the ''Age of Apocalypse'' timeline.The United Nations ceded the island nation to the powerful mutant Magneto, after he demanded an entire mutants-only nation.", "Magneto and his Acolytes managed to reestablish a modicum of peace and stability only briefly until civil war broke out between him and the remaining human population on the island led by the Magistrates.", "Magneto eventually defeated the Magistrates and restored order to most of the island, with hold-outs briefly remaining at Carrion Cove before being obliterated.The elimination of the Legacy Virus gave Magneto a freshly healthy army, leading him to declare a campaign of global conquest.", "A small team of X-Men stopped this plan, badly injuring Magneto in the process (the original issue presented him as being killed, but this was retconned in the ''New X-Men'' comic book series).Genosha had a population of sixteen million mutants and a stable, advanced society.", "However, the entire island was reduced to rubble and its mutant population was slain by Cassandra Nova's Wild Sentinels.", "There were few survivors, many evacuated, and the Brotherhood of Mutants turned one of the Sentinels into a memorial statue.===Xavier's leadership===Magneto and Xavier have since then joined forces to rebuild the island nation as detailed in the series ''Excalibur'' vol.", "3 (2004).", "This goes badly as foreign military forces have thrown up a cordon around the island; no one is allowed to enter, and those trying to leave are fired upon.A few survivors and newly arriving mutants who wish to help with the rebuilding process remain on the island.", "Members of this volunteer 'army' include Callisto, Freakshow and Wicked.", "More are found in the surrounding countryside, some join with Xavier.", "There is a conflict with Magistrates, the island's former law enforcement.", "Though they are assisted by humanoid creatures they refer to as 'trolls', the Magistrates' forces are driven off.", "Some of the Magistrates are captured and kept in the island's makeshift jail.Some of the captured Magistrates agree to work with Xavier to rebuild the island.", "Throughout the entire series, Unus the Untouchable and his squadron of mutants remain a problem; they do not wish to be part of Xavier's group.===House of M===Later, Magneto learned of his daughter the Scarlet Witch's nervous break-down and her ever-growing powers to alter reality.", "Magneto snatched Wanda from her battle with her fellow Avengers and brought her to Genosha, where he asked Xavier to restore the Scarlet Witch's sanity - but to no avail.", "The telepath couldn't help her and, concerned of the threat to reality that Wanda posed, Xavier consulted the Avengers and the X-Men about what to do with her.", "Their decision was rendered moot, though, as by the time they reached Genosha reality altered around the heroes - changing into the world ruled by the ''House of M''.While conventional reality was eventually restored, it came at a high price, as thousands if not millions of Earth's mutant population lost their powers or died in the process, leaving only a few hundred mutants alive and powered.", "Just like most of his new Genoshan allies and enemies, Magneto was among the depowered people, remaining trapped on the island.===Son of M and the Collective Incident===In the limited series ''Son of M'', there is a battle between some of the remaining mutants and the Inhumans.In ''The New Avengers'' #19-20 it was stated that energy cannot be created nor destroyed, and the same held true for the energies of the numerous depowered mutants.", "Eventually, these energies gathered in the form of an unsuspecting energy-absorbing mutant named Michael Pointer.", "Dubbed \"the Collective\" by the Avengers, against whom he then fought, the Collective traveled to Genosha and reached out to the startled Magneto.", "The Collective, controlled by Xorn, attempted to restore Magneto's powers and convince him to lead the remaining mutants into taking over the planet.", "To the Collective's surprise, Magneto resisted and allowed the Avengers to separate the energy from his body and send it into the sun.", "The comatose Magneto is also taken into S.H.I.E.L.D.", "custody, but the helicopter that was supposed to transport him off Genosha explodes once it lifts off.", "Magneto's body is not found.", "It has since been revealed that he survived the explosion and remained depowered until the High Evolutionary's dangerous experiment returned his magnetic abilities.===Silent War===To date Genosha is now completely dead.", "Already in ruins before, the battle between the Inhumans and the O*N*E further destroyed the once-proud island nation during the Silent War.Since Magneto was the last person on Genosha, it seems that it's now totally uninhabited, which is corroborated by Wiccan and Speed when they began their search for their mother, the Scarlet Witch.", "They encountered Genosha an empty land filled with destroyed towers and empty streets.===Necrosha and beyond===Selene is seen traveling to the ruined island of Genosha with her followers who were resurrected by the Technarch transmode virus.", "Led there by Blink and Caliban, who tells Selene he senses millions of dead mutants.", "They enter the ruins and Selene proclaims Hammer Bay, the devastated capital of the island nation Necrosha, the place where she will become a god.With Eli Bard, Selene resurrects the massacred residents of Genosha, with Cerebro and Bastion's computers detecting the rise of mutant numbers into the millions.", "A problem presents itself in that many of the newly resurrected mutants have been de-powered, despite having been killed ''before'' M-Day.", "Wither and Mortis explain what happened and the Coven begins to set up base at Necrosha.Selene is eventually defeated and killed, thus ending the effect of the corrupted Techno-organic virus in the bodies she revived and returning Genosha to an empty land.", "According to writer Chris Yost, Elixir is still on Necrosha.During a visit to Genosha by the students of Jean Grey's School for Gifted Youngsters' students organized by Beast and Kitty Pryde, Sabretooth and AOA Blob assaulted Kid Gladiator and Kid Omega in order to kidnap Genesis.", "During this time, there were no mentioning of Elixir living here.During the ''AXIS'' storyline, Magneto enters the island of Genosha to find that it had turned into a concentration camp for mutants.", "He frees two mutant girls who tell him that Red Skull is responsible and possesses Professor X's brain.", "Magneto attacks Red Skull, but is quickly stopped by the Skull's S-Men.", "Magneto is captured and telepathically tortured by Red Skull.", "He is given visions of those closest to him suffering while being unable to do anything to stop it.", "After being freed by Scarlet Witch, Rogue, and Havok, he bites down on a vial beneath his skin of Mutant Growth Hormone, giving himself enough power to fight.", "Havok, Rogue, and Scarlet Witch are captured by the Red Skull's S-Men and sent to his concentration camp in Genosha.", "Rogue (who still has Wonder Man inside her) is able to break the group free.", "They discover Magneto has been captured, and free him, as well.", "The three want to leave the island and alert the rest of the Avengers and X-Men of what Red Skull is doing, but Magneto says he's going to stay and fight.", "Before they can do anything, Red Skull appears.", "Magneto, Rogue, and the Scarlet Witch fought Red Onslaught in Genosha and are later joined by the Avengers and the X-Men.", "Iron Man used a telepathic tamperer to stop the Red Skull's influence.", "When more heroes arrived to help, Red Onslaught revealed that he influenced Stark to create a model of Sentinels, based on the knowledge of different super heroes he acquired after the Civil War before erasing the latter's memories of constructing them.", "Red Onslaught then deployed his Stark Sentinels to fight the heroes.===All-New, All-Different Marvel===As part of the ''All-New, All-Different Marvel'', Magneto and his Uncanny X-Men use Genosha as a staging ground for an ambush on the Dark Riders, who have been targeting mutants with healing powers.", "After defeating the Dark Riders, Magneto then ties up the Dark Riders and sets off a bomb that kills them and also levels the entire island.", "It was a sign that Magneto has \"no intention of 'Laying Low'.", "\"===Empyre===During the ''Empyre'' storyline, some of the Cotati used Genosha as a front for their upcoming invasion of Wakanda.", "This was foiled because of the X-Men, Hordeculture, and the Genoshan zombies that are the results of Scarlet Witch trying to revive the mutants that were killed there." ], [ "Other versions", "===Marvel Noir===In the ''Marvel Noir'' reality, there is a prison called Genosha Bay Prison which is somewhat similar to Guantánamo Bay.", "It was originally settled by Quaker missionaries who built a penitentiary so to isolate prisoners from each other so they could contemplate the gravity of their sins.", "By the 1930s, Genosha Bay later became a United States extraterritorial prison which hold prisoners of the worse cases from around the world and was notorious for practicing inhumane punishments on its prisoners ranging from sleep deprivations and water torture.", "Genosha Bay Prison caught the notice of the public and culminating in a Senate Judiciary Meeting on consider closing the prison.", "Even if the prison were to be close down, lawmakers were unwilling to let its more severe criminal sociopaths from allowing into America's prisons.", "In reality, Genosha Bay Prison was used as a proving ground in recruiting the prisoners as a next generation of government operatives.===Ultimate Marvel===In the ''Ultimate Marvel'' reality, Genosha has made an appearances as an island south of Madagascar.", "Its main export seems to be television programs notably \"Hunt for Justice\" under control of Mojo Adams and his crew.", "Mutants were recently reduced to second-class citizens after the murder of a government minister Lord Joseph Scheele by a mutant called Arthur Centino aka Longshot after an affair was revealed between Scheele and his girlfriend Spiral.", "Centino is sentenced by Adams and Major Domo to the neighboring island of Krakoa to battle Arcade, but is saved by the X-Men.", "The island returns in an arc of ''Ultimate Spider-Man'' where the mutant killer Deadpool and his squad is hired by Adams." ], [ "In other media", "===Television===* Genosha appears in ''X-Men: The Animated Series'' as the creation of Bolivar Trask, Cameron Hodge, Henry Peter Gyrich, and a government official known as \"the Leader\", who advertise the island as a mutant paradise so they can capture mutants, outfit them with power-negating collars, and use them as slave labor to build Sentinels.", "Eventually, Cable, the X-Men, Magneto, and his Acolytes free the slaves, who are subsequently relocated to Asteroid M, and destroy the Sentinels.", "* Genosha appears in ''Wolverine and the X-Men''.", "This version of the island is ruled over by Magneto, which he received from Senator Robert Kelly, and is open to all mutants.", "While he promises sanctuary, Magneto secretly and unfairly imprisons dissenters and rule breakers.", "In the three-part series finale \"Foresight\", Magneto tasks Mystique with disguising herself as Kelly and ordering a Sentinel attack on Genosha to instigate a human-mutant war, only to face complications from the Phoenix Force.", "After Emma Frost sends it back into space, Magneto's followers lose faith in him and banish him from Genosha.", "In a possible future depicted in the episode \"Badlands\", Genosha was destroyed by the Phoenix Force, with Polaris as the sole survivor.===Film===* Genosha appears in ''X-Men'' as an uncharted island where Magneto and his Brotherhood have established a base for themselves.", "* Genosha appears in ''Dark Phoenix'' as a mutant refuge run by Magneto, which he received from the U.S. government.===Video games===* Genoshan Sentinel mines appear in ''Spider-Man and the X-Men in Arcade's Revenge'' via Cyclops' levels.", "* Genosha appears in ''X-Men: Mutant Apocalypse'' as a prison run by Apocalypse.", "* Genosha appears as a stage in ''X-Men: Children of the Atom''.", "* Genosha makes a cameo appearance in ''X-Men: Next Dimension''.", "* Genosha appears in ''X-Men Legends II: Rise of Apocalypse'', in which it is devastated by Apocalypse.", "* Genosha appears in ''Deadpool'', in which it was abandoned sometime prior before Mister Sinister took over to use the island as a repository of mutant genetic material for his experiments.===Music===* Genosha serves as the namesake for Genosha Recordings, an experimental hardcore/gabber/darkcore label run by The Outside Agency.", "* A song named after Genosha appears in Judgement Day's album, ''Peacocks/Pink Monsters''.===Miscellaneous===Genosha has been compared to the Confederate States of America in an article by ''The Atlantic''." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Genosha at Marvel.com* Genosha at Marvel Wiki* Genosha at Comic Vine* Genosha at UncannyXmen.net" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Grinnell College" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Grinnell College''' ( ) is a private liberal arts college in Grinnell, Iowa, United States.", "It was founded in 1846 when a group of New England Congregationalists established '''Iowa College'''.", "It has an open curriculum, which means students need not follow a prescribed list of classes.", "The college's 120-acre campus includes several listings on the National Register of Historic Places.", "Grinnell students have been awarded many Fulbright grants." ], [ "History", "Before the June 17, 1882 tornado that destroyed these buildingsIn 1843, eleven Congregational ministers, all of whom trained at Andover Theological Seminary in Massachusetts, set out to proselytize on the frontier.", "Each man pledged to gather a church and together the group or band would seek to establish a college.", "When the group arrived in Iowa later that year, each selected a different town in which to establish a congregation.", "In 1846, they collectively established '''Iowa College''' in Davenport.", "A few months later, Iowa joined the Union.The first 25 years of Grinnell's history saw a change in name and location.", "In Davenport, the college had advocated against slavery and saloons, which led to conflict with the Davenport city council, which retaliated by constructing roads that transected the campus.", "In response, Iowa College moved farther west from Davenport to the town of Grinnell and unofficially adopted the name of its new home, which itself had been named for one of its founders: an abolitionist minister, Josiah Bushnell Grinnell, to whom journalist Horace Greeley supposedly wrote \"Go West, young man, go West.\"", "However, Greeley vehemently denied ever saying this to Grinnell, or to anyone.", "The name of the corporation, \"The Trustees of Iowa College,\" remained, but in 1909 the name \"Grinnell\" was adopted by the trustees for the institution.Josiah Bushnell Grinnell: one of the four founders of Grinnell, Iowa and benefactor of Grinnell College.In its early years, the college experienced setbacks.", "Although two students received Bachelor of Arts degrees in 1854 (the first to be granted by a college west of the Mississippi River), within 10 years the Civil War had claimed most of Grinnell's students and professors.", "In the decade following the war, growth resumed: women were officially admitted as candidates for degrees, and the curriculum was enlarged to include then-new areas of academic studies, such as natural sciences with laboratory work.After the June 17, 1882 tornadoIn 1882, Grinnell College was struck by a tornado—then called a cyclone, after which the college yearbook was named.", "The storm devastated the campus and destroyed both college buildings.", "Rebuilding began immediately, and the determination to expand wasn't limited to architecture: the curriculum was again extended to include departments in political science (one of the first in the United States—the University of Minnesota's department was founded in 1879, three years earlier) and modern languages.Grinnell became known as the center of the Social Gospel reform movement, as Robert Handy writes, \"The movement centered on the campus of Iowa (now Grinnell) College.", "Its leading figures were Professor George D. Herron and President George A.", "Gates\".", "Other firsts pointed to the lighter side of college life: the first intercollegiate football and baseball games west of the Mississippi were played in Grinnell, and the home teams won.As the 20th century began, Grinnell established a Phi Beta Kappa chapter, introduced the departmental \"major\" system of study, began Grinnell-in-China (an educational mission that lasted until the Japanese invasion and resumed in 1987), and built a women's residence hall system that became a national model.", "The social consciousness fostered at Grinnell during these years became evident during Franklin D. Roosevelt's presidency, when Grinnell graduates Harry Hopkins '12, Chester Davis '11, Paul Appleby '13, Hallie Flanagan '11, and Florence Kerr '12 became influential New Deal administrators.", "Concern with social issues, educational innovation, and individual expression continue to shape Grinnell.", "As an example, the school's \"5th year travel-service program,\" preceded the establishment of the Peace Corps by many years.", "Other recent innovations include first-year tutorials, cooperative pre-professional programs, and programs in quantitative studies and the societal impacts of technology.", "Every year, the college awards the $100,000 Grinnell College Innovator for Social Justice Prize, which is split between the recipient and their organization.In 1975, Grinnell College through their Grinnell Communications subsidiary had purchased NBC affiliate WLWD from Avco Broadcasting Corporation for about $13 million.", "The station had changed its call letters to WDTN once the sale closed.", "Shortly after WDTN becoming an ABC affiliate, the station was sold off to Hearst Broadcasting for $45–$48 million.In 2022, Grinnell became the first fully unionized undergraduate school in the U.S., when student workers voted to expand their dining hall workers union to include all student workers.", "The move was supported by the President of the college." ], [ "Campus", "Grinnell College is located in the town of Grinnell, Iowa, about halfway between Des Moines and Iowa City.", "The main campus, which was once a stop on the Underground Railroad, is bounded by 6th Avenue (which is also US Highway 6) on the south, 10th Avenue on the north, East Street on the east and Park Street on the west.", "The campus contains sixty-three buildings ranging in style from Collegiate Gothic to Bauhaus to Tudor to Modernist.", "Goodnow Hall and Mears Cottage (1889) are listed on the National Register of Historic Places.", "Immediately west of the college is the North Grinnell Historic District, which contains over 200 National Register of Historic Places contributing buildings.East Campus dormitories connected by Grinnell's distinctive loggia.The residential part of campus is divided into three sections: North Campus, East Campus, and South Campus.", "North and South Campus' dormitories are modeled explicitly after the residential colleges of Oxford and Cambridge.", "The four East Campus dormitories were designed by William Rawn Associates and feature a modern, LEED-certified design constructed from Iowa limestone.All three campuses feature dormitory buildings connected by loggia, an architectural signature of the college.", "The loggia on South Campus is the only entirely closed loggia, featuring walls on all sides, while the loggias on East and North campus are only partially closed.", "From the time that the first dorm opened in 1915 until the fall of 1968, the nine north campus dorms were used exclusively for male students, and the six south campus dorms reserved for female students.", "The dorm halls house significantly fewer students than halls at other colleges.Most academic buildings are located on the southwestern quarter of campus.", "The athletic facilities are mostly located north of 10th Avenue.Prairie ecosystem of the Conard Environmental Research AreaCarnegie Hall, an academic building used by the humanities and social sciences divisionsThe college maintains a environmental research area called the Conard Environmental Research Area (CERA).", "The U.S. Green Building Council awarded CERA's Environmental Education Center a gold certification.", "The building is the first in Iowa to receive the designation.During the 2000s, the college completed the Charles Benson Bear '39 Recreation and Athletic Center, the Bucksbaum Center for the Arts, the renovation of the Robert Noyce '49 Science Center and the Joe Rosenfield '25 Student Center.", "Internationally renowned architect César Pelli designed the athletics center, the Joe Rosenfield '25 Student Center, and the Bucksbaum Center for the Arts.The college is in period of new construction which is expected to last until 2034." ], [ "Academics", "Grinnell's open curriculum encourages students to take initiative and to assume responsibility for choosing their own courses of study.", "The sole core, or general education, requirement is the completion of the First-Year Tutorial, a one-semester, four-credit special topics seminar that stresses methods of inquiry, critical analysis, and writing skills.", "All other classes are chosen, with the direct guidance of a faculty member in the student's major department, by the student.Grinnell's three most popular majors among 2021 graduates were Computer Science, Biology/Biological Sciences, and Research & Experimental Psychology.===Graduate programs===Although the college does not offer any graduate degrees, it does have dual degree programs with several universities that let Grinnell students move directly into graduate programs.", "Grinnell participates in a 3–2 engineering dual degree program with Columbia University, Washington University in St. Louis, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, and California Institute of Technology.", "It also has a 2–1–1–1 engineering program with Dartmouth College and a Master of Public Health cooperative degree program with University of Iowa.=== Reputation ===Grinnell College has been listed in each edition of Howard & Matthew Greene's guides The Hidden Ivies.John H. T. Main Residence HallThe 2022 annual ranking of ''U.S.", "News & World Report'' rates it tied for the 15th best liberal arts college overall in the U.S., 6th for \"Best Undergraduate Teaching, 8th for \"Best Value\", and tied for 18th for \"Most Innovative\".", "Grinnell is ranked 5th in the 2021 ''Washington Monthly'' rankings for liberal arts colleges, which focus on key outputs such as research, dollar value of scientific grants won, the number of graduates going on to earn Ph.D. degrees, and certain types of public service.", "The college has been consistently ranked in the top 25 liberal arts colleges in the nation since the publication began in 1983.", "''Kiplinger's Personal Finance'' ranked Grinnell 14th in its 2019 ranking of \"best value\" liberal arts colleges in the United States.", "In ''Forbes'' magazine's 2019 rankings of academic institutions, \"America's Top Colleges\" (which uses a non-traditional ranking system based on RateMyProfessors.com evaluations, notable alumni, student debt, percentage of students graduating in four years, and the number of students or faculty receiving prestigious awards), Grinnell College was ranked 80th among all colleges and universities, 34th among liberal arts colleges, and 10th in the Midwest.=== Faculty ===Grinnell had 173 full-time faculty in fall 2020, all of whom possess a doctorate or the terminal degree in their field.===Admission===+ ''Freshman Admission Statistics''   2022202120202019 2018 Applicants11,65810,5878,137 8,004 7,349 Admitted1,0731,1111,566 1,847 1,792 Admit rate9.2%10.5%19.0% 23.1% 24.4% Enrolled441475365 460 463 SAT (Math+Reading)*25th–75th percentile1370-15301370-15301383–1500 1398–1510 1370–1530 ACT range25th–75th percentile30-3430-3430–34 31–34 30–34 * SAT out of 1600''U.S.", "News & World Report'' classifies Grinnell's selectivity as \"most selective.\"", "For Fall 2022, Grinnell received 11,658 freshmen applications; 1,073 were admitted (9.2%).", "In 2021, Grinnell received 10,587 applicants and admitted 10.5% of them.", "During the 2020-2021 application season, Grinnell offered a standardized test-optional application, due to limited testing access caused by the global COVID-19 pandemic.", "The middle 50% range of SAT scores for the enrolled freshmen was 670–750 for critical reading and 683–788 for math, while the ACT Composite range was 30–34.Grinnell College's admission selectivity rating, according to The Princeton Review in 2018, is a 95 out of 99.This rating is determined by several institutionally reported factors, including: the class rank, average standardized test scores, and average high school GPA of entering freshmen; the percentage of students who hail from out-of-state; and the percentage of applicants accepted.=== Graduation rates ===Despite the growing trend of U.S. students taking five or more years to finish an undergraduate degree, Grinnell College is strongly oriented towards students being enrolled full-time in exactly eight consecutive semesters at the college, although exceptions are available for medical issues and other emergencies.", "To avoid being suspended from the college, students must make \"normal progress towards graduation.\"", "This generally means that the student must pass at least 12 credits of classes in each individual semester, with grades C or higher, and have accumulated enough credits to make graduation possible at the end of four years, which requires an average of 15.5 credits each semester.", "A student who is not making normal progress towards graduation is placed on academic probation and may be dismissed from the college.Nationwide, only 20% of college students complete a four-year undergraduate degree within four years, and only 57% of college students graduate within six years.", "However, at Grinnell College, 84% of students graduate within four years.", "This is the highest graduation rate of any college in Iowa.=== Grinnell College National Poll ===The Grinnell College National Poll is recurring and investigates \"the health of American democracy by examining public attitudes on liberty, equality, and institutions of democratic governance.\"" ], [ "Tuition and financial aid", "The sticker price for Grinnell's combined tuition, room, board, and fees for the 2022–2023 academic year is $76,528.Tuition and fees are $61,480 and room and board are $15,048.Many students pay less than this.=== Need-blind admissions and full financial aid ===Grinnell College is one of a few dozen US colleges that maintain need-blind admissions and meets the full demonstrated financial need of all U.S. residents who are admitted to the college.", "Grinnell offers a large amount of need-based and merit-based aid in comparison with peer institutions.", "Currently (2020–21), 86% of students receive some form of financial aid.", "In 2018–2019, 20% of students enrolled at Grinnell College were receiving federal Pell Grants, which are generally reserved for students from low-income families.", "The average financial aid package is over $51,770.Grinnell guarantees a $10,000 Grinnell Choice Scholarship renewable for eight semesters to all U.S. citizens and permanent residents admitted under the Early Decision program.Beginning with the first-year students enrolled in the 2006–2007 school year, Grinnell ended its need-blind admissions policy for international applicants.", "Under the old policy, students from countries outside the U.S. were admitted without any consideration of their ability to afford four years of study at the college.", "However, financial aid offers to these students were limited to half the cost of tuition.", "International students frequently carried very high workloads in an effort to pay the bills, and their academic performance often suffered.", "Under the new \"need-sensitive\" or \"need-aware\" policy, international students whose demonstrated financial needs can be met are given a slight admissions edge over applicants who can't.", "The twin hopes are that the enrolled international students will be able to dedicate more energy to their schoolwork, and also that this will ultimately allow the college to provide higher tuition grants to international students.=== Paid internships ===In addition to financial aid, students receive funding from the college for unpaid or underpaid summer internships and professional development (including international conferences and professional attire)." ], [ "Student body", "In a 2014 study, compared to other US colleges with high four-year graduation rates, the economic diversity of students at Grinnell College was second only to Vassar College, indicating that it is accessible to students from low-income and middle-income families.Grinnell is unusual for a selective school based in a small town for being able to attract a relatively large number of international students and US students of color.", "About a quarter of students are people of color.", "Most students come from outside the Midwestern United States, and less than 10% are from Iowa." ], [ "Athletics", "Grinnell College MacEachron FieldThe school's varsity sports teams are named the '''Pioneers'''.", "They participate in eighteen intercollegiate sports at the NCAA Division III level and in the Midwest Conference.", "In addition, Grinnell has several club sports teams that compete in non-varsity sports such as volleyball, sailing, water polo, ultimate and rugby union.Nearly one-third of recent Grinnell graduates participated in at least one of varsity sports while attending the college and the college has led the Midwest Conference in the total number of Academic All-Conference honorees in last four years (as of 2021).The Grinnell Pioneers won the first game of intercollegiate football west of the Mississippi when they beat the University of Iowa 24–0 on November 16, 1889.The men's water polo team, known as the Wild Turkeys, were runners-up in the 2007 College Water Polo Association (CWPA) Division III Collegiate National Club Championships hosted by Lindenwood University in St. Charles, Missouri.", "They also qualified for the tournament in 2008, 2009, 2011, 2013, and 2014.The Men's Ultimate team, nicknamed the Grinnellephants, qualified in 2008 for its first Division III National Championship in Versailles, Ohio.", "The Women's Ultimate team, nicknamed The Sticky Tongue Frogs, tied for third place in the 2010 Division III National Championship in Appleton, Wisconsin.", "The success was repeated in 2011 when the men's team placed third in 2011 Division III National Championship in Buffalo.In February 2005, Grinnell became the first Division III school featured in a regular season basketball game by the ESPN network family in 30 years when it faced off against the Beloit Buccaneers on ESPN2.Grinnell lost 86–85.Grinnell College's basketball team attracted ESPN due to the team's run and gun style of playing basketball, known in Grinnell simply as \"The System.\"", "Coach Dave Arseneault originated the Grinnell System that incorporates a continual full-court press, a fast-paced offense, an emphasis on offensive rebounding, a barrage of three-point shots and substitutions of five players at a time every 35 to 40 seconds.", "This allows a higher average playing time for more players than the \"starters\" and suits the Division III goals of scholar-athletes.", "\"The System\" has been criticized for not teaching the principles of defense.", "However, under \"The System,\" Grinnell has won three conference championships over the past ten years and have regularly placed in the top half of the conference.", "Coach Arseneault's teams have set numerous NCAA scoring records and several individuals on the Grinnell team have led the nation in scoring or assists.On November 19, 2011, Grinnell player Griffin Lentsch set a new Division III individual scoring record in a game against Principia College.", "The guard scored 89 points, besting the old record of 77, also set by a Pioneers player—Jeff Clement—in 1998.Lentsch made 27 of his 55 shots, including 15 three-pointers as Grinnell won the high-scoring game 145 to 97.On November 20, 2012, Grinnell's Jack Taylor broke Lentsch's scoring record, as well as the records for NCAA and collegiate scoring, in a 179–104 victory over Faith Baptist Bible College.", "Taylor scored 138 points on 108 shots, along with 3 rebounds, 6 turnovers and 3 steals.", "Taylor went 27 for 71 from behind the arc.", "Taylor scored 109 points in a November 2013 game against Crossroads College to become the first player in NCAA history to have two 100-point games.In 2019, the Grinnell women's volleyball team advanced to the NCAA Division III National Tournament for the first time in the 46-year history of the program, defeating St. Norbert College in a five-set thriller during the Midwest Conference Tournament championship match at Cornell College's gymnasium.", "It also marked Grinnell's first-ever MWC Tournament title in volleyball." ], [ "Social activities and organizations", "Gates Tower and Rawson HallStudents at Grinnell adhere to an honor system known as \"self-governance\" wherein they are expected to govern their own choices and behavior with minimal direct intervention by the college administration.", "By cultivating a community based on freedom of choice, self-governance aims to encourage students to become responsible, respectful, and accountable members of the campus, town, and global community.Founded in November 2000, the student-run group Pioneer Capital Investments (PCI), formerly known as Student Endowment Investing Group, actively invests over $100,000 of Grinnell College's endowment capital in public equities.", "The group's mission is to provide interested students with valuable experience for future careers in finance.", "Two environmental organizations on campus produce and sell custom notebooks, using leftover paper from classwork and reused pasteboard from boxes originally holding breakfast cereal or other products.Service organizations are popular.", "The Alternative Break (\"AltBreak\") program takes students to pursue service initiatives during school holidays, and as of 2005, Grinnell had more alumni per capita serving in the Peace Corps than any other college in the nation.", "The college also runs its own post-graduation service program known as Grinnell Corps in Grinnell, China, Namibia, New Orleans, and Thailand, and has previously operated programs in Greece, Lesotho, Macau, and Nepal.Grinnell also has an entirely student-run textbook lending library on campus.", "Aimed at the economically disadvantaged yet open to all, it allows students to check out books for the semester for free, defraying the high cost of college textbooks.", "This particular library has no funding, relying solely on donated books.", "Since its founding in 2005, the collection has grown to thousands of books, thanks to the generosity of the campus community.", "This library has expanded to include caps and gowns, which are lent out to graduating seniors every spring.=== Union of Grinnell Student Dining Workers ===In 2016, students formed the Union of Grinnell Student Dining Workers, or UGSDW, to represent student workers in the college's dining hall.", "It was the first undergraduate student workers union at a private college in the United States.", "After several years of legal maneuvers, the USGDW and the college agreed that the college would be neutral in elections and abide by the results.In April 2022, members of the UGSDW voted 327–6 to expand the union to all hourly paid student workers on campus, which made Grinnell the first and only fully unionized student-worker body in the country.", "In October 2022, the union and the college began the collective bargaining process." ], [ "Notable alumni", "Many Grinnell alumni have won awards and notable achievements.", "More than half get graduate or professional degrees, and the college is among the top 50 for alumni appearing in ''Who's Who''.", "According to Standard & Poor's research, Grinnell graduates are more likely to become CEOs than graduates of many other colleges and universities.Notable alumni have gone into all fields, including research, the arts, business, entertainment, government, sports, and technology, including:* Emily Bergl, 1997, English-American actress and singer, best known for her roles as Tammi Bryant on the TNT drama series ''Southland'' (2009–2013) and Sammi Slott in ''Shameless'' (2014–2015)* Thomas Cech, 1970, co-winner of 1989 Nobel Prize in Chemistry, president of Howard Hughes Medical Institute* Florin Cîțu, 1999, Prime Minister of Romania (2020–2021)* Mary Sue Coleman, 1965, president of the University of Iowa (1995–2002) and the University of Michigan (2002–2014)* Gary Cooper, 1922, Academy Award–winning actor, best known for ''High Noon''* Peter Coyote, 1964, American actor, author, director, screenwriter and narrator of films, theatre, television and audiobooks.", "He is known for his work in various films such as ''E.T.", "the Extra-Terrestrial'' (1982) and ''Erin Brockovich'' (2000).", "* John Garang, 1969, founder of the Sudan People's Liberation Movement and former Vice President of Sudan* Herbie Hancock, 1960, Grammy Award–winning jazz musician and composer* Bernice King (honorary doctor of law recipient and spoke at Grinnell's 2022 commencement), 1985 graduate of Spelman College, American minister, best known as the youngest daughter of slain civil rights leader Martin Luther King Jr. and Coretta Scott King* Paul McCulley, 1979, American economist and former managing director at PIMCO.", "* Kumail Nanjiani, 2001, comedian, actor, screenwriter and podcaster, best known for his role as Dinesh on HBO's comedy series ''Silicon Valley'', and for co-writing and starring in the romantic comedy ''The Big Sick''.", "* Robert Noyce, 1949, co-founder of Intel, co-inventor of the integrated circuit, National Medal of Science recipient* Clair Cameron Patterson, 1943, American geochemist, measurement of age of Earth, campaign against lead poisoning, J. Lawrence Smith Medal, V. M. Goldschmidt Award* Chase Strangio, 2004, lawyer and transgender rights activist with and beyond the American Civil Liberties Union.", "* Henry Travillion Wingate, 1969, United States district judge of the United States District Court for the Southern District of Mississippi." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* *" ] ]
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[ [ "Glendower" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Glendower''' may refer to:*Glendower State Memorial, a historic house in Lebanon, Ohio*Shandon, Ohio, which was originally called Glendower* Glendower, Virginia* Glendower as featured in The Raven Cycle" ], [ "See also", "*Owen Glendower (disambiguation)" ] ]
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[ [ "List of climate change controversies" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''list of climate change controversies''' (or '''list of global warming controversies''') concerns past or present public debates over certain aspects of climate change: whether it is occurring (climate change deniers dispute this), how much has occurred in modern times, what has caused it (attribution of climate change), what its effects will be, whether action should be taken to curb it now or later, and so forth.", "In the scientific literature, there is a very strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases.The controversies are, by now, mostly political rather than scientific: there is a scientific consensus that global warming is happening and is caused by human activity.", "Public debates that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases (climate sensitivity).", "Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature, where such issues are treated as resolved, and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States and Australia than globally." ], [ "Debates around details in the science", "There have been many debates around the details of climate change science.", "Climate change deniers and \"skeptics\" tend to cherry-pick data or studies, and then trump up any scientific discussions or apparent discrepancies that match with their agenda.", "Many of those apparent discrepancies have been reconciled in the meantime, climate models have become more accurate, the scientific consensus on climate change has strengthened and so forth.", "For example, climatologist Kevin E. Trenberth has published widely on the topic of climate variability and has exposed flaws in the publications of other scientists.For past debates and controversies on scientific details see for example:* History of climate change science#Discredited theories and reconciled apparent discrepancies* Climate change denial#Discussing specific aspects of climate change science* Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change#Challenges and controversies (the IPCC assessment reports, like the most recent IPCC Sixth Assessment Report summarise the state of the art of climate science at the time)." ], [ "Debates over most effective response to warming", "There have been debates on the best responses to slow global warming, and their timing.", "The debates are around the specific actions for climate change mitigation and climate change adaptation, or climate action in general.", "See for example:*Economic analysis of climate change*Climate change denial#Delaying climate change mitigation measures*Climate change denial#Over reliance on adaptation only*Climate action" ], [ "See also", "* Attitude polarization* History of climate change policy and politics* Manufactured controversy* Right-wing antiscience* Politicization of science" ], [ "References" ] ]
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[ [ "George Dantzig" ], [ "Introduction", "'''George Bernard Dantzig''' (; November 8, 1914 – May 13, 2005) was an American mathematical scientist who made contributions to industrial engineering, operations research, computer science, economics, and statistics.Dantzig is known for his development of the simplex algorithm, an algorithm for solving linear programming problems, and for his other work with linear programming.", "In statistics, Dantzig solved two open problems in statistical theory, which he had mistaken for homework after arriving late to a lecture by Jerzy Neyman.At his death, Dantzig was the Professor Emeritus of Transportation Sciences and Professor of Operations Research and of Computer Science at Stanford University." ], [ "Early life", "Born in Portland, Oregon, George Bernard Dantzig was named after George Bernard Shaw, the Irish writer.", "He was born to Jewish parents; his father, Tobias Dantzig, was a mathematician and linguist, and his mother, Anja Dantzig (née Ourisson), was a Russian-born linguist of French-Lithuanian origin.", "Dantzig's parents met during their study at the University of Paris, where Tobias studied mathematics under Henri Poincaré, after whom Dantzig's brother was named.", "The Dantzigs emigrated to the United States, where they settled in Portland, Oregon.Early in the 1920s the Dantzig family moved from Baltimore to Washington, D.C. His mother became a linguist at the Library of Congress, and his father became a math tutor at the University of Maryland, College Park." ], [ "Education", "Dantzig attended Powell Junior High School and Central High School.", "By the time he reached high school, he was already fascinated by geometry, and this interest was further nurtured by his father, challenging him with complicated problems, particularly in projective geometry.George Dantzig received his B.S.", "from University of Maryland in 1936 in mathematics and physics.", "He earned his master's degree in mathematics from the University of Michigan in 1937.After working as a junior statistician at the Bureau of Labor Statistics from 1937 to 1939, he enrolled in the doctoral program in mathematics at the University of California, Berkeley, where he studied statistics under Jerzy Neyman.In 1939, a misunderstanding brought about surprising results.", "Near the beginning of a class, Professor Neyman wrote two problems on the blackboard.", "Dantzig arrived late and assumed that they were a homework assignment.", "According to Dantzig, they \"seemed to be a little harder than usual\", but a few days later he handed in completed solutions for both problems, still believing that they were an assignment that was overdue.", "Six weeks later, an excited Neyman eagerly told him that the \"homework\" problems he had solved were two of the most famous unsolved problems in statistics.", "He had prepared one of Dantzig's solutions for publication in a mathematical journal.", "This story began to spread and was used as a motivational lesson demonstrating the power of positive thinking.", "Over time, some facts were altered, but the basic story persisted in the form of an urban legend and as an introductory scene in the movie ''Good Will Hunting''.Dantzig recalled in a 1986 interview in the ''College Mathematics Journal'', \"A year later, when I began to worry about a thesis topic, Neyman just shrugged and told me to wrap the two problems in a binder and he would accept them as my thesis.", "\"Years later, another researcher, Abraham Wald, was preparing to publish a paper where he had arrived at a conclusion for the second problem when he learned of Dantzig's earlier solution.", "When Dantzig suggested publishing jointly, Wald simply added Dantzig's name as co-author." ], [ "Career", "With the outbreak of World War II, Dantzig took a leave of absence from the doctoral program at Berkeley to work as a civilian for the United States Army Air Forces.", "From 1941 to 1946, he became the head of the combat analysis branch of the Headquarters Statistical Control for the Army Air Forces.", "In 1946, he returned to Berkeley to complete the requirements of his program and received his PhD that year.", "Although he had a faculty offer from Berkeley, he returned to the Air Force as mathematical advisor to the comptroller.In 1952, Dantzig joined the mathematics division of the RAND Corporation.", "By 1960, he became a professor in the Department of Industrial Engineering at UC Berkeley, where he founded and directed the Operations Research Center.", "In 1966, he joined the Stanford faculty as Professor of Operations Research and of Computer Science.", "A year later, the Program in Operations Research became a full-fledged department.", "In 1973, he founded the Systems Optimization Laboratory (SOL) there.", "On a sabbatical leave that year, he managed the Methodology Group at the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA) in Laxenburg, Austria.", "Later, he became the C. A. Criley Professor of Transportation Sciences at Stanford University.He was a member of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.", "Dantzig was the recipient of many honors, including the first John von Neumann Theory Prize in 1974, the National Medal of Science in 1975, and an honorary doctorate from the University of Maryland, College Park in 1976.The Mathematical Programming Society honored Dantzig by creating the George B. Dantzig Prize, bestowed every three years since 1982 on one or two people who have made a significant impact in the field of mathematical programming.", "He was elected to the 2002 class of Fellows of the Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences.=== Research ===Freund wrote further that \"through his research in mathematical theory, computation, economic analysis, and applications to industrial problems, Dantzig contributed more than any other researcher to the remarkable development of linear programming\".Dantzig's work allows the airline industry, for example, to schedule crews and make fleet assignments.", "Based on his work, tools are developed \"that shipping companies use to determine how many planes they need and where their delivery trucks should be deployed.", "The oil industry long has used linear programming in refinery planning, as it determines how much of its raw product should become different grades of gasoline and how much should be used for petroleum-based byproducts.", "It is used in manufacturing, revenue management, telecommunications, advertising, architecture, circuit design and countless other areas\".====Linear programming====Linear programming is a mathematical method for determining a way to achieve the best outcome (such as maximum profit or lowest cost) in a given mathematical model for some list of requirements represented as linear relationships.", "Linear programming arose as a mathematical model developed during World War II to plan expenditures and returns in order to reduce costs to the army and increase losses to the enemy.", "It was kept secret until 1947.Postwar, many industries found its use in their daily planning.The founders of this subject are Leonid Kantorovich, a Russian mathematician who developed linear programming problems in 1939, Dantzig, who published the simplex method in 1947, and John von Neumann, who developed the theory of the duality in the same year.Dantzig was asked to work out a method the Air Force could use to improve their planning process.", "This led to his original example of finding the best assignment of 70 people to 70 jobs, showing the usefulness of linear programming.", "The computing power required to test all the permutations to select the best assignment is vast; the number of possible configurations exceeds the number of particles in the universe.", "However, it takes only a moment to find the optimum solution by posing the problem as a linear program and applying the Simplex algorithm.", "The theory behind linear programming drastically reduces the number of possible optimal solutions that must be checked.In 1963, Dantzig's ''Linear Programming and Extensions'' was published by Princeton University Press.", "The book quickly became a standard text in linear programming." ], [ "Personal life", "Dantzig married Anne S. Shmuner in 1936.He died on May 13, 2005, in his home in Stanford, California, of complications from diabetes and cardiovascular disease.", "He was 90 years old." ], [ "Presidential award", "On October 18, 1976 President Gerald Ford presented Dantzig with the President's National Medal of Science.", "The award was given \"For inventing linear programming and discovering methods that led to wide-scale scientific and technical applications to important problems in logistics, scheduling, and network optimization, and to the use of computers in making efficient use of the mathematical theory.\"" ], [ "Publications", "Books by George Dantzig:* 1953.", "''Notes on linear programming''.", "RAND Corporation.", "* 1956.", "''Linear inequalities and related systems''.", "With others.", "Edited by H.W.", "Kuhn and A.W.", "Tucker.", "Princeton University Press.", "* 1963.''", "Linear programming and extensions''.", "Princeton University Press and the RAND Corporation.", "pdf from RAND* 1966.", "''On the continuity of the minimum set of a continuous function''.", "With Jon H. Folkman and Norman Shapiro.", "* 1968.", "''Mathematics of the decision sciences''.", "With Arthur F. Veinott, Jr. Summer Seminar on Applied Mathematics 5th : 1967 : Stanford University.", "American Mathematical Society.", "* 1969.", "''Lectures in differential equations''.", "A. K. Aziz, general editor.", "Contributors: George B. Dantzig and others.", "* 1970.", "''Natural gas transmission system optimization''.", "With others.", "* 1973.", "''Compact city; a plan for a liveable urban environment''.", "With Thomas L.", "Saaty.", "* 1974.", "''Studies in optimization''.", "Edited with B.C.", "Eaves.", "Mathematical Association of America.", "* 1985.", "''Mathematical programming : essays in honor of George B. Dantzig''.", "Edited by R.W.", "Cottle.", "Mathematical Programming Society.", "* 1997.", "''Linear programming 1: Introduction''.", "G.B.D.", "and Mukund N. Thapa.", "Springer-Verlag.", "* 2003.", "''Linear programming 2: Theory and Extensions''.", "G.B.D.", "and Mukund N. Thapa.", "Springer-Verlag.", "* 2003.", "''The Basic George B. Dantzig''.", "Edited by Richard W. Cottle.", "Stanford Business Books, Stanford University Press, Stanford, California.Book chapters:* Articles, a selection:*** *" ], [ "See also", "* Dantzig–Wolfe decomposition* Knapsack problem* Maximum flow problem* Optimization (mathematics)* Travelling salesman problem* Shadow price* List of Jewish American mathematicians" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Further reading", "** \"Professor George Dantzig: Linear Programming Founder Turns 80\" , ''SIAM News'', November 1994* **" ], [ "External links", "* * Tributes to George Dantzig and Leonid Khachiyan* Obituaries of George Dantzig* Interview with George B. Dantzig: The Father of Linear Programming – The College Mathematical Journal, 1986 * INFORMS George Dantzig Memorial Website* * Biography of George Dantzig from the Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences (INFORMS)* An Interview with Nobel Laureate Harry M. Markowitz" ] ]
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[ [ "Geoff Ryman" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Geoffrey Charles Ryman''' (born 1951) is a Canadian writer of science fiction, fantasy, slipstream and historical fiction." ], [ "Biography", "Ryman was born in Canada and moved to the United States at age 11.He earned degrees in History and English at UCLA, then moved to England in 1973, where he has lived most of his life.", "He is gay.In addition to being an author, Ryman started a web design team for the UK government at the Central Office of Information in 1994.He also led the teams that designed the first official British Monarchy and 10 Downing Street websites, and worked on the UK government's flagship website www.direct.gov.uk." ], [ "Works", "Ryman says he knew he was a writer \"before he could talk\", with his first work published in his mother's newspaper column at six years of age.He is best known for his science fiction; however, his first novel was the fantasy ''The Warrior Who Carried Life'', and his revisionist fantasy of ''The Wizard of Oz'', ''Was...'', has been called \"his most accomplished work\".Much of Ryman's work is based on travels to Cambodia.", "The first of these, ''The Unconquered Country'' (1986) was winner of the World Fantasy Award and British Science Fiction Association Award.", "His novel ''The King's Last Song'' (2006) was set both in the Angkor Wat era and the time after Pol Pot and the Khmer Rouge.Ryman has written, directed and performed in several plays based on works by other writers.He was guest of honour at Novacon in 1989 and has twice been a guest speaker at Microcon, in 1994 and in 2004.He was also the guest of honour at the national Swedish science fiction convention Swecon in 2006, at Gaylaxicon 2008, at Wiscon 2009, and at Åcon 2010.An article by Wendy Gay Pearson on Ryman's novel ''The Child Garden'' won the British Science Fiction Foundation's graduate essay award and was published in a special issue of ''Foundation'' on LGBT science fiction edited by Andrew M. Butler in 2002.Ryman's works were also the subject of a special issue of ''Extrapolation'' in 2008, with articles dealing with ''Air, The Child Garden, Lust,'' and ''Was,'' in particular.", "Neil Easterbrook's article in this special issue, \"'Giving An Account of Oneself': Ethics, Alterity, Air\" won the Science Fiction Research Association's 2009 Pioneer Award for best published article on science fiction (this award has since been renamed the SFRA Innovative Research Award).", "The issue includes an interview with Geoff Ryman by Canadian speculative fiction writer Hiromi Goto.", "The introduction to the special issue, by Susan Knabe and Wendy Gay Pearson, also responds to Ryman's call for Mundane science fiction.Mundane science fiction is a subgenre of science fiction focusing on stories set on or near the Earth, with a believable use of technology and science as it exists at the time the story is written.", "The Mundane SF movement was founded in 2002 during the Clarion workshop by Ryman and others.", "In 2008 a Mundane SF issue of ''Interzone'' magazine was published, guest-edited by Ryman, Julian Todd and Trent Walters.Ryman has lectured at the University of Manchester since at least 2007; as of 2022 he is an Honorary Senior Lecturer in Creative Writing for University of Manchester's English Department, where in 2011 he won the Faculty Students' Teaching Award for the School of Arts, History and Culture.As of 2008 he was at work on a new historical novel set in the United States before their Civil War." ], [ "Bibliography", "===Novels===* ''The Unconquered Country'' (1984)* ''The Warrior Who Carried Life'' (1985)* ''The Child Garden'' (1989)* ''Was...'' (1992)* ''253, or Tube Theatre'' (1996 online, 1998 print)* ''Lust'' (2001)* ''Air: Or, Have not Have'' (2005)* ''The King's Last Song'' (2006 UK, 2008 US)===Collections===* ''Unconquered countries: Four novellas'' (1994)* ''Paradise Tales'' (July 2011, Small Beer Press)" ], [ "Awards", ";British Science Fiction Award* ''The Unconquered Country'' for Best Short (1984)* ''Air'' for Best Novel (2005);World Fantasy Award* ''The Unconquered Country'' Best Novella (1985);Arthur C. Clarke Award* ''The Child Garden'' for Best Novel (1990)* ''Air'' (2005);Campbell Award* ''The Child Garden'' for Best Novel (1990); Philip K. Dick Award* ''253: The Print Remix'', 1998; James Tiptree, Jr. Award* ''Air'' (2005); Nebula Award for Best Novelette* ''What We Found'' (2012)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * Author page at Small Beer Press* Comment on the victims of the 7 July 2005 London bombings* Interview with Geoff Ryman conducted by Kit Reed at Infinity Plus, discussing his novel ''Air'' and the Mundane SF movement.", "* Compilation of reviews of Ryman's book ''The King's Last Song''* Biog page at the University of Manchester* Ryman special issue of ''Extrapolation'' at Liverpool University Press" ] ]
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[ [ "Gametophyte" ], [ "Introduction", "Several gametophytes growing in a terrariumPine gametophyte (outside) surrounding the embryo (inside)A '''gametophyte''' () is one of the two alternating multicellular phases in the life cycles of plants and algae.", "It is a haploid multicellular organism that develops from a haploid spore that has one set of chromosomes.", "The gametophyte is the sexual phase in the life cycle of plants and algae.", "It develops sex organs that produce gametes, haploid sex cells that participate in fertilization to form a diploid zygote which has a double set of chromosomes.", "Cell division of the zygote results in a new diploid multicellular organism, the second stage in the life cycle known as the sporophyte.", "The sporophyte can produce haploid spores by meiosis that on germination produce a new generation of gametophytes." ], [ "Algae", "In some multicellular green algae (''Ulva lactuca'' is one example), red algae and brown algae, sporophytes and gametophytes may be externally indistinguishable (isomorphic).", "In ''Ulva'' the gametes are isogamous, all of one size, shape and general morphology." ], [ "Land plants", "In land plants, anisogamy is universal.", "As in animals, female and male gametes are called, respectively, ''eggs'' and ''sperm.''", "In extant land plants, either the sporophyte or the gametophyte may be reduced (heteromorphic).", "No extant gametophytes have stomata, but they have been found on fossil species like the early Devonian ''Aglaophyton'' from the Rhynie chert.", "Other fossil gametophytes found in the Rhynie chert shows they were much more developed than present forms, resembling the sporophyte in having a well-developed conducting strand, a cortex, an epidermis and a cuticle with stomata, but were much smaller.=== Bryophytes ===In bryophytes (mosses, liverworts, and hornworts), the gametophyte is the most visible stage of the life cycle.", "The bryophyte gametophyte is longer lived, nutritionally independent, and the sporophytes are attached to the gametophytes and dependent on them.", "When a moss spore germinates it grows to produce a filament of cells (called the protonema).", "The mature gametophyte of mosses develops into leafy shoots that produce sex organs (gametangia) that produce gametes.", "Eggs develop in archegonia and sperm in antheridia.In some bryophyte groups such as many liverworts of the order Marchantiales, the gametes are produced on specialized structures called gametophores (or gametangiophores).=== Vascular plants ===All vascular plants are sporophyte dominant, and a trend toward smaller and more sporophyte-dependent female gametophytes is evident as land plants evolved reproduction by seeds.Those vascular plants, such as clubmosses and many ferns, that produce only one type of spore are said to be homosporous.", "They have exosporic gametophytes — that is, the gametophyte is free-living and develops outside of the spore wall.", "Exosporic gametophytes can either be bisexual, capable of producing both sperm and eggs in the same thallus (monoicous), or specialized into separate male and female organisms (dioicous).In heterosporous vascular plants (plants that produce both microspores and megaspores), the gametophytes develop endosporically (within the spore wall).", "These gametophytes are dioicous, producing either sperm or eggs but not both.==== Ferns ====In most ferns, for example, in the leptosporangiate fern ''Dryopteris'', the gametophyte is a photosynthetic free living autotrophic organism called a prothallus that produces gametes and maintains the sporophyte during its early multicellular development.", "However, in some groups, notably the clade that includes Ophioglossaceae and Psilotaceae, the gametophytes are subterranean and subsist by forming mycotrophic relationships with fungi.", "Homosporous ferns secrete a chemical called antheridiogen.==== Lycophytes ====Extant lycophytes produce two different types of gametophytes.", "In the homosporous families Lycopodiaceae and Huperziaceae, spores germinate into bisexual free-living, subterranean and mycotrophic gametophytes that derive nutrients from symbiosis with fungi.", "In ''Isoetes'' and ''Selaginella'', which are heterosporous, microspores and megaspores are dispersed from sporangia either passively or by active ejection.", "Microspores produce microgametophytes which produce sperm.", "Megaspores produce reduced megagametophytes inside the spore wall.", "At maturity, the megaspore cracks open at the trilete suture to allow the male gametes to access the egg cells in the archegonia inside.", "The gametophytes of ''Isoetes'' appear to be similar in this respect to those of the extinct Carboniferous arborescent lycophytes ''Lepidodendron'' and ''Lepidostrobus''.==== Seed plants ====The seed plant gametophyte life cycle is even more reduced than in basal taxa (ferns and lycophytes).", "Seed plant gametophytes are not independent organisms and depend upon the dominant sporophyte tissue for nutrients and water.", "With the exception of mature pollen, if the gametophyte tissue is separated from the sporophyte tissue it will not survive.", "Due to this complex relationship and the small size of the gametophyte tissue—in some situations single celled—differentiating with the human eye or even a microscope between seed plant gametophyte tissue and sporophyte tissue can be a challenge.", "While seed plant gametophyte tissue is typically composed of mononucleate haploid cells (1 x n), specific circumstances can occur in which the ploidy does vary widely despite still being considered part of the gametophyte.In gymnosperms, the male gametophytes are produced inside microspores within the microsporangia located inside male cones or microstrobili.", "In each microspore, a single gametophyte is produced, consisting of four haploid cells produced by meiotic division of a diploid microspore mother cell.", "At maturity, each microspore-derived gametophyte becomes a pollen grain.", "During its development, the water and nutrients that the male gametophyte requires are provided by the sporophyte tissue until they are released for pollination.", "The cell number of each mature pollen grain varies between the gymnosperm orders.", "Cycadophyta have 3 celled pollen grains while Ginkgophyta have 4 celled pollen grains.", "Gnetophyta may have 2 or 3 celled pollen grains depending on the species, and Coniferophyta pollen grains vary greatly ranging from single celled to 40 celled.", "One of these cells is typically a germ cell and other cells may consist of a single tube cell which grows to form the pollen tube, sterile cells, and/or prothallial cells which are both vegetative cells without an essential reproductive function.", "After pollination is successful, the male gametophyte continues to develop.", "If a tube cell was not developed in the microstrobilus, one is created after pollination via mitosis.", "The tube cell grows into the diploid tissue of the female cone and may branch out into the megastrobilus tissue or grow straight towards the egg cell.", "The megastrobilus sporophytic tissue provides nutrients for the male gametophyte at this stage.", "In some gymnosperms, the tube cell will create a direct channel from the site of pollination to the egg cell, in other gymnosperms, the tube cell will rupture in the middle of the megastrobilus sporophyte tissue.", "This occurs because in some gymnosperm orders, the germ cell is nonmobile and a direct pathway is needed, however, in Cycadophyta and Ginkgophyta, the germ cell is mobile due to flagella being present and a direct tube cell path from the pollination site to the egg is not needed.", "In most species the germ cell can be more specifically described as a sperm cell which mates with the egg cell during fertilization, though that is not always the case.", "In some Gnetophyta species, the germ cell will release two sperm nuclei that undergo a rare gymnosperm double fertilization process occurring solely with sperm nuclei and not with the fusion of developed cells.", "After fertilization is complete in all orders, the remaining male gametophyte tissue will deteriorate.Multiple examples of the variation of cell number in mature seed plant female gametophytes prior to fertilization.", "Each cell contains one nucleus unless depicted otherwise.", "A: Typical 7 celled, 8 nucleate angiosperm female gametophyte (ex.", "''Tilia americana'').", "B: Typical gymnosperm female gametophyte with many haploid somatic cells illustrated with a honeycomb grid and two haploid germ cells (ex.", "''Ginkgo biloba'').", "C: Abnormally large 10 celled, 16 nucleate angiosperm female gametophyte (ex.", "''Peperomia dolabriformis'').", "D: Abnormally small 4 celled, 4 nucleate angiosperm female gametophyte (ex.", "''Amborella trichopoda'').", "E: Unusual gymnosperm female gametophyte that is singled celled with many free nuclei surrounding a pictured central vacuole (ex.", "''Gnetum gnemon'').", "Blue: egg cell.", "Dark orange: synergid cell.", "Yellow: accessory cell.", "Green: antipodal cell.", "Peach: central cell.", "Purple: individual nuclei.The female gametophyte in gymnosperms differs from the male gametophyte as it spends its whole life cycle in one organ, the ovule located inside the megastrobilus or female cone.", "Similar to the male gametophyte, the female gametophyte normally is fully dependent on the surrounding sporophytic tissue for nutrients and the two organisms cannot be separated.", "However, the female gametophytes of ''Ginkgo biloba'' do contain chlorophyll and can produce some of their own energy, though, not enough to support itself without being supplemented by the sporophyte.", "The female gametophyte forms from a diploid megaspore that undergoes meiosis and starts being singled celled.", "The size of the mature female gametophyte varies drastically between gymnosperm orders.", "In Cycadophyta, Ginkgophyta, Coniferophyta, and some Gnetophyta, the single celled female gametophyte undergoes many cycles of mitosis ending up consisting of thousands of cells once mature.", "At a minimum, two of these cells are egg cells and the rest are haploid somatic cells, but more egg cells may be present and their ploidy, though typically haploid, may vary.", "In select Gnetophyta, the female gametophyte stays singled celled.", "Mitosis does occur, but no cell divisions are ever made.", "This results in the mature female gametophyte in some Gnetophyta having many free nuclei in one cell.", "Once mature, this single celled gametophyte is 90% smaller than the female gametophytes in other gymnosperm orders.", "After fertilization, the remaining female gametophyte tissue in gymnosperms serves as the nutrient source for the developing zygote (even in Gnetophyta where the diploid zygote cell is much smaller at that stage, and for a while lives within the single celled gametophyte).The precursor to the male angiosperm gametophyte is a diploid microspore mother cell located inside the anther.", "Once the microspore undergoes meiosis, 4 haploid cells are formed, each of which is a singled celled male gametophyte.", "The male gametophyte will develop via one or two rounds of mitosis inside the anther.", "This creates a 2 or 3 celled male gametophyte which becomes known as the pollen grain once dehiscing occurs.", "One cell is the tube cell, and the remaining cell/cells are the sperm cells.", "The development of the three celled male gametophyte prior to dehiscing has evolved multiple times and is present in about a third of angiosperm species allowing for faster fertilization after pollination.", "Once pollination occurs, the tube cell grows in size and if the male gametophyte is only 2 cells at this stage, the single sperm cell undergoes mitosis to create a second sperm cell.", "Just like in gymnosperms, the tube cell in angiosperms obtains nutrients from the sporophytic tissue, and may branch out into the pistil tissue or grow directly towards the ovule.", "Once double fertilization is completed, the tube cell and other vegetative cells, if present, are all that remains of the male gametophyte and soon degrade.The female gametophyte of angiosperms develops in the ovule (located inside the female or hermaphrodite flower).", "Its precursor is a diploid megaspore that undergoes meiosis which produces four haploid daughter cells.", "Three of these independent gametophyte cells degenerate and the one that remains is the gametophyte mother cell which normally contains one nucleus.", "In general, it will then divide by mitosis until it consists of 8 nuclei separated into 1 egg cell, 3 antipodal cells, 2 synergid cells, and a central cell that contains two nuclei.", "In select angiosperms, special cases occur in which the female gametophyte is not 7 celled with 8 nuclei.", "On the small end of the spectrum, some species have mature female gametophytes with only 4 cells, each with one nuclei.", "Conversely, some species have 10-celled mature female gametophytes consisting of 16 total nuclei.", "Once double fertilization occurs, the egg cell becomes the zygote which is then considered sporophyte tissue.", "Scholars still disagree on whether the fertilized central cell is considered gametophyte tissue.", "Some botanists consider this endospore as gametophyte tissue with typically 2/3 being female and 1/3 being male, but as the central cell before double fertilization can range from 1n to 8n in special cases, the fertilized central cells range from 2n (50% male/female) to 9n (1/9 male, 8/9th female).", "However, other botanists consider the fertilized endospore as sporophyte tissue.", "Some believe it is neither." ], [ "Heterospory", "In heterosporic plants, there are two distinct kinds of gametophytes.", "Because the two gametophytes differ in form and function, they are termed ''heteromorphic'', from ''hetero''- \"different\" and ''morph'' \"form\".", "The egg-producing gametophyte is known as a '''megagametophyte''', because it is typically larger, and the sperm producing gametophyte is known as a '''microgametophyte'''.", "Species which produce egg and sperm on separate gametophytes plants are termed dioicous, while those that produce both eggs and sperm on the same gametophyte are termed monoicous.In heterosporous plants (water ferns, some lycophytes, as well as all gymnosperms and angiosperms), there are two distinct types of sporangia, each of which produces a single kind of spore that germinates to produce a single kind of gametophyte.", "However, not all heteromorphic gametophytes come from heterosporous plants.", "That is, some plants have distinct egg-producing and sperm-producing gametophytes, but these gametophytes develop from the same kind of spore inside the same sporangium; ''Sphaerocarpos'' is an example of such a plant.In seed plants, the microgametophyte is called pollen.", "Seed plant microgametophytes consists of several (typically two to five) cells when the pollen grains exit the sporangium.", "The megagametophyte develops within the megaspore of extant seedless vascular plants and within the megasporangium in a cone or flower in seed plants.", "In seed plants, the microgametophyte (pollen) travels to the vicinity of the egg cell (carried by a physical or animal vector) and produces two sperm by mitosis.In gymnosperms, the megagametophyte consists of several thousand cells and produces one to several archegonia, each with a single egg cell.", "The gametophyte becomes a food storage tissue in the seed.In angiosperms, the megagametophyte is reduced to only a few cells, and is sometimes called the embryo sac.", "A typical embryo sac contains seven cells and eight nuclei, one of which is the egg cell.", "Two nuclei fuse with a sperm nucleus to form the primary endospermic nucleus which develops to form triploid endosperm, which becomes the food storage tissue in the seed." ], [ "See also", "* * * *" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* *" ] ]
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[ [ "Gavoi" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Gavoi''' is a ''comune'' in central Sardinia (Italy), part of the province of Nuoro, in the natural region of Barbagia.", "It overlooks the Lake of Gusana." ], [ "History", "Traditional costumesThe territory of Gavoi is inhabited since the prenuragic period.", "During the middleage is cited various times in the list of villages and towns that paid the taxes to the Roman curia.Gavoi was hit by the plague in the 18th century." ], [ "Main sights", "A glimpse of the town with the typical granitic stone housesThe Roman church of San Gavino is Gavoi's foremost sacred spot, through there are eight other ancient churches in the village.", "The village's center contains rock houses with balconies, and a village fountain is known as \"Antana 'e Cartzonna\".Near the lake are the archaeological areas of Orrui and San Michele di Fonni.", "A Roman bridge is submerged beneath the lake." ], [ "Economy", "Mountain tourism is among the sources of income.", "Agriculture production include potatoes and cheese (the town is famous for its Fiore Sardo)." ], [ "Traditions and culture", "The \"tumbarinu\" is a traditional drum made of lamb skin, and more rarely, dog or donkey skin.", "The tumbarinu is often accompanied with the pipiolu, the traditional sheppard's fife.", "The \"ballu tundu\", is a traditional dance in the round, as in the Balkan area.", "Poetry is esteemed, including extemporaneous rhyme competitions on given topics.The nearby Sanctuary of Madonna d'Itria hosts a palio, in this case a peculiar horse competition very similar to that of Siena." ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Grazia Deledda" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Grazia Maria Cosima Damiana Deledda''' (; 27 September 1871 – 15 August 1936), also known in Sardinian language as '''Gràssia''' or '''Gràtzia Deledda''' (), was an Italian writer who received the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1926 \"for her idealistically inspired writings which with plastic clarity picture the life on her native island i.e.", "Sardinia and with depth and sympathy deal with human problems in general\".", "She was the first Italian woman to receive the prize, and only the second woman in general after Selma Lagerlöf was awarded hers in 1909." ], [ "Biography", "Deledda was born in Nuoro, Sardinia, into a middle-class family, to Giovanni Antonio Deledda and Francesca Cambosu, as the fourth of seven siblings.", "She attended elementary school (the minimum required at the time) and was then educated by a private tutor (a guest of one of her relatives) and moved on to study literature on her own.", "It was during this time that she started displaying an interest in writing short novels, mostly inspired by the life of Sardinian peasants and their struggles.", "Her teacher encouraged her to submit her writing to a newspaper and, at age 13, her first story was published in a local journal.", "Some of Deledda's early works were published in the fashion magazine ''L'ultima moda'' between 1888 and 1889.In 1890 Trevisani published ''Nell'azzurro'' (Into the Blue), her first collection of short stories.", "Deledda's main focus was the representation of poverty and the struggles associated with it through a combination of imaginary and autobiographical elements.", "Her family wasn't particularly supportive of her desire to write.Deledda's first novel, ''Fiori di Sardegna'' (Flowers of Sardinia) was published in 1892.Her 1896 book ''Paesaggi sardi'', published by Speirani, is characterized by a prose both informed by fiction and poetry.", "Around this time Deledda initiated a regular collaboration with newspapers and magazines, most notably ''La Sardegna'', ''Piccola Rivista'' and ''Nuova Antologia''.", "Her work earned significant visibility as well as critical interest.", "In October 1899, Deledda met Palmiro Madesani, a functionary of the Ministry of Finance, in Cagliari.", "Madesani and Deledda were married in 1900 and the couple moved to Rome right after the publication of Deledda's ''Il vecchio della montagna'' (The Old Man from the Mountain, 1900).", "Despite the birth of her two sons, Sardus (1901) and Francesco \"Franz\" (1904), Deledda managed to continue to write prolifically, publishing about a novel a year.Deledda with her husband Palmiro and son Sardus, Rome, circa 1904In 1903 she published ''Elias Portolu'', which was met with commercial and critical success, boosting her reputation as a writer.", "This was followed by ''Cenere'' (Ashes, 1904); ''L'edera'' (The Ivy, 1908); ''Sino al confine'' (To the Border, 1910); ''Colombi e sparvieri'' (Doves and Sparrows, 1912); and her most popular book, ''Canne al vento'' (Reeds in the Wind, 1913).In 1916 ''Cenere'' was the inspiration for a silent movie with famed Italian actress Eleonora Duse.", "It was the first and only time that Duse, a theatre performer, appeared in a film.", "Deledda was one of the contributors of the nationalist women's magazine, ''Lidel'', which was established in 1919.In 1926 Henrik Schück, a member of the Swedish Academy, nominated Deledda for the Nobel Prize in Literature.", "Deledda won \"for her idealistically inspired writings which with plastic clarity picture the life on her native island and with depth and sympathy deal with human problems in general.\"", "She was awarded the Prize in a ceremony in Stockholm in 1926.Her initial response to the news was \"Già?\"", "(\"Already?", "\")Deledda's win contributed to an increase in popularity of her writing.", "Benito Mussolini, who had just consolidated his grip on power, sent Deledda a signed portrait of himself with a dedication where he expressed his \"profound admiration\" for the writer.", "Flocks of journalists and photographers started visiting her home in Rome.", "Deledda initially welcomed them but eventually grew tired of the attention.", "One day she noticed that her beloved pet crow, Checca, was visibly irritated by the commotion, with people constantly coming in and out of the house.", "\"If Checca has had enough, so have I,\" Deledda was quoted as saying, and she returned to a more retired routine.The events also put a strain on Deledda's extremely methodical writings schedule.", "Her day would start with a late breakfast, followed by a morning of hard reading, lunch, a quick nap and a few hours of writing before dinner.Deledda continued to write even as she grew older and more fragile.", "Her subsequent works, ''La Casa del Poeta'' (The House of the Poet, 1930) and ''Sole d'Estate'' (Summer Sun, 1933), indicate a more optimistic view of life even as she was experiencing serious health issues.Deledda died in Rome at the age of 64 of breast cancer.", "''La chiesa della solitudine'' (The Church of Solitude, 1936), Deledda's last novel, is a semi-autobiographical depiction of a young Italian woman coming to terms with a fatal disease.", "A completed manuscript of the novel ''Cosima'' was discovered after her death and published posthumously in 1937." ], [ "Accolades", "Deledda's work has been highly regarded by writers of Italian literature, including Luigi Capuana, Giovanni Verga, Enrico Thovez, , .", "Sardinian writers including Sergio Atzeni, Giulio Angioni and Salvatore Mannuzzu, were greatly influenced by her work, prompting them to found what has later become known as the Sardinian Literary Spring.", "In 1947 artist Amelia Camboni was commissioned a portrait of Deledda, currently standing close to her home in Rome in the Pincio neighbourhood.Deledda's birthplace and childhood home in Nuoro was declared a national heritage building and purchased in 1968 by the Municipality of Nuoro, which in 1979 handed it over to the Regional Ethnographic Institute (ISRE) for the symbolic price of 1,000 Italian Lire.", "The Institute transformed the house into a museum commemorating the writer, and it's now called the Museo Deleddiano.", "The museum consists of ten rooms showcasing the most important episodes in Deledda's life.Bust of Grazia Deledda by , Pincio, RomeA coal power plant opened in Portoscuso in 1965., this powerplant called Grazia Deledda has a capacity of 590 MW.", ";TributeOn 10 December 2017 Google celebrated her with a Google Doodle." ], [ "Work", "The life, customs, and traditions of the Sardinian people are prominent in Deledda's writing.", "She often relies on detailed geographical descriptions and her characters often present a strong connection with their place of origins.", "Many of her characters are outcasts who silently struggle with isolation.", "Overall Deledda's work focuses on love, pain and death, upon which rests feelings of sin and fatality.", "Her novels tend to criticize social values and moral norms rather than the people who are victims of such circumstances.In her works it can be recognized the influence of the verism of Giovanni Verga and, sometimes, also that of the decadentism of Gabriele D'Annunzio, although her writing style is not so ornate.", "Despite her groundbreaking role in Italian and World literature, Deledda has failed to be acknowledged as a feminist writer, possibly due to her tendency of depicting women's pain and suffering as opposed to women's autonomy." ], [ "Complete list of works", "Below is a complete list of Deledda's works:* ''Stella d'Oriente'' (1890)* ''Nell'azzuro'' (1890)* ''Fior di Sardegna'' (1891)* ''Racconti sardi'' (1894)* ''Tradizioni popolari di Nuoro in Sardegna'' (1894)* ''La via del male'' (1896)* ''Anime oneste'' (1895)* ''Paesaggi sardi'' (1897)* ''La tentazioni'' (1899)* ''Il tesoro'' (1897)* ''L'ospite'' (1897)* ''La giustizia'' (1899)* ''Nostra Signora del buon consiglio: leggenda sarda'' (1899)* ''Le disgrazie che può causare il denaro'' (1899)* ''Il Vecchio della montagna'' (1900)* ''Dopo il divorzio'' (1902; English translation: ''After the Divorce'', 1905)* ''La regina delle tenebre'' (1902)* ''Elias Portolu'' (1900)* ''Cenere'' (1904; English translation: ''Ashes'', 1908)* ''Odio Vince'' (1904)* ''Nostalgie'' (1905)* ''L'ombra del passato'' (1907)* ''Amori moderni'' (1907)* ''L'edera'' (1908), English translation as ''Ivy'' by Mary Ann Frese Witt and Martha Witt (2019)* ''Il nonno'' (1908), English translation of the short story \"Il ciclamino\" as \"The Cyclamen\" by Maria Di Salvatore and Pan Skordos, in \"Journal of Italian Translation\", Volume XIV, Number 1, Spring 2019* ''Il nostro padrone'' (1910)* ''Sino al confine'' (1910)* ''I giuochi della vita'' (1911)* ''Nel deserto'' (1911)* ''L'edera: dramma in tre atti'' (1912)* ''Colombi e sparvieri'' (1912)* ''Chiaroscuro'' (1912)* ''Canne al vento'' (1913), ''Reeds in the Wind'' (1999 English translation by Martha King)* ''Le colpe altrui'' (1914)* ''Marianna Sirca'' (1915)* ''Il fanciullo nascosto'' (1915)* ''L'incendio nell'oliveto'' (1918)* ''Il ritorno del figlio'' (1919)* ''Naufraghi in porto'' (1920)* ''La madre'' (1920; English translation: ''The Woman and the Priest'', 1922; English translation: '' The Mother'', by Mary G. Steegman, 1923)* ''Il segreto dell'uomo solitario'' (1921)* ''Cattive compagnie: novelle'' (1921)* ''La grazia'' (1921)* ''Il Dio dei viventi'' (1922)* ''Silvio Pellico'' (1923)* ''Il flauto nel bosco'' (1923)* ''La danza della collana; A sinistra'' (1924)* ''La fuga in Egitto'' (1925)* ''Il sigillo d'amore'' (1926)* ''Annalena Bilsini'' (1927)* ''Il vecchio e i fanciulli'' (1928)* ''Il dono di natale'' (1930)* ''La casa del poeta'' (1930)* ''Eugenia Grandet, Onorato di Balzac'' (1930)* ''Il libro della terza classe elementare: letture, religione, storia, geografia, aritmetica'' (1931)* ''Giaffa: racconti per ragazzi'' (1931)* ''Il paese del vento'' (1931)* ''Sole d'estate'' (1933)* ''L'argine'' (1934)* ''La chiesa della solitudine'' (1936); English translation by E. Ann Matter, ''The Church of Solitude'' (University of New York Press, 2002)* ''Cosima'' (1937) published posthumously, English translation by Martha King (1988)* ''Il cedro del Libano'' (1939) published posthumously* ''Grazia Deledda: premio Nobel per la letteratura 1926'' (1966)* ''Opere scelte'' (1968)* ''Letter inedite di Grazia Deledda ad Arturo Giordano direttore della rivista letteraria'' (Alchero: Nemaprress, 2004)" ], [ "See also", "* List of female Nobel laureates" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "*Attilio Momigliano, \"Intorno a Grazia Deledda\", in ''Ultimi studi'', La Nuova Italia, Florence, 1954.", "*Emilio Cecchi, \"Grazia Deledda\", in ''Storia della Letteratura Italiana: Il Novecento'', Garzanti, Milan, 1967.", "*Antonio Piromalli, \"Grazia Deledda\", La Nuova Italia, Florence, 1968.", "*Natalino Sapegno, \"Prefazione\", in ''Romanzi e novelle'', Mondadori, Milan, 1972.", "*Giulio Angioni, \"Grazia Deledda: l'antropologia positivistica e la diversità della Sardegna\", in ''Grazia Deledda nella cultura contemporanea'', Satta, Nuoro, 1992*Giulio Angioni, \"Introduzione\", in ''Tradizioni popolari di Nuoro'', Ilisso, Biblioteca Sarda, Nuoro, 2010.", "***" ], [ "Voice recording", "The voice of Grazia Deledda speaking (in Italian) at the Nobel Prize Ceremony in 1926.Listen" ], [ "External links", "* * * * * * * Werkverzeichnis* Summary of works by Grazia Deledda and complete texts* Martha King's English translation of ''Cosima.", "''* Martha King's English translation of ''Canne al vento'' as ''Reeds in the Wind.", "''* BBC Radio 4's 10-part dramatisation of ''Reeds in the Wind'' 2012* Il bilinguismo di Grazia Deledda - Il Manifesto Sardo (article written in Italian)* Biography: Deledda, Grazia at The Italian Women Writers project*" ] ]
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[ [ "Glenn T. Seaborg" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Glenn Theodore Seaborg''' ( ; April 19, 1912February 25, 1999) was an American chemist whose involvement in the synthesis, discovery and investigation of ten transuranium elements earned him a share of the 1951 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.", "His work in this area also led to his development of the actinide concept and the arrangement of the actinide series in the periodic table of the elements.Seaborg spent most of his career as an educator and research scientist at the University of California, Berkeley, serving as a professor, and, between 1958 and 1961, as the university's second chancellor.", "He advised ten US presidents—from Harry S. Truman to Bill Clinton—on nuclear policy and was Chairman of the United States Atomic Energy Commission from 1961 to 1971, where he pushed for commercial nuclear energy and the peaceful applications of nuclear science.", "Throughout his career, Seaborg worked for arms control.", "He was a signatory to the Franck Report and contributed to the Limited Test Ban Treaty, the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty.", "He was a well-known advocate of science education and federal funding for pure research.", "Toward the end of the Eisenhower administration, he was the principal author of the Seaborg Report on academic science, and, as a member of President Ronald Reagan's National Commission on Excellence in Education, he was a key contributor to its 1983 report \"A Nation at Risk\".Seaborg was the principal or co-discoverer of ten elements: plutonium, americium, curium, berkelium, californium, einsteinium, fermium, mendelevium, nobelium and element 106, which, while he was still living, was named seaborgium in his honor.", "He said about this naming, \"This is the greatest honor ever bestowed upon me--even better, I think, than winning the Nobel Prize.", "Future students of chemistry, in learning about the periodic table, may have reason to ask why the element was named for me, and thereby learn more about my work.\"", "He also discovered more than 100 isotopes of transuranium elements and is credited with important contributions to the chemistry of plutonium, originally as part of the Manhattan Project where he developed the extraction process used to isolate the plutonium fuel for the implosion-type atomic bomb.", "Early in his career, he was a pioneer in nuclear medicine and discovered isotopes of elements with important applications in the diagnosis and treatment of diseases, including iodine-131, which is used in the treatment of thyroid disease.", "In addition to his theoretical work in the development of the actinide concept, which placed the actinide series beneath the lanthanide series on the periodic table, he postulated the existence of super-heavy elements in the transactinide and superactinide series.After sharing the 1951 Nobel Prize in Chemistry with Edwin McMillan, he received approximately 50 honorary doctorates and numerous other awards and honors.", "The list of things named after Seaborg ranges from the chemical element seaborgium to the asteroid 4856 Seaborg.", "He was a prolific author, penning numerous books and 500 journal articles, often in collaboration with others.", "He was once listed in the Guinness Book of World Records as the person with the longest entry in ''Who's Who in America''." ], [ "Early life", "Glenn Theodore Seaborg was born in Ishpeming, Michigan, on April 19, 1912, the son of Herman Theodore (Ted) and Selma Olivia Erickson Seaborg.", "He had one sister, Jeanette, who was two years younger.", "His family spoke Swedish at home.", "When Glenn Seaborg was a boy, the family moved to Los Angeles County, California, settling in a subdivision called Home Gardens, later annexed to the City of South Gate, California.", "About this time he changed the spelling of his first name from Glen to Glenn.Seaborg kept a daily journal from 1927 until he suffered a stroke in 1998.As a youth, Seaborg was both a devoted sports fan and an avid movie buff.", "His mother encouraged him to become a bookkeeper as she felt his literary interests were impractical.", "He did not take an interest in science until his junior year when he was inspired by Dwight Logan Reid, a chemistry and physics teacher at David Starr Jordan High School in Watts.Seaborg graduated from Jordan in 1929 at the top of his class and received a Bachelor of Arts (BA) degree in chemistry at the University of California, Los Angeles, in 1933.He worked his way through school as a stevedore and a laboratory assistant at Firestone.", "Seaborg received his PhD in chemistry at the University of California, Berkeley, in 1937 with a doctoral thesis on the \"Interaction of Fast Neutrons with Lead\", in which he coined the term \"nuclear spallation\".Seaborg was a member of the professional chemistry fraternity Alpha Chi Sigma.", "As a graduate student in the 1930s Seaborg performed wet chemistry research for his advisor Gilbert Newton Lewis, and published three papers with him on the theory of acids and bases.", "Seaborg studied the text ''Applied Radiochemistry'' by Otto Hahn, of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry in Berlin, and it had a major impact on his developing interests as a research scientist.", "For several years, Seaborg conducted important research in artificial radioactivity using the Lawrence cyclotron at UC Berkeley.", "He was excited to learn from others that nuclear fission was possible—but also chagrined, as his own research might have led him to the same discovery.Seaborg also became an adept interlocutor of Berkeley physicist Robert Oppenheimer.", "Oppenheimer had a daunting reputation and often answered a junior colleague's question before it had even been stated.", "Often the question answered was more profound than the one asked, but of little practical help.", "Seaborg learned to state his questions to Oppenheimer quickly and succinctly." ], [ "Pioneering work in nuclear chemistry", "Seaborg in 1950, with the ion exchanger elution column of actinide elementsSeaborg remained at the University of California, Berkeley, for post-doctoral research.", "He followed Frederick Soddy's work investigating isotopes and contributed to the discovery of more than 100 isotopes of elements.", "Using one of Lawrence's advanced cyclotrons, John Livingood, Fred Fairbrother, and Seaborg created a new isotope of iron, iron-59 in 1937.Iron-59 was useful in the studies of the hemoglobin in human blood.", "In 1938, Livingood and Seaborg collaborated (as they did for five years) to create an important isotope of iodine, iodine-131, which is still used to treat thyroid disease.", "(Many years later, it was credited with prolonging the life of Seaborg's mother.)", "As a result of these and other contributions, Seaborg is regarded as a pioneer in nuclear medicine and is one of its most prolific discoverers of isotopes.In 1939 he became an instructor in chemistry at Berkeley, was promoted to assistant professor in 1941 and professor in 1945.University of California, Berkeley, physicist Edwin McMillan led a team that discovered element 93, which he named neptunium in 1940.In November, he was persuaded to leave Berkeley temporarily to assist with urgent research in radar technology.", "Since Seaborg and his colleagues had perfected McMillan's oxidation-reduction technique for isolating neptunium, he asked McMillan for permission to continue the research and search for element 94.McMillan agreed to the collaboration.", "Seaborg first reported alpha decay proportionate to only a fraction of the element 93 under observation.", "The first hypothesis for this alpha particle accumulation was contamination by uranium, which produces alpha-decay particles; analysis of alpha-decay particles ruled this out.", "Seaborg then postulated that a distinct alpha-producing element was being formed from element 93.In February 1941, Seaborg and his collaborators produced plutonium-239 through the bombardment of uranium.", "In their experiments bombarding uranium with deuterons, they observed the creation of neptunium, element 93.But it then underwent beta-decay, forming a new element, plutonium, with 94 protons.", "Plutonium is fairly stable, but undergoes alpha-decay, which explained the presence of alpha particles coming from neptunium.", "Thus, on March 28, 1941, Seaborg, physicist Emilio Segrè and Berkeley chemist Joseph W. Kennedy were able to show that plutonium (then known only as element 94) was fissile, an important distinction that was crucial to the decisions made in directing Manhattan Project research.", "In 1966, Room 307 of Gilman Hall on the campus at the Berkeley, where Seaborg did his work, was declared a US National Historic Landmark.In addition to plutonium, he is credited as a lead discoverer of americium, curium, and berkelium, and as a co-discoverer of californium, einsteinium, fermium, mendelevium, nobelium and seaborgium, the first element named after a living person.", "He shared the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1951 with Edwin McMillan for \"their discoveries in the chemistry of the first transuranium elements.\"" ], [ "Scientific contributions during the Manhattan Project", "On April 19, 1942, Seaborg reached Chicago and joined the chemistry group at the Metallurgical Laboratory of the Manhattan Project at the University of Chicago, where Enrico Fermi and his group would later convert uranium-238 to plutonium-239 in a controlled nuclear chain reaction.", "Seaborg's role was to figure out how to extract the tiny bit of plutonium from the mass of uranium.", "Plutonium-239 was isolated in visible amounts using a transmutation reaction on August 20, 1942, and weighed on September 10, 1942, in Seaborg's Chicago laboratory.", "He was responsible for the multi-stage chemical process that separated, concentrated and isolated plutonium.", "This process was further developed at the Clinton Engineering Works in Oak Ridge, Tennessee, and then entered full-scale production at the Hanford Engineer Works, in Richland, Washington.Seaborg's theoretical development of the actinide concept resulted in a redrawing of the periodic table into its current configuration with the actinide series appearing below the lanthanide series.", "Seaborg developed the chemical elements americium and curium while in Chicago.", "He managed to secure patents for both elements.", "His patent on curium never proved commercially viable because of the element's short half-life, but americium is commonly used in household smoke detectors and thus provided a good source of royalty income to Seaborg in later years.", "Prior to the test of the first nuclear weapon, Seaborg joined with several other leading scientists in a written statement known as the Franck Report (secret at the time but since published) unsuccessfully calling on President Truman to conduct a public demonstration of the atomic bomb witnessed by the Japanese." ], [ "Professor and Chancellor at the University of California, Berkeley", "Seaborg (second from left) during Operation PlumbbobAfter the conclusion of World War II and the Manhattan Project, Seaborg was eager to return to academic life and university research free from the restrictions of wartime secrecy.", "In 1946, he added to his responsibilities as a professor by heading the nuclear chemistry research at the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory operated by the University of California on behalf of the United States Atomic Energy Commission (AEC).", "Seaborg was named one of the \"Ten Outstanding Young Men in America\" by the US Junior Chamber of Commerce in 1947 (along with Richard Nixon and others).", "Seaborg was elected a Member of the National Academy of Sciences in 1948.From 1954 to 1961 he served as associate director of the radiation laboratory.", "He was appointed by President Truman to serve as a member of the General Advisory Committee of the AEC, an assignment he retained until 1960.Seaborg served as chancellor at the University of California, Berkeley, from 1958 to 1961.His term coincided with a relaxation of McCarthy-era restrictions on students' freedom of expression that had begun under his predecessor, Clark Kerr.", "In October 1958, Seaborg announced that the university had relaxed its prior prohibitions on political activity on a trial basis, and the ban on communists speaking on campus was lifted.", "This paved the way for the Free Speech Movement of 1964–65.Seaborg was an enthusiastic supporter of Cal's sports teams.", "San Francisco columnist Herb Caen was fond of pointing out that Seaborg's surname is an anagram of \"Go Bears\", a popular cheer at UC Berkeley.", "Seaborg was proud of the fact that the Cal Bears won their first and only National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) basketball championship in 1959, while he was chancellor.", "The football team also won the conference title and played in the Rose Bowl that year.", "He served on the Faculty Athletic Committee for several years and was the co-author of a book, ''Roses from the Ashes: Breakup and Rebirth in Pacific Coast Intercollegiate Athletics'' (2000), concerning the Pacific Coast Conference recruiting scandal, and the founding of what is now the Pac-12, in which he played a role in restoring confidence in the integrity of collegiate sports.Seaborg served on the President's Science Advisory Committee (PSAC) during the Eisenhower administration.", "PSAC produced a report on \"Scientific Progress, the Universities, and the Federal Government\", also known as the \"Seaborg Report\", in November 1960, that urged greater federal funding of science.", "In 1959, he helped found the Berkeley Space Sciences Laboratory with Clark Kerr.From left to right: Chairman Seaborg, President Kennedy, Secretary McNamara on March 23, 1962.By this point, McNamara and Seaborg had been discussing the AEC's studies on the ecological effects of nuclear war and \"clean\" weapon alternatives.", "(Courtesy: National Security Archive, Original: National Archives)" ], [ "Chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission", "After appointment by President John F. Kennedy and confirmation by the United States Senate, Seaborg was chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) from 1961 to 1971.His pending appointment by President-elect Kennedy was nearly derailed in late 1960 when members of the Kennedy transition team learned that Seaborg had been listed in a ''U.S.", "News & World Report'' article as a member of \"Nixon's Idea Men\".", "Seaborg said that as a lifetime Democrat he was baffled when the article appeared associating him with outgoing Vice President Richard Nixon, a Republican whom Seaborg considered a casual acquaintance.During the early 1960s, Seaborg became concerned with the ecological and biological effects of nuclear weapons, especially those that would impact human life significantly.", "In response, he commissioned the Technical Analysis Branch of the AEC to study these matters further.", "Seaborg's provision for these innovative studies led the US Government to more seriously pursue the development and possible use of \"clean\" nuclear weapons.President Kennedy and his Atomic Energy Commission Chairman, Glenn SeaborgWhile chairman of the AEC, Seaborg participated on the negotiating team for the Limited Test Ban Treaty (LTBT), in which the US, UK, and USSR agreed to ban all above-ground test detonations of nuclear weapons.", "Seaborg considered his contributions to the achievement of the LTBT as one of his greatest accomplishments.", "Despite strict rules from the Soviets about photography at the signing ceremony, Seaborg used a tiny camera to take a close-up photograph of Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev as he signed the treaty.Seaborg enjoyed a close relationship with President Lyndon Johnson and influenced the administration to pursue the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty.", "Seaborg was called to the White House in the first week of the Nixon Administration in January 1969 to advise President Richard Nixon on his first diplomatic crisis involving the Soviets and nuclear testing.", "He clashed with Nixon presidential adviser John Ehrlichman over the treatment of a Jewish scientist, Zalman Shapiro, whom the Nixon administration suspected of leaking nuclear secrets to Israel.Seaborg published several books and journal articles during his tenure at the AEC.", "He predicted the existence of elements beyond those on the periodic table, the transactinide series and the superactinide series of undiscovered synthetic elements.", "While most of these theoretical future elements have extremely short half-lives and thus no expected practical applications, he also hypothesized the existence of stable super-heavy isotopes of certain elements in an island of stability.", "Seaborg served as chairman of the AEC until 1971." ], [ "Return to California", "Seaborg (right) with marine biologist Dixy Lee Ray on September 17, 1968Following his service as Chairman of the AEC, Seaborg returned to UC Berkeley where he was awarded the position of University Professor.", "At the time, there had been fewer University Professors at UC Berkeley than Nobel Prize winners.", "He also served as Chairman of the Lawrence Hall of Science where he became the principal investigator for Great Explorations in Math and Science (GEMS) working with director Jacqueline Barber.", "Seaborg served as chancellor at the University of California, Berkeley, from 1958 to 1961, and served as president of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 1972 and as president of the American Chemical Society in 1976.In 1980, he transmuted several thousand atoms of bismuth-209 into gold () at the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory.", "His experimental technique, using the lab's Bevalac particle accelerator, was able to remove protons and neutrons from the bismuth atoms by bombarding it with carbon and neon nuclei traveling near the speed of light.", "Seaborg's technique would have been far too expensive to enable routine manufacturing of gold, but his work was close to the mythical Philosopher's Stone.", "As gold has four fewer protons and (taking the only naturally occurring bulk isotopes of either) eight fewer neutrons than bismuth, a total of twelve nucleons have to be removed from the bismuth nucleus to produce gold using Seaborg's method.In 1981, Seaborg became a founding member of the World Cultural Council.In 1983, President Ronald Reagan appointed Seaborg to serve on the National Commission on Excellence in Education.", "The commission produced a report \"A Nation at Risk: The Imperative for Educational Reform\", which focused national attention on education as a national issue germane to the federal government.", "In 2008, Margaret Spellings wrote thatSeaborg lived most of his later life in Lafayette, California, where he devoted himself to editing and publishing the journals that documented both his early life and later career.", "He rallied a group of scientists who criticized the science curriculum in the state of California, which he viewed as far too socially oriented and not nearly focused enough on hard science.", "California Governor Pete Wilson appointed Seaborg to head a committee that proposed changes to California's science curriculum despite outcries from labor organizations and others." ], [ "Personal life", "Helen and Glenn Seaborg in Stockholm in 1951In 1942, Seaborg married Helen Griggs, the secretary of physicist Ernest Lawrence.", "Under wartime pressure, Seaborg had moved to Chicago while engaged to Griggs.", "When Seaborg returned to accompany Griggs for the journey back to Chicago, friends expected them to marry in Chicago.", "But, eager to be married, Seaborg and Griggs impulsively got off the train in the town of Caliente, Nevada, for what they thought would be a quick wedding.", "When they asked for City Hall, they found Caliente had none—they would have to travel north to Pioche, the county seat.", "With no car, this was no easy feat, but one of Caliente's newest deputy sheriffs turned out to be a recent graduate of the Cal Berkeley chemistry department and was more than happy to do a favor for Seaborg.", "The deputy sheriff arranged for the wedding couple to ride up and back to Pioche in a mail truck.", "The witnesses at the Seaborg wedding were a clerk and a janitor.", "Glenn Seaborg and Helen Griggs Seaborg had seven children, of whom the first, Peter Glenn Seaborg, died in 1997 (his twin Paulette having died in infancy).", "The others were Lynne Seaborg Cobb, David Seaborg, Steve Seaborg, Eric Seaborg, and Dianne Seaborg.Seaborg was an avid hiker.", "Upon becoming Chairman of the AEC in 1961, he commenced taking daily hikes through a trail that he blazed at the headquarters site in Germantown, Maryland.", "He frequently invited colleagues and visitors to accompany him, and the trail became known as the \"Glenn Seaborg Trail.\"", "He and his wife Helen are credited with blazing a trail in the East Bay area near their home in Lafayette, California.", "This trail has since become a part of the American Hiking Association's cross-country network of trails.", "Seaborg and his wife walked the trail network from Contra Costa County all the way to the California–Nevada border.Seaborg was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1972 and a Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) of London in 1985.He was honored as Swedish-American of the Year in 1962 by the Vasa Order of America.", "In 1991, the organization named \"Local Lodge Glenn T. Seaborg No.", "719\" in his honor during the Seaborg Honors ceremony at which he appeared.", "This lodge maintains a scholarship fund in his name, as does the unrelated Swedish-American Club of Los Angeles.Seaborg kept a close bond to his Swedish origin.", "He visited Sweden every so often, and his family were members of the Swedish ''Pemer Genealogical Society'', a family association open for every descendant of the Pemer family, a Swedish family with German origin, from which Seaborg was descended on his mother's side.", "(In recent years, after both men's passings, it has been discovered that physicist colleague Edward J. Lofgren was also descended from the Pemer family.)", "Seaborg even responded to the Swedish king's Nobel prize toast in his mother's native region's dialect, which he described as \"It was as if a Swede had alled\" in English with a Southern Accent.", "\"\"." ], [ "Death", "On August 24, 1998, while in Boston to attend a meeting by the American Chemical Society, Seaborg suffered a stroke, which led to his death six months later on February 25, 1999, at his home in Lafayette." ], [ "Honors and awards", "During his lifetime, Seaborg is said to have been the author or co-author of numerous books and 500 scientific journal articles, many of them brief reports on fast-breaking discoveries in nuclear science while other subjects, most notably the actinide concept, represented major theoretical contributions in the history of science.", "He held more than 40 patents—among them the only patents ever issued for chemical elements, americium and curium, and received more than 50 doctorates and honorary degrees in his lifetime.", "At one time, he was listed in the Guinness Book of World Records as having the longest entry in Marquis ''Who's Who in America''.", "In February 2005, he was posthumously inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame.", "In April 2011 the executive council of the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry (CSI) selected Seaborg for inclusion in CSI's Pantheon of Skeptics.", "The Pantheon of Skeptics was created by CSI to remember the legacy of deceased fellows of CSI and their contributions to the cause of scientific skepticism.", "His papers are in the Library of Congress.Seaborg was elected to the United States National Academy of Sciences in 1948, the American Philosophical Society in 1952, and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1958.The American Chemical Society-Chicago Section honored him with the Willard Gibbs Award in 1966.The American Academy of Achievement presented Seaborg with the Golden Plate Award in 1972.The element seaborgium was named after Seaborg by Albert Ghiorso, E. Kenneth Hulet, and others, who also credited Seaborg as a co-discoverer.", "It was named while Seaborg was still alive, which proved controversial.", "He influenced the naming of so many elements that with the announcement of seaborgium, it was noted in ''Discover'' magazine's review of the year in science that he could receive a letter addressed in chemical elements: seaborgium, lawrencium (for the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory where he worked), berkelium, californium, americium.", "Seaborgium is the first element ever to have been officially named after a living person.", "The second element to be so named is oganesson, in 2016, after Yuri Oganessian." ], [ "Selected bibliography", "* * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "General references", "* * *" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "* including the Nobel Lecture on December 12, 1951 \"The Transuranium Elements: Present Status\"* 1965 Audio Interview with Glenn Seaborg by Stephane Groueff Voices of the Manhattan Project* National Academy of Sciences biography* Annotated bibliography for Glenn Seaborg from the Alsos Digital Library* Nobel Institute Official Biography* UC Berkeley Biography of Chancellor Glenn T. Seaborg * Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory's Glenn T. Seaborg website * American Association for the Advancement of Science, List of Presidents * Glenn Seaborg Trail, at Department of Energy official site* Glenn T. Seaborg Center at Northern Michigan University * Glenn T. Seaborg Medal and Symposium at the University of California, Los Angeles* Video interview with Glenn Seaborg from 1986 with transcript* \"Clean\" Nukes and the Ecology of Nuclear War, published by the National Security Archive* *" ] ]
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[ [ "Province of Grosseto" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''province of Grosseto''' () is a province in the Tuscany region of Italy.", "Its capital is the city of Grosseto.", "As of 2013 the province had a total population of 225,098 people." ], [ "Geography", "Map showing the position of the province in Tuscany.The Province of Grosseto completely occupies the southern end of Tuscany, and with a territorial area of , it is the most extensive in the region and one of the least dense in population in Italy.", "The province is bordered to the northwest by the Province of Livorno, to the north by the Province of Pisa, to the northeast by the Province of Siena, and to the southeast by the Province of Viterbo in Lazio.", "To the south is the Tyrrhenian Sea, which includes the southern islands of the Tuscan archipelago, including Isola del Giglio and the smaller Giannutri islands and Formiche di Grosseto and Formica di Burano.", "The Arcipelago Toscano National Park spans both the provinces of Grosseto and Livorno, and includes the seven main islands of the Tuscan Archipelago: Elba, Isola del Giglio, Capraia, Montecristo, Pianosa, Giannutri, Gorgona, and some of the minor islands and rock outcrops.", "The highest point in the park is Mount Capanne, at in elevation, on the island of Elba.", "The Colline Metallifere (Metalliferous Hills) line the border in the south with Lazio, and contain the Natural Park of Maremma, that protects also some of the remainings of the large swamps that once covered the area.", "Other protected areas are the Diaccia Botrona marshland.", "The principal rivers are the Ombrone, Fiora, Albegna, Pecora, Bruna, Merse, , Farma and Chiarone.", "The coastline between the Gulf of Follonica and the mouth of the Chiarone is dominated by blue waters and pine forests, and is home to resorts such as Marina di Grosseto, Principina a Mare, Castiglione della Pescaia, Punta Ala, Puntone di Scarlino and Talamone.", "Lakes include Lago dell'Accesa, Lago di Burano, Lago di San Floriano and Lago Acquato.", "Also of note is the volcanic cone of Mount Amiata, Bandite di Scarlino (213 m), Promontorio di Punta Ala e delle Rocchette (350 m), Monti dell'Uccellina (417 m), Monte Argentario (635 m), and Promontorio di Ansedonia (113 m).=== ''Comuni'' ===There are 28 (singular: ) in the province.As of June 2014, the main by population are:CommunePopulationGrosseto82,284Follonica21,770Orbetello14,911Monte Argentario12,866Roccastrada9,274Gavorrano8,727Massa Marittima8,600Manciano7,386Castiglione della Pescaia7,382This is the complete list of ''comuni'' in the province of Grosseto:*Arcidosso*Campagnatico*Capalbio*Castel del Piano*Castell'Azzara*Castiglione della Pescaia*Cinigiano*Civitella Paganico*Follonica*Gavorrano*Grosseto*Isola del Giglio*Magliano in Toscana*Manciano*Massa Marittima*Monte Argentario*Monterotondo Marittimo*Montieri*Orbetello*Pitigliano*Roccalbegna*Roccastrada*Santa Fiora*Scansano*Scarlino*Seggiano*Semproniano*Sorano=== ''Frazioni'' ===This is the complete list of the (singular: ) – towns and villages – in the province of Grosseto:*Alberese*Albinia*Ansedonia*Arcille*Baccinello*Bagno di Gavorrano*Bagnoli*Bagnolo*Bagnore*Batignano*Boccheggiano*Borgo Carige*Borgo Santa Rita*Braccagni*Buriano*Caldana*Cana*Capalbio Scalo*Casale di Pari*Casone*Castellaccia*Castell'Ottieri*Castiglioncello Bandini*Catabbio*Cellena*Cerreto*Chiarone Scalo*Civitella Marittima*Dogana*Elmo*Filare*Fonteblanda*Frassine*Gerfalco*Ghirlanda*Giannella*Giannutri*Giardino*Giglio Campese*Giglio Castello*Giglio Porto*Giuncarico*Grilli*Istia d'Ombrone*La Torba*Lago Boracifero*Le Macchie*Marina di Grosseto*Marroneto*Marrucheti*Marsiliana*Monte Antico*Montebamboli*Montebuono*Montegiovi*Montelaterone*Montemassi*Montemerano*Montenero d'Orcia*Montepescali*Montevitozzo*Montiano*Monticello Amiata*Montorgiali*Montorio*Montorsaio*Murci*Niccioleta*Nomadelfia*Paganico*Pancole*Pari*Pereta*Pescia Fiorentina*Pescina*Petricci*Pian d'Alma*Pian di Rocca*Piloni*Poderi di Montemerano*Poggi del Sasso*Poggio Capanne*Poggio Murella*Poggioferro*Polveraia*Pomonte*Porrona*Porto Ercole*Porto Santo Stefano*Potassa*Prata*Preselle*Principina a Mare*Principina Terra*Punta Ala*Puntone di Scarlino*Ravi*Ribolla*Rispescia*Roccamare*Roccatederighi*Rocchette*Rocchette di Fazio*Roselle*Salaiola*San Donato*San Giovanni delle Contee*San Lorenzo*San Martino sul Fiora*San Quirico*San Valentino*Santa Caterina*Sasso d'Ombrone*Sassofortino*Saturnia*Scarlino Scalo*Selva*Selvena*Sovana*Sticciano*Stribugliano*Talamone*Tatti*Tirli*Torniella*Travale*Triana*Vallerona*Valpiana*Vetulonia*Zancona" ], [ "Government", "===List of presidents of the province of Grosseto===  President Term start Term end Party Emilio Suardi19511952Italian Communist Party Mario Ferri19521967Italian Socialist Party Antonio Palandri19671970Italian Communist Party Luciano Giorgi19701980Italian Socialist Party Claudio Asta19801983Italian Socialist Party Fosco Monaci19831985Italian Socialist Party Alberto Cerreti7 September 198514 July 1990Italian Socialist Party Lamberto Ciani20 July 199024 April 1995Italian Socialist Party Stefano Gentili8 May 199514 June 1999Democratic Party of the Left Lio Scheggi16 June 199914 June 2004Democrats of the LeftDemocratic Party14 June 200423 June 2009 Leonardo Marras23 June 200914 October 2014Democratic Party Emilio Bonifazi14 October 201419 July 2016Democratic Party 13Antonfrancesco Vivarelli Colonna9 January 2017 19 December 2021Centre-right independent Francesco Limatola19 December 2021 ''Incumbent''Centre-left independent" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
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[ [ "Gaspard-Gustave de Coriolis" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Gaspard-Gustave de Coriolis''' (; 21 May 1792 – 19 September 1843) was a French mathematician, mechanical engineer and scientist.", "He is best known for his work on the supplementary forces that are detected in a rotating frame of reference, leading to the Coriolis effect.", "He was the first to apply the term ''travail'' (translated as \"work\") for the transfer of energy by a force acting through a distance, and he prefixed the factor ½ to Leibniz's concept of ''vis viva'', thus specifying today's ''kinetic energy''." ], [ "Biography", "Coriolis was born in Paris in 1792.In 1808 he sat the entrance exam and was placed second of all the students entering that year, and in 1816, he became a tutor at the École Polytechnique, where he did experiments on friction and hydraulics.Title page of an 1829 copy of \"''Du Calcul de L'Effet Des Machines''\"In 1829, Coriolis published a textbook, ''Calcul de l'Effet des Machines'' (\"Calculation of the Effect of Machines\"), which presented mechanics in a way that could readily be applied by industry.", "He established the correct expression for kinetic energy, ''½mv2'', and its relation to mechanical work.During the following years, Coriolis worked to extend the notions of kinetic energy and work to rotating systems.", "The first of his papers, ''Sur le principe des forces vives dans les mouvements relatifs des machines'' (On the principle of kinetic energy in the relative motion in machines), was read to the Académie des Sciences (Coriolis 1832).", "Three years later came the paper that would make his name famous, ''Sur les équations du mouvement relatif des systèmes de corps'' (On the equations of relative motion of a system of bodies).", "Coriolis's papers do not deal with the atmosphere or even the rotation of the Earth, but with the transfer of energy in rotating systems like waterwheels.", "Coriolis discussed the supplementary forces that are detected in a rotating frame of reference and he divided these forces into two categories.", "The second category contained the force that would eventually bear his name.", "A detailed discussion may be found in Dugas.In 1835, he published a mathematical work on collisions of spheres: ''Théorie Mathématique des Effets du Jeu de Billard'', considered a classic on the subject.Coriolis's name began to appear in the meteorological literature at the end of the 19th century, although the term \"Coriolis force\" was not used until the beginning of the 20th century.", "Today, the name Coriolis has become strongly associated with meteorology, but all major discoveries about the general circulation and the relation between the pressure and wind fields were made without knowledge about Gaspard Gustave Coriolis.Coriolis became professor of mechanics at the École Centrale des Arts et Manufactures in 1829.Upon the death of Claude-Louis Navier in 1836, Coriolis succeeded him in the chair of applied mechanics at the École Nationale des Ponts et Chaussées and to Navier's place in the Académie des Sciences.", "In 1838, he succeeded Dulong as ''Directeur des études'' (director of studies) in the École Polytechnique.He died in 1843 at the age of 51 in Paris.", "His name is one of the 72 names inscribed on the Eiffel Tower.File:Coriolis-1.jpg|1829 copy of \"''Du Calcul de L'Effet Des Machines''\"File:Coriolis-3.jpg|Introductory page of an 1829 copy of \"''Du Calcul de L'Effet Des Machines''\"File:Coriolis-4.jpg|First page of an 1829 copy of \"''Du Calcul de L'Effet Des Machines''\"" ], [ "See also", "*Catenary" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Persson, A., 1998 ''How do we understand the Coriolis Force?''", "Bull.", "Amer.", "Meteor.", "Soc.", "79, 1373–1385.374 KB PDF document of the above article" ], [ "External links", "* * \"Sur les équations du mouvement relatif des systèmes de corps\" (Coriolis, 1831 & 1835), online and analyzed on '' BibNum'' click 'à télécharger' for English version* \"Sur le bruit du tonnerre\" (Coriolis, 1833), online and analyzed on '' BibNum'' click 'à télécharger' for English version" ] ]
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[ [ "Géza, Grand Prince of the Hungarians" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Géza''' ( 940 – 997), also '''Gejza''', was Grand Prince of the Hungarians from the early 970s.", "He was the son of Grand Prince Taksony and his OrientalKhazar, Pecheneg or Volga Bulgarianwife.", "He married Sarolt, a daughter of an Eastern Orthodox Hungarian chieftain.", "After ascending the throne, Géza made peace with the Holy Roman Empire.", "Within Hungary, he consolidated his authority with extreme cruelty, according to the unanimous narration of nearly contemporaneous sources.", "He was the first Hungarian monarch to support Christian missionaries from Western Europe.", "Although he was baptised (his baptismal name was '''Stephen'''), his Christian faith remained shallow and he continued to perform acts of pagan worship.", "He was succeeded by his son Stephen, who was crowned the first King of Hungary in 1000 or 1001." ], [ "Early life", "Géza was the elder son of Taksony, Grand Prince of the Hungarians.", "His mother was his father's wife \"from the land of the Cumans\", according to the anonymous author of the ''Gesta Hungarorum''.", "This anachronistic reference to the Cumans suggests that she was of Khazar, Pecheneg or Volga Bulgarian origin.", "The Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus, who listed the descendants of Grand Prince Árpád around 950, did not mention Géza.", "Even so, Gyula Kristó wrote that Géza was born around 940 and the emperor ignored him because of his youth.", "The genuine form of his name was either \"Gyeücsa\" or \"Gyeusa\", which is possibly a diminutive form of the Turkic title ''yabgu''.", "Géza's father arranged his marriage with Sarolta daughter of a Hungarian chieftain called Gyula, who ruled Transylvania independently of the grand prince and had converted to Christianity in Constantinople.", "Sarolt seems to have also adhered to Eastern Orthodox Christianity, according to Bruno of Querfurt's remark on her \"languid and muddled Christianity\"." ], [ "Reign", "Géza succeeded his father around 972.He adopted a centralizing policy, which gave rise to his fame as a merciless ruler.", "The longer version of his son's ''Life'' even states that Géza's hands were \"defiled with blood\".", "Pál Engel wrote that Géza carried out a \"large-scale purge\" against his relatives, which explains the lack of references to other members of the Árpád dynasty from around 972.Koppány, who continued to rule the southern parts of Transdanubia, is the only exception to this dearth of references.", "A marriage alliance between the German and Byzantine dynasties brought about a rapprochement between the two powers neighboring Hungary in 972.Géza decided to make peace with the Holy Roman Empire.", "First, a monk named Bruno sent by Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor arrived in Hungary around 972.Hungarian \"legates\" were present at a conference held by the emperor in Quedlinburg in 973.Géza, Grand Prince of Hungary (Nádasdy Mausoleum, 1664)Statue of Grand Prince Géza in SzékesfehérvárA record on one Bishop Prunwart in the Abbey of Saint Gall mentions his success in baptising many Hungarians, including their \"king\".", "The nearly contemporaneous Thietmar of Merseburg confirms that the conversion to Christianity of the pagan Hungarians started under Géza, who became the first Christian ruler of Hungary.", "His baptismal name was Stephen.", "However, Géza continued to observe pagan cults, which proves that his conversion to Christianity was never complete.", "Kristó and other historians have said that the first Roman Catholic diocese in Hungary, with its seat in Veszprém, was set up in Géza's reign, but their view has not been unanimously accepted.", "A charter issued during his son's reign states that Géza was the founder of the Benedictine Pannonhalma Archabbey.Taking advantage of internal conflicts which emerged in the Holy Roman Empire after Emperor Otto II's death, Géza invaded Bavaria and took the fortress of Melk in 983.In 991, the Bavarians launched a counter-attack which forced Géza to withdraw Hungarian forces from the territories east of the Vienna Woods.", "Furthermore, he renounced the lands east of the river Leitha in his peace treaty of 996 with Henry IV of Bavaria.", "Géza also arranged the marriage of his son and heir Stephen to Henry IV's sister Giselle.", "Even before this marriage alliance, Géza convoked the Hungarian leaders to an assembly and forced them to take an oath confirming his son's right to succeed him." ], [ "Family", "Sarolt gave birth to at least three of Géza's children: Stephen, who succeeded his father on the throne, and two unnamed daughters.", "Sarolt survived Géza, which suggests that she was also the mother of Géza's daughters.", "Based on the ''Polish-Hungarian Chronicle'', Szabolcs de Vajay wrote that the daughters' mother was Géza's alleged second wife Adelaide of Poland, but this has not been widely accepted.", "Adelaide is only mentioned in the ''Polish–Hungarian Chronicle'', which describes her as the sister of Mieszko I of Poland, but specialists have often questioned her existence.", "The chronicle attributes Géza's conversion to Adelaide's influence.The following family tree presents Géza's ancestry and his offspring.", "''*Whether Menumorut is an actual or an invented person is debated by modern scholars.", "''''**A Khazar or Pecheneg lady.", "''''***Samuel Aba might have been Géza's grandson instead of his son-in-law.", "''''****The Aba family descending from them still flourished in the 14th century.''" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "===Primary sources===*''Hartvic, Life of King Stephen of Hungary'' (Translated by Nora Berend) (2001).", "In: Head, Thomas (2001); ''Medieval Hagiography: An Anthology''; Routledge; .", "*''Ottonian Germany: The'' Chronicon ''of Thietmar of Merseburg'' (Translated and annotated by David A. Warner) (2001).", "Manchester University Press.", ".", "===Secondary sources===**********" ] ]
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[ [ "Gecko" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Geckos''' are small, mostly carnivorous lizards that have a wide distribution, found on every continent except Antarctica.", "Belonging to the infraorder '''Gekkota''', geckos are found in warm climates throughout the world.", "They range from .Geckos are unique among lizards for their vocalisations, which differ from species to species.", "Most geckos in the family Gekkonidae use chirping or clicking sounds in their social interactions.", "Tokay geckos (''Gekko gecko'') are known for their loud mating calls, and some other species are capable of making hissing noises when alarmed or threatened.", "They are the most species-rich group of lizards, with about 1,500 different species worldwide.All geckos, except species in the family Eublepharidae lack eyelids; instead, the outer surface of the eyeball has a transparent membrane, the brille.", "They have a fixed lens within each iris that enlarges in darkness to let in more light.", "Since they cannot blink, species without eyelids generally lick their own brilles when they need to clear them of dust and dirt, in order to keep them clean and moist.Unlike most lizards, geckos are usually nocturnal and have excellent night vision; their colour vision in low light is 350 times more sensitive than human eyes.", "The nocturnal geckos evolved from diurnal species, which had lost the rod cells from their eyes.", "The gecko eye, therefore, modified its cone cells that increased in size into different types, both single and double.", "Three different photo-pigments have been retained, and are sensitive to ultraviolet, blue, and green.", "They also use a multifocal optical system that allows them to generate a sharp image for at least two different depths.", "While most gecko species are nocturnal, some species are diurnal and active during the day, which have evolved multiple times independently.Many species are well known for their specialised toe pads, which enable them to grab and climb onto smooth and vertical surfaces, and even cross indoor ceilings with ease.", "Geckos are well known to people who live in warm regions of the world, where several species make their home inside human habitations.", "These, for example the house gecko, become part of the indoor menagerie and are often welcomed, as they feed on insect pests; including moths and mosquitoes.", "Like most lizards, geckos can lose their tails in defence, a process called autotomy; the predator may attack the wriggling tail, allowing the gecko to escape.The largest species, ''Gigarcanum delcourti'', is only known from a single, stuffed specimen probably collected in the 19th century found in the basement of the Natural History Museum of Marseille in Marseille, France.", "This gecko was long, and it was likely endemic to New Caledonia, where it lived in native forests.", "The smallest gecko, the Jaragua sphaero, is a mere long, and was discovered in 2001 on a small island off the coast of Hispaniola." ], [ "Etymology", "The Neo-Latin ''gekko'' and English 'gecko' stem from Indonesian-Malaysian ''gēkoq'', it is a Malay word borrowed from Javanese, from ''tokek'', which imitates the sounds that some species like ''Tokay gecko'' make." ], [ "Common traits", "Like other reptiles, geckos are ectothermic, producing very little metabolic heat.", "Essentially, a gecko's body temperature is dependent on its environment.", "Also, to accomplish their main functions; such as locomotion, feeding, reproduction, etc., geckos must have a relatively elevated temperature.===Shedding or molting===leftAll geckos shed their skin at fairly regular intervals, with species differing in timing and method.", "Leopard geckos shed at about two- to four-week intervals.", "The presence of moisture aids in the shedding.", "When shedding begins, the gecko speeds the process by detaching the loose skin from its body and eating it.", "For young geckos, shedding occurs more frequently, once a week, but when they are fully grown, they shed once every one to two months.===Adhesion ability===leftAbout 60% of gecko species have adhesive toe pads which allow them to adhere to most surfaces without the use of liquids or surface tension.", "Such pads have been gained and lost repeatedly over the course of gecko evolution.", "Adhesive toepads evolved independently in about eleven different gecko lineages, and were lost in at least nine lineages.It was previously thought that the spatula-shaped setae arranged in lamellae on gecko footpads enable attractive van der Waals' forces (the weakest of the weak chemical forces) between the β-keratin lamellae / setae / spatulae structures and the surface.", "These van der Waals interactions involve no fluids; in theory, a boot made of synthetic setae would adhere as easily to the surface of the International Space Station as it would to a living-room wall, although adhesion varies with humidity.", "However, a 2014 study suggests that gecko adhesion is in fact mainly determined by electrostatic interaction (caused by contact electrification), not van der Waals or capillary forces.The setae on the feet of geckos are also self-cleaning, and usually remove any clogging dirt within a few steps.", "Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), which has very low surface energy, is more difficult for geckos to adhere to than many other surfaces.Gecko adhesion is typically improved by higher humidity, even on hydrophobic surfaces, yet is reduced under conditions of complete immersion in water.", "The role of water in that system is under discussion, yet recent experiments agree that the presence of molecular water layers (water molecules carry a very large dipole moment) on the setae, as well as on the surface, increase the surface energy of both, therefore the energy gain in getting these surfaces in contact is enlarged, which results in an increased gecko adhesion force.", "Moreover, the elastic properties of the b-keratin change with water uptake.Gecko toes seem to be double-jointed, but this is a misnomer, and is properly called digital hyperextension.", "Gecko toes can hyperextend in the opposite direction from human fingers and toes.", "This allows them to overcome the van der Waals force by peeling their toes off surfaces from the tips inward.", "In essence, by this peeling action, the gecko separates spatula by spatula from the surface, so for each spatula separation, only some force necessary.", "(The process is similar to removing Scotch Tape from a surface.", ")Geckos' toes operate well below their full attractive capabilities most of the time, because the margin for error is great depending upon the surface roughness, and therefore the number of setae in contact with that surface.Use of small van der Waals force requires very large surface areas; every square millimetre of a gecko's footpad contains about 14,000 hair-like setae.", "Each seta has a diameter of 5 μm.", "Human hair varies from 18 to 180 μm, so the cross-sectional area of a human hair is equivalent to 12 to 1300 setae.", "Each seta is in turn tipped with between 100 and 1,000 spatulae.", "Each spatula is 0.2 μm long (one five-millionth of a metre), or just below the wavelength of visible light.The setae of a typical mature gecko would be capable of supporting a weight of : each spatula could exert an adhesive force of 5 to 25 nN.", "The exact value of the adhesion force of a spatula varies with the surface energy of the substrate to which it adheres.", "Recent studies have moreover shown that the component of the surface energy derived from long-range forces, such as van der Waals forces, depends on the material's structure below the outermost atomic layers (up to 100 nm beneath the surface); taking that into account, the adhesive strength can be inferred.Apart from the setae, phospholipids; fatty substances produced naturally in their bodies, also come into play.", "These lipids lubricate the setae and allow the gecko to detach its foot before the next step.The origin of gecko adhesion likely started as simple modifications to the epidermis on the underside of the toes.", "This was recently discovered in the genus ''Gonatodes'' from South America.", "Simple elaborations of the epidermal spinules into setae have enabled ''Gonatodes humeralis'' to climb smooth surfaces and sleep on smooth leaves.Biomimetic technologies designed to mimic gecko adhesion could produce reusable self-cleaning dry adhesives with many applications.", "Development effort is being put into these technologies, but manufacturing synthetic setae is not a trivial material design task." ], [ "Skin", "Gecko skin does not generally bear scales, but appears at a macro scale as a papillose surface, which is made from hair-like protuberances developed across the entire body.", "These confer superhydrophobicity, and the unique design of the hair confers a profound antimicrobial action.", "These protuberances are very small, up to 4 microns in length, and tapering to a point.", "Gecko skin has been observed to have an anti-bacterial property, killing gram-negative bacteria when they come in contact with the skin.The mossy leaf-tailed gecko of Madagascar, ''U.", "sikorae'', has coloration developed as camouflage, most being greyish brown to black, or greenish brown, with various markings meant to resemble tree bark; down to the lichens and moss found on the bark.", "It also has flaps of skin, running the length of its body, head and limbs, known as the ''dermal flap'', which it can lay against the tree during the day, scattering shadows, and making its outline practically invisible." ], [ "Teeth", "Geckos are polyphyodonts, and able to replace each of their 100 teeth every 3 to 4 months.", "Next to the full grown tooth there is a small replacement tooth developing from the odontogenic stem cell in the dental lamina.", "The formation of the teeth is pleurodont; they are fused (ankylosed) by their sides to the inner surface of the jaw bones.This formation is common in all species in the order Squamata." ], [ "Taxonomy and classification", "Pores on the skin are often used in classification.The infraorder Gekkota is divided into seven families, containing about 125 genera of geckos, including the snake-like (legless) pygopods.", "*Family Carphodactylidae*Family Diplodactylidae*Family Eublepharidae*Family Gekkonidae*Family Phyllodactylidae*Family Pygopodidae*Family SphaerodactylidaeLegless lizards of the family Dibamidae, also referred to as blind lizards, have occasionally been counted as gekkotans, but recent molecular phylogenies suggest otherwise.=== Evolutionary history ===Skeleton of ''Eichstaettisaurus,'' thought to be an early member of the gecko lineageFossil of ''Yantarogekko'' preserved in Baltic amberSeveral species of lizard from the Late Jurassic have been considered early relatives of geckos, the most prominent and most well supported being the arboreal ''Eichstaettisaurus'' from the Late Jurassic of Germany.", "''Norellius'' from the Early Cretaceous of Mongolia is also usually placed as a close relative of geckos.", "The oldest known fossils of modern geckos are from the mid-Cretaceous Burmese amber of Myanmar (including ''Cretaceogekko''), around 100 million years old, which have adhesive pads on the feet similar to those of living geckos." ], [ "Species", "Mediterranean house geckoMore than 1,850 species of geckos occur worldwide, including these familiar species:*''Coleonyx variegatus'', the western banded gecko, is native to the southwestern United States and northwest Mexico.", "*''Cyrtopodion brachykolon'', the bent-toed gecko, is found in northwestern Pakistan; it was first described in 2007.", "*''Eublepharis macularius'', the leopard gecko, is the most common gecko kept as a pet; it does not have adhesive toe pads and cannot climb the glass of a vivarium.", "*''Gehyra mutilata'' (''Pteropus mutilatus''), the stump-toed gecko, is able to vary its color from very light to very dark to camouflage itself; this gecko is at home in the wild, as well as in residential areas.", "*''Gekko gecko'', the Tokay gecko, is a large, common, Southeast Asian gecko known for its aggressive temperament, loud mating calls, and bright markings.", "*''Hemidactylus'' is genus of geckos with many varieties.", "**''Hemidactylus frenatus'', the common house gecko, thrives around people and human habitation structures in the tropics and subtropics worldwide.", "**''Hemidactylus garnotii'', the Indo-Pacific gecko, is found in houses throughout the tropics, and has become an invasive species of concern in Florida and Georgia in the US.", "**''Hemidactylus mabouia'', the tropical house gecko, Afro-American house gecko, or cosmopolitan house gecko, is a species of house gecko native to sub-Saharan Africa and also currently found in North, Central, and South America and the Caribbean.", "**''Hemidactylus turcicus'', the Mediterranean house gecko, is frequently found in and around buildings, and is an introduced species in the US.", "*''Lepidodactylus lugubris'', the mourning gecko, is originally an East Asian and Pacific species; it is equally at home in the wild and residential neighborhoods.", "*''Pachydactylus bibroni'', Bibron's gecko, is native to southern Africa; this hardy arboreal gecko is considered a household pest.", "*''Phelsuma laticauda'', the gold dust day gecko, is diurnal; it lives in northern Madagascar and on the Comoros.", "It is also an introduced species in Hawaii.", "*''Ptychozoon'' is a genus of arboreal geckos from Southeast Asia also known as flying or parachute geckos; they have wing-like flaps from the neck to the upper leg to help them conceal themselves on trees and provide lift while jumping.", "*''Rhacodactylus'' is genus of geckos native to New Caledonia.", "**''Rhacodactylus ciliatus'' (now assigned to the genus ''Correlophus''), the crested gecko, was believed extinct until rediscovered in 1994, and is gaining popularity as a pet.", "**''Rhacodactylus leachianus'', the New Caledonian giant gecko, was first described by Cuvier in 1829; it is the largest living species of gecko.", "*''Sphaerodactylus ariasae'', the dwarf gecko, is native to the Caribbean Islands; it is the world's smallest lizard.", "*''Tarentola mauritanica'', the crocodile or Moorish gecko, is commonly found in the Mediterranean region from the Iberian Peninsula and southern France to Greece and northern Africa; their most distinguishing characteristics are their pointed heads, spiked skin, and tails resembling those of a crocodile." ], [ "Reproduction", "Most geckos lay a small clutch of eggs.", "Some are live-bearing, and a few can reproduce asexually via parthenogenesis.", "Geckos also have a large diversity of sex-determining mechanisms, including temperature-dependent sex determination and both XX/XY and ZZ/ZW sex chromosomes with multiple transitions among them over evolutionary time.Madagascar day geckos engage in a mating ritual in which sexually mature males produce a waxy substance from pores on the back of their legs.", "Males approach females with a head swaying motion along with rapid tongue flicking in the female.Obligate parthenogenesis as a reproductive system has evolved multiple times in the family Gekkonidae.", "It has been shown that oocytes are able to undergo meiosis in three different obligate parthenogenetic complexes of geckos.", "An extra premeiotic endoreplication of chromosomes is essential for obligate parthenogenesis in these geckos.", "Appropriate segregation during meiosis to form viable progeny is facilitated by the formation of bivalents made from copies of identical chromosomes." ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Forbes, Peter (4th Estate, London 2005) ''The Gecko's Foot—Bio Inspiration: Engineered from Nature'' in H/B* Zug, George.", "''Speciation and Dispersal in a Low Diversity Taxon: The Slender Geckos'' Hemiphyllodactylus ''(Reptilia, Gekkonidae)''.", "Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology, no.", "631.Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Scholarly Press, 2010.", "*" ], [ "External links", "* Gecko gallery and information* ''How Geckos Stick to Walls''* Comprehensive gecko care information* Global gecko association site with pictures, caresheets, species list* Gecko anatomy picture* ''The Gecko's Foot''* Artificial gecko feet for a Spiderman suit (BBC 2007-08-28)* Gecko Time Online ''Gecko Magazine''" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Game show" ], [ "Introduction", "United States Armed Forces participate in ''Wheel of Fortune'' with Pat Sajak.A '''game show''' (or '''gameshow''') is a genre of broadcast viewing entertainment where contestants compete for rewards.", "The shows are typically directed by a host, who explains the rules of the game as well as commentating and narrating where necessary.", "The history of the game shows dates back to the late 1930s when both radio and television game shows were broadcast.", "The genre became popular in the United States in the 1950s, becoming a regular feature of daytime television.On most game shows, contestants answer questions or solve puzzles, and win prizes such as cash, trips and goods and services." ], [ "History", "===1930s–1950s===WHN Radio in New YorkGame shows began to appear on radio and television in the late 1930s.", "The first television game show, ''Spelling Bee'', as well as the first radio game show, ''Information Please'', were both broadcast in 1938; the first major success in the game show genre was ''Dr.", "I.Q.", "'', a radio quiz show that began in 1939.", "''Note For Note'', a New Zealand game show from around 1960''Truth or Consequences'' was the first game show to air on commercially licensed television; the ''CBS Television Quiz'' followed shortly thereafter as the first to be regularly scheduled.", "The first episode of each aired in 1941 as an experimental broadcast.", "Over the course of the 1950s, as television began to pervade the popular culture, game shows quickly became a fixture.", "Daytime game shows would be played for lower stakes to target stay-at-home housewives.", "Higher-stakes programs would air in prime time.", "(One particular exception in this era was ''You Bet Your Life'', ostensibly a game show, but the game show concept was largely a framework for a talk show moderated by its host, Groucho Marx.)", "During the late 1950s, high-stakes games such as ''Twenty-One'' and ''The $64,000 Question'' began a rapid rise in popularity.", "However, the rise of quiz shows proved to be short-lived.", "In 1959, many of the higher stakes game shows were exposed as being either biased or outright scripted in the 1950s quiz show scandals and ratings declines led to most of the primetime games being canceled.An early variant of the game show, the panel show, survived the quiz show scandals.", "On shows like ''What's My Line?", "'', ''I've Got a Secret'', and ''To Tell the Truth'', panels of celebrities would interview a guest in an effort to determine some fact about them; in others, celebrities would answer questions.", "Panel games had success in primetime until the late 1960s, when they were collectively dropped from television because of their perceived low budget nature.", "Panel games made a comeback in American daytime television (where the lower budgets were tolerated) in the 1970s through comedy-driven shows such as ''Match Game'' and ''Hollywood Squares''.", "In the UK, commercial demographic pressures were not as prominent, and restrictions on game shows made in the wake of the scandals limited the style of games that could be played and the amount of money that could be awarded.", "Panel shows there were kept in primetime and have continued to thrive; they have transformed into showcases for the nation's top stand-up comedians on shows such as ''Have I Got News for You'', ''Would I Lie to You?", "'', ''Mock the Week'', ''QI'', and ''8 Out of 10 Cats'', all of which put a heavy emphasis on comedy, leaving the points as mere formalities.", "The focus on quick-witted comedians has resulted in strong ratings, which, combined with low costs of production, have only spurred growth in the UK panel show phenomenon.===1950s–1970s===Game shows remained a fixture of US daytime television through the 1960s after the quiz show scandals.", "Lower-stakes games made a slight comeback in daytime in the early 1960s; examples include ''Jeopardy!''", "which began in 1964 and the original version of ''The Match Game'' first aired in 1962.", "''Let's Make a Deal'' began in 1963 and the 1960s also marked the debut of ''Hollywood Squares'', ''Password'', ''The Dating Game'', and ''The Newlywed Game''.Though CBS gave up on daytime game shows in 1968, the other networks did not follow suit.", "Color television was introduced to the game show genre in the late 1960s on all three networks.", "The 1970s saw a renaissance of the game show as new games and massive upgrades to existing games made debuts on the major networks.", "''The New Price Is Right'', an update of the 1950s-era game show ''The Price Is Right'', debuted in 1972 and marked CBS's return to the game show format in its rural purge.", "''The Match Game'' became \"Big Money\" ''Match Game 73'', which proved popular enough to prompt a spin-off, ''Family Feud'', on ABC in 1976.", "''The $10,000 Pyramid'' and its numerous higher-stakes derivatives also debuted in 1973, while the 1970s also saw the return of formerly disgraced producer and game show host Jack Barry, who debuted ''The Joker's Wild'' and a clean version of the previously rigged ''Tic-Tac-Dough'' in the 1970s.", "''Wheel of Fortune'' debuted on NBC in 1975.The Prime Time Access Rule, which took effect in 1971, barred networks from broadcasting in the 7–8 p.m. time slot immediately preceding prime time, opening up time slots for syndicated programming.", "Most of the syndicated programs were \"nighttime\" adaptations of network daytime game shows.", "These game shows originally aired once a week, but by the late 1970s and early 1980s most of the games had transitioned to five days a week.", "Many people were amazed at this and in the late 2000's, gameshows were aired 7 times a week, twice a day.===1980s–1990s===Game shows were the lowest priority of television networks and were rotated out every thirteen weeks if unsuccessful.", "Most tapes were wiped until the early 1980s.", "Over the course of the 1980s and early 1990s, as fewer new hits (e.g.", "''Press Your Luck'', ''Sale of the Century'', and ''Card Sharks'') were produced, game shows lost their permanent place in the daytime lineup.", "ABC transitioned out of the daytime game show format in the mid-1980s (briefly returning to the format for one season in 1990 with a ''Match Game'' revival).", "NBC's game block also lasted until 1991, but the network attempted to bring them back in 1993 before cancelling its game show block again in 1994.CBS phased out most of its game shows, except for ''The Price Is Right'', by 1993.To the benefit of the genre, the moves of ''Wheel of Fortune'' and a modernized revival of ''Jeopardy!''", "to syndication in 1983 and 1984, respectively, was and remains highly successful; the two are, to this day, fixtures in the prime time \"access period\".Cable television also allowed for the debut of game shows such as ''Supermarket Sweep'' and ''Debt'' (Lifetime), ''Trivial Pursuit'' and ''Family Challenge'' (Family Channel), and ''Double Dare'' (Nickelodeon).", "It also opened up a previously underdeveloped market for game show reruns.", "General interest networks such as CBN Cable Network (forerunner to Freeform) and USA Network had popular blocks for game show reruns from the mid-1980s to the mid-'90s before that niche market was overtaken by Game Show Network in 1994.In the United Kingdom, game shows have had a more steady and permanent place in the television lineup and never lost popularity in the 1990s as they did in the United States, due in part to the fact that game shows were highly regulated by the Independent Broadcasting Authority in the 1980s and that those restrictions were lifted in the 1990s, allowing for higher-stakes games to be played.Salvadoran version pictured).After the popularity of game shows hit a nadir in the mid-1990s United States (at which point ''The Price Is Right'' was the only game show still on daytime network television and numerous game shows designed for cable television were canceled), the British game show ''Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?''", "began distribution around the globe.", "Upon the show's American debut in 1999, it was a hit and became a regular part of ABC's primetime lineup until 2002; that show would eventually air in syndication for seventeen years afterward.", "Several shorter-lived high-stakes games were attempted around the time of the millennium, both in the United States and the United Kingdom, such as ''Winning Lines'', ''The Chair'', ''Greed'', ''Paranoia'', and ''Shafted'', leading to some dubbing this period as \"The Million-Dollar Game Show Craze\".", "The boom quickly went bust, as by July 2000, almost all of the imitator million-dollar shows were canceled (one of those exceptions was ''Winning Lines'', which continued to air in the United Kingdom until 2004 even though it was canceled in the United States in early 2000); these higher stakes contests nevertheless opened the door to reality television contests such as ''Survivor'' and ''Big Brother'', in which contestants win large sums of money for outlasting their peers in a given environment.", "Several game shows returned to daytime in syndication during this time as well, such as ''Family Feud'', ''Hollywood Squares'', and ''Millionaire''.===2000s–present===''Wheel of Fortune'', ''Jeopardy!''", "and ''Family Feud'' have continued in syndication.", "To keep pace with the prime-time quiz shows, ''Jeopardy!''", "doubled its question values in 2001 and lifted its winnings limit in 2003, which one year later allowed Ken Jennings to become the show's first multi-million dollar winner; it has also increased the stakes of its tournaments and put a larger focus on contestants with strong personalities.", "The show has since produced four more millionaires: tournament winner Brad Rutter and recent champions James Holzhauer, Matt Amodio, and Amy Schneider.", "''Family Feud'' revived in popularity with a change in tone under host Steve Harvey to include more ribaldry.In 2009, actress and comedienne Kim Coles became the first black woman to host a prime time game show, ''Pay It Off''.The rise of digital television in the United States opened up a large market for rerun programs.", "Buzzr was established by Fremantle, owners of numerous classic U.S. game shows, as a broadcast outlet for its archived holdings in June 2015.There was also a rise of live game shows at festivals and public venues, where the general audience could participate in the show, such as the science-inspired ''Geek Out Game Show'' or the ''Yuck Show''.Since the early 2000s, several game shows were conducted in a tournament format; examples included ''History IQ'', ''Grand Slam'', ''PokerFace'' (which never aired in North America), ''Duel'', ''The Million Second Quiz'', ''500 Questions'', ''The American Bible Challenge'', and ''Mental Samurai''.", "Most game shows conducted in this manner only lasted for one season.localised version of ''Family Feud''A boom in prime time revivals of classic daytime game shows began to emerge in the mid-2010s.", "In 2016, ABC packaged the existing ''Celebrity Family Feud'', which had returned in 2015, with new versions of ''To Tell the Truth,'' ''The $100,000 Pyramid'', and ''Match Game'' in 2016; new versions of ''Press Your Luck'' and ''Card Sharks'' would follow in 2019.TBS launched a cannabis-themed revival of ''The Joker's Wild'', hosted by Snoop Dogg, in October 2017.This is in addition to a number of original game concepts that appeared near the same time, including ''Awake'', ''Deal or No Deal'' (which originally aired in 2005), ''Child Support'', ''Hollywood Game Night'', ''1 vs. 100'', ''Minute to Win It'' (which originally aired in 2010), ''The Wall'', and a string of music-themed games such as ''Don't Forget the Lyrics!", "'', ''The Singing Bee'', and ''Beat Shazam''." ], [ "International issues", "The popularity of game shows in the United States was closely paralleled around the world.", "Reg Grundy Organisation, for instance, would buy the international rights for American game shows and reproduce them in other countries, especially in Grundy's native Australia.", "Dutch producer Endemol (later purchased by American companies Disney and Apollo Global Management, then resold to French company Banijay) has created and released numerous game shows and reality television formats popular around the world.", "Most game show formats that are popular in one country are franchised to others.Game shows have had an inconsistent place in television in Canada, with most homegrown game shows there being made for the French-speaking Quebec market and the majority of English-language game shows in the country being rebroadcast from, or made with the express intent of export to, the United States.", "There have been exceptions to this (see, for instance, the long-running ''Definition'').", "Unlike reality television franchises, international game show franchises generally only see Canadian adaptations in a series of specials, based heavily on the American versions but usually with a Canadian host to allow for Canadian content credits (one of those exceptions was ''Le Banquier'', a Quebec French-language version of ''Deal or No Deal'' which aired on TVA from 2008 to 2015).", "The smaller markets and lower revenue opportunities for Canadian shows in general also affect game shows there, with Canadian games (especially Quebecois ones) often having very low budgets for prizes, unless the series is made for export.", "Canadian contestants are generally allowed to participate on American game shows, and there have been at least three Canadian game show hosts – Howie Mandel, Monty Hall and Alex Trebek – who have gone on to long careers hosting American series, while Jim Perry, an American host, was prominent as a host of Canadian shows.American game shows have a tendency to hire stronger contestants than their British or Australian counterparts.", "Many of the most successful game show contestants in America would likely never be cast in a British or Australian game show for fear of having them dominate the game, according to Mark Labbett, who appeared in all three countries on the game show ''The Chase''.===Japanese game show===The Japanese game show is a distinct format, borrowing heavily from variety formats, physical stunts and athletic competitions.", "The Japanese style has been adapted overseas (and at one point was parodied with an American reality competition, ''I Survived a Japanese Game Show'', which used a fake Japanese game show as its central conceit)." ], [ "Prizes", "A BMW Isetta being presented as a prize on a 1957 episode of ''The Price Is Right''Many of the prizes awarded on game shows are provided through product placement, but in some cases they are provided by private organizations or purchased at either the full price or at a discount by the show.", "There is the widespread use of \"promotional consideration\", in which a game show receives a subsidy from an advertiser in return for awarding that manufacturer's product as a prize or consolation prize.", "Some products supplied by manufacturers may not be intended to be awarded and are instead just used as part of the gameplay such as the low-priced items used in several ''The Price is Right'' pricing games.", "Although in this show the smaller items (sometimes even in the single digits of dollars) are awarded as well when the price is correctly guessed, even when a contestant loses the major prize they were playing for.For high-stakes games, a network may purchase prize indemnity insurance to avoid paying the cost of a rare but expensive prize out of pocket.", "If the said prize is won too often, the insurance company may refuse to insure a show; this was a factor in the discontinuation of ''The Price Is Right $1,000,000 Spectacular'' series of prime-time specials.", "In April 2008, three of the contestants on ''The Price Is Right $1,000,000 Spectacular'' won the top prize in a five-episode span after fifteen episodes without a winner, due in large part to a change in the rules.", "The insurance companies had made it extremely difficult to get further insurance for the remaining episodes.", "A network or syndicator may also opt to distribute large cash prizes in the form of an annuity, spreading the cost of the prize out over several years or decades.From about 1960 through the rest of the 20th century, American networks placed restrictions on the amount of money that could be given away on a game show, in an effort to avoid a repeat of the scandals of the 1950s.", "This usually took the form of an earnings cap that forced a player to retire once they had won a certain amount of money or a limit on how many episodes, usually five, on which a player could appear on a show.", "The introduction of syndicated games, particularly in the 1980s, eventually allowed for more valuable prizes and extended runs on a particular show.", "British television was under even stricter regulations on prizes until the 1990s, seriously restricting the value of prizes that could be given and disallowing games of chance to have an influence on the results of the game.", "(Thus, the British version of ''The Price Is Right'' at first did not include the American version's \"Showcase Showdown\", in which contestants spun a large wheel to determine who would advance to the Showcase bonus round.)", "In Canada, prizes were limited not by bureaucracy but necessity, as the much smaller population limited the audience of shows marketed toward that country.", "The lifting of these restrictions in the 1990s was a major factor in the explosion of high-stakes game shows in the later part of that decade in both the U.S. and Britain and, subsequently, around the world." ], [ "Bonus round", "A bonus round (also known as a bonus game or an end game) usually follows a main game as a bonus to the winner of that game.", "In the bonus round, the stakes are higher and the game is considered to be tougher.The game play of a bonus round usually varies from the standard game play of the front game, and there are often borrowed or related elements of the main game in the bonus round to ensure the entire show has a unified premise.", "Though some end games are referred to as \"bonus rounds\", many are not specifically referred to as such in games but fit the same general role.There is no one formula for the format of a bonus round.", "There are differences in almost every bonus round, though there are many recurring elements from show to show.", "The bonus round is often played for the show's top prize.", "It is almost always played without an opponent; two notable exceptions to this are ''Jeopardy!''", "and the current version of ''The Price Is Right''.", "On ''Jeopardy!", "'', the final round involves all remaining contestants with a positive score wagering strategically to win the game and be invited back the next day; ''Jeopardy!''", "attempted to replace this round with a traditional solo bonus round in 1978, but this version was not a success and the round was replaced by the original Final Jeopardy!", "when the show returned in 1984.", "''The Price Is Right'' uses a knockout tournament format, in which the six contestants to make it onstage are narrowed to two in a \"Showcase Showdown;\" these two winners then move on to the final Showcase round to determine the day's winner.Until the 1960s, most game shows did not offer a bonus round.", "In traditional two-player formats, the winner – if a game show's rules provided for this – became the champion and simply played a new challenger either on the next show or after the commercial break.One of the earliest forms of bonus rounds was the Jackpot Round of the original series ''Beat the Clock''.", "After two rounds of performing stunts, the wife of the contestant couple would perform at a jackpot board for a prize.", "The contestant was shown a famous quotation or common phrase, and the words were scrambled.", "To win the announced bonus, the contestant had to unscramble the words within 20 seconds.", "The contestant received a consolation gift worth over $200 if she was unsuccessful.Another early bonus round ended each episode of ''You Bet Your Life'' with the team who won the most money answering one final question for a jackpot which started at $1,000 and increased $500 each week until won.Another early example was the Lightning Round on the word game ''Password'', starting in 1961.The contestant who won the front game played a quick-fire series of passwords within 60 seconds, netting $50 per correctly guessed word, for a maximum bonus prize of $250.The bonus round came about after game show producer Mark Goodson was first presented ''Password'', contending that it was not enough to merely guess passwords during the show.", "\"We needed something more, and that's how the Lightning Round was invited,\" said Howard Felsher, who produced ''Password'' and ''Family Feud''.", "\"From that point on every game show had to have an end round.", "You'd bring a show to a network and they'd say, 'What's the endgame?'", "as if they had thought of it themselves.", "\"The end game of ''Match Game'', hosted for most of its run by Gene Rayburn, served as the impetus for a completely new game show.", "The first part of ''Match Game''s \"Super-Match\" bonus round, called the \"Audience Match\", asked contestants to guess how a studio audience responded to a question.", "In 1975, with then regular panelist Richard Dawson becoming restless and progressively less cooperative, Goodson decided that this line of questioning would make a good game show of its own, and the concept eventually became ''Family Feud'', as whose inaugural host Dawson was hired." ], [ "See also", "*Game Show Network (American cable television channel dedicated to the format)*Buzzr (American broadcast network dedicated to the format)*Challenge (British network dedicated to the format)*GameTV (Canadian network dedicated to the format)*UKGameshows.com, British website devoted to reviews and descriptions of game shows*List of game show hosts*List of American game shows*List of international game shows*Lists of television programs*Panel show*''Quiz Show''*Reality television*Daytime television in the United States*American game show winnings records*Video games" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "** Game Shows" ] ]
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